Introduction To The Earth

CONTENTS
1. THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE
EARTH
2. BASIC ROCK TYPES AND THEIR
IDENTIFICATION
3. PLATE TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTARY
BASINS
4. PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY
5. SUMMARY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of this Chapter are to introduce some Geological concepts that will be
necessary, as fundamentals to the more practical aspects of petroleum exploration and
development geology, for the Petroleum Engineer to know. These are:

The nature and composition of the Earth

Plate tectonics and sedimentary basins

Principles of stratigraphy

Rock types and their identification

These concepts represent the basis for understanding the geological context and
composition of oil reservoirs.
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:
1. Describe the main components of the Earth
2. Describe the carbon cycle
3. Describe the main difference between igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rock types
4. Describe the main distinguishing features and occurrence of the major rockforming minerals
5. Describe Mohs scale of hardness
6. Describe the classification of sedimentary rocks - detrital and chemical
7. Describe sea-floor spreading and subduction
8. Describe tectonic activity associated with plate boundaries
9. Describe the role of plate tectonics in controlling the formation of sedimentary
basins
10. Identify the major time periods in the geological record
11. Relate geological events - deposition and erosion - to a time scale
12. Describe the difference between a conformable section and an unconformity
13. Identify the stratigraphic sequence of events in a rock section
14. Draw simple stratigraphic relationships - onlap and offlap
15. Describe Walther's Law
16. Understand gaps in the stratigraphic record within the framework of sedimentary
basins

Introduction To The Earth

1. THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH

The Earth is a complex, ever-changing, body. Earthquakes and volcanoes provide
every-day evidence of surface activity caused by the subsurface processes of the
planet. These natural phenomena provide clues as to the workings and internal
composition of the planet. Geologists have worked for years to understand the
immense driving forces behind these phenomena and what makes the Earth "tick".
These studies have lead to the conclusion that the Earth is tectonically active (i.e., parts
of the surface move relative to each other) and compositionally heterogeneous
(i.e. rocks vary greatly in composition from place to place). The history of the planet
is stored in the rocks in a way that geologists have learned to read over the years. This
history is known as the Geological Record. The further one goes back in time, the less
well-preserved the record and the harder, therefore, it is to read.
It is currently accepted that the planet came into being as atoms and particles in space
were initially drawn together by gravitational processes in the early solar system. The
Earth subsequently evolved, by processes of gravitational separation and thermal
convection, into a layered planet (figure 1) comprising:
A solid iron Inner Core
A liquid iron Outer Core
A Mantle divided into:
Lower Mantle (less mobile)
Transition zone
Asthenosphere (very mobile)
A Lithosphere (fairly rigid), including the Crust.
The Earths crust is only around 40km thick (i.e., 0.06% of the Earths radius)in
continental areas and less (10km) in oceanic regions. The chemical composition and
the temperature of the different layers, along with the pressure associated with their
weight, gives rise to the solid-liquid stratification. It should be realised that the liquid
core and asthenosphere are only liquid in the sense that they deform and flow over
periods of 1000s of years. It is the slow circulating flow of the liquid part of the iron
core that gives rise to the Earths magnetic field.
The Earths bulk composition is the product of differentiation of gases in the early
solar system, and their subsequent differentiation into the Earths core, mantle and
crust by gravity (figure 1). As a result of these processes, the crusts composition is
dominated by oxygen, silicon and aluminium (the elements of the main mineral group
known as the alumino-silicates), whereas the Earth as a whole is dominated by iron
and oxygen (figure 2), and the Universe as a whole is overwhelmingly composed of
Hydrogen (the most simple or basic atomic element).
An important aspect of the Earth is the presence of heavier radioactive elements,
especially Uranium and Thorium, which decay in a complex radioactive element
series to produce heat, thus maintaining the Earths temperature higher than would
occur by simple thermal cooling from the initially hot proto-Earth (a term used to
refer to the Earth in its earliest form which was quite different from the planet we see
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

today). These radioactive elements are particularly concentrated in the Earths crust.
Indeed, prior to the discovery of radioactivity, scientists had determined the age of the
Earth to be 400,000 years old based on calculations of thermal decay. Although
considerably older than estimates based on the Bible (4004 years!), these were still out
by a few orders of magnitude from present day estimates for the Earths age
(4,500,000,000 years).
Transition (350-700km)
Lithosphere (0-70km)
Continental Crust (0-40km)
Oceanic Crust (0-10km)

