Engineering

Civil Engineering

Fluid Mechanics
including Hydraulic Machines
Comprehensive Theory
with Solved Examples and Practice Questions

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Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulic Machines

Copyright by MADE EASY Publications.
All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced
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First Edition: 2015

Second Edition: 2016
Reprint (Revised and Updated): 2016

All rights reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the
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Preface
This book was motivated by the desire we had to further the evolution of
a concise book on Fluid Mechanics including Hydraylic Machines.
Keeping in focus of the importance of this subject in GATE and ESE, we
have done a proper research study and thereafter developed the content
of the book accordingly. This edition has an expanded discussion of all
relevant topics in the subject.
Initially, we compiled the perceptions of our students on their problems
in GATE and ESE while dealing with the questions from this subject.
We identified their various problems like- lack of fundamentals of the
subject, difficulty in solving simple questions, the shortage of a complete study package,
etc. These strengthen our determination to present a complete edition of Fluid Mechanics including Hydraylic
Machines textbook.
The book provides all the requirements of the students, i.e. comprehensive coverage of theory, fundamental concepts,
objective type problems and conventional problems, articulated in a lucid language. The concise presentation will help
the readers grasp the concepts with clarity and apply them with ease to solve problems quickly. The book not only
covers the entire syllabus of GATE and ESE, but also addresses the needs of many other competitive examinations.
Topics like Fluid Kinematics, Fluid Dynamics, Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Theory, Laminar Flow, Turbulent
Flow in Pipes, Dimensional Analysis, Open Channel Flow, Impulse of Jets, Hydraulic Turbines, Hydraulic Pumps,
are given full emphasis, keeping in mind of our research on their importance in competitive examinations.
We have put in our sincere efforts to present elaborate solutions for various problems, different problem solving
methodology, some useful quick techniques to save time while attempting MCQs without compromising the accuracy
of answers. A summary of important points to remember is added at the end of the discussion of each topic. For
the convenience of the readers, points to remember are specifically highlighted in the form of a note- both in theory
as well as solved examples. At the end of each chapter, sets of practice question are given with their keys, that will
allow the readers to evaluate their understanding of the topics and sharpen their problem solving skills.
Our team has made their best efforts to remove all possible errors of any kind. Nonetheless, we would highly
appreciate and acknowledge if you find and share with us any printing, calculation, and conceptual error.
It is impossible to thank all the individuals who helped us, but we would like to sincerely thank all the authors, editors
and reviewers for putting in their efforts to publish this book.
With Best Wishes
B. Singh
CMD, MADE EASY

Contents
Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulic Machines
Chapter 1
3.2 Total Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface.................42

Fluid Properties 1

1.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 1

3.2.1 Total Hydrostatic Force on a Horizontal Plane

Surface........................................................................43

1.2 Fluid Mechanics....................................................................... 1

1.3 Fluid as a Continuum............................................................. 1

3.2.2 Total Hydrostatic Force on a Vertical Plane

Surface........................................................................43

1.4 Fluid Properties....................................................................... 2

3.2.3 Total Hydrostatic Force on Inclined Plane

1.4.1 Some other Important Properties...................... 2

1.4.2 Viscosity........................................................................ 3

Surface........................................................................47

1.4.3 Surface Tension.......................................................... 9

3.3 Pressure Diagram or Prism................................................50

1.4.4 Vapour Pressure.......................................................13

3.4 Total Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surface.................50

1.4.5 Compressibility and Elasticity............................15

Objective Brain Teasers.........................................................59

Objective Brain Teasers...........................................20

Students Assignments..........................................................60

Students Assignments............................................21

Chapter 4
Buoyancy and Floatation61

Chapter 2

4.1 Introduction............................................................................61

Fluid Pressure & its Measurement 23

4.2 Buoyant Force........................................................................61

2.1 Introduction............................................................................23
2.2 Fluid Pressure at a Point.....................................................23

