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OVERVIEW OF WATER
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Corrosion
File Reference: COE-202.01
Engineering Encyclopedia
Section
Page
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Depiction of Water Solubility
(Source: Reference No. 4, The Nalco Water Handbook) ............................... 6
Figure 2. Makeup Water Treatment Flow Plan............................................................ 21
List of Tables
Table 1. Classification of Water by Salt Content ........................................................... 4
Table 2. Typical Chemical Analysis of Seawater........................................................... 9
Table 3. Summary of Impurities and Treatments
(Source: Reference No. 5, Perry's Handbook) ............................................. 18
Table 4. Water Quality Requirements for Cooling Water Systems.............................. 19
Table 5. World Health Organization Drinking Water Standards .................................. 23
Table 6. Specifications for Injection Water Produced
at the Qurayyah Seawater Supply Plant ...................................................... 25
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Sources of Water
There are two primary sources of natural water available to
Saudi Aramco: seawater and water from underground aquifers.
These waters have different properties and contain different
impurities, consequently each requires different treatment
before it can be used. In the course of Saudi Aramcos daily
business, many other types of water are encountered, for
example, produced water, sour water, process waters, and
various wastewaters. These waters are derived from man-made
sources such as oilfields, refineries, office buildings, and homes.
All of these waters have different properties, contain different
types of impurities, and different concentrations of impurities.
Consequently each type of water from a man-made facility
requires a different treatment before it can be disposed of or
reused. The properties and treatment of water from both natural
and man-made sources will be covered in this course. Some of
the characteristics of the two primary natural waters available to
Saudi Aramco, seawater and aquifer water, follow.
Seawater
Since large volumes of water are required for producing and
refining oil and gas, and fresh water is scarce in Saudi Arabia,
seawater from the Arabian Gulf is a primary source of water for
many of Saudi Aramco's facilities. Although seawater accounts
for about 97% of the water on our planet, its high concentration
of dissolved salts (high salinity) makes it unsuitable for many
uses. Consequently Saudi Aramco operates many very large
seawater desalination plants. In the open oceans, the salinity of
seawater is remarkably constant at about 34 to 36 parts-perthousand (ppt) or 34,000 to 36,000 parts-per-million (ppm). The
salinity may be lower near the mouths of large rivers and may
be higher in certain seas and gulfs. In fact, the salinity of water
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
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Salinity
Classes
Typical Total
Dissolved Solids
(mg/L)
Fresh water
Brackish water
1,500 to 10,000
Brines
Seawater
35,000 to 60,000
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Properties of Water
The many unique chemical and physical properties of water set
it apart from all other chemical compounds.
Chemical Properties
In the water molecule, the hydrogen atoms are always joined to
the oxygen atom forming a 105-degree angle. This orientation of
atoms gives the molecule an uneven electrical balance or
polarity, since the oxygen atom is electron rich (negatively
charged) relative to the electron poor (positively charged)
hydrogen atoms.
This orientation creates a dipole: a molecule with a positively
charged end and a negatively charged end. Since water is a
dipole it can dissolve high concentrations of salts by allowing
them to dissociate into charged ions. The negatively charged
end of the water molecule is preferentially oriented towards
+
positively charged cations such as sodium (Na ), and the
positive end of water is oriented towards negatively charged
ions such as chloride (Cl ). Conversely, salts have very low
solubility in nonpolar liquids such as hydrocarbons that are
unable to separate and stabilize ions. Figure 1 depicts the
orientation of sodium chloride dissolved in water.
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(WATER MOLECULES)
Na
Cl
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Thermodynamic
Properties
In part due to hydrogen bonding, water has a high freezing point
(0C, 32F) and a high boiling point (100C, 212F) compared to
other molecules of similar size. More energy is required to melt
ice or evaporate water than is required for similar molecules that
are not tightly held together by hydrogen bonds. Water has
exceptionally large heats of fusion and vaporization due in part
to the extra energy required to overcome hydrogen bonding
when ice is melted or liquid water is evaporated. Water must
absorb 540 calories/gram of heat to change from a liquid to a
vapor. This is called the latent heat of evaporation. When water
vapor condenses, this heat is released. This high latent heat
makes steam a very efficient heat source.