Figure 1

Liquid Core (2900-4900km)

Solid Core (4980-6370km)

Development of Zoned Earth

Lower Mantle (700-2900km)

Asthenosphere (70-70km)
Crust (40km)

Whole Earth
Iron
Oxygen
Silicon
Magnesium
Nickel
Sulphur
Calcium
Aluminium
Other

Mountains
Ocean

Crust (10km)

Earth's Crust
Iron
Oxygen
Silicon
Magnesium
Nickel
Sulphur
Calcium
Aluminium
Other

Radioactivity, as well as keeping the Earth warm, also provides us with a set of
absolute dating techniques - radiometric dating. Unstable isotopes of an element
decay at a characteristic decay rate:
-dN/dt = N
where = decay constant for a particular isotope, N = number of radioactive atoms,
t = time.

The early Earth was

probably a homogeneous
planet with no continents or
oceans. Iron sank to the
core and lighter material
floated upward to form a
crust. As a result of this
differentiation the Earth
became a zoned planet
(adapted from Press and
Seiver, 1982)

Figure 2
Relative abundance by
weight of elements in the
whole Earth and the
Earths crust. Gravity
differentiation has created
a light crust depleted in
iron and enriched in
oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
calcium, potassium and
sodium (adapted from
Press and Seiver, 1982)

Introduction To The Earth

For example, 14C (an unstable Carbon atom with 8 neutrons and 6 protons) decays to
14
N (a stable Nitrogen atom), with a decay constant, , which is equal to 1.21x10-4. The
half-life is given by T1/2 = ln 2/ = 5730 years. Similarly, Rubidium decays to
Strontium, but with a much longer half-life of 4.88x109 years. By measurement of the
quantities of the respective elements, the radiocarbon decay series provide an
absolute timescale for recent geological or archaeological investigations, whereas
Rubidium-Strontium (Rb-Sr) decay provides a timescale for the ancient geological
history of the Earth. With the ability to date rocks, the record (i.e., the Geological
Record) of the Earth's history and its evolution can be interpreted.
A final important feature of the Earths composition is the presence of water at the
surface, the hydrosphere, without which life, the biosphere, could not exist. The
biosphere extends a kilometer or so into the subsurface. Organisms can be found alive
in oilfield reservoirs. The Earths hydrosphere was created by a process of degassing
of solid material in the early Earth and condensation onto its surface, which was
maintained within a critical range of temperature. The atmosphere is the gaseous
outer layer with the ionosphere at the interface with space. The Earth's hydrosphere
and atmosphere have evolved in composition from being more hydrogen and carbon
dioxide dominated in the early stages to the more nitrogen/oxygen dominated system
we have at present.
The hydrosphere/atmosphere systems contain within them a number of complex
chemical systems of a more or less cyclical nature (oxygen, water, carbon, etc.). The
Carbon Cycle (figure 3) is particularly relevant to petroleum systems, in which the
remains of plants and animals (organic matter) are deposited, buried and "cooked" to
form accumulations of liquid hydrogen and carbon compounds (hydrocarbon). The
burning of liquid hydrocarbons and solid coal (collectively known as fossil fuels)
releases the carbon back into the atmosphere (as carbon dioxide) and is now
considered to have an impact on the Earths climate through global warming.
Atmosphere 700
< 0.5
5

net photosynthesis 50
2-18

respiration 50
Vegetation
827

1.5-13

net photosynthesis 25
Marine life
2

Figure 3
The Carbon Cycle (after
North, 1985). Quantities of
carbon are shown. The
amount of fossil fuels
remains undetermined.

0.5-5

mixed
layer
560

Dissolved organic
matter 30

respiration

combustion

volcanism

respiration 50

Thermocline
water exchange

Dead organic matter

(humus)
1000-3000

Dissolved organic
matter
1000-3000

Deep ocean 38 000 000

LAND OCEAN
Sediments 20 000 000
Fossil Fuels ??

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

carbonates

Quantities expressed in 1012 kg

2. BASIC ROCK TYPES AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION

There are three main groups of rocks making up the crust and these are now defined:
Igneous rocks are the primary form of rocks as they are formed from the molten
material of the Earths interior (from the mantle or the asthenosphere). They may be
extrusive igneous rocks, formed by expulsion from volcanoes onto the Earths
surface (e.g., lavas, tuffs), or intrusive igneous rocks, where the melts (magma) have
been intruded at a depth within the Earths crust (e.g., granites, basalt sills) and
solidified there. Igneous rocks rarely form drilling targets for petroleum - however,
very occasionally, fractured granites and lavas can be productive for hydrocarbons.
Some examples of igneous rocks are shown in figure 4.

