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Topics in Infinite Groups

Lectured by J. Button
Lent Term 2014
Course schedule
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Introduction
A brief guide to abelian groups
Free groups
Presentations of groups
Soluble, polycyclic, nilpotent groups
Finite index subgroups and virtual properties
Maximal (normal) subgroups
Residual finiteness
The Generalised Burnside Problem

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8
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35

Last updated: Thu 27th Mar, 2014


These havent been proof-read, so please let me know of any corrections: glt1000@cam.ac.uk

Course description
This course is a general introduction to infinite groups, with particular emphasis on nitely
generated and finitely presented groups.
The following is a summary of the lectures:
Review of basic definitions and results; Brief mention of Abelian groups.
Free (non-abelian) groups and free products, Nielsen-Schreier theorem and index formula;
presentations of groups, free products with amalgamation and HNN extensions; nilpotent,
polycyclic and soluble groups.
Subgroups of finite index and virtual properties; maximal and maximal normal subgroups;
infinite simple groups; residual finiteness and Hopficity; Baumslag-Solitar groups.
The generalised Burnside Problem.
Desirable Previous Knowledge
Any introductory undergraduate group theory course as well as some basic algebraic topology,
up to covering spaces and the fundamental group.
Introductory Reading
Any introductory text in group theory, of which there are plenty. To list but two:
1. J. F. Humphreys, A course in group theory, Oxford Science Publications
2. W. Ledermann, Introduction to group theory, Longman
The necessary algebraic topology can certainly be found in either of:
1. J. M. Lee, Introduction to topological manifolds, (GTM 202), Chapters 7, 10, 11, 12
2. A. Hatcher, Algebraic topology, CUP, Chapter 0 and Sections 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.A
Reading to complement course material
Some of the results from the course can be found in:
1. R. C. Lyndon and P. E. Schupp, Combinatorial group theory, Springer, Sections I.1,
II.1, II.2, IV.1, IV.2, IV.4

Lecture 1

1. Introduction
The first chapter was given out in printed form in the first lecture, and annotations were
made to fill in some examples and sketch proofs. This is included here, which is why Lecture
1 looks a bit long.
Example 1.1.
1. X a set, S(X) the group of permutations of X.
2. F a field, Mn (F ) = {n n matrices with entries in F }.

Subgroups
Proposition 1.2. H G is a subgroup of G H 6= and for all a, b H, ab1 H. We
write H 6 G and H < G if H 6= G.
Proposition 1.3.
(i) L 6 H and H 6 G L 6 G.
T
(ii) If Hi 6 G for all i I then iI Hi 6 G.
For H1 , H2 6 G, H1 H2 is not generally a subgroup. But. . .
Proposition 1.4 (Ascending sequence of subgroups).
If H1 6 H2 6 . . . 6 G (which
S
means Hn 6 G and Hn 6 Hn+1 for all n) then n=1 Hn 6 G.
If we have groups Gn (n N) for which Gn 6 Gn+1 and we form the set X =
X is a group.

n=1

Gn then

Example 1.5.
n

1. S 1 {C \ {0}, }. Take Hn = {e2ik/2 : 1 6 k 6 2n }.


S
X = n=1 Hn . (Do for prime p: quasicyclic p-group.)

2. G = S(Z), Hn = {permutations of {n, . . ., n}, fixes rest}


= S2n+1 6 Hn+1 .
S
Hn = S0 (Z). Note that f (z) = z + 1 S(Z) \ S0 (Z).

Generators
Let X G.
T
Definition 1.6. The subgroup hXi generated by X is H, where this intersection is over
all H with X H 6 G. It is the smallest subgroup of G containing X. We write
hx1 , . . . , xk i, hX, Y i, hXi : i Ii, etc.
Definition 1.7. G is finitely generated (fin.gen./f.g./fg) if G = hg1 , . . . , gk i. Otherwise
G is infinitely generated (inf.gen./i.g.).
Example 1.8. G = hgi means that G is cyclic. Either G = Z or, if G has order n, we write
G = Cn .
1

Cyclic results.
1. A subgroup of cyclic group is cyclic: Cn , Z
2. Suppose there is no H with I < H < G. Then G = Cp (p prime) or I.
Proposition 1.9. If X G then the elements of hXi are (e and)
xn1 1 xn2 2 . . . xnk k
for n1 , . . . , nk Z, and x1 , . . . , xk X (but not necessarily distinct).
So G finite G finitely generated G countable.
If we have an ascending sequence of subgroups H1 6 H2 6 . . . 6 G then either:
there is some N such that HN = HN +n for all n N (the chain terminates); or
(on throwing away duplicates) H1 < H2 < . . . (the chain is strictly ascending)
Definition 1.10. G has max (satisfies the maximal condition) if every ascending sequence
of subgroups terminates.
Theorem 1.11. G has max H is finitely generated for all H 6 G.
Warning! We can have G finitely generated but with H < G with H infinitely generated.
We will see examples later; indeed it can be argued that many finitely generated groups
do not have max.

Cosets
If H 6 G then the left cosets of H in G are the sets gH = {gh : h H} for each g G.
Proposition 1.12 (Lagrange for infinite groups). The left cosets of H in G form a partition of G and any left coset is in bijection with H.
Note. We have right cosets Hg in bijection with H too. Also there is a bijection from the
set of left cosets to the set of right cosets given by gH goes to Hg 1 (not to Hg).
Definition 1.13.
(i) The index of H in G is the cardinality of the set of left (or right) cosets, written
[G : H] if finite.
(ii) A left (or right) transversal is a choice of left (or right) coset representatives,
with exactly one for each coset.

Normal subgroups
For g, x G and H 6 G the conjugate of x by g is gxg 1 G and the conjugate of H by
g is gHg 1 6 G. Conjugacy is an equivalence relation.
Definition 1.14. The subgroup N is normal in G (written N G) if the following equivalent
conditions hold:
2

(i) gN = N g for all g G


(ii) gN g 1 = N for all g G
(iii) gN g 1 6 N for all g G
(iv) N is a union of conjugacy classes of G.
Examples.
(i) I  G and G  G
(ii) If G is abelian then H  G for all subgroups H (but not the converse)
(iii) If [G : H] = 2 then H  G.
Proposition 1.15. (cf. Proposition 1.3)
T
(i) If N  G and H 6 G then N H  H. But M  N , N  G 6 M  G.
T
(ii) Ni  G i I iI Ni  G.
Proposition 1.16. (cf. Proposition 1.4)
If N1 6 N2 6 . . . 6 G with Nn  G n N then

n=1

Nn  G.

Let X G.
Definition 1.17. (cf. Definition 1.6)
T
The normal closure hhXii, or hhXiiG to be clear, of X in G is N over all N with
X N  G. It is the smallest normal subgroup of G containing X.
Note. We have X hXi 6 hhXii but hhXii can be much bigger than hXi.
Proposition 1.18. (cf. Proposition 1.9)
If X G then the elements of hhXii are (e and)
g1 xn1 1 g11 g2 xn2 2 g21 . . . gk xnk k gk1
for n1 , . . . , nk Z, x1 , . . . , xk X and g1 , . . . , gk G (but not necessarily distinct).

Set products
If A, B 6 G then the set product is AB = {ab : a A, b B}. It is not in general a
subgroup of G.
Proposition 1.19.
(i) AB 6 G AB = BA.
(ii) If so then AB = hA, Bi.
(iii) For N  G and H 6 G we have N H = HN .
3

Homomorphisms
A function : G H for groups G, H is a homomorphism if (xy) = (x)(y) for all
x, y G.
It is an isomorphism if is bijective (both surjective (onto) and injective (1-1)), which is
equivalent to the existence of an inverse 1 : H G, (where inverse here means two-sided
inverse). In this case, 1 is unique and is also a homomorphism. We write G
= H, and
they are then the same as abstract groups.

Sets and Functions


If X, Y are sets and f : X Y is a function then for U X the image (or pushforward)
of U is f (U ) = {f (x) : x U } Y , and for V Y the inverse image (or pullback) of V is
f 1 (V ) = {x X : f (x) V } X.
Lemma 1.20.
(i) f 1 f (U ) U and is equal if f is injective.
(ii) f f 1 (V ) V and is equal if f is surjective.
Theorem 1.21.
If : G H is a homomorphism and A 6 G, B 6 H, we have (A) 6 H, 1 (B) 6 G.
If B  H then 1 (B)  G. If is surjective then A  G (A)  H.
Consequently the image (G) of is a subgroup of H and the kernel ker = 1 (I) is a
normal subgroup of G. In fact we have
Corollary 1.22. For : G H with A 6 G, B 6 H and K = ker we have 1 (A) = AK
and 1 (B) = B (G).

Quotients and the Isomorphism Theorems


If N  G then the set of (left) cosets forms a group under the well-defined multiplication
xN yN = (xy)N . We say the group G/N is a quotient of G.
Theorem 1.23 (Homomorphism Theorem).
If : G H is a homomorphism then G/ ker
= (G).
What are the subgroups of G/N ? If N 6 H 6 G then N  H and H/N 6 G/N .
Theorem 1.24 (Correspondence Theorem).
If N  G then the subgroups of G/N are exactly H/N for N 6 H 6 G and the normal
subgroups are exactly L/N for N 6 L  G.
If : G G/N is the natural homomorphism and H 6 G then (H) = HN/N .

Theorem 1.25 (Product Isomorphism Theorem).


If H 6 G and N  G then H/(H

N)
= HN/N .

Theorem 1.26 (Quotient Isomorphism Theorem).


Let N, L  G with N 6 L. Then (G/N )/(L/N )
= G/L.
Definition 1.27. Given : G H and N  G with : G G/N the natural homomorphism, we say that factors through G/N if there exists : G/N H with
= .
We must have N 6 ker and this is sufficient by setting (gN ) = (g).

Extensions
If G/N
= Q we say that G is an extension of N by Q. We write G is N -by-Q but this
does not necessarily determine G uniquely!
Lemma 1.28. If G is A-by-(B-by-C) then G is (A-by-B)-by-C.
Proof. G/A
= Q where Q/B
= C. Thus B is N/A for some N  G (correspondence
2
theorem). So C
= G/N .
= (G/A)/(N/A)
Note, is false. E.g., A4 is (C2 -by-C2 )-by-C3 , but not C2 -by-(C2 -by-C3 ) as A4 does not
have a normal subgroup of order 2.

Group properties
These only depend on the abstract structure of the group. It is always worth asking whether
a group property is preserved by (i) Subgroups, (ii) Quotients, (iii) Extensions (namely if
G/N
= Q and N and Q both have this property then G does too).
For instance, what about finite, countable, cyclic, abelian, finitely generated, max?

