Democritus (460 BC 370 BC)

Was among the first to suggest that

matter is composed of small,
indivisible particles that he termed
atomos
John Dalton (1766 1844)
Formulated the Atomic Theory In
1808:
1. All matter is composed of atoms
that are extremely small and
indivisible particles, and are the basic
units of an element that can enter in a
chemical reaction.
2. All atoms of a given element are
identical with the same mass, size and
chemical properties, which differ from
those of other elements.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms
of different elements combine with
each other in a definite ratio despite
the source (Law of Definite
proportion)
4. During a chemical reaction, atoms
are combined, united or rearranged;
none are created nor destroyed (Law
of Conservation of Mass)
Ernest Rutherford (1871 1937)
Discovered the nucleus & proton of an
atom through his Golden foil
experiment
James Chadwick

ISOTOPES Two elements with the

same atomic number but have
different atomic masses

form when an atom gains electrons

Examples: Cl-, S2-, O2Atomic number,
Atomic number, Z
the number of protons in the
nucleus
the number of electrons in a
neutral atom
the integer on the periodic table
for each element
Mass Number, A
integer representing the
approximate
mass of an atom
equal to the sum of the number of
protons
and neutrons in the nucleus
Isotopes
atoms of the same element which
differ in the number of neutrons
in the nucleus
differ by mass number
Examples:
1

1 proton
1 electron
0 neutrons

1 proton
1 electron
1 neutron

1 proton
1 electron
2 neutrons

Neutrons
James Chadwick in 1932
analyzed the results of particle scattering on thin Be
films.
Chadwick recognized
existence of massive neutral
particles which he called
neutrons.
Chadwick discovered the
neutron.
Examples

ISOBARS Two elements with the

same atomic masses but have
different atomic numbers
ISOTONE Two elements with the
same number of neutrons
Ions- charged species
Cations
positively charged
form when an atom loses electrons
Examples: H+, Ca2+, Al3+
Anions
negatively charged

Average Atomic Mass

The mass of a Cu-63 is 62.94 amu
with 69.17% and that of Cu-65 is
64.93 with 30.83%. What is the
average atomic mass?
63.55 amu
Ernest Rutherford
Former student of J.J. Thomson

 Believed in plum pudding

Wanted to find out how big they
are
Fired positively charged alpha
particles at a piece of gold foil,
which can be made a few atoms
thick
How he explained it
Atom is mostly empty
Small dense, positive piece at the
center, the
nucleus
Alpha particles are deflected if they
get close
enough to positive center
How he explained it
Atom is mostly empty
Small dense, positive piece at the
center, the
nucleus
Alpha particles are deflected if they
get close
enough to positive center
Change in energy in
transition (jump or drop)
In the presence of heat or light,
electron may:
--- absorb energy and jump to a
higher orbit
(Efinal>Einitial)
--- emit energy and drop to a lower
orbit
(Efinal<Einitial)
Can be calculated using:

ns refer to the numbers of the energy

levels in the emission
spectrum of hydrogen
Balmer-Rydberg equation suggested
that atoms have more
complex underlying structure
Works perfectly with H atom and other
one-electron species
Wavelength of the photon
Can be calculated using:
Where h is the Plancks constant =
6.63 x 10-34 Js
C is the speed of light= 3.00 x 108
m/s

TOMIC ORBITALS
Pictorial representation of the
solution to the
Schroedingers equation
Probable region or space occupied
by an electron
HEISENBERGS Uncertainty
Principle
The position and energy
(momentum) of an electron
can not be measured accurately at a
given time
The Quantum Mechanical
Picture of the Atom
Developed by Erwin
SCHROEDINGER in the mid
1920s
He- = E e These probability functions
are represented as orbitals in
quantum mechanics
The Quantum Mechanical
Picture of the Atom
Basic Postulates of Quantum
Theory
1. Atoms and molecules can exist only
in certain
energy states. In each energy state,
the atom or
molecule has a definite energy. When
an atom or
molecule changes its energy state, it
must emit or
absorb just enough energy to bring it
to the new
energy state (the quantum condition).
The Quantum Mechanical
Picture of the Atom
2. Atoms or molecules emit or absorb
radiation
(light) as they change their energies.
The
frequency of the light emitted or
absorbed is
related to the energy change by a
simple
equation.

The Quantum Mechanical

Picture of the Atom
3. The allowed energy states of atoms
and
molecules can be described by sets of

numbers called quantum numbers.

Quantum numbers are the
solutions of the
Schrodinger, Heisenberg & Dirac
equations.
Four quantum numbers are
necessary to describe
energy states of electrons in atoms.
n = 1, 2, 3
gives the energy level or energy
shell the
electron is in
Related to the atomic size of the
atom
Greater (n) = larger orbital
AZIMUTHAL OR ORBITAL
QUANTUM NUMBER: l
identifies the type or shape of
orbital or subshell
Aka: angular momentum quantum
number
Ranges from 0 to n-1
l values: 0 1 2 3 4
SPDFG
EXAMPLE
1. n=1, l = 0 1s orbital
2. n=2, l = 0 2s orbital
l = 1 2p orbital
Electron Density and Orbital
Shapes
The orbitals corresponding to the three
lowest energy states are s, p, and d,
respectively. The illustration shows the
spatial distribution of electrons within
these orbitals. The fundamental nature
of electrons prevents more than two
from ever being in the same orbital.
MAGNETIC QUANTUM
NUMBER: ml
specifies the ORIENTATION of the
orbitals in space
From l to + l
n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0 1s orbital
n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0 2s orbital
l = 1, ml = -1, 0, +1
l = 2, ml = -2 -1, 0, +1, +2

