Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Lectured by J. Button
Lent Term 2014
Course schedule
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Introduction
A brief guide to abelian groups
Free groups
Presentations of groups
Soluble, polycyclic, nilpotent groups
Finite index subgroups and virtual properties
Maximal (normal) subgroups
Residual finiteness
The Generalised Burnside Problem
1
8
9
16
21
24
30
31
35
Course description
This course is a general introduction to infinite groups, with particular emphasis on nitely
generated and finitely presented groups.
The following is a summary of the lectures:
Review of basic definitions and results; Brief mention of Abelian groups.
Free (non-abelian) groups and free products, Nielsen-Schreier theorem and index formula;
presentations of groups, free products with amalgamation and HNN extensions; nilpotent,
polycyclic and soluble groups.
Subgroups of finite index and virtual properties; maximal and maximal normal subgroups;
infinite simple groups; residual finiteness and Hopficity; Baumslag-Solitar groups.
The generalised Burnside Problem.
Desirable Previous Knowledge
Any introductory undergraduate group theory course as well as some basic algebraic topology,
up to covering spaces and the fundamental group.
Introductory Reading
Any introductory text in group theory, of which there are plenty. To list but two:
1. J. F. Humphreys, A course in group theory, Oxford Science Publications
2. W. Ledermann, Introduction to group theory, Longman
The necessary algebraic topology can certainly be found in either of:
1. J. M. Lee, Introduction to topological manifolds, (GTM 202), Chapters 7, 10, 11, 12
2. A. Hatcher, Algebraic topology, CUP, Chapter 0 and Sections 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.A
Reading to complement course material
Some of the results from the course can be found in:
1. R. C. Lyndon and P. E. Schupp, Combinatorial group theory, Springer, Sections I.1,
II.1, II.2, IV.1, IV.2, IV.4
Lecture 1
1. Introduction
The first chapter was given out in printed form in the first lecture, and annotations were
made to fill in some examples and sketch proofs. This is included here, which is why Lecture
1 looks a bit long.
Example 1.1.
1. X a set, S(X) the group of permutations of X.
2. F a field, Mn (F ) = {n n matrices with entries in F }.
Subgroups
Proposition 1.2. H G is a subgroup of G H 6= and for all a, b H, ab1 H. We
write H 6 G and H < G if H 6= G.
Proposition 1.3.
(i) L 6 H and H 6 G L 6 G.
T
(ii) If Hi 6 G for all i I then iI Hi 6 G.
For H1 , H2 6 G, H1 H2 is not generally a subgroup. But. . .
Proposition 1.4 (Ascending sequence of subgroups).
If H1 6 H2 6 . . . 6 G (which
S
means Hn 6 G and Hn 6 Hn+1 for all n) then n=1 Hn 6 G.
If we have groups Gn (n N) for which Gn 6 Gn+1 and we form the set X =
X is a group.
n=1
Gn then
Example 1.5.
n
Generators
Let X G.
T
Definition 1.6. The subgroup hXi generated by X is H, where this intersection is over
all H with X H 6 G. It is the smallest subgroup of G containing X. We write
hx1 , . . . , xk i, hX, Y i, hXi : i Ii, etc.
Definition 1.7. G is finitely generated (fin.gen./f.g./fg) if G = hg1 , . . . , gk i. Otherwise
G is infinitely generated (inf.gen./i.g.).
Example 1.8. G = hgi means that G is cyclic. Either G = Z or, if G has order n, we write
G = Cn .
1
Cyclic results.
1. A subgroup of cyclic group is cyclic: Cn , Z
2. Suppose there is no H with I < H < G. Then G = Cp (p prime) or I.
Proposition 1.9. If X G then the elements of hXi are (e and)
xn1 1 xn2 2 . . . xnk k
for n1 , . . . , nk Z, and x1 , . . . , xk X (but not necessarily distinct).
So G finite G finitely generated G countable.
If we have an ascending sequence of subgroups H1 6 H2 6 . . . 6 G then either:
there is some N such that HN = HN +n for all n N (the chain terminates); or
(on throwing away duplicates) H1 < H2 < . . . (the chain is strictly ascending)
Definition 1.10. G has max (satisfies the maximal condition) if every ascending sequence
of subgroups terminates.
Theorem 1.11. G has max H is finitely generated for all H 6 G.
Warning! We can have G finitely generated but with H < G with H infinitely generated.
We will see examples later; indeed it can be argued that many finitely generated groups
do not have max.
Cosets
If H 6 G then the left cosets of H in G are the sets gH = {gh : h H} for each g G.
Proposition 1.12 (Lagrange for infinite groups). The left cosets of H in G form a partition of G and any left coset is in bijection with H.
Note. We have right cosets Hg in bijection with H too. Also there is a bijection from the
set of left cosets to the set of right cosets given by gH goes to Hg 1 (not to Hg).
Definition 1.13.
(i) The index of H in G is the cardinality of the set of left (or right) cosets, written
[G : H] if finite.
(ii) A left (or right) transversal is a choice of left (or right) coset representatives,
with exactly one for each coset.
Normal subgroups
For g, x G and H 6 G the conjugate of x by g is gxg 1 G and the conjugate of H by
g is gHg 1 6 G. Conjugacy is an equivalence relation.
Definition 1.14. The subgroup N is normal in G (written N G) if the following equivalent
conditions hold:
2
n=1
Nn G.
Let X G.
Definition 1.17. (cf. Definition 1.6)
T
The normal closure hhXii, or hhXiiG to be clear, of X in G is N over all N with
X N G. It is the smallest normal subgroup of G containing X.
Note. We have X hXi 6 hhXii but hhXii can be much bigger than hXi.
