Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models

European Journal of Scientific Research
ISSN 1450-216X Vol.28 No.3 (2009), pp.364-397

EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009
http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm
Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic

Components
S. M. Beden
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering
University Kebangsaan Malaysia
E-mail: sabah@vlsi.eng.ukm.my
Tel: +603-8921-6136; Fax: +603-8921-6040
S. Abdullah
A. K. Ariffin
Abstract
The prediction of fatigue properties of structures and avoiding structural fatigue
were recognized as engineering problems in the early decades of the 20th century. A
practical problem also associated with variable amplitude loading was the question of how
long old structures could still be used without running into fatigue problems. In the second
half of the previous century, this question was raised for old bridges and aircrafts. Although
a general understanding of many aspects of fatigue crack growth behavior was established
in the early 1960s, a specific accumulation of damage model for computation of growth
under a wide variety of service loads was lacking. Various service load damage models
were proposed in the 1970s which at best successfully augmented extensive testing under
simulated service load conditions. Questions emerging from the above picture are
associated with the reliability and accuracy of prediction models and the physical concept
of fatigue damage. This paper reviews the fatigue life models as a scientific and
engineering knowledge about fatigue of material and structures, which includes fatigue life
prediction models under constant and variable amplitude loading. The selection of the
appropriate model is usually based on the analysts experience and persona1 preference.
The review leads to an inventory of the present state of the art and some final remarks
follow in an epilogue.
Keywords: Constant Amplitude Loading, Fatigue, Crack Growth, Models, Life
Prediction, Variable Amplitude Loading.
1. Introduction
The fatigue crack growth prediction models are fracture mechanics based models that have been
developed to support the damage tolerance concepts in metallic structures. During the last decades,
Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components
365
numerous papers have been published on fatigue life and fatigue crack growth prediction under
constant and variable amplitude loading. After a through review of the literature, this paper attempts to
provide an overview of prediction models for crack growth as a scientific and engineering knowledge
about fatigue of material and structures, which includes fatigue life prediction models. The prediction
models are categorized according to the type of loading and the concept of each model is described.
The evaluation of the models as presented in this paper is based on the research and experimental data
published by many authors.
In the 1950s, many investigators mentioned how early in the fatigue life they could observe
microcracks. Since then it was clear that the fatigue life under cyclic loading consisted of two phases,
the crack initiation life followed by a crack growth period until failure. This can be represented in a
block diagram, see Figure 1.
Figure 1: Different phase of the fatigue life and relevant factors
Cyclic
slip
Crack
Nucleation
Micro Crack
Growth
Macro Crack
Growth
Initiation Period
Crack Growth
Period
Kt
Stress Concentration Factor
K
Stress Intensity
Factor
Final
Failure
Kic Kc
Fracture
Toughness
The crack initiation period may cover a large percentage of the fatigue life under high-cycle
fatigue, i.e. under stress amplitudes just above the fatigue limit. But for larger stress amplitudes the
crack growth period can be a substantial portion of the fatigue life. A special problem involved is how
to define the transition from the initiation period to the crack growth period. It was in the early 1960s
that the stress intensity factor was introduced for the correlation between the crack growth rate, da/dN,
and the stress intensity factor range, K. The first paper was published by Paris, Gomez and Anderson
(1961), and it turned out to be a milestone publication. In this paper, they adopted the K-value from the
analysis of the stress field around the tip of a crack as proposed by Irwin (1957). Another milestone of
the application of fracture mechanics, the well-known general equation in polar coordinates for the
stress distribution around the crack tip is:
K
f ( ij )
ij =
(1)
2 r
with K as the stress intensity factor and the polar coordinates r and . Equation (1) is an asymptotic
solution which is valid for small values of r only, i.e. r a with a as the crack length. The stress
intensity factor is given by:
K = S a
(2)
with as the geometry factor. The results of the crack growth tests of Paris et al. (1961) were
expressed in terms of da/dN as a function of K on a double log scale, which shows a linear relation
between log(da/dN) and log( K). Many more crack growth tests carried out later indicated the same
trend which led to the well-known Paris equation:
da
m
= C (K )
(3)
dN
366
S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin
with C and m as experimentally obtained constants. The equation is a formal description of results of a
fatigue crack growth experiment. At the same time, it must be recognized that fatigue crack growth is
subjected to physical laws. In general terms, something is driving the crack extension mechanism,
which is called the crack driving force. This force is associated with the K -value. The stress intensity
factor is related to the strain energy release rate, i.e. the strain energy in the material, which is available
for producing crack extension. The relation to be found in text books is:
dU K 2
=
(4)
da E *
with E* = E (Youngs modulus) for plane stress, and E* = E/(1-) for plane strain ( = Poissons
ratio). The strain energy looks like a characteristic variable for energy balances.
The common approach for fatigue crack growth analysis is to describe the data by a differential
equation, which is referred to as a fatigue crack growth law or model. By integrating the equation one
can obtain the crack length versus number of cycles (a-N curve) and predict the number of cycles
required for the crack to grow from an initial to final size. The differential equation used to describe the
data is often of the form
da
(5)
= f (K , R )
dN
The right hand side of Equation (5) describes the fatigue rate data relationship, usually with
empirical curve fitting parameters. The main disadvantage is that the fatigue crack growth model
parameters have no physical significance, but are representative of the curve fitting technique used to
describe the da/dN versus K curve. As a result, ". . . there are probably as many equations as there are
researchers in the field" (Broek. 1985). Thus if the fatigue crack growth model 'fits' the data properly, it
may be used in conducting a fatigue crack growth analysis. However, ". . . no equation can fit al1 data,
so that religious adherence to one equation is not advisable" (Broek, 1985). Al1 the models are valid in
that they describe a particular set of fatigue crack growth data and can be used to predict crack growth
rates in situations similar to those used to collect the data. "It is sometimes possible to fit the same set
of data to apparently contradictory laws but, owing to the inherent scatter in fatigue crack growth data,
it is not possible to decide which law is the most correct" (Frost et al. 1971). It is practically impossible
to discuss every available model because of the large number, which exist in literature. Therefore, the
remainder of this section will discuss the models, which are promising and/or commonly used.
2. Fatigue Life Curve

The fatigue behavior of a material is graphically illustrated with the aid of a stress-life (S-N) curve as
shown by Figure 2.
The curve is obtained by testing a number of specimens at various stress levels under sinusoidal
loading conditions and is composed of an initiation and a propagation component. The fatigue tests are
conducted on smooth un-notched specimens that make it practically impossible to distinguish between
the crack initiation and propagation phase. Thus, the S-N curve usually represents only the total fatigue
life of a specimen as shown by the solid line of Figure 2.
367
Figure 2: Stress-life curve (Barsom et al. 1987)
Initiation life
Propagation life
Total life
A typical S-N curve for some materials appears to become flat for large number of cycles
representing a distinct stress level below which fatigue failure will not occur. This limit is called the
fatigue limit or the endurance limit.
A given S-N curve is valid for the specific conditions under which it was tested. One may
extrapolate the results from an S-N curve to include the influence of other factors provided that
sufficient knowledge of how they affect the S-N curve is known. These factors include member
geometry, chemical environment, cyclic frequency, temperature, residual stress and mean stress.
3. Fatigue Rate Curve
A typical fatigue rate curve, commonly referred to as a da/dN versus K curve, is illustrated by Figure
3. The curve is defined by Regions A, B and C which are commonly referred to as region I, II and III
respectively
Figure 3: Typical da/dN versus K curve
368
3.1. Description of Region I
Region I represents the early development of a fatigue crack and the crack growth rate; da/dN is
typically of the order 10-6 mm/cycle or smaller of the test data result from ASTM E647. This region is
extremely sensitive and is largely influenced by the microstructure features of the material such as
grain size, the mean stress of the applied load, the operating temperature and the environment present.
The most important feature of this region is the existence of a stress intensity factor range
below which fatigue cracks should not propagate. This value is defined as the fatigue crack growth
threshold and is represented by the symbol Kth. Its value is experimentally determined by using the
decreasing K test as described in the ASTM E647 document (2000). The above mentioned factors
affect the value of Kth but from the available data for long fatigue cracks subjected to constant
amplitude cyclic loading in various room temperature laboratory atmospheres suggest that the stress
ratio is the most important factor affecting the magnitude of (Dowling, 1993).
3.2. Description of Region II
Region II represents the intermediate crack propagation zone where the length of the plastic zone ahead
of the crack tip is long compared with the mean grain size, but much smaller than the crack length
(Wang et al. 1994). The use of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) concepts is acceptable and the
data follows a linear relationship between log da/dN and log K. The crack growth rate is typically on
the order of 10-6 to 10-3 mm/cycle, which correspond to the majority of the test data results from
ASTM E647. This region corresponds to stable crack growth and the influence of microstructure, mean
stress, ductility, environment and thickness are small. The influence of the mean stress is probably the
most significant and usually results in closely spaced lines parallel to each other. The mean stress
effect is greater for some material than others.
3.3. Description of Region III
Region III represents the fatigue crack growth at very high rates, da/dN > 103 mm/cycle due to rapid
and unstable crack growth just prior to final failure. The da/dN versus K curve becomes steep and
asymptotically approaches the fracture toughness Kc for the material. The corresponding stress level is
very high and causes a large plastic zone near the crack tip as compared with the specimen geometry.
Because large scale yielding occurs, the influence of the nonlinear properties of the material cannot be
ignored. Therefore, the use of LEFM is not entirely correct and nonlinear fracture mechanics should be
applied to this stage. The mean stress, materials microstructure and thickness have a large influence in
this region and the environment has little influence. Fatigue crack propagation analysis is very complex
in this region but often ignored because it has little importance in most fatigue situations. The reason
that the fatigue crack growth rates are very high and little fatigue life is involved.
4. Constant Amplitude Loading Models

