ProjectIntegrationManagement

DevelopProjectCharter

Expertjudgment

Facilitationtechniques

Expertjudgmentisoftenusedtoassesstheinputsusedtodeveloptheprojectcharter.
Expertjudgmentisappliedtoalltechnicalandmanagementdetailsduringthisprocess.
Suchexpertiseisprovidedbyanygrouporindividualwithspecializedknowledgeor
trainingandisavailablefrommanysources,including:Otherunitswithinthe
organization,Consultants,Stakeholders,includingcustomersorsponsors,
Professionalandtechnicalassociations,Industrygroups,Subjectmatterexperts
(SME),andProjectmanagementoffice(PMO).
Facilitationtechniqueshavebroadapplicationwithinprojectmanagementprocesses
andguidethedevelopmentoftheprojectcharter.Brainstorming,conflictresolution,
problemsolving,andmeetingmanagementareexamplesofkeytechniquesusedby
facilitatorstohelpteamsandindividualsaccomplishprojectactivities.

DevelopProjectManagement
Plan

Expertjudgment

Tailortheprocesstomeettheprojectneeds,Developtechnicalandmanagement
detailstobeincludedintheprojectmanagementplan,Determineresourcesandskill
levelsneededtoperformprojectwork,Definethelevelofconfigurationmanagement
toapplyontheproject,Determinewhichprojectdocumentswillbesubjecttothe
formalchangecontrolprocess,andPrioritizetheworkontheprojecttoensurethe
projectresourcesareallocatedtotheappropriateworkattheappropriatetime.

Facilitationtechniques
DirectandManageProject
Expertjudgment

Projectmanagement
informationsystem

Meetings

Theprojectmanagementinformationsystem,whichispartoftheenvironmental
factors,providesaccesstotools,suchasaschedulingtool,aworkauthorizationsystem,
aconfigurationmanagementsystem,aninformationcollectionanddistributionsystem,
orinterfacestootheronlineautomatedsystems.Automatedgatheringandreporting
onkeyperformanceindicators(KPI)canbepartofthissystem.
Meetingsareusedtodiscussandaddresspertinenttopicsoftheprojectwhendirecting
andmanagingprojectwork.Attendeesatthemeetingsmayincludetheproject
manager,theprojectteamandappropriatestakeholdersinvolvedoraffectedbythe
topicsaddressed.Eachattendeeshouldhaveadefinedroletoensureappropriate
participation.Meetingstendtobeoneofthreetypes:Informationexchange;
Brainstorming,optionevaluation,ordesign;orDecisionmaking.

MonitorandControlProject
Expertjudgment
Analyticaltechniques
PMIS
PerformIntegratedChange
Control
Expertjudgment

Analyticaltechniquesareappliedinprojectmanagementtoforecastpotential
outcomesbasedonpossiblevariationsofprojectorenvironmentalvariablesandtheir
relationshipswithothervariables.Examplesofanalyticaltechniquesusedinprojects
are:Regressionanalysis,Groupingmethods,Causalanalysis,

ProjectIntegrationManagement

Meetings

Changecontroltools

CloseProjectorPhase
Expertjudgment
Analyticaltechniques
Meetings

Inthiscase,thesemeetingsareusuallyreferredtoaschangecontrolmeetings.When
neededfortheproject,achangecontrolboard(CCB)isresponsibleformeetingand
reviewingthechangerequestsandapproving,rejecting,orotherdispositionofthose
changes.TheCCBmayalsoreviewconfigurationmanagementactivities.Therolesand
responsibilitiesoftheseboardsareclearlydefinedandagreeduponbyappropriate
stakeholdersanddocumentedinthechangemanagementplan.CCBdecisionsare
documentedandcommunicatedtothestakeholdersforinformationandfollowup
actions.
Inordertofacilitateconfigurationandchangemanagement,manualorautomated
toolsmaybeused.Toolselectionshouldbebasedontheneedsoftheproject
stakeholdersincludingorganizationalandenvironmentalconsiderationsand/or
constraints.Toolsareusedtomanagethechangerequestsandtheresultingdecisions.
AdditionalconsiderationsshouldbemadeforcommunicationtoassisttheCCB
membersintheirdutiesaswellasdistributethedecisionstotheappropriate
stakeholders.

Regressionanalysis,andTrendanalysis.

ProjectScopeManagement
PlanScopeMngement
Expertjudgment
Meetings
CollctRequirements
Interviews

Focusgroups

Facilitatedworkshops

Groupcreativity
techniques

Groupdecisionmaking
techniques

Questionnairesand
surveys

Observations

Prototypes

Focusgroupsbringtogetherprequalifiedstakeholdersandsubjectmatterexpertstolearn
abouttheirexpectationsandattitudesaboutaproposedproduct,service,orresult.Atrained
moderatorguidesthegroupthroughaninteractivediscussion,designedtobemore
conversationalthanaoneononeinterview.
Facilitatedworkshopsarefocusedsessionsthatbringkeystakeholderstogethertodefine
productrequirements.Workshopsareconsideredaprimarytechniqueforquicklydefining
crossfunctionalrequirementsandreconcilingstakeholderdifferences.Becauseoftheir
interactivegroupnature,wellfacilitatedsessionscanbuildtrust,fosterrelationships,and
improvecommunicationamongtheparticipants,whichcanleadtoincreasedstakeholder
consensus.Inaddition,issuescanbediscoveredearlierandresolvedmorequicklythanin
individualsessions.
Brainstorming.Atechniqueusedtogenerateandcollectmultipleideasrelatedtoproject
andproductrequirements.Althoughbrainstormingbyitselfdoesnotincludevotingor
prioritization,itisoftenusedwithothergroupcreativitytechniquesthatdo.
Nominalgrouptechnique.Atechniquethatenhancesbrainstormingwithavotingprocess
usedtorankthemostusefulideasforfurtherbrainstormingorforprioritization.
Idea/mindmapping.Atechniqueinwhichideascreatedthroughindividualbrainstorming
sessionsareconsolidatedintoasinglemaptoreflectcommonalityanddifferencesin
understanding,andgeneratenewideas.
Affinitydiagram.Atechniquethatallowslargenumbersofideastobeclassifiedintogroups
forreviewandanalysis.
Multicriteriadecisionanalysis.Atechniquethatutilizesadecisionmatrixtoprovidea
systematicanalyticalapproachfor
Agroupdecisionmakingtechniqueisanassessmentprocesshavingmultiplealternativeswith
anexpectedoutcomeintheformoffutureactions.Thesetechniquescanbeusedto
generate,classify,andprioritizeproductrequirements.Unanimity,majority,plurlity,
dictatorship
Questionnairesandsurveysarewrittensetsofquestionsdesignedtoquicklyaccumulate
informationfroma
largenumberofrespondents.Questionnairesand/orsurveysaremostappropriatewith
variedaudiences,whenaquickturnaroundisneeded,whenrespondentsaregeographically
dispersed,andwherestatisticalanalysisisappropriate.
Observationsprovideadirectwayofviewingindividualsintheirenvironmentandhowthey
performtheirjobsortasksandcarryoutprocesses.Itisparticularlyhelpfulfordetailed
processeswhenthepeoplethatusetheproducthavedifficultyorarereluctanttoarticulate
theirrequirements.Observationisalsoknownasjobshadowing.
Prototypingisamethodofobtainingearlyfeedbackonrequirementsbyprovidingaworking
modeloftheexpectedproductbeforeactuallybuildingit.Sinceaprototypeistangible,it
allowsstakeholderstoexperimentwithamodelofthefinalproductratherthanbeinglimited
todiscussingabstractrepresentationsoftheirrequirements.Prototypessupporttheconcept
ofprogressiveelaborationiniterativecyclesofmockupcreation,userexperimentation,
feedbackgeneration,andprototyperevision.