Proposition 1.18. (cf. Proposition 1.9)
If X G then the elements of hhXii are (e and)
g1 xn1 1 g11 g2 xn2 2 g21 . . . gk xnk k gk1
for n1 , . . . , nk Z, x1 , . . . , xk X and g1 , . . . , gk G (but not necessarily distinct).
Set products
If A, B 6 G then the set product is AB = {ab : a A, b B}. It is not in general a
subgroup of G.
Proposition 1.19.
(i) AB 6 G AB = BA.
(ii) If so then AB = hA, Bi.
(iii) For N G and H 6 G we have N H = HN .
3
Homomorphisms
A function : G H for groups G, H is a homomorphism if (xy) = (x)(y) for all
x, y G.
It is an isomorphism if is bijective (both surjective (onto) and injective (1-1)), which is
equivalent to the existence of an inverse 1 : H G, (where inverse here means two-sided
inverse). In this case, 1 is unique and is also a homomorphism. We write G
= H, and
they are then the same as abstract groups.
N)
= HN/N .
Extensions
If G/N
= Q we say that G is an extension of N by Q. We write G is N -by-Q but this
does not necessarily determine G uniquely!
Lemma 1.28. If G is A-by-(B-by-C) then G is (A-by-B)-by-C.
Proof. G/A
= Q where Q/B
= C. Thus B is N/A for some N G (correspondence
2
theorem). So C
= G/N .
= (G/A)/(N/A)
Note, is false. E.g., A4 is (C2 -by-C2 )-by-C3 , but not C2 -by-(C2 -by-C3 ) as A4 does not
have a normal subgroup of order 2.
Group properties
These only depend on the abstract structure of the group. It is always worth asking whether
a group property is preserved by (i) Subgroups, (ii) Quotients, (iii) Extensions (namely if
G/N
= Q and N and Q both have this property then G does too).
For instance, what about finite, countable, cyclic, abelian, finitely generated, max?
Subgroups
Quotients
Extensions
Finite
y
y
y
Ctble
y
y
y
Cyclic
y
y
n
Abelian
y
y
n
FG
n
y1
y2
Max
y
y
y3
To see entry 1, that fg is preserved by quotients, note that (hg1 , . . ., gn i) = h(g1 ), . . ., (gn )i.
Theorem 1.29. The properties finitely generated and max (entries 2 and 3) are preserved
by extensions.
Proof.
2. If G/N = Q, N = hn1 , . . ., nr i and Q = hg1 N, . . ., gs N i, then gN = g0 N for
g0 hg1 , . . ., gs i. So g = g0 n. So G = hn1 , . . ., nr , g1 , . . ., gs i.
T
HN/N 6 G/N . G/N has max, so
3. H any subgroup of G. Then H/H
N =
T
HN/N is fg. H has max, so H N is fg. Use (i). So H is fg, so G has max.
5
Actions.
We say the group G acts on the set X (on the left) if there is a function : G X X
such that
(e, x) = x and (g1 , (g2 , x)) = (g1 g2 , x) for all g1 , g2 G, x X.
Note for each g G the function x 7 (g, x) is a permutation of X (put in g 1 , g and then
g, g 1 to get an inverse).
Equivalently there is a homomorphism : G S(X) given by (g)(x) = (g, x).
We say G acts faithfully (effectively) if is injective. We can then unambiguously write
g(x) for (g)(x); we sometimes do this anyway. We say the action is (fixed point) free if
(g)(x) = x g = e (which implies faithful).
For x X the orbit Orb(x) = {(g)(x) : g G} X and the stabiliser Gx = {g G :
(g)(x) = x} 6 G. The orbits form a partition of X and the action is transitive if theres
one orbit. If y = (g)(x) then Gy = gGx g 1 so stabilisers are rarely normal.
Theorem 1.30 (Orbit-Stabiliser). If G acts on X then for x X the sets Orb(x) and
{left cosets of Gx } are in bijection.
Example 1.31.
(i) G acts on itself via (g)(x) = gx. This is transitive, and also free so G 6 S(G).
(ii) G acts on itself by conjugation: (g)(x) = gxg 1 . Here Orb(x) is the conjugacy
class of x while the stabiliser is the centraliser {g G : gx = xg} of x in G,
written CG (x) or sometimes just C(x) when clear. Note hxi 6 C(x) but its not
generally abelian.
We
T also have for H 6 G the centraliser CG (H) = {g G : gh = hg for all h H} =
hH CG (h). We set CG (G) = Z(G), the centre of G, which is abelian and normal.
Moreover G acts on the set of its subgroups by conjugation: (g)(H) = gHg 1 6 G. Then
Orb(H) is the set of subgroups conjugate to H and the stabiliser is the normaliser N (H) =
{g G : gHg 1 = H} 6 G. It is the largest subgroup of G in which H is normal. Also
C(H) 6 N (H).
Automorphisms
An isomorphism (homomorphism) from G to G is an automorphism (endomorphism).
Example 1.32. For any g G, g (x) = gxg 1 is an automorphism so H
= gHg 1 . These
are the inner automorphisms and form a group Inn(G) under composition.
We have g = e g Z(G) so G/Z(G)
= Inn(G). Moreover all automorphisms form a
group Aut(G), with Inn(G) Aut(G) and the quotient is defined to be the outer automorphism group Out(G) of G.
Definition 1.33. The subgroup C of G is characteristic in G if (C) = C Aut(G)
(but (C) 6 C is enough), so C G.
Proposition 1.34.
(i) A characteristic in B, B characteristic in C A characteristic in C.
(ii) A characteristic in B and B C A C.