The fatigue crack growth analysis of a component that is subjected to a constant amplitude load is the
simplest to perform because no load history has to be considered. Numerous fatigue crack growth
models exist which are capable of representing the fatigue rate data. However, they vary in the factors
and the number of curve fitting parameters required. The following discussion introduces various
fatigue crack growth models where are commonly used for constant amplitude loading, and their
advantages and limitations will also be discussed.
369
4.1. Paris Mode1
A simple and well known method for predicting fatigue crack propagation is a power law described by
Paris and Erdogan (1963), and it is also known as the Paris Law. The equation represents the first
application of fracture mechanics to fatigue and is given by the following relationship
da
mp
= C p (K )
(6)
dN
where Cp is the intercept and mp is the slope on the log-log plot of da/dN versus K. Equation (6)
represents a straight line on the log-log plot of da/dN versus K and thus describes region II of the
fatigue rate curve. The Paris law is simple to use and requires the determination of two curve fitting
parameters which are easily obtained. As long as the data follows a straight line relationship, the Paris
law is commonly used.
The limitation of the Paris law is that it is only capable of describing data in region II (see
Figure 3). If the data exhibits a threshold (region I) or an accelerated growth (region III) Paris law
cannot adequately describe these regions. Depending upon the analysis being undertaken, this
approximation may not be adequate. Finally, the Paris law does not consider the effect of stress ratio
and it depends upon the material used. For steels tested at various stress ratios, a family of straight lines
parallel to each other is produced. This means that the value of mp is the same for all stress ratios but
the value of Cp is specific for a particular stress ratio. Therefore one must ensure that the fatigue rate
data used is for the stress ratio of interest.
4.2. Walker Mode1
The major limitation of the Paris law is its inability to account for the stress ratio. This drawback
notified Walker (1970) to improve the Paris model by including the effect of stress ratio. Walker
proposed a parameter K, which is an equivalent zero to maximum (R = 0) stress intensity factor that
causes the same growth rate as the actual Kmax, and R combination. It is expressed by the relationship
of
K = K max (1 R ) W
(7)
where Kmax = K/(1-R), and Equation (7) becomes
K
K =
(1 R )1 W
Therefore, the Walker law is represented by
mW
da
= CW K
dN
or
(8)
( )
mW
da
(9)
= CW
1 W
dN
(
)
1
For R = 0, Equation (9) is formulated to form

da
m
= CW (K ) W
(10)
dN
which is equivalent to the Paris law with Cp = Cw and mp = mw .
The significance of this equation is that a log-log plot of da/dN versus K should result in a
single straight line regardless of the stress ratio for which the data was obtained. The ability to account
for this results in the introduction of a third curve fitting parameter . is determined by trial and
error and its value is the one that best consolidates the data along a single straight line on the log-log
plot of da/dN versus K . It is possible that no value of can be found, and in this situation the
Walker equation cannot be used. If the value of , is qua1 to one. K equals K which indicates that
the stress ratio has no effect on the data.
370
In summary, the Walker law is a modification of the Paris law that accounts for the stress ratio
effect at the expense of introducing a third curve fitting parameter.
4.3. Forman Mode1
Although Walker improved the Paris model by taking account of the stress ratio, neither models could
account for the instability of the crack growth when the stress intensity factor approaches its critical
value. Forman (1972) improved the Walker model by suggesting a new model which is capable of
describing region III of the fatigue rate curve and includes the stress ratio effect. The Forman law is
given by this mathematical relationship
m
m
C F (K ) y
C F (K ) y
da
=
=
(11)
dN (1 R )K C K (1 R )(K C K max )
where Kc is the fracture toughness for the material and thickness of interest. Equation (11) indicates
that as Kmax , approaches Kc & da/dN tends to infinity. Therefore, the Forman equation is capable of
representing stable intermediate growth (region II) and the accelerated growth rates (region III). The
Forman equation is capable of representing data for various stress ratios by computing the following
quantity for each data point, i.e.
da
[(1 R )K C K ]
Q=
(12)
dN
If the various K and R combinations fall together on a straight line on a log-log plot of Q
versus K, the Forman equation is applicable and may be used. Comparing Equation (11) and (12), the
Forman equation can be represented as
m
Q = C F (K ) y
(13)
The Forman equation is capable of representing data of various stress ratios for region II and
III. Further modifications of the Forman's expression to represent region I, II and III have been
accomplished by including the threshold stress intensity parameter K. Thus, Hartman and Schijve
(1970) has proposed the following equation which is the continuation of the Forman work:
m
da C HS (K K th ) HS
=
(14)
(1 R )K C K
dN
Another version of the Forman equation is
m
0.5
da C MOD (K ) MOD (K K th )
=
(15)
(1 R )K C K
dN
Both Equations (14) and (15) produce a sigmoid shaped curve (see Figure 3) where the curve
steepens at both low and high growth rates. For this case, an asymptote not only occurs as Kmax
approaches Kc, but it also occurs when K approaches Kth. One disadvantage of using these equations
is that the value of Kth is sensitive to R and a specific value of this parameter in the equation is
generally needed for any given R value (Dowling, 1993). Also, the correct value of Kc for the given
thickness should be used.
4.4. Collipriest Model
Collipriest (1972) proposed a crack growth law capable of describing al1 three regions includes the
stress ratio effect and it is given by the mathematical relationship

K 2
ln
m/2

(1 R )K C K O
KC
da
m/2
ARCTANH
= C (K C K ) EXP ln
(16)
K
dN
(1 R )K C
O

ln K
371
The mode1 appears complicated with a number of parameters.

