Breakdown in Gases

The Electron Avalanche

Of the fundamental processes, the collisional ionization is of outstanding importance in
insulation failure mechanism. Suppose a free electron is released (maybe by some
external effect such as background radioactivity or cosmic radiation) in a gas where an
electric field exists (applied). Recall that for the cathode to release the starter electron, the
quanta ( h ) radiated to it must be greater than its work function ( ).If the applied field is
high enough and if the electron is not captured in an attaching process, the electron gains
sufficient kinetic energy from the field and it is likely to ionize a gas molecule by collision.
Recall that in this case, mv2 > Wi.
There will than be 2 free electrons and a positive ion. The 2 electrons will be both able to
cause further ionization by collision. Again as before, assuming that they do not undergo
attachment process, there will be 4 free electrons and 3 positive ions. The process is
cumulative and the number of free electrons will continue increasing as they continue to
move under the action of the electric field. In fact, they are increasing in geometrical
progression.
The swarm of electrons and positive ions produced in this way is called an electron
avalanche. It can grow until it contains many millions of electrons. The formation of an
electron avalanche is the first event in most kinds of insulation failure. So, it can be said
here that an electron avalanche is the first event after the release of an initiating electron
that can lead to an insulation failure regardless of whether the electric field across the
insulation is uniform, quasi-uniform or non-uniform. The avalanche will continue to grow
until the electrons either
i.

reach the positive electrode (a.k.a. anode) , or

ii.

travel into a region where the electric field strength is not high enough to
support collisional ionization.

Townsends experiment
J.S. Thomson made a very important contribution to the study of gas discharges
(Electricity in Gases, Oxford, 1914). A side light to his work was the discovery of cosmic
rays in order to account for the observed conduction in gases.

UV
LIGHT
Cathode ( ve)

Anode ( ve)

IO

Current
limiting
resistor

A
HV Source

Ammeter

Figure 1 Arrangement for the study of a Townsend discharge

His experiment can be described as follows. Consider a simple electrode arrangement as
shown in Figure 1.
1.

Two parallel plates (electrodes) are separated by a distance d and in a gas at

pressure p .

2.

A uniform electric field E is applied between the two electrodes.

3.

Due to an external radiation e.g. UV illumination, free electrons are liberated at the
cathode. (For cathode to release starter electrons, ).

4.

When an electron with charge e is placed in and electric field E , it will be accelerated
with a force eE towards the anode and it gains an energy

U eE x
where

1 2
mv
2

x = distance travelled by the electron from the cathode,

m = mass of the electron, and

v = velocity of the electron.
2

5.

The electron while travelling towards the anode collides with another gas molecule.

6.

If the energy of the electron is sufficiently large, on collision it will cause a break-up of
the molecule (or atom) into positive ion and electron. In this way, new electrons and
positive ions are created. ( 12.2 eV for N2, 15.5 eV for O2.)

7.

Electrons thus created form a group or an avalanche and this avalanche reaches the
anode.

8.

The travel of the electrons to the anode is noticed as an electric current in the internal
circuit.

9.

When this electric current becomes sufficiently large, it results in the formation of a
conducting path between the electrodes, resulting in the breakdown of the gap.

Townsend conducted experiments on the growth of these currents that lead to breakdown
under dc voltage conditions and proposed a theory to explain the phenomena, namely the
current growth. The topic Graphical explanation of the current growth explains the
phenomena and effect occurring in the gap but we will postpone it until the mechanism as
proposed by Townsend is explained.

Townsend Breakdown Theory

a)

Townsend Mechanism
The Townsend Mechanism can adequately account for breakdown in uniform and
quasi-uniform fields in a large number of gases over a wide range of conditions. For
the present discussion, it is useful to think in terms of
i.

a discharge gap, consisting of two metal electrodes,

ii.

immersed in gas,

iii.

with a direct voltage applied between the electrodes,

iv.

giving an electric field that does not vary with time.