Direct products
We can form the direct product G1 G2 from groups G1 , G2 via (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) =
(x1 y1 , x2 y2 ). This is external, we can also do this internally.
Proposition 1.35. If M, N G with M N = G and M
by (m, n) = mn is an isomorphism.
N = I then : M N G given
Gn is uncount-
Semidirect products
Definition 1.37. Given groups G1 , G2 and a homomorphism : G2 Aut(G1 ), the
semidirect product G1 G2 is the set of ordered pairs with multiplication
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 ((x2 )(y1 )), x2 y2 ).
Example 1.38.
(i) the trivial homomorphism gives the direct product.
(ii) Take Z = hzi (written additively) and C2 = {e, c}. Then Z C2 with (c)(z) =
z is the infinite dihedral group.
Proposition 1.39. (cf. Proposition 1.35)
T
If H 6 G and N G with N H = G and N H = I (so G/N
= H by 1.25) then
: N H G given by (n, h) = nh and (h)(n) = hnh1 N is an isomorphism.
So again the internal and external versions are equivalent. There is another point of view:
If G/N = Q with : G G/N the natural projection, we say that the extension splits if
H 6 G such that : H Q is an isomorphism.
T
Now for G = N H a semidirect product,
restricted to H is an isomorphism as H ker = I.
T
But a split extension implies H N = I and N H = G as (H) = (G), so theyre the same.
Example 1.40. SL(2, C) = {A GL(2, C) : det A = 1} GL(2, C) with quotient C \ {0}.
If I2 is the 2 2 identity matrix then P SL(2, C) = SL(2, C)/{I2}. This extension
7
does not split because we have elements g (of order four) in SL(2, C) with (g) of order
two in P SL(2, C), but the only element of order 2 in SL(2, C) is I2 with (I2 ) = e.
Example 1.41. Let H = S0 (Z) 6 S(Z). Recall H is not fg. But H is generated by
{(n, n + 1) : n Z}, as any h H is a permutation of N, . . ., N and so h is some
product of (N, N + 1), . . ., (N 1, N ).
Now consider G = hH, f i where f (z) = z + 1. Then (n, n + 1) = f n (01)f n (composed
right-to-left), so G = h(01), f i. So G is a 2-generated group, but H is a subgroup thats
not finitely-generated.
Definition. G is torsion if all elements have finite order, and is torsion-free if only e has
finite order. (So the group I is both torsion and torsion-free!)
If G is fg, let d(G) be the minimum size of a generating set.
Proposition 2.3. For a fg group G
= Zr Cd1 . . . Cds (as in 2.1), we have d(G) = r + s.
Proof. We have d(G) 6 r + s, so take prime p | ds , and then there exists : G Cpr+s .
The image is a vector space over the field Fp , with generating set a spanning set, but
(generating set for G) is a generating set for image, of dimension r + s.
Examples of non-fg abelian groups: Q, Q/Z, R, R/Z
= S 1 (see Example 1.5(i)).
If P is a property preserved by subgroups, say that G is locally P if H has P for all fg
H 6 G.
Examples.
1. If H =
pk
p1
q1 , . . ., qk
6 Q, then H 6
1
q1 ...qk
E
, so Q is locally cyclic.
p
q
1. Say A 6 B then /A
= Z /B
= Z, so have an isomorphism with A = B. (If
b B \ A then b is in the kernel.)
2. So suppose we have A 6< B and B 6< A. Then A/A B
= AB/B 6 /B
= Z and
Abelianisation
For G any group with x, y G, the commutator [x, y] = xyx1 y 1 G.
Definition 2.4. The commutator/derived subgroup G of G is h[x, y] : x, y Gi.
Proposition 2.5. G G with G/G abelian.
Proof. For an automorphism of G, we have ([x, y]) = [(x), (y)] G , so G is in fact
characteristic.
In G/G , xyG = yx([x1 , y 1 ]G ).
Corollary 2.6. G/G is the largest abelian quotient of G. If G/N is abelian then G 6 N ,
so G G/N factors through G/G .
Definition 2.7. For any G, the abelianisation G of G is this abelian quotient G/G .
Note: if G is fg, then (2.1) apply to G.
3. Free groups
Definition 3.1. Let X (say {a, b, . . .}) be a set of symbols and let X 1 ( = {a1 , b1 , . . .})
be a set disjoint from X.
We write X 1 = X X 1 .
A word in X 1 is a finite sentence of elements of X 1 (letters). Note: is a word.
Let W be the set of all words, and let W0 W be the set of reduced words these
contain no subword xx1 or x1 x.
Aside. We want to define the free group on X as the set of reduced words.
Multiply w1 and w2 by concatenation, cancelling any disallowed subwords that occur.
But we wont define it this way (some books do), as the proof of associativity is fiddly,
because of the cancelling.
Definition 3.2. The free group F (X) on set X = {xi } is the subgroup of S(W0 ) generated
by elements
xi w if w does not start with x1
i
i (w) =
w
if w = x1
i w
This does have image in W0 and inverse i1 (w).
Corollary 3.4. M : W0 F (X) is surjective, and given a (not necessarily reduced) word
w W , if we delete all subwords xx1 and x1 x in any order, we reach a unique
w0 W0 .
Proof. Extend M to a map W F (X). This is surjective by (1.9), and each deletion
reduces the length of w, so we reach some w0 W0 . Deletions do not change the group
element, so M (w) = M (w0 ), so w0 is unique by (3.3).
2
Theorem 3.5 (Universal property of free groups). Any map f : XtoG (G any group)
extends uniquely to a homomorphism f : F (X) G such that f (i ) = f (xi ).
