ARTICLE

An article:
is a piece of writing usually intended for publication in a newspaper, magazine or journal
is written for a wide audience, so it is essential to attract and retain the readers attention
may include amusing stories, reported speech and descriptions
can be formal or informal, depending on the target audience
should be written in an interesting or entertaining manner
should give opinions and thoughts, as well as facts
is in a less formal style than a report
An article can:
describe an experience, event, person or place
present an opinion or balanced argument
compare and contrast
provide information
offer suggestions
offer advice
Articles are written for newspapers, magazines, newsletters, etc and use a variety of styles. In general an article
should contain:
A suitable eye-catching title that suggests the theme of the article. Articles can also have subheadings before
each paragraph.
Followed by an introduction which clearly defines the topic to be covered and keeps the readers attention.
Techniques for attracting the readers attention include using:
o Direct address (if you need help with your studies, look no further)
o A rhetorical question
o Background information
A main body, in which you write about the main points in the rubric.
o You should start a new paragraph for each point
o Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence, followed by explanations or examples.
A conclusion in which you can summarise the main points or re-state your opinion, recommendation or
comment. The conclusion can leave the reader something to think about.
The style of writing should be appropriate for the target reader (which in this case is determined by the type of
publication).
Before you begin writing it is important to consider:
Where is the article going to appear - in a newspaper or magazine?
Who are the intended readers - a specific group such as students or teenagers, or adults in
What is the aim of the article - to advise, suggest, inform, compare and contrast, describe, etc.?
DO NOT use over-personal or over-emotional language or simplistic vocabulary.
DO NOT talk about yourself. You are writing for the general public, not a close circle of friends.
Your opinions are only interesting to other people if you can make them amusing, justify them or explain them.

DISCURSIVE ESSAY
Contents: arguments agreeing and disagreeing. You have to choose your personal option.
Structure:

Title: you can write it at the end

Introduction: 1 paragraph (3 sentences) to explain the situation, aim of the essay, problem or even personal
option. A good introductory paragraph describes the present situation and gives supporting evidence. It should
refer to the statement of question you have been asked to discuss. This can often be done in the form of a
question to the reader which the subsequent paragraphs should answer. One easy way to write the introduction
for an argument or opinion essay is to write THREE sentences: two about the topic and one thesis sentence. You
can write either Situation or Opinion introductions
Situation Introductions: Write two sentences to describe the two sides of the present situation. The third
sentence the Thesis sentence will describe what you are going do in your essay.
Who should take care of our old people?
In my country, most old people live happily with their children. Increasingly, however, many
families cannot take care of their parents. This essay will describe some of the problems
involved with taking care of old people, and discuss who should be responsible.
Opinion Introductions: In this kind you give two opposite opinions in the first two sentences. The third
sentence says what you are going to do.
Does space exploration benefit mankind? Many people are excited about space exploration.
However, others feel it is a massive waste of money. This essay will look at some of the
arguments for and against space exploration.

Body: What makes a body look good? Paragraphs, thats the answer! If your paragraph is in good shape, your
body will look good and feel good. Heres what you need to have in a body paragraph.
o Topic Sentence
o Argument or Reason 1
o Example, Explanation, or supporting detail
o Argument or Reason 2
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o Example, Explanation, or supporting detail

o Argument or Reason 3 (Three is a magic number. Always aim to have 3 ideas.)
o Example, Explanation, or supporting detail
o Paragraph summary (optional)
Conclusion: The conclusion is the end of the essay. It is the last part of the essay and it is the part that the reader
may remember most. It should be clear and avoid confusing the reader. The conclusion should briefly sum up the
arguments you have made, and can include your personal opinion. The opinion you express should follow
logically form the arguments you have presented. The reader expects the conclusion to do some or all of the
following

rephrase the question

summarize the main ideas
give your opinion, if you havent given it already
look to the future (say what will happen if the situation continues or changes)

The reader DOES NOT expect new information in the conclusion. Never add a new idea just because you have
thought of it at the end! You must do all of this in just three or four sentences!
Vocabulary is Important. The conclusion is very similar to the introduction. However, you should avoid repeating the
same words. This is why a few minutes spent at the start of the exam writing down synonyms (words with the same
meaning) and related words is very helpful. After all, if you only have a 250-word essay but use the same word 10
times, this will not show the examiner what you know. Link your ideas together with varied discourse markers and
linking phrases, because an essay should show the development of a logical argument; it is not just a list of random
ideas and opinions.