ProjectScopeManagement

Benchmarking

Contextdiagrams

Documentanalysis
DefineScope
Expertjudgment

Productanalysis

Alternativesgeneration
Facilitatedworkshops
CreateWBS
Decomposition

Expertjudgment
ValidateScope

Inspection
GroupdcisionmkingT
ControlScope

Varianceanalysis

Benchmarkinginvolvescomparingactualorplannedpractices,suchasprocessesand
operations,tothoseofcomparableorganizationstoidentifybestpractices,generateideasfor
improvement,andprovideabasisformeasuringperformance.Theorganizationscompared
duringbenchmarkingcanbeinternalorexternal.
Thecontextdiagramisanexampleofascopemodel.Contextdiagramsvisuallydepictthe
productscopebyshowingabusinesssystem(process,equipment,computersystem,etc.),
andhowpeopleandothersystems(actors)interactwithit.Contextdiagramsshowinputsto
thebusinesssystem,theactor(s)providingtheinput,theoutputsfromthebusinesssystem,
andtheactor(s)receivingtheoutput.
Documentanalysisisusedtoelicitrequirementsbyanalyzingexistingdocumentationand
identifyinginformationrelevanttotherequirements.Thereareawiderangeofdocuments
thatmaybeanalyzedtohelpelicitrelevantrequirements.Examplesofdocumentsthatmay
beanalyzedinclude,butarenotlimitedto:businessplans,marketingliterature,agreements

Forprojectsthathaveaproductasadeliverable,asopposedtoaserviceorresult,product
analysiscanbeaneffectivetool.Eachapplicationareahasoneormoregenerallyaccepted
methodsfortranslatinghighlevelproductdescriptionsintotangibledeliverables.Product
analysisincludestechniquessuchasproductbreakdown,systemsanalysis,requirements
analysis,systemsengineering,valueengineering,andvalueanalysis.
Alternativesgenerationisatechniqueusedtodevelopasmanypotentialoptionsaspossible
inordertoidentifydifferentapproachestoexecuteandperformtheworkoftheproject.A
varietyofgeneralmanagementtechniquescanbeused,suchasbrainstorming,lateral
thinking,analysisofalternatives,etc.

Decompositionisatechniqueusedfordividingandsubdividingtheprojectscopeandproject
deliverablesintosmaller,moremanageableparts.
Expertjudgmentisoftenusedtoanalyzetheinformationneededtodecomposetheproject
deliverablesdownintosmallercomponentpartsinordertocreateaneffectiveWBS.

Inspectionincludesactivitiessuchasmeasuring,examining,andvalidatingtodetermine
whetherworkanddeliverablesmeetrequirementsandproductacceptancecriteria.
Inspectionsaresometimescalledreviews,productreviews,audits,andwalkthroughs.Insome
applicationareas,thesedifferenttermshaveuniqueandspecificmeanings.

Varianceanalysisisatechniquefordeterminingthecauseanddegreeofdifferencebetween
thebaselineandactualperformance.Projectperformancemeasurementsareusedtoassess
themagnitudeofvariationfromtheoriginalscopebaseline.Importantaspectsofproject
scopecontrolincludedeterminingthecauseanddegreeofvariancerelativetothescope
baseline(Section5.4.3.1)anddecidingwhethercorrectiveorpreventiveactionisrequired.

ProjectTimeManagement
PlanScheduleManagement

Expertjudgment

Analyticaltechniques
Meetings
DefineActivities
Decomposition

Rollingwaveplanning
Expertjudgment
SequenceActivities

Expertjudgment,guidedbyhistoricalinformation,providesvaluableinsightabout
theenvironmentandinformationfrompriorsimilarprojects.Expertjudgmentcan
alsosuggestwhethertocombinemethodsandhowtoreconciledifferences
betweenthem.
ThePlanScheduleManagementprocessmayinvolvechoosingstrategicoptions
toestimateandscheduletheprojectsuchas:schedulingmethodology,scheduling
toolsandtechniques,estimatingapproaches,formats,andprojectmanagement
software.Theschedulemanagementplanmayalsodetailwaystofasttrackor
crashtheprojectschedulesuchasundertakingworkinparallel.

Rollingwaveplanningisaniterativeplanningtechniqueinwhichtheworktobe
accomplishedintheneartermisplannedindetail,whiletheworkinthefutureis
plannedatahigherlevel.

Theprecedencediagrammingmethod(PDM)isatechniqueusedforconstructing
aschedulemodelinwhichactivitiesarerepresentedbynodesandaregraphically
Precedencediagrammingmethod( linkedbyoneormorelogicalrelationshipstoshowthesequence
mandatoryordiscretionary,internalorexternal,
Dependencydetermination
Leadsandlags
EstimateActivityResources
Expertjudgment
Manyscheduleactivitieshavealternativemethodsofaccomplishment.They
includeusingvariouslevelsofresourcecapabilityorskills,differentsizeortypeof
machines,differenttools(handversusautomated),andmakerentorbuy
decisionsregardingtheresource
Alternativeanalysis

Publishedestimatingdata
Bottomupestimating

Projectmanagementsoftware
EstimateActivityDuration
Expertjudgment

everalorganizationsroutinelypublishupdatedproductionratesandunitcostsof
resourcesforanextensivearrayoflabortrades,material,andequipmentfor
differentcountriesandgeographicallocationswithincountries.
Bottomupestimatingisamethodofestimatingprojectdurationorcostby
aggregatingtheestimatesofthelowerlevelcomponentsoftheWBS
Projectmanagementsoftware,suchasaschedulingsoftwaretool,hasthe
capabilitytohelpplan,organize,andmanageresourcepoolsanddevelop
resourceestimates.

Analogousestimating

Analogousestimatingisatechniqueforestimatingthedurationorcostofan
activityoraprojectusinghistoricaldatafromasimilaractivityorproject.

