ATOMIC THEORY AND QUANTUM MECHANICS

Objectives :
After learning this chapter, you are expected to be able to :
Explain the atomic theory according to Dalton, Thomson, and Rutherford
Explain the atomic theory of quantum mechanics
Explain and determine the quantum numbers
Describe the atomic orbital shapes
Explain the atomic shell and subshell and their relations to the quantum numbers
Use Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hunds rule in writing an electron configuration
and describing the orbital diagram
Determine the placement of an element at the periodic table based on its electron configuration

A. Daltons Atomic Model

At the beginning of the 19-th century (in 1808), a British chemist and physicist, John Dalton (17661844) studied carefully how the different elements, such as hydrogen and oxygen, could combine to make
other substances, like water. In his book A New System of Chemical Philosophy, Dalton made two
assertions about atoms, those are :
a. Atoms of each element are identical to one another, but different from the atoms of all other elements.
b. Atoms of different elements can combine to form more complex substance.
Daltons idea that different elements had different atoms was unlike the Democritus s idea about
atoms. The properties of Daltons atoms determined the chemical and physical properties of a substance. For
example, carbon atoms can form both diamonds and graphite atoms because both substances are composed
of the same chemical element. Whereas, according to the Democritus s idea about atom, diamond atoms
would be very different from graphite atoms.
Dalton observed that two elements can combine in more than one way. For example, modern
scientist know that carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO 2) are both compounds of carbon and
oxygen. According to Daltons experiments, the quantities of an element needed to compose the different
compounds are always whole-number multiples of one another. For example, oxygen needed to form a liter
of CO. Based on the result of his experiment. Dalton concluded that compounds were created when atoms of
pure elements joined together to form a unit called molecule in fixed proportions. This Daltons conclusion
is also called doubled multiple law.

B. Thomsons Atomic Model

Since the found of electron as the elementary negatively charged particle, so the validity of Daltons
atomic theory begin to the questionable. In 1899, a British physicist. Sir Joseph Thomson, proposed an
atomic model called raisin plum pudding model. Thomson described atom as a positively charged sphere
containing several negatively charged particles called electrons. The electrons are scattered in the sphere
like raisins in a plum pudding.

Figure 1. Thomsons atomic model (raisin plum pudding model)

C. Rutherfords Atomic Model

In 1991, Ernest Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden was doing experiment by shooting the alpha
particle () on the thin plate of gold to prove Thomsons atomic theory. From the result of experiment,
Rutherford proposed a theory or model of atom as follows.
.a. The atom consist of atomic nuclei which is positively charged. The nucleus contains almost entire mass
of the atom and surrounded by electrons which are negatively charged as in solar system model.
b. Entirely, the atom has neutral characteristic because the sum of positive charges and equal to the sum
negative charges.
c. During revolving the nucleus, the centripetal force on the electrons is formed from the attractive force
among electrons and nucleus (Coulombs force)

Figure 2. Rutherfords atomic model

D. Atomic Spectrum and Bohrs Atomic Model

1. Continuous Spectrum
Light from many sources, such as the sun or light bulb appears white. If white light passes through a
prism, it is separated into a spectrum with different colors. The prism separates the light by refracting or
bending light of different colors at different angles. In this case, a white light consists of electromagnetic
wave components with different in frequencies, wavelengths, and colors. Thus, spectrum is a distribution of
colored light (monochromatic light) produced when a beam of white light (polychromatic light) is dispersed
into its components. In other words, a given spectrum consists of a range of radiation frequencies of
electromagnetic wave which has a specific property.
A spectrum emitted by a solid object heated to incandescence or by a liquid or a high dense gas is
usually a continuous spectrum. In this case, the continuous spectrum is a sequence of electromagnetic wave
frequencies that is without breaks over a relatively wide range of wavelengths.
In a continuous spectrum, the light of all colors is present in it and the colors blend continuously into
one another and form a rainbow-like pattern. A continuous spectrum can be analyzed only by using
spectrophotometric methods.
2. Line Spectrum
If a tube filled by a gas or vapor of a certain element such as lithium, barium, mercury, sodium, and
neon, is conducted with a high-voltage electricity, atoms of the elements will emit electromagnetic wave
(light) for several wavelengths. If this light is passes through a spectrometer and is analyzed, there will come
up with a certain spectrum called the line spectrum. In this case, the line spectrum is a spectrum made of a
series of distinct lines and this spectrum is a characteristic of emission or absorption by atoms.
3. Hydrogen Atom Spectrum
A light produced by hydrogen gas atoms can be analyzed by using a spectrometer and there is found
that hydrogen atom spectrum is a line-spectrum (not continuous spectrum).
In 1885, J.J. Balmer discovered an empirical formula to explain the spectrum of hydrogen atom, that is as
follows :
1
1 1
R 2 2