4.5. McEvily Model
McEvily (1974) proposed a model that relate the crack advance per cycle in the striation mode to the
crack tip opening displacement and to include the threshold effect, which leads to this relationship
da
4A
(
(17)
=
K 2 K th2 )
dN E
This expression is only useful for the lower portion of the fatigue rate curve. For inert
atmospheres, A is a parameter thought to be related to the rate of strain hardening which expressed as A
= 2y /E, so that
da
8
(18)
=
K 2 K th2
2
dN E
When there is the case in the aggressive environments, the value of A increases together with
the rate of crack growth. Equation (18) provides a basic idea for growth rates below 1 x 10-6 m/cycle
under
R = 0 conditions.
To include the stress ratio effect and region III of the fatigue rate curve, the following
modification to Equation (18) is then suggested
da
4A
K
(19)
=
K 2 K th2 ) 1 +
(
dN E
K C K MAX
where
1.2 K thO
K th =
(1 + R )
1 + 0.2
(1 R )
and Ktho is the K value for R = 0.
This equation is based on a simple physical model rather than a purely empirical fit. The
expression distinguishes between the two components of the crack advance; the ductile striation
component and the static mode component. It is noted that the number of adjustable parameters goes to
zero (for tests in non-aggressive environments) for K values large with respect to Kth .
4.6. Frost and Pook Model
Frost and Pook (1971) attempted to create a fatigue crack growth equation that has some physical
significance. They hypothesized that the crack growth occurs under cyclic loading not as a
consequence of any progressive structural damage but merely because unloading reshapes the crack tip
at each cycle and this sequence is responsible for the formation of striations (Chell, 1979). Therefore
the increment of crack growth in each cycle can be related to the changing crack tip geometry during
its opening and closing and a simple model based on. This is given by the relationship
2
da 9 K
=
for plane stress
dN E
2
(20)
da 7 K
=
(21)
for plane strain
dN E
They found the prediction of the plane stress equation and experimental data plotted in terms of
K/E against da/dN are in good agreement at crack growth rates around 3x10-5 mm/cycle. However,
experimental crack growth rates are underestimated at high growth rates and overestimated at low
growth rates.
372
It is interesting to note that a similarity between the above equation and McEvily's equation
(non-aggressive environment) exists in the ( K/E)2 term. Also, it has been pointed out by Rice (1988)
that any continuum mechanics theory of crack growth will result in a ( K/E )2 dependence unless a
characteristic dimension is introduced.
4.7. Zheng Model
Lal and Weiss (1978) proposed a static fracture model, that the crack was advanced by a distance
(during each cycle) over which the maximum normal stress exceeded the critical fracture stress of the
metal as illustrated by Figure 4. Their model was moderately successful in predicting fatigue crack
growth except it did not account for the crack tip blunting phenomena and their model used material
constants that had no physical significance.
Figure 4: Assumption of the amount of increment fatigue crack propagation (Zheng, 1983)
Zheng (1983) improved the La1 and Weiss model by modifying the static fracture portion and
obtained material constants that are defined by the tensile properties of the metal. Briefly, Zheng found
that upon loading the crack opens elastically and the crack tip becomes blunt, which occurs at a stress
intensity threshold denoted as Kth . To derive his model, Zheng used the fracture parameter Keff = Kmax
Kth , instead of the normal convention that K = Kmax Kmin , since no crack growth occurs below
Kth. Using this new parameter and the assumption made by La1 and Weiss, the Zheng model is derived
as follows: (22)
da
= x f = x( = ff )
(22)
dN
Now from LEFM, the stress in the direction of the applied load along the crack (x-axis) is
expressed as
Kl
yy =
(23)
2x
and at the location xf in Figure 4,
K l2
(24)
xf =
2 2 ff
Combining both Equations (22) and (24) and using the new fracture parameter of Keff, the
new expression can be derived, i.e.

da
1
1
(K max K th )2
=
K rff2 =
2
2
dN 2 ff
2 ff
373
(25)
The theoretical strength of metallic materials, ff, is equal to E f f where f = u(1+ RA)
and f = - ln(1-RA) are the materials fracture strength and fracture ductility respectively, u is the
materials ultimate stress and RA is the specimens reduction in area at fracture in the tension test.
Therefore
1
da
(K max K th )2
(26)
=
dN 2E f f
When R = 0, K = Kmax, and Kth, = Kth , which gives
da
2
= B(K K th )
(27)
dN
1
where B =
, and it is determined from the metallic tensile properties . For situations where
2 E f f
R = 0, it has been determined that Equation (27) may be used if Kth is defined as
K th = K tho (1 R)
(28)
where Ktho is the crack propagation threshold value for stress ratio equal to zero and is a constant
between zero and one. Zheng determined that Equation (28) is valid when da/dN 10-3 mm/cycle
which corresponds to regions I and II (for the materials that was tested by him). The experimental and
predicted results for various metals can be found in Table 2 in Zheng (1983). It appears to be an
attractive model because of its capability to predict fatigue crack growth in regions I and II and the
parameters are easily obtained and appear to have some physical significance.
4.8. Wang Model
Wang et al. (1994) proposed a damage accumulation theory, which considers the plastic component of
the J integral as a damage factor resulting in a simple formula for the fatigue crack growth rate. The
proposed damage accumulation theory assumes:
1. The total plastic strain energy density absorbed by the material is a constant prior to reaching its
ultimate state. This constant is a parameter that can be determined by tests.
2. The elastic strain energy density stored by the material does not cause damage and is released
upon unloading.
Thus, the plastic strain energy accumulated in the material will cause the damage of the
material and will lead to failure of the material. This plastic damage only occurs after the maximum
elastic component has been reached. The fatigue crack growth rate equation developed by Wang et al
(1994) is shown as the following expression:
4
K max
da
= 2
dN
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1 (R ) 1 2
1 (R )
1
where
2 =
2
K max
2K eff
K mf = y a
= a constant determined according to the material and loading condition
y = local yielding strength
y = average local yielding strength
(29)
374
Based on the research to obtain the mathematical Equation (29), Wang et al model (1994)
concluded that the crack growth rate is not simply a function of K, but it is a function of an average
local yielding strength, fracture toughness and amplitude of the applied effective stress intensity factor
in regions II and III. The mode1 was verified using the test results published in ASTM STP 789 by
Miller and Gallagher (1981). The test data and the proposed formula were then found to be in
reasonably good agreement.
4.9. Miller and Gallagher Models
For the accumulation of fatigue damage in crack initiation and stage I growth, Miller and Zachariah
(1977) introduced an exponential relation between the crack length and elapsed life for each phase. The
approach is thus termed double exponential law. In this model damage is normalized as: D = a/af ,
where a and af , are instantaneous and final crack lengths, respectively. Later, Ibrahim and Miller
(1980) significantly modified this model. Based on the growth mechanism of very small cracks, crack
propagation behaviour in stage I was then mathematically described in a manner similar to that
expressed by LEFM for stage II growth as:
da/dN= ( p ) a
(30)
where and are the material constants, and p is the plastic shear strain range. From this
equation, a linear relationship between the initial cycle ratio r1, and the final cycle ratio, r2, in two level
cycling can be found for r1, in excess of the initiation boundary r1,1=NI,1/Nf,1. To determine the phase
boundary between initiations and stage I propagation, data from a series of two level strain-controlled
tests are then collected and plotted in the r1 - r2 frame. In a further study by Miller and Ibrahim (1981),
Ni and ai, data were correlated with the corresponding values of plastic shear strain range p ,
through a power function. Thus this section will discuss the above mentioned article written by Miller
and Gallagher (1981) which presents the results of eight different methods (Table 1) were used to
predict the fatigue life. Each method is capable of modeling all three regions of the crack growth rate
curve.

Table 1:
375
Fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) descriptions (Miller and Gallagher,1981)
Participant/FCGR Description No.

