Engineering Sustainability

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Engineering Sustainability
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jensu.15.00044
Paper 1500044
Received 10/08/2015
Accepted 21/12/2015
Keywords: brickwork & masonry/sustainability/thermal effects

Suitability and sustainability of sugarcane

bagasse ash bricks
Madurwar, Sakhare and Ralegaonkar

ice | proceedings

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Suitability and sustainability of

sugarcane bagasse ash bricks
Mangesh Madurwar PhD

School of Construction Management, National Institute of

Construction Management and Research (NICMAR), Pune, India

Vishakha Sakhare MTech

Rahul Ralegaonkar PhD

Department of Civil Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of
Technology, Nagpur, India (corresponding author:
sanvan28@yahoo.com)

Department of Civil Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of

Technology, Nagpur, India

The present paper deals with the investigation of the suitability and sustainability considerations of sugarcane
bagasse ash (SBA) for the development of cellular lightweight (CLW) bricks. SBA was characterised and found
suitable as a pozzolanic or a cementitious material. Physico-mechanical, durability and thermal tests were conducted
on CLW-SBA bricks and the results conformed to the Indian standard requirements. The comparison showed that
CLW-SBA bricks were lighter in weight (43%) and higher in compressive strength (32%) and had lower thermal
conductivity (70%) than commercially available y ash (FA) bricks. The computationally developed CLW-SBA model
(1 m 1 m 1 m) resulted in a 7% improvement in thermal comfort and a 29% cost saving as compared to the FA
model room. The developed SBA bricks were found suitable for non-load-bearing wall construction with better
physico-mechanical properties and more economic as compared to commercially available sustainable FA bricks.

1.

Introduction

With the increase in demand for construction materials and

initiatives from government to promote sustainable products, there
is a need to investigate the suitability of newer raw material like
sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA). After Brazil, India is the second
largest producer of sugarcane. The industrial by-product SBA is
presently available in the country to a tune of about 18 Mt/year
(Madurwar, 2014) that is generally dumped over waste sites,
creating more environmental problems. This study aims to
investigate the design development of lightweight, thermally
insulated cellular lightweight (CLW) bricks.
Attempts were made to utilise waste in the development of bricks.
For instance, biobriquette ash (Sakhare and Ralegaonkar, 2015),
bottom ash (Carrasco et al., 2014) and SBA (Madurwar et al.,
2015) were used to develop bricks and the results were in
accordance with the Indian standards. Torkaman et al. (2014)
investigated the effects of partial replacement of Portland cement
by wood bre waste (WFW), rice husk ash (RHA) and limestone
powder waste (LPW) for producing a lightweight concrete block
as a building material. The optimum replacement level of WFW,
LPW and RHA was 25% by weight, which resulted in good
physico-mechanical properties. The utilisation of recycled paper
mill waste and cotton waste to manufacture waste create bricks
(WCBs) was done by Rajput et al. (2012). The bricks were

prepared by varying the content of cotton waste (15 wt%),

recycled paper mill waste (8589 wt%) and Portland cement
(10 wt%). The results indicated that the bricks were thermally
stable and conformed to the recommended compressive strength
test. Kavas (2006) determined the usability of clay waste (CW)
and ne waste (FW) of boron as a uxing agent in the production
of red mud (RM) brick. The samples obtained by adding 15 wt%
CW and FW to RM showed the best mechanical characteristic.
The development of clay brick with the use of processed waste
tea (PWT) in the ratios of 0, 25 and 5% by mass was conducted.
The effects of PWT material addition to the durability and
mechanical properties of the bricks were investigated, and it was
concluded that PWT can be used in unred and red building
bricks.
Marunmale and Attar (2014) developed CLW blocks using cement,
y ash (FA) and foam. The compressive strength of 33 N/mm2
was obtained for the density of 1400 kg/m3. The authors then
analysed the feasibility of a wall built-in rat trap bond with the
CLW blocks, showing signicant cost and thermal insulation
benets. Mustapure and Eramma (2014) cast FA CLW concrete
blocks and investigated the effect of water and steam curing on
block density, compressive strength, thermal conductivity, water
absorption and drying shrinkage. The steam curing resulted in
better performance of compressive strength and water absorption