REPORT AND PROPOSAL

Reports and proposals are usually written to present information in formal situations. They are usually divided into
sections. Each section is written as a paragraph, but the sections are given headings.
You will be given a role (e.g. you are a secretary of your local music club ...) and specific instructions as to what you
should include. Reports tend to be about past events or present situations and proposals usually outline a course of
action for the future.
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A report or proposal should contain:

An introduction in which the reason for writing is stated.

A main body with headed sections. It is essential to choose appropriate section headings.
A conclusion in which the main points are summarised. The conclusion may include a reference to future
action.

Reports and proposals usually begin with the following:

To:
From:
Subject:
Date:
The first paragraph is usually a short section entitled Purpose or Introduction which give the reason for writing.
In the conclusion you can:

Summarise the points in the main body

Make a recommendation for future action
Offer a personal opinion
Reassure the target reader

In a proposal, you can also end by mentioning the benefits of the proposal being accepted.
Tips:

Look carefully at whom the report is for and what they need to know. This will help you choose what
information you have to include.
In the introduction state what the aim of the report is.
Decide what the subdivisions are going to be within the areas of the report and think of headings for them.
For each paragraph state the situation (strengths and weaknesses) and then make a recommendation.
If in an exam you are given information on which to base your report, try not to use exactly the same words.
Try to use a variety of expressions for generalizing and making suggestions.
Use an appropriate professional style, avoiding very informal expressions.

Introduction or purpose:
The aim/objective/purpose of this report is to compare / examine / evaluate / describe / outline (some
suggestions) / analyse (some suggestions) / expose / present / give information on / recommend / consider /
suggest, ...
This report aims to... etc.
Nouns: information, ideas, suggestions, situations, conditions, comments
in order to improve/decide
In case of survey/discussion: It is based on a survey conducted among/It is the result of a discussion which
took place among
Body (2 paragraphs maximum)
Headings from the task
It should be considered, it is worth considering
The first observation to make is (concerns)
First of all/Firstly
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Secondly/ Furthermore/Moreover
Lastly/Finally
In fact
According to (the majority of respondents)
However, although, alternatively
In spite of (the fact [that])/Despite (the fact [that]) + Noun, Pronoun or ...ing
Predicting the future: The outlook for ... is (far from [+ing]) bright/optimistic/depressing/daunting
The future looks bleak/remains uncertain/is promising
This seems unlikely in the near/foreseeable future
Conclusion(s)
As long as/provided that these recommendations are taken into consideration
In conclusion...
The reseach shows/demonstrates
From the research/the evidence we conclude that
It has been stressed that
Making/giving recommendations
I would strongly recommend that ... should + bare infinitive
In the light of the results of the survey I would advise against...
I feel it would be to our advantage if...
The best solution is/would be to...
This will have an impact on + noun

FORMAL LETTER
Formal letters are written for a variety of reasons (to present information, to make an application, to recommend
someone or something, to complain, to apologise, etc). The main difference between formal and informal letters is
the language that you use. In all cases it is essential that the style of the letter is appropriate for the target reader.
A letter should contain:
An introduction in which the reason for writing i clearly stated. In formal letters, it is often necessary to state
who you are.
A main body in which the task is covered according to the instructions given. Each different issue should be
discussed in a separate paragraph. You usually begin each main body paragraph with a topic sentence.
Examples and /or explanations are the added in supporting sentences.
A conclusion in which you restate the main points of the letter and /or state an opinion. For formal letters,
any action you want taken should be clearly stated at the end of the letter.
How formal your letters need to be depends o the target reader and the reason for writing. It is very important
to maintain the same level or formality throughout your letter (in other words, you should not mix very formal
expressions with very informal ones.
Formal style includes: sophisticated vocabulary, impersonal tone, more frequent use of the passive voice,
complex grammatical constructions, formal inking devices and advanced vocabulary.
Remember that formal letters begin and end with either:
Dear Sir/Madam, -> Yours faithfully, or
Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms Smith -> Yours sincerely,
All formal letters begin with the reason for writing. In addition, you can include one or more of the following:
Who you are
A reference to something you have seen or read
Details of place, time, people spoken to, etc.
Depending on the reason for writing, letters can end with one or more of the following:
A summary of the main body
A reiteration of the reason for writing
A reassurance
A reference to future action
An expression of gratitude
Tips for writing an email or letter of complaint:
Make a note of all the relevant details you want to include before you start drafting your letter.
Decide what action you want the person you are writing to take.
Use appropriate expressions for opening and closing the letter.
Use a formal style, and be clear and assertive but not aggressive.
Try to use a variety of expressions for generalizing and making suggestions.
User the passive to make it more impersonal or to make clear that you are not accusing individuals.
Tips for writing an email or letter of application:
It is important to include only the information that is relevant to the particular job you are applying for.
It is also important to use exactly the right tone; otherwise the application will be rejected.
Typically such letters contain some of all of the following:
The name of the job or course you are applying for
Where you saw it advertised
What you are doing now
What work experience you have
Your academic qualifications
The personal qualities which make you suitable for the job or course.

