Neurological basis of Patanjali’s Ashtänga Yoga

Dr. King
http://doctor-king-online.blogspot.com

Abstract: The ancient practice of Yoga enunciated by Patanjali way back in B.C.200 is
neurologically well founded. This paper discusses the brain mechanisms that are
behind the working of various Yoga processes. It also briefly indicates the role of each
step of Yoga in neurological terms.

Introduction: While the first listed things can be termed as

Yoga as an ancient practice is well known and
popular. But what is lesser known is the fact
that most things propagated today as Yoga are
actually well designed physical exercises and
body postures that don’t really belong to the
original Yoga enunciated by Patanjali way
back in B.C. 200.
The original Yoga of Patanjali that all modern
Yoga variants claim to be the basis is a well
defined system of mind modulation to achieve
the ultimate realization. Health benefits are
only a byproduct of this elaborate eight step
process.
Some of the benefits of this Yoga process
include-
worldly achievements, the later ones have
spiritual connotation.
The beauty of the entire system is that all
these achievements – worldly as well as
spiritual - are attained by systematic
modulation of the mind through a well
defined process.
While many other Yoga variants propagated
today have mysterious theories about how
they actually achieve things that they are
supposed to achieve, often these theories are
neither scientifically verifiable nor falsifiable.
Scientific verifiability or falsifiability is very
much essential to ensure that these practices
are well grounded and actually beneficial.

Surprisingly, the original practice of Yoga as

 Reduction of stress.
 Improvement of health.
 Better metal focus and ability to
achieve better results in day-to-day
activities.
 Experience of bliss that is beyond
sense pleasures.
 Attainment of ultimate realization.
 Cessation of endless cycles of worldly
sufferings.
proposed by Patanjali is quite verifiable, even
with our current limited understanding of
working of the mind and the scientific gadgets
we have at our disposal.
This paper views the entire eight step Yoga
process of Patanjali, purely from a
neurological perspective – to which it actually
belongs – and provides the neurological
underpinnings of this ancient system. This
would pave way to future scientific research in
Yoga and enable us to reap its full potential.
Before we delve into how Yoga actually
works, let us first look into some recent
scientific findings in the area of neuroscience
that are relevant to explaining the working of
various Yoga processes.
Compartmentalized view of mental
processing:
Recent advances in neuroscience is gradually
shifting the way we understand the working of
the mind – from a totally philosophical view
of some abstract unexplainable phenomena,
to a more or less objectively verifiable
working of the brain with neurons as its basic
workhorses.
Initial lesion based guesses on the working of
the brain was in terms of a collection of
specialized functional units or regions as
shown in Figure 1
Figure 1 Brain as a collection of specialized
processing regions
But this view is being largely refined by recent
research findings (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
(9) (10). It is now generally accepted that any
complex mental processing involves various
brain regions not necessarily located in few
adjacent regions but could span the entire
cerebral cortex. In essence, any complex
mental activity is the coordinated effort of
various regions of the brain with or without
any direct connectivity.
How do various functional regions of the
brain exchange information even when they
are not directly connected?
Global workspace theory:
Sometime in late 1980s Bernard Baars came
up with a theory called Global workspace theory
(11) (12) (13) to explain how this complex
interaction between various components of
the brain takes place. He used a theatre
metaphor to explain his theory.
He compared the brain to a theatre with
audiences sitting and watching the play, and
the actors who enact the play. The special
feature of this theatre is that there is no fixed
stage or gallery, but sometimes some audience
become the actors and vice versa. A spot light
focused on the actors and audience indicated
who are currently active. The entire play takes
place in the setting of pre stored context.
Figure 2 Bernard Baars' mind theatre
Our brain is the place where the action takes
place. Different components of this mental
drama are as follows.
1. A set of neural networks that produce
information (actors in the metaphor)
 2. A set of neural networks that receive
this information (audience in the
metaphor)
3. A mental context in which the
processing takes place (the setting in
the metaphor)
4. An attention mechanism (the spot
light in the metaphor)
5. A mechanism to support the
interaction between them. (audio
system in the metaphor)
Viewed from the functional level, the
actor/audience could be sense input
processors, speech production networks,
motor region, memory, thoughts, various
evaluators and so on. These disjoint
functional units are dynamically connected
among themselves, as needed, through a
network of connections setup by the attention
system.