2 n
where :


R
n

= wavelength (m)
= Rydbergs constant (1,0974 x 107 m-1)
= 3,4,5,

The equation above is known as the Balmers series, and in this case, for n = 3 there is found
wavelength of light is 656,3 nm, while for n = ~ there is found wavelength of light of 364,6 nm. Therefore,
the wavelength of hydrogen spectrum is located in visible light region, that is between 364,6 nm to 656,3
nm.
Some time later, after Balmer had discovered the empirical formula for representing the wavelength
of hydrogen spectrum, other scientists succeeded in formulating series which are similar to Balmers series,
they are Lyman (1906), Paschen (1908), Bracket (1922), and Pfund (1924)
.
1
1 1
R 2 2
Lymans series } n = 2,3,4,

1 n
1
1 1
R 2 2
Paschens series } n = 4,5,6,

3 n
1
1 1
R 2 2
Brackets series } n = 5,6,7,

4 n
1
1 1
R 2 2
Pfunds series } n = 5,6,7,

5 n
If the wavelength of hydrogen spectrum according to Balmers series is located un the visible light
region (H = violet light, H = blue light, H = blue-green light, and H = red light), according to Lymans
series, the wavelength is located in the ultraviolet region, and according to Paschen, Bracket, and Pfund
series are located in the infra-red region.
4. Bohrs Atomic Model
The weakness of Rutherfords atomic theory in explaining the line spectrum of hydrogen atom was
successfully corrected by Niels Bohr, in 1913, based on Rutherfords atomic theory and Plancks quantum
theory, Bohr proposed postulates about atomic models, those are as follow :
1. Electrons in atom revolve the nucleus at a certain path called stationary path. At this path, they do not
absorb nor release energy and they have angular momentum, the magnitude of which is
multiplication of h

2 .

2. Electrons will release energy (in the form of photon) if they displace from a higher energy level to a
lower one (from outer to the inner path) and electrons will absorb energy when they displace from a
lower energy level to a higher one (from the inner to the outer space).

Figure 3. Bohrs atomic model

Based on the Bohrs postulates, several electron quantities in hydrogen atom such as velocity of
electron in revolving the nucleus and energy of electron can be determined. From the Bohrs first postulate,
the angular momentum of electron complies the equation as follows :

Lmvr

nh

where :
L = angular momentum of electron
m = mass of electron
v = velocity of electron
r = distance of electron to the nucleus
h = Plancks constant
n = 1,2,3,

By rearranging the equation of electron angular momentum, the linear velocity of electron in
revolving the nucleus can be determined as follows :
v

nh
2 m r

Meanwhile, the total energy of electron in each orbit is as follows :

13,6
En
eV
n2
where :
En = energy of electron at n-th shell
These energy levels of electron can be diagrammatically depicted as follows :
n=~

0 eV

n=7
n=6
n=5

-0,28 eV
-0,38 eV
-0,54 eV

n=4

-0,85 eV

n=3

-1,51 eV

n=2

-3,40 eV

n=1

-13,6 eV

Figure 4. Energy levels of electron

If an electron occupies the lowest energy level (n=1), the atom is said to be in the ground state. In the above
diagram, the electron which is in the ground state is shown as .
As an electron absorbs an amount of energy, which corresponds to the difference in energy between
its present energy level and some other energy level, the electron will displace to a higher energy level (outer
shell). The displacement of electron from the inner to the outer shell is called excitation, while the
displacement of electron fro the excited state to the initial state is called transition. According to Bohr, in an
excitation state, the electron absorbs energy, while in a transition state, the electron release energy. The
energy absorbed or released by the electron is in the form of photon or light. The amount of energy absorbed
or released by the electron at excitation or transition can be determined as follows :
E hf h

c
E final E initial

Energy difference between the ground state (n = 1) and energy level where n = 2 is 10,2 eV. This
amount of energy corresponds to energy which must be absorbed by the electron in order to jump from n =