INFORMAL LETTER
Informal letters are written for similar reasons that formal letters but are usually written to people you know.
Informal style includes: colloquial (spoken) and idiomatic English, personal tone and direct address, less frequent use
of the passive voice, less complex grammatical constructions, simple linking devices, less advanced vocabulary,
contractions.
Informal letters usually begin and end with first names in the following way:
Dear John, -> Lots of love, Susan
Dear Margaret, ->Take care and write soon, Bill
Informal letters can begin with the reason for writing. Alternatively, they can begin with an informal greeting.
The closing comment depends on the content of the letter.
Opening
Dear...
Hi/Hello...
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Beginning
Great/Lovely to hear from you (after so long)
Thanks (a lot) for the letter / It was great to get your letter
Sorry to hear about your
Sorry for not writing for so long/I havent written/I havent been in touch for so long
Persuading
Youd get so much out of it
Itd be a wonderful/marvellous opportunity for you to..
Just think of (all the people youd meet)
Just imagine how it would (improve your cv), not to mention (the money you could earn)
Advising
Whatever you do, make sure you..
Its (not) worth/Theres no/little point + gerund
Id/I wouldntif I were you.
Youd be much better off + gerund
Ending
I must go now
Phone me as soon as possible.
Write back soon and let me know how it goes
(Im) Looking forward to hearing from you
Please reply quickly
Ill finish now as Im running out of space
Bye for now
Id better get going
Cant wait to see you again
(Give my) love/regards to
Signing off
Friends: All the best/Best wishes/Bye for now
Relatives: Lots of love/All my love/Love
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When possible, use:

Contractions
Present continuous instead of present simple ('Im looking forward to hearing from you' instead of 'I look
forward...')
Present simple instead of conditional ('I want to visit your farm' instead of 'I would like to visit your farm')
Colloquial expressions ('Im most interested' instead of 'I am really interested')
Direct sentences ('I think it's a good idea' instead of 'It would be a good idea')
Phrasal verbs

REVIEW
Reviews are usually written for newspapers, magazines, newsletters, etc, and their style (format or semi-formal)
depends on how serious the publication is. The purpose of the review is to give your opinion about a book, film,
play, CD, etc. You might be asked to do a combination of the following: describe, narrate, explain and compare.
A review should contain:
An introduction in which you give the main details
A main body which focuses on the details requested by the rubric
A conclusion which can contain a summary of the main body and /or a positive or negative opinion. The
conclusion usually contains a recommendation
Choose a book or film that you know well.
Organize the review into clear paragraphs and make sure you use a suitable style (semiformal).
Use the present tense when you describe the plot. Use participle clauses will help to keep ti concise.
Try to use a range of adjectives that describe as precisely as possible how the book or film made your feel
(gripping, moving). Use adverbs of degree to modify them (absolutely gripping).
Remember that even a god review will usually include some criticism as well as praise.
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Structure:
o Paragraph 1: The title of the book or film, and the author or director. Where and when it is set.
o Paragraph 2: The plot, including information about the main characters.
o Paragraph 3: What you liked about the book/film, and any criticisms you may have.
o Paragraph 4: A summary of your opinion and a recommendation.

NARRATIVE
Narrative writing is used when we want to describe a series of events. This can be in the present or in the past.
Characteristics of narrative writing include:
An introduction which sets the scene.
Correct use of tenses to link the main events.
Use of appropriate time words and phrases.
Describing feelings.
Mentioning the senses (the smell of freshly cut flowers filled the room)
Narratives are written in the first person (I/we) or in the third person. They may be accounts of real events that
happened to us or somebody else, or imaginary stories. This can be humorous stories, spy stories, detective stories,
etc. Before we star writing the story we should decide on the plot line (events that make up the story).
A narrative should consist of:
An introduction in which the scene is set (when and where the story took place, who the people in the story
were and what happened first).
A main body of two or more paragraphs whre the story id developed describing the events, usually in
chronological order. One of the events should be the climax event (the event where interest, suspense and
feelings reach their peak).
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A conclusion which includes what happened at the end of the story, as well as peoples feelings, final
comments or reactions. A twist (surprising ending) makes a long lasting impression on the reader.
A narrative may also have a catchy title in order to attract the readers attention, especially if it is for a
magazine, newspaper, etc.