1
Proof. First define f (x1
G. Then let f (t1 . . .tk ) = f (t1 ). . .f (tk ), where
i ) = f (xi )
1
tj {i } is represented by letter tj X 1 .
Proposition 3.6. If F (X) and F (Y ) are free groups on X and Y then F (X)
= F (Y )
|X| = |Y |.
Proof. () If f : X Y is a bijection, then extend to a homomorphism f : F (X)
F (Y ) and (f 1 ) : F (X) F (Y ). But (f 1 ) f fixes X and so is the identity
homomorphism (by uniqueness). And the same for f (f 1 ) , so f is bijective.
() For any group G, let SG G be hg 2 : g Gi. Then G/SG is abelian with all
non-identity elements of order 2, and thus it is a vector space over the field F2 .
Now, the image of X in F (X)/SF (X) is linearly independent and spans and so |X| is
the dimension.
2
We can define Fn , the free group of rank n when |X| = n. Then F0 = I, F1 = Z, but if
a 6= b X then ab 6= ba in F (X), so F (X) is non-abelian, and in fact ha, bi = F2 6 F (X).
Corollary 3.7. Every (fg) group is a quotient of a (fg) free group.
Proof. If G = hgi : i Ii, then take X = {xi : i I} and use 3.5.
Definition 3.9. We say the set S = {si } F (X) is a free basis for F (X) if hSi = F (X)
(generates), and for any reduced word w0 6= on S 1 we have w0 6= id when evaluated
in F (X) (free).
10
Free Products
Definition 3.17. Let {G : } be an indexed family
F of groups. A reduced sequence
in {G } is a finite sequence g1 . . .gr where gi
G , such that each gj 6= e and no
Definition 3.18. The free product G is the subgroup of S(R) generated by elements
11
if g1
/ G
if g1 G (remove if e)
Example 3.22.
(i) Let X = R2 with reflections a, b in lines x = 0 and x = 21 .
1
2
later!)
(detail
Then ha, bi = ha, bai = C2 C2 . This is the infinite dihedral group (1.38) as
ba(x) = x + 1 and a(ba)a1 = (ba)1 .
12
az + b
with a, b, c, d C, ad bc 6= 0.
cz + d
dz b
This is a bijection of C {}, with inverse f 1 (z) =
.
cz + a
z
.
Let f (z) = z + 2 and g(z) =
2z + 1
(ii) M
obius Transformations. Let f (z) =
............................ ..............................
....
... ....
...
...
....
...
.....
...
...
.
..
.
1
Proposition 3.23. Let F =
0
2
1
,G=
1
2
0
SL(2, Z).
1
Seifert - Van Kampen Theorem (Hatcher Theorem 1.20 in the case where the intersections are simply connected): If X = A where all of the A are path connected and open
in X, with x0 A and each pairwise and triple intersection A1 A2 , A1 A2 A3
is simply connected then
1 (X)
= 1 (A ).
If A X and : A X is the inclusion map then sadly : 1 (A) 1 (X) might not be
injective or surjective (see picture). But in a deformation retraction X A (by taking f = r
and g as inclusion of A = Y in X) so X and A have isomorphic fundamental groups.
e X is a covering map (with X
e a covering space for X) if
A continuous map p : X
1
x X there exists an open neighbourhood V of x with p (V ) a disjoint union of open
e each of which is mapped homeomorphically by p onto V . As X is connected, the
sets in X,
e X 6= ) is constant: the degree or
cardinality of p1 (x) (which is non-zero as we assume X,
number of sheets.
e
Given a path : [0, 1] X and a point x
e above (0), there exists a unique path
e : [0, 1] X
e
lifting (namely pe
= ). Moreover p : 1 (X) 1 (X) is injective.
e
Classification of Coverings Theorem: For each H 6 1 (X) there exists a cover p : X
e
X with p (1 (X)) = H (this cover is unique). The degree is the index of H in 1 (X).
e X is a homeomorphism of X
e such that
A deck transformation of the cover p : X
e
p = p. They form a group D and for any x0 X the action of D on p1 ({x0 }) X
e x
is transitive if and only if p 1 (X,
f0 ) is normal in 1 (X, x0 ), in which case we say p is a
regular cover.
End of handout
Notes.
1. Subset S of is open (closed) S e open (closed) for all .
2. is locally path-connected and locally contractible.
(Here, connected path-connected.)
3. Basic open sets for are these and open intervals in e .
14
Lecture 5
1 (L) = Z.
But L as the components K of \ L and in T and so are trees. If a 6= b K L,
then go from a to b in K and then back via L (not via w w ) to get a reduced cycle
in T .
Thus by (3.27) we can deformation retract each K (simultaneously) onto the point in
K L, giving () = Z.
15
aA
ma m .
S
Then A is open in and path-connected with A A (A ) = \ a ma , which
deformation retracts onto T , so (3.27) implies simply connected. Also, A retracts onto
2
T e , so 1 (A )
= Z.
= Z, giving (by Seifert-Van Kampen) that 1 (, v)
Corollary 3.29. For every freep group F (X), there exists a simple graph with 1 () =
F (X).
Proof. Take a loop for each x X, all joined at v, turn it into a triangle and then use
(3.28).
2
Theorem 3.30 (Nielsen-Schreier). A subgroup of a free group is free.
e X, (X)
e = H), so (3.25)
Proof. For H 6 F (X), use (3.29), subgroups covering (X
and (3.28) give H is free.
2
Theorem 3.31 (Nielsen-Schreier index formula). If H has index i in the free group Fn
then H has rank i(n 1) + 1.
e has degree i, then
Proof. For finite graph , define () = |V | |E|. If p :
e
() = i(), by (3.25).
e \ numbers i(n 1) + 1,
Now in (3.28), note () = 1, so the set of edges {e } for
so this is the rank of H.