2.2.1 Pascals Law for Pressure at a Point

2.2.2 Units of Pressure......................................................24

2.5 Pressure Head........................................................................27

2.6.2 Manometers.............................................................28

2.6.3 Mechanical Gauge..................................................35

Objective Brain Teasers...........................................40

Students Assignments............................................41

4.2.2 On a Partially Submerged Body.........................62

4.4.1 Translational or Linear Stability.........................64

4.4.2 Rotational Stability.................................................64

4.5 Determination of Metacentric Height...........................66

2.6 Pressure Measurement Devices.......................................27

4.4 Stability of Submerged and Floating Bodies..............64

2.4 Variation of Pressure in a Fluid.........................................25

2.6.1 Barometer..................................................................27

4.2.1 On a Completely Submerged Body.................61

4.3 Metacentre and Metacentric Height.............................63

2.3 Different Types of Pressure................................................24

4.5.1 Experimental Method...........................................66

4.5.2 Theoretical Method................................................67

4.6 Metacentric Height for Floating Bodies Containing

Liquid.........................................................................................69
4.7 Time Period of Transverse Oscillation of a Floating
Body...........................................................................................71

Chapter 3

4.8 Rolling and Pitching.............................................................71

Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces42

Objective Brain Teasers.........................................................78

3.1 Introduction............................................................................42

Students Assignments..........................................................80

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Chapter 5

6.9 Stream Function................................................................. 123

Liquids in Rigid Motion..........................81

6.10 Streamlines, Equipotential Lines and Flow Net...... 125

6.11 Methods of Drawing Flow Nets.................................... 128

5.1 Introduction............................................................................81
5.2 Rigid Translation Motion....................................................81

5.2.1 Fluid Mass Subjected to Uniform Linear

5.2.2 Liquid Containers Subjected to Constant

7.2 Forces Acting on Fluid in Motion................................. 139

7.3 Eulers Equation of Motion along the Streamline.. 140

5.3 Rigid Rotational Motion.....................................................90

7.4

5.3.1 Cylindrical Vessel Containing Liquid Rotating

7.6 Bernoullis Equation as Energy Equation................... 142

5.3.2 Cylindrical Vessel Containing Liquid Rotating

7.7 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor................................. 145

with its Axis Horizontal.........................................93

Objective Brain Teasers...........................................99

Students Assignments......................................... 100

Bernoullis Equation of Motion along the Streamline......140

7.5 Analysis of Bernoullis Equation.................................... 141

with its Axis Vertical...............................................90

Students Assignments....................................................... 137

7.1 Introduction......................................................................... 139

5.2.3 Liquid Containers Subjected to Constant

Vertical Acceleration..............................................87

Fluid Dynamics.....................................139

Horizontal Acceleration........................................83

Objective Brain Teasers...................................................... 136

Chapter 7

Acceleration..............................................................81

7.8 Application of Bernoullis Equation............................. 147

7.8.1 Venturimeter......................................................... 147

7.8.2 Orifice Meter.......................................................... 152

Chapter 6

7.8.3 Nozzle Meter.......................................................... 153

Fluid Kinematics...................................101

7.8.4 Pitot Tube................................................................ 154

7.8.5 Prandtl Tube or Pitot Static Tube.................... 155

6.1 Introduction......................................................................... 101

7.9 Free Liquid Jet..................................................................... 156

6.2 Types of Fluid Flow............................................................ 102

7.10 Vortex Motion..................................................................... 158

6.3 Description of Flow Pattern........................................... 106

6.3.1 Streamlines and Streamtubes......................... 106

6.3.2 Pathlines.................................................................. 108

6.3.3 Streak Lines............................................................ 108

6.3.4 Timelines................................................................. 108

6.5.2 Tangential and Normal Accelerations to

7.11.2 Applications of the Impulse Momentum ..........

Equation................................................................. 164

7.12.1 Analysis of Sprinkler Problem......................... 167

Objective Brain Teasers........................................ 176

Students Assignments......................................... 179

Chapter 8

Streamlines............................................................ 114

7.11.1 Momentum Correction Factor........................ 163

6.5 Acceleration of a Fluid Particle...................................... 112

Momentum Equation)....................................................... 166

ordinate System................................................... 111

6.5.1 Acceleration in Cartesian Co-ordinate System...112

7.10.2 Forced Vortex Motion......................................... 161

7.12 Angular Momentum Principle (Moment of

6.4.2 Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Co-

6.4.1 Continuity Equation in Cartesian Co-ordinate

System..................................................................... 109

7.10.1 Free Vortex Motion.............................................. 159

7.11 Impulse Momentum Equation...................................... 162

6.4 Continuity Equation.......................................................... 108

Flow Measurement...............................182

6.5.3 Acceleration in Polar Co-ordinate System (2-D).

8.1 Introduction......................................................................... 182

................................................................................... 117