1
4
5
6
7
Form
C2
da
= Cl K
dN
P
K K 1 ) 2
(
da
= P1
P
dN
( K c K ) 3
A1
1
'
=
+
A
C
2
2
da / dN ( K ) 1
( K )
2
da
= C ( K max ) m ( K max + K e )(1 Reff ) + *K
dN
da
log10
= P1 exp ( P2 x ) + P3 exp ( P4 x ) + P5
dN
da
=10 C1 sinh C2 ( log K + C3 ) + C4
dN
da
=10 C1 sinh C2 ( log K + C3 ) + C4
7
dN
K
da
= e + ( v e ) ln 1
dN
K b
1/ k
These models range in complexity and number of parameters to be determined. They also
provide information of :
(1) measures of accuracy of the fatigue crack growth rate fit,
(2) methods used to establish the descriptions coefficients (or constants) and
(3) methods of integrating da/dN = f( K,R).
Therefore only a brief description of each model will be presented in this section. Model 1 is a
modified Paris power-law equation where
K eff K 0
(31)
K =
2
K max
1
KC
and Keff = (1 Pop)/PmaxKmax . The ratio Pop /Pmax is calculated from a crack closure model under plane
strain conditions and the coefficients C1 ,C2 ,Kc and Ko are derived from least squares procedures.
Model 2 is a five parameter model where the constants K1 and Kc define the asymptotes at
low and high K respectively. P1 shifts the crack growth rate curve up or down and P2 and P3 influence
curvature.
In Model 3 the parameters 1 , and 2 represent the steps of the data in Region I and II
respectively. C' is calculated from the exponent 2 by the relationship
1
(32)
C' =
K C (1 R ) 2
The coefficients A1 and A2 are determined by multiple linear regression analysis. Model 4 is
another modified Paris equation, which accounts for environmental effects on the crack growth rate.
The values of C and m are defined by the modulus of elasticity (units of pounds per square inch) by
C =E2(10 -23 )
and
376

10 73
m = 1.442 ln
E
Ke is the environmental parameter and is defined by
(K K eo )
K e = K econst max
(K plot K eo )
(33)
(34)
and Ke = 0 when Kmax < Kmin. The point at which Ke becomes constant is represented by Kplot . The
effective stress ratio is given by
K + K 0
(35)
Reff = min
K max
where Ko is the threshold value. The term*K fits the upper end of the growth rate data and is given
by the relationship
(36)
* K = ae ( K min )
where and are fitting constants.
Model 5 is a five parameter model and the coefficients P1 through P5 are determined by the
least squares method and x is the base ten logarithm of the stress intensity factor range K. Model 6
and 7 are the same and were used by two separate participants. It is a hyperbolic sine equation and the
parameters C1 through C4 are determined by least squares fitting techniques. Model 8 is a four
parameter model where Kb is the normalizing parameter for K, k is the shape parameter, e is the
threshold parameter and is the characteristic value of the shape parameter.
Based on the above results, it can be concluded that most fatigue crack growth rate models will
accurately predict fatigue crack growth rates under constant amplitude loading.
4.10. Dowling and Begley Mode1
The previously discussed fatigue crack growth models have the common fracture parameter K
which means that the equations assume LEFM is always valid. For situations of fatigue crack growth
under large scale yielding conditions, where the stress intensity factor is no longer valid, Dowling and
Begley (1976) suggested to use the J integral as the fracture parameter. They fit the growth rate data
to a power law expression by using J given by the relationship
da
(37)
= C BD J mDB
dN
This equation is very similar to the Paris equation in that it 'fits' the data in region II and does
not include the stress ratio effect; however, it is used in situations where fatigue crack growth occurs
under large scale yielding conditions.
4.11. Pugno Model
Quantized Fracture Mechanics (QFM) (Pugno and Ruoff, 2004) generalized Paris equation, by
substituting K(a) with an appropriate mean value, K*(a, a)=
[K 2 (a )]a a +a , where a is fracture
quantum, a material constant, which for infinite life. In order to consider the effect of this apparent
additional crack size, it is natural in the study of fatigue crack growth to propose the following
generalized Paris law (Pugno, 2004):
da/dN=C( K* (a, a, ))m
(38)
where in turn a is a function of . By integrating Equation (38), the total number of cycles N C P*
can be found for the fatigue collapse, arising when the crack length has reached its critical final value
ac:
1 ac
da
N Cp * =
(39)
*
a
(K (a, a, )) m
C
377
Accordingly, in the criterion of Equation (39), we can fix a to recover, in the limit case of
a 0, Whlers prediction, we write here as:
C
N CW =
(40)
k
Hence,
a : N Cp * (a 0) = N CW
(41)
Thus, Equations (38) or (39), with the position of Equation (41), can be considered a
generalized Paris law. Note that such a law is of very simple application, and would allow one to
study not only the final condition but also the evolution of the fatigue crack growth N p * (a (N )) , where
a a (N ) aC .
5. Load Interactions in Variable Amplitude Loadings

In a variable amplitude loading scenario, stresses of differing magnitude occur and affect the crack
growth rate depending upon their sequences. Three load sequences, which have a significant effect on
the fatigue crack growth rate, are a tensile overload, compressive underload and a tensile overload
followed by a compressive underloads which are commonly referred to as crack retardation, crack
acceleration and reduction in crack retardation, respectively. It is because of these interactions, which
are highly dependent upon the loading sequence, that variable amplitude loading is more complex than
constant amplitude loading. Another factor which complicates the situation is that the load sequence
may be known so that the correct order may be applied during analysis. However, variable amplitude
loading is difficult, if not impossible, to predict (Schutz, 1996; Savaidis et al. 2002; Schijve, 2003).
The simplest type of variable amplitude loading is the occurrence of high peak loads
interspersed in a constant amplitude history. When the peak load is tensile, the crack growth
immediately following the overload is slower than the 'normal' growth rate. This continues for a
number of cycles until the original growth rate is resumed. This behavior for multiple and a single
overload is illustrated in Figure 5 and 6, respectively.
Figure 5: Decreases in the rate of crack growth due to the overload followed by the CAL
378
Figure 6: Transient effects on crack growth produced by (a) CAL; (b) single overload; (c) tensile-compression
overload sequence; and (d) single
The physical interpretation is that a tensile overload introduces a larger compressive residual
stress field in the vicinity of the crack tip compared to before the overload. This retards the crack
growth by helping to keep the crack tip closed during the subsequent relatively smaller loads. This
continues until the crack has grown through the overload residual stress field and the original stress
field is restored. The amount of retardation is described by the overload ratio (OLR) which is equal to
the magnitude of the overload stress to the 'normal' peak stress value. The higher the overload ratio the
greater the retardation and for overload ratios greater then two or three, crack arrest may occur.
When a compressive underload is interspersed in variable amplitude loading, the crack growth
rate following the underload will be greater than that of the constant amplitude load. The crack growth
acceleration is short lived and the 'normal' constant amplitude growth rate is restored quickly as
illustrated by curve 'd' in Figure 6.
Figure 7: Crack growth behavior for (a) Tension overload (b) Compression-tension overload (c) Tensioncompression overload and (d) Compression underload (Fuchs, 1980)
379
If a compressive underload immediately follows a tensile overload, the amount of retardation is

reduced but not eliminated. On the other hand, if a compressive underload applied prior to overloading
has only a little change on the amount of crack retardation. Figure 7 illustrates the relative effect of the
previously discussed load interactions that are encountered. The overload sequence effect will be of
greater importance when they occur predominately in one direction. Less effect is expected if
overloads occur in both directions, if the history is highly irregular or if the overloads are relatively
mild.
Numerous attempts have been made to develop a fatigue crack growth law which includes the
load interactions and they will be discussed in the following sections. The majority of the fatigue
models neglect the crack acceleration effect because of the dominance of the crack retardation.
6. Use Constant Amplitude Loading Fatigue Crack Growth Models