2
Notes.
1. F2 6 F3 and F3 6 F2 .
2. If N F (X), it can be shown that if N has infinite index (and N 6= I) then N
has infinite rank.
Lecture 6
4. Presentations of groups
By (3.7), we can write any group G as F (X)/N , where (the image of X) is a generating set
for G.
Definition 4.1. A presentation hX|Ri for a group G is a set X and a subset R of F (X)
such that G
= G(X)/hhRii.
Elements of X are generators, and elements of X are relators.
Theorem 4.2 (van Dyck, quotient = more relators). If G = hX|Ri, then Q is a quotient of G Q
= hX|R Si.
Proof.
16
() Now say Q = G/L, for G = F (X)/M , where M = hhRii. Then L = N M/M for
N F (X), so Q
= F (X)/N M .
Take any S with hhSii = N , then hhR Sii = hhN M ii = N M , so Q
= hX|R Si. 2
Definition 4.3. G is finitely presented (f.p.) if G = hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , . . ., rm i. I.e., finitely
many generators and finitely many relators.
Note. If N 6= I is of infinite index in F (X), then N is not finitely generated.
Proposition 4.4 (B. Neumann, 1937). If G = hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , . . ., rm i and also G =
hy1 , . . ., yk |s1 , s2 , . . .i, then G = hy1 , . . ., yk |s1 , . . ., s i for some .
Proof. We set yi = vi (x1 , . . ., xn ) and xi = wi (y1 , . . ., yn ), as we think of the xi and yi as
elements of G.
Thus yi = vi (w1 (yj ), . . ., wn (yj )) and ri (w1 (yj ), . . ., wn (yj )) = e in G.
Let N = hhs1 , s2 , . . .ii F ({yi }) and form
G = hy1 , . . ., yk |yi = vi (w1 (yj ), . . ., wn (yj )), ri (. . .)i
So there exists : G F ({yi })/N , as each relator holds in G, as F ({yi }) F ({yi })/N
factors through G.
Now take : hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , . . ., rm i G by (xi ) = xi wi (y1 , . . ., yk ).
Then (xi ) = xi , with surjective, so is an isomorphism. So N = hhfinite setii.
But N =
hhs1 , . . ., s ii.
i=1
Proposition 4.5. G = ha, b [a2n+1 ba(2n+1) , b], n Ni is not finitely presented.
Proof. Notation: let cn = [a2n+1 ba(2n+1) , b].
Aside. The same Neumann paper shows that there are uncountably many finitely generated
groups up to isomorphism, but only countably many finitely presented groups.
Examples 4.6.
0. Finite groups are f.p.
1. Fn = hx1 , . . ., xn |i.
2. Cn = hx|xn i, but hx, y|x14 , y 21 , x3 = y 4 i = C7 .
17
So is an isomorphism.
If G = hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , r2 , . . .i and p is prime, let rj Fnp be the exponential sum vector modulo
p of rj . That is, (#x1 s#x1
1 s) + . . . mod p.
Then Fn Cpn , r 7 r, is a homomorphism.
Proposition 4.8. If S = span{rj } 6= Fnp then G 6= I.
Proof. There exists a linear functional f : Fnp Fp with S 6 ker f .
f
Example 4.9. If #relators < #generators in a finite presentation, then G Fp for all p,
so its infinite.
Proposition 4.10. If G = hxi |rk i and hyj |s i, then G H = hxi , yj |rk , s i.
Proof. Call the RHS G|H, and let G|H G H (where fixes xi , yj ).
Also, there is a homomorphism from G into G|H fixing each xi and from H similarly.
Extend to : G H G|H by (3.20). Now compose with , and extend. Uniqueness
says = id, but is surjective, so is an isomorphism
2
We can now extend the table on page 5.
Subgroups
Quotients
Extensions
Free
n
n
n
FP
n (e.g., F2 )
n (e.g., (4.5))
y
Theorem 4.11 (P. Hall). If H G and N, G/N are f.p., then G is f.p.
Proof. Let N = hx1 , . . ., xn |r1 , . . ., rm i and G/N = hy1 , . . ., y |s1 , . . ., s i.
Take g1 , . . ., g with gi N = yi , so have a generating set. Now take relations1 ri = e,
si (g1 , . . ., g ) = ti (x1 , . . ., xn ) N , and gj xi gj1 = uij (x1 , . . ., xn ) N , and gj1 xi gj =
vij (x1 , . . ., xm ).
Take G = hx1 , . . ., xm , g1 , . . ., g i, with above relations.
Lecture 7
1A
relation is an expression of the form w = u, compared with a relator which is of the form wu1 .
18
Then G G. Let K = ker , and let N = hx1 , . . ., xn i. Then N G by uij , vij . Now
restrict to N where it is an isomorphism. So K N = I.
Now as (N ) = N , we obtain 0 : G/N G/N which is also injective as above. But
2
ker 0 = KN /N
= K/K N , so K = I.
19
Gn .
m .
20
Lecture 8
Polycyclic groups
Definition 5.6. The group G is polycyclic if if there exists a sequence a subgroups
I = Gn Gn1 . . . G1 G0 = G
such that Gi /Gi1 is cyclic.
21
So polycyclic = soluble.
Theorem 5.7. The polycyclic property is preserved by subgroups, quotients and extensions.
Proof. Exactly as (5.2), with abelian replaced by cyclic throughout.
In fact, if property P is soluble: yes; quotients: yes; extensions: no, then (5.2) shows that
poly-P has all three.