Subgroups
Quotients
Extensions

Finite
y
y
y

Ctble
y
y
y

Cyclic
y
y
n

Abelian
y
y
n

FG
n
y1
y2

Max
y
y
y3

To see entry 1, that fg is preserved by quotients, note that (hg1 , . . ., gn i) = h(g1 ), . . ., (gn )i.
Theorem 1.29. The properties finitely generated and max (entries 2 and 3) are preserved
by extensions.
Proof.
2. If G/N = Q, N = hn1 , . . ., nr i and Q = hg1 N, . . ., gs N i, then gN = g0 N for
g0 hg1 , . . ., gs i. So g = g0 n. So G = hn1 , . . ., nr , g1 , . . ., gs i.
T
HN/N 6 G/N . G/N has max, so
3. H any subgroup of G. Then H/H
N =
T
HN/N is fg. H has max, so H N is fg. Use (i). So H is fg, so G has max.
5

Actions.
We say the group G acts on the set X (on the left) if there is a function : G X X
such that
(e, x) = x and (g1 , (g2 , x)) = (g1 g2 , x) for all g1 , g2 G, x X.
Note for each g G the function x 7 (g, x) is a permutation of X (put in g 1 , g and then
g, g 1 to get an inverse).
Equivalently there is a homomorphism : G S(X) given by (g)(x) = (g, x).
We say G acts faithfully (effectively) if is injective. We can then unambiguously write
g(x) for (g)(x); we sometimes do this anyway. We say the action is (fixed point) free if
(g)(x) = x g = e (which implies faithful).
For x X the orbit Orb(x) = {(g)(x) : g G} X and the stabiliser Gx = {g G :
(g)(x) = x} 6 G. The orbits form a partition of X and the action is transitive if theres
one orbit. If y = (g)(x) then Gy = gGx g 1 so stabilisers are rarely normal.
Theorem 1.30 (Orbit-Stabiliser). If G acts on X then for x X the sets Orb(x) and
{left cosets of Gx } are in bijection.
Example 1.31.
(i) G acts on itself via (g)(x) = gx. This is transitive, and also free so G 6 S(G).
(ii) G acts on itself by conjugation: (g)(x) = gxg 1 . Here Orb(x) is the conjugacy
class of x while the stabiliser is the centraliser {g G : gx = xg} of x in G,
written CG (x) or sometimes just C(x) when clear. Note hxi 6 C(x) but its not
generally abelian.
We
T also have for H 6 G the centraliser CG (H) = {g G : gh = hg for all h H} =
hH CG (h). We set CG (G) = Z(G), the centre of G, which is abelian and normal.

Moreover G acts on the set of its subgroups by conjugation: (g)(H) = gHg 1 6 G. Then
Orb(H) is the set of subgroups conjugate to H and the stabiliser is the normaliser N (H) =
{g G : gHg 1 = H} 6 G. It is the largest subgroup of G in which H is normal. Also
C(H) 6 N (H).

Automorphisms
An isomorphism (homomorphism) from G to G is an automorphism (endomorphism).
Example 1.32. For any g G, g (x) = gxg 1 is an automorphism so H
= gHg 1 . These
are the inner automorphisms and form a group Inn(G) under composition.
We have g = e g Z(G) so G/Z(G)
= Inn(G). Moreover all automorphisms form a
group Aut(G), with Inn(G)  Aut(G) and the quotient is defined to be the outer automorphism group Out(G) of G.
Definition 1.33. The subgroup C of G is characteristic in G if (C) = C Aut(G)
(but (C) 6 C is enough), so C  G.

Proposition 1.34.
(i) A characteristic in B, B characteristic in C A characteristic in C.
(ii) A characteristic in B and B  C A  C.

Direct products
We can form the direct product G1 G2 from groups G1 , G2 via (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) =
(x1 y1 , x2 y2 ). This is external, we can also do this internally.
Proposition 1.35. If M, N  G with M N = G and M
by (m, n) = mn is an isomorphism.

N = I then : M N G given

We can extend this drastically:


Definition 1.36. Given groups Gn for n N, the Cartesian (unrestricted) product is the
set of all sequences
with nth component an element of Gn and pointwise multiplication;
Q
we write nN Gn . The direct product nN Gn is the subgroup of sequences which
are eventually e.
Note: If Gn 6= I for infinitely many n then Gn is infinitely generated and
able.

Gn is uncount-

Semidirect products
Definition 1.37. Given groups G1 , G2 and a homomorphism : G2 Aut(G1 ), the
semidirect product G1 G2 is the set of ordered pairs with multiplication
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 ((x2 )(y1 )), x2 y2 ).
Example 1.38.
(i) the trivial homomorphism gives the direct product.
(ii) Take Z = hzi (written additively) and C2 = {e, c}. Then Z C2 with (c)(z) =
z is the infinite dihedral group.
Proposition 1.39. (cf. Proposition 1.35)
T
If H 6 G and N  G with N H = G and N H = I (so G/N
= H by 1.25) then
: N H G given by (n, h) = nh and (h)(n) = hnh1 N is an isomorphism.
So again the internal and external versions are equivalent. There is another point of view:
If G/N = Q with : G G/N the natural projection, we say that the extension splits if
H 6 G such that : H Q is an isomorphism.
T
Now for G = N H a semidirect product,
restricted to H is an isomorphism as H ker = I.
T
But a split extension implies H N = I and N H = G as (H) = (G), so theyre the same.
Example 1.40. SL(2, C) = {A GL(2, C) : det A = 1}  GL(2, C) with quotient C \ {0}.
If I2 is the 2 2 identity matrix then P SL(2, C) = SL(2, C)/{I2}. This extension
7

does not split because we have elements g (of order four) in SL(2, C) with (g) of order
two in P SL(2, C), but the only element of order 2 in SL(2, C) is I2 with (I2 ) = e.
Example 1.41. Let H = S0 (Z) 6 S(Z). Recall H is not fg. But H is generated by
{(n, n + 1) : n Z}, as any h H is a permutation of N, . . ., N and so h is some
product of (N, N + 1), . . ., (N 1, N ).
Now consider G = hH, f i where f (z) = z + 1. Then (n, n + 1) = f n (01)f n (composed
right-to-left), so G = h(01), f i. So G is a 2-generated group, but H is a subgroup thats
not finitely-generated.

2. A brief guide to abelian groups


Theorem 2.1. If G is a finitely-generated abelian group, then
1. (Rational) G
= Zr Cd1 . . . Cds with 1 < d1 | d2 | . . . | ds (uniquely).
2. (Primary) G
= Zr P1 . . . Pt , where for each Pi we have a different prime p
such that Pi = Cpe1 . . . Cpej with 1 6 e1 6 . . . 6 ej (uniquely).
Corollary 2.2. If G is fg abelian, then G has max.
Proof. Z has max, so Zk has max (extensions). Now Zr+s G, which has max.
(Note: means a surjection.)
Lecture 2

Definition. G is torsion if all elements have finite order, and is torsion-free if only e has
finite order. (So the group I is both torsion and torsion-free!)
If G is fg, let d(G) be the minimum size of a generating set.
Proposition 2.3. For a fg group G
= Zr Cd1 . . . Cds (as in 2.1), we have d(G) = r + s.
Proof. We have d(G) 6 r + s, so take prime p | ds , and then there exists : G Cpr+s .
The image is a vector space over the field Fp , with generating set a spanning set, but
(generating set for G) is a generating set for image, of dimension r + s.
Examples of non-fg abelian groups: Q, Q/Z, R, R/Z
= S 1 (see Example 1.5(i)).
If P is a property preserved by subgroups, say that G is locally P if H has P for all fg
H 6 G.
Examples.
1. If H =

pk
p1
q1 , . . ., qk

6 Q, then H 6

2. Q/Z is locally cyclic (similarly) and


(and torsion).

1
q1 ...qk

E
, so Q is locally cyclic.

p
q

+ Z has finite order, so Q/Z is locally finite

Imre Leader moment 1. If A Z


6 B, but if they are
= B Z then we can have A
=
abelian then A
B.
=
Proof. Suppose = A Y = B Z where Y, Z
= Z.

1. Say A 6 B then /A
= Z /B
= Z, so have an isomorphism with A = B. (If
b B \ A then b is in the kernel.)
2. So suppose we have A 6< B and B 6< A. Then A/A B
= AB/B 6 /B
= Z and

B < AB, so A/A B = Z.


Since abelian, we have A
= (A B) Z, and swapping A and B gives the same.

Abelianisation
For G any group with x, y G, the commutator [x, y] = xyx1 y 1 G.
Definition 2.4. The commutator/derived subgroup G of G is h[x, y] : x, y Gi.
Proposition 2.5. G  G with G/G abelian.
Proof. For an automorphism of G, we have ([x, y]) = [(x), (y)] G , so G is in fact
characteristic.
In G/G , xyG = yx([x1 , y 1 ]G ).

Corollary 2.6. G/G is the largest abelian quotient of G. If G/N is abelian then G 6 N ,
so G G/N factors through G/G .
Definition 2.7. For any G, the abelianisation G of G is this abelian quotient G/G .
Note: if G is fg, then (2.1) apply to G.

3. Free groups
Definition 3.1. Let X (say {a, b, . . .}) be a set of symbols and let X 1 ( = {a1 , b1 , . . .})
be a set disjoint from X.
We write X 1 = X X 1 .
A word in X 1 is a finite sentence of elements of X 1 (letters). Note: is a word.
Let W be the set of all words, and let W0 W be the set of reduced words these
contain no subword xx1 or x1 x.
Aside. We want to define the free group on X as the set of reduced words.
Multiply w1 and w2 by concatenation, cancelling any disallowed subwords that occur.
But we wont define it this way (some books do), as the proof of associativity is fiddly,
because of the cancelling.
Definition 3.2. The free group F (X) on set X = {xi } is the subgroup of S(W0 ) generated
by elements

xi w if w does not start with x1
i
i (w) =

w
if w = x1
i w
This does have image in W0 and inverse i1 (w).

Proposition 3.3. The map M : W0 F (X) given by replacing x1


by the respective 1
i
i ,
and multiplying in F (X) is an injection.
Proof. If M (w1 ) = M (w2 ) for w1 , w2 W0 then note M (w1 )() = w1 by (3.2).

Corollary 3.4. M : W0 F (X) is surjective, and given a (not necessarily reduced) word
w W , if we delete all subwords xx1 and x1 x in any order, we reach a unique
w0 W0 .
Proof. Extend M to a map W F (X). This is surjective by (1.9), and each deletion
reduces the length of w, so we reach some w0 W0 . Deletions do not change the group
element, so M (w) = M (w0 ), so w0 is unique by (3.3).
2
Theorem 3.5 (Universal property of free groups). Any map f : XtoG (G any group)
extends uniquely to a homomorphism f : F (X) G such that f (i ) = f (xi ).
1
Proof. First define f (x1
G. Then let f (t1 . . .tk ) = f (t1 ). . .f (tk ), where
i ) = f (xi )
1
tj {i } is represented by letter tj X 1 .

