BasedonpartoftheGeotechniCALreferencepackagebyProf.

JohnAtkinson

Stressintheground
Totalstress
Porepressure
Effectivestress
Calculatingverticalstressintheground
Whenaloadisappliedtosoil,itiscarriedbythewaterintheporesaswellasthesolidgrains.Theincreasein
pressurewithintheporewatercausesdrainage(flowoutofthesoil),andtheloadistransferredtothesolid
grains.Therateofdrainagedependsonthepermeabilityofthesoil.Thestrengthandcompressibilityofthesoil
dependonthestresseswithinthesolidgranularfabric.Thesearecalledeffectivestresses.

Top

Totalstress
Inahomogeneoussoilmass
Inasoilmassbelowariverorlake
Inamultilayeredsoilmass
Inasoilmasswhichisunsaturated
Inasoilmasswithasurfacesurchargeload
Thetotalverticalstressactingatapointbelowthegroundsurfaceisdueto
theweightofeverythinglyingabove:soil,water,andsurfaceloading.Total
stressesarecalculatedfromtheunitweightofthesoil.
Unitweightrangesare:
d 1420kN/m (average17kN/m)
drysoil
saturatedsoil g 1823kN/m (average20kN/m)
water

w 9.81kN/m

(10kN/m)

SeeDescriptionandclassification
Anychangeinverticaltotalstress(v)mayalsoresultinachangeinthehorizontaltotalstress(h)atthesame
point.Therelationshipsbetweenverticalandhorizontalstressarecomplex.

Totalstressinhomogeneoussoil
Totalstressincreaseswithdepthandwithunitweight:Verticaltotalstressatdepthz,

totalstress

v=.z
Simpletotalstresscalculator
v
z

20

60

Calculate

Thesymbolfortotalstressmayalsobewrittenz,
i.e.relatedtodepthz.
Theunitweight,,willvarywiththewatercontentofthesoil.

dg

Totalstressbelowariverorlake

totalstress

Thetotalstressisthesumoftheweightofthesoiluptothesurfaceandthe
weightofwaterabovethis:Verticaltotalstressatdepthz,
v=.z+w.zw
where
=unitweightofthesaturatedsoil,
i.e.thetotalweightofsoilgrainsandwater
w=unitweightofwater
Theverticaltotalstresswillchangewithchangesinwaterlevelandwithexcavation.Notethatfreewater(i.e.
wateroutsidethesoil)appliesatotalstresstoasoilsurface.
Simpletotalstresscalculator
zw
v
z

20

69.81

Calculate

Totalstressinmultilayeredsoil
Thetotalstressatdepthzisthesumoftheweightsofsoilineachlayer
thicknessabove.
Verticaltotalstressatdepthz,
v=1d1+2d2+3(zd1d2)
where
1,2,3,etc.=unitweightsofsoillayers1,2,3,etc.respectively
Ifanewlayerisplacedonthesurfacethetotalstressesatallpointsbelow
willincrease.
Layer
1
2
3

totalstress

Thickness

1.5

Unitweight

16

19

20

stress
@0
m= 0
kPa
Enteravalueinanybox(exceptthelast)thenclickoutsidetheboxtoseetheeffect

Totalstressinunsaturatedsoil

totalstress

Justabovethewatertablethesoilwillremainsaturatedduetocapillarity,
butatsomedistanceabovethewatertablethesoilwillbecomeunsaturated,
withaconsequentreductioninunitweight(unsaturatedunitweight=u)
v=w.zw+g(zzw)
Theheightabovethewatertableuptowhichthesoilwillremainsaturated
dependsonthegrainsize.
SeeNegativeporepressure(suction).

Totalstresswithasurfacesurchargeload

totalstress

Theadditionofasurfacesurchargeloadwillincreasethetotalstressesbelow
it.Ifthesurchargeloadingisextensivelywide,theincreaseinverticaltotal
stressbelowitmaybeconsideredconstantwithdepthandequaltothe
magnitudeofthesurcharge.
Verticaltotalstressatdepthz,

v=.z+q
Fornarrowsurcharges,e.g.understripandpadfoundations,theinduced
verticaltotalstresseswilldecreasebothwithdepthandhorizontaldistancefromtheload.Insuchcases,itis
necessarytouseasuitablestressdistributiontheoryanexampleisBoussinesq'stheory.