Parametricestimating

Analogousestimatingisatechniqueforestimatingthedurationorcostofan
activityoraprojectusinghistoricaldatafromasimilaractivityorproject.

ProjectTimeManagement
Theaccuracyofsinglepointactivitydurationestimatesmaybeimprovedby
consideringestimationuncertaintyandrisk.Thisconceptoriginatedwiththe
programevaluationandreviewtechnique(PERT)
Threepointestimating
Teambasedapproaches,suchasbrainstorming,theDelphiornominalgroup
techniques,areusefulforengagingteammemberstoimproveestimateaccuracy
andcommitmenttotheemergingestimates.
Groupdecisionmakingtechniques
Durationestimatesmayincludecontingencyreserves,sometimesreferredtoas
timereservesorbuffers,intotheprojectscheduletoaccountforschedule
uncertainty.
Reserveanalysis
DevelopSchedule
Schedulenetworkanalysisisatechniquethatgeneratestheprojectschedule
model.Itemploysvariousanalyticaltechniques,suchascriticalpathmethod,
criticalchainmethod,whatifanalysis,andresourceoptimizationtechniquesto
calculatetheearlyandlatestartandfinishdatesfortheuncompletedportionsof
projectactivities.
Schedulenetworkanalysis
Criticalpathmethod
Thecriticalchainmethod(CCM)isaschedulemethodthatallowstheproject
teamtoplacebuffersonanyprojectschedulepathtoaccountforlimited
resourcesandprojectuncertainties.
Criticalchainmethod
Resourceleveling,Inresourcesmoothing,asopposedtoresourceleveling,the
projectscriticalpathisnotchangedandthecompletion
atemaynotbedelayed.Inotherwords,activitiesmayonlybedelayedwithin
theirfreeandtotalfloat.Thusresourcesmoothingmaynotbeabletooptimizeall
Resourceoptimizationtechniques resources.
WhatIfScenarioAnalysis.Simulation.
Modelingtechniques
Leadsandlags
Crashing.Fasttracking.
Schedulecompression
Automatedschedulingtoolscontaintheschedulemodelandexpeditethe
schedulingprocessbygeneratingstartandfinishdatesbasedontheinputsof
activities,networkdiagrams,resourcesandactivitydurationsusingschedule
networkanalysis.
Schedulingtool
ControlSchedule

Performancereviews
Projectmanagementsoftware
Resourceoptimizationtechniques
Modelingtechniques
Leadsandlags
Schedulecompression
Schedulingtool

Performancereviewsmeasure,compare,andanalyzescheduleperformancesuch
asactualstartandfinishdates,percentcomplete,andremainingdurationfor
workinprogress.Varioustechniquesmaybeused,amongthem:Trendanalysis.
riticalpathmethod,Earnedvaluemanagement,Criticalchainmethod

ProjectCostManagement
PlanCostManagement
Expertjudgment

Analyticaltechniques
Meetings
EstimateCosts
Expertjudgment
Analogousestimating
Parametricestimating
Bottomupestimating
Threepointestimating

Reserveanalysis
Costofquality
Projectmanagementsoftware

Vendorbidanalysis

Developingthecostmanagementplanmayinvolvechoosingstrategicoptionsto
fundtheprojectsuchas:selffunding,fundingwithequity,orfundingwithdebt.
Thecostmanagementplanmayalsodetailwaystofinanceprojectresources
suchasmaking,purchasing,renting,orleasing.

Costestimatesmayincludecontingencyreserves(sometimescalledcontingency
allowances)toaccountforcostuncertainty.Contingencyreservesarethe
budgetwithinthecostbaselinethatisallocatedforidentifiedrisks,whichare
acceptedandforwhichcontingentormitigatingresponsesaredeveloped.
Assumptionsaboutcostsofqualitymaybeusedtopreparetheactivitycost
estimate.

Costestimatingmethodsmayincludeanalysisofwhattheprojectshouldcost,
basedontheresponsivebidsfromqualifiedvendors.Whenprojectsare
awardedtoavendorundercompetitiveprocesses,additionalcostestimating
workmayberequiredoftheprojectteamtoexaminethepriceofindividual
deliverablesandtoderiveacostthatsupportsthefinaltotalprojectcost.

Teambasedapproaches,suchasbrainstorming,theDelphiornominalgroup
techniques,areusefulforengagingteammemberstoimproveestimate
Groupdecisionmakingtechniques accuracyandcommitmenttotheemergingestimates.
DetermineBudget
CostestimatesareaggregatedbyworkpackagesinaccordancewiththeWBS.
Theworkpackagecostestimatesarethenaggregatedforthehighercomponent
levelsoftheWBS(suchascontrolaccounts)andultimatelyfortheentire
project.
Costaggregation
Reserveanalysis
Expertjudgment
Anyhistoricalrelationshipsthatresultinparametricestimatesoranalogous
estimatesinvolvetheuseofprojectcharacteristics(parameters)todevelop
mathematicalmodelstopredicttotalprojectcosts.Suchmodelsmaybesimple
(e.g.,residentialhomeconstructionisbasedonacertaincostpersquarefootof
space)
Historicalrelationships

Fundinglimitreconciliation
ControlCosts

Theexpenditureoffundsshouldbereconciledwithanyfundinglimitsonthe
commitmentoffundsfortheproject.Avariancebetweenthefundinglimitsand
theplannedexpenditureswillsometimesnecessitatethereschedulingofwork
tolevelouttherateofexpenditures.Thisisaccomplishedbyplacingimposed
dateconstraintsforworkintotheprojectschedule.

Forecasting

(EVM)isamethodologythatcombinesscope,schedule,andresource
measurementstoassessprojectperformanceandprogress.
Astheprojectprogresses,theprojectteammaydevelopaforecastforthe
estimateatcompletion(EAC)thatmaydifferfromthebudgetatcompletion
(BAC)basedontheprojectperformance.

Tocompleteperformanceindex
(TCPI)

isameasureofthecostperformancethatisrequiredtobeachievedwiththe
remainingresourcesinordertomeetaspecifiedmanagementgoal,expressed
astheratioofthecosttofinishtheoutstandingworktotheremainingbudget.

Earnedvaluemanagement

Performancereviews
Projectmanagementsoftware
Reserveanalysis

Performancereviewscomparecostperformanceovertime,scheduleactivities
orworkpackagesoverrunningandunderrunningthebudget,andestimated
fundsneededtocompleteworkinprogress.IfEVMisbeingused,thefollowing
informationisdetermined:
Varianceanalysis.Varianceanalysis,asusedinEVM,istheexplanation(cause,
impact,andcorrectiveactions)forcost(CV=EVAC),schedule(SV=EVPV),
Trendanalysis.examinesprojectperformanceovertimetodetermineif
performanceisimprovingordeteriorating.Graphicalanalysistechniquesare
valuableforunderstandingperformancetodateandforcomparisontofuture
performancegoalsintheformofBACversusEACandcompletiondates.
Earnedvalueperformance.Earnedvalueperformancecomparesthe
performancemeasurementbaselinetoactualscheduleandcostperformance.If
EVMisnotbeingused,thentheanalysisofthecostbaselineagainstactualcosts
fortheworkperformedisusedforcostperformancecomparisons.