1 to n = 2. Similarly, if the electron absorbs of 13.6 eV, the electron will displace to the energy level for n =
5.
Sample Problem 1.1.
An electron of hydrogen atom is in transition from the 2nd to the 1st shell, determine :
a. the energy released
b. the frequency of photon emitted
Solution
a. the energy released
E E

final

initial

E E 1 E 2

13,6 eV

13,6 eV
10,2 eV

2 2

in Joule :
E = -10,2 x 1,6 x 10-19 Joule
= -1,63 x 10-18 Joule
Thus, the energy released by the electron is 10,2 eV or 1,63 x 10-18 Joule.
b. the frequency of photon
E = hf
f

1,63 x 10 18 J
E

2,45 x 1015 Hz
h
6,63 x 10 34 Js

Thus, the frequency of photon is 2,45 x 1015 Hz.

The displacement of electrons in an atom from n th shell to the infinity shell will cause the atom to be
charged (ionized) and the amount of energy required to release electrons from the n th shell to the infinity
shell is called the ionization energy, which can be determined as follows :
E ionization = E final E initial
= E ~ - En
13,6 eV
13,6 eV

= 0
2
n
n2

E. Quantum Mechanics Theory

Although the Bohrs atomic theory can explain the phenomenon of hydrogen atom spectrum and it
can be used to determine the electron quantities such as velocity and energy, it still has several weakness,
among others are Bohrs atomic model can only explain the hydrogen atom, while many electrons atoms
cannot be explained using the Bohrs atomic model ; the actual electron path is not so simple as proposed by
Bohr (circular path), but it is more complicated and has the orbital subshells ; and the Bohrs atomic theory
cannot explain the occurrences in chemical bonds and the effect of magnetic field to an atomic spectrum.
Based on the above mentioned facts, the Bohrs atomic theory was developed and corrected by other
scientists and finally there obtained a modern atomic theory known as quantum mechanics theory. The
followings are explanations about the quantum mechanics theory initiated by de Broglie wave and
Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
1. de Broglie Wave
In 1923, Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles (not merely photon) have both wave and particle
properties. de Broglie calculated that every particle has a wavelength which is equal to the Plancks constant
(h) divided by the momentum of particle (p).

h
p

In this case, is called de Broglie wavelength and any particles such as electrons and atoms have de
Broglie wavelength. Because momentum of a certain particle depends on its speed and mass, the de Broglie
wavelength of a particle can be formulated as follows :

h
mv

where :
= wavelength of particle (m)
m = mass of particle (kg)
v = speed of particle (m/s)
de Broglies idea about the wave behavior possessed by a particle has successfully been proved by
Davisson and Germer in 1927 through an experiment using electrons within a vacuum tube. In their
experiment, Davisson and Germer accelerated electrons by using an electric field produced by an electric
potential difference of V = 54 volt, so the electron have an amount of kinetic energy.
Although a particle can behave like a wave, the common objects do not show the behavior of wave,
it is because the symptoms of a particle can occur if the particle has an extremely large in velocity
(approaching the velocity of light). For example, a ball that moves with speed of 150 km/hour has
wavelength about 1,1 x 10-34 m. The wavelength is not sufficient to make the ball behave like a wave.
2. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
The presence of particles behavior for light (electromagnetic wave) and wave behavior for the
particles causes an uncertainty in measuring quantities, such as momentum and position of a particle. For
example, the measurement of electrons momentum using the instrument that involves light will resulting a
measurement followed by the uncertainty. In fact, we cannot explain the motion of electrons based on the
classical physic theories (Newtonian mechanics).
Based on the collision principle in classical mechanics consideration, in a collision between photon
and electron there will be obtained measurement of momentum uncertainty which has value of at least equal
to the momentum of photon, that is :
p

where :
p = momentum of uncertainty

From the formulation above, the momentum of uncertainty of particle (electron) is inversely
proportional to the wavelength of light (photon). The wavelength of light can be used to determine the value
of the electrons position uncertainty. The value of the electrons position uncertainty is at least equal to the
wavelength of light.
x
where :
x = position uncertainty
The notation of p

h
and x in the relation to momentum measurement has a meaning that,

reducing the momentum uncertainty it can be done by increasing the wavelength of light and at the same
time the position uncertainty will increase.
Based on the above case, in 1927, Warner Heisenberg formulated a principle known by Heisenberg
uncertainty principle or indeterminacy principle. This principle plays role in the development of quantum
mechanics.
In this case, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle prescribes that It is impossible to measure or to
specify the momentum and the position of a particle simultaneously with unlimited precision. Or in other
words the measurement of momentum and position of a particle simultaneously always results in an
uncertainty which is never less than Plancks constant. Mathematically, Heisenberg uncertainty principle
can be expressed in the following equation :
p x h