8.2 Orifice ................................................................................... 182

6.6 Rotational and Irrotational Motions........................... 117

6.7 Circulation and Vorticity.................................................. 119
6.8 Velocity Potential............................................................... 121

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8.2.1 Sharp Edged Orifice Discharging Free......... 183

8.2.2 Flow Through Large Vertical Orifice.............. 187

8.2.3 Flow Through Submerged (or Drowned)

9.7 Total Energy line and Hydraulic Gradient Line ....... 229

Orifice....................................................................... 188

9.7.1 Total Energy Line (TEL)....................................... 229

8.3 Mouthpiece.......................................................................... 189

9.7.2 Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL)........................ 229

9.8 Various Connections in Pipelines................................. 232

8.3.1 Flow Through an External Cylindrical

Mouthpiece............................................................ 190

8.3.2 Flow Through Convergent and Divergent

9.8.1 Series Connections.............................................. 232

9.8.2 Parallel Connections........................................... 232

Mouthpiece............................................................ 191

9.9 Flow Through a By-pass................................................... 234

8.3.3 Flow Through Internal or Re-entrant or Bordas

9.10 Siphon ................................................................................... 235

Mouthpiece............................................................ 192

9.11 Transmission of Power..................................................... 237

8.3.4 Flow Through an Orifice or a Mouthpiece

9.12 Water Hammer Pressure.................................................. 238

Under Variable Heads......................................... 193

9.12.1 Velocity of Pressure Wave................................. 238

8.3.5 Flow of Liquid from one Vessel to Another.193

9.12.2 Various cases of Water Hammer..................... 239

8.4 Notches and Weirs............................................................. 195

9.12.3 Propagation of Pressure Wave........................ 240

9.12.4 Design of Pipe Thickness................................... 242

8.4.1 Flow over a Rectangular Sharp-Crested Weir or

Notch........................................................................ 196

9.13 Flow Resistance.................................................................. 243

8.4.2 Flow over a Triangular Weir (V- weir) or

9.14 Branched Pipes................................................................... 244

Triangular Notch (V-notch).............................. 202

9.15 Pipe Network....................................................................... 245

8.4.3 Flow over a Trapezoidal Weir or Notch......... 204

9.15.1 Method.................................................................... 245

8.4.4 Discharge Over a Stepped Notch or Weir... 205

Objective Brain Teasers........................................ 254

8.4.5 Broad Crested Weir.............................................. 205

Students Assignments......................................... 256

8.4.6 Submerged Weirs................................................. 206

8.4.7 Proportional Weir or Sutro Weir...................... 208

Chapter 10

Objective Brain Teasers........................................ 211

Boundary Layer Theory........................258

Students Assignments......................................... 212

10.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 258

10.2 Various Types of Thicknesses of Boundary Layer... 258

Chapter 9

10.3 Boundary Layer along a Long Thin Flat Plate.......... 262

Flow Through Pipes..............................213

10.4 Boundary Layer Equations (for 2-D steady flow of

9.1 Introduction......................................................................... 213

incompressible fluids)...................................................... 264

9.2 Reynolds Experiment....................................................... 213

10.5 Local and Average Drag Coefficient............................ 264

9.3 Laws of Fluid Friction........................................................ 215

10.6 Blasius Results..................................................................... 266

9.3.1 For Laminar Flow.................................................. 215

10.6.1 For Laminar Boundary on Smooth Plate..... 266

9.3.2 For Turbulent Flow.............................................. 216

10.6.2 For Turbulent Boundary on Smooth Plate.. 268

9.4 Velocity Profile in Pipe Flow........................................... 216

10.7 Von-Karman Integral Momentum Equation............ 269

9.5 Formulas for Head Loss Due to Friction in Pipe

10.8 Laminar Sublayer............................................................... 271

(Major Loss).......................................................................... 217