ProjectQulaityManagement
PlanQulaityManagement

Costbenefitanalysis

Theprimarybenefitsofmeetingqualityrequirementsincludelessrework,higher
productivity,lowercosts,increasedstakeholdersatisfaction,andincreasedprofitability.A
costbenefitanalysisforeachqualityactivity
comparesthecostofthequalitysteptotheexpectedbenefit.

Costofquality

Costofqualityincludesallcostsincurredoverthelifeoftheproductbyinvestmentin
preventingnonconformancetorequirements,appraisingtheproductorservicefor
conformancetorequirements,andfailingtomeetrequirements(rework).Failurecostsare
oftencategorizedintointernal(foundbytheproject)andexternal(foundbythecustomer).
Failurecostsarealsocalledcostofpoorquality.

Sevenbasicqualitytools

Thesevenbasicqualitytools,alsoknownintheindustryas7QCTools,areusedwithinthe
contextofthePDCACycletosolvequalityrelatedproblems.Asconceptuallyillustratedin
Figure87,thesevenbasicqualitytoolsare:Causeandeffectdiagrams,
Flowcharts,Checksheets,Paretodiagrams,Histograms,Controlcharts,Scatterdiagrams,

Benchmarking

Benchmarkinginvolvescomparingactualorplannedprojectpracticestothoseofcomparable
projectstoidentifybestpractices,generateideasforimprovement,andprovideabasisfor
measuringperformance.Benchmarkedprojectsmayexistwithintheperformingorganization
oroutsideofit,orcanbewithinthesameapplicationarea.Benchmarkingallowsfor
analogiesfromprojectsinadifferentapplicationareatobemade.

Designofexperiments(DOE)isastatisticalmethodforidentifyingwhichfactorsmay
influencespecificvariables
ofaproductorprocessunderdevelopmentorinproduction.DOEmaybeusedduringthe
PlanQualityManagement
processtodeterminethenumberandtypeoftestsandtheirimpactoncostofquality.
Designofexperiments
Statisticalsamplinginvolveschoosingpartofapopulationofinterestforinspection(for
example,selectingten
engineeringdrawingsatrandomfromalistofseventyfive).Samplefrequencyandsizes
shouldbedeterminedduring
thePlanQualityManagementprocesssothecostofqualitywillincludethenumberoftests,
expectedscrap,etc.
Statisticalsampling
Brainstorming.Forcefieldanalysis.Thesearediagramsoftheforcesforandagainst
change.Nominalgrouptechnique.Thistechniqueisusedtoallowideastobebrainstormed
Additionalqualityplanning insmallgroupsand
tools
thenreviewedbyalargergroup.Qualitymanagementandcontroltools.
Meetings
PerformQualityAssurance

ProjectQulaityManagement

Affinitydiagrams.Theaffinitydiagramissimilartomindmappingtechniquesinthatthey
areusedtogenerateideasthatcanbelinkedtoformorganizedpatternsofthoughtabouta
problem.Processdecisionprogramcharts(PDPC).Usedtounderstandagoalinrelationto
thestepsforgettingtothegoal.Interrelationshipdigraphs.Anadaptationofrelationship
diagrams.Theinterrelationshipdigraphsprovideaprocessforcreativeproblemsolvingin
moderatelycomplexscenariosthatpossessintertwined
logicalrelationshipsforupto50relevantitems.Treediagrams.Alsoknownassystematic
diagramsandmaybeusedtorepresentdecomposition
hierarchiessuchastheWBS,RBS(riskbreakdownstructure),andOBSPrioritization
matrices.Identifythekeyissuesandthesuitablealternativestobeprioritizedasasetof
decisionsforimplementation.Activitynetworkdiagrams.Matrixdiagrams.Aquality
Qualitymanagementand managementandcontroltoolusedtoperformdataanalysiswithinthe
organizationalstructurecreatedinthematrix.
controltools

Qualityaudits

Processanalysis
ControlQuality
7basicqualitytools
Statisticalsampling

Aqualityauditisastructured,independentprocesstodetermineifprojectactivitiescomply
withorganizational
andprojectpolicies,processes,andprocedures.Theobjectivesofaqualityauditmayinclude:
Identifyallgoodandbestpracticesbeingimplemented;
Identifyallnonconformity,gaps,andshortcomings;
Sharegoodpracticesintroducedorimplementedinsimilarprojectsintheorganization
and/orindustry;
Proactivelyofferassistanceinapositivemannertoimproveimplementationofprocesses
tohelpthe
teamraiseproductivity;and
Highlightcontributionsofeachauditinthelessonslearnedrepositoryoftheorganization.
Processanalysisfollowsthestepsoutlinedintheprocessimprovementplantoidentify
neededimprovements.
Thisanalysisalsoexaminesproblemsexperienced,constraintsexperienced,andnonvalue
addedactivities
identifiedduringprocessoperation.Processanalysisincludesrootcauseanalysisaspecific
techniqueusedto
identifyaproblem,discovertheunderlyingcausesthatleadtoit,anddeveloppreventive
actions.

Aninspectionistheexaminationofaworkproducttodetermineifitconformsto
documentedstandards.Theresultsofaninspectiongenerallyincludemeasurementsand
maybeconductedatanylevel.Forexample,theresultsofasingleactivitycanbeinspected,
orthefinalproductoftheprojectcanbeinspected.Inspectionsmaybecalledreviews,peer
reviews,audits,orwalkthroughs.Insomeapplicationareas,thesetermshavenarrowand
specificmeanings.Inspectionsalsoareusedtovalidatedefectrepairs.
Inspection
Approvedchangerequests Allapprovedchangerequestsshouldbereviewedtoverifythattheywereimplementedas
review
approved.

ProjectHRManagement
PlanHRManagement
Organizationchartsandpositiondescriptions

Networking

Organizationaltheory
Expertjudgment
Meetings
AcquireProjectTeam

Preassignment

Negotiation

Acquisition

Networkingistheformalandinformalinteractionwithothersinanorganization,
industry,orprofessionalenvironment.Itisaconstructivewaytounderstand
politicalandinterpersonalfactorsthatwillimpacttheeffectivenessofvarious
staffingmanagementoptions.Humanresourcemanagementbenefitsfrom
successfulnetworkingbyimprovingknowledgeofandaccesstohumanresource
assetssuchasstrongcompetencies,specializedexperience,andexternal
partnershipopportunities.Examplesofhumanresourcesnetworkingactivities
includeproactivecorrespondence,luncheonmeetings,informalconversations
includingmeetingsandevents,tradeconferences,andsymposia.
providesinformationregardingthewayinwhichpeople,teams,andorganizational
unitsbehave.Effectiveuseofcommonthemesidentifiedinorganizationaltheory
canshortentheamountoftime,cost,andeffortneededtocreatethePlanHuman
ResourceManagementprocessoutputsandimproveplanningefficiency.Itis
importanttorecognizethatdifferentorganizationalstructureshavedifferent
individualresponse,individualperformance,andpersonalrelationship
characteristics.