Porepressure

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Groundwaterandhydrostaticpressure
Watertable,phreaticsurface
Negativeporepressure(suction)
Porewaterandporeairpressure
Thewaterintheporesofasoiliscalledporewater.Thepressurewithinthisporewateriscalledporepressure
(u).Themagnitudeofporepressuredependson:
thedepthbelowthewatertable

theconditionsofseepageflow

Groundwaterandhydrostaticpressure

Porepressure

Underhydrostaticconditions(nowaterflow)theporepressureatagiven
pointisgivenbythehydrostaticpressure:
u=w.hw
where
hw=depthbelowwatertableoroverlyingwatersurface
Itisconvenienttothinkofporepressurerepresentedbythecolumnofwater
inanimaginarystandpipethepressurejustoutsidebeingequaltothatinside.

Watertable,phreaticsurface

Porepressure

Thenaturalstaticlevelofwaterinthegroundiscalledthewatertableor
thephreaticsurface(orsometimesthegroundwaterlevel).Under
conditionsofnoseepageflow,thewatertablewillbehorizontal,asinthe
surfaceofalake.Themagnitudeoftheporepressureatthewatertableis
zero.Belowthewatertable,porepressuresarepositive.
u=w.hw
Inconditionsofsteadystateorvariableseepageflow,thecalculationofpore
pressuresbecomesmorecomplex.
SeeGroundwater

Negativeporepressure(suction)
Belowthewatertable,porepressuresarepositive.Indrysoil,theporepressureis
zero.Abovethewatertable,whenthesoilissaturated,porepressurewillbe
negative.
u=w.hw
Theheightabovethewatertabletowhichthesoilissaturatediscalledthe
capillaryrise,andthisdependsonthegrainsizeandtype(andthusthesizeof
pores):
incoarsesoilscapillaryriseisverysmall
insiltsitmaybeupto2m
inclaysitcanbeover20m

Porewaterandporeairpressure

Porepressure

Porewaterandporeairpressure

Porepressure

Betweenthegroundsurfaceandthetopofthesaturatedzone,thesoilwilloftenbe
partiallysaturated,i.e.theporescontainamixtureofwaterandair.Thepore
pressureinapartiallysaturatedsoilconsistsoftwocomponents:
porewaterpressure=uw
poreairpressure=ua
Notethatwaterisincompressible,butairiscompressible.Thecombinedeffectis
acomplexrelationshipinvolvingpartialpressuresandthedegreeofsaturationof
thesoil.InEuropeandothertemperateclimatecountriesmostdesignstatesare
associatedwithsaturatedconditions,andthestudyofpartiallysaturatedsoilsis
consideredtobeaspecialistsubject.

Porepressureinsteadystateseepageconditions

Porepressure

Inconditionsofseepageinthegroundthereisachangeinporepressure.
ConsiderseepageoccurringbetweentwopointsPandQ.
Thehydralicgradient,i,betweentwopointsistheheaddropperunit
lengthbetweenthesepoints.Itcanbethougthofasthe"potential"
drivingthewaterflow.

h u 1
HydralicgradientPQ,i= = .
s
s w
u=i.w.s
Thus
Butinsteadystateseepage,i=constant
Thereforethechangeinporepressureduetoseepagealone,us=i.w.s
Forseepageflowverticallydownward,iisnegative
Forseepageflowverticallyupward,iispositive.

Effectivestress

Top

Terzaghi'sprincipleandequation
Mohrcirclesfortotalandeffectivestress
Importanceofeffectivestress
Changesineffectivestress
Groundmovementsandinstabilitiescanbecausedbychangesintotalstress(suchasloadingduetofoundations
orunloadingduetoexcavations),buttheycanalsobecausedbychangesinporepressures(slopescanfailafter
rainfallincreasestheporepressures).
Infact,itisthecombinedeffectoftotalstressandporepressurethatcontrolssoilbehavioursuchasshear
strength,compressionanddistortion.Thedifferencebetweenthetotalstressandtheporepressureiscalledthe
effectivestress:

effectivestress=totalstressporepressure
or=u
Notethattheprime(dashmark)indicateseffectivestress.