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Engineering Sustainability

Suitability and sustainability of sugarcane

bagasse ash bricks
Madurwar, Sakhare and Ralegaonkar

than the water curing, while thermal conductivity and drying

shrinkage showed the same results for both water and steam
curing. Sood and Kumar (2013) developed CLW blocks using
cement, FA and sand with the addition of accelerating admixture
(aluminium and calcium chloride). The compressive strengths of
blocks with densities of 800 and 1000 kg/m3 were 24 and
307 MPa, respectively. The effect of accelerating admixture
resulted in the reduction of demolding time for blocks by 50%.
CLW concrete with a controlled density of 800 kg/m3 was made
from ordinary Portland cement (OPC), FA or natural zeolite (NZ),
with foam (Jitchaiyaphum et al., 2013). The OPC was replaced
with FA and NZ from 0 to 30 wt%. The addition of 10 wt% FA
and NZ resulted in increases in the 28 d compressive strength of
113% and 140%, respectively, as compared with the control mix
without any additive.

2.

The researchers evaluated the feasibility of different waste

materials in developing sustainable construction materials.
However, mix design is always a challenge along with achieving
desired physico-mechanical properties as per the standards. The
products developed by CLW technology have not explored the
use of SBA. Thus, this paper focuses on the development and
performance assessment of CLW bricks using SBA. Physicomechanical, durability and thermal properties of the developed
product were tested. A techno-economic comparative evaluation
of the developed CLW-SBA bricks and the FA bricks was
conducted. The physical, mechanical, durability and thermal
performances along with the economic analysis are presented for
CLW-SBA bricks. Thermal performance using the simulation
tool and cost analysis were carried out for a representative 1 m
1 m 1 m room developed from CLW-SBA bricks and compared
with the FA brick room.

Materials and methods

The constituent materials used for CLW-SBA brick development

were 53 grade OPC conforming to IS 12269 (BIS, 2013) and a
foaming agent as per requirements of IS 9103 (BIS, 1999). The
principal raw material SBA sample was collected from Shri Satya
Sai Oil Industries and Renery, Nanded, India. Samples were
collected during the cleaning operation of the boilers in the
factory. During the survey it was reported that in the boiler, the
sugarcane bagasse is burnt at a temperature varying from 240 to
600C, depending on the moisture content and feed of the
bagasse.
2.1 Tests on raw material
The SBA underwent physical tests (sieve analysis, specic gravity
and soundness tests), chemical characterisation, X-ray diffraction
(XRD), thermogravimetric differential thermal analysis (TG/
DTA), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) examinations to
determine its nature and constituent compounds.
Specic gravity testing for SBA and cement was conducted as per
IS 2720-3 (BIS, 1980). The particle size distribution of the SBA
was determined as per IS 2720-4 (BIS, 1985). The soundness
test was performed by the autoclave expansion method for the
SBA samples (IS 3812 (BIS, 2003a)). An X-ray uorescence
(XRF) spectrometer (Philips, PW 1840) was used for chemical
characterisation. The XRD pattern was recorded on a model XRDPhilips XPert Pro with a scan rate of 2/min. XRD patterns were
scanned in steps of 00170 in a diffraction angle ranging from 10
to 100 of 2q using copper as an X-ray source. The microstructural
analysis of the SBA sample was analysed using a JSM-6380A
SEM. TG/DTA was conducted using Mettler TA 4000 apparatus
and the thermal stability of the material was veried.

Figure 1. Developed CLW-SBA block

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Engineering Sustainability

Suitability and sustainability of sugarcane

bagasse ash bricks
Madurwar, Sakhare and Ralegaonkar

2.2 Development of CLW-SBA bricks

The CLW bricks were developed in an automated plant. The
CLW-SBA bricks were made of dimensions 300 mm 150 mm
100 mm (Figure 1). The dry ingredients, cement and ash were
thoroughly mixed in a mechanical mixer in 1:3 proportion. Then,
around 6070 l of water was added for 150 kg cement; thereafter,
the mixing was continued. The foam concentrate (07 l), water
(30 l) and compressed air in a foam generator were prepared and
were mixed later. The foam was mixed at the density of 58 kg/m3.
The CLW bricks were cast with the desired wet density of
1200 kg/m3. The foam was mixed to get a uniform consistency.
The obtained mixture was further checked for desired density and
then poured into the mould. After 24 h, the blocks were taken out
from the moulds. All the samples of blocks were kept for airdrying for 12 d followed by intermediate curing.