Although constant amplitude loading doesnt occur in practice. The majority of structures are subjected
to variable amplitude loading. During this type of loading it has been well established that various load
interactions occur which may significantly alter the growth behavior of a crack. The constant amplitude
loading fatigue crack growth rate models previously discussed do not account for these load
interactions and thus may not accurately represent the fatigue crack growth process.
The large effect of high loads on fatigue crack growth has stimulated much research, both
experimental investigations as well as analytical studies. The significance of crack tip plasticity was
easily recognized and it obviously suggested that the plastic zone size must be important for crack
growth retardations. Because the plastic zone size depends on the state of stress (plane strain or plane
stress or intermediate situations), the retardation of the growth of a through crack depend on the
material thickness and the material yield stress. This has been amply confirmed by experimental results
(Burns, 1956, Mills, 1975). The promising application of the K-concept to predictions on fatigue crack
growth under constant amplitude loading (CAL) was drastically upset by the first experiments with
overloads (OLs) in CA test carried out (Schijve, 1961; Wheeler, 1972; Padmadinata, 1994).
The simplest approach to fatigue crack growth for variable amplitude loading is to neglect all
sequence effects and determine the crack growth on a cycle by cycle basis in conjunction with a
constant amplitude fatigue crack growth law. The various models will be discussed in the next section
neglect the sequence effects which generally provide a conservative estimate of crack growth life
sufficient for preliminary analysis. The advantage of this approach is that it is relatively simple,
inexpensive and not very time consuming. If it has been previously determined that the load sequences
effects cancel each other or are entirely unpredictable, this may be the best method to use because
nothing would be gained by conducting a more detailed analysis.
6.1. Wheeler Model
Wheeler (1971,1972) proposed a model that accounts for retardation by introduction of a retardation
parameter. Wheeler's model is applicable to any fatigue crack growth equation of the form
da/dN = f ( K , R). He considers any retardation effects by including a retardation parameter such that
da/dN = R f ( K , R)
(42)
where
R y
y for (a + R y ) < a p
R = a p a
for (a + R y ) a p
1
and
R =retardation parameter
Ry =extent of current yield zone.
380
y = shaping factor
ap-a =distance from crack tip elastic-plastic interface.
These terms are illustrated in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Crack tip yield zones (Wheeler, 1972)
The solid line represents the yield zone due to the current applied load and the doted line is the
extent of yielding due to some prior overload. When the crack has propagated through the overload
zone, the current yield zone is equal to the greatest elastic-plastic interface and a = 1. This
corresponds to no retardation and thus the fatigue crack growth rate reduces to that of constant
amplitude loading, daldN = f( K,R). The plastic zone size is calculated by using an appropriate
equation. Wheeler (1971) suggests using the relationship for a plane strain condition.
2
Kl
Ry =
(43)
4 2 y
The shaping exponent y is determined by empirically fitting the variable amplitude loading test
data. It is generally depends upon the material and the nature of the load spectrum that is being
considered. Therefore, once a value of y has been obtained it should only be used to predict fatigue life
for components of similar material and load spectrum type. If a different load spectrum type is to be
applied y must be re-calibrated otherwise serious errors will result.
The Wheeler model has had success in modelling crack growth retardation due to single and
periodic overloads in an otherwise constant amplitude spectrum. This model cannot deal with the
effects of underload, however, and more difficulties arise when both overloads and underloads are
involved. When underload occurs during an otherwise constant amplitude loading, the crack growth
following the underload is greater than that occurring during the constant amplitude load. The period of
crack growth acceleration is short, and the normal, constant amplitude growth rate is restored
quickly. If an underload immediately follows an overload, the degree of retardation due to overloading
is reduced but not eliminated. An underload applied prior to an overload, on the other hand, has little
effect on the degree of crack retardation (Taheri et al 2003).The facts described above suggest a
modelled Wheeler expression that takes into account these points. The relevant variables and zones are
sketched in Figure 9.
1
381
Figure 9: Sketch showing the variables and zones associated with the modified Wheeler model.
6.2. Willemborg Mode1
Willemborg (1971) advanced the Wheeler model by determining the amount of retardation as a
function of the stress intensity factor necessary to cancel the effect of the overload plastic zone. It does
not require any empirical parameters; only the material yield stress must be determined. The modified
stress intensity factor, which includes retardation, is given by the relationship of
1/ 2
a
K r = ( K max )OL 1
(44)
K max
Z OL
Where (Kmax)OL is the maximum stress intensity factor during the overload cycle, a is the
amount of crack growth since the overload cycle, ZOL is the overload plastic zone size and Kmax , is the
maximum stress intensity factor for cycle i.
Johnson (1981) proposed the overload plastic zone size by using the relationship of
1 (K max )OL
(45)
Z OL =
y
Once the current yield zone has extended through the overload zone (da = ZOL) the value for Kr
is set equal to zero. The effective stress intensity factor is used and defined as Keff =K max eff - Kmin eff
where Kmax eff = Kmax - Kr and Kmin eff = Kmin - Kr . If one desires to use a fatigue crack growth law which
is a function of both K and R, one must use an effective overload ratio defined by
K min eff
Reff =
(46)
K max eff
Therefore the Forman equation (11) in conjunction with the Willemborg model will become
m
K eff ) '
(
da
=CF
(47)
dN
(1 Reff ) K C K eff
2
6.3. Elber Mode1
Based on the experimental observations, Elber (1970; 1971) suggested that a fatigue crack can close at
a remotely applied tensile stress due to a zone of compressive residual stresses left in the crack tip
wake. Elber introduced the crack closure concept to analyze crack propagation under variable
382
amplitude loading. It is based on the observation that the faces of fatigue cracks close before al1 the
tensile load is removed. Previously, it was assumed that cracks is closed under compressive loads and
open under tensile load. The crack closure under tensile load is due to residual deformation in the wake
of the crack. Elber observed that for a stress-displacement curve which has been shown in Figure 10.
1. Slope AB is linear and equal to that of the uncracked body
2. Slope CD is linear and equal to that of the cracked body
3. Nonlinear line BC is the transition from fully open and fully closed crack
Figure 10: Crack closure results for fatigue crack propagation (Elber, 1971)
A concept to be discussed here is the occurrence of crack closure, and more specifically
plasticity induced crack closure. In the late sixties Elber (1968 ; 1971) observed that the tip of a
growing fatigue crack in an Al-alloy sheet specimen (2024-T3) could be closed at a positive stress
(tensile stress). Crack opening turned out to be a non-linear function of the applied stress. During
loading from = 0 to = op the crack opening displacement (COD) is a non-linear function of the
applied stress. For > op the behaviour is linear with a slope corresponding to the specimen
compliance with a fully opened crack. The same non-linear response was observed during unloading.
During the non-linear behaviour the crack is partly or fully closed due to plastic deformation
left in the wake of the growing crack. Elber argued that a load cycle is only effective in driving the
growth of a fatigue crack if the crack tip is fully open. He defined the effective and K as:
eff = max op and K eff = eff a
(48)
( is the geometry factor). He then assumed that the crack growth rate is a function of Keff
only. He also introduced an effective stress intensity ratio which was mathematically defined as
K eff
K max K op
=
U=
(49)
K
K max K min
Using the above expressions, any existing fatigue crack growth relationship could be utilized by
simply replacing K by U K . Elber then, proposed a modified Paris equation, i.e.
da
m
m
= C p K effp = C (UK ) p
(50)
dN
The difficulty is in determining the appropriate Kop ,value required to obtain U. Elber
determined the following relationship
U = 0 .5 + 0 .4 R
0 .1 R 0 .7
(51)
383
which is based on tests for aluminum 2024-T3. Other relationships for various materials have been
obtained and reported in the literatures.
This relation is an empirical result. Moreover, Elber proposed that the relation should be
independent of the crack length. The Elber approach was carried on in later investigations, partly
because it was attractive to present crack growth data of a material for various R-values by just one
single curve according to Equation (50). It turned out that the relation in Equation (51) could be
significantly different for other materials, which is not surprising because the cyclic plastic behaviour
depends on the type of material.
The significance of this model is that crack closure appears to be a significant factor in causing
load interactions. In the crack closure mode1 ". . . crack growth retardation following an overload is
not visualized as a consequence of residual compressive stresses ahead of the crack tip, but rather as
the result of a wake of residual local deformation left behind the crack tip as it propagates" (Collins,
1993). Some limitations of the model is that the relationships for U and Kop , must be determined for
the specific material, loading type and region on the fatigue rate curve. Further, the definition of the
closure load is somewhat arbitrary and is the subject of on going research. FinaIly, the complex way in
which op (Kop) must be determined for each load cycle and the step by step counting method of
generating the crack growth curve requires a large computer program and long running times (Chell,
1979). In the 1980s, the crack closure concept was much welcomed by investigators on crack growth
models for fatigue under VA loading (Schijive, 1996).
Kujawski (2001) suggested the parameter ( K+)1-Kmax can be used as a mechanical driving
force to correlate the effects of load ratio on fatigue crack growth without consideration of crack
closure, where K+ is the positive part of the applied stress intensity range.
6.4. Gallagher and Hughes Model
Fatigue crack growth study under variable amplitude (VA) loading in various bridge steels was
conducted using root mean square approach. This method provides an average fatigue crack growth
rate without considering load interaction effects. A fatigue model relevant equation remarks the
generalized Willenborg model, which was proposed by Gallagher and Hughes (1974) based on
effective stress intensity factors (SIF) range to account for retardation due to tensile overloads. In this
method, the effective SIF and apparent SIF both are same.
da
C (K ) m
(52)
=
dN (1 R eff ) n K c K
(K min )eff
R eff =
(K max )eff
(K max )eff = K max K red
K red
a a
= (K OL ) max 1 n OL
POL
1/ 2
K max
where
(KOL) max = maximum SIF due to overload
= current crack length
an
= overload crack length
aOL
POL
= plastic zone created by overload
384
This method is effective in computing the crack growth in the retardation zone. The value of
is computed for overload ratios 2.0. This model does not consider the interaction effects due to
underloads.
6.5. Barsom Mode1
The effective stress intensity factor range described in terms of the r.m.s. value of stress intensity factor
range, Krms , which was proposed by Barsom (1976) is given by:
K rms = (in=1K i2 )
(53)
where Ki , is the stress intensity factor in the ith cycle for a load sequence consisting of n cycles.
These models are empirical and do not account for load sequence effects such as crack growth rate
retardation.
The objective expressed by Barsom (1976) was to obtain a single stress intensity parameter
capable of describing the crack growth rate under both constant and variable amplitude loading. For
this approach, it is required that the variable amplitude load spectra be represented by a continuous
unimoidal distribution function (for example; Rayleigh probability density curves or log-normal
functions) and the loading condition should result in a relatively smooth continuous crack length versus
number of cycles curve. If the requirements of Equation (53) are satisfied, Barsom proposed the
following relationship
da
(54)
= AB (K rms ) mB
dN
where AB and mB are constants and
k
K rms =
K
r =1
1
2
(55)
n
The Krms parameter represents the r.m.s. of the individual load cycles in a spectrum. This
method is extremely simple because it only requires the curve fitting parameters AB and mB to be
determined (similar to the Paris coefficients) along with the value for Krms which is determined from
the variable amplitude load spectra. The load interactions are not included but are assumed to occur
often, and thus this method determines the average fatigue crack growth rate. In other words, an
equivalent constant amplitude load is determined from the variable amplitude spectra. Therefore the
most accurate predictions can be made for a large number of random cycles closely spaced together.
6.6. McEvily Model
McEvily (1974) proposed a fatigue crack growth law for CAL. Upon examining the details of the
Barsom model, he extended the CAL model to include VAL as follows
K
da
C
(56)
=
K 2 K th2 ) 1 +
(
dN y E
K C K max
McEvily determined the crack growth rate independent of the mean stress for the crack growth
less than 10-4 in/cycle and thus the contribution due to static modes in Equation (56), the K/(Kc-Kmax)
term can be neglected. Now by considering an average rate of crack growth under a variable load
(da/dN)avg , it can be taken equal to the average contribution from each of the cycles over the increment
of a crack growth in Equation (56) as:
C 1 N N K 12
da
(57)
K th2
dN
E
vg
1 N
y
The quantity of
K 2
is the square of Krms . Thus, Equation (57) becomes
N
385
A
da
2
(58)
K rms
K th2
dN
E
avg
y
The above equation is similar in nature to the Barsom model and includes the threshold value.
6.7. Ahn Mode1
Ahn and Mende1 (1995) proposed a probabilistic fatigue life model which is derived from the
differential equation governing the fatigue process and contains a single parameter (the Barsom root
mean square stress range) which has a direct physical meaning pertinent to the fatigue process. The
differential equation used was the Paris equation; however, it is possible to develop the following
formulation on any other. The Paris model was chosen because of its simplicity.
Briefly, Ahn and Mendal defined the number of cycles requiring a unit crack increment ( Ni )
as the random variable and L as the number of cycles necessary to cause fatigue failure. Therefore
L = N 1 + N 2 + ... + N M
(59)
where M is the number of unit increments chosen. For CAL the Paris equation is
m
a
(60)
= C a
N
which gives the number of cycles N needed for crack increment a at any point along the crack.
Substituting Equation (60) for N into Equation (59), it gives
1
1
a
1
= B ( )m
(61)
+
+
...
L=
/
2
m
m/2 m m/2
m
( ) A Y a0
a 0 + M o 1 a
Therefore if one knows the stress range , the number of cycles to cause fatigue failure L is
known. For a VAL, varies in an unknown manner and the Ni and L are random variables. To
determine the value of , Barsom's root mean square method is employed with the relationship
K = Y a , gives
) )
1/ 2
1 n
rms = 12
(62)
n r =1
Using the above expression in conjunction with a Gaussian distribution it gives