Figure 4
Examples of igneous rocks.
(A) Finely crystalline basalt
showing hexagonal outline
of a basalt column
(B) Medium crystalline
granite
(C) Coarsely crystalline
granite
(D) Volcanic rock with
original air bubbles that are
filled with a light coloured
mineral
6

Introduction To The Earth

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the erosion of pre-existing rocks and subsequent
transport of the resulting particles by water or air, and their subsequent deposition
(sandstones, mudstones). They can also be precipitated directly from sea water
(limestones and evaporites) and include those altered by relatively low temperature
chemical changes (e.g., dolomites). Sedimentary rocks form the large majority of
petroleum reservoirs and source rocks. Examples of sedimentary rocks all shown in
figure 5.

Figure 5
Examples of sedimentary
rocks.
(A) Rippled sandstone
(B) Shale (dried out sample)
(C) Shelly limestone
(D) Limestone slab showing
dissolved fossils (these
dissolved holes are called
vugs and they can create
porosity in limestones. This
porosity is often visible in
the hand specimen, unlike
not-visible porosity the
rippled sandstone in A)

Metamorphic rocks are formed by the heating - often accompanied by deformationof pre-existing rocks (igneous or sedimentary) at depth within the Earths crust (e.g.,
schist, marble, gneiss). Ultimately metamorphic rocks will be melted and re-cycled
as igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks are rarely drilling targets for hydrocarbons.
Examples of metamorphic rocks shown in figure 6.
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Figure 6
Examples of metamorphic
rocks.
(A) A schist showing bands
of different coloured
minerals
(B) Deformed quartz bands
in a metamorphic rock

Rocks are composed of minerals (figure 7) constructed from the main elements
present within the Earths crust (c.f. figure 2). The difference between a rock and a
mineral is:
A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals (e.g., granite, marble or sandstone) or
a body of undifferentiated mineral matter (e.g., obsidian) or organic matter (e.g.,
coal). Note that no self-respecting Geologist uses the term stone other than as a
suffix - sandstone, mudstone, etc.
A mineral is a naturally occuring inorganic element or compound having an orderly
internal structure and characteristic chemical composition, crystal form and physical
properties.
The number of different minerals is vast and only those most commonly occurring in
sedimentary rocks, considered most relevant to the petroleum engineer, are considered at this time.
Quartz [SiO2]: The dominant mineral in sandstones and important in many igneous
rocks (especially granite). A hard (cannot be scratched with a steel blade), transparent
or white mineral which is not easily dissolved. Hexagonal crystal structure (figure 7).
Household glass is produced by melting grains of quartz. Chert is a form of quartz that
lacks a crystalline structure (hence known as amorphous).
Calcite [CaCO3]: The dominant mineral in limestones and an important cement in
sandstones. A fairly soft (can be scratched with a knife), transparent or cloudy mineral
which is fairly easily dissolved in weak acids. Rhombohedral crystal structure.
8

Introduction To The Earth

Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]: A primary mineral in evaporite (i.e., those formed by

chemical precipitation from a saturated brine) sediments and also a common alteration
product of limestone. Hard, white mineral, more resistant to acid than limestone.
Halite (Rock Salt) [NaCl]: Major evaporite mineral. A soft (can be scratched with
the fingernail), salty tasting, transparent mineral which dissolves in water. Cubic
structure.
Feldspar (Albite) [NaAlSi308]: Major component in granite, minor component in
sandstones. Albite is one of the Feldspar mineral family in which the sodium atom
[Na] can be substituted by Potassium [K] or Calcium [Ca]. A fairly hard, white to pink
mineral that slowly dissolves in weak acids.
Pyrite [FeS2]: Minor component in mudstones and sandstones. Hard, golden metallic
mineral (known as Fools Gold). Cubic crystal habit.
Kaolinite [Al2Si2O5(OH)4]: A major clay mineral, notably produced by the breakdown of Feldspar. Important component in mudstones and significant pore-blocking
mineral in sandstones. A soft white, platey mineral, not easily dissolved in weak acids.
Chlorite [(Mg,Fe,Al)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8]: A major clay mineral produced by the
breakdown of igneous rocks. Important component in mudstones and occasional
pore-blocking clay in sandstones. A fairly soft, green, earthy-looking mineral.
Illite [K1-1.5Al4(Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20)(OH)4]: A major clay mineral produced by the breakdown of feldspar. Very important pore-blocking clay. Fibrous habit. Soft white
appearance (figure7).
Smectite [(0.5Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4[Si,Al)8O20] (OH)4nH2O]: A major clay mineral
in mudstone rocks. This is a swelling clay that expands on contact with water.