3. Schrodingers Wave Function

Based on de Broglies idea and Heisenberg uncertainty principle, in 1926 Erwin Schrodinger
proposed an idea that if electrons have characteristics of wave, of course they have a wave function
representing their state. According to Schrodinger, the wave function of electrons in revolving the nucleus of
an atom can be represented by the free wave function of time as follows :

 ( x ) A sin kx

where :
A = wave amplitude
k = wave number
Because electrons have wave characteristics, according to Schrodinger, electrons in an atom do not
orbit the nucleus, but they behave more likely as waves traveling at a certain distance with a given energy
around the nucleus.
Schrodingers atomic model was proved to be more accurate and based on this model, physicists no
longer try to find the electrons path and its position in an atom. Instead, they use the equation describing the
electron wave to find the region in which the electron is most likely to be found.
Based on the Schrodingers atomic model, the quantization of angular momentum of electron as it
has been proposed by Bohr can occur because the electron wave forms a stationary wave. In this case, the
atomic model based on wave characteristics of electron described by using this Schrodingers wave function
is called the atomic model of quantum mechanics or atomic model of wave mechanics.

F. Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals

The Bohrs atomic model is a one-dimensional model using one quantum number to describe the
distribution of electrons in an atom. Such information only relates to the size of the orbit of electrons in an
atom, which was described by the n quantum number. Schrodingers atomic model allows electron to occupy
three-dimensional space. Hence, to describe the orbitals in which electron can be found in an atom three
coordinates or three quantum number are required.
The three coordinates or quantum numbers which come from the exact solution of Schrodingers
wave equations are the principal quantum number (n), azimuth or angular quantum number (), and
magnetic quantum number (m). Those quantum numbers describe the size, shape, and orientation of
orbitals in an atom.
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
Principal quantum number (n) describes the size of the orbital which refers to the quantum number n
in the Bohrs atomic theory. For example, orbital for which n = 2 is larger than that of for n = 1. The
principal quantum number also indirectly describes the energy level of an orbital.
13,6 eV
Based on Bohrs atomic theory, the energy of electron in hydrogen atom (Z = 1) is E
,
n2
but for atoms besides hydrogen, the energy of electron obeys the equation as follows :
13,6 eV 2
En
Z eV
n2
Where :
Z = atomic number
n = principal quantum number (n = 1,2,3, )
The position of electrons which appropriates to energy level of the electrons is represented by atomic
shells and symbolized by K, L, M, N, O, P and so forth. The relation of the principal quantum number and
the atomic shells is shown in the table below :
n
Shell symbol

1
K

2
L

3
M

4
N

5
O

6
P

2. Azimuth Quantum Number ()

Azimuth quantum number or angular quantum number is the number which represents the magnitude
of angular momentum of electron and atomic subshell which determines atomic orbital shapes. The angular
momentum of electron to the axis of atomic nucleus can be determined as follows :
L

( 1) h

In this case, is angular quantum number which has the values from zero to n 1.
= 0, 1, 2, , n-1
where :
n = principal quantum number
Each atomic subshell is symbolized by using letters of s, p, d, f, g, h, I, and so forth, which
appropriates to the state of angular quantum number (). Pay attention to the following table :

Name of subshell

0
s

1
p

2
d

3
f

4
g

5
h

6
i

The naming of subshell is based on the empirical classification of spectrum, suppose s from sharp, p
from principal, d from diffuse, f from fundamental, and so forth.
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
In physics, we have known that angular momentum is a vector quantity, so it has both a magnitude
and direction.
If the magnitude of electron angular momentum is represented by angular quantum number, the
direction or orientation of it is represented by the magnetic quantum number (m). Magnetic quantum number
also represents a particular orbital occupied by electrons in a certain subshell. It is called the magnetic
quantum number because the effect of different orientations of orbitals was initially observed in the presence
of a magnetic field.
The value of magnetic quantum number depends on the value of angular quantum number, that is all
integers begin from - to +, including zero.
m = -, , 0, , +
4. Atomic Orbitals
Atomic orbitals are mathematical descriptions of electrons position in an atom which is most likely
to be found. These descriptions are obtained by solving the Schrodingers equation. Each orbital has a size,
shape, and orientation determined by the n, , m quantum numbers. The orbitals combine to form subshells
and they can combine to form shells or energy levels.
Among the orbital shapes are spherical, polar, and cloverleaf shapes as shown in the following
figure. The spherical shape occurs if = 0 ( s orbital) ; polar shape occurs if = 1 (p orbital) ; and cloveleaf
shape occurs if = 2 (d orbital).