The attention system does the following
1. Selects the functional units to be
connected
2. Enhances the activities in these
chosen units
3. Sets up the connections between them
appropriately
The entire arrangement could be as shown in
Figure 3.
Figure 3 Global workspace setup
Either the attention system selects the
functional units that interact through the
connection mechanism or alternatively,
various functional units compete among
themselves for the attention of the attention
system and whoever wins in this competition
succeeds in getting into the final setup.
Some scientists term the process involving
competition, selection and succeeding of the
fittest in a global workspace as Neural
Darwinism (14) (15) striking an analogy with
the Darwin’s theory of biological evolution.
Global workspace theory is of late gaining
acceptance and some research results seem to
show evidence for such a mechanism in our
brain.
Possible brain mechanisms supporting the
workspace theory
The structures we are looking for are the
functional units that use the global workspace
setup, the attention system, and the
interconnecting mechanism. Some of the
possible candidates are the following.
1. Users of the Global workspace: Various
functional units spread all over the cerebral
cortex that can potentially produce or
consume information.
These could be vision processing networks,
audio processing networks, speech processing
networks, speech production networks, neural
networks that implement motor functions,
various types of memories, thoughts, different
networks that evaluate reward/cost, and so
on.
2. The attention mechanism: Various
neural circuits rooted in the thalamus are
believed to be working as the attention
system.
This view is supported by the observation that
thalamus has bidirectional connections –
thalamo-cortical as well as cortico-thalamic -
to almost the entire cerebral cortex as shown
in Figure 4. These bidirectional connections
can either aide in selecting the functional
units, enhance their activities or could even
help the functional units in drawing the
attention of the attention system.
3. The interconnection mechanism: It is
known that a large number of neurons called
inter neurons are distributed throughout the
cerebral cortex. These neurons may be playing
the role of the interconnection mechanism
between various functional units. These
neurons may be relaying the information from
one functional unit to another.
The attention system dynamically sets up
these inter neurons so that the appropriate
connection is made.
Figure 4 Possible brain implementation of Global
Workspace theory
Thoughts as sporadic neural activity
There are many neural networks that keep
forming in our brain that may not directly
depend on the external inputs. Thoughts are
believed to be one of them.
Using fMRI scanner, scientists have observed
that certain regions of our brain get activated
when we are not performing any task and this
activity gets reduced when we are performing
some task. Scientists suspect that these
activities are due to thoughts that get
generated in our mind (16) (17) (18).
The exact neural mechanisms underlying the
formation of these thoughts are not yet clear.
However, scientists suspect that the contents
of various memories could be influencing the
creation of these thoughts.
Most neurons in our cerebral cortex are spare
in the sense that they are neither part of any
pre-connected specialized networks nor they
are involved in memory storage, nor they play
the role of messengers between different
neural networks. Layers of these neurons are
pre-connected in a random fashion but the
synaptic strengths between them are not
strong enough to perform any function. They
become meaningful networks only when these
connections become stronger.
These neurons are surrounded by other
neurons in the vicinity that could be very
active. This activity induces activity in these
spare neurons and they tend to form clusters
of strongly connected neurons.
These sporadically formed neural networks
encode our thoughts. Their content is decided
by our past experiences, emotions, and
existing condition of our mind. However,
formation of these networks is governed by
the following considerations.
 When they are in the process of
forming, the activity within them has
to be sustained either by the activity of
other already formed networks, or by
the boosting provided by the attention
system.
 Their activity should not be dampened
by other networks that may compete
with them.
 The attention system can guide the
formation of these networks by
selectively choosing existing networks
that can influence – either positively
or negatively - the network being
formed.
If all conditions are favorable, then the
synaptic strengths between the neurons in
these new networks become stronger and a
longer lasting network that encodes a specific
thought gets formed. Or else the activity in
these yet to be formed networks gradually dies
down.
Several such sporadically formed networks
can get formed. They either compete among
themselves or support each other, depending
on the content encoded in them. Thus they
form ‘coalitions’ of networks that support
like-networks and suppress networks of
opposite kind.
The activity in a newly formed network
induces further generation of new networks of
like content. This proliferation of networks
can go on unless checked by networks that
oppose them.
Root cause of psychological stress
Various thought networks that we discussed
in the previous section not only compete
among themselves but also vie to draw the
attention of the attention system.