Figure 7. Two crystalline

minerals occurring within
in a single reservoir
sandstone pore. Right
Hexagonal crystals of
Quartz; Left Fibrous
crystals of Illite. (Field of
view 10
m; 0.01mm). Note
that water has a different

Mica [KAl2 (AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2]: Important component of granites and sandstones as

a detrital mineral. Often radioactive. Muscovite is fairly soft, platey, transparent-tolight brown; biotite is dark brown.

relationship to the two

minerals showing
variation in the engineering
property of interest:
wettability. (Courtesy of Jim
Buckman)

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Atoms

Oxygen

Silicon

Elements

= 10-10 m
Crystal
lattice

Structural
components

2.7

Crystal

Mineral

1mm

Sand
grain
1mm

Sandstone
piece
5mm

Sandstone
beds
2m

Textural
component

Rock

Outcrop

Notice how most of these minerals are composed of Aluminium (Al), Silicon (Si) and
Oxygen (O); the three most common elements in the Earths crust. These are
collectively referred to as the alumino-silicates, and are essentially constructed from
silica tetrahedra (i.e., with atoms at the apexes, figure 9) in different arrangements with
various other added cations (Magnesium, Mg; Iron, Fe; Calcium, Ca) (figure 10).
Aluminium is easily substituted for Silicon in these tetrahedra, but it also allows
octahedral coordination (figure 9) to take place, which allows more complex arrangements of silica tetrahedra. Alumino-silicates include quartz, feldspars, micas and
clays.
Other mineral groups include the oxides (e.g., Haematite - Fe2O3), the sulphides (e.g.,
Pyrite), the carbonates (e.g., Calcite) and the halides (e.g., Halite). Other elements
found in these minerals include Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), Sulphur
(S) and Hydrogen (H).

10

Figure 8
How atoms combine to
form minerals and then
rocks (after Press and
Seiver, 1982)

Introduction To The Earth

3 : Plane Triangle
4 : Tetrahedron

Figure 9
Atom co-ordination (after
Press and Seiver, 1982)

6 : Octahedron

Geometry

Figure 10
Silicate mineral structures
(after Press and Seiver,
1982). Each point
represents an atom. Olivine,
Beryl, Amphibole and
Pyroxene are rarely
important in Petroleum
Geology, but are included
here for completeness

Si/O ratio

Example

Isolated tetrahedra

1:4 (i.e., SiO4)

Olivine

Rings of tetrahedra

1:3

Beryl

Single chains

1:3

Pyroxene

Double chains

4:11

Amphibole

Sheets

2:5

Kaolinite

Frameworks
(Tetrahedra share all oxygens)

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

11

There are a number of ways of identifying minerals - the study of petrography. With
a hand sample and the naked eye one can learn to recognise many minerals by their:
Colour: minerals may be clear (e.g., quartz, diamond), white (calcite) or take on a
variety of colour as seen in precious stones (opal, ruby, garnet, amethyst, etc.).
Hardness: the Mohs scale of hardness (figure 11) is an important guide here, and
allows quartz and calcite (which may look similar) to be quickly distinguished by
the scratch of a knife. Diamond is one of the hardest (and rarest) minerals.
Mineral

Scale number

Common object

Talc

Gypsum
Calcite
Fluorite
Apatite
Orthoclase

2
3
4
5
6

Fingernail
Copper wire or coin

Quartz
Topaz

7
8

Steel file

Corundum
Diamond

9
10

Pocket knife
Window glass

Crystal shape: Some mineral crystals have a very simple shape (Pyrite often forms
simple cubes), however, most minerals have a more complex, but usually regular
shape or shapes. Some minerals are very small in sediments and the Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM) is used to photograph these at high magnifications to
aid identification (figure 12). An environmental SEM (ESEM) also allows fluids
to be imaged (figure 6)

12

Figure 11
Mohs scale of hardness for
the identification of
minerals (after Press and
Seiver, 1982)

Introduction To The Earth

Figure 12
(A) Scanning electron
microscope image of a
sandstone with large open
pores. (Field of view
500
m, 0.5mm)
(B) Close up of sand grains
in a sandstone with small
pores (Field of view 200
m;
0.2mm
(C) Close up of clays in a
sandstone. (Field of view
10
m; 0.01mm) (courtesy
of Jim Buckman)

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

13

Thin section appearance: A useful mineral identification technique is the

microscopic examination of thin sections, in which the rock is cut and ground to
slither of a standard thickness (30m) and then viewed in transmitted light (figure 13).
Most minerals have very distinctive colour and shape allowing identification.
Petrographic reports in the hydrocarbon industry have many images taken from
thin sections (photomicrographs) in which the pores show up blue as they have
been impregnated with epoxy resin containing a dye. Metallic minerals are opaque
and have to be examined in reflected light.

X-ray diffraction (XRD: More quantitative analysis can be achieved by XRD, in

which the diffraction pattern of an X-ray beam by the atomic lattice allows accurate
detection of the precise mineral composition.
Taste: Minerals (e.g., Halite or Rock Salt) have a distinctive taste. As some
minerals are poisonous this test is not recommended.
As a petroleum engineer, a basic knowledge of the minerals, their characteristics (pore
blocking, hardness, reactivity to acid, etc.) and their occurrence is relevant to various
drilling, reservoir and production operations. Some of these are highlighted here:
Chert, Pyrite: hard during drilling
Illite, Kaolinite, Chlorite: pore-blocking minerals in reservoirs
Smectite: swelling clay (gumbo), drilling hazard
Halite: dissolves in fresh drilling muds
Calcite: dissolves in mud acid
Mica, Feldspar: radioactive, therefore can appear as "clay" on gamma ray log
Most of the time in the hydrocarbon industry, the Petroleum Geologist is concerned
with the identification of sedimentary rock types in:
Drill cuttings: tiny rock chippings recovered from the drilling mud during drilling
operations,
Core samples: larger diameter samples, a few millimetres (in the case of sidewall
cores, SWC) or centimetres across (whole or slabbed cores and core plugs,
figure 14), recovered by coring, or,

14

Figure 13
(A) A thin section of a well
rounded loose sand (light
grey sand grains; dark grey
epoxy resin) (Field of view
5mm across)
(B) A thin section of a
sandstone showing
irregular grains (light grey)
and pores (darker grey
area) in centre of view
(Field of view 0.5mm
across) (courtesy of Cliff
Ogle)

Introduction To The Earth

Figure 14
(A) Core slabs. Top to the
top right, base to bottom
left. (B) Core slabs of
laminated rock.
Rubble zones result from
core material breaking up
and can occur at faults or
due to loose sand intervals.
Two vertical core plug
locations can also be seen
normal to lamination
(Courtesy of BG)
The regularly-spaced holes
are horizontal core plug
locations at a 1ft. spacing.
(C) Different size core plug
samples

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

15

Outcrop samples: fist-sized samples (hand specimens) collected in the field at

outcrop, where the rocks are more easily accessible (cliffs, quarries, road cuttings, etc.)
(figure 15).

In each type of sample, the appearance of sedimentary rocks might look somewhat
different. A classification scheme (figure 16) for the commonly occuring detrital
(derived from pre-existing rocks) and chemical sediments and their rock equivalents
provides a useful reference.
Clay, silt and sand are sediments defined by their particle size (figure 16). After
lithification (when sediments are turned into rock by compaction or cementation)
these become claystone (or mudstone), siltstone and sandstone, respectively.
Changes that occur during lithification are called diagenesis and these may be
compaction-related, due to the weight of the overlying rock during burial, or chemical
alteration, by the precipitation from the pore fluids of a grain-bonding cement. There
will be more discussion of diagenesis in a subsequent chapter as it has an impact on
the reservoir quality. Sandstones are composed predominantly of quartz grains.
Sandstones can be called Arkose (or arkosic) if they contain abundant feldspar or
Greywacke, if they contain abundant rock fragments. Claystones become shales when
they split into paper-thin layers (an ability known as fissility), usually after a high
degree of compaction through burial (or as in figure 4b through drying out). Detrital
sediments are often referred to as clastics (or siliciclastics, if composed primarily of
grains of silicate minerals). Chemical sediments such as limestone and dolomite are
defined by their composition and are therefore often collectively referred to as
carbonates.

16

Figure 15
(A) Students examining an
outcrop of sandstone and
shale in the field. The
sandstone cliff is 600m long
and 1.5 kilometres from
where the party is standing
(B) Three dimensional
butte and (C) canyon
outcrops allow the 3Dimensional nature of
sedimentary layers to be
described. In (B) sandstone
layers are overlying shales,
the sandstones make the
vertical outcrop faces, the
shales the slopes, because
of the difference in the
weathering characteristics.
In (C) limestones make the
steep cliffs and shales the
gentler slopes. The
difference in weathering
characteristics produces the
layers often seen in
sedimentary rocks (and
recently identified on
Mars!).

Introduction To The Earth

Claystone

Silt

Granule
2mm
Very coarse sand
1mm
Coarse sand
0.5mm
Medium sand
0.25mm
Fine sand
0.125mm
Very fine sand
0.0625mm

Pebble

Increasing
fissility

Siltstone

Sand

4mm

8mm

256mm

Mudstone

Abundant
rock
fragments

Sandstone

Gravel

Cobble

Boulder

Cementation

Conglomerate

Shale

Clay

Compaction

Abundant
feldspar

Graywacke

Clay

Increasing
angularity

Arkose

Silt

Breccia

Detrital sediments

Figure 16
Sedimentary rock
classification (after Press
and Seiver, 1982)

Rock

Limestone

Dolomite

Iron

Chemical
Composition

CaCO3

CaMg(CO3)2

Fe-silicate,
-oxide,
-carbonate

Minerals

Calcite
(Aragonite)

Dolomite

Haematite
Limonite
Siderite

Evaporite

Chert

SiO2

NaCl
CaSO4

Gypsum
Anhydrite
Halite

Phosphate

Ca3(PO4)2

Opal
Chalcedony Apatite
Quartz

Chemical sediments

3. PLATE TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTARY BASINS

The location of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks in the crust can be
explained by a model of the Earth's near surface. It is the slow deformation of the
asthenosphere that allows the different pieces of the crust to move around relative to
each other in the process known as plate tectonics. Plate tectonics is a fairly recent
theory (established in the early 1960s) to explain the relationship between continents
and oceans - more specifically between continental and oceanic crust. The fairly rigid
lithosphere slides across the weaker, more plastic asthenosphere, over geological time
scales (figure 17) and allows the plates to move relative to each other.
Oceanic crust
0

Continental crust
Rigid lithosphere

Figure 17
The outermost shells of the
Earth (after Press and
Seiver, 1982)

km 100
Plastic asthenosphere
200
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

17

The crust consists of a number of plates, which may contain either continental crust,
oceanic crust, or both. Where these plates are separating, at divergent margins, we
observe sea-floor spreading (figure 18) and the growth of oceanic crust (e.g., MidAtlantic Ridge, Iceland). Where they collide at convergent margins, we observe
either mountain chains (e.g., Himalayas, Alps, Rockies and Andes) or the destruction
of ocean basins (e.g., east of Philippines) at subduction zones. When plates collide,
one plate bends downward and is subducted. The overriding plate is crumpled and
uplifted to form mountain chains. Trenches form where oceanic crust is being
subducted under oceanic crust forming the deepest parts of the oceans. Convergent
plate boundaries are the sites of most of the worlds earthquakes and volcanoes.

CONVERGENT

CONVERGENT
Trench

Granite

Volcanoe

DIVERGENT
Asthenosphere
Lithosphere
CRUST

Continental
Oceanic

Figure 18
Divergent and convergent
plate boundaries

Evidence for sea-floor spreading comes from the mapping of magnetic anomalies that
are parallel to the spreading axis. New oceanic crust is magnetised and assumes the
orientation of the Earths magnetic field as it cools. The Earths magnetic field flips
abruptly throughout the geological record (the last time this happened was approximately 730,000 years ago). The oceanic floor records these magnetic field reversals
as a series of positively and negative charged magnetic strips. These strips are detected
by magnetic surveying and can be used to measure rates of spreading as the absolute
dates of the magnetic reversals have been determined. Rates of spreading (and hence
the recorded magnetic strips) may be symmetric or assymetric about the spreading
axis (figure 19), depending on the relative motion of the two plates.