1 1/ m 1
l 2 / m B 2 / m
(63)
exp
p ( l / rms )
l
dl
2
rms
2 rms
where denotes 'proportional to'. This expression represents a likelihood model for fatigue life. An
unconditional or predictive distribution is determined as follows
p (l ) = p (Il rms ) ( rms )d rms
(64)
The integral represents the probable fatigue life of the component and this method is good for
narrow banded random processes.
7. Variable Amplitude Loading Fatigue Crack Growth Models

Crack growth in structures depends on the amplitude, stress ratio, and frequency of the load. Due to the
random nature of variable loading, it is difficult to model all these influential parameters correctly.
Overloads are known to retard crack growth, while underloads accelerate crack growth relative to the
background rate. These interactions, which are highly dependent upon the loading sequence, make the
prediction of fatigue life under variable amplitude loading more complex than under constant
amplitude loading. Many models have been developed to predict the fatigue life of components
subjected to variable amplitude loading (James, 1997; Paris et al., 1999; Taheri et al., 2003). The
386
earliest of these are based on calculations of the yield zone size ahead of the crack tip and are still
widely used. The Willenborg model (1971) and the Wheeler model (1972) are two notable examples
published in the early 1970s. They are now considered to be rather primitive.
Another category models based on the crack closure approach, which considers plastic
deformation and crack face interaction in the wake of the crack, was subsequently proposed by Elber
(1972), have been used to model crack growth rates under variable amplitude loads (Newman, 1984;
Ray and patanker, 2001; Voorwald, 1991). More recent proposals include combinations of the Wheeler
model with the Newman crack closure model (Huang et al., 2005(a)) and model based on the strain
energy density factor (Huang et al., 2005(b)).
However, due to the number and complexity of the mechanisms involved in this problem, no
universal model exists yet. A number of load interaction models have been developed to correlate
fatigue crack growth rates and predict crack growth under variable amplitude loading over the past
three decades. These models have been used to predict crack propagation under different load spectra
and generally agree well with corresponding test results.
The various approaches of fatigue crack propagation laws, which used to predict the crack
growth of component subjected to VAL will be discussed in the next section.
7.1. Chang, Szamossi and Liu Model (1981)
Experiments were conducted on center-cracked tension specimens under random spectrum loading to
predict the fatigue crack growth behaviour and remaining life. They followed two approaches. One
approach did not account for the load interaction effects to the fatigue crack growth while the other
approach considered both the tensile overload retardation and the compressive load acceleration effects
as well as the reduction of overload retardation effect caused by compressive load immediately
following the tensile overload.
m
1
(1 R )
Here also is to be obtained from the experiments.
K > K th
da
=C
dN
if
+
0 R < Rcut
,
(65)
R=R
+
cut
+
0R R ,
R = Rcut
where R =Stress Ratio,
+
R cut
= cut of value of stress ratio
da
for K K th
=0
dN
where
K th = (1 R )K tho
K tho = threshold value of K for R=0