Corollary 5.8. Finitely-generated abelian groups A are polycyclic.
Proof. (2.1) expresses A as a direct product of cyclic groups, so build out of extensions. 2
Theorem 5.9. G polycyclic G soluble and has max.
Proof. () A cyclic group is soluble and has max, and both of these are preserved by
extensions.
() Each Gi in (5.1) is finitely generated, so each Gi /Gi+1 is polycyclic by (5.8), and
this is preserved by extensions.
2
Corollary 5.10. If G is polycyclic and H 6 G, then H is finitely presented.
Proof. A cyclic group is finitely presented and this is preserved by extensions by (4.11), so
G is finitely presented. And H 6 G implies H polycyclic.
2
Example 5.11. Let D 6 Q be the subgroup of dyadic rationals {n/2i : n Z, i > 0} is not
cyclic, hence infinitely generated as Q is locally cyclic.
Let B = D Z, where for t Z we define (t) to be the automorphism d 7 2d for
d D. Then G is metabelian (abelian-by-abelian) and generated by 1 D and t Z.
Write the Z part as hti. Then all elements of B have the form (n/2i , tj ), with
(0, tk )(n/2i , 1)(0, tk ) = (2k n/2i , 1),
so D 6 h1, ti by taking k > i. (Where 1= (1, 1) and t = (0, t).)
So this is a group which is finitely generated but doesnt have max, so isnt polycyclic.
What about a finitely presented example?
Let G = ha, b : bab1 = a2 i. Then send a 7 (1, 1) and b 7 (0, t), and extend to a
surjective homomorphism : G B.
Now, G/G
= Z, generated by bG .
As ba = a2 b and ba1 = a2 b, and ab1 = b1 a2 and a1 b1 = b1 a2 , given any
word in a, b, we can move the positive powers of b past a1 to the right, and of b1 to
the left.
Thus any g G will have the form bm a bn for Z and m, n N.
Now (g) = (/2m , tnm ), and if this equals eB = (0, 1), then = 0, m = n. Hence
is also injective, and so G
= B.
22
Then b
nm
2
ab =
0
m n
2m
1
1 1
2 0
and b =
GL(2, Q).
0 1
0 1
and bab1 = a2 .
Nilpotent groups
Definition 5.13. A group G is nilpotent if there exists a sequence of subgroups
I = Gn 6 Gn1 6 . . . 6 G0 = G
such that Gi G and Gi /Gi+1 is in the centre of G/Gi+1 .
Such a series (if it exists) is called a central series.
Note. Abelian = nilpotent = soluble, but G(6= I) nilpotent = Z(G) 6= I
So S3 is polycyclic, not nilpotent, so nilpotent is not preserved by extensions.
Theorem 5.14. The nilpotent property is preserved by subgroups, quotients and direct
products.
Proof.
(i) As in (5.2), we want (H Gi )/(H Gi+1 ) to be in the centre of H/(H Gi+1 )
=
HGi+1 /Gi+1 . The former becomes (H Gi )Gi+1 /Gi+1 , which is in Gi /Gi+1 , so
commutes with G/Gi+1 .
(ii) We need Gi N/Gi+1 H to be in the centre of G/Gi+1 N , but xgx1 g 1 Gi+1 for
x Gi , g G, so xng(xn)1 g 1 Gi+1 N .
(iii) Given Gi 6 G and Hj 6 H as in (5.13), we have Gi G 6 G H with (Gi
H)/(Gi+1 H) in the centre of (G H)/(Gi+1 H), so we use
I I 6 I Hn 6 I Hn1 6 . . . 6 I H 6 Gn H 6 Gn1 H 6 . . . 6 G H
For H1 , . . ., Hn 6 G, define [H1 , H2 ] = h[h1 , h2 ]i and [H1 , . . ., Hn ] = [H1 , . . ., Hn1 ], Hn .
For any G, the lower central series of G is
1 (G) = G > 2 (G) = [G, G] > 3 (G) = [[G, G], G] > . . . > i+1 (G) = [i (G), G]
Lemma 5.15. G is nilpotent the lower central series terminates at I.
Proof. () Each i (G) is characteristic in G, and i (G)/i+1 (G) is in Z(G/i+1 G), so we
get a central series.
23
() Assume i (G) 6 Gi1 (some central series) for i > 1, then i+1 (G) = [i (G), G] 6
[Gi1 , G] which (as a central series) is in Gi
2
Theorem 5.16 (Baer). If G is nilpotent and finitely generated then i (G) is finitely generated.
Proof. Suppose first that 3 (G) = I and G = hx1 , . . ., xn i is a symmetric generating
set (i.e., closed under inverses). In any group we have [y, x]x[y, z]x1 = [y, xz] and
z[x, y]z 1 [z, y] = [zx, y]. So, in G we get [g,
Qxh] = [g, x][g, h] and [gx, y] = [x, y][g, y],
so any element of 2 (G) is a finite product [xj , xk ].
This also shows for any G that 2 (G)/3 (G) is generated by {[xj , xk ]} modulo 3 (G).
Now assume that anything in i (G)/i+1 (G) is a product of {[xj1 , . . ., xji ] i [x]}.
In i+1 (G)/i+2 (G), suppose g = xi h, then
[ ] is in the centre.
|{z}
i [g], g
i [g], x g
i [g], x
i [g], h
, as
i+1
Q Q
s i [xs ], xr
Q
r [g1 , . . ., gi ], xr for
Q Q
r
s i [xs ], xr
So if n+1 (G) = I then n (G) is finitely generated, and n1 (G)/n (G) finitely generated implies n1 (G) finitely generated, etc.