10.9 Boundary Layer Separation............................................ 272

9.5.1 Darcy Weisbach Equation................................. 217

Objective Brain Teasers...................................................... 280

9.5.2 Chezys Formula................................................... 219

Students Assignments....................................................... 281

9.5.3 Mannings Formula.............................................. 219

9.5.4 Hazen Williams Formula.................................... 220

Chapter 11

9.6 Energy Losses in Pipes..................................................... 220

Laminar Flow........................................283

9.6.1 Major Losses.......................................................... 220

11.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 283

9.6.2 Minor Losses.......................................................... 220

11.2 Dependence of Shear on Pressure Gradient............ 283

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 11.3 Laminar Flow Through Circular Pipe........................... 284

13.9.1 For Dynamically Similar Model....................... 340

11.4 Laminar Flow between Two Parallel Plates.............. 290

13.9.2 Theory of Distorted Models............................. 344

11.5 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor................................. 294

Objective Brain Teasers........................................ 351

11.6 Momentum Correction Factor...................................... 296

Students Assignments......................................... 352

11.7 Laminar Flow in Open Channel.................................... 297

Objective Brain Teasers...................................................... 303

Chapter 14

Students Assignments....................................................... 305

External Flow-Drag and Lift.................354

14.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 354

Chapter 12

14.2 Drag and Lift........................................................................ 354

Turbulent Flow in Pipes........................306

14.3 Drag ................................................................................... 356

12.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 306

14.3.1 Types of Drag........................................................ 356

12.2 Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow...................................... 307

14.3.2 Drag on Various Shapes..................................... 357

12.2.1 Boussinesqs Theory............................................ 307

14.4 Lift ................................................................................... 366

12.2.2 Reynolds Theory.................................................. 308

14.4.1 Lift on a Circular Cylinder.................................. 366

12.2.3 Prandtls Mixing Length Theory...................... 309

14.4.2 Lift on Airfoil.......................................................... 369

12.3 Various Regions in Turbulent Flow.............................. 309

Objective Brain Teasers........................................ 374

12.4 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries...310

Students Assignments......................................... 375

12.5 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Pipes... 311

Chapter 15

12.6 Karman Prandtl Velocity Distribution Equation for

Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Pipes.......... 312

Open Channel Flow..............................376

12.6.1 Hydrodynamically Smooth Pipes................... 313

15.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 376

12.6.2 Rough Pipes........................................................... 316

15.2 Types of Channels.............................................................. 376

12.7 Velocity Distribution in Terms of Average Velocity.316

15.2.1 Prismatic and Non-prismatic Channels........ 376

15.2.2 Rigid and Mobile Boundary Channels.......... 376

12.7.1 Smooth Pipes........................................................ 317

15.3 Classification of Flows...................................................... 377

12.8 Friction Factor in Turbulent Flow Through Pipes... 319

Objective Brain Teasers...................................................... 324

15.3.1 Steady and Unsteady Flows............................. 377

Students Assignments....................................................... 326

15.3.2 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow..................... 377

15.3.3 Gradually-varied and Rapidly varied Flow.. 377

15.3.4 Spatially -varied Flow......................................... 378

Dimensional Analysis...........................327

15.3.5 Laminar and Turbulent Flow............................ 378

13.1 Introduction......................................................................... 327

15.3.6 Subcritical, Critical and Supercritical Flows.....378

13.2 Dimensions.......................................................................... 327

15.4 Velocity Distribution......................................................... 379

13.3 Dimensional Homogeneity............................................ 329

15.5 Uniform Flow....................................................................... 380

13.4 Non-Dimensionalisation of Equations....................... 330

13.5 Methods of Dimensional Analysis............................... 331

15.6 Most Economical or Most Efficient Section of Channel..........385

13.6 Model Analysis.................................................................... 337

15.6.1 Rectangular Channel Section.......................... 385

13.7 Similitude.............................................................................. 337

15.6.2 Trapezoidal Channel Section........................... 386

13.7.1 Geometrical Similarity........................................ 337

15.6.3 Triangular Channel.............................................. 388

13.7.2 Kinematic Similarity ........................................... 338

15.7 Continuity Equation.......................................................... 389

13.7.3 Dynamic Similarity.............................................. 338

15.7.1 For Steady Flow.................................................... 389

13.8 Force Ratios-Dimensionless Numbers....................... 338

15.7.2 For Spatially varied Steady Flow..................... 389

13.9 Model Laws.......................................................................... 340

15.7.3 For Unsteady Flow............................................... 390

Chapter 13

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15.5.1 Chezy Equation.................................................... 381