The attention system could get overloaded by
constant switching between these networks.
This probably is the neural mechanism
underlying psychological stress. To
summarize, the psychological stress is caused
due to
 Flurry of uncontrolled thoughts.
 Conflict between rivaling thought
groups.
 Overloading of the attention system,
due to rapid switching between
rivaling groups of thoughts.
Three pronged strategy to eliminate
stress:
We can broadly group the thoughts into those
that get interpreted as a threat to our very
existence, and those that directly or indirectly
trigger a feeling of well being. The former can
be looked at as ‘negative thoughts’ and the
latter as ‘positive thoughts’. The thought
conflict is basically between these two types of
thoughts. The way the harmful effects of this
conflict can be minimized is the following.
1. Minimize the cause of negative
thoughts.
2. Reinforce the positive thoughts so
that they eventually dampen all
negative thoughts.
3. Train the attention system in such a
way that it focuses only on desired
thoughts. This would
  Starve off those unneeded
thoughts (no attention paid to
them) so that they die gradually.
 Prevent flurry of thoughts.
 Minimize the load on the attention
system.
Stress minimization is a powerful tool to
prevent several of our health problems as well
as manage them without getting them beyond
control (19).( click for preview)
Beyond stress minimization:
Yoga is not just about stress minimization and
improvement of health. It is also beyond
improving our mental capabilities.
Though most people rarely go beyond these
goals, Yoga has vast potential to take one to
new mental and spiritual levels.
With this brief discussion on neurological
mechanisms, let us next move on to the Yoga
system and see how Yoga achieves various
results using these neural mechanisms.
Ashtänga Yoga of Patanjali:
Patanjali does not talk in neurological terms
but he definitely describes several abstract
mental states through which a Yoga
practitioner gradually moves as he progresses.
More on these states can be found in (20)
(19).(click for preview)
Figure 5 States of the mind
Though most Yoga proponents hardly
emphasize aspects of Yoga other than body
postures, Yoga is actually an eight step
process called Ashtänga Yoga. Patanjali
defines Yoga as a process of systematic
modulation of the mind from a near chaotic
state to a completely calm state.
Figure 6 Patanjali's 8 step Yoga process
The way Yoga works:
Each step of Yoga is a step in refining the
mental processes in such a way that the
mental activity is gradually reduced and the
final calm state is reached. How this process
actually works and the neurological
underpinnings of each step are described in
great detail in (19). (click for preview)
Here we will briefly look at what happens at
each step in neurological terms.
Step 1. Yama: In this step, the source of
negative thoughts is gradually blocked.
Step 2: Niyama: This step reinforces positive
thoughts.
Step 3: Asana: Asana is the practice of
attaining a firm and comfortable sitting
posture so that one can sit in that posture for
prolonged duration.
Though it is just a preparatory step for
succeeding steps, modern Yoga proponents
give an altogether different structure to it.
What they actually do is combine various
body postures – not necessarily useful for
sitting comfortably – with controlled
breathing which is actually the next step of
Yoga. They claim that this combination
improves health.
(19) shows how this could be a misconception
and why more research is needed before
concluding either way. Though various
stretching exercises may work as
physiotherapy in many skeleto-muscular
problems, the research findings point to the
fact that major contribution could be from
controlled breathing that has the potential to
minimize stress (see (19) for detailed
discussion).
Step 4: Pränäyäma: This is the most
important step of Yoga. This is a process of
training the attention system to improve its
ability to focus. Improvement of focus not
only minimizes stress, it also enables one to
achieve better results in life in general.
Step 5: Pratyähära: This is actually a state
where most of the cortical activity related to
sense input processing stops. The main cause
of this stoppage is the deprival of attention to
these processes since the mind is diverted to
some other meditative object.
Step 6: Dhärana: This is the act of focusing
the mind on a suitable target.
Step 7: Dhyäna: Continuously keeping the
focus on the chosen target is called dhyäna or
meditation. During this process the thoughts
get further reduced and the mind moves
towards a completely calm state. How this
happens in a step by step fashion is explained
in (20) and (19).(click for preview)
Step 8: Samädhi: This is a series of ultimate
stages of meditation. The mind finally gets
into a state where most cortical activities
including the thoughts stop, the
semiautonomous functions of the body such
as breathing, heartbeat etc. slow down to bare
minimum, while the attention system gets
more and more sharply focused.