Hydrogen bonding also influences the heat capacity of water,
which is the amount of heat that a given mass of water can
carry. As a result of hydrogen bonding, on a hot day seawater
can absorb a great deal of heat from the sun but warm up only
sightly during the day, while the sand on the beach may become
too hot to walk on. The high heat capacity of water makes it an
ideal fluid for heating and cooling.
Latent Heat of
Evaporation
As stated earlier, water has the ability to absorb great quantities
of heat. Water must absorb 540 calories per gram of energy to
cause it to change state from a liquid to a vapor. This quantity of
energy is called the latent heat of evaporation.
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Impurities
Impurities that are found in natural water can be categorized as
one of the following:
Dissolved organics
Dissolved gases.
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Ions
Symbol
Seawater,
ppm
Aquifer,
ppm
12,600
696
++
545
222
++
1,660
82
3,260
418
22,800
1,280
(HCO3 )
164
195
Silica
(Si)
2.8
12.9
Boron
(B)
8.2
0.72
Strontium
(Sr)
9.6
5.5
Copper
(Cu)
<0.5
<0.5
Zinc
(Zn)
<0.5
0-11
Manganese
(Mn)
<0.5
<0.5
Barium
(Pb)
<0.5
<0.5
Lead
(Pb)
0.76
<0.5
(TDS)
41,000
2,890
7.9
7.0
1.0315
1.0024
Sodium
(Na )
Calcium
(Ca )
Magnesium
(Mg )
Sulfate
(SO4 )
Chloride
Bicarbonate
Total Dissolved
Solids
PH
Specific Gravity
(CI )
-
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Calcium bicarbonate
Magnesium bicarbonate
Magnesium chloride
Sodium sulfate
Silica
Manganese
Fluorides
Potassium salts
Barium salts
Strontium salts
Phosphates
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Dissolved Organics
Dissolved organics or carbonaceous impurities are found in
most water supplies. The types of organics will vary depending
upon the raw water source. These sources are as follows:
In surface supplies (rivers, lakes, ponds, oceans, and
reservoirs), the most common source of organics is the natural
decay products of plants, seaweeds, and leaves.
The general types of organics found in surface supplies are
classified as humic acids, fulvic acids, and tannins (the naturally
decayed products of trees and leaves). These organics are
generally of very high molecular weight containing complex
chain structures.
Well supplies used to be considered essentially safe from
organic contamination. Recently, a variety of organics have
been found in well supplies due to organic contamination of
soils, with subsequent aquifer intrusion by the organics. These
organics can range from low molecular weight alcohols, e.g.,
methanol, to volatile organics (VOC), to complex high molecular
weight compounds.
Some of the critical treatment components affected by organic
contamination are:
Microbiological and
Macrobiological Organisms
Seawater is the habitat for many forms of plants and animal life
ranging from microorganisms such as bacteria to seaweeds,
barnacles, shellfish, large fish and mammals. Many of these
organisms are essential, beneficial, and food sources for higher
life forms. However, excessive quantities of organisms in water
systems can create serious problems. Aquifers are not inhabited
by higher plants and animals but can be contaminated by
microorganisms.
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Oxygen (O2)
Ammonia (NH3)
Potential Problems
The above impurities can cause problems when allowed to
remain in the water during cooling, steam generation, or the
other uses of water in Saudi Aramco. Major problems caused by
impurities are described in the following sections.
Scale
Scale is the accumulation of deposits on the interior surfaces of
equipment items such as water storage tanks, piping, and
vessels. These deposits are the result of the precipitation of
mineral salts in the water. The most common deposits are
compounds containing calcium, magnesium, carbonates,
sulfates, and silica. Scales containing barium and strontium
sulfates can form in water from deep wells.