Suppose, in each second, n0 free electrons are released into the gas (condition:

n0 1). The electrons may be released into the gas by background radiation but to
keep the argument simple, let the electrons be produced at the surface of the cathode.
Under the action of electric field, these electrons will travel (accelerates) across the
gap. If the electric field is high enough, they will give rise to n0 avalanche due to

collisional ionization. This is not actually the only ionization process occurring in the
gap but by choosing either,
i.

n0 is sufficiently large, or

ii.

by considering the process to continue over a sufficiently long period,

the effects of statistical variations between individual avalanches can be made

negligible, and justified therefore in arguing that all the avalanches were identical.
As the result of these avalanche processes, a number of electrons and possibly also
negative ions will arrive at the anode. Here we make reasonable assumption that the
negative ions are all singly charged. Let the average number of electron (and negative
ions) arriving the anode per second for avalanche be M , i.e.

n
t

where n the total number of electrons reaching the anode, and

t the total time taken by the electrons to reach the anode.

Therefore the number of electronic charges (electrons negative ions) arriving at the
anode per second is Mn0 .
The number of ionizing collision is Mn0 n0 n0 M 1 .
If Mn0 electronic charges arrive at the anode when only n0 left the cathode,
then n0 M 1 must have been released in the gas by collisional ionization.
Consequently, n0 M 1 ionizing collisions must have occurred. Each ionizing
collision produces electrons and positive ions. Hence, there will be n0 M 1
positive ions will eventually reach the cathode.
The number of positive ions that strike the cathode is n0 M 1 .
A reasonable assumption can be made, in that
i.

an ionizing collision can only release one additional free electron,

leaving behind a singly charged positive ion, and

ii. recombination effects are negligible.

In Townsend Breakdown Mechanism, the processes that occur in an avalanche
lead directly to the occurrence of new, so-called secondary avalanche, which in

turn gives rise to a further secondary avalanche, so that the discharge becomes
self-sustaining.
At an applied voltage marginally above the minimum value required for a selfsustaining discharge, each avalanche is, on average larger than its immediate
predecessor, and in principle, therefore, the current through the gap increases
continuously and without limit. In practice, it is of course, limited by external
circuit.
The positive ions, on striking the cathode give rise to a number of secondary electrons,
and this number is a function of the number of positive ions striking the cathode. Let
this number be n0 M 1 .
In other words, the positive ions having kinetic energy higher than the work
function of the cathode, and hence cathode releases the electrons.

is called secondary emission coefficient, and is a function of gas pressure p

and E

. At this instant, the positive ions are assumed to have kinetic energy

greater than the work function of the cathode and hence the cathode releases
the electrons in it, i.e. mv2 > .
At this time, n0 M 1 electrons will give rise to n0 M 1 M electrons reaching
the anode as a result of n0 M 1 M n0 M 1 n0 M 1 collisions.
2

n0 M 1 is the first generation in a succession of secondary electrons and

they give rise to avalanche producing a further n0 M 1

secondary

electrons and so on.

Consequently, this number of collision will liberate n0 M 1 2 n0 M 1
2

electrons from the cathode.

Therefore, the number of electrons the cathode is n0 n0 M 1 n0 2 M 1
2

which is a series in the form of n0 1 u u 2 where u M 1 .

If u M 1 1 ,
the series will diverge which implies that breakdown will occur, since the current
flowing in the gap will correspondingly increase without limit (i.e. current ).
The criterion for breakdown is therefore M 1 1 .

If u M 1 1 ,
the series will converge to a limiting value which means that in the end, the
current can be measured. For an indefinitely large number of terms, the limiting
value of its sum is easily found.
Let
Then,

S 1 u u2 u N .

u S u u 2 u 3 u N1 .