LEAFLETS AND INFORMATION SHEETS

These can be both FORMAL and INFORMAL; it depends on the target reader.
Like ARTICLES you need a HEADING;
Like REPORTS/PROPOSALS they need to be divided into SECTIONS with subheadings.
FORMAL: The focus is on providing factual information and therefore, you need to use tactful/diplomatic language:
e.g.
INFO
SHEET
announcing
major
changes
within
your
company
over
the
coming year: Use language which reassures the public that very little inconvenience will be
caused.
INFORMAL: The focus is on being informative but more light-hearted/persuasive language is required:
e.g. LEAFLET: Write a leaflet encouraging young people to attend a cultural/sporting event that you have helped to
organise. Both leaflets and information sheets must include:
A title which attracts the attention of the reader and states the content;
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 An introduction which makes the reader want to continue reading;

A main body divided into headed sections focusing on relevant information in the rubric;
A brief conclusion where main points are summarised. LAYOUT is important!
Remember:
Clear headings;
Make sure writing is well spaced out on page;
Use bullet points

BROCHURE AND GUIDEBOOK ENTRY

Introduction
What you write for a book entry is very similar to an article so:
There should be a title
It should include section headings
The language should be quite formal as book entries are usually written for serious publications
The subject whether person or place should be made clear in the first section
The opening section should be as interesting as possible to make the reader want to carry on reading
It is important that what you write is as realistic as possible and therefore should look like an authentic text
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Writing style
Book entries will include a combination of :
Descriptive: e.g. describe a person/place etc
Discursive: e.g. give and support your opinion, analyse a situation, give explanations
Narrative: e.g. narrate an event or a discovery
Guidebook entry:

Write down the names of at least four places in the area you could write about.
For each place make notes according to the bullet points in the task (why they will appeal to visitors, the kind
of things they cane expect to see and do there, historical information,...)
Select three of the places. When choosing, consider how much you have to say and the range of language
you could use.
Include a brief introduction and give each paragraph a heading.

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CHARACTER REFERENCE
As a rule, character references have three sections.
Opening. Usually a paragraph of only a sentence or two, the opening explains who you are and how you
know the subject (person you're referring). Before it you can start with the general sentence: To whom it
may concern.
Body. The body is the majority of the letter. It can be several paragraphs. Here you make the case for
your friend or relative-- describing your experiences with him or her and giving examples of the subject's
good qualities.
Closing. The last paragraph reinforces your belief in your friend or relative and contains your actual
recommendation.
Employment related character references are usually best when the recommendation is as open-ended as
possible. For example, your friend John has asked you to write a letter because he hopes it will help him
land a sales position at the local hardware store. John is polite and out-going, and you feel he'd be great in
sales. When closing your letter which is the better way to make your recommendation? "I enthusiastically
recommend John for a position selling hardware" OR "I enthusiastically recommend John for any position
where patience, courtesy and a winning manner are important".
The second way would be preferable:
John could reuse the letter for other job opportunities in the future, jobs that might not involve
hardware or even sales.
John's qualities drive the recommendation (as opposed to his desire for a job driving it). This makes
the recommendation seem more sincere and therefore makes it more powerful.
Non-employment related letters are usually written in response to special, one-time occurrences
(scholarship competition, child custody award, etc.) and the recommendation must reflect this. That is, by
necessity whatever you recommend must be very specific to be effective.
Build your letter around specific traits: Identify your subject's positive attributes. Then think of the traits
that are important to the position, award, etc. he or she is seeking. Construct your letter around 1 to 3 of
the attributes that overlap.
Here are some positive attributes often found in character reference letters:

Ambitious, wants to learn and grow

Charming, has sense of humor, lighthearted
Committed, loyal, devoted
Considerate, caring, empathetic
Courteous, polite
Creative, is a problem-solver
Detail-oriented, punctual, quality-minded
Determined, persevering, goal-oriented
Efficient, economy-minded
Fair-minded, honest, trustworthy
Follows instructions, aims to please
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Generous, giving, helpful

Good leader, responsible, mature for age
Good listener, good communicator
Hardworking, diligent, industrious
Intelligent, is a quick study, naturally curious
Organized, methodic, orderly
Patient, level-headed
People oriented, easygoing, team player
Works independently, is a self-starter

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