CA #1

1)
1 st order systems parameter changes (K
and a)
We can write the transfer function of the general 1storder system with
unit steady state response as follows:
K
K

S+ a 1+TS
Where

K is the Steady-state gain constant

a is value
T is the time constant

The gain (K) is used to magnify the input value ,for example if the input is
unity step input and the gain is 2 the output will be equal 2

Fig.1 step response of first

order

2)
2 nd order systems parameter changes (
and n)
We can write the transfer function of the general 2ndorder system with
unit steady state response as follows:
2n
S 2+2 n S+2n

; where

n is the systems natural frequency, and

is the systems damping ratio.
Figure 2 shows the transient response (system response) specification for
the 2 nd order systems

Fig.2 Transient response specification

Fig.3 Transient response of second order by

changing
As decreases, the closed-loop roots approach the imaginary axis, and the
response becomes increasingly oscillatory. The response as a function of
and time is also shown in figure 2-b for a step input.
Figure 4 also shows that decreasing the damping ratio, increase the
maximum overshoot for the second order

Fig.4 Relation between maximum over shoot and

damping ratio
Depending on the damping ratio , the system response is
undamped if = 0;
underdamped if 0 < < 1;
critically damped if = 1;
overdamped if > 1.

Fig.5 Second order response as a function of

damping ratio
For constant damping ratio () , when the natural frequency increases the
time to reach stability decrease. The system takes short time to become
stable i.e the rise, peak and settling times decrease

Fig.6 The step response for = 0.2 for n=1 and

n=10

3)

Stable & unstable systems

Stable system:
The system is said to be stable if the following condition is satisfied:
i)
ii)

When the system is excited by a bounded input, output is also

bounded and controllable.
In the absence of input, output must tend to zero irrespective of
the initial conditions.

Unstable system:
The system is said to be unstable if,
i)
ii)

For a bounded input it produces unbounded output.

In absence of input, output may not be returning to zero. It shows
certain output without input

A simple figure shows the concepts of the stable and unstable system

Fig.7 the stability of a cone

By using Routh-Hurwitz Criterion , root locus and bode diagram , we can
check the stability of the system.
For example, the conditions to be the system stable are 1- All the
coefficients of the equation have the same sign. 2- None of the coefficients
vanish.

4)

PID control

PID controller, which applies a signal to the process that is proportional to

the actuating signal in addition to adding integral and derivative of the
actuating signal.

The output of a PID controller, equal to the control input to the plant, in the
:time-domain is as follows
(1)
First, let's take a look at how the PID controller works in a closed-loop
system using the schematic shown above. The variable ( ) represents the
tracking error, the difference between the desired input value ( ) and the
actual output ( ). This error signal ( ) will be sent to the PID controller, and
the controller computes both the derivative and the integral of this error
signal. The control signal ( ) to the plant is equal to the proportional gain (
) times the magnitude of the error plus the integral gain ( ) times the
integral of the error plus the derivative gain (

) times the derivative of the

.error

This control signal ( ) is sent to the plant, and the new output ( ) is
obtained. The new output ( ) is then fed back and compared to the
reference to find the new error signal ( ). The controller takes this new error
.signal and computes its derivative and its integral again, ad infinitum
The transfer function of a PID controller is found by taking the Laplace
.transform of Eq.(1)

(2)
Proportional gain

= Integral gain

= Derivative gain =

The Characteristics of P, I, and D Controllers

A proportional controller (

) will have the effect of reducing the rise time

and will reduce but never eliminate the steady-state error. An integral
control ( ) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error for a
constant or step input, but it may make the transient response slower. A
derivative control (

) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the

system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response.

The effects of each of controller parameters,

, and

on a closed-loop

system are summarized in the table below.

CL
RESPONSE
Kp
Ki
Kd

RISE TIME
Decrease
Decrease
Small

OVERSHO

SETTLING

S-S

OT
Increase
Increase

TIME
Small Change
Increase

ERROR
Decrease
Eliminate
No

Decrease
Decrease
Change
Change
Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because ,
and

are dependent on each other. In fact, changing one of these variables

can change the effect of the other two. For this reason, the table should only
be used as a reference when you are determining the values for
and

.
General Tips for Designing a PID Controller

When you are designing a PID controller for a given system, follow the steps
.shown below to obtain a desired response
1.

Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be

improved

2.

Add a proportional control to improve the rise time

3.

Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot

4.

Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error

5.

Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall
response. You can always refer to the table shown in this "PID Tutorial"
page to find out which controller controls what characteristics.

Lastly, please keep in mind that you do not need to implement all three
controllers (proportional, derivative, and integral) into a single system, if not
necessary. For example, if a PI controller gives a good enough response (like
the above example), then you don't need to implement a derivative
.controller on the system. Keep the controller as simple as possible

References
[1] System Dynamics,2nd edition,William J. Palm III.
[2] Massachusetts Institute of Technology's lecture notes.
[3] Modern Control Systems 12th ed - R. Dorf, R. Bishop (Prentice Hall, 2011)
[4] Control Systems Engineering 6th ed - Norman S. Nise
[5] Automatic Control Systems by KUO, 9th Edition
[6] website: http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/
[7] website: http://facstaff.cbu.edu/