Figure 5. Orbital shapes for = 0, = 1, and = 2

The orbitals above correspond to the three lowest energy states, those are s, p, and d respectively.
The illustration in the figure 1.14 shows the spatial distribution of electrons within those orbitals. This
description has been confirmed by many experiments in chemistry and physics, for example by using a
Scanning tunneling Microscope.

In this case, orbital shapes can even take on more complex shapes as the value of angular quantum
number becomes larger. Probability to find out electrons in s orbital (spherical shape) is same to any
direction. However, for orbitals which have polar shape (p orbital) or cloverleaf (d orbital) can lead to
different directions.
Orbitals having the same value of the principal quantum number from a shell. Orbitals within a shell
are divided into subshells having the same value of angular quantum number. Chemist describe the shell and
subshell in which an orbital belongs to a combination of principal quantum number (n) and angular quantum
number () is usually used to express the atomic state of electron symbolized by (n, ). Where n indicates the
shell, while indicates the subshell. For example, the orbital of the first shell (K) is represented by 1s (n = 1,
= 0).
Moreover, the atomic state of electrons in an orbital can be represented by using the combination of
three quantum numbers, those are principal, angular, and magnetic quantum numbers (n, , and m).
Based on the combination of those three quantum numbers, it is known that in n = 1shell three is
only one orbital, that is 1s. It is because the s orbital has the spherical shape which is only possible to
possess one orientation in a space. The only allowed combination of quantum numbers for which n = 1 is as
follows.
n
1

m
0

1s

In n = 2 shell there are four orbitals. The allowed combination of quantum numbers for which n = 2
are as follows.
n

2
2
2
2

0 0
1 -1
1 0
1 1

2s
2p

There is only one orbital in the 2s subshell and this orbital has the spherical shape which is bigger
than is orbital. Meanwhile, there are three orbitals in the 2p subshell. It is because there are three directions
in which a p orbital. One of these orbitals is oriented along the x axis, another along the y axis, and the third
along the z axis in Cartesian coordinate system, as shown in the following figure. These orbitals are known
as the 2px, 2py, and 2pz orbitals.

Figure 6. 1s, 2s and 2p orbitals

In n = 3 shell there are nine orbitals. The allowed combination of quantum numbers for n = 3 are as
follows.
n

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

0
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2

0
-1
0
1
-2
-1
0
1
2

3s
3p
3d

There is only one orbital in the 3s subshell and this orbital has the spherical shape which is bigger
than 1s or 2s orbitals and there are three orbitals in 3p subshell. Meanwhile, there are five orbitals in the 3d
subshell. It is because there are five directions in a d orbital. One of these is found on the xy plane of a
Cartesian coordinate system and it is called the 3dxy orbital. Similar to that, there are the 3dxz and 3dyz
orbitalswhich have the same shape, but they are found between the axes of the coordinate system on the xz
and yz planes. The fourth orbital in this subshell lies along the x and y axes and it is called the 3d x2-y2 orbital
and the fifth orbital lies along the z axis and this orbital is called the 3 dz2 orbital. Consider the following
figure.

Figure 7 . 3d orbitals

Based on the explanations about orbitals for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3, the number of orbitals in a shell
is the square of the principal quantum number (n2). Meanwhile, the number of orbitals in a subshell is 2() +
1.
5. Spin Quantum Number (s)

Electrons in an atom are not only revolving he nucleus, but they are also rotating on their axis. The
electrons rotation on its axis is called spin and this state is represented by the spin quantum number (s).
The direction of an electrons spin has only two possibilities, namely clockwise and
counterclockwise directions. An electron which has a clockwise direction spin leads downward, while an
electron which has a counterclockwise direction spin leads upward, it is shown in the following figure.

Figure 8. Electrons spin

Because electrons spin consists of two possibilities, the spin quantum number also has two values,
those are s

1
1
(for upward spin) and s (for downward spin).
2
2

Based on the state of electrons spin, accordingly each electron orbital is only occupied by two
electrons. The two electrons must have opposite spins, so they produce an opposite magnetic field required
to balance the repulsion force (Coulombs force) from these electrons in the orbital.