+
, K tho for crack growth
Limitations of this model are, it needs complicated data such as R cut
study analytically.
7.2. Hudson Model
Hudson (1981) used a root mean square approach, similar to that proposed by Barsom, for predicting
the fatigue crack growth under aircraft random spectrum loading. This approach is relatively simple
and neglects load interaction effects. It requires analyzing the loading history for each specimen to
determine the root mean square maximum and minimum stresses. This method provides an average
387
fatigue crack growth rate, and if the influence of the load interactions is small, provides good results.
Since the loading is random in nature, it is reasonable that the load interactions will offset one another.
For non-random loading sequences where relatively few high load cycles cause long delays in
fatigue crack growth, this approach will probably not be applicable. The maximum and the minimum
root mean square stress levels were calculated by using the relationship
max rms
1
=
N
( )
r =1
max
0.5
(66)
and
0.5
1 N
2
min rms = ( min )
(67)
N r =1
where max and min are the maximum and the minimum stresses of the random load spectrum and N
is the total number of max or min values. Now the root mean square stress ratio is calculated by
Rrms =
min rms
max rms
(68)
The root mean square maximum and minimum stress intensity factors are calculated from
Equation (66) and (67) respectively in conjunction with the correction factor for a center cracked
specimen. This gives
a
K max rms = max rms a sec
(69)
and
a
K min rms = min rms a sec
(70)
W
Where a is the crack length and W is the specimen width. Therefore the root mean square stress
intensity range is
K rms = K max rms K min rms
(71)
Hudson used the above root mean square parameters in conjunction with the Forman equation
to predict fatigue crack growth rates, i.e.
m
CK rms
da
=
(72)
dN (1 Rrms )K C K rms
where KC is the elastic fracture toughness. The above equation was numerically integrated from the
initial flaw size to the critical flaw size.
7.3. Newman Mode1
Other crack closure models have also been developed which include those by Newman (1981;1982),
Dill et al.(1976;1980) , Fuhring and Seege (1979) and Koning (1981). The difficulty in using crack
closure models is in determining the opening stress op .
The model introduced by Newman (1981;1982) predicts the crack opening stress by an iterative
solution procedure for a cycle-by-cycle closure calculation using detailed finite element programs. In
addition to the plasticity induced crack closure, other forms of fatigue crack closure can arise from
corrosion (oxide-induced closure), fracture surface roughness (roughness-induced closure), and other
microstructural and environmental factors as categorized by Ritchie and Suresh (1980; 1982 and 1983).
Statistical macrocrack growth models have also proposed (Paris, 1960; Barsom, 1976), for which crack
growth rate is related to an effective stress intensity factor range based on probability-density curve
characteristics of the load spectrum.
388
Newman used a crack closure approach for predicting the fatigue crack growth life. The method
is based on a concept like the Dugdale model, but was modified to leave plastically deformed material
in the wake of the advancing crack tip. The crack opening stress ( op ), as a function of crack length
and load history was calculated from the analytical model. Then, the effective stress intensity factor
range, as proposed by Elber, was calculated. Details of the model are provided by Newman (1981).
The fatigue crack growth law was given by the relationship
C2
da
K eff
= C1
2
dN
1 K max
C 3
Where K eff = ( max op )Y
(73)
a . The parameters C to C were determined from the constant

1
amplitude load data by using a least squares regression

The predictions Newman provided to the task group were based on Equation (69). After the
results were known, he modified the fatigue crack growth law and re-predicted the results with the
following equation
K 2
O
1

K
da
eff
C2
(74)
= C 1K eff
2
dN
K
max
1
C 5
where

K O = C 3 1 C 4 O
max
and
K max = max Y a
In addition, Newman re-predicted the results using a linear predictions with this approach were
good, which cumulative damage rule. The indicated that retardation and acceleration nearly canceled
each other out for most of the load spectra.
A much more realistic finite element model of the circumstances has recently been developed
by Newman (1997). It employs a strip yield type plastic zone for leaving residually stretched material
in the wake of the crack, which causes interference between crack surfaces or so called plasticityinduced closure. Some researchers have questioned the assumption of plasticity-induced closure,
especially for plane strain applications. However, this model is far better than other empirical models
for life prediction, although it has some assumptions which appear to be subject to further question.
Indeed, no model will ever be a perfect representation of reality, and a new improved one can
supersede every model. Currently, the Newman finite element model is the best we have and worthy of
future improvements.
7.4. Johnson Mode1
Johnson (1981) used a multi-parameter yield zone (MPYZ) model for predicting the fatigue crack
growth under random spectrum loading. The MPYZ model accounts for crack growth retardation
acceleration and underload effects by decreasing or increasing the stress ratio used in a modified
Forman crack growth equation. It is assumed that the load interactions are a result of the residual stress
intensity due to plastic deformation at the crack tip. Johnson used a slightly altered form of the Forman
equation and it is given by the relationship
389
da
CK n
=
(75)
dN 1 R eff m K C K
where m = 1 at R > 0 and m = 2 at R < 0.
When the full stress intensity range ( K) is used; the stress range includes the compressive
portions. Reff accounts for the three load interaction effects by adjusting its value during each cycle.
Therefore, the procedure used to determine the proper value of Reff to account for retardation
acceleration and underload effects. The parameters C and n are determined from the supplied constant
amplitude load data. If the value of K is less than Kth , then Equation (75) is not applicable and no
crack growth results can be observed. The threshold for each cycle is mathematically defined as the
following equation:
K th* = 1 R eff K th
(76)
where Kth is obtained for R = 0. The effective stress ratio is defined by the specific relationship as
eff
K min K R
K min
eff
(77)
R =
= eff
K max K R K max
where KR is the residual stress intensity and it can be positive or negative depending whether there is
retardation or acceleration, respectively. The maximum allowable stress ratio that can be used in this
analysis is defined as
0.2Z OL
Rmax =
(78)
+ 0.6
t
where ZOL is the plastic zone diameter for the applied Kmax .
7.5. Rudd and Engle mode1
Rudd and Engle (1981) used the Walker crack growth rate equation where the compressive loads were
set equal to zero and a generalized Willemborg model accounted for the tensile load retardation effect,
i.e.
n
da
eff
=C
(79)
1
dN
1
R
(
)
eff
Specifically, the above equation was used and the parameters determined from the constant
amplitude data. This equation was numerically integrated on a cycle by cycle basis. The effect of
compressive underload applied immediately after a tensile overload was ignored. Retardation was
accounted for by replacing K by the following effective value
K eff = (K max )eff (K min )eff
and
( K min )eff
R eff =
(80)
( K max )eff
The effective Kmax and Kmin values are defined by Rudd and Engle. The limitation of this model
is , which is to be obtained through experiments..
7.6. Chang Model
Chang et al. (1981a) used the Walker crack growth rate equation where the compressive loads were set
equal to zero and the tensile load retardation was not accounted for. That is, for K > Kth
n
K
da
(81)
= C
1 y
dN
(1 R )
and for K Kth , and da/dN is equal to zero. The stress intensity threshold value is defined by
390

K th = (1 R )K th 0
(82)
This procedure is similar to that of the Walker (Equation 7) and neglects load interaction
effects.
The second model (Chang et al., 1981(b)) also utilizes Walker's crack growth rate equation;
however, the Willenborg model accounts for the load interaction effects. This load interaction model is
the same as the one used by Rudd and Engle and was discussed in detail (Chang et al., 1981(b)). The
ratios of the predicted life to the test life (Npredict, Ntest) were calculated. Ratios smaller than 1.0 are
considered being conservative predictions and ratios greater than 1.0 are unconservative. The average
prediction ratio and the standard deviation for each model are presented.
7.7. Modified Miner Model
This crack growth model (Varma, 1990) is based on modified Miner rule and does not account for
cyclic interaction with a cycle counting technique (rain flow counting method) in order to predict
fatigue crack growth rate under variable or random fatigue loading.
K eff
n K im
= i
NT
1/ m
1/ m
n
,= i
NT
K i
(83)
where
K eff
Ni
K i
NT
M
=effective SIF range

=of cycles at
=SIF range for ith cycle
= total number of cycle
= constant.
7.8. Nasgro Model
Modified generalized Willenborg model (Equation 47) was proposed by NASGRO. This model
extends the generalized Willenborg model by taking into account the reduction of retardation due to
underloads.
C (K eff ) m
da
=
`
(84)
dN (1 R eff )K C K eff
K eff = (K max )eff (K min )eff
K max,eff = K max K red
K min,eff = max {( K min K red ) , 0} , for K min > 0
= K min for K min 0