of virgin SBA is given in Figure 4. The results indicate intensity

peaks between 20 and 30, a characteristic of amorphous silica,
which suggests its pozzolanic or cementitious activity. According
to the TG curve (Figure 5) of the SBA, the sample was thermally
pretreated and the mass loss of 275% occurred between 500 and
650C. This curve reveals the appearance of two distinct mass
loss regions and one mass gain region. The rst loss (218%),
between 30 and 500C, is due to the removal of supercial water
molecules or water from the solid pores. At the second mass loss,
the material gets thermally degraded and gets sintered. Thus, the
bricks made out of SBA can withstand the maximum temperature
of 650C. The common parameter required for utilising any
material as supplementary cementitious material, mineral
admixture or pozzolana depends on its physical and chemical
characterisations (IS 3812 (BIS, 2003a)) as well as on the
proportion of silica in its by-product. The XRF elemental
composition (silicon dioxide (SiO2), 5950%) and the XRD
pattern of amorphous silica show the suitability of SBA as
cementitious or pozzolanic material.

2.3 Tests on developed CLW-SBA bricks

Various tests (dry density, compressive strength, water absorption
and eforescence) on the developed product were conducted as
per IS 2185-4 (BIS, 2008) standard. Three blocks were subjected
to the block density test, eight blocks to the compressive strength
test, three blocks each to the water absorption test, drying
shrinkage test and thermal conductivity estimation, and the
average values were reported.
The durability tests were conducted in terms of the chloride
contents, the sulfate contents and carbonation. The chloride and
the sulfate present in the brick samples were experimentally
estimated by the laboratory titration method (C 1218-92) (ASTM,
2008) and the spectrophotometer test as per IS 3025-24 (BIS,
2003b), respectively. The effect of carbonation was measured by a
phenolphthalein test. Lees disc apparatus was used to estimate
the thermal conductivity of the brick. The results were reported
for the thermal performance of 1 m 1 m 1 m room analysed in
the Ecotect software and the hours under comfortable temperature
(1827C) (SP 41 (BIS, 1987) in a year were estimated for the
developed CLW-SBA brick and commercially available FA brick
model house.

3.

Results and discussion

3.1 Characterisation of SBA

The particle size distribution (Figure 2) of the as-received SBA
sample was carried out without any external grinding by
hydrometer test. Table 1 shows the particle size analysis of the
SBA. The SBA has a lower specic gravity than the OPC (Table
2) and 75% of the SBA is distributed in the range of sand. The
eld-emission gun SEM monogram (Figure 3) for SBA shows
individual ash particles with plenty of ne pores. The pores make
the ash lighter in weight and help in thermal insulation. SBA
mainly contains silica (5950%), depicting the XRF scan data
(Table 3). From the proximate analysis (Table 4), it is observed
that SBA contains ash (513%) and volatile materials (40%). The
silica present in SBA appears as ash, whereas the remaining
contributes to high volatile content. The diffraction pattern (XRD)

The developed CLW bricks are shown in Figure 1. Table 5

demonstrates the results of the physico-mechanical test carried
out on the developed CLW-SBA bricks. The wet density of
1200 kg/m3 resulted in the dry density of 1000 kg/m3. IS 2185-4
(BIS, 2008) recommends the average compressive strength of
bricks having a dry density of 1000 kg/m3 as 35 MPa. The
average of eight brick samples showed a compressive strength of
46 MPa, which was above the minimum average compressive
strength of 35 MPa, wherein water absorption was estimated at
115%. The thermal conductivity of the brick tested according to
Lees disc apparatus was estimated at 031 W/m K. Thus, the
developed CLW-SBA bricks meet the criterion of IS 2185-4 (BIS,
2008).

100

Percentage of passing

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0001

001

01
1
Diameter: mm

10

Figure 2. Particle size distribution of SBA

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Engineering Sustainability

Suitability and sustainability of sugarcane

bagasse ash bricks
Madurwar, Sakhare and Ralegaonkar

Percentage of distribution

Gravel

Sand

Silt

Clay

Sample

SBA

OPC

SBA

061

7515

2304

120

Specic gravity: g/cm3

203

30

Table 1. Particle size distribution analysis

Table 2. Specic gravity results

1000

50 kV

LEI

10 m
SEM

CRNTS
WD 80 mm

9/4/2012
7 : 38 : 37

Figure 3. SEM of virgin SBA

Elements:
%

Silicon
dioxide

SBA

5950

Aluminium oxide Iron (III) oxide Calcium oxide

(Al2O3)
(Fe2O3)
(CaO)
240

334

1475

Magnesium
oxide (MgO)

Sulfur
trioxide

Sodium oxide
(Na2O)