2
Corollary 5.13. Finitely-generated nilpotent groups G are polycyclic and have max.
Proof. i (G)/i+1 (G) is abelian and finitely generated, so have max and polycyclic, extensions.
2
24
(i) Check
(ii) Suppose g1S
, . . ., gk is a (left) transversal for H in G, and h1 , . . ., h is for J in H.
Then G = i,j gi hj J. Check that if gi hj J = gi hj J then same coset.
(ii)
xHx1
xG
25
Theorem 6.9. If G is finitely generated then for any n N, there are only finitely many
subgroups of index n in G.
Proof. If G = hg1 , . . ., gk i then there are only finitely many homomorphisms : G Sn as
would be determined by (gi ), so only finitely many homomorphisms are transitive
on {1, . . ., n}, where stab(1) has index n (by Orbit-Stabiliser).
Now say H 6f G with [G : H] = n, then on ordering L as {H, . . ., } we have that the
regular representation of G is a transitive homomorphism from G to Sn with stab(1) =
H.
2
Corollary 6.10. If G is finitely generated and H 6f G then there exists C, characteristic
in G, with C 6f H 6f G.
Proof. Let C =
(H).
Aut(G)
Then H and (H) have the same index in G by (6.4), with C 6f G by (6.9) and (6.2).
If Aut(G) then (C) =
(H) =
(H).
Aut(G)
Aut(G)
26
But as any g Fk is htj for h F , we do have that the normal closure of {tj ri t1
:
j
1 6 i 6 m} in F in N .
Finally, finitely generated/presented groups are preserved by extensions by (1.29),
(4.11), so if H is finitely generated/presented then take N G with N 6f H by (6.8). N
is finitely generated/presented and G/N is finite, so G is finitely generated/presented.
2
Note. If G = hk gens | m relsi then the deficiency of the presentation is k m. If k m > 0
then G is infinite.
(6.11) shows that if exists H with [G : H] = n then H has a presentation with deficiency
n(k 1 m) + 1. So def(presn for H) 1 = [G : H] (def(presn for G) 1).
How do we know a group has proper finite index subgroups?
E.g., if H 6f Q with index n then for each q Q, we have q = n
q
n
H by (6.3).
Virtual Properties
Here we regard groups H and G as basically the same if H 6f G. Say a group property P
is okay if when G has P and H 6f G then H has P.
27
But what about finite index supergroups ? If H has P and H 6f G then G might not have
P.
Definition 6.14. If property P is okay, we say that a group G is virtually P if there
exists H 6f G where H was P.
By (6.8), this is the same as G being P-by-finite. For finitely-generated groups, cyclic =
abelian = nilpotent = polycyclic = soluble.
Example 6.15.
(i) Z Z is abelian but not cyclic.
(ii) A nilpotent group which is not virtually abelian.
Let G = ha, b, t | ab = ba, tat1 = ab, tbt1 = bi be the semidirect product Z2 Z
(ha, bi hti). Then b Z(G) and G/hbi
= Z2 .
Now, if there is abelian A 6f G then ti , aj A for i, j > 0 by (6.3). But
ti aj ti = (abi )j = aj aij 6= aj in G.
(iii) A polycyclic group which is not virtually nilpotent.
Let G = ha, b, t | ab = ba, tat1 = a2 b, tbt1 = abi.
If H 6f G with H nilpotent then take h 6= e in Z(H) and set h = ak b tm . Now,
there exists i > 0 with ti H, and thus ti hti = h. But this changes if k 6= 0,
and adds as if 6= 0.
** End of aside **
Virtually Polycyclic Groups
Theorem 6.16. The following are equivalent:
(i) G is virtually polycyclic.
(ii) G is polycyclic by finite.
(iii) G is poly-Z by finite.
(iv) G is poly-(Z or finite).
Proof. We have (i) = (ii) and (iii) (ii) (iv).
28
Question. Are these all the groups with max? (See the final lecture.)
Theorem 6.19. Virtually soluble groups are preserved by subgroups, quotients and extensions.
Proof.
(i) If H 6f G with H soluble and S 6 G, then H S 6f S by (6.1)(iii), but
H H 6 H so its soluble by (5.2)(i).
(ii) Use (6.4)(ii) and (5.2)(ii).
(iii) Let G/N , N be virtually soluble, and take M f N soluble and normal, of minimal
index. Then if soluble S f N , we have S 6 M as SM soluble, normal, finite
index.
Thus M is the unique normal soluble subgroup of that index, so its characteristic
in N , and normal in G.
Lecture 12
But G/N
= (G/M )/(N/M ), which well call Q/R. This R is finite with no nontrivial soluble normal subgroups.
T
CQ (r) f Q by (6.2) and Orbit-Stabiliser,
Now, the centraliser C = CQ (R) =
rR
29
Corollary 6.20. Virtually soluble groups are the smallest class preserved by subgroups,
quotients, extensions, that contains all abelian and finite groups.
Proof. Like (6.17), using (6.19).
30
8. Residual Finiteness
Definition 8.1. A group G is residually finite if
H = I.
H6f G
Lecture 13
(iii) For all g G \ {e}, there exists a homomorphism onto a finite group F such
that (g) 6= e
(iv) For all g1 , . . ., gn G \ {e}, there exists a homomorphism onto a finite group F
such that (gi ) 6= e for all i.
Proof.
(ii)(i) is clear, and (i)(ii) is by (6.8).
(ii)(iii), as for g G \ {e}, take N = ker , or : G G/N where g
/ N.
31
(ii)(iv), via : G G/
Tn
i=1
So finite groups and Z are residually finite, but Q and the Higman group are not.