Then f is well-defined by (3.3), (3.4), and is a homomorphism by definition. Any such


homomorphism must satisfy the property in the first paragraph.
2
Lecture 3

Proposition 3.6. If F (X) and F (Y ) are free groups on X and Y then F (X)
= F (Y )
|X| = |Y |.
Proof. () If f : X Y is a bijection, then extend to a homomorphism f : F (X)
F (Y ) and (f 1 ) : F (X) F (Y ). But (f 1 ) f fixes X and so is the identity
homomorphism (by uniqueness). And the same for f (f 1 ) , so f is bijective.
() For any group G, let SG  G be hg 2 : g Gi. Then G/SG is abelian with all
non-identity elements of order 2, and thus it is a vector space over the field F2 .
Now, the image of X in F (X)/SF (X) is linearly independent and spans and so |X| is
the dimension.
2
We can define Fn , the free group of rank n when |X| = n. Then F0 = I, F1 = Z, but if
a 6= b X then ab 6= ba in F (X), so F (X) is non-abelian, and in fact ha, bi = F2 6 F (X).
Corollary 3.7. Every (fg) group is a quotient of a (fg) free group.
Proof. If G = hgi : i Ii, then take X = {xi : i I} and use 3.5.

Corollary 3.8. If G Fn then Fn 6 G and G = ker Fn .


Proof. Take g1 , . . ., gn G with (gi ) = xi , then extend. Have f (xi ) = gi . We have f
is the identity homomorphism (by uniqueness), so f : Fn G is an isomorphism from
Fn to f (Fn ).
For K = ker , Kf (Fn ) = G and K f (Fn ) = I. Use 1.39.

Definition 3.9. We say the set S = {si } F (X) is a free basis for F (X) if hSi = F (X)
(generates), and for any reduced word w0 6= on S 1 we have w0 6= id when evaluated
in F (X) (free).

10

Proposition 3.10. Free bases for F (X) have cardinality |X|.


Proof. Given free basis S for F (X), define homomorphism f : F (S) F (X) by extending
f
F (X), by 3.6.
s S 7 s F (X). Then f is surjective and injective, so F (S) =
2
Proposition 3.11. The automorphisms of F (X) are exactly (extensions of) bijective functions f : X S, with S a free basis.
Proof. An automorphism must send a free basis bijectively to a free basis as (w(xi )) =
w((xi )), and it is determined by this. Moreover, given f , extend to f : F (X) F (X)
uniquely. Then f (X) = S means f is surjective, and S free means f is injective.
2
Definition 3.12. A word w in X 1 is cyclically reduced if it is reduced and the first and
last letters of w are not mutual inverses.
We can write any reduced word w0 = u|w|u1 where w1 is cyclically reduced and | means no
cancellation between two words.
Proposition 3.13. If w, w are cyclically reduced then they are conjugate iff w is a cyclic
permutation of w = 1 |2 |. . .|n for i X 1 . I.e., w = k |k+1 |. . .|n |1 |. . .|k1 for
some k.
Proof. If w = cwc1 (with c reduced and c 6= ), then as w is cyclically reduced there exists
cancellation in either cw or wc1 but not both. Wlog, say c = d|1
1 and w = 1 |v, then
w = dv1 d1 , but v1 is a cyclic permutation of w. So either d = , or continue.
2
Corollary 3.14. A free group is torsion free.
Proof. Any reduced word w0 6= can be written as u|w|u1 for w cyclically reduced. But
2
for n > 0, we have w0n = u|wn |u1 , so there is no cancellation and so w0n 6= .
Example 3.15. Take F2 free on a, b. Let Hn = ha, bab1 , . . ., bn abn i 6 F2 .
By 1.9, h Hn implies h = bi1 ak1 bi2 i1 ak2 . . .bim for 0 6 ij 6 n.
Hence bn+1 ab(n+1)
/ Hn . So H =

Hn is not fg, by 1.11.

Corollary 3.16. A fg group G containing a non-abelian free ( F2 6 G) does not have


max.

Free Products
Definition 3.17. Let {G : } be an indexed family
F of groups. A reduced sequence
in {G } is a finite sequence g1 . . .gr where gi
G , such that each gj 6= e and no

successive gj , gj+1 are in the same G .

Let A be the set of all sequences in


(including ).

G , and let R be the set of all reduced sequences

Definition 3.18. The free product G is the subgroup of S(R) generated by elements

11

(g,) for and (g, ) G \ I, where


(g,) (g1 . . .gn ) =
1
with (g,)
= (g1 ,) .

(g, )g1 . ..gn


(g, )g1 g2 . . .gn

if g1
/ G
if g1 G (remove if e)

Proposition 3.19. The function f : A G given by f (g1 . . .gn ) = g1 . . . gn restricts


to a bijection from R.
Proof. If g1 , g2 G then g1 g2 = g1 g2 , so gather s from the same group to get a
surjection (remove e).
Then f (g1 . . .gn )() = g1 . . .gn () = g1 . . .gn
Lecture 4

Note. : G G given by = (g, ) is a homomorphism, injective.


Theorem 3.20 (Universal property). For any group H and any collection of homomorphisms : G H, there exists a unique homomorphism : G H such that
= for all .
Proof. Define (g1 . . .gn ) = 1 (g1 ). . .n (gn ), where gj G .
Similarly, this is a homomorphism, unique.

If F (X) is free on X = {xi : i I} then it is iI Gi , where Gi = {xni : n Z}, infinite cyclic.


Note G1 G2 is infinite if G1 , G2 6= I, and (g1 g2 )n 6= e for n > 0 and g1 g2 6= g2 g1 .
Suppose X is a topological space and G a group of homeomorphisms of X. We say that
S X is a G-packing if g(S) S = for all g G \ I.
Theorem 3.21 (Klein, 1883). If G1 , G2 6 Homeo(X) with Gi -packing Si such that
S1 S2 = X and S1 S2 6= , then G = hG1 , G2 i = G1 G2 .
Proof. Note for x S1 , g(x)
/ S1 for any g G1 \ I so g(x) S2 (swap 1 and 2). Take
s S1 S2 and a reduced sequence g1 , . . ., gn with (wlog) gn G1 .
Then gn (s) S2 \ S1 , gn1 gn (s) S1 \ S2 , etc, so g1 . . .g2 (s) 6= s.
Thus the homomorphism in (3.20), : G1 G2 hG1 , G2 i, is an isomorphism.

Example 3.22.
(i) Let X = R2 with reflections a, b in lines x = 0 and x = 21 .

1
2

later!)
(detail
Then ha, bi = ha, bai = C2 C2 . This is the infinite dihedral group (1.38) as
ba(x) = x + 1 and a(ba)a1 = (ba)1 .

12

az + b
with a, b, c, d C, ad bc 6= 0.
cz + d
dz b
This is a bijection of C {}, with inverse f 1 (z) =
.
cz + a
z
.
Let f (z) = z + 2 and g(z) =
2z + 1

(ii) M
obius Transformations. Let f (z) =

............................ ..............................
....
... ....
...
...
....
...
.....
...
...
.
..
.


1
Proposition 3.23. Let F =
0



2
1
,G=
1
2


0
SL(2, Z).
1

Then F, G freely generate F2 .

Proof. f, g P SL(2, Z) SL(2, Z)/I2 , and hf i, hgi infinite so hf, gi = F2 by (3.21).


Now, send f, g 7 F, G and extend using (3.5) to with = id, so (F2 ) = F2 .

At this point, there was a handout.

Topics in Infinite Groups Topological Background


We follow the books Lee and Hatcher as in the course summary.
X is a topological space which is always assumed to be path connected and locally path
connected:
x X and open U X with x U , we have an open path connected set P with
x P U.
Let f, g : X Y be continuous maps (and let A X).
A homotopy between f and g (relative to A, written rel A) is a continuous map H :
X [0, 1] Y with H(., 0) = f and H(., 1) = g (with H(a, t) = f (a) a A and t [0, 1],
so f and g must agree on A). This is an equivalence relation, written f g (or f g rel A).
A (strong) deformation retraction of X onto A X is a homotopy rel A from IdX to
r : X 7 X with r(X) A and r|A = IdA .
For x0 X the fundamental group 1 (X, x0 ) is the group of homotopy classes of closed
paths with start and end x0 (in other words : [0, 1] X is continuous with (0) = (1) =
x0 ). Changing the basepoint x0 doesnt matter as we obtain an isomorphic group, written
1 (X).
Any continuous map f : X Y induces a homomorphism f : 1 (X) 1 (Y ). If X is
homeomorphic to Y (which is also written X
= Y ) then 1 (X)
= 1 (Y ).
X is homotopy equivalent to Y (written X Y ) if there exist continuous maps f : X Y
and g : Y X such that gf IdX and f g IdY . If so then f : 1 (X) 1 (Y ) is an
isomorphism.
X is contractible if X {x}, which implies that X is simply connected (meaning that
1 (X) is the trivial group).
13

Seifert - Van Kampen Theorem (Hatcher Theorem 1.20 in the case where the intersections are simply connected): If X = A where all of the A are path connected and open
in X, with x0 A and each pairwise and triple intersection A1 A2 , A1 A2 A3
is simply connected then
1 (X)
= 1 (A ).
If A X and : A X is the inclusion map then sadly : 1 (A) 1 (X) might not be
injective or surjective (see picture). But in a deformation retraction X A (by taking f = r
and g as inclusion of A = Y in X) so X and A have isomorphic fundamental groups.
e X is a covering map (with X
e a covering space for X) if
A continuous map p : X
1
x X there exists an open neighbourhood V of x with p (V ) a disjoint union of open
e each of which is mapped homeomorphically by p onto V . As X is connected, the
sets in X,
e X 6= ) is constant: the degree or
cardinality of p1 (x) (which is non-zero as we assume X,
number of sheets.
e
Given a path : [0, 1] X and a point x
e above (0), there exists a unique path
e : [0, 1] X
e
lifting (namely pe
= ). Moreover p : 1 (X) 1 (X) is injective.

Now assume X is locally contractible.

e
Classification of Coverings Theorem: For each H 6 1 (X) there exists a cover p : X
e
X with p (1 (X)) = H (this cover is unique). The degree is the index of H in 1 (X).

e X is a homeomorphism of X
e such that
A deck transformation of the cover p : X
e
p = p. They form a group D and for any x0 X the action of D on p1 ({x0 }) X
e x
is transitive if and only if p 1 (X,
f0 ) is normal in 1 (X, x0 ), in which case we say p is a
regular cover.
End of handout

Definition 3.24. A graph (a 1-dim CW complex) is made up of a set V of vertices with


discrete topology and a set E of edges I (with intI = e ), each edge being a copy of
[0, 1]. The edge endpoints are attached to points in V , giving f0 , f1 : E V so that
G 
=V
V I (0) = f0 (I ), I (1) = f1 (I )

Notes.
1. Subset S of is open (closed) S e open (closed) for all .
2. is locally path-connected and locally contractible.
(Here, connected path-connected.)
3. Basic open sets for are these and open intervals in e .