Terzaghi'sprincipleandequation

Effectivestress

KarlTerzaghiwasborninViennaandsubsequentlybecamea
professorofsoilmechanicsintheUSA.Hewasthefirstpersonto
proposetherelationshipforeffectivestress(in1936):
Allmeasurableeffectsofachangeofstress,suchascompression,
distortionandachangeofshearingresistancearedueexclusively
tochangesineffectivestress.Theeffectivestressisrelatedto
totalstressandporepressureby=u.
Theadjective'effective'isparticularlyapt,becauseitiseffectivestress
thatiseffectiveincausingimportantchanges:changesinstrength,changesinvolume,changesinshape.Itdoes
notrepresenttheexactcontactstressbetweenparticlesbutthedistributionofloadcarriedbythesoiloverthe
areaconsidered.

Mohrcirclesfortotalandeffectivestress

Effectivestress

Mohrcirclescanbedrawnforbothtotalandeffectivestress.ThepointsEandTrepresentthetotalandeffective
stressesonthesameplane.Thetwocirclesaredisplacedalongthenormalstressaxisbytheamountofpore
pressure(n=n'+u),andtheirdiametersarethesame.Thetotalandeffectiveshearstressesareequal(=

).

Theimportanceofeffectivestress

Effectivestress

Theprincipleofeffectivestressisfundamentallyimportantinsoilmechanics.Itmustbetreatedasthebasic
axiom,sincesoilbehaviourisgovernedbyit.Totalandeffectivestressesmustbedistinguishableinall
calculations:algebraicallytheprimeshouldindicateeffectivestress,e.g.
Changesinwaterlevelbelowground(watertablechanges)resultinchangesineffectivestressesbelowthe
watertable.Changesinwaterlevelaboveground(e.g.inlakes,rivers,etc.)donotcausechangesineffective
stressesinthegroundbelow.

Changesineffectivestress

Effectivestress

Changesinstrength
Changesinvolume
Insomeanalysesitisbettertoworkinchangesofquantity,ratherthaninabsolutequantitiestheeffectivestress
expressionthenbecomes:
=u
Ifbothtotalstressandporepressurechangebythesameamount,theeffectivestressremainsconstant.Achange
ineffectivestresswillcause:achangeinstrengthandachangeinvolume.

Changesinstrength

Changesineffectivestress

Thecriticalshearstrengthofsoilisproportionaltotheeffectivenormal
stressthus,achangeineffectivestressbringsaboutachangein
strength.
Therefore,iftheporepressureinasoilslopeincreases,effective
stresseswillbereducedby'andthecriticalstrengthofthesoilwill
bereducedbysometimesleadingtofailure.
Aseasidesandcastlewillremainintactwhiledamp,becausetheporepressureisnegativeasitdries,thispore
pressuresuctionislostanditcollapses.Note:Sometimesasandcastlewillremainintactevenwhennearlydry
becausesaltdepositedasseawaterevaporatesslightlyandcementsthegrainstogether.

Changesinvolume

Changesineffectivestress

Immediatelyaftertheconstructionofafoundationonafinesoil,theporepressureincreases,butimmediately
beginstodropasdrainageoccurs.

Therateofchangeofeffectivestressunderaloadedfoundation,onceitisconstructed,willbethesameasthe
rateofchangeofporepressure,andthisiscontrolledbythepermeabilityofthesoil.
Settlementoccursasthevolume(andthereforethickness)ofthesoillayerschange.Thus,settlementoccurs
rapidlyincoarsesoilswithhighpermeabilitiesandslowlyinfinesoilswithlowpermeabilities.

Calculatingverticalstressintheground

Top

Simpletotalandeffectivestresses
Effectofchangingwatertable
Stressesunderfoundations
Shorttermandlongtermstresses
Steadystateseepageconditions
TheworkedexamplesherearedesignedtoillustratetheprinciplesandmethodsdealtwithinPorepressure,
effectivestressandstressesintheground.Theexampleschosenaretypicalandsimple.

Simpletotalandeffectivestresses

Calculatingverticalstress

Thefigureshowssoillayersonasite.
Unitweightsare:
drysand:d=16kN/m
saturatedsand:g=20kN/m
(a)Atthetopofsaturatedsand(z=2.0m)
Verticaltotalstress

v=16.0x2.0

Porepressure

u=0

Verticaleffectivestress v=vu

=32.0kPa
=32.0kPa

(b)Atthetopoftheclay(z=5.0m)
Verticaltotalstress

v=32.0+20.0x3.0

=92.0kPa

Porepressure

u=9.81x3.0

=29.4kPa

Verticaleffectivestress v=vu=92.029.4 =62.6kPa

Effectofchangingwatertable

Calculationofverticalstress

Thefigureshowssoillayersonasite.Theunitweightofthesiltysandis19.0kN/mbothaboveandbelowthe
watertable.Thewaterlevelispresentlyatthesurfaceofthesiltysand,itmaydroporitmayrise.The
followingcalculationsshowtheeffectsofthis:
Watertable