The effects of scale are:
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Iron
H2O
Water
O2
Oxygen
Fe(OH) 2
Ferrous Hydroxide
temperature
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Potential Problem
Bacteria
Algae
Fungi
Seaweeds,
fish and
mammals
Scale
Suspended solids
Silica
Corrosion products
Health Effects
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Type of Impurity
Process of Removal
Classification of Impurity
Acidity
Alkalinity
Ammonia
dissolved gas
deaerating heater
Calcium (Hardness)
ion exchange
chemical precipitation
Carbon Dioxide
dissolved gas
Chlorine Residual
carbon absorption
chemical reduction
Color
dissolved organic
inorganic dissolved solid
carbon adsorption
chemical addition followed by
filtration
Hardness
Magnesium (Hardness)
ion exchange
chemical Precipitation
Nitrate
ion exchange
Nitrite
ion exchange
Oxygen
dissolved gas
deaeration (chemical or
mechanical)
pH
Silica
colloidal solid
ultrafiltration
chemical precipitation
ion exchange
distillation
reverse osmosis
ion exchange
carbon adsorption
emulsified organic
direct filtration
chemical destabilization,
clarification/filtration
Turbidity
dissolved organic
carbon adsorption
microbiological
macrobiological
chemical or UV disinfection
followed by filtration
Miscellaneous Dissolved
Inorganic Cations and Anions
electrodialysis
ion exchange
reverse osmosis
evaporation/distillation
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Cooling Water
There are three types of cooling water systems and each has its
own water quality requirements and treatments. Each of these
systems is subject to corrosion, scale formation, sludge fouling,
and biofouling and they require treatment to minimize these
problems. These are summarized in Table 4 and will be
discussed in detail in Module 5.
System
Water Used
Once-through
Seawater
Cooling Tower
Aquifer
Corrosion inhibitor
Biocide (often chlorine based)
Scale control (dispersants)
pH control
Control of cycles of concentration
Filtration and softening
Closed Recirculating
Steam condensate
Desalinated
(optional)
Corrosion inhibitor
pH buffer
Others (optional)
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Steam Generation
Steam generators require a continuous flow of treated
feedwater to replace the water, which is converted into steam,
and the water that is drawn off the boiler (Table 6 or bleedoff).
Due to the high temperatures of boiler water and the
concentrating effect of evaporation, strict water quality
requirements are necessary to prevent boiler failures due to
corrosion or scale formation. Depending on the type of steam
generator and the purity of steam required, different water
treatment and feedwater quality is required. Higher pressure
boilers with superheaters require higher quality water with lower
concentrations of impurities than low pressure boilers. In
addition to feedwater requirements, water quality requirements
are also placed on the recirculating boiler water within the boiler.
Guidelines for feedwater and boiler water quality have been
published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and
the American Boiler Manufacturers Association. These
requirements will be discussed in detail in Module 2.
The various processes, which can be used to convert seawater
or aquifer water into high quality boiler feedwater, are depicted
in Figure 2. These processes are referred to as external
treatment. Reverse osmosis (RO), Electrodialysis Reversal
(EDR) and Flash Evaporation systems will be discussed in detail
in Modules 3, 6, and 7. These processes remove dissolved
solids, scale forming ions, and other impurities which would
otherwise cause scale, corrosion, carryover (low steam purity),
caustic embrittlement and other problems in boilers.
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RAW WATER
AERATION
pH CONTROL
CHLORINATION
FLASH EVAPORATORS
E.D.
FILTRATION
R.O.
POLISHING
DEMINERALIZERS
PRIMARY
DEMINERALIZERS
SODIUM
SOFTENERS
HYDROGEN
SODIUM
SOFT/DEALK.