14

Lecture 5

A subgraph of is a union of edges and vertices such that e = e .


e cover the (connected) graph then X
e is a graph with vertices and
Definition 3.25. If X
edges the lifts of those in .
e = p1 (V ) for p : X
e I, and for edges take map from I into and ve
Proof. Let V (X)
e is a graph, and the topologies agree on basic
above f0 (I ) to get a unique lift. Thus X
open sets, so are the same.
2
If S is a simple graph, and edge path in S is a finite sequence of vertices such that any two
consecutive vertices span an edge in S. A cycle v0 , . . ., vn is a closed (v0 = vn ) edge path.
A tree in S is a connected simple graph with no reduced cycles.
Proposition 3.26. Given any connected graph and any vertex v0 in , there exists a
subgraph {v0 } such that contains all of V ().
Proof. Let 0 = {v0 } 1 2 . . . be a sequence of subgraphs where i+1 is 1 together
with edges e for all e \ i with an endpoint in i .
S
Then i is open (neighbourhood of point in i is in i+1 ) and closed in (union of
closed edges), so is .
Next, 0 = 0 1 2 . . ., where i has same vertices as i but i+1 is i with
one edge from each v i+1 \ i to i .
S
Now, i+1 deformation retracts onto i , so set = i (contains V ()), and
deformation retracts to 0 by performing homotopies in the interval [1/2i+1 , 1/2i ]
with homotopy is continuous.
2
Corollary 3.27. A tree T is contractible.
Proof. Apply (3.26) to get T , contractible. If edge e is spanned by v 6= w not in ,
then take reduced edge paths v0 . . .uv and wx. . .v0 in . Note u 6= w and v 6= x as
e
/ . So v0 . . .vw. . .w0 is a reduced cycle in T . /\/\
2
Theorem 3.28. The fundamental group of a (connected) graph is free.
Proof. Let T (wlog simple) be in (3.26), so T is a tree, with {e : A} the edges
in \ T , and w , w endpoints of e . For each , take a reduced cycle c from v0
including w w so that
c = v0 u1 u2 . . .w w . . .v1 v0
First assume one edge. If c has ui = vj in it, then replace with ui . . .vj which still
contains w w , else it is a reduced cycle in T .
So now have (renamed) v0 . . .v0 with no repeats, giving a loop L with L
= S 1 , so

1 (L) = Z.
But L as the components K of \ L and in T and so are trees. If a 6= b K L,
then go from a to b in K and then back via L (not via w w ) to get a reduced cycle
in T .
Thus by (3.27) we can deformation retract each K (simultaneously) onto the point in
K L, giving () = Z.

15

For general , let m be the midpoint of e and set A = \

aA


ma m .

S
Then A is open in and path-connected with A A (A ) = \ a ma , which
deformation retracts onto T , so (3.27) implies simply connected. Also, A retracts onto
2
T e , so 1 (A )
= Z.
= Z, giving (by Seifert-Van Kampen) that 1 (, v)
Corollary 3.29. For every freep group F (X), there exists a simple graph with 1 () =
F (X).
Proof. Take a loop for each x X, all joined at v, turn it into a triangle and then use
(3.28).
2
Theorem 3.30 (Nielsen-Schreier). A subgroup of a free group is free.
e X, (X)
e = H), so (3.25)
Proof. For H 6 F (X), use (3.29), subgroups covering (X
and (3.28) give H is free.
2
Theorem 3.31 (Nielsen-Schreier index formula). If H has index i in the free group Fn
then H has rank i(n 1) + 1.
e has degree i, then
Proof. For finite graph , define () = |V | |E|. If p :
e
() = i(), by (3.25).

Take in (3.29) with 1 () = Fn and () = 1 n. For H of index i in Fn with


e = H, we have ()
e = i(1 n).
1 ()

e \ numbers i(n 1) + 1,
Now in (3.28), note () = 1, so the set of edges {e } for
so this is the rank of H.
2

Notes.
1. F2 6 F3 and F3 6 F2 .
2. If N  F (X), it can be shown that if N has infinite index (and N 6= I) then N
has infinite rank.

Lecture 6

4. Presentations of groups
By (3.7), we can write any group G as F (X)/N , where (the image of X) is a generating set
for G.
Definition 4.1. A presentation hX|Ri for a group G is a set X and a subset R of F (X)
such that G
= G(X)/hhRii.
Elements of X are generators, and elements of X are relators.
Theorem 4.2 (van Dyck, quotient = more relators). If G = hX|Ri, then Q is a quotient of G Q
= hX|R Si.
Proof.

() Have that F (X) hX|R Si factors through G as hhRii 6 hhR Sii.

16

() Now say Q = G/L, for G = F (X)/M , where M = hhRii. Then L = N M/M for
N  F (X), so Q
= F (X)/N M .
Take any S with hhSii = N , then hhR Sii = hhN M ii = N M , so Q
= hX|R Si. 2
Definition 4.3. G is finitely presented (f.p.) if G = hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , . . ., rm i. I.e., finitely
many generators and finitely many relators.
Note. If N 6= I is of infinite index in F (X), then N is not finitely generated.
Proposition 4.4 (B. Neumann, 1937). If G = hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , . . ., rm i and also G =
hy1 , . . ., yk |s1 , s2 , . . .i, then G = hy1 , . . ., yk |s1 , . . ., s i for some .
Proof. We set yi = vi (x1 , . . ., xn ) and xi = wi (y1 , . . ., yn ), as we think of the xi and yi as
elements of G.
Thus yi = vi (w1 (yj ), . . ., wn (yj )) and ri (w1 (yj ), . . ., wn (yj )) = e in G.
Let N = hhs1 , s2 , . . .ii  F ({yi }) and form
G = hy1 , . . ., yk |yi = vi (w1 (yj ), . . ., wn (yj )), ri (. . .)i
So there exists : G F ({yi })/N , as each relator holds in G, as F ({yi }) F ({yi })/N
factors through G.
Now take : hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , . . ., rm i G by (xi ) = xi wi (y1 , . . ., yk ).
Then (xi ) = xi , with surjective, so is an isomorphism. So N = hhfinite setii.
But N =

hhs1 , . . ., s ii.

i=1


Proposition 4.5. G = ha, b [a2n+1 ba(2n+1) , b], n Ni is not finitely presented.
Proof. Notation: let cn = [a2n+1 ba(2n+1) , b].

In Aj , let = (12. . .j) and = (123). Then k k commutes with is 3 6 k 6 j 3,


but not if k = j 2.
Thus in A2+3 , we have that relations c1 , . . ., c1 = e hold, but c 6= e. So c
/
hhc1 , . . ., c1 ii 6 F2 (via a
7 , b 7 ).
Now use (4.4).

Aside. The same Neumann paper shows that there are uncountably many finitely generated
groups up to isomorphism, but only countably many finitely presented groups.
Examples 4.6.
0. Finite groups are f.p.
1. Fn = hx1 , . . ., xn |i.
2. Cn = hx|xn i, but hx, y|x14 , y 21 , x3 = y 4 i = C7 .

17

Proposition 4.7. If N = hni |rj i and H = hhk |s i, then G = N H has presentation


P = hni , hk |rj , s , hk ni nk1 (hk )(ni )i
Proof. As hk ni = (element of N )hk , any p P can be written as v(some ni )w(some hk ).
Define : P G via extending F ({ni } {hk }) G.
If (p) = e, then (v(ni )) (w(hk )) = e. But N H = I, so v(ni ), w(hk ) = e in P .
| {z } | {z }
N

So is an isomorphism.

If G = hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , r2 , . . .i and p is prime, let rj Fnp be the exponential sum vector modulo
p of rj . That is, (#x1 s#x1
1 s) + . . . mod p.
Then Fn Cpn , r 7 r, is a homomorphism.
Proposition 4.8. If S = span{rj } 6= Fnp then G 6= I.
Proof. There exists a linear functional f : Fnp Fp with S 6 ker f .
f

So Fn Fnp Fp factors through G. So G Fp .

Example 4.9. If #relators < #generators in a finite presentation, then G Fp for all p,
so its infinite.
Proposition 4.10. If G = hxi |rk i and hyj |s i, then G H = hxi , yj |rk , s i.

Proof. Call the RHS G|H, and let G|H G H (where fixes xi , yj ).
Also, there is a homomorphism from G into G|H fixing each xi and from H similarly.
Extend to : G H G|H by (3.20). Now compose with , and extend. Uniqueness
says = id, but is surjective, so is an isomorphism
2
We can now extend the table on page 5.

Subgroups
Quotients
Extensions

Free
n
n
n

FP
n (e.g., F2 )
n (e.g., (4.5))
y

Theorem 4.11 (P. Hall). If H  G and N, G/N are f.p., then G is f.p.
Proof. Let N = hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , . . ., rm i and G/N = hy1 , . . ., y |s1 , . . ., s i.
Take g1 , . . ., g with gi N = yi , so have a generating set. Now take relations1 ri = e,
si (g1 , . . ., g ) = ti (x1 , . . ., xn ) N , and gj xi gj1 = uij (x1 , . . ., xn ) N , and gj1 xi gj =
vij (x1 , . . ., xm ).
Take G = hx1 , . . ., xm , g1 , . . ., g i, with above relations.

Lecture 7
1A

relation is an expression of the form w = u, compared with a relator which is of the form wu1 .

18

Then G G. Let K = ker , and let N = hx1 , . . ., xn i. Then N  G by uij , vij . Now
restrict to N where it is an isomorphism. So K N = I.
Now as (N ) = N , we obtain 0 : G/N G/N which is also injective as above. But
2
ker 0 = KN /N
= K/K N , so K = I.

Free products with amalgamation; HNN extensions


Definition 4.12. Let G, H be groups with A 6 G, B 6 H such that : A B is an
isomorphism.
The free product with amalgamation is the group G H/hha = (a) for all a Aii.
(Note its enough to use a generating set for A in the normal closure.)
Definition 4.13. If G is any group with A, B 6 G such that : A B is an isomorphism,
then the HNN extension G is the group G hti/hhtat1 = (a)ii.
(So hti
= Z, and t is called a stable letter.)
Note that ta = (a)t and t1 b = 1 (b)t1 . So we can move as (resp. bs) to the left of t
(resp. t1 ) in G .
Choose right transversals TA and TB for A and B in G such that both include e. A normal
form is a sequence g0 t1 g1 t2 . . .tn gn (for n > 0 and i = 1) such that each gi G, with
i = +1 gi TA and a i = 1 gi TB , and there is no subsequence t et .
Every element of G can be put into normal form (work from right to left).
Theorem 4.14 (Normal form for HNN extensions). Every element in G has a unique
normal form.
Proof. Define : G S(N ), where N is the set of normal forms as follows.
1. (g)(g0 t1 . . .gn ) = gg0 t1 . . .gn for g G.
2. If = 1 and g0 A then (t)(g0 t1 . . .gn ) = ((g0 )g1 )t2 . . .gn .
Otherwise, (t)(g0 t1 . . .gn ) = (a)tg0 t1 . . .gn , where g0 = ag0 for g0 TA .
This has inverse (t1 )(g0 tg1 . . .gn ) = (1 (g0 )g1 )t2 . . .gn (if g0 B), and otherwise
g0 t1 . . .gn 7 1 (b)t1 gb0 t1 . . .gn (where g0 = bgb0 for gb0 TB ).