What happens in this state is beyond
description since the mind has almost stopped
in that state precluding any conscious
experience. (19) explains this state by taking
recourse to scriptural texts. In common
parlance it is called ultimate self realization.
Though the samädhi is beyond objective
validation, the after effects of samädhi can be
probably studied. Patanjali talks about certain
impressions left behind on the mind as a
result of prolonged samädhi. Assuming that
these impressions have corresponding neural
correlates, it should be possible to verify them
by studying the structural changes that may
take place as a result of prolonged samädhi.
In a nut shell, each step of Yoga can be
verified based on our current neurological
understanding of the mind, using the gadgets
available at our disposal.
Works Cited
1. Towards a New Neurobiology of Language.
David Poeppel, Karen Emmorey, Gregory
Hickok, and Liina Pylkka¨nen. 32, October
2012, The Journal of Neuroscience, Vol. 41.
2. Understanding the Dorsal and Ventral Systems of
the Human Cerebral Cortex : Beyond Dichotomies.
Gre´goire Borst,William L. Thompson,
Stephen M. Kosslyn. October 2011,
American Psychologist.
3. Functional organisation of the neural language
system: Dorsal and ventral pathways are critical for
syntax. John D. Griffiths et.al. 23, January
2013, Cereb Cortex., Vol. 1.
4. An evolving view of duplex vision: separate but
interacting cortical pathways for perception and action.
Melvyn A Goodale and David A
Westwood. 2004, Current Opinion in
Neurobiology, Vol. 14.
5. Visual cognition: a new look at the two-visual
systems model. M. Jeannerod and P. Jacob.
2004, Neuropsychologia.
6. Two hierarchically organized neural systems for
object information in human visual cortex.
Christina S Konen and Sabine Kastner. 2,
FEBRUARY 2008, NATURE
NEUROSCIENCE, Vol. 11.
7. Two visual systems re-viewed. A.D. Milner and
M.A. Goodale. 2008, Neuropsychologia, Vol.
46.
8. Consensus Paper: The Cerebellum's Role in
Movement and Cognition. Leonard F. Koziol
et.al. August 2013, Cerebellum.
9. Consensus Paper: Roles of the Cerebellum in Motor
Control—The Diversity of Ideas on Cerebellar
Involvement in Movement. Mario Manto et.al.
2012, Cerebellum.
10. Basal Ganglia Contributions to Motor Control:
A Vigorous Tutor. Robert S. Turner and
Michel Desmurget. 6, December 2010, Curr
Opin Neurobiol., Vol. 20.
11. IN THE THEATRE OF
CONSCIOUSNESS: Global Workspace
Theory,A Rigorous Scientific Theory of Consciousness.
Bernard J. Baars. 4, 1997, Journal of
Consciousness Studies, Vol. 4.
12. The conscious access hypothesis : origins and recent
evidence. Bernard J. Baars. 1, 2002, Trends in
Cognitive Science, Vol. 9.
13. How conscious experience and working memory
interact. Bernard J. Baars and Stan Franklin.
TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences.
14. Neural Darwinism: Selection and Reentrant
Signaling in Higher Brain Function. Gerald M.
Edelman. February 1993, Neuron, Vol. 10.
15. Neural Darwinism and consciousness. Anil K.
Seth, Bernard J. Baars. 2005, Consciousness
and Cognition, Vol. 14.
16. Wandering Minds: The Default Network and
Stimulus-Independent thought. Malia F. Mason,
et.al. 2007, Science.
17. Undirected thought: Neural determinants and
correlates. Christoff, K.,. 2012, Brain Research.
18. Cooperation between the default mode network
and the frontal–parietal network in the production of
an internal train of thought. Smallwood, J.,
Brown, K., Baird, B., Schooler, J.W.,. 2012,
Brain Research.
19. Dr.King. How and Why of Yoga and
Meditation. 2014. ISBN: 978-1502486479.
20. Dr.king. Psychology behind Yoga : Lesser
known insights into the ancient science of Yoga. 2013.
ISBN: 978-1502892157.
21. Dr.King. How does the Mind work? 2014.
ISBN-: 978-1503036765.
You can find my books referred to in this
article at. You can even preview them.