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1950 International
Constituent,
mg/l
1961 European
Permissible
limit
Excessive
limit
Maximum
limit
Recommended
limit
Tolerance
limit
0.5
0.2
1.0
Arsenic
0.05
0.2
Cadmium
0.01
0.05
Calcium
75
200
Chloride
200
600
350
0.05
0.05
Copper
0.05
1.5
0.05*
Cyanide
0.05
0.01
Fluoride
1.5
Iron
0.1
0.1
0.1
Lead
0.1
0.1
Magnesium**
50
150
125**
0.05
0.5
0.1
Mercury
0.001
Nitrate
50
0.01
0. 3
5.0
pH range
7-8.5
6.5-9.2
Phenols
0.001
0.002
0.001
Selenium
0.01
0.05
200
400
250
25
Total solids
500
1500
Zinc
5.0
15.0
5.0
Ammonia
Anionic detergent
Chromium (+6)
Manganese
Oil
Oxygen
Sulfate
Suspended matter
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Ultrafiltration
Reverse osmosis
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Injection Water
Water injection is a common method for maintaining production
from oil reservoirs. This method is called waterflooding.
In order to maintain water injection over time, it is critical that the
water be non-corrosive, non-scale forming, disinfected and free
of particulate matter. Any appreciable levels of corrosion
products, scale, suspended solids, microorganisms, and other
impurities could result in plugging of the reservoir. This will
cause a reduction in oil production.
Saudi Aramco operates a world class seawater treatment plant
at Qurayyah that provides treated seawater for the Uthmaniyah
Water Injection System. Injection water specifications used at
Qurayyah are shown in the Table 6.
Impurity
Untreated Seawater
Treated Seawater
15
<0.2
7.9 8.2
7.2 7.3
8.0
<0.01
3.0 5.0
0.0
Particle Size
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Firewater
The most important specifications on firewater systems address
the volume of water to be supplied, pressure, flow rate, and
other factors that directly affect the ability to extinguish fires.
Screens and strainers are used in most systems to protect
against blockages. Depending on the source of water used,
some water quality specifications may be required to protect the
system from fouling. When seawater is used, screening can be
used to prevent debris from entering the system and
chlorination may be used to treat any stored water. To prevent
infestation of firewater systems with shellfish and other marine
life, chlorination is mandatory at some locations. Recently,
infestation of firewater systems by Zebra mussels from Europe
has become a major problem in plants on many waterways in
the United States. Chlorination of water at intakes is used to
control this problem. When aquifer water is used, generally
treatment may be limited to chlorination or no treatment may be
required at all. If the source water contains a high concentration
of suspended solids, filtration may be required to prevent
plugging of piping and nozzles with deposits.
Irrigation
Salt concentrations must be restricted in irrigation water to avoid
damage to plants. Seawater is unsuitable for irrigation water,
but many aquifer waters can be used. As with fire water, if the
source water contains a high concentration of suspended solids,
filtration may be required to prevent plugging of piping and
nozzles with deposits. When a wastewater is reused for
irrigation, the concentrations of toxic impurities (for example,
heavy metals, ammonia, boron, and certain organisms) in the
water must be limited. Sensitivity of certain plants to specific
impurities must also be considered, for example, many trees
and certain ornamental plants are sensitive to sodium and
chloride, and citrus and sugar beets are sensitive to ammonia.
Agricultural authorities should be consulted for specific limits.
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Recreation
Various quality factors affect the use of water as a recreational
vehicle. These factors have a direct relationship to water use.
As the level of quality declines, indicating that the level of
pollution is increasing, the use of water for recreational activities
diminishes. These factors include the smell, taste, color,
turbidity, temperature, and the degree of flotsam (floating
material) within the body of water. Also, the chemical
composition of the water and its pH contribute to the desirability
of water use. The amount of stagnation (lack of flow) and plant
and bacteria growth can have a negative impact on recreational
use.
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GLOSSARY
blowdown
caustic embrittlement
condensers
cooling towers
electrochemical
evaporators
filtration
ions
macrobiological
makeup water
microbiological
organism
precipitation
raw water
slime
suspended solids
turbidity
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ADDENDUM
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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