Subtraction gives
or

1 u S 1 u N1
S

If N is large and u 1 , then

1 u N1
1
u N 1

1 u
1 u 1 u

1
. Thus, the total number of electrons
1 u

emitted form the cathode (including all secondaries) each second is

n0 S

n0
.
1 u

The total number of negative charges arriving at the anode each second would be

n0
n0 M
.
M
1 u
1 M 1

The Gas Amplification is defined as the ratio of the total number of negative
charges arriving at the anode per second n , to the number of free electron emitted
from the cathode (due to primary emission) n0 . Therefore
Gas Amplification

n
M
.

n0
1 M 1

In the absence of collisional ionization, if the n0 negative charges emitted form the
cathode were all collected by the anode, then the external circuit current would
have some value I 0 .
With collisional ionization, and hence a gas amplification greater than unity, the
external circuit current will be I , then

I
n
M
.

I 0 n0 1 M 1
The last equation is valid for a wide range of condition.

Though the equation above is based on the assumption that collisional ionization is
responsible for the avalanche, there are other processes that may involved in the
ionization e.g. attachment, detachment and/or other processes but the equation would
then remains the same. Further, the equation is clearly valid for any secondary process
that causes secondary electrons to be produced at the cathode surface, and not only
the three specific secondary processes mentioned below. For a process that causes
secondary electrons to be produced elsewhere, e.g. photoionization of the gas, the
equation is not strictly valid, but it can provide a good approximation under some
condition.
Several different processes may initiate secondary avalanches. Considered here are
three such processes, each of which works by releasing free electrons at the cathode
surface.
1)

The positive ions impinging (bombardment) on the cathode surface can cause
free electron to be emitted.
If each positive ions (from previous avalanche) has the probability of
releasing a free electron into the gas when it strikes the cathode surface,
then the number of free electrons released in this way as a result of n0
avalanches would be, on average, n0 M 1 .

2)

The photons released form excited gas molecules can cause photoemission of
electrons from the cathode surface.
Exciting collisions will occur during the avalanche process and some of
these will result in photon emission. Some of the photons will be sufficiently
energetic to release electrons from the cathode surface, and some of those
will actually reach the cathode surface, where they may succeed in doing
so. The impact of photons from existing collisions took place in a previous
avalanche is relatively quick in action.
It is convenient to define a coefficient P as the number of photoelectrons
released in this way per ionizing collision in the gap. As a result of n0
avalanches, then the total number of electrons released in this way will be

P n0 M 1 .

3)

The metastable molecules can release electrons from the cathode surface
when they reach it.
The impact of metastable molecules that have sufficiently long (action) time
to diffuse (and consequently causing electron emissions) to the cathode
before they revert to the ground state.
By analogy with P , a coefficient M defined as a result of the first
avalanche, the number of electrons released from the cathode surface is

M n0 M 1 .
Combining the definitions of the three above, we have that the first avalanche
causes a number of free electrons to be released at the cathode surface which equals
to, on average,

M M n0 M 1 .
The quantities , P , and M are called secondary coefficients. Recall that the
secondary coefficients depend on the number of ionizing collisions M . A generalized
(or collectively) secondary coefficient is introduced to describe all the secondary
processes occurring at the cathode as

M M
so that the number of electrons emitted from the cathode as an immediate
consequence of

n0

avalanches each involving

M 1

ionizing collisions is

n0 M 1 .
SUMMARY
The Townsend mechanism for breakdown can be described, as an unbroken chain of
avalanches constitutes a self-sustaining discharge. The probability of such depends on the
applied field remains sufficiently high.
This mechanism is not applicable to vacuum since in vacuum the electrons are sparsely
distributed and may not collide with another.

b)

Determination of M
The processes mentioned earlier makes no distinction between the case where
there are recombination or attachment involved and the case when there is none. In
deriving an expression for determining M , the two cases have to be considered. The
later will be first treated followed by the former.
1) Determination of M for non-attaching gases in a uniform field
Townsend, in his experiment, made the assumption that there is no attachment
process occurring in the gas. Also, it is assumed that the field in the gas is uniform.
Consider a setup as shown in Figure 2.