 15.8 Energy Equation................................................................. 390

17.2 Layout of Hydro Power Plant......................................... 457

15.9 Specific Energy, Momentum Equation and Specific

17.3 Classification of Turbines on the Basis of Energy at

Force....................................................................................... 391

Inlet......................................................................................... 460

15.9.1 Specific Energy..................................................... 391

15.9.2 Momentum Equation for Varying Flow....... 395

of Flow within Turbine....................................... 460

15.9.3 Specific Force........................................................ 396

17.4 Pelton Turbine..................................................................... 460

15.10 Calculation of the Critical Depth.................................. 398

17.5 Efficiency of Pelton Wheel.............................................. 461

15.10.1 For Rectangular Section................................... 398

17.6 Francis Turbine.................................................................... 461

15.10.2 For Triangular Channel..................................... 399

17.7 Kaplan Turbine.................................................................... 462

15.11 Channel Transition............................................................ 400

17.8 Draft-Tube............................................................................. 463

15.11.1 Channel with a Hump....................................... 400

17.8.1 Types of Draft-Tubes........................................... 463

15.11.2 Transition with a Width Contraction............ 402

17.8.2 Draft-Tube Theory................................................ 464

15.12 Flow Measurement in Open Channel....................... 405

17.8.3 Efficiency of Draft-Tube..................................... 464

15.12.1 Metering Flumes................................................ 405

17.9 Performance Characteristics Curve............................. 466

15.12.2 Venturi Flume...................................................... 405

15.12.3 Standing Wave Flume or Critical Depth

17.9.2 Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant

15.12.4 Parshall Flume.................................................... 406

Speed Curves......................................................... 468

15.13 Non-uniform Flow............................................................. 406

15.13.1 Gradually Varied Flow....................................... 406

15.13.2 Rapidly Varied Flow........................................... 422

17.9.3 Constant Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves

or Iso-Efficiency Curves..................................... 468

15.14 Surges in Open Channels.............................................. 429

17.9.1 Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head

Curves...................................................................... 467

Flume....................................................................... 405

17.3.1 Classification of Turbines on the Basis of Type

Objective Brain Teasers........................................ 480

Chapter 18

15.14.1 Positive Surges................................................... 429

Objective Brain Teasers........................................ 444

Hydraulic Pumps...................................484

Students Assignments......................................... 448

18.1 Centrifugal Pump............................................................... 484

18.2 Efficiencies of the Pump.................................................. 485

Chapter 16

18.3 Minimum Speed for Starting a Centrifugal Pump. 487

Impulse of Jets......................................449

18.4 Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps............ 488

16.1 Jet Strikes Normal to the Flat Stationary Plate...............449

18.4.1 Main Characteristic Curves............................... 488

16.2 Jet Strikes on an Inclined Stationary Plate.......................449

18.4.2 Operating Characteristic Curves.................... 489

16.3 Force Exerted by Jet on Moving Flat Plate Normal to Jet.......450

18.4.3 Constant Efficiency Curves............................... 489

16.4 Jet Strikes on Series of Flat Plat Mounted on the

18.5 Reciprocating Pump......................................................... 489

Periphery of Wheel .....................................................................450

18.5.1 Effect of Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes

16.5 Jet Striking on a Symmetrical Stationary Curved Plate....451

on Indicator Diagram......................................... 490

16.6 Jet Striking to the Vertical Hanging Plate.........................451

18.5.2 Effect of Acceleration and Friction in Suction

and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram... 491

Chapter 17

Objective Brain Teasers........................................ 501

Hydraulic Turbines................................457
nnnn

17.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 457

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