Also, (a) = (t1 )((a))(t), so is a well-defined homomorphism on G , and


2
(g0 t1 . . .gn )(e) = g0 t1 . . .gn for normal forms.
Say that a sequence g0 t1 . . .gn is reduced is there is no subsequence tgi t1 for gi A, or
t1 gi t for gi B. (Such a sequence is sometimes called a pinch.)
Corollary 4.15 (Brittons Lemma). G embeds in G by g 7 g, and if for n > 1 the
form g0 t1 . . .gn is reduced then it 6= e in G .
Proof. g (6= e) and e are both in normal form, so g 6= e in G by (4.14). On changing a
reduced sequence into a normal form, no t cancel, so it becomes g0 t1 . . .gn .
2

19

Corollary 4.16 (Torsion in HNN extensions). If G has finite order then is


conjugate to some g G.
Proof. If = g0 t1 . . .tn gn (with n > 1) is a reduced sequence and tn gn g0 t1 is not a pinch,
then k is reduced, so 6= e by (4.15).
Otherwise, replace by tn gn (tn gn )1 = gt2 . . .tn1 gn1 , which is either reduced or
in G. Now repeat.
2
Imre Leader moment 2. There is an infinite group where every non-identity element is
conjugate.
Proof. Take G to be countably infinite, torsion-free e.g., G = Z.
Let {g0 , g1 , . . ., } be an enumeration of the non-identity elements.
Form HNN extensions. First, G1 = hG, t1 : t1 g0 t1
= g1 i. (Taking A = hg0 i and
1
B = hg1 i.)
Note that G embeds in G1 by (4.15), so g0 and g2 still have infinite order in G1 .
So we can form G2 = hG1 , t2 : t2 g0 t21 = g2 i, . . . , Gn = hGn1 , tn : tn g0 t1
n = gn i.
We have G1 6 G2 6 . . ., so we can let (G) =

Gn .

Then is countably infinite and torsion-free by (4.16).


Note any two non-identity elements of G are conjugate in (G) = 1 .
New set 2 = (1 ), . . . , m = (m1 ), . . . . And finally form =

m .

Now, if non-identity , then , m for some m, so are conjugate in m+1 and


hence are .
2
Note. D. Osin (2010) showed that there are finitely-generated examples. It is unknown
whether there exist finitely-presented examples.
For free products with amalgamation, G H, say element c1 . . .cn G H is a-reduced
(for amalgamated-reduced) if for n > 1 no ci is in A or B. We can turn any c G H into
an a-reduced element by absorbing elements of A or B.
Corollary 4.17. If c1 . . .cn is a-reduced then it equals e in G H. (Using G, H G H.)

Proof. Let F = (G H) hti hhtat1 = (a)ii, an HNN extension of G H.

Let : G H F be defined by (g) = tgt1 and (h) = h. This is well-defined.

For an a-reduced element, if c1 A then c1 7 (a) 6= e (normal form). Otherwise, it


maps to a reduced sequence in F (HNN), so done by (4.15).
2

20

Lecture 8

5. Soluble, polycyclic, nilpotent groups


See D.J.S Robinson, A course in the theory of groups, Springer (GTM 80)
Definition 5.1. The group G is soluble/solvable if there exists a sequence a subgroups
I = Gn  Gn1  . . .  G1  G0 = G
such that Gi /Gi1 is abelian.
Theorem 5.2. The soluble property is preserved by subgroups, quotients and extensions.
Proof. Let G be soluble.
(i) If H 6 G, then a Gi+1  Gi , we have Gi+1 (H Gi ) 6 H Gi by (1.15), and
(H Gi )/(H Gi+1 )
= (H Gi )Gi+1 /Gi+1 6 Gi /Gi+1 , so its abelian.
(ii) If H  G, then Gi+1 N/N  Gi N/N with quotient Gi (Gi+1 N )/Gi+1 N
= Gi /(Gi
Gi+1 N ), which is a quotient of Gi /Gi+1 , so its abelian.
(iii) G/N soluble implies we have N 6 Gi+1 6 Gi 6 G with Gi+1 /N Gi /N , so Gi+1 6
Gi and Gi /Gi+1 abelian. Now put together with I = Nn  Nn1  . . .  N0 = N ,
with Ni /Ni+1 abelian.
2
Definition 5.3. For any group G, the derived series is the sequence of subgroups
G = G(0) > G(1) > G(2) > . . ., where Gi+1 = (G(i) ) .
Each G(i) is characteristic in G.
Proposition 5.4. G is soluble its derived series terminates at I. If so, then it has
length that of a smallest series with abelian quotients.
Proof. G(i) /G(i+1) = G(i) /(G(i) ) , so abelian. Now say Gi is as in (5.1) and assume that
G(i) 6 Gi . As H 6 G implies H 6 G , we have G(i+1) 6 (Gi ) . But Gi /Gi+1 is
abelian, so (Gi ) 6 Gi+1 .
2
So in (5.1), there does exist a series where each Gi  G.
We say a group G is perfect if G = G . A perfect group G(6= I) is not soluble, and if a
quotient has G Q A with A abelian then A = I, so Q is also perfect.
E.g., if G is simple, non-abelian, then G is perfect. E.g., A5 .
Corollary 5.5. If G contains a non-abelian free subgroup then G is not soluble.
Proof. If G is soluble and F2 6 G then there is N such that F2 /N
= A5 , which would be
soluble. /\/\
2

Polycyclic groups
Definition 5.6. The group G is polycyclic if if there exists a sequence a subgroups
I = Gn  Gn1  . . .  G1  G0 = G
such that Gi /Gi1 is cyclic.
21

So polycyclic = soluble.
Theorem 5.7. The polycyclic property is preserved by subgroups, quotients and extensions.
Proof. Exactly as (5.2), with abelian replaced by cyclic throughout.

In fact, if property P is soluble: yes; quotients: yes; extensions: no, then (5.2) shows that
poly-P has all three.
Corollary 5.8. Finitely-generated abelian groups A are polycyclic.
Proof. (2.1) expresses A as a direct product of cyclic groups, so build out of extensions. 2
Theorem 5.9. G polycyclic G soluble and has max.
Proof. () A cyclic group is soluble and has max, and both of these are preserved by
extensions.
() Each Gi in (5.1) is finitely generated, so each Gi /Gi+1 is polycyclic by (5.8), and
this is preserved by extensions.
2
Corollary 5.10. If G is polycyclic and H 6 G, then H is finitely presented.
Proof. A cyclic group is finitely presented and this is preserved by extensions by (4.11), so
G is finitely presented. And H 6 G implies H polycyclic.
2
Example 5.11. Let D 6 Q be the subgroup of dyadic rationals {n/2i : n Z, i > 0} is not
cyclic, hence infinitely generated as Q is locally cyclic.
Let B = D Z, where for t Z we define (t) to be the automorphism d 7 2d for
d D. Then G is metabelian (abelian-by-abelian) and generated by 1 D and t Z.
Write the Z part as hti. Then all elements of B have the form (n/2i , tj ), with
(0, tk )(n/2i , 1)(0, tk ) = (2k n/2i , 1),
so D 6 h1, ti by taking k > i. (Where 1= (1, 1) and t = (0, t).)
So this is a group which is finitely generated but doesnt have max, so isnt polycyclic.
What about a finitely presented example?
Let G = ha, b : bab1 = a2 i. Then send a 7 (1, 1) and b 7 (0, t), and extend to a
surjective homomorphism : G B.
Now, G/G
= Z, generated by bG .
As ba = a2 b and ba1 = a2 b, and ab1 = b1 a2 and a1 b1 = b1 a2 , given any
word in a, b, we can move the positive powers of b past a1 to the right, and of b1 to
the left.
Thus any g G will have the form bm a bn for Z and m, n N.
Now (g) = (/2m , tnm ), and if this equals eB = (0, 1), then = 0, m = n. Hence
is also injective, and so G
= B.
22

We can also do this with matrices. Let a =

Then b

 nm
2
ab =
0

m n

2m
1





1 1
2 0
and b =
GL(2, Q).
0 1
0 1

and bab1 = a2 .

Proposition 5.12. We have infinite finitely-presented groups G with finitely-presented H 6


G and g G \ H such that gHg 1 H.
Proof. Take G as in (5.11), with H = hai then bHb1 = ha2 i H.

Note. In G we have . . . g 2 Hg 1 gHg 1 H g 1 Hg g 2 Hg 2 . . ..


So any example in (5.12) cannot have max (or min).
Lecture 9

Nilpotent groups
Definition 5.13. A group G is nilpotent if there exists a sequence of subgroups
I = Gn 6 Gn1 6 . . . 6 G0 = G
such that Gi  G and Gi /Gi+1 is in the centre of G/Gi+1 .
Such a series (if it exists) is called a central series.
Note. Abelian = nilpotent = soluble, but G(6= I) nilpotent = Z(G) 6= I
So S3 is polycyclic, not nilpotent, so nilpotent is not preserved by extensions.
Theorem 5.14. The nilpotent property is preserved by subgroups, quotients and direct
products.
Proof.
(i) As in (5.2), we want (H Gi )/(H Gi+1 ) to be in the centre of H/(H Gi+1 )
=
HGi+1 /Gi+1 . The former becomes (H Gi )Gi+1 /Gi+1 , which is in Gi /Gi+1 , so
commutes with G/Gi+1 .
(ii) We need Gi N/Gi+1 H to be in the centre of G/Gi+1 N , but xgx1 g 1 Gi+1 for
x Gi , g G, so xng(xn)1 g 1 Gi+1 N .
(iii) Given Gi 6 G and Hj 6 H as in (5.13), we have Gi G 6 G H with (Gi
H)/(Gi+1 H) in the centre of (G H)/(Gi+1 H), so we use
I I 6 I Hn 6 I Hn1 6 . . . 6 I H 6 Gn H 6 Gn1 H 6 . . . 6 G H


For H1 , . . ., Hn 6 G, define [H1 , H2 ] = h[h1 , h2 ]i and [H1 , . . ., Hn ] = [H1 , . . ., Hn1 ], Hn .
For any G, the lower central series of G is
1 (G) = G > 2 (G) = [G, G] > 3 (G) = [[G, G], G] > . . . > i+1 (G) = [i (G), G]
Lemma 5.15. G is nilpotent the lower central series terminates at I.
Proof. () Each i (G) is characteristic in G, and i (G)/i+1 (G) is in Z(G/i+1 G), so we
get a central series.
23

() Assume i (G) 6 Gi1 (some central series) for i > 1, then i+1 (G) = [i (G), G] 6
[Gi1 , G] which (as a central series) is in Gi
2
Theorem 5.16 (Baer). If G is nilpotent and finitely generated then i (G) is finitely generated.
Proof. Suppose first that 3 (G) = I and G = hx1 , . . ., xn i is a symmetric generating
set (i.e., closed under inverses). In any group we have [y, x]x[y, z]x1 = [y, xz] and
z[x, y]z 1 [z, y] = [zx, y]. So, in G we get [g,
Qxh] = [g, x][g, h] and [gx, y] = [x, y][g, y],
so any element of 2 (G) is a finite product [xj , xk ].
This also shows for any G that 2 (G)/3 (G) is generated by {[xj , xk ]} modulo 3 (G).
Now assume that anything in i (G)/i+1 (G) is a product of {[xj1 , . . ., xji ] i [x]}.
In i+1 (G)/i+2 (G), suppose g = xi h, then
[ ] is in the centre.
|{z}

i [g], g

i [g], x g

i [g], x



i [g], h


, as

i+1

So, for [g1 , . . ., gi+1 ] i+1 (G), we can write it as


i+2 (G).
This equals

Q Q 

s i [xs ], xr




Q 
r [g1 , . . ., gi ], xr for

, for i+1 (G), i+2 (G).

E.g.. [i [xs ], xr ] = [, xr ][i [xs ], xr ], some i+2 (G).


And this equals

Q Q 
r

s i [xs ], xr

modulo i+2 (G).

So if n+1 (G) = I then n (G) is finitely generated, and n1 (G)/n (G) finitely generated implies n1 (G) finitely generated, etc.
2
Corollary 5.13. Finitely-generated nilpotent groups G are polycyclic and have max.
Proof. i (G)/i+1 (G) is abelian and finitely generated, so have max and polycyclic, extensions.
2

6. Finite index subgroups and virtual properties


If a subgroup H has finite index in G (i.e., finite number of left cosets), we write H 6f G,
with index [G : H].
Lemma 6.1.
(i) If H 6f G and H 6 J 6 G then H 6f J 6 f G.
(ii) If J 6f H 6f G then J 6f G with [G : J] = [G : H][H : J].
(iii) If H 6f G and S 6 G then H S 6f S with index 6 [G : H], with equality iff
SH = G, and dividing [G : H] if SH 6 G.
(iv) If H 6f G and J 6f G then H J 6f G with [G : H J] 6 [G : H][G : J].
Proof.

24

(i) Check
(ii) Suppose g1S
, . . ., gk is a (left) transversal for H in G, and h1 , . . ., h is for J in H.
Then G = i,j gi hj J. Check that if gi hj J = gi hj J then same coset.

(iii) Take G = g1 H . . . gk H and throw away any gi H with gi H S = . (This


happens SH 6= G.) Then g1 (H S), . . ., gk (H S) are disjoint. Check union
U.
Replace gi with si S as above to form si (H S), etc. Then U S and if s gi H
then s = si h si (H S), so if SH is a subgroup then H 6 SH 6 G, so use (i),
(ii) and weve shown that [SH : H] = [S : H S].
(iii)

(ii)

(iv) [G : H J] = [G : J][J : H J] 6 [G : J][G : H].


Lecture 10

A corollary of (iv) above is the following.


Theorem 6.2 (Poincar
e). A finite intersection of finite index subgroups has finite index.
Lemma 6.3. If [G : H] = k then for any g G, there exists i with 1 6 i 6 k such that
g i H.
If H  G then we can take i | k (or even i = k).
Proof. The left cosets H, gH, . . ., g k H cannot all be distinct, so g i H = g j H for some 1 6
i < j 6 k, and then g ji H with 1 6 j i 6 k.
If H  G then gH has order dividing k = |G/H|.

Proposition 6.4. Let : G H be a surjective homomorphism.


(i) If B 6f H then 1 (B) 6f G. In fact, [G : 1 (B)] = [H : B].
(ii) If A 6f G then (A) 6f H with [H : (A)] | [G : A].
Proof.
(i) Have H = h1 B . . . hk B, and can take gi with (gi ) = hi to get a transversal
for C = 1 (B) in G. For g G, say (g) = hi b, then g 1 g C, and pulling back
sends disjoint sets to disjoint sets with 1 (hi B) = gi C.
(ii) 1 ((A)) = KA 6f G for K = ker with [G : KA] = [H : (A)] by (i). But
[G : KA] divides [G : A] by (6.1)(ii).
2

The Regular Representation


Any group G acts on itself by (left) multiplication. Now let H be any subgroup and L be the
set of left cosets of H in G. The (left) regular representation of G on L is the action
of G given by (g)(xH) = gxH.
Note orb(H) = L and the stabiliser of H L is H 6 G.
Lemma 6.5. ker =

xHx1

xG

25

Proof. xH = gxH for all x G x1 gx H for all x G.

Definition 6.6. For H 6 G, the core of H in G is ker .


Proposition 6.7. Core(H)  G and is the largest normal subgroup of G that is contained
in H.
Proof. The core is normal as it is a kernel.
If N  G and N 6 H then x1 N x 6 H for all x G.

Theorem 6.8 (The useful theorem). If H 6f G with [G : H] = n then there exists


N f G with N 6 H and [G : N ] | n!.
Proof. L has n elements, so : G Sn . Then |G/ ker | = |im | which divides |Sn |.

Theorem 6.9. If G is finitely generated then for any n N, there are only finitely many
subgroups of index n in G.
Proof. If G = hg1 , . . ., gk i then there are only finitely many homomorphisms : G Sn as
would be determined by (gi ), so only finitely many homomorphisms are transitive
on {1, . . ., n}, where stab(1) has index n (by Orbit-Stabiliser).
Now say H 6f G with [G : H] = n, then on ordering L as {H, . . ., } we have that the
regular representation of G is a transitive homomorphism from G to Sn with stab(1) =
H.
2
Corollary 6.10. If G is finitely generated and H 6f G then there exists C, characteristic
in G, with C 6f H 6f G.
Proof. Let C =

(H).

Aut(G)

Then H and (H) have the same index in G by (6.4), with C 6f G by (6.9) and (6.2).
If Aut(G) then (C) =

(H) =

(H).

Aut(G)

Aut(G)

Theorem 6.11. If H 6f G then G finitely generated (resp. presented) H finitely


generated (resp. presented).
Proof. G finitely generated means that there exists : Fk G. Now H 6f G implies
1 (H) 6f Fk by (6.4), so it is some Fi by the Nielsen-Schreier index formula (3.31).
Now restrict to Fi H.
Now say G = Fk /N is finitely presented, so N = hhr1 , . . ., rm ii (in Fk ). Then H = F /N
for N 6 F 6f Fk by above.
Take a right transversal t1 , . . ., tn for F in Fk where [G : H] = n.
By 1.18, N consists of all elements of the form
a

g1 ria11 g11 . . . gj rijj gj1


for g1 , . . ., gj Fk , which need not be in F .

26

But as any g Fk is htj for h F , we do have that the normal closure of {tj ri t1
:
j
1 6 i 6 m} in F in N .
Finally, finitely generated/presented groups are preserved by extensions by (1.29),
(4.11), so if H is finitely generated/presented then take N G with N 6f H by (6.8). N
is finitely generated/presented and G/N is finite, so G is finitely generated/presented.
2
Note. If G = hk gens | m relsi then the deficiency of the presentation is k m. If k m > 0
then G is infinite.
(6.11) shows that if exists H with [G : H] = n then H has a presentation with deficiency
n(k 1 m) + 1. So def(presn for H) 1 = [G : H] (def(presn for G) 1).
How do we know a group has proper finite index subgroups?
E.g., if H 6f Q with index n then for each q Q, we have q = n

q
n

H by (6.3).

Theorem 6.12 (Higman, 1951). The group


1
1
1
2
2
2
2
G = ha1 , a2 , a3 , a4 | a1 a2 a1
1 = a2 , a2 a3 a2 = a3 , a3 a4 a3 = a4 , a4 a1 a4 = a1 i

has no proper finite index subgroups.


Proof. If H <f G then (6.8) gives a non-trivial finite quotient G/N . Note that for n > 1
and prime p dividing 2n 1, the least prime factor of n is less than p.
Take r the order of 2 mod p, then r | n and r | p 1 (by Fermats Little Theorem).
2n
n1
1, and so on.
Now say ni is the order of ai in G/N . Then an1 a2 an
1 = a2 , so n2 | 2
Let p be the smallest prime dividing n1 n2 n3 n4 , with (wlog) p | n2 . Then n1 has a
smaller prime factor. This is a contradiction unless n1 n2 n3 n4 = 1.
2
Lecture 11

Proposition 6.13. G in (6.12) is infinite.


Proof. If H = hx, y | yxy 1 = x2 i then x, y have infinite order, by (5.11). Let H be an
isomorphic copy of H. Then H H , where (x) = y is infinite and is (via x = y ,
z = x )
hx, y, z | yxy 1 = x2 , xzx1 = z 2 i.
Note that y, z freely generate F2 by (4.17) as a word w(y, x ) with powers gathered is
a-reduced.
Now take four copies of H, say Hi = hai , bi | bi ai b1
= ai i. Form
i
1
2
2
K = H1 H2 = ha1 (= b2 ), b1 , a2 | b1 a1 b1
1 = a1 , a1 a2 a1 = a2 i,

infinite with hb1 , a2 i free, and L = H3 H4 (send 1 7 3, 2 7 4).


Finally, make K L for (b1 ) = a4 , (a2 ) = b3 . This is G.

Virtual Properties
Here we regard groups H and G as basically the same if H 6f G. Say a group property P
is okay if when G has P and H 6f G then H has P.
27

But what about finite index supergroups ? If H has P and H 6f G then G might not have
P.
Definition 6.14. If property P is okay, we say that a group G is virtually P if there
exists H 6f G where H was P.
By (6.8), this is the same as G being P-by-finite. For finitely-generated groups, cyclic =
abelian = nilpotent = polycyclic = soluble.
Example 6.15.
(i) Z Z is abelian but not cyclic.
(ii) A nilpotent group which is not virtually abelian.
Let G = ha, b, t | ab = ba, tat1 = ab, tbt1 = bi be the semidirect product Z2 Z
(ha, bi hti). Then b Z(G) and G/hbi
= Z2 .
Now, if there is abelian A 6f G then ti , aj A for i, j > 0 by (6.3). But
ti aj ti = (abi )j = aj aij 6= aj in G.
(iii) A polycyclic group which is not virtually nilpotent.
Let G = ha, b, t | ab = ba, tat1 = a2 b, tbt1 = abi.
If H 6f G with H nilpotent then take h 6= e in Z(H) and set h = ak b tm . Now,
there exists i > 0 with ti H, and thus ti hti = h. But this changes if k 6= 0,
and adds as if 6= 0.