Exercise.
1.
2.
3.

Calculate the number of subshell for n = 5 and determine the symbol of electrons atomic
state in the subshell of f in the shell and the magnitude of angular momentum.
What are the possible values of for n = 3 ?
What are the possible values of m for = 4, and determine the possible values of L and the
number of orbitals.

4. Electron 1 has the quantum number combination of n = 3, = 2, and m = 2 while electron 2 has the
quantum number combination of n = 3, = 1, and m = 0. Do these electrons have the same or different
orbital ? Explain.
5.

Determine the number of orbitals in the 4-th atomic shell and the number of orbitals in each
subshell in the shell.

G. Electron Configuration
Electron configuration of an atom describes the distribution of electrons at the shells of an atom.
1. Aufbau Principle
Aufbau principle states that the filling of the electrons in an atom starts from the lowest energy
orbital until all of the electrons which have been filled are in an appropriate orbital to the next higher energy
orbital.
Because of the presence of attraction force between objects of opposite charge, the most important
factor influencing the energy of an orbital is its size and the value of the principal quantum number, n. for an
atom containing only one electron, there is no difference between the energies of the different subshells
within a shell. For example, in a hydrogen atom, the 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals have the same energy. However,
for an atom containing more than one electron, the different subshells no longer have the same energy.
Within a given shell, the s orbitals always have the lowest energy. In this case, the energy of the subshells
gradually becomes larger as the value of the angular quantum number becomes larger.
The order of increasing energy for atomic orbitals can be written as follows :
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p < 8s
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle

Electrons are a type of particle known as fermion. Wolfgang Pauli discovered that no fermions can
have the exactly similar four quantum numbers. This principle is known as the Pauli exclusion principle,
which states that two or more identical electrons cannot occupy the same orbital in an atom.
Each orbital in an atom can only hold two electrons. The two electrons in each orbital are
differentiated by the electrons spin or the spin quantum number. An electrons spin has two possible values,
namely s

1
1
(spin-up) and s (spin-down). According to these two possible values of spin, it means
2
2

that two electrons can occupy the same orbital, but their spins are different. Thus, two electrons in an orbital
will form a pair which can be described as in the following figure.

Figure 9. An orbital diagram

Each subshell consists of a number of orbitals, and the maximum number of electrons in each
subshell is equal to twice as much as the orbital number.
Table 1. The maximum number of electrons in each atomic subshell

Subshell

Orbital number

Maximum number of electrons

10

14

3. Hunds Rule
Electrons occupying the orbitals of an atom obey the rules are stated by Friedrich Hund. These rules
are known as Hunds rules which can be summarized as follows.

One electron is added to each of the orbitals in a subshell before the second is added to any orbital in
the subshell.

Electrons are added to a subshell in the same value of the spin quantum number until each orbital in
the subshell has at least one electron.

For C atom (Z = 6)
1s2

2s2

2p2
2px1 2py1 2pz0

Figure 10. The filling of electrons in C atom according to Hunds rule

For O atom (Z = 8)

1s2

2s2

2p2
2px2 2py1 2pz1

Figure 11. The filling of electrons in O atom according to Hunds rule

The writing of electron configuration of a certain atom or ion must comply the Aufbau principle,
Pauli exclusion principle, and Hunds rule.
Table 2. Electron configuration for some atoms

Atom

The number of electrons

Electron configuration

Hydrogen (H)

1s1

Lithium (Li)

1s2 2s1

Boron (B)

1s2 2s2 2p1

Nitrogen (N)

1s2 2s2 2p3

Fluorine (F)

1s2 2s2 2p5

Sodium / Natrium (Na)

11

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Aluminum (Al)

13

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

Potassium / Kalium (K)

19

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

Scandium (Sc)

21

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

Normally, the electron configuration of a certain atom can be abbreviated based on the electron
configuration of noble gases atoms.
10

Ne 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6

11

Na 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s1

Ne configuration
Therefore,

11

Na [ Ne] 3s1

Table 3. The electron configuration of noble gases atoms

Atom

The number of electrons

Electron configuration

Helium (He)

1s2

Neon (Ne)

10

1s2 2s2 2p6

Argon (Ar)

18

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Krypton (Kr)

36

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6

Xenon (Xe)