V
Anode

Cathode

dx

x
x=0

x=d

Figure 2 Setup for the Townsend experiment

Assuming the number of electrons emitted from the cathode ( x 0 ) is n0 n0 .
When one electron collides with a neutral particle, a positive and an electron
are formed. This is called an ionizing collision. If is defined as the average number
of ionizing collisions per electron per cm travel in the direction of the field, then after
moving a distance dx , there will be nx dx electrons. Therefore,

d n( x ) n( x ) dx
or

d n( x )
dx
n( x )
The electron amplification can be determined by integrating the above expression
from x 0 to x d ,

ln

d n( x )

n( x )

dx
0

n( x ) 0 d
d

ln n( d ) ln n( 0 ) d

n( d )
ln
d
n( 0 )

n( d ) n( 0 ) e d

n(0) = number of initiating electrons,

where

n(d ) = final number of electrons at d (i.e. anode), and

e d = amplification factor.
Comparing this equation to that of Gas Amplification, it can be seen that

e d M .
Thus the amplification for non-attaching gases is

n
e d

n0
1 ( e d 1)

Note:

a. The expression is derived by making use of the converging series of

n0 1 u u 2 u N , i.e. n0 M 1 1 .
b. The use of n(d ) is interchangeable with n d , and similarly applies for n(0) being
interchangeable with n0 .
c. At the anode nx n(d ) n , and at the cathode, n0

n0
.
1 M 1

With reference to the amplification factor expression obtained earlier, the term

( e d 1 ) is the determining factor of the expression. Discussed in the following

are the cases that may occur and their significant to the processes involved in this
mechanism.
i.

Case

e d 1

The discharge would not be self-sustained on removal of the source

producing n0 or I 0 , thus the discharge current ceases to flow.

10

ii.

Case

e d 1

The current becomes finite. The external circuit will decide the actual
current. The avalanche launched by one electron ( d ) would produce
ions pairs that would be sufficiently large ( n0 ed ). Secondary emission
from the cathode would further augment the avalanche process. The
discharge is self-sustaining and even in the absence of the source
producing n0 (or I 0 ). Thus e d 1 defines the Sparking Threshold
(starts of breakdown).
iii.

Case

e d 1

The ionization produced by successive avalanche is cumulative. The

spark discharge current would grow very rapidly.
Proof of e d M
Consider the Gas Amplification equation

n
M
.

n0
1 M 1

It can be seen that for amplification of the electrons in the gas to occur, the denominator
must approaches zero, which mean that the term M 1 1 . As the term approaches
1 , the Gas Amplification equation becomes

n
M
n0

Eqn. X

Comparing Eqn. X with the relationship derived for amplification in a non-attaching gas, i.e.

n(d ) n(0) e d
it can be seen that

e d M .

2) Determination of M for attaching gases in a uniform field

In attaching gases, free electrons are removed from avalanche to form negative ions
(i.e. due to attachment process).
Let

= average number of ionizing collisions per electron per cm, etc., and
= average number of attaching collisions per cm travel in the direction of
the applied field.

Over a distance of dx , the number of free electrons created is

d n( x ) n( x ) dx
11

n( x ) n0 e( ) x

or over the gap-length d,

n( d ) n0 e( ) d

For negative ions,

d nn ( x ) n( x ) dx
n0 e( ) x dx
Integrating from x 0 to x d yields

nn (d )

n0 ( e ( ) d 1)

The total number of negative charge (i.e. electrons + negative ions) is

n0 e ( ) d

n0 ( e ( ) d 1 )

If the net ionization of coefficient due to attaching collision, i.e. ( ) is represented

by , then the total number of negative charges n is

n _ n0 e d
.

Comparing the above result with the gas amplification factor, hence

M e d
.

Thus for attaching gases, the amplification factor is

e
n

n0
1 e d 1

Note:
As for the case of non-attaching gases, this derivation is employing the case of
converging series.

12