** Non-examinable aside: Word Growth **


If G = hXi for X finite, then the growth function X : N N is defined by X (n) = #{g
G : g = w(X 1 ) for word length 6 n}.
If S = X X 1 {e}, then X (n) = |S n |.
Say that finitely-generated G has polynomial word growth if / finite generating set X,
there exists c, d > 0 such that for all n, X (n) 6 cnd .
Theorem (Gromov, 1981). G has polynomial word growth G is not nilpotent.

** End of aside **
Virtually Polycyclic Groups
Theorem 6.16. The following are equivalent:
(i) G is virtually polycyclic.
(ii) G is polycyclic by finite.
(iii) G is poly-Z by finite.
(iv) G is poly-(Z or finite).
Proof. We have (i) = (ii) and (iii) (ii) (iv).
28

So, (iv) (iii). Say N is (. . .(Z by Z). . . by Z) by F (finite), and G/N = Z.


Now P 6f N is finitely generated, so by (6.10) we have P0 6f N and P0 characteristic
in N with P0 also poly-Z (preserved by subgroups).
Now P0  G with G/N
= (G/P0 )/(N/P0 ) so G is (poly-Z) by (finite by Z), but the
latter is Z by finite, using (3.8). So by (1.28), G is (poly-Z by Z) by finite.
So in general we can push all finite factors to the right and can gather as (P by finite)
by finite, which is P by finite.
2
Corollary 6.17. Virtually polycyclic groups are preserved by subgroups, quotients, extensions; it is the smallest such class containing all finite groups and Z; and all have max
and are finitely presented.
Proof. Property P = (Z or finite) is preserved by subgroups and quotients, so poly-P is
preserved by all three, by (5.7)
Any poly-P group is contained in any class with the above properties, and max and
finitely-presented are preserved by extensions.
2

Virtually Soluble Groups


Corollary 6.18. The virtually soluble groups with max are precisely the virtually polycyclic
groups.
Proof. (5.9) and (6.17).

Question. Are these all the groups with max? (See the final lecture.)
Theorem 6.19. Virtually soluble groups are preserved by subgroups, quotients and extensions.
Proof.
(i) If H 6f G with H soluble and S 6 G, then H S 6f S by (6.1)(iii), but
H H 6 H so its soluble by (5.2)(i).
(ii) Use (6.4)(ii) and (5.2)(ii).
(iii) Let G/N , N be virtually soluble, and take M f N soluble and normal, of minimal
index. Then if soluble S f N , we have S 6 M as SM soluble, normal, finite
index.
Thus M is the unique normal soluble subgroup of that index, so its characteristic
in N , and normal in G.
Lecture 12

But G/N
= (G/M )/(N/M ), which well call Q/R. This R is finite with no nontrivial soluble normal subgroups.
T
CQ (r) f Q by (6.2) and Orbit-Stabiliser,
Now, the centraliser C = CQ (R) =
rR

so abelian C RR, so equals I. Thus in Q, C


= CR/R 6 Q/R wirtually soluble,
so G/M = Q is too.
Now take H 6f G with H/M soluble, so H is by (5.2)(iii).

29

Corollary 6.20. Virtually soluble groups are the smallest class preserved by subgroups,
quotients, extensions, that contains all abelian and finite groups.
Proof. Like (6.17), using (6.19).

As in (5.5), if F2 6 G then G is not virtually soluble. For if soluble S 6f G and F2 6 G


then F2 S 6f F2 with F2 S 6 S non-abelian, free. So a contradiction by (5.5).
On Sheet 2, we see that not containing F2 is preserved by subgroups, quotients, extensions. Finitely-generated example (1.41) is not virtually soluble, no F2 subgroup. Finitely
presented? There are examples, but only 5 known constructions.
(Tits Alternative (1972). A finitely-generated linear group (i.e., a group of n n matrices
over a field F), or even any linear group in characteristic 0, is either virtually soluble or
contains a non-abelian free group.)

7. Maximal (normal) subgroups


Definition 7.1. A proper subgroup H < G is maximal if H 6 J 6 G implies H = J or
H = G.
Example 7.2. Q has no maximal subgroups. For if M < Q is maximal then M  Q and
Q/M has no proper normal subgroups (correspondence theorem), so its Cp . But Q
has no proper finite index subgroups.
Zorns Lemma. A poset X is a set with a relation 6 which is reflexive, antisymmetric,
transitive. In a total order we always have either x 6 y or y 6 x. A subset S of X is
a chain if S is totally ordered.
Then, if every chain S of X has an upper bound in X (i.e., some b X with s 6 b for
all s S) then X has a maximal element m (i.e., if m 6 x then m = x).
Proposition 7.3 (Neumann, 1937). If H < G and g G\H, then there exists a maximal
subgroup M containing H relative to g: i.e., H 6 M < G and g
/ M , such that if
M 6 L and g
/ L then L = M .
Proof. Poset
/ J}, ordered by 6. Then for chain S = {Ji } we
S X = {J < G : H 6 J and g
get Ji a subgroup which contains H but not g. So there is a maximal element M .2
Corollary 7.4. If G is finitely generated and H < G then H 6 M for M maximal.
Proof. G = hg1 , . . ., gk , h1 , . . ., h i for gi
/ H, hj H. Take M1 maximal with H 6 M1
relative to g1 .
If M1 < L < G then g1 L but not all gi are, so wlog g2
/ L, and if there is no L then
done. Take M2 maximal with L 6 M2 relative to g2 . This must stop at or before k: if
g1 , . . ., gk1 Mk maximal relative to gk and Mk < L then gk L and so L = G. 2
Note. This all works exactly the same if we replace subgroup with normal subgroup.

30

Infinite Simple Groups


G(6= I) is simple if N  G implies N = I or N = G. Note that G simple and soluble implies
G = Cp , some prime p.
Other simple groups include An (n > 5) and P SL(n, F) (for n > 2 or |F| > 3 and the proof
does work for infinite fields).
Imre moment 3. H =

An 6 S(N) (as in (1.5)(ii)) is simple.

Suppose N  G. Then N An  An . If N 6= I then take k with N Ak 6= I, so An 6 N


for all n > k.
This H is not finitely generated. If G is an infinite simple group then G is not virtually
soluble, as S 6f G = N 6 S by (6.8), with N f G. So N = S = G and so G has no
finite index subgroups.
Theorem 7.6 (Higman, 1951). Infinite finitely-generated simple groups exist.
Proof. Take Higmans G and N  G a maximal normal subgroup (containing I), so G/N
simple (correspondence theorem). But N 6= G, N 66f G, so G/N infinite and finitely
generated.
2
What about infinite finitely-presented simple groups? R. Thompson (60s/70s/80s?): Thompson groups F, T, V , finitely presented, infinite. F not simple, not virtually soluble, no F2
subgroup. T, V simple. (Cannon, Floyd, Parry something Math (42) 1996 p215.)
Open: does there exist an infinite finitely-presented simple group with no F2 subgroup?
Burger/Mozes (1998): there exist k, > 2 such that = Fk F Fk for F 6f Fk is finitely
presented, torsion-free, and simple.

8. Residual Finiteness
Definition 8.1. A group G is residually finite if

H = I.

H6f G

Lecture 13

Proposition 8.2. The following are equivalent:


(i) G is residually finite
T
=I
(ii)
N f G

(iii) For all g G \ {e}, there exists a homomorphism onto a finite group F such
that (g) 6= e
(iv) For all g1 , . . ., gn G \ {e}, there exists a homomorphism onto a finite group F
such that (gi ) 6= e for all i.
Proof.
(ii)(i) is clear, and (i)(ii) is by (6.8).
(ii)(iii), as for g G \ {e}, take N = ker , or : G G/N where g
/ N.
31

(ii)(iv), via : G G/

Tn

i=1

Ni and Poincare, whereas (iv)(iii).

So finite groups and Z are residually finite, but Q and the Higman group are not.
An infinite residually finite group G has infinitely
T many finite index subgroups (Poincare),
of arbitrarily high index by (6.1): if both H = ni=1 Hi and J 6f G, then [G : H] = [G :
H J] H = J, so take Hn+1 = J with h H \ J, continue, and index .
Aside. Given finitely-generated group G, we might expect the discrete topology on G. But
define basic open sets as the cosets of N f G, giving the profinite topology. It is:
Hausdorff G is residually finite; indiscrete no proper finite index subgroup;
discrete G finite.
Lemma 8.3. If RG =

N then G/RG is residually finite.

N f G

Proof. Normal finite index subgroups of G/RG are N/RG for RG 6 N f G, but for g
/ RG
we have RG 6 N f G with g
/ N.
2

Note that if G Q, residually finite, then factors through G/RG as (RG ) RQ .


Proposition 8.4.
(i) If G is residually finite and H 6 G, then H is residually finite
(ii) If H is residually finite and H 6f G, then G is residually finite
(iii) If G, H are residually finite, then G H is residually finite, and if G is also finitely
generated then G H is residually finite.
Proof.
(i) RG =

L from (8.2), and RG H > RH by (6.1).

L6f G

(ii) For H 6f G, we have L 6f H = L 6f G, so RG 6 RH but RG > RH by (i).


(iii) For (g, h) 6= id, take 1 : G F1 and 2 : H F2 with 1 (g), 2 (g) not both e.
Then 1 2 : G H F1 F2 finite and (g, h) 67 (e, e).
For G H, we have : G H H with (gh) = h, so there exists with
(gh) = (h) 6= e in a finite group, unless h = e. Take g G \ {e}. Now take
L 6f G with g
/ L and C 6f L characteristic in G by (6.10). Then C  G H
so CH 6 G H. As G H = I, we have g
/ CH 6f G H.
2
Corollary 8.5. G virtually polycyclic = G residually finite.
Proof. We have H 6f G with H poly-Z by (6.16). Now if M/N = Z with N finitely
generated and residually finite, then M
= N Z by (3.8), so M is residually finite by
(8.4)(iii). Thus H is residually finite, and so G is too by (8.4)(ii).
2
Theorem 8.6. Free groups are residually finite.
Proof 1. Recall (3.23), that F =


1
0




2
1 0
,G =
SL(2, Z) freely generate F2 .
1
2 1

32

Given a reduced word w (6= ) in F2 , we have w(F, G) =


a
c

 
b
1
6=
d
0


0
.
1

Take prime p > max{|a 1|, |d 1|, |b|, |c|}, then : SL(2, Z) SL(2, Fp ), a finite
group with (w(F, G)) 6= e. So F2 is residually finite.
Now, Fn 6 F2 , so there are residually finite, and for w(6= ) F (X), where {xi : i I},
only xi1 , . . ., xik appear in w. So we have : F (X) Fk = F (xi1 , . . ., xik ) given by
rest of X goes to e and extend. Now (w) 6= e, so now have : Fk finite group,
with (w) 6= e.
2
Proof 2. F2 free on a, b create a reduced word w using a, b, A, B (formal inverses).
Let w = AbABBBAAbA, labelled:

11

A10 b9 A8 B 7 B 6 B 5 A4 A4 b2 A1 .