An infinite residually finite group G has infinitely
T many finite index subgroups (Poincare),
of arbitrarily high index by (6.1): if both H = ni=1 Hi and J 6f G, then [G : H] = [G :
H J] H = J, so take Hn+1 = J with h H \ J, continue, and index .
Aside. Given finitely-generated group G, we might expect the discrete topology on G. But
define basic open sets as the cosets of N f G, giving the profinite topology. It is:
Hausdorff G is residually finite; indiscrete no proper finite index subgroup;
discrete G finite.
Lemma 8.3. If RG =
N f G
Proof. Normal finite index subgroups of G/RG are N/RG for RG 6 N f G, but for g
/ RG
we have RG 6 N f G with g
/ N.
2
L6f G
1
0
2
1 0
,G =
SL(2, Z) freely generate F2 .
1
2 1
32
a
c
b
1
6=
d
0
0
.
1
Take prime p > max{|a 1|, |d 1|, |b|, |c|}, then : SL(2, Z) SL(2, Fp ), a finite
group with (w(F, G)) 6= e. So F2 is residually finite.
Now, Fn 6 F2 , so there are residually finite, and for w(6= ) F (X), where {xi : i I},
only xi1 , . . ., xik appear in w. So we have : F (X) Fk = F (xi1 , . . ., xik ) given by
rest of X goes to e and extend. Now (w) 6= e, so now have : Fk finite group,
with (w) 6= e.
2
Proof 2. F2 free on a, b create a reduced word w using a, b, A, B (formal inverses).
Let w = AbABBBAAbA, labelled:
11
A10 b9 A8 B 7 B 6 B 5 A4 A4 b2 A1 .
a
b
1 2
1
3
3 4
3
5 6
4
5
7 8
6 7
9 10 11
8
10
10
a
b
1 2
11 1
11 3
3 4
2 3
1 2
5 6
4 5
4 5
7 8
6 7
6 7
9 10 11
8
9 10
10 8 9
g1 . . .gk
g1 . . .gk
if length(RHS) 6 n
otherwise
Hopfian Groups
33
1 (H) = RG = I.
H6f G
Corollary 8.9. If g1 , . . ., gn generate the free group Fn then they freely generate Fn .
Proof. Fn is Hopfian, so if w(g1 , . . ., gn ) = e in F (x1 , . . ., xn ) then : F (g1 , . . ., gn )
F (x1 , . . ., xn ) by: given symbol gi , send it to its image in F (x1 , . . ., xn ) and extend.
This is surjective (it hits a generating set) and hence injective by (8.6), (8.8). So
w = .
2
An infinite simple group is Hopfian but not residually finite.
Baumslag-Solitar Groups
These are very useful for counterexamples.
Definition 8.10. The Baumslag-Solitar group Bm,n = ha, t | tam t1 = an i for m, n 6= 0.
These include B1,1 = Z Z and B1,1 = the Klein bottle group. Can also change m, n but
keep the group the same: Bm,n
= Bn,m . They are HNN extensions: Z = hai
= Bm,n
m
n
with : ha i ha i.
Proposition 8.11. Bm,n is soluble if |m| or |n| equals 1, and it contains F2 otherwise.
Proof. If |m| or |n| is 1, then wlog we have B1,n and this is soluble, just as in (5.11) (for
B1,2 ). Otherwise, a is not in the domain or image of . So for any reduced word
w(x, y) in F2 we have w(t, ata1 ) a reduced sequence in an HNN extension, so is not e
by Brittons Lemma.
Theorem 8.12. B2,3 is not Hopfian.
Proof. Let (t) = t, (a) = a2 . This is a homomorphism as it preserves the relation:
(ta2 t1 ) = (ta2 t1 )2 , (a3 ) = a6 . It is surjective: tat1 a1 7 ta2 t1 a2 = a.
What is the kernel? ([tat1 , a]) = [a3 , a2 ] = e, but tat1 ata1 t1 a1 is a reduced
sequence, so 6= e by Brittons Lemma.
2
Theorem 8.13. There exists a finite-generated soluble group which is not finitely presented.
Proof. Consider G = B2,3 and as above. Set Ki = ker i G. We have Ki < Ki+1 , since
for y 6= e with (y) = e we have y = i (x) as i is surjective, so x Ki+1 \ Ki .
34
S
So G/ Ki = Q is not finitely presented by (4.4): if it is, then Q = ha, s | Si with
S = hhs1 , . . ., sk ii in G, so all in KN but x KN +1 \ KN is e in Q but not in S 6 KN .
i
Now, G is generated by ti at1 for i Z. But i (ti ati ) = ti a2 ti = a3 (for i > 0),
which commutes which i (a). This gives [ti ati , a] 7 e in Q as its in ker i , as well as
[tj atj , tk atk ] by conjugacy (set j = i + k).
Thus (G ) = Q is abelian, so Q = I.
Lecture 15
P
pvp (ri ) , it it converges.
is n
i=1
Now, r = (wp )p
for wp S.
Case (b). w S.
k
X
i=1
p
= p(p-def(P ) 1) + 1
pvp (ri )
What about (2), the Burnside Problem? F B(n, 2) is abelian. F B(n, 3), F B(n, 4), F B(n, 6)
are finite (1940s-1950s). F B(n, 5) is an open problem.
Novikov, Adyan (1970s) showed that F B(n, k) are infinite for all odd k > 665.
Olshansky (1982): for all large primes p, there exists a finitely-generated infinite group G
such that if I < H < G then then H
= Cp . So G has max!
What about (3), the Restricted Burnside Problem? The answer is no, by Zelmanov (1994
Fields medal).
Question. Do there exist finitely-presented infinite torsion groups?
37