1/ 2
an aOL
K red = (K OL ) max 1
K
max
Pol
= 2.523o /(1.0 + 3.5(2.5 RU )0.6), RU < 0.25

= 1.0RU 0.25
RU = UL / max,OL ,
O = 0.2
to
(85)
(86)
0.8
The limitation of this model is the value of O is to be obtained from experimentally. This
model is mostly suitable for aircraft structures.
391
7.9. Huang Model
The effect of the loading sequence on crack growth under variable amplitude loading must first be
considered. According to the relationship of crack growth rate data (da/dN versus K) of many
materials shown in references (Ohta et al., 1997), and based on the prior work of the present authors
(Huanget al., 2005(a); Huanget al., 2005(b); Huang and Moan, 2007), a crack growth rate model
covering stages I and II of the crack growth rate can be expressed as
da / dN = [(Keq 0 )m (K th 0 )m ]
(87)
K eq 0 = M R M P K
MR
(1 R ) 1
= (1 R )
(1.05 1.4R + 0.6R 2 )
(0 R < 0.5)
(0.5 R < 1)
(5 R < 0)
From the above relationship it can be concluded that:

(1) The crack growth retardation and crack arrest caused by an overload are modelled by
reducing the equivalent stress intensity factor range, so that da/dN =0 , when
K eq 0 K th 0 .
(2) The crack growth acceleration caused by an underload occurring just before an overload
is neglected.
(3) The effect of an underload that follows an overload is modelled by subtracting the plastic
zone size increment caused by the underload from the plastic zone of the overload (Huang
et al. 2008).
Tomkins (1968) examined the growth of artificially induced macro edge cracks in various
materials subjected to low cycle fatigue conditions, and presented a crack growth rate (da/dN) equation
of the form
da / dN = C 2 Pn a
(88)
where C2 and n are material constants
8. Summary and Concluding Remarks of Models

Various constant amplitude and variable amplitude fatigue crack growth models were discussed and
each varied in the approach used, number of calibration parameters and complexity. Most models used
empirical curve fitting parameters obtained from the results of fatigue tearing; however, some of the
models were discussed that have no empirical parameters but rather are based on the materials tensile
properties. The majority of the models, if calibrated properly, adequately predict the fatigue life of a
component. The selection of the appropriate model is usually based on the analysts experience and
personal preference.
The fact that all used different fatigue crack growth models reconfirms the fact that there is no
standard methodology used to perform the fatigue crack growth life predictions for structures under
random loading. There is a trend for unconservative predictions for crack lives exceeding 105 cycles
and excellent prediction results for crack lives below 105 cycles. It can be conclude that:
1. Reasonable prediction for specimens subjected to random spectrum loading were obtained
from constant amplitude crack growth rate data and crack growth prediction methods which
account for load interaction effects.
2. Trade off between computation cost and predictive accuracy should be considered in
choosing the model to be used.
3. Improvement of predictive accuracy requires low value K crack growth rate data.
392
In a following generation of crack growth prediction models, crack closure was still considered
to be the leading mechanism to arrive at effective stress range. However, op was no longer obtained
from an empirical function. Fatigue crack growth rate equation expressed in terms of the SIF range K
depend on the R-ratio. Many methods therefore incorporate the effect of the R-ratio, such as crack
closure models based on the effective SIF range (Elber, 1972; Newman, 1984; Ray(II), 2001) two
parameter driving force models (Sadananda and Vasadevam, 1999; Kujawski, 2001; Noroozi, 2005),
and others. Few of them, however, make clear statements regarding the material constants chosen in
calculating crack growth lives under variable amplitude loading. An equivalent SIF range model,
which condenses the data describing crack growth under different R-ratios into a single curve scaled to
R = 0, has already been proposed by the present authors in a previous work (Huang and Moan, 2007)
The Dugdale strip yield model (1960), Newman (1981) and Murakami (1992) were adopted to
calculate the plastic deformation in the crack tip zone and the plastic deformation left in the wake of
the crack. Algorithms were developed (Dill and Saff, 1976; Wang et al., 1991) to calculate the plastic
deformations and to determine the crack opening displacements from which the crack opening stress
level is obtained. The models are rather complex, due to the non-linear material behaviour, reversed
plasticity under compressive stress, and the iterative character of the calculations. Although these strip
yield models are more realistic, the problem of the plane stress to plane strain transition is still present.
Moreover, it remains difficult to cover some aspects such as the 3D character of crack closure.
From a mechanistic point of view, the initiation period and the crack growth period require
different prediction models. This problem is complicated in view of defining the moment of the
transition from the initiation period to the crack growth period. Actually, it must be admitted that a
rigorously and physically satisfactory solution of this problem is not available.
The method of predicting life under VA loading becomes very complex and complicated if one
aims for an accurate assessment. Introduction of features related with the VA loading in the models
such as like interaction (retardation and acceleration), plastic zone formation and crack closure make
the prediction very accurate, but on the expense of complexicity and complicated algorithms. In
addition, the magnitude of these effects depends on the loading variables, specimen geometry, material
properties, microstructure and environments.
In this paper several crack growth prediction models and concepts have been discussed and
evaluated. Investigation shows that the predictions are strongly influenced by the parameters
(empirical, material, assumed, etc.) which have to be fitted to experimental data. It is clear from the
prediction model analyses that curve fitting used to be an imported procedure to correlate the
predictions with the experimental data. Sometimes accuracy is mentioned as Npred/Nexp=1 with out
taking into account the shape of the curve. As a result, a lot of precious work done on analytical
modelling and mathematical estimation of crack growth under VA loading is physically doubtful,
because they lack validated and generalized formulations and concepts.
As it has been shown so far, fatigue crack growth analysis for a variable amplitude load
spectrum is more difficult than that of constant amplitude loading. The details of available fatigue
crack growth models under VAL have been presented highlighting the merits and limitations of the
each model. It is observed from the literature that most of the models require one or more calibration
parameters or constants to conduct crack growth analysis. There is considerable scope to improve upon
the present models and development of better and simpler, which can account for underloads and
combination of overloadsunderloads in simplified manner.
The selection of the appropriate model is usually based on the analysts experience and
persona1 preference and aaccurate predictions thus remain problematic, the more so for part through
cracks.
393
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European Journal of Scientific Research

ISSN 1450-216X Vol.28 No.3 (2009), pp.364-397

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

2. Fatigue Life Curve

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

Figure 2: Stress-life curve (Barsom et al. 1987)

3. Fatigue Rate Curve

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

3.1. Description of Region I

4. Constant Amplitude Loading Models

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

4.1. Paris Mode1

For R = 0, Equation (9) is formulated to form

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

The mode1 appears complicated with a number of parameters.

4.6. Frost and Pook Model

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

y = average local yielding strength

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

Fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) descriptions (Miller and Gallagher,1981)

Participant/FCGR Description No.

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

[K 2 (a )]a a +a , where a is fracture

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

5. Load Interactions in Variable Amplitude Loadings

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

If a compressive underload immediately follows a tensile overload, the amount of retardation is

6. Use Constant Amplitude Loading Fatigue Crack Growth Models

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

6.2. Willemborg Mode1

6.3. Elber Mode1

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

6.7. Ahn Mode1

Using the above expression in conjunction with a Gaussian distribution it gives

p (l ) = p (Il rms ) ( rms )d rms

7. Variable Amplitude Loading Fatigue Crack Growth Models

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

K tho = threshold value of K for R=0

7.2. Hudson Model

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

7.3. Newman Mode1

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

a . The parameters C to C were determined from the constant

amplitude load data by using a least squares regression

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

7.5. Rudd and Engle mode1

S. M. Beden, S. Abdullah and A. K. Ariffin

=effective SIF range

7.8. Nasgro Model

= K min for K min 0

= 2.523o /(1.0 + 3.5(2.5 RU )0.6), RU < 0.25

Review of Fatigue Crack Propagation Models for Metallic Components

7.9. Huang Model

From the above relationship it can be concluded that: