Machinery Fault Simulator

By Lizan Ahmed
Kawan Hamaa Amin
Shams Watha
Ahmed Salam

Supervised by:
Dr. Bahzad Rashid
A Thesis
Presented to The American University of Iraq, -Sulaimani
in Fulfilment of the Thesis Requirement for
Capstone Design Project
in
Mechanical Engineering
Sulaimani, Kurdistan-Iraq, 2016

Table of Content
[1]

Acknowledgment------------------------------------------------------------------------Page (3)

[2]

Abstract ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page (4)

[3]

Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------Page (4-5)

Literature Review
[4]

Common Faults in Machines -------------------------------------------------------Page (5-6)

A. Misalignment in Shafts -----------------------------------------------------Page (6-9)
B. Resonance and Critical Speed Phenomena at Speeds Below 2000 ---Page (9)
C. Sheave Misalignment and Belt Tension Effects on Vibration--------Page (9-12)
D. The Effect of Damaged Tooth in Gearboxes--------------------------Page (12-13)
E. Centrifugal Pump---------------------------------------------------------Page (13-14)
F. Slider and Crank----------------------------------------------------------Page (14-15)

[5]

Oscillatory Motion and Fourier Transform: -----------------------------------Page (15-20)

[6]

Frequency Analysis and Interpretation -----------------------------------------Page (21-28)

Methodology
[7]

Tools Required for the Simulator ---------------------------------------------------Page (28)

[8]

Vibration Simulator ---------------------------------------------------------------Page (28-29)

[9]

Cost and Expenses -------------------------------------------------------------------- Page (30)

[10]

Vibration Analyzer ----------------------------------------------------------------Page (30-31)

[11]

Conclusion -----------------------------------------------------------------------------Page (31)

[12]

References -----------------------------------------------------------------------------Page (32)

Acknowledgment
We wish to express our sincere thanks to International Technology System Company, ITSC,
for providing us with all the necessary facilities for the research. We place on record, our
sincere thanks to Dr.Ashty Qazzaz, Chair of Engineering Faculty, for the continues
encouragement.

We are also grateful to Dr.Bahzad Rashid, a lecturer, in the Department of Engineering. We

are extremely thankful and indebted to him for sharing expertise, and sincere and valuable
guidance and encouragement extended to us.

We take this opportunity to express gratitude to all of the Department faculty members for
their help and support. We also thank our parents for the continuous encouragement, support
and attention.

Abstract
In this project, vibration and its effects are to be analyzed. Different forms vibration is
examined, in order to understand what vibration signals may suggest about machines, and
how these signals can be used to predict machine faults. The goal is to understand the basic
concepts upon which vibration analysis is formed as well as attaining the ability to show
faults in machines through a vibration detecting device.
The project consists of two parts: vibration analysis and the construction of a machine to
simulate faults through vibration. The analysis includes a look at Fourier transform, how to
read vibration signals and what they signify, and the different types of faults that can be
simulated through vibration detectors. Vibration induced from misalignment, imbalance or
faults in construction will also be discussed. The second part will be mainly performing these
analyses on real machine faults using a constructed simulator with the help of design software
and a data acquisition device and software.

Introduction
The objective of this project is to design a machine that can simulate the faults that
occur in industry and how we can examine these faults through vibration analysis. This
project is made for AUIS students to have a better understanding of vibration analysis and
uses. Analyzing the vibration of a machine helps to predict any fault, and thereby it will help
to extend the life time of a machine. Having knowledge of the machines performance
prevents any loss in cost.

Figure (1)

A. Capabilities
1. The simulator will be able to show the faults in machine including the
following
a. Imbalance
b. Shaft Misalignment
i. Parallel
ii. Angular
iii. Parallel and angular
2. Crank and slider vibration
3. Resonance and critical speed phenomena at speeds below 2000
4. Sheave misalignment and belt tension effects on vibration
a. Pulley misalignment
b. Vertical angle misalignment
c. Parallel angle misalignment
d. Horizontal angle misalignment
5. The effect of damaged tooth in a gear
6. Vibration of centrifugal pumps
7. The simulator must able to show the frequency and time domain
8. The simulator will collect data of vibration

Common Faults in Machines

Almost half of operating costs in manufacturing operations are the result of maintenance.
Thus, machine monitoring and diagnostics are crucial in any industry. In this section, we will
discuss first the common problems we can avoid by monitoring machines and the
causes/effects of machine faults and how we approach them.

Why do we monitor machines?

a) Severe machine damage: machine vibration which is not detected early enough can
cause the machine to shut down and maybe even replace it. In order to avoid such
costly actions, we need to monitor machines regularly for any signs of unwanted
vibration.
b) High power consumption: a machine that vibrates consumes more power, thus by
eliminating excess vibration on a machine component; we can avoid higher power
consumption.

c) Machine unavailability: often machine components that have vibration can be

unavailable to us if they break down, and machine monitoring ensures we dont run
out of it.
d) Accumulation of unfinished goods: a machine breakdown in the middle of production
can lead to unnecessary wastage.
e) Unnecessary maintenance: a lot of companies stop running machines to check and
look for any signs of symptoms during working hours. To avoid this, machine
monitoring can help us stop the need to remove any parts for checking.
f) Quality problems: sometimes a machine have severe vibration problems while it looks
like its functioning well, which can lead to poor quality products.
g) Bad company image: sometimes just one incident of shipment delay door to due to a
machine not functioning well can end relationships with customers.
h) Occupational hazards: the noise and shaking of the machine due to vibration can also
be dangerous to the workers. [1]

Now that we have discussed the needs of monitoring machines and the consequences for not
doing so, we can talk about the causes of machine vibration. In our topic, these four machine
faults can cause severe vibration if unattended.
A- Misalignment: is the condition where the geometric centerline of the two coupled shafts
is not co linear along the rotation axis of both shafts at operating conditions. [1]
Three types of misalignment:
A)

Angular misalignment: is when the centerline of the shaft coincides at one point
along the projected axis of both shafts but at angle

B)

Parallel misalignment: is when the centerline is parallel but offset.

C)

Combination misalignment: is when both of the above misalignments are present.

Figure (2)

Figure (3)

Causes of Misalignment:
inaccurate assembly, uneven floors, thermal expansion, distortions due to fastening the
torque, and improper mounting of coupling.
How to Diagnose Misalignment:
Misalignment is the most common cause of machine malfunction and can cause high costs to
the industrial along with massive loss in production; therefore, its absolutely necessary to
understand and maintain machines for misalignment regularly. To diagnosis misalignments,
sensors from the simulator should be placed in strategic locations (vertical, horizontal and
axial) on the shafts and that should give us the spectra of the amplitude of the velocity versus
the frequency of the shafts. Using vibration analysis, we can identify primary symptoms of
misalignments such as vibrations reading in the axial and radial directions.
Suggested alignment tolerance table.

Table (1)
B- Resonance and Critical Speed Phenomena at Speeds Below 2000:
Resonance: is the condition caused when a forcing frequency coincides or is close to the
natural frequency of the machines structure. The result will be high vibration, while critical
speed below 2000 rpm improves safety. [2]
One way to understand resonance is to imagine a pump thats placed on a base which has its
own natural frequency. If the frequency of the pump at any time matches the natural
frequency of the base, then resonance occurs which will cause high vibration and eventually

damage the pump. Its also important to know that every mechanical component has its own
natural frequency, and that resonance does not cause vibration per say but amplifies it.
How to Diagnose Resonance:
-

Stiffen our structure, which in turn increases the resonant frequency of the structure.

Adding more mass to the structure, this in turn decreases the resonant frequency of
the structure.

Change the speed of the machine.

Attaching a tuning fork to the structure, and its tuned to have the same resonant
frequency as the structure to cancel the resonance.

C- Sheave Misalignment and Belt Tension Effects on Vibration: Pulley misalignment,

belt wear, belt resonance, belts too tight, belts too loose, pulley eccentricity and bent shafts
can be somewhat straight forward to detect but a lot more difficult to diagnose. Despite the
fact that some of these problems do not always cause vibration, we will discuss the main
problems such as pulley misalignment, pulley eccentricity and driven belt tension and how
we approach these issues when it comes to vibration. [3]
a. Pulley misalignment: The use of pulleys in industrial applications is significant,
since it offers a number of advantages over other means of power transmission
including:
-

Very high efficiency

Overall economy

Cleanliness

No need for lubrication

Low maintenance costs

Ability to be used for different speed power transmission

Ability to accommodate widely spaced shafts

Drive pulleys with single or multiple belts should be in the same line of action or in the
same plan. If not, then excessive vibration results. There are three different pulley
misalignments.
These are vertical angularity, horizontal angularity, and axial offset or parallel
misaligment.

Figure (4)

10

Symptoms of misaligment:
- High axial vibration
- 1x rpm on both component
- Uneven wear axially that causes vibration
To determine the belt rpm we can do the following calculations:
3.14 x ps1 x pd1 / Bl = belt rpm
Or
3.14 x ps2 x pd1 / Bl = belt rpm
Where:
Ps1 = pulley 1 rpm
Ps2 = pulley 2 rpm
Pd1= pulley 1 diameter
Pd2= pulley 2 diameter
Bl= belt length
To find the belt length , we will use the following formula:
Bl =1.57 x ( pd1 +pd2) + 2(sd)
Where sd= distance between shaft centers.
How To Diagnose Pulley Misaligment:
Using the accelometer to find the rpm of the belt using our simulator. Then comparing it
to the orignal rpm of the belt to check for any signs of vibration or flaps alongsie the belts.[3]
a) Pulley eccentricity and belt tension: when the geometric center doesnt coincide with
the rotating center of the pulley, we have pulley eccentricity.
Symptoms:
-

High radial vibration- can be misdiagnosed as unbalance

Phase will show 0 to 180 degrees around the bearing

The belt will look like rubber being stretched and relaxed

D- The Effect of Damaged Tooth in Gearboxes: usually gears are designed to last the
lifetime of the machine, but during contact the tooth gear undergoes massive changes in force
such as deflection and rebound as the contact is taken place and broken between the teeth and

11

the component. These can cause wear and fatigue to the teeth and can ultimately break which
will then cause high vibration. [4]

A gear will generate vibration at the gear mesh frequency. This gear mesh frequency is equal
to the number of the teeth of the gear times the shafts rotational speed.

Gear mesh frequency = number of teeth x rpm of the shaft.

How to diagnose gear tooth problems:

First, we need a visual examination to see whether the problem is a broken tooth,
worn out tooth, or incorrect tooth shape. To decrease vibration in gear box, the number of
teeth in the drive gear times the speed of the drive gear must equal to the number of the teeth
in the driven gear times the speed of the driven gear.

Number of the teeth of gear one x speed of gear one = number of teeth of gear two x speed of
gear two. Thus, having a broken tooth can imbalance this equation and eventually cause
vibration.

E- Centrifugal Pump:

The mechanics of centrifugal pump: converting energy (an electric motor or turbine) into
kinetic energy and then into pressure energy of a specified fluid such as water which is being
pumped. This energy changes occur because of two components of the pump. [5]

a) The impeller: the rotating part which converts driver energy into kinetic energy
b) The diffuser or volute: the stationary part which converts kinetic energy into pressure
energy.

12

Figure (5)

How centrifugal pump works:

-

Liquid is rotated inside the impeller and spins outward. The greater the velocity of
the impeller, the higher kinetic energy of the liquid

The volute catches the liquid and slows it down, creating pressure energy. In the
discharge nozzle decelerates even more and changes to pressure

13

Figure (6)
F-Slider-Crank Mechanisms:
Slider-crank mechanics is used to transform rotational energy into translational
energy. This is done by rotation a beam around a fixed point, where the beam is connected to
a sliding body.
Using a vector equation:
RBA + RCA = RCA
Position vectors:
RBA(cos angle between A and the x-axis) + RCA (cos angle between B and the x-axis) = RCA
cos 0
= angle between A and the x-axis
= angle between B and the x-axis
RBA = L2
RCA = L3
Combining all above, we get
Sin = - (L2/L3) Sin

14

Using above we can calculate the time derivative of the position equations and that will give
us the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the crank. Using those, we can find the
frequency where
Angular velocity = 2pi x f

[5]

Oscillatory Motion and Fourier Transform:

When analyzing motion of members or designing machines, oscillatory motions are
taken into account to diagnose and predict conditions of the member or machine. These
oscillatory systems are broadly classified into two types; linear systems, and nonlinear
systems.
Linear systems have well-developed methods for their analysis, and the superposition
principle may be used for analysis of these systems. Although real life systems are nonlinear,
systems with small oscillation amplitudes are treated as linear systems. In nonlinear systems,
the theorem of superposition does not apply, and in most cases, only approximations are
achieved through abstract mathematical solutions.
There are two classes of vibration, free vibration, and forced vibration. Free vibration
occurs when a system is allowed to oscillate itself without applying external forces to the
system after having been disturbed to vibrate. These oscillations occur due to the systems
inherent elastic, damping, and inertial forces. Forced vibration occurs when a continuous
external forces is applied to a system, such as an unbalanced force in a rotating disk. This
force causes some form of oscillatory motion. [6]
When analyzing free vibration, the natural frequency of the system is studied. Natural
frequency is a system property that depends on the stiffness and mass of the system. Natural
frequency also plays an important role when studying forced vibration. If the external force
on the system is coinciding with the systems natural frequency, resonance occurs. This
condition may result in the failure of the system. In such case damping the system is critical.

15

When a single mass system is disturbed, a frequency component is present in the response
along with its harmonics. Likewise, when a multi-mass system which has multiple degrees of
freedom is subjected to a force, the response of the system contains multiple natural
frequencies simultaneously
To understand how these signals are analyzed,
the Fourier representation of these signals is utilized.
Fourier, the French mathematician and physicist, was
able to show that signals given as a function of time,
can be separated into their frequency components.
Figure 7 A square wave function with period T = 1 s.

Each signal, can be represented as a sum of

frequencies in sinusoid form, a Fourier series. This assists in predicting the ways the signal
will interact with other systems, through frequency response analysis. [7] This is explained
below.
Observing that a periodic signal may only be formed from a sum of multiples of its
fundamental frequency, an odd periodic square wave function such as the one shown in
figure (7) with period = 1 , (), may be represented as follows:
() =
=0 sin(2).

[eq. 1 (Inverse Transform Odd)]

where is the magnitude of the nth frequency component, and is time in seconds.
To find the magnitude of each component, it is necessary to understand the principle of
orthogonality. This states that a two functions, () and () are said to be orthogonal on

interval [, ] to one another, if: ()() = 0.

Theorem A: The system = {1, cos(), sin(), cos(2), sin(2), cos(3), sin(3), } is
completely orthogonal on [, ].
This is made clear by proving that the following integrals equal zero, given that ,
{0, 1, 2,3, } :

16

cos() sin()

cos() cos()

sin() sin()

0, 1,

(1-a)

(1-b)

, 1, .

(1-c)

Proving (1-a):
1

Since sin() cos() = 2 [sin( + ) + sin( )],

cos() sin() =

1
{sin[( + )] + sin[( )]}
2

1 cos[( + )] cos[( )]
= {
+
} =0
2
+

Proving (1-b):
1

Since cos() cos() = 2 [cos( ) +cos( + )],

cos() cos() =

1
cos[( )] +cos[( + )]
2

1 sin[( )] sin[( + )]
= {
+
} =0
2

Proving (1-c):
1

Since sin() sin() = 2 [cos( ) cos( + )],

1
sin() sin() = cos[( )] cos[( + )]
2

1 sin[( )] sin[( + )]
= {

} =0
2

Through this theorem we also concluded that a signal is not orthogonal to itself, since
in (1-b) and (1-c), .
Back to eq. 1, and finding the first few terms:

() = sin(2) = 1 sin(2) + 2 sin(4) + 3 sin(6) +

=0

17

To find a1, we integrate the multiplication of () by sin(2) over a period = 1 :

1

() sin(2)
0
1

= 1 sin(2) sin(2) + 2 sin(4) sin(2)

0

0
1

+ 3 sin(6) sin(2) + + sin(2) sin(2)

0

Since only the first integral contains a multiplication that isnt orthogonal, the integrations
following the first term reduce to zero, and the remaining becomes:
1

() sin(2) = 1 sin(2) sin(2)

0

1 1
= cos(0) cos[(4)]
2 0
1

1
sin[(4)]
1
= [
] =
2
4
2
0
This result can be generalized as follows:
1

= 2 0 () sin(2)
[eq. 2 (Forward Transform Odd)]
This equation, which is called forward transform is
known to be the analyzing transform, since it converts
Figure 8 Frequency representation of the signal.

the signal function of time into the frequency domain

(see figure 8). While equation 1, which is called inverse transform, is a synthesizing
transform. This equation converts the signal from the frequency domain, back to its time
domain.
By going through the same procedure as the one for previous function, we realize that
another periodic function, (), which is a triangular even function of period = 1 , having
the shape shown in figure 9, may be represented by:

18

() =
=0 cos(2)

[eq. 3 (Inverse Transform Even)].

And its forward transform represented by:

1

[eq. 4 (Forward Transform Even)].

= 2 0 () cos 2

This leads to the conclusion that a periodic function (),

even, odd, or neither (such as the one in figure 9), and
having a period of = 1 , may be represented by the sum
of cosine and sine multiples of its fundamental frequency:
() =
=0 sin(2) + cos(2)

Figure 9 An even triangular function.

[eq. 5 (Inverse Transform)],

where:
1

= 2 0 () sin(2) , = 2 0 () cos(2)

[eq. 6 (Forward

Transform)].
If () is even, the sine term equals zero. Conversely, if the function is odd, the second term
equals zero. The two mentioned states are shown in equations 3 and 1 respectively.
Here,
() = 0 sin(2 0) + 1 sin(2 1) + 2 sin(2 2) + 3 sin(2 3) +
+ 0 cos(2 0) + 1 cos(2 1) + 2 cos(2 2) + 3 cos(2 3)
Theorem A is satisfied by the function (), since the conditions of parts a, b, and, c are
satisfied.
Now to generalize our conclusions for any period function x(t), with = and a
1

fundamental frequency, = , we say that:

() =
=0 sin(2 ) + cos(2 )

19

(eq. 7)

This function portrays frequencies separated into a cosine and a sine representation shown in
figure 10. Notice that there exists no frequency between multiples of the fundamental
frequency, (only discrete multiples of exist) . The magnitude and can be found
by:
2

= 0 () sin(2 ) , 0, = 0 () cos(2 ) (eq. 8)

Figure 10 Frequency representation of a periodic function

The Fourier Transform facilitates dealing with waveform functions by treating them
as sums of a series of sinusoids of different frequencies, amplitudes and phases. Fast Fourier
transform efficiently calculates simple waveform functions to output amplitudes of vibration
as a function of frequency. Measuring these vibrations is discussed next. [8]

20

Frequency Analysis and Interpretation

Each machine's mechanical components have a behavior that makes the machine to
respond to the external and internal loads; the behavior is called vibration. There are some
oscillatory motions that are useful for keep operating the machine, overcome friction, and to
pump lubricants around, but in overall, vibration can cause damage and failure that some
protective should be taken to prevent any breakdown.
The first task for the vibration analyst is to obtain frequency selective amplitude data
to identify the source of vibration. Vibration analysis relies on numerical descriptions which
are frequency and amplitude. Frequency defines the oscillation rate of vibration and is the key
to establishes the possible causes. Amplitude is the magnitude of vibration. The higher
vibration causes the bigger problem which means the higher amplitude which is two types
(peak velocity amplitude and root mean square (rms)).1

Vibration can be serious and benign; benign can be ignored. If vibration is serious, then it can
be forced or natural (resonance). We should determine the type of vibration because their fixes
are different. Natural vibration can be fixed by changing speed, changing the natural frequency
by adding masses or stiffness, adding damping, reducing the source vibration input, and
dynamic absorber. [9]
There are many standards measurements to measure vibration, such as, overall vibrations,
Phase, sensors and etc.
Overall vibration is the total vibration measured within a frequency range. Scales
factors are used in overall vibration measurement are RMS, peak, peak to peak, and average.
To get overall value, we need to do RMS (Root Mean Square) calculation on the AC signal. It
is always expressed as RMS value, expect for displacement where peak-peak values apply.

21

Fig: (11) scale factor on waveform

The RMS value represent the vibration energy in the machine, FFT2 is used to derive
RMS value. The peak value shows the distance from a zero reference to the top of the
waveform, and the peak to peak value is the amplitude from the top of the waveform to the
bottom. In addition, Average value is the average amplitude of the waveform.
Phase explains the relationships in time between a point on a shaft and waveform of the
shaft rotation or between two or more single frequency waveforms.
As it is mentioned above, sensors are essential for measuring vibration. The sensors are
velocity pickup, accelerometer, and displacement probes. Before measuring each machine, it
is important to know about each sensor to choose, also the sensors positions, advantages and
disadvantages should be considered.
Velocity pickup is the most common transducer which is a self-generating sensor and
does not need other device to generate a voltage signal. Velocity pickup uses for frequency
range between 10 Hz to 2 KHz. [10]
The velocity pickup is made of permanent magnet, coil of wire, and spring. The velocity
Transducers are manufactured for horizontal and vertical axis mounting differently, so we have
to measure vibration in the three directions with three sensors for each direction. There are
two types of velocity sensors: electromagnetic linear velocity transducer and electromagnetic

22

tachometer generators. Electromagnetic linear velocity transducers are used to measure

oscillatory velocity. And the other type is used to measure the angular velocity.
Advantages
1. Easy to install
2. Useful for frequencies range between 10

Disadvantages
It is heavy and big
Has cross noise

Hz 2 KHz
3. Inexpensive and stand high Temperature

Has low resonant frequency and phase

shaft

4. Does not need external power

Require

electronic

integration

for

displacement

The second sensor is accelerometer which converts mechanical motion into voltage signal.
Accelerometer has many types: Capacitive, piezoelectric, potentiometric, Reluctive, servo, and
strain gage.

Advantage
1. Easy to install

Disadvantage
Sensitive to high frequency noise

2. Useful to frequency range between 1Hz

Require external power

10 KHz
3. Stand high temperature

Require electronic

integration for

velocity and displacement.

4. Has small size

Displacement probes or eddy current are the only transducer that provides displacement of
shaft vibration measurement. They can be used for radial vibration and axial vibration. Eddy

23

current probe should be mounted in the plane where the largest vibrations are expected. On
large, more critical machines, two eddy current transducers are used; they should be 90 degree
apart from each other.
Advantage
1. Measures

Disadvantage
both

static

and

dynamic Has electrical and mechanical noise

displacement.
2. Gives exact response at low frequency

Bound by high frequency

3. It is small and inexpensive

Calibrate only for known metal materials

4. No wear

Difficult to install

To analyze vibration, we should to know about the measurement sensor position.

Vibration should be measured in three directions: axial (A), horizontal (H), and vertical
direction (V).
Horizontal vibration represents the most vibration, especially in imbalance. Vertical
vibration shows less vibration than horizontal. As well, axial measurement show less vibration,
however it is the best option for measuring vibration of misalignment and bent shaft. We should
be considered to take the measurement as close as possible to the bearing, the surface should
be clean and take measurement at the exact same plot to make certain. Magnetic mounts are
better to use for permanently mounted sensors. The angle must be perpendicular to the shaft.
After taking measurements, the signal can be displayed as waveform or spectrum3. FFT
spectrum presents the information to determine the location of the problem, the cause of the
problem, and how long until the problem becomes serious.
Vibration cause many defects, and the most common faults are: misalignment, imbalance,
resonance, bearing, looseness and bent shaft. [11]

24

Misalignment is created when bearings, shafts, and coupling are not accurately aligned
along their centerlines. There are two types of misalignment: angular misalignment and
parallel misalignment. To diagnose misalignment problems, overall vibration, FFT, and phase
measurement should be used. Angular misalignment cause axial vibration at the running speed
frequency (1x) (one time the running speed) while parallel causes radial vibration at (2x). If
the vibration amplitude at (2x) is 50% to 150% that coupling damage at (1x) occurs. When it
is above 150% of (1x) has severe misalignment, the problem must be fixed.

Phase

measurement shift between axial on opposite ends of the machine. For angular, the phase shift
of 180o in the axial position, but for parallel, a phase shift of 180o in the radial direction.
Imbalance occurs when the shaft's mass centerline does not match with its geometric
centerline. There are three types of imbalance: static, dynamic, and couple imbalance.
Imbalance appears as a higher than normal 1x amplitude. Phase measurement should be 90o
between the horizontal and vertical position.
Looseness is distinguished by a long string of rotating frequency harmonics or 1/2
rotating frequency harmonics at abnormally high amplitudes. It is caused by loose pillow block
bolts or by cracked frame structure. It has three types: Structural looseness which has high 1x
vibration in vertical or horizontal, the second type is cracked looseness which has high 1x and
high 2x vibration or maybe 3x, and the third one is rotating looseness which has high 1x and
harmonic vibration. It can cause 0.5,1, 2, and 3x rpm.

25

Imbalance
Table (2)

Mass

Primary

Defection

Dominant

plane

units

frequency

Radial

Acc, velocity,

1x

disp

Phase
90o from
horizontal to
vertical

Overhung
mass

Axial and
radial

Acc, velocity,

1x

disp

Axial reading
will be in
phase

Bent shaft

Axial and
radial

Acc, velocity,

1x

disp

180o in axial
direction

Misalignment
Table (3)

Angular

Parallel

Primary

Defection

Dominant

plane

units

frequency

axial

Acc, velocity, 1x, 2x

180o

disp

axial direction

Acc, velocity, 1x, 2x

180o

dis

radial direction

Acc, velo, disp 1x, 2x

180o

Radial

Combination

Axial and

of angular

radial

Phase

in

in

direction

Mechanical looseness
Table (4)
Primary plane Defection

radial

the

the

the

radial and axial

and parallel

Structural

in

Dominant

units

frequency

Acc, velo, disp

1x

26

Phase
180o

Soft foot

radial

Acc, velo, disp

1x, 2x,

Phase shifts
when the
machine foot is
tightened

Wear/fitting

Radial and

Acc, velo, disp

1x,2x,.10x

Phase reading will

be unstable from

axial

one reading to the

next

Vibration Limits
Table (5)
Balance Condition
Displacement,
mils peak to peak
at 1 x rpm
2.0

Overall Velocity
in/sec Peak 101,000 Hz

Overall
Acceleration, g
Peak 0- 5,000 Hz

0.2

0.5

2.0

0.2

0.5

Pumps

2.0

0.2

0.5

Centrifugal
Compressors
Gearboxes

1.0

0.2

3.0

1.0

0.4

2.0

Vibration Limits

Electric Motors
1,000-2,000 rpm
Generators

The vibration limits are done with machine stopped using an instrumented hammer or an
electrodynamic shaker with a power amplifier.

Common Machinery faults

Table (6)
Cause

Frequency

Amplitude

Difference Frequency
Approx 45% of 1x rpm
1/2, 1 1/2, 2 1/2, etc.
(rpm)(pitch dia).
Discrete peaks

Comes and goes. Caused by two

machines running at almost the same
speed. Decrease with load.

Less than 1x rpm

Beats
Oil whirl
Looseness
Belts
Resonance
At 1x rpm

27

Unbalance
Misalignment
Eccentricity
Bent Shaft

1 x rpm
1 x rpm+ harmonics
1 x rpm
1 x rpm

Mostly radial
High 2x and 3x, high axial. Cannot be
corrected with weight can be
corrected with massive balance
weights near the center.

2x, 3x, + harmonics

120 Hz + harmonics
1/2, 1 1/2, 2 1/2, etc...
Rpm x (no of blades)

High axial, changes with temperature,

Decreases with load
Benign

Gears
Cavitation

Rpm x (no of teeth)

2-5 kHz broadband

Bearing

Broadband

Sidebands at gear mesh frequency

Usually benign, pressurizing inlet
helps
High frequency shock pluses in time
domain

Medium Frequencies
Misalignment
Motor
Looseness
Blades
High Frequencies

Tools Required for the Simulator

1. 1 HP variable frequency AC drive
2. 3 Phase, 1 HP motor
3. Two rolling element ball bearings with squeeze lock type
4. Vibration isolators mounts and base stiffener
5. One 3/4" straight steel shaft
6. Two balance rotors with two rows of holes
7. Ball Bearings
8. Data acquisition hardware
9. Spider Coupling
10. Accelerometers
11. Small Centrifugal Pump
12. slider-crank
13. Bronze bearing
14. Pin-Joints
15. Helical beam shaft coupling
16. Pulleys
17. Shives
18. Tachometer

Vibration Simulator
It will be consisted of a motor connected to one of the shafts. The first shaft will be
coupled to show the three misalignment faults which are, parallel, angular, and both of them

28

combined. Also, it will have two rotors installed and each rotor will have two holes in order
to create imbalance in weight with different degrees. The second shaft will be connected to
the slider-crank in order to simulate vibration of loads. Also, it can be connected to the
centrifugal pump directly or by shives. Hence, we can measure the vibration of shive
misalignment and the vibration of the pump. For each case, the fast Fourier function will be
able to measure the frequency and the time domain.
1. Misalignment configuration will be made of two shafts connected by a
heliacal beam coupling. The helical beam coupling is chosen to make an
angular misalignment of 10 degrees, and 0.04 degrees or parallel
misalignment. Four different bearings blocks will be chosen where the each
one will show the types of misalignment; angular, parallel, both, and no
misalignment.
2. Slider-Crank configuration is consisted of crank, coupling, slider, and bronze
bushing. A rod will be used to connect the slider to the coupler.
3. Sheave Misalignment configuration is consisted of a shaft connected to the
sheave by a pully, and the sheave is connected to the pump. The pulleys can
be adjusted to make different sheave misalignment.
4. Centrifugal pump configuration will same as the sheave configuration but the
sheave should work properly. The pump will be able to pump water at various
speeds, and from the we can see how high or low speeds can affect the
vibration of the pump.
5. Resonance configuration has not been confirmed yet.

29

6. The gear mesh configuration is made with two gears, one connected to the
shaft while the other one is connected to the pump. Breaking a tooth or
damaging a tooth will cause change in frequency.

Cost and Expense of the Design

The following table will give an approximation of the total cost
Table (7)
Name
Motor
Pump
Acetometers
AC Drive
Slider-Crank
Other Parts
Total

Cost
70$
50$
20$
60$
20$
150$
370$

Vibration Analyzer
The vibration analyzer design is made of two accelerometers, each powered
separately. It is not decided of what the frequency range will be used, but mostly, we will
choose a range from 0-10,000 Hz. A magnet will be attached to the accelerometers to mount
them on the tools, where it allows measure frequency from different angles. In order to
transform the frequency from analog to digital, a 16-bit data accusation hardware will be
used. The model of it is the National Instrument model that is used in electric lab.
To measure the rotation speed of the motor, a tachometer will be used in order to
obtain the required speed. We still have not decide of what program will be used, but they
will be either LabVIEW or Matlab to make the fast Fourier function. The virtual instrument
will allow to collect and demonstrate the acceleration data with respect to time domain. From
the data acquired from the voltage input, data acquisition hardware will be able to sensor the

30

motor speed and transform the acceleration data from time domain to frequency domain. This
conversion is obtained from the fast Fourier Transformer function.
Motor speed is calculated by comparing the voltage output from the proximity sensor
to a threshold voltage. Digital logic is used to determine the number of voltage spikes
per sampling period. This data is then converted to revolutions per minutes.
Acceleration data was converted from time domain to frequency domain using a
Hanning Digital Fourier Transform. The amplitude of the acceleration in frequency
domain is the root mean square of the acceleration in the time domain. [12]

Conclusion
The purpose of this project is to design a tool that will allow students at AUIS understand the
phenomena of vibration when a machine is working in normal conditions(Healthy), and when
the machine has a common fault. The student will be able to use the vibration simulator to
obtain the acceleration and frequency spectrum to observe the common faults which are listed
above. Therefore, students will able to understand how to keep a machine healthy and to
predict if a problem will occur in future. The simulator demonstrates the common faults in
industrial application.
The simulator is consisted of two subsystems, the vibration analyzer and the vibration
simulator. The vibration simulator is a system that shows the common vibration faults in
machine whereas the vibration analyzer is a software application made to analyze the
frequency of vibration.

31

References: [1]

An Engineers Guide to Shaft Alignment and Vibration Analysis. Staffordshire: PRUFTECH LD, 2002.
Print.

[2]

Sinha, Jyoti Kumar. Vibration Analysis,Instruments, AndSignal Processing. New York:

CRCTaylor & Francis Group, 2015. Print

[3]

Taylor, James. The Vibration Analysis Handbook. 1st ed. N.p.: Ipp, n.d. Print

[4]

Gelman, L. Diagnostics of Local Tooth Damage in Gears by the Wavelet Technology.

Bedfordshire: Cranfield U, n.d. Print.

[5]

Carbajal, Francisco. VIBRATION ANALYSIS AND CONTROL NEW TRENDS AND

DEVELOPMENTS. Rijeka: INTECHWEB.ORG, 2011. Print.

[6]

Strogatz, Steven. Sync: The Emerging Science of Spontaneous Order. Hyperion, 2003, pp 106-109

[7]

Fourier, J.B. Joseph (1822), Thorie analytique de la chaleur (in French), Paris: Firmin
Didot, pre et fils, OCLC 2688081.

[8]

J. F. James, A Student's Guide to Fourier Transforms: With Applications in Physics and

Engineering 3rd Edition, Capmbridge, 2011.

[9]

http://www.machinedyn.com/docs/machine_vibration_tutorial.pdf
Wowk. Victor, (A Brief Tutorial on Machine Vibration)

[10]

http://www.maintenance engineering.eu/downloads/public/envelope%20bearing.pdf
Donald. Howieson ,(Vibration Monitoring: envelope signal processing) February 2003.

[11]

http://vibranalysis.co.za/ctc/pdf/pubTechPapers/01-Beginning%20Vibration%20Analysis.pdf
Peters. Jack, (Beginning Vibration Analysis with Basic Fundamentals).

[12]

http://people.cst.cmich.edu/yelam1k/asee/proceedings/2011/DATA/16-182-1-DR.pdf

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