Whenprojectteammembersareselectedinadvance,theyareconsideredpre
assigned.Thissituationcanoccuriftheprojectistheresultofspecificpeoplebeing
identifiedaspartofacompetitiveproposal,iftheprojectisdependentuponthe
expertiseofparticularpersons,orifsomestaffassignmentsaredefinedwithinthe
projectcharter.
Staffassignmentsarenegotiatedonmanyprojects.Forexample,theproject
managementteammayneedtonegotiatewith:
Functionalmanagers,toensurethattheprojectreceivesappropriatelycompetent
staffintherequiredtimeframeandthattheprojectteammemberswillbeable,
willing,andauthorizedtoworkontheprojectuntiltheirresponsibilitiesare
completed;
Otherprojectmanagementteamswithintheperformingorganization,to
appropriatelyassignscarceorspecializedhumanresources;and
Externalorganizations,vendors,suppliers,contractors,etc.,forappropriate,
scarce,specialized,qualified,certified,orothersuchspecifiedhumanresources.
Specialconsiderationshouldbegiventoexternalnegotiatingpolicies,practices,
processes,guidelines,legal,andothersuchcriteria.
Whentheperformingorganizationisunabletoprovidethestaffneededto
completeaproject,therequiredservicesmaybeacquiredfromoutsidesources.
Thiscaninvolvehiringindividualconsultantsorsubcontractingworktoanother
organization.

ProjectHRManagement

Virtualteams

Multicriteriadecision
analysis
DevelopProjectTeam

Theuseofvirtualteamscreatesnewpossibilitieswhenacquiringprojectteam
members.Virtualteamscanbedefinedasgroupsofpeoplewithasharedgoalwho
fulfilltheirroleswithlittleornotimespentmeetingfacetoface.
Selectioncriteriaareoftenusedasapartofacquiringtheprojectteam.Byuseofa
multicriteriadecisionanalysistool,criteriaaredevelopedandusedtorateorscore
potentialteammembers.Thecriteriaareweightedaccordingtotherelative
importanceoftheneedswithintheteam.Someexamplesofselectioncriteriathat
canbeusedtoscoreteammembersareshownasfollows:Availability.Cost.
Experience.Ability.Knowledge.Skills.Attitude.Internationalfactors.

Training

Interpersonalskills,sometimesknownassoftskills,arebehavioralcompetencies
thatincludeproficienciessuchascommunicationskills,emotionalintelligence,
conflictresolution,negotiation,influence,teambuilding,andgroupfacilitation.
Thesesoftskillsarevaluableassetswhendevelopingtheprojectteam.
Trainingincludesallactivitiesdesignedtoenhancethecompetenciesoftheproject
teammembers.Trainingcanbeformalorinformal.Examplesoftrainingmethods
includeclassroom,online,computerbased,onthejobtrainingfromanother
projectteammember,mentoring,andcoaching.

Teambuildingactivities

Teambuildingactivitiescanvaryfroma5minuteagendaiteminastatusreview
meetingtoanoffsite,professionallyfacilitatedexperiencedesignedtoimprove
interpersonalrelationships.Theobjectiveofteambuildingactivitiesistohelp
individualteammembersworktogethereffectively.

Groundrules

Groundrulesestablishclearexpectationsregardingacceptablebehaviorbyproject
teammembers.Earlycommitmenttoclearguidelinesdecreasesmisunderstandings
andincreasesproductivity.Discussinggroundrulesinareassuchascodeofconduct,
communication,workingtogether,ormeetingetiquetteallowsteammembersto
discovervaluesthatareimportanttooneanother.Allprojectteammembersshare
responsibilityforenforcingtherulesoncetheyareestablished.

Colocation

Colocation,alsoreferredtoastightmatrix,involvesplacingmanyorallofthe
mostactiveprojectteam
membersinthesamephysicallocationtoenhancetheirabilitytoperformasa
team.Colocationcanbetemporary,
suchasatstrategicallyimportanttimesduringtheproject,orfortheentireproject.

Recognitionandrewards

Partoftheteamdevelopmentprocessinvolvesrecognizingandrewardingdesirable
behavior.Theoriginalplansconcerningwaysinwhichtorewardpeopleare
developedduringthePlanHumanResourceManagementprocess.Itisimportantto
recognizethataparticularrewardgiventoanyindividualwillbeeffectiveonlyifit
satisfiesaneedwhichisvaluedbythatindividual.

Interpersonalskills

ProjectHRManagement
Personnelassessmenttoolsgivetheprojectmanagerandtheprojectteaminsight
intoareasofstrengthandweakness.Thesetoolshelpprojectmanagersassessthe
teampreferences,aspirations,howtheyprocessandorganizeinformation,how
Personnelassessmenttools theytendtomakedecisions,andhowtheyprefertointeractwithpeople.
ManageProjectTeam
Observationandconversationareusedtostayintouchwiththeworkandattitudes
ofprojectteammembers.
Theprojectmanagementteammonitorsprogresstowardprojectdeliverables,
Observationand
accomplishmentsthatareasource
conversation
ofprideforteammembers,andinterpersonalissues.

Projectperformance
appraisals

Conflictmanagement
Interpersonalskills

Objectivesforconductingperformanceappraisalsduringthecourseofaprojectcan
includeclarificationofrolesandresponsibilities,constructivefeedbacktoteam
members,discoveryofunknownorunresolvedissues,developmentofindividual
trainingplans,andtheestablishmentofspecificgoalsforfuturetimeperiods.
Conflictisinevitableinaprojectenvironment.Sourcesofconflictincludescarce
resources,schedulingpriorities,andpersonalworkstyles.Teamgroundrules,group
norms,andsolidprojectmanagementpractices,like
communicationplanningandroledefinition,reducetheamountofconflict.

ProjectCommunicationManagement
PlanCommunication

Communication
requirementsanalysis

Theanalysisofthecommunicationrequirementsdeterminestheinformationneedsof
theprojectstakeholders.Theserequirementsaredefinedbycombiningthetypeand
formatofinformationneededwithananalysisofthe
valueofthatinformation.Projectresourcesshouldbeexpendedonlyoncommunicating
informationthatcontributestothesuccessoftheprojectorwherealackof
communicationcanleadtofailure.