Symmetric
anomalies

Asymmetric
anomalies

DIVERGENT

18

Figure 19
Magnetic anomalies either
side of an oceanic
spreading axis

Introduction To The Earth

Present-day activity in the crust (known as tectonics) is strongly concentrated at plate

margins (figure 20). Plate motion is measurable by satellite and surface laser
surveying (India is currently moving northward into Asia at 5cm per year) and by
earthquake activity.
75 N

Eurasia
a
North America
a

45 N

Arabia

Caribbean

Pacific

Uncertain

Philippine
Africa

Cocos
c

0 N
South America
U
Uncertain

Nazca
z

Australia

Figure 20
Present day tectonic plate
boundaries (from Smith, in
Brown et al., 1992)

45 S

Antartica

72 S
0 E

180 E

90 W

A third type of plate boundary is the transform fault boundary, in which the plates
slide past one another (rather than move normal to each other as they do in a divergent
or divergent boundary). The western coast of the United States of America is a
transform fault boundary. In reality, complex mixtures of transform/divergent and
transform/convergent margins occur, such as the north western margin of N. America
where lateral motion has resulted in the adding of successive regions of varying
geology (terranes). Large pieces of crust have moved laterally along the boundary
and then been "pasted" onto the plate margin (figure 21).

(A)

Alaska

Yukon

ter n

Pacific

Lara

(B)

on

Figure 21
The complex plate
boundaries of NW America
a) Terranes demonstrate
complex addition of
geological elements along
the edge of a stable
continental mass (craton).
Black: terranes of volcanic
material from subduction
regions; Striped: terranes
formed as oceanic plateaus;
Dotted: metamorphic
terranes. Laramide refers
to the age of the
deformation. b) An
anomolously thick oceanic
plateau segment forces the
subduction zone to jump
seaward. Stars are
earthquakes, smoking
circles volcanoes.
(from van Andel, in Brown
et al., 1992)

90 E

Oceanic
Plateau

Continent
Mexico
Jumping
Subduction
Zone

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

19

Plate tectonic theory leads to some amazing realisations - the continent of Africa was
once joined to South America and Scotland was once part of North America and
separated from the rest of Europe (including England!). Exotic though this theory may
seem, it has far reaching implications for understanding petroleum basins and
reservoirs - the North Sea/North Atlantic oil province is in a spreading junction setting,
whereas the West Canada and Alaskan oil provinces lie at the front of a convergent
mountain chain junction. As a result the types of reservoirs and traps can be quite
different. The larger scale geography at the time of deposition (the palaeogeographic
setting) of a reservoir will have a major bearing on the type of reservoir rocks, the
nature of the organic matter in the sediments and the types of traps that may be formed.
Exploration activity off the east coast of South America (Campos Basin) has direct
implications for prospectivity off the west coast of Africa - and vice-versa - demonstrating that an understanding of plate tectonics can help focus or direct an exploration
effort.

Figure 22
The distribution of the
Earths ancient
sedimentary basins (from
Watts, in Brown et al.,
1992). The number of
basins increases as oil
exploration extends its
activities, but it is thought
that the locations of most of
the Earth's basins an now
known (even if this map
does not show them all)

20

Introduction To The Earth

A basin is a large scale depression at the Earth's surface in which thick sequences of
sediments accumulate. Modern basins include the Mediterranean and the Gulf of
Mexico, where major rivers (i.e., the Rhine, the Nile and the Mississippi) are dumping
large quantities of sediment. Petroleum resources predominantly occur in the major
ancient sedimentary basins of the Earth (figure 22), both at plate margins and within
plate interiors. These basins have characteristic structural patterns related to their
tectonic setting. A basic theory (one of several) for the formation of sedimentary
basins (figure 23) is that thinning of the lithosphere occurs due to extensions caused
by plate tectonics and associated convection in the mantle. This leads to the creation
of a surface depression which is then infilled by sediments eroded off the adjacent
uplifted continents. As the sediments are deposited, they are generally deformed by
continuing extension leading to breakage of the crust, where a break is called a fault,
resulting in a series of fault-defined blocks (normal faulting in figure 23). Normal
refers to the sense of movement across the fault as a result of extension.

BRITTLE NORMAL FAULTING

a)
D
D D
D D
D
D D
D
D
D
D
D D
D

Continental Crust

Figure 23
The formation of
sedimentary basins showing
two end-member models for
lithospheric extension and
basin formation. a) A pure
shear model - deformation
in discontinuous (brittle)
and continuous (ductile)
modes of the various layers
is uniform; b) A simple
shear model where brittle
fault blocks are carried
along a surface (shear
plane) that propagates
through the entire
lithosphere. Deformation in
both brittle and ductile
layers is asymmetrical
(after Watts, 1992).