Loss on
ignition

211

092

142

890

Table 3. XRF: chemical analysis

Element
SBA

Weight: g

Moisture: %

Ash: %

Volatile materials: %

Free carbon: %

500

710

5130

4080

080

Table 4. Proximate analysis of SBA

3.2 Durability test

Chloride and sulfate tests were conducted for the CLW-SBA brick
samples. The allowable chloride content of the concrete or the
mortar containing non-embedded metal is 3 kg/m3 (IS 456 (BIS,
2000)). The observed maximum chloride concentration was
00089 kg/m3 for CLW-SBA bricks. The sulfate concentration was
obtained by a spectrophotometer test of the extracted sample as
per IS 3025-24 (BIS, 2003b). The total water-soluble sulfate
content of the concrete mix should not exceed 4% by mass of
4

cement in the mix in terms of sulfur trioxide (SO3). The obtained

results give the sulfate concentration in extracting water at 60 ppm
for the CLW-SBA brick. In the carbonation tests and according to
Rilem CPC 18 (Rilem, 1988), 1% phenolphthalein is used in 70%
ethyl alcohol. The phenolphthalein solution is lightly sprayed onto
a freshly exposed surface of the sample. If the concrete is
carbonated, it remains uncoloured. The pink colour indicates
enough calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) presence and the result
indicates that it was carbonated to a lesser extent (Shetty, 2013).

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Engineering Sustainability

Suitability and sustainability of sugarcane

bagasse ash bricks
Madurwar, Sakhare and Ralegaonkar

Intensity: cps
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
20000

40000

60000

80000

2 :

Figure 4. XRD pattern of virgin SBA

100
99
Delta Y = 2176%

Weight percentage: %

98
97
Delta Y = 2753%
96
95

Delta Y = 2753%
Wt. gain

94
93
92
91
90

100

200

300

400

Heat from 50C to 960C at rate of 500C/min

500

600

700

800

900

1000

Temperature: C

Figure 5. TG curve of SBA

Dry density: kg/m3

Average compressive strength: MPa

Average water absorption: %

Drying shrinkage

46

115

No shrinkage

1000
Table 5. Physico-mechanical test results

The surface colour of the CLW-SBA brick was pink; therefore, it

was unaffected by environmental carbon dioxide (CO2). These
test results indicate that the bricks developed by the SBA are
durable and resistant to weathering.
3.3

Comparative analysis of commercially available FA

brick and CLW-SBA bricks
3.3.1 Physico-mechanical performance
The physico-mechanical test results for the developed CLW-SBA
bricks and commercially available FA bricks are reported in
Table 6. The density, the compressive strength and the water
absorption of the developed CLW-SBA bricks were 43, 32 and

21% less than the SBA bricks, respectively. The estimated

thermal conductivity of the CLW-SBA bricks is 66% less than
that of FA bricks. As compared to the prior study (Marunmale
and Attar, 2014), the density and the compressive strength of
CLW-SBA brick are 28% less and 28% more than the CLW-FA
brick, respectively. For the density of 1000 kg/m3, the obtained
compressive strength is 33% more than that of lightweight FA
bricks developed by Sood and Kumar (2013).
3.3.2 Thermal performance
The thermal performance of the developed CLW-SBA brick was
compared with the commercially available FA bricks. The thermal

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Engineering Sustainability

Suitability and sustainability of sugarcane

bagasse ash bricks
Madurwar, Sakhare and Ralegaonkar

Brick type: mm3

CLW-SBA bricks (300 150 100)
FA bricks (230 100 80) (Raut et
al., 2014)

Brick density:
kg/m3

Compressive
strength: MPa

Water
absorption: %

Thermal conductivity:
W/m K

Cost
(INR)

1000
1750

46
312

115
1464

031
105

800
450

Table 6. Comparative study of FA bricks and CLW-SBA bricks

analysis was carried out in the Ecotect simulation software. A

single-room model (1 m 1 m 1 m) facing north (Raut et al.,
2014) was built in the Ecotect. One door with a size of 03 m
07 m on the north and one window each with a size of 03 m
03 m on the remaining three sides were provided in both model
houses. The total area of opening was 027 m2 excluding the areas
of the door as per the requirement of SP 7 (National Building
Code of India) (BIS, 2005). The wall thickness for model houses
was 120 mm (considering 10 mm plaster on both sides). The
handbook on functional requirements of buildings (other than
industrial building) (SP 41) (BIS, 1987) specied the comfort
range of temperature as 1827C. The annual temperature
distributions of the model houses are shown in Figures 6 and 7.
The models of CLW-SBA brick (Figure 6) showed 4415 h
(504%) of a year under the comfort range that is, 1827C,
while the annual temperature distribution for the FA brick
model demonstrated 4103 h (468%) of a year under the comfort
range.

The comfort in the CLW-SBA brick model is 7% more than that

in the FA model due to its less heat conduction and porous nature.
The thermal conductivity of the CLW-SBA brick is 70% less than
that of FA brick. This resulted in an increase of the thermal
resistance by 44%, thus restricting the heat gain inside the
building. The lower thermal transmittance value of the CLW-SBA
brick wall represents a lower heat transfer as compared to the FA
brick wall (Table 7).
3.3.3 Cost analysis
A quantity estimate for CLW-SBA brick and FA brick model
room was carried out (Table 8). The table shows the percentage
saving in brickwork for the materials used in the development of
model house (1 m 1 m 1 m) (without plaster quantity). The
required number of FA bricks decreased by around 93 (56%) as
compared to CLW-SBA bricks. Also, the use of CLW-SBA bricks
resulted in 37% and 39% savings in the cement and the sand,
respectively. Overall, the cost of brickwork for the considered

Temperature distribution
Hours

Nagpur, IND

1520
1140
760
380
0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
Outside temperature: C

Figure 6. Annual temperature distribution of CLW-SBA brick

model

Hours

Nagpur, IND

Temperature distribution

1440
1080
720
360
0

10 12 14 16

18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Outside temperature: C

Figure 7. Annual temperature distribution of FA brick model

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32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46

Engineering Sustainability

Suitability and sustainability of sugarcane

bagasse ash bricks
Madurwar, Sakhare and Ralegaonkar

Brick wall type

Thermal conductivity: W/m K

Thermal resistance: m2 K/W

Thermal transmittance: W/m2 K

CLW-SBA brick
FA brick

031
105

050
028

2
356

Table 7. Thermal properties of the brick wall

Item
Number of bricks
Mortar

CLW-SBA bricks

FA bricks

Saving

73
060
008
584
210
187
981

166
095
0132
747
333
308
1388

56%
37%
39%
22%
37%
39%
29%

Cement: bags
Sand: cum

Cost of bricks: INR

Cost of cement: INR 350/bag
Cost of sand: INR 2330/cum
Total cost of brickwork: INR
Table 8. Comparative cost estimation for CLW-SBA and FA brick
models

model is estimated to be 29% lower as compared to that for the

commercially available FA bricks.

4.

Sustainability aspects

The reuse of industrial by-product (SBA) as a raw material in

manufacturing sustainable building material (bricks) helped to
replace a considerable quantity of natural resources such as clay
and sand, which simultaneously reduced the burden on solid waste
management plans. These developed bricks possess better physical
properties and are lighter in weight as compared to conventional
bricks and, thus, reduce dead weight on structural frame, reducing
the requirement of other materials (steel and concrete). Greater
thermal resistance of developed bricks reduces the amount of heat
gain in the built environment and helps maintain better indoor
comfort for occupants at lower cooling load requirement and,
thus, helps to conserve energy. The reduced use of energy emits
less greenhouse gas to the environment. Thus, the reuse of solid
waste in the development of sustainable bricks improves the
overall degree of sustainability of a building.

5.

Conclusion

The suitability and sustainability of CLW-SBA bricks was

investigated in detail. The CLW-SBA bricks were developed,
analysed and compared to the FA brick. The density of sustainable
CLW-SBA brick is up to 43% lower than the density of the
conventional locally available FA brick and hence suitable in
lightweight construction projects. The compressive strength and the
thermal conductivity of developed CLW-SBA brick were 13% more
and 70% less compared to those of commercially available FA
brick, respectively. The thermal analysis of a CLW-SBA brick model
demonstrated a 7% increase in the thermal comfort and 29% savings
in the cost of a model room compared to the FA brick model. In

structures where dead load and thermal insulation is a major

concern, CLW-SBA is advantageous in that will reduce the dead
load and the thermal load and lead to a faster construction process.
Thus, from the suitability evaluation, it can be concluded that the
presented investigation of the development of CLW-SBA brick is
sustainable as it demonstrates the reuse of industrial by-product and
reduced demand for energy to meet cooling requirement.

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support of
Human Settlement Management Institute (HSMI), Housing and
Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO), New Delhi, India.
The authors are thankful to the Celicon Building Systems Pvt.
Ltd, Nagpur, India, for allowing the use of the brick plant.
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Suitability and sustainability of sugarcane

bagasse ash bricks
Madurwar, Sakhare and Ralegaonkar

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Construction and Building Materials 50: 432436,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.09.044.

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