Themethodsusedtotransferinformationamongprojectstakeholdersmayvary
significantly.Forexample,aprojectteammayusetechniquesfrombriefconversations
toextendedmeetings,orfromsimplewrittendocumentstoextensivematerials(e.g.,
schedules,databases,andwebsites),whichareaccessibleonlineasmethodsof
communication.Urgencyoftheneedforinformation.Availabilityoftechnology.
Communicationtechnology EaseofUse.Projectenvironment.Sensitivityandconfidentialityoftheinformation.

Communicationmodels

Thecommunicationmodelsusedtofacilitatecommunicationsandtheexchangeof
informationmayvaryfromprojecttoprojectandalsowithindifferentstagesofthe
sameproject.

Comm.methods

Interactivecommunication.Pushcommunication.Pullcommunication.

Meetings
ManageCommunication
Communicationtechnology
Communicationmodels
Communicationmethods

Informationmanagement
systems

Thereareseveraltypesofprojectrelatedmeetingswhereprojectcommunicationsmay
occur.Mostprojectmeetingsconsistofstakeholderscomingtogetherforthepurposeof
resolvingproblemsormakingdecisions.
Althoughcasualdiscussionsmaybeconstruedasameeting,mostprojectmeetingsare
moreformalwithaprearrangedtime,place,andagenda.Typicalmeetingsbeginwitha
definedlistofissuestobediscussed,whicharecirculatedinadvancewithminutesand
otherinformationdocumentedspecificallyforthemeeting.Thisinformationisthen
disseminatedtootherappropriatestakeholdersonanasneededbasis.

Projectinformationismanagedanddistributedusingavarietyoftools,including:Hard
copydocumentmanagement:letters,memos,reports,andpressreleases;Electronic
communicationsmanagement:email,fax,voicemail,telephone,videoandweb
conferencing,websites,andwebpublishing;andElectronicprojectmanagementtools:
webinterfacestoschedulingandprojectmanagementsoftware,meetingandvirtual
officesupportsoftware,portals,andcollaborativeworkmanagementtools.

ProjectCommunicationManagement

Performancereporting
ControlCommunication
Informationmanagement
Expertjudgment
Meetings

Performancereportingistheactofcollectinganddistributingperformanceinformation,
includingstatusreports,
progressmeasurements,andforecasts.Performancereportinginvolvestheperiodic
collectionandanalysisof
baselineversusactualdatatounderstandandcommunicatetheprojectprogressand
performanceaswellasto
forecasttheprojectresults.Analysisofpastperformance,
Analysisofprojectforecasts(includingtimeandcost),
Currentstatusofrisksandissues,
Workcompletedduringtheperiod,
Worktobecompletedinthenextperiod,
Summaryofchangesapprovedintheperiod,and
Otherrelevantinformation,whichisreviewedanddiscussed.

ProjectRiskManagement
PlanRiskManagement

Analyticaltechniques
Expertjudgment
Meetings
IdentifyRisks

Analyticaltechniquesareusedtounderstandanddefinetheoverallrisk
managementcontextoftheproject.Riskmanagementcontextisacombinationof
stakeholderriskattitudesandthestrategicriskexposureofagivenprojectbasedon
theoverallprojectcontext.Forexample,astakeholderriskprofileanalysismaybe
performedtogradeandqualifytheprojectstakeholderriskappetiteandtolerance.
Othertechniques,suchastheuseofstrategicriskscoringsheets,areusedto
provideahighlevelassessmentoftheriskexposureoftheprojectbasedonthe
overallprojectcontext.Dependingontheseassessments,theprojectteamcan
allocateappropriateresourcesandfocusontheriskmanagementactivities.

Astructuredreviewoftheprojectdocumentationmaybeperformed,including
plans,assumptions,previousprojectfiles,agreements,andotherinformation.The
qualityoftheplans,aswellasconsistencybetweenthoseplansandtheproject
requirementsandassumptions,maybeindicatorsofriskintheproject.

Documentationreviews
Informationgathering
techniques

Brainstorming.Delphitechnique.Interviewing.Rootcauseanalysis.

Checklistanalysis

Riskidentificationchecklistsaredevelopedbasedonhistoricalinformationand
knowledgethathasbeenaccumulatedfromprevioussimilarprojectsandfrom
othersourcesofinformation.ThelowestleveloftheRBScanalsobeusedasarisk
checklist.Whileachecklistmaybequickandsimple,itisimpossibletobuildan
exhaustiveone,andcareshouldbetakentoensurethechecklistisnotusedto
avoidtheeffortofproperriskidentification.

Assumptionsanalysis

Everyprojectanditsplanisconceivedanddevelopedbasedonasetofhypotheses,
scenarios,orassumptions.Assumptionsanalysisexploresthevalidityof
assumptionsastheyapplytotheproject.Itidentifiesriskstotheprojectfrom
inaccuracy,instability,inconsistency,orincompletenessofassumptions.

Diagrammingtechniques

Causeandeffectdiagrams.Systemorprocessflowcharts.Influencediagrams.

SWOTanalysis
Expertjudgment
PerformQualitativeRisk

Thistechniqueexaminestheprojectfromeachofthestrengths,weaknesses,
opportunities,andthreats(SWOT)perspectivestoincreasethebreadthofidentified
risksbyincludinginternallygeneratedrisks.Thetechniquestartswithidentification
ofstrengthsandweaknessesoftheorganization,focusingoneithertheproject,
organization,orthebusinessareaingeneral.

Riskprobabilityassessmentinvestigatesthelikelihoodthateachspecificriskwill
occur.Riskimpact
assessmentinvestigatesthepotentialeffectonaprojectobjectivesuchasschedule,
Riskprobabilityandimpact cost,quality,orperformance,
assessment
includingbothnegativeeffectsforthreatsandpositiveeffectsforopportunities.

ProjectRiskManagement
Probabilityandimpact
Riskdataqualityassessmentisatechniquetoevaluatethedegreetowhichthedata
aboutrisksisusefulforriskmanagement.Itinvolvesexaminingthedegreetowhich
theriskisunderstoodandtheaccuracy,quality,reliability,andintegrityofthedata
Riskdataqualityassessment abouttherisk.

Riskcategorization

Riskurgencyassessment
Expertjudgment
PerformQuantitativeRisk
Datagatheringand
representationtechniques

Quantitativeriskanalysis
andmodelingtechniques
Expertjudgment
PlanRiskResponses
Strategiesfornegativerisks
orthreats
Strategiesforpositiverisks
oropportunities

Contingentresponse
strategies

Riskstotheprojectcanbecategorizedbysourcesofrisk(e.g.,usingtheRBS),the
areaoftheprojectaffected(e.g.,usingtheWBS),orotherusefulcategories(e.g.,
projectphase)todeterminetheareasoftheprojectmostexposedtotheeffectsof
uncertainty.Riskscanalsobecategorizedbycommonrootcauses.This
Risksrequiringneartermresponsesmaybeconsideredmoreurgenttoaddress.
Indicatorsofprioritymayincludeprobabilityofdetectingtherisk,timetoaffecta
riskresponse,symptomsandwarningsigns,andtheriskrating.Insomequalitative
analyses,theassessmentofriskurgencyiscombinedwiththeriskrankingthatis
determinedfromtheprobabilityandimpactmatrixtogiveafinalriskseverity
rating.