Let f : F2 S11 (or n + 1 if length n) be given by

a
b

1 2
1
3

3 4
3

5 6
4
5

7 8
6 7

9 10 11
8
10
10

Partial functions, each mapping i 7 i + 1. Injective? E.g., maybe f (b)(9) = 10 =


f (b)(11)? But then 11 B 10 b9 reduced. Fill in:

a
b

1 2
11 1
11 3

3 4
2 3
1 2

5 6
4 5
4 5

7 8
6 7
6 7

9 10 11
8
9 10
10 8 9

f (a), f (b) S11 . Now universal property extends to a homomorphism f : F2 S11 .


And f (w)(1) = 11, so f (w) 6= id.
2
Lecture 14

Theorem 8.6a. If G1 , G2 are residually finite, then G1 G2 is residually finite.


Proof. First say G1 , G2 are finite. Given a reduced sequence g1 g2 . . .gn in G1 G2 of length
n > 1, let Xn = {g G1 G2 : 0 6 length(g) 6 n}, a finite set.
Define an action on Xn : if G2 then (g1 . . .gk ) =

g1 . . .gk
g1 . . .gk

if length(RHS) 6 n
otherwise

This gives a homomorphism G2 S(Xn ), and similarly G1 S(Xn ), which we extend


to a homomorphism G1 G2 S(Xn ), which is a finite group.
Now g1 . . .gn () = g1 . . .gn 6= , so g1 . . .gn is non-trivial in S(Xn ).
For g1 . . .gn in general G1 G2 , choose N1 f G1 and N2 f G2 such that g1 , . . ., gn
/
N1 N2 by (8.2)(iv).
Then Gi Gi /Ni (G1 /N1 ) (G2 /N2 ) extends to G1 G2 to(G1 /N1 ) (G2 /N2 ) and
the image of g1 . . .gn is reduced and so has length n.
2

Hopfian Groups
33

Definition 8.7. A group G is Hopfian if every surjective endomorphism : G G is


injective.
If not, then G/ ker
= G, so G is isomorphic to a proper quotient of itself. Finite groups
are Hopfian, as are Z. The free group F (N) is not Hopfian, as we can send x1 7 x1 and
xi+1 7 xi for all i > 2 but it is residually finite.
Theorem 8.8 (Malcev, 1940). A finitely-generated, residually-finite group G is Hopfian.
Proof. For : G G and H 6f G with index n, 1 (H) has index n too, and if 1 (H1 ) =
1 (H2 ) then 1 (H1 ) = H1 = H2 . So the pullback map is injective on {index n
subgroups of G}. But this is a finite set by (6.9), so is a permutation.
However, ker 6 1 (H) for all H 6f G, so ker is in

1 (H) = RG = I.

H6f G

Corollary 8.9. If g1 , . . ., gn generate the free group Fn then they freely generate Fn .
Proof. Fn is Hopfian, so if w(g1 , . . ., gn ) = e in F (x1 , . . ., xn ) then : F (g1 , . . ., gn )
F (x1 , . . ., xn ) by: given symbol gi , send it to its image in F (x1 , . . ., xn ) and extend.
This is surjective (it hits a generating set) and hence injective by (8.6), (8.8). So
w = .
2
An infinite simple group is Hopfian but not residually finite.

Baumslag-Solitar Groups
These are very useful for counterexamples.
Definition 8.10. The Baumslag-Solitar group Bm,n = ha, t | tam t1 = an i for m, n 6= 0.
These include B1,1 = Z Z and B1,1 = the Klein bottle group. Can also change m, n but
keep the group the same: Bm,n
= Bn,m . They are HNN extensions: Z = hai
= Bm,n
m
n
with : ha i ha i.
Proposition 8.11. Bm,n is soluble if |m| or |n| equals 1, and it contains F2 otherwise.
Proof. If |m| or |n| is 1, then wlog we have B1,n and this is soluble, just as in (5.11) (for
B1,2 ). Otherwise, a is not in the domain or image of . So for any reduced word
w(x, y) in F2 we have w(t, ata1 ) a reduced sequence in an HNN extension, so is not e
by Brittons Lemma.
Theorem 8.12. B2,3 is not Hopfian.
Proof. Let (t) = t, (a) = a2 . This is a homomorphism as it preserves the relation:
(ta2 t1 ) = (ta2 t1 )2 , (a3 ) = a6 . It is surjective: tat1 a1 7 ta2 t1 a2 = a.
What is the kernel? ([tat1 , a]) = [a3 , a2 ] = e, but tat1 ata1 t1 a1 is a reduced
sequence, so 6= e by Brittons Lemma.
2
Theorem 8.13. There exists a finite-generated soluble group which is not finitely presented.
Proof. Consider G = B2,3 and as above. Set Ki = ker i  G. We have Ki < Ki+1 , since
for y 6= e with (y) = e we have y = i (x) as i is surjective, so x Ki+1 \ Ki .
34

S
So G/ Ki = Q is not finitely presented by (4.4): if it is, then Q = ha, s | Si with
S = hhs1 , . . ., sk ii in G, so all in KN but x KN +1 \ KN is e in Q but not in S 6 KN .
i

Now, G is generated by ti at1 for i Z. But i (ti ati ) = ti a2 ti = a3 (for i > 0),
which commutes which i (a). This gives [ti ati , a] 7 e in Q as its in ker i , as well as
[tj atj , tk atk ] by conjugacy (set j = i + k).
Thus (G ) = Q is abelian, so Q = I.
Lecture 15

9. The Generalised Burnside Problem


Examples of torsion groups: finite groups F , infinite F F F . . ., example (1.5), etc.
But finitely generated?
In 1902, W. Burnside asked:
(1). The Generalised Burnside problem. Do there exist finitely-generated infinite torsion groups?
Lemma 9.1. If G is finitely-generated infinite torsion, then
(i) For G Q, we have Q finite or finitely-generated infinite torsion.
(ii) For H 6f G, we have H finitely-generated infinite torsion by (6.11).
(iii) G is not virtually soluble.
Proof.
(iii) If H is soluble then H/H is finitely-generated torsion and abelian, so finite, thus
H is finitely-generated infinite torsion by (ii) and soluble. Continue until H (n) =
I./\/\
2
Burnside also asked:
(2). The Burnside problem. If G is finitely generated and there is k such that for all
g G we have g k = e (i.e., bounded torsion), then can G be infinite?
Let F B(n, k) = hx1 , . . ., xn | wk = e for all w Fn i. Then a group G is n-generated and
g k = e for all g G F B(n, k) G, so (2) says: do there exist n, k for which F B(n, k)
is infinite?
And also:
(3). The Restricted Burnside Problem. Can G in (2) be infinite and residually finite?
Yes F B(n, k)/R infinite by (8.3).
In 1964, Golod answered (1) with yes: there are finitely-generated infinite p-groups (i.e.,
every element has order pk for some k).
Let p be any prime.
k

Definition 9.2. In Fn , the p-value vp (w) of non-identity w Fn is max{k : w = up for


u Fn }.
35

Definition 9.3. The p-deficiency, written p-def, of a presentation hx1 , . . ., xn | r1 , r2 , . . .i

P
pvp (ri ) , it it converges.
is n
i=1

Lemma 9.4. Say F acts on X and S  F with [F : S] = p. For x X, if there is


g stabF (x) \ S, then orbF (x) = orbS (x).
Proof. Have SstabF (x) = F , so for f (x) orbF (x) set f = st with s S and t stabF (x).
Then f (x) = s(x) orbS (x).
2
Theorem 9.5. For any prime p and n > 2, there exists an infinite n-generated p-group
which is residually finite.
Proof. Suppose hx1 , . . ., xn | r1 , r2 , . . .i is a presentation P with p-def(P ) >. Define G =
Fn /R.
(i) G Cp . We must have vp (ri ) = 0 for at most n 1 relators, or else p-def(P ) 6
n n.
6 Fnp , then G Cp , but if vp (ri ) > 1 then ri = 0 Fnp . So
By (4.8), if span{ri } =
dim span {ri } < n.
So let N = ker and set N = S/R for R 6 S  Fn with [Fn : S] = p.
By the proof of (6.11), N is generated by p(n 1) + 1 elements and R = hhtj ri tj :
i N, 0 6 j 6 p 1iiS gives relators, where {e, t, . . ., tp1 } is a transversal for S
in Fn if t
/ S.
What is the p-deficiency? Take one relator r = ri in P and set k = vp (r) so
k
r = wp for w Fn .
/ S.
Case (a). w
By (9.4) with conjugacy and x = r, f = w (these commute), so get cclF (r) =
cclS (r) so hhr, . . ., tp1 rt1p iiS = hhriiS , since the ti rti are conjugate in S (although not by t!).
k1

Now, r = (wp )p

for wp S.

Case (b). w S.
k

So tj rtj = (tj wtj )p .




ri
if vp (ri ) in S equals vp (ri ) 1 in Fn
Thus R = hh
ii.
tj rtj , 0 6 j 6 p 1 if the vp are equal
So this presentation Q for N as p-deficiency
p(n 1) + 1

X
i=1

p
= p(p-def(P ) 1) + 1
pvp (ri )

(ii) If p-def(P ) > 1 then G is infinite, as we get p-def(Q) > 1, so N Cp . So repeat


to get G > N1 > N2 > . . .
Now list the non-identity elements of Fn as {w1 , w2 , . . .} and set P = hx1 , . . ., xn |
2
3
w1p , w2p , w3p , . . .i. Then p-def(P ) > 1. So G is an infinite p-group, finitely generated.
Residually finite? G/RG is a residually-finite p-group, and N1 , N2 , . . . > RG , so G/RG
infinite.
2
36

What about (2), the Burnside Problem? F B(n, 2) is abelian. F B(n, 3), F B(n, 4), F B(n, 6)
are finite (1940s-1950s). F B(n, 5) is an open problem.
Novikov, Adyan (1970s) showed that F B(n, k) are infinite for all odd k > 665.
Olshansky (1982): for all large primes p, there exists a finitely-generated infinite group G
such that if I < H < G then then H
= Cp . So G has max!
What about (3), the Restricted Burnside Problem? The answer is no, by Zelmanov (1994
Fields medal).
Question. Do there exist finitely-presented infinite torsion groups?

37

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