2.0mabovesurface
atthesurface
1.0mbelowsurface
3.0mabovesurface

2.0belowsurface

Stressesunderfoundations

Calculationofverticalstress

Fromaninitialstate,thestressesunderafoundationarefirstchangedbyexcavation,i.e.verticalstressesare
reduced.Afterconstructionthefoundationloadingincreasesstresses.Otherchangescouldresultifthewater
tablelevelchanged.
Thefigureshowstheelevationofafoundationtobeconstructedinahomogeneoussoil.Thechangeinthickness
oftheclaylayeristobecalculatedandsotheinitialandfinaleffectivestressesarerequiredatthemiddepthof
theclay.
Unitweights:sandaboveWT=16kN/m,sandbelowWT=20kN/m,clay=18kN/m.
Calculationsfor
initialstresses
finalstresses

Calculationofverticalstress

Shorttermandlongtermstresses
Initially,beforeconstruction
Immediatelyafterconstruction
Manyyearsafterconstruction

Thefigureshowshowanextensivelayeroffillwillbeplacedonacertainsite.
Theunitweightsare:
clayandsand=20kN/m,
rolledfill18kN/m,
assumewater=10kN/m.
Calculationsaremadeforthetotalandeffectivestressatthemiddepthofthesandandthemiddepthoftheclay
forthefollowingconditions:initially,beforeconstructionimmediatelyafterconstructionmanyyearsafter
construction.

Shorttermandlongtermstresses

Initially,beforeconstruction

Initialstressesatmiddepthofclay(z=2.0m)
Verticaltotalstress
v=20.0x2.0=40.0kPa
Porepressure
u=10x2.0=20.0kPa
Verticaleffectivestress
v=vu=20.0kPa
Initialstressesatmiddepthofsand(z=5.0m)
Verticaltotalstress
v=20.0x5.0=100.0kPa
Porepressure
u=10x5.0=50.0kPa
Verticaleffectivestress
v=vu=50.0kPa

Shorttermandlongtermstresses

Immediatelyafterconstruction

Theconstructionoftheembankmentappliesasurfacesurcharge:
q=18x4=72.0kPa.
Thesandisdrained(eitherhorizontallyorintotherockbelow)andsothereisnoincreaseinporepressure.The
clayisundrainedandtheporepressureincreasesby72.0kPa.
Initialstressesatmiddepthofclay(z=2.0m)
Verticaltotalstress
v=20.0x2.0+72.0=112.0kPa
Porepressure
u=10x2.0+72.0=92.0kPa
Verticaleffectivestress
v=vu=20.0kPa
(i.e.nochangeimmediately)
Initialstressesatmiddepthofsand(z=5.0m)
Verticaltotalstress
v=20.0x5.0+72.0=172.0kPa
Porepressure
u=10x5.0=50.0kPa
Verticaleffectivestress
v=vu=122.0kPa
(i.e.animmediateincrease)

Manyyearsafterconstruction

Shorttermandlongtermstresses

Aftermanyyears,theexcessporepressuresintheclaywillhavedissipated.Theporepressureswillnowbethe
sameastheywereinitially.

Initialstressesatmiddepthofclay(z=2.0m)
Verticaltotalstress
v=20.0x2.0+72.0=112.0kPa
Porepressure
u=10x2.0=20.0kPa
Verticaleffectivestress
v=vu=92.0kPa
(i.e.alongtermincrease)
Initialstressesatmiddepthofsand(z=5.0m)
Verticaltotalstress
v=20.0x5.0+72.0=172.0kPa
Porepressure
u=10x5.0=50.0kPa
Verticaleffectivestress
v=vu=122.0kPa
(i.e.nofurtherchange)

Steadystateseepageconditions
Thefigureshowsseepageoccurringaroundembeddedsheetpiling.
Insteadystate,thehydraulicgradient,
i=/=4/(7+3)=0.4
Thentheeffectivestressesare:
A=20x32x10+0.4x10=44kPa
B=20x32x100.4x10=36kPa

Calculationofverticalstress