Number of values of ml = number

Of orbitals in the sublevel= 2l + 1
Number of orbitals in an energy level
is n2
Atomic Orbitals

d orbital properties:
The first d orbitals appear in the n =
3 shell.
The five d orbitals have two
different
shapes:
4 are clover leaf shaped.
1 is peanut shaped with a doughnut
around it.
The orbitals lie directly on the
Cartesian axes or
are rotated 45o from the axes.
f orbital properties:
The first f orbitals appear in the n =
4 shell.
} The f orbitals have the most
complex
shapes and names.
} There are seven f orbitals per n
level.
The f orbitals have important effects
in the
lanthanide and actinide elements.
SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER: mS
Determines the orientation of the
electron magnetic behavior in a
magnetic field unpaired paired
N
S
Spin up (+1/2) Spin down(-1/2)
ALLOWED VALUES OF THE
QUANTUM NUMBERS FOR
AN ELECTRON
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . n
l = 0, 1, 2, . . . (n-1)
ml = - l . . . 0 . . . + l
ms =
Orbital designations
1s2
Principal
quantum
number, n
Number of
electrons in orbital

Orbital, l
Describes how electrons are
distributed in
atomic orbitals
Observe 3 rules for filling atomic
orbitals

 Aufbau principle
Hunds rule
Paulis exclusion principle
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
Start filling orbitals, from lowest
energy to
highest energy.
Order in which subshells are filled
with electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d
PAULIS EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
- In a given atom, no two electrons can
have the same set
of quantum numbers
- They will always differ in ms (i.e.,
they have to be of
opposite spins).
- The maximum number of electrons in
an orbital is 2.
HUNDS RULE OF
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
Electrons when distributed among the
orbitals of the same energy will tend
to
have maximum spin (SINGLY FIRST
BEFORE PAIRING)

Na+: [Ne] Al3+: [Ne] F-: 1s22s22p6 or

[Ne]
O2-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne] N3-:
1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
Na+, Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all
isoelectronic with Ne
What neutral atom is isoelectronic with
H- ?
H-: 1s2 same electron
configuration as He

Is this a plausible set of quantum

numbers {n,l, ml, ms}? (As according
to
Schrodinger equation)

How to find the valence electron

Example: 6
12C
(condensed): 1s2 2s22p2
4 valence electrons

 Zeff is lower than actual

nuclear charge
Some orbitals penetrate to
the nucleus more than
others: s>p>d>f
Writing Electron Configurations of
Main-Group Ions
SOLUTION:
PROBLEM: Using condensed electron
configurations, write reactions for
the formation of the common ions of
the following elements:
(a) Iodine (Z = 53) (b) Potassium (Z =
19) (c) Indium (Z = 49)
(loss of 1 and 3 e)
(a) Iodine (Z = 53) is in Group 7A(17)
and will gain one electron to be
isoelectronic with Xe: I
([Kr]5s24d105p5) + e- I([Kr]5s24d105p6)
(b) Potassium (Z = 19) is in Group
1A(1) and will lose one electron to be
isoelectronic with Ar: K ([Ar]4s1) K+
([Ar]) + e(c) Indium (Z = 49) is in Group 3A(13)
and can lose either one electron or
three electrons: In ([Kr]5s24d105p1)
In+ ([Kr]5s24d10) + e+
In ([Kr]5s24d105p1) In3+([Kr] 4d10) +
3e

Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism

To calculate the number of orbitals
and the
number of electrons in each n shell.

The number of orbitals per n level is

given
by n2.
The maximum number of electrons
per n
level is 2n2.
The value is 2n2 because of the two
paired
electrons.
In multi-electron systems
Shielding effect
Inner electrons act to shield
outer electrons from the
positive charge of the
nucleus

Electron Configurations of
Transition Metals
Completely filled or halfcompletely
filled d-orbitals have a special
stability
Some irregularities are seen in the
electron
configurations of transition and
innertransition
metals.
Stability
Electron Configuration Exceptions
Chromium
EXPECT: [Ar] 4s2 3d4
ACTUALLY: [Ar] 4s1 3d5
Chromium gains stability with a halffull
d-sublevel.
Electron Configuration Exceptions
Chromium
EXPECT: [Ar] 4s2 3d4
ACTUALLY: [Ar] 4s1 3d5
Chromium gains stability with a halffull
d-sublevel.

Subshells of higher energy level

are very close in energy.
Orbital energies are perturbed as
the nuclear charge changes and an
extra electron is added in going
from one element to the next
Electron Configurations of Cations of
Transition Metals
8.2
When a cation is formed from an atom
of a transition metal,
electrons are always removed first
from the ns orbital and

then from the (n 1)d orbitals.

Fe: [Ar]4s23d6
Fe2+: [Ar]4s03d6 or [Ar]3d6
Fe3+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
Mn: [Ar]4s23d5
Mn2+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
Order of filling; 3s<3p<4s<3d
But when removing electrons to form
+ ions for transition metals
Order of removing electrons;
4s<3d<3p<3s