Interviewing.Probabilitydistributions.

Sensitivityanalysis.Sensitivityanalysishelpstodeterminewhichriskshavethe
mostpotentialimpactontheproject.Ithelpstounderstandhowthevariationsin
projectsobjectivescorrelatewithvariationsindifferentuncertainties.
Expectedmonetaryvalueanalysis.Expectedmonetaryvalue(EMV)analysisisa
statisticalconceptthatcalculatestheaverageoutcomewhenthefutureincludes
scenariosthatmayormaynothappen(i.e.,analysisunderuncertainty).TheEMVof
opportunitiesaregenerallyexpressedaspositivevalues,whilethoseofthreatsare
expressedasnegativevalues.Modelingandsimulation.Aprojectsimulationusesa
modelthattranslatesthespecifieddetaileduncertaintiesoftheprojectintotheir
potentialimpactonprojectobjectives.Simulationsaretypicallyperformedusing
theMonteCarlotechnique.

Someresponsesaredesignedforuseonlyifcertaineventsoccur.Forsomerisks,it
isappropriatefor
theprojectteamtomakearesponseplanthatwillonlybeexecutedundercertain
predefinedconditions,if
itisbelievedthattherewillbesufficientwarningtoimplementtheplan.Eventsthat
triggerthecontingency
response,suchasmissingintermediatemilestonesorgaininghigherprioritywitha
supplier,shouldbedefined
andtracked.Riskresponsesidentifiedusingthistechniqueareoftencalled
contingencyplansorfallbackplans
andincludeidentifiedtriggeringeventsthatsettheplansineffect.

ProjectRiskManagement
Expertjudgment
ControlRisks

Riskreassessment

ControlRisksoftenresultsinidentificationofnewrisks,reassessmentofcurrent
risks,andtheclosingofrisksthatareoutdated.Projectriskreassessmentsshould
beregularlyscheduled.Theamountanddetailofrepetitionthatareappropriate
dependsonhowtheprojectprogressesrelativetoitsobjectives.

Riskauditsexamineanddocumenttheeffectivenessofriskresponsesindealing
withidentifiedrisksandtheirrootcauses,aswellastheeffectivenessoftherisk
managementprocess.Theprojectmanagerisresponsibleforensuringthatrisk
auditsareperformedatanappropriatefrequency,asdefinedintheprojectsrisk
managementplan.Riskauditsmaybeincludedduringroutineprojectreview
meetings,ortheteammaychoosetoholdseparateriskauditmeetings.Theformat
fortheauditanditsobjectivesshouldbeclearlydefinedbeforetheauditis
Riskaudits
conducted.
Manycontrolprocessesemployvarianceanalysistocomparetheplannedresultsto
theactualresults.Forthepurposesofcontrollingrisks,trendsintheprojects
executionshouldbereviewedusingperformanceinformation.Earnedvalueanalysis
andothermethodsofprojectvarianceandtrendanalysismaybeusedfor
monitoringoverall
projectperformance.Outcomesfromtheseanalysesmayforecastpotential
deviationoftheprojectatcompletionfromcostandscheduletargets.Deviation
fromthebaselineplanmayindicatethepotentialimpactofthreatsor
Varianceandtrendanalysis opportunities.

Technicalperformance
measurement

Reserveanalysis
Meetings

Technicalperformancemeasurementcomparestechnicalaccomplshmntsduring
projectexecutiontothescheduleoftechnicalachievement.Itrequiresthe
definitionofobjective,quantifiablemeasuresoftechnicalperformance,whichcan
beusedtocompareactualresultsagainsttargets.Suchtechnicalperformance
measuresmayincludeweight,transactiontimes,numberofdelivereddefects,
storagecapacity,etc.Deviation,suchasdemonstratingmoreorlessfunctionality
thanplannedatamilestone,canhelptoforecastthedegreeofsuccessinachieving
theprojectsscope.
Throughoutexecutionoftheproject,somerisksmayoccurwithpositiveornegative
impactsonbudgetorschedulecontingencyreserves.Reserveanalysiscomparesthe
amountofthecontingencyreservesremainingtotheamountofriskremainingat
anytimeintheprojectinordertodetermineiftheremainingreserveisadequate.

ProjectProcurementManagement
PlanProcurement
Management

Makeorbuyanalysis
Expertjudgment

Marketresearch
Meetings
ConductProcurements

Bidderconference

Proposalevaluation
techniques

Independentestimates
Expertjudgment

Advertising

Amakeorbuyanalysisisageneralmanagementtechniqueusedtodetermine
whetherparticularworkcanbestbeaccomplishedbytheprojectteamorshould
bepurchasedfromoutsidesources.Sometimesacapabilitymayexistwithinthe
projectorganization,butmaybecommittedtoworkingonotherprojects,in
whichcase,the
projectmayneedtosourcesucheffortfromoutsidetheorganizationinorderto
meetitsschedulecommitments.
Marketresearchincludesexaminationofindustryandspecificvendor
capabilities.Procurementteamsmayleverageinformationgainedat
conferences,onlinereviewsandavarietyofsourcestoidentifymarket
capabilities.Theteammayalsorefineparticularprocurementobjectivesto
leveragematuringtechnologieswhilebalancing
risksassociatedwiththebreadthofvendorswhocanprovidethematerialsor
servicesdesired.

Bidderconferences(sometimescalledcontractorconferences,vendor
conferences,andprebidconferences)aremeetingsbetweenthebuyerandall
prospectivesellerspriortosubmittalofabidorproposal.Theyareusedto
ensurethatallprospectivesellershaveaclearandcommonunderstandingof
theprocurementrequirements),andthatnobiddersreceivepreferential
treatment.
Oncomplexprocurements,wheresourceselectionwillbemadebasedonseller
responsestopreviouslydefinedweightedcriteria,aformalevaluationreview
processwillbedefinedbythebuyersprocurementpolicies.Theevaluation
committeewillmaketheirselectionforapprovalbymanagementpriortothe
award.
Formanyprocurementitems,theprocuringorganizationmayelecttoeither
prepareitsownindependentestimate,orhaveanestimateofcostspreparedby
anoutsideprofessionalestimator,toserveasabenchmarkonproposed
responses.Significantdifferencesincostestimatescanbeanindicationthatthe
procurementstatementofworkwasdeficient,ambiguous,and/orthatthe
prospectivesellerseithermisunderstoodorfailedtorespondfullytothe
procurementstatementofwork.

