MATHEMATICS

Fractions to Make an
Egyptian Scribe Blanch

at the University of Georgia in Athens, has

reportedly solved a question raised by the
great mathematician Paul Erds, who died
last September (Science, 7 February, p. 759).
Numbers theotists have long known that
the unit fractions from 1 to 1/n add up to a
number roughly equal to the natural logarithm of n plus "Euler's constant," 0.5 7 7....
For example, 1 + 1/2 + ... + 1/1000 is about
7.5. Thus, 8 is too large to be represented
as a sum of unit fractions between 1 and
1/1000, but conceivably some of the numbers from 1 through 7 could be. Erds asked
what percentage of integers less than the
logarithm of n could be written as an Egyptian fraction without using any fractions beyond 1/n. The very wording of the question
suggests that he doubted they all could.
Croot, however, has shown thatat
least for large enough values of nErds
was too pessimistic. In fact, every integer
at least 0.2 less than the numher 1 + 1/2 +
... + 1/n can be represented this way. If n =
1000 is sufficiently large (Croot isn't sure it
is), then all the integers from 1 to 7 would
be expressible as Egyptian fractions with
no denominators greater than 1000. Like
Martin's result, Croot's proof implies the
existence of extraordinarily dense fractions. To get a sum that's close to the maximum possible (log n plus Euler's constant),
you've got to use most of the terms available to you.
Croot's work is still unpublished, but

Over 3500 years ago, the Egyptian scribe tor gets biggerand the more fractions we
Ahmes wrote a scroll of mathematical prob- add, the bigger and messier it gets," Martin
lems intended to instruct his readers in the says. "To add a million fractions together
"knowledge of all obscure secrets"includ- and get a denominator of 1 ... is just outside
ing how to multiply and divide fractions. our experience."
The scroll, called the Rhind Papyrus, is also
The key to creating a dense Egyptian
a primer on the Egyptian way of writing fraction that can add up to an integer is
fractions: as sums of reciprocals of whole choosing the denominators of the recipronumbers, using as few numbers as possible, cals, or unit fractions, so that you can do a
and always avoiding repetition. Thus, spectacular amount of cancellation. And as
Ahmes wrote the number we call "2/17" as Martin showed in a paper presented at a
1/12 + 1/51 + 1/68. Bizarre as it looks, this number theory conference this summer at
method gave exact results with a surprising Pennsylvania State University, such caneconomy of notation, and the Rhind Papy- cellation can always be arranged, provided
rus showed how to use it to solve a number that n, the denominator of the smallest alof supposedly practical problems involving lowable fraction, is large enough, and prothe division of loaves and beer.
vided the number of fractions doesn't exNow, two mathematicians have given the ceed about 30% of n.
ancient method of Egyptian fractions a perIt's just a matter of smoothnessnot of
verse modem twist. For the sheer delight of the beer, but of the fractions. "Smooth"
it, they have shown how run-of-the-mill numbers, a term coined by Ronald Rivest
numbers can be expressed as fractions so of the Massachusetts Institute of Technolsprawling that they would have given the ogy, are numbers with no large prime diviancient scribe carpal tunnel syndromeif sors. They are an essential ingredient in
he didn't run out of papyrus first.
every state-of-the-art computer factorizaClassically, Egyptian fractions were tion algorithm, but for Martin's purposes.
very sparse, involving reciprocals
of widely spaced numbers. But
Greg Martin, a number theorist at
1 + 1 + 1+ + 1 1 1 1 1
1+1+1+1* 1+1+1+1
32 34 35 36 38 39 40 42 44 45 46 49 50
the Institute for Advanced Study
23 26
in Princeton, New Jersey, went to
1 +1 + 1
''57*58 * M
''64*65*66*68* 69 70 72 * ^ ' '76*77*78*80 * a i *
the opposite extreme by asking:
^ 1 +1+ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 1 + 1 +
How densely spaced can the terms
''90*91
96 98 99 102 104 105 *1?8 110 112 . 1 B
in an Egyptian fraction get? Or, to
1
1 + ^ + 1 + ^ 4^ 1 + 1 + 1 + ^ + 1 + ^ 4
put it another way, if we want to
870
l*875*8o"' 82 ^8i4*
divide r kegs of beer among our
896 897 899 900 910 912 918 920 924 98*
1
1
1
1 + 1 + 1 + 1
friends in the Egyptian way, so that
930
5*936^945 ''950*95:!*957*96b*966'' '969*975* 980 986 988 990 *992
they all get different amounts but
Number of terms: 366
nobody gets less than a certain
amount1/n kegshow many
Thinly sliced. Some of the 366 terms in the modern Egyptian fraction that adds up to 2. Ancient verfriends can we serve?
sions of these sums of reciprocals were far more compact.
According to Martin, we can
serve a lot more friends than Ahmes, or the most important fact is that there are Andrew Granville of the University of
even modern mathematicians, would have lots of them: For any number n, roughly Georgia, a leading number, theorist and
suspected: Two kegs of beer can be divided 30% of the numbers between 1 and n have Croot's thesis adviser, has read the proof
among 366 people, with everyone getting at no prime factors greater than the square and says it is "certainly correct." Granville
least 1/1000 of a keg and no two people root of n. These are, with a few strategic adds that it is "sheer coincidence" that
getting the same amount. Reduce the limit deletions, precisely the numbers Martin Croot and Mattin happened to get interto 1/3,000,000 of a keg, and nearly 1 mil- used as the denominators of his unit frac- ested in Egyptian fractions at the same time.
lion people could get some minute fraction tions. Because they inevitably have many "Ernie tends to work on whatever takes his
of the beer.
common factors, they open the way to the fancyhe'll just pop into my office and
A string of fractions that long would or- extensive cancellation needed to get a de- show me some ingenious thing I didn't even
dinarily add up not to an integer like 2, but nominator of 1.
know he was working on."
Other number theorists are persuaded by
to a fraction with a gigantic denominator
-Dana Mackenzie
the least common denominator of all the tbe finding, and another young mathematisummands. "We've all seen examples in cian recently proved a remarkably similar Dana Mackenzie is a science and rrujthematics
fifth-grade arithmetic where the denomina- result. Ernest Croot III, a graduate student writer in Santa Cru?:, California.

2=5 4'

**

224

SCIENCE VOL. 278 10 OCTOBER 1997 www.sciencemag.org

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