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6

54

Basically, the electron configuration of atoms obeys general rules, i.e., Aufbau principle, Pauli
exclusion principle, and Hunds rule. However, based on the result of spectrum observation for some atoms,
in fact there is deviation to the general rules.
For example,
24

Cr [Ar] 4s 2 3d 4

47

Ag [Kr] 5s 2 4d 9

The electron configurations of atoms above are less stable, so they change to as follows.
24

Cr [Ar] 4s1 3d 5

47

Ag [Kr] 5s1 4d10

According to examples above, in filling electrons, d subshell tend to be fully filled (10 electrons) or
half-full (5 electrons). This condition is possible to happen because the (n-1)d and ns orbitals have a
relatively small difference of energy level, so to reach the stable condition, the electron in the ns orbital can
undergo an excitation to the (n-1)d orbital. In this case, if the (n-1)d orbital in an atom is fully filled or halffull by electrons, the atom is n a most stable condition.
ns 2 (n 1)d 9

changes

ns 2 (n 1)d 4

changes

ns1 ( n 1)d10

ns1 (n 1)d 5

4. Valence Electron
Valence electrons are electrons in the outermost shell of an atom. The valence electrons in an atom
play a role in the formation of chemical bond. In the principal group elements, their valence electrons
occupy the ns and np subshells, while in the transition group elements, their valence electrons occupy the (n1)d and ns subshells.
10

Ne 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (principal group)

n = 2, then the valence electron of Ne atom is 8, from 2s subshell (2 electrons) and from 2p subshell (6
electrons).
26

Fe [Ar] 4s 2 3d 6 (transition group)

n = 4 and n-1 = 3, then the valence electron of Fe atom is 8, from 3d subshell (6 electrons) and from 4s
subshell (2 electrons).

Exercise
1. What is the maximum number of electrons which can occupy a subshell the atomic state of which is
represented by n = 3, = 2 ?
2. Calculate the maximum number of electrons found in M shell and denote the atomic state of the electron
in each orbital.
3. Write down the electron configuration and orbital diagram for the following atoms.
a. 32Ge

d. 40Zr

b. 52Te

e. 48Cd

c. 56Ba

f. 74W

H. Periodic Table
We have known that periodic table of elements is arranged based the properties resemblance of
elements. The elements having similar properties are located in a group.

Figure 12. modern periodic table

Basically, the placement of elements in periodic table can be distinguished in a certain block. The
placement of elements blocks in the periodic table relates to the electron configuration of the elements atom.
Generally, the placement of elements blocks in periodic table can be described as follows
1s
ss

1s
ss
2s

2p

3s

3p

4s

3d

4p

5s

4d

5p

6s

5d

6p

7s

**

6d

7p

4f

**

5f

Figure 13. The placement of elements blocks in periodic table

The placement of elements blocks in periodic table are relied on the valence electron configuration
of elements atom. For elements in s blocks, the filling of electrons ends at s subshell, elements in p blocks,
the filling of electrons ends at p subshell, elements in d blocks, the filling of electrons ends at dsubshell,
elements in f blocks, the filling of electrons ends at f subshell.

Table 4. The valence electron configuration of elements in periodic table

Elements

Valence Electron Configuration

Block

IA group

ns1

IIA group

ns1

IIIA group

ns2 np1

IVA group

ns2 np2

VA group

ns2 np3

VIA group

ns2 np4

VIIA group

ns2 np5

VIIIA group

ns2 np6

IB VIIIB group

(n-1)dp nsq

Lanthanide and Actinide series

(n-2)fp (n-1)d10 ns2

1. Determining Periods of Elements

Horizontal rows in periodic table correspond to the filling of electron in orbitals of a shell. For
example, the second row consists of elements in which the orbitals are in the n = 2 shell. The following are
electron configurations for element atoms in the second horizontal row of periodic table (second period).
Li (Z = 3)

= [He] 2s1

O (Z = 8)

= [He] 2s2 2p4

Be (Z = 4)

= [He] 2s2

F (Z = 9)

= [He] 2s2 2p5

C (Z = 6)

= [He] 2s2 2p2

Ne (Z = 10)

= [He] 2s2 2p6

N(Z = 7)

= [He] 2s2 2p3

Based on the examples above, period of given element in periodic table can be determined based on
its shell number indicated by the greatest value of the n (principal quantum number) in its electron
configuration.
2. Determining Group of Elements
Elements in a group have similar configurations for their outer most electrons. This relationship can
be seen at the electron configurations of elements as follows.

Group IA
He

1s1

Group VIIA

Li

[He] 2s1

Fe

[He] 2s2 2p5

Na

[Ne] 3s1

Cl

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

[Ar] 4s1

Br

[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5

Rb

[Kr] 5s1

[Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p5

Cs

[Xe] 6s1

At

[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p5

Based on the electron configuration of the elements above, the group of a given element in periodic
table can be determined based on its valence number.
a. If electron configuration of an element atom ends at sx, the element is in xA group.
b. If electron configuration of an element atom ends at px, the element is in (x + 2)A group.
c. If electron configuration of an element atom ends at nsx (n-1)dy, the element is in group of :

IIIB, if x + y = 3

IVB, if x + y = 4

VB, if x + y = 5

VIB, if x + y = 6

VIIB, if x + y = 7

VIIIB, if x + y = 8, x + y = 9, x + y = 10

IB, if x + y = 11

IIB, if x + y = 12

d. If electron configuration of an element atom ends at f x, the element is in lanthanide and actinide
groups.

3.Periodical Properties of Elements

1. Atomic Radius
Atomic radius is a distance between the nucleus of atom with the outermost atomic shell. Conception
about the radius of atom was born because of the existing of assumption that atom is spherical in form.
a. In one group from the top downward, the atomic radius of the elements in periodic table are increasing.
b. In one group from the left rightward, the atomic radius of the elements in periodic table are decreasing.
The size (radius) of an atom is largely determined by its electrons. The electrons are arranged in
shells surrounding the nucleus of each atom. The top elements of every group have only one or two electron
shells. Atoms of elements further down the periodic table have more shells and therefore larger in size. In a
period from left to the right, the atoms have same number of shells and the outermost electron (valance
electron) fills up, but no shells are added more. At the same time, the number of protons in the nucleus of
each atom are increases. Protons attract electrons. Greater the number of proton present, will make the
attraction stronger which make the electrons closer to the nucleus, therefore the atom size will be smaller.
2. Ionization Energy
The amount of energy necessary to remove electrons from an atom is called the ionization energy.
The ionization energy consists of many kinds, those are the first ionization energy, the second ionization
energy, the third ionization energy, and so forth. The first ionization energy is energy required to remove an
electron from the neutral atom, while the energy required to remove the next electron are named the second

ionization energy, the third ionization energy, and so forth. The first ionization energy is always greater than
the second ionization energy, and so forth.
a. In one period from the left rightward, the ionization energy of the elements in periodic table is greater,
although there are the deviation on Na.
b. In one group from the top downward, the ionization energy of the elements in periodic table tend to
decrease.
The increase of ionization energy of elements in one period from the left rightward happened
because progressively rightward in one period, the atomic radius of elements is smaller, so the valence
electrons of the atom attracted stronger to the nucleus and required a large energy to discharge the electron
from the atom.
The decrease of ionization energy of elements in one group from the top downward is happened
because progressively downward in one group, their atomic radius is greater, so the electrons on the
outermost shell get the attractive force the nucleus which not too strong. Thus, required a little energy to
discharge the electron from the atom.
3. Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is defined as an amount of energy used to remove an electron from a negatively
charged or electron affinity is an energy used in the process of negative ion formation of the gas atom
binding the electron from other atoms.
At one period from the left rightward in the periodic table the electron affinity is increasing, while at
one group from the top downward the electron affinity of the elements in periodic table tend to decrease.
Not all the electron affinity of the elements are positive in value, but there are any elements having negative
value of electron affinity. The negative sign represent the releasing of energy process and the positive sign
represent the absorption of energy process.
4. Electronegativity
Electronegativity is defined as a measure of how strongly an atom attracts electrons of the other
atoms in their molecule. Beside that, electronegative is also defined as a measure tendency of atom in a
molecule to attract the electrons in a chemical bond.
Electronegativity of an element is correlate with its ionization energy and electron affinity. In this
case, mathematically the relationship of the three of them can be the equation as follows.
= IA - E i

where :

IA
Ei

=
=
=

electronegative
ionization energy
electron affinity

Electronegativity of the elements in one period in the periodic table from the left rightward is
increasing while for the one group elements from the top downward is decreasing.

Exercise
1. An element is in IVB group and fifth period. Determine :
a. electron configuration of the element
b. orbital diagram of the element atom

c. the number of unpaired electrons at the orbital

2. Determine the location of Rb, Mo, and I elements in periodic table if their atomic number are 37, 42, and
53 respectively.