Existinglistsofpotentialsellersoftencanbeexpandedbyplacing
advertisementsingeneralcirculationpublicationssuchasselectednewspapers
orinspecialtytradepublications.Someorganizationsuseonlineresourcesto
communicatesolicitationstothevendorcommunity.Somegovernment
jurisdictionsrequirepublicadvertisingofcertaintypesofprocurementitems,
andmostgovernmentjurisdictionsrequirepublicadvertisingoronlineposting
ofpendinggovernmentcontracts.

ProjectProcurementManagement

Analyticaltechniques

Procurementnegotiations
ControlProcurements

Procurementsinvolvedefininganeedinsuchawaythatvendorscanbringvalue
throughtheirofferings.To
ensurethattheneedcanbeandismet,analyticaltechniquescanhelp
organizationsidentifythereadinessofa
vendortoprovidethedesiredendstate,determinethecostexpectedtosupport
budgeting,andavoidcostoverruns
duetochanges.Byexaminingpastperformanceinformation,teamsmayidentify
areasthatmayhavemorerisk
andthatneedtobemonitoredcloselytoensuresuccessoftheproject.
Procurementnegotiationsclarifythestructure,requirements,andotherterms
ofthepurchasessothatmutualagreementcanbereachedpriortosigningthe
contract.Finalcontractlanguagereflectsallagreementsreached.Subjects
coveredshouldincluderesponsibilities,authoritytomakechanges,applicable
termsandgoverninglaw,technicalandbusinessmanagementapproaches,
proprietaryrights,contractfinancing,technicalsolutions,overallschedule,
payments,andprice.Negotiationsconcludewithacontractdocumentthatcan
beexecutedbybothbuyerandseller.

Acontractchangecontrolsystemdefinestheprocessbywhichtheprocurement
canbemodified.Itincludesthepaperwork,trackingsystems,disputeresolution
Contractchangecontrol
procedures,andapprovallevelsnecessaryforauthorizingchanges.Thecontract
system
changecontrolsystemisintegratedwiththeintegratedchangecontrolsystem.
Aprocurementperformancereviewisastructuredreviewofthesellers
progresstodeliverprojectscopeandquality,withincostandonschedule,as
comparedtothecontract.Itcanincludeareviewofsellerprepared
Procurementperformance documentationandbuyerinspections,aswellasqualityauditsconductedduring
reviews
sellersexecutionofthework.
Inspectionsandauditsrequiredbythebuyerandsupportedbytheseller,as
specifiedintheprocurementcontract,canbeconductedduringexecutionofthe
projecttoverifycomplianceinthesellersworkprocessesordeliverables.If
authorizedbycontract,someinspectionandauditteamscanincludebuyer
procurementpersonnel.
Inspectionsandaudits
Workperformancedataandreportssuppliedbysellersareevaluatedagainst
theagreementrequirements.Workperformanceinformationfromthis
evaluationisthenreportedasappropriate.Performancereportingprovides
managementwithinformationabouthoweffectivelythesellerisachievingthe
contractualobjectives.
Performancereporting
Paymentstotheselleraretypicallyprocessedbytheaccountspayablesystemof
thebuyeraftercertificationofsatisfactoryworkbyanauthorizedpersononthe
projectteam.Allpaymentsshouldbemadeanddocumentedinstrict
Paymentsystems
accordancewiththetermsofthecontract.

ProjectProcurementManagement

Claimsadministration

Recordsmanagement
system
CloseProcurements

Procurementaudits

Procurementnegotiations
Recordsmanagement
system

Contestedchangesandpotentialconstructivechangesarethoserequested
changeswherethebuyerandsellercannotreachanagreementon
compensationforthechangeorcannotagreethatachangehasoccurred.These
contestedchangesarevariouslycalledclaims,disputes,orappeals.Claimsare
documented,processed,monitored,andmanagedthroughoutthecontractlife
cycle,usuallyinaccordancewiththetermsofthecontract.Iftheparties
themselvesdonotresolveaclaim,itmayhavetobehandledinaccordancewith
alternativedisputeresolution(ADR)typicallyfollowingproceduresestablishedin
thecontract.Settlementofallclaimsanddisputesthroughnegotiationisthe
preferredmethod.
Arecordsmanagementsystemisusedbytheprojectmanagertomanage
contractandprocurement
documentationandrecords.Itconsistsofaspecificsetofprocesses,related
controlfunctions,andautomation
toolsthatareconsolidatedandcombinedaspartoftheprojectmanagement
informationsystem(Section4.4.2.3).
Thesystemcontainsaretrievablearchiveofcontractdocumentsand
correspondence.
Aprocurementauditisastructuredreviewoftheprocurementprocess
originatingfromthePlanProcurementManagementprocessthroughControl
Procurements.Theobjectiveofaprocurementauditistoidentifysuccessesand
failuresthatwarrantrecognitioninthepreparationoradministrationofother
procurementcontractsontheproject,oronotherprojectswithinthe
performingorganization.
Inallprocurementrelationships,thefinalequitablesettlementofalloutstanding
issues,claims,anddisputesbynegotiationisaprimarygoal.Whenever
settlementcannotbeachievedthroughdirectnegotiation,someformof
alternativedisputeresolution(ADR)includingmediationorarbitrationmaybe
explored.Whenallelsefails,litigationinthecourtsistheleastdesirableoption.

ProjectStakeholderManagement
IdentifyStakeholders

Stakeholderanalysis
Expertjudgment
Meetings

Stakeholderanalysisisatechniqueofsystematicallygatheringand
analyzingquantitativeandqualitativeinformationtodeterminewhose
interestsshouldbetakenintoaccountthroughouttheproject.It
identifiestheinterests,expectations,andinfluenceofthestakeholders
andrelatesthemtothepurposeoftheproject.Italsohelpstoidentify
stakeholderrelationships(withtheprojectandwithotherstakeholders)
thatcanbeleveragedtobuildcoalitionsandpotentialpartnershipsto
enhancetheprojectschanceofsuccess,alongwithstakeholder

PlanStakeholderManagement
Expertjudgment
Meetings

Analyticaltechniques
ManageStakeholder
Engagement
Communicationmethods
Interpersonalskills

Managementskills
ControlStakeholder
Engagement
Informationmanagement
systems
Expertjudgment
Meetings

Thecurrentengagementlevelofallstakeholdersneedstobecompared
totheplannedengagementlevelsrequiredforsuccessfulproject
completion.Stakeholderengagementthroughoutthelifecycleofthe
projectiscriticaltoprojectsuccess.

Theprojectmanagerappliesmanagementskillstocoordinateand
harmonizethegrouptowardaccomplishingtheprojectobjectives.For
example:
Facilitateconsensustowardprojectobjectives,
Influencepeopletosupporttheproject,
Negotiateagreementstosatisfytheprojectneeds,and