D
D

Rigid Lithosphere

Plastic Asthenosphere

Rising Decompressed Asthenosphere

D

Ductile Stretching and Dilation

b)
Continental Crust

Incipient Detachment

Rigid Lithosphere

Plastic Asthenosphere
SURFACE NORMAL FAULTING
Ductile Shearing

As an example of basin development, a geophysical survey from offshore north-west

Spain (figure 24) reveals a series of tilted fault blocks within which small sedimentary
basins have formed. The fault-block structure results from crustal stretching caused
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

21

by the splitting of the crust in the Atlantic mid-ocean (divergent plate boundaries) and
these fault-controlled basins (rifts) in turn affect the distribution of sediments,
ultimately determining the petroleum exploration value of the region. Ocean spreading
led to the formation of a major basin beneath the current-day North Sea at a divergent
plate margin (about 200 million years ago). The North Sea oil province is an example
of a failed rift as oceanic crust never appeared at the surface in this location. Instead,
the plate separation switched to the west side of the UK in the North Atlantic (about
60 million years ago), where we now have a major ocean with a continuing mid-ocean
rifting (and the associated volcanic activity) in Iceland.

5
1
6
7

8
9

4+5
5

Sea Floor

1
6
Tilted Fault Block

?5
Low Angle
Normal Fault

Two - Way Travel Time (s)

5
Km

8
9

The divergent margins of continents usually accumulate thick sedimentary piles.

These additions to the crust have led to such sites being called constructive margins.
Convergent margins consume crust (in subduction zones) and they have been called
destructive margins. However, as the example from NW America shows (figure 21),
convergent margins can also lead to additions to the plate. Thus, the terms constructive
and destructive should no longer be used.
The mainly lateral movement of tectonic plates also gives rise to vertical tectonic
movements, with the creation of basins and mountain ranges. These vertical tectonic
motions feed the processes leading to the wearing away of mountains (weathering or
erosion) and creating the final resting place of the weathering products (deposition)
(figure 25).

22

Figure 24
A geophysical survey shows
the tilted fault-block
structure asociated with the
initial rifting between
Europe and North America.
Numbers refer to the
sequence of the sediments
from 5, the oldest, to 1, the
youngest. The vertical axis
is the reflection two-way
time in seconds (where one
second may be equivalent to
a depth of 1.5km) (from
Watts, 1992).

Introduction To The Earth

Figure 25
The negative-feedback loop
that relates (1) uplift and
erosion, (2) surface
elevation and (3)
sedimentation. Tectonic
uplift causes an increase in
erosion, which lowers the
elevation and increases the
sedimentation rate. The
elevation is a balance
between tectonic uplift and
erosion rate (after Watts,
1992).

Erosion rate
Tectonically raised level of
elevation increases erosion
rate

0 1 2 3 4 5
Metres per Ma.

1
Increased erosion rate lowers

2 altitude

Increased erosion rate

increases rate of
sedimentation

0 1 2 3 4 5
Metres per Ma.

Tectonic uplift rate

Vertical tectonic motions also affect sea level, due to changes in the total volume of
ocean basins. Sea level is also, and sometimes more strongly, influenced by global
climatic changes (through the growth or melting of ice caps) which occur in response
to oscillations in the Earths planetary motion about the Sun. The interactions of
tectonic processes, erosion, deposition and sea level change - summarised as relative
sea-level change - give rise to the complex patterns of sedimentation that control
where hydrocarbon reservoirs may be found.

4. PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY
The nature of the geological timescale is vital to the appreciation of Geological
processes. The two main concepts (figure 26) are:
The timescales are very long (millions of years)
The geological processes can be very interrupted and discontinuous (i.e., episodic)
It is often said that the geological record is long periods of extreme boredom,
punctuated by moments of extreme terror! This applies to tectonics (e.g., earthquakes), sedimentation (e.g., floods and avalanches) and evolution (e.g., extinctions)
and is important to remember when considering the rock record.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

23

Million

Thousand

One year

One day

-3

One minute -6
One
millesecond

-9
-12

Meandering river

Age of the Earth

Thousands of years

Billion

Events

Mountain building
Atlantic ocean widens
by 1km
Human lifetime
Floods
Earthquake waves cross
the Earth
Detectable sound waves
by human ear

One hour

Years
10x

Nuclear processes
-15

Cut-off of oxbow lake

Figure 26
The nature of geological
time - very long and highly
episodic. Left: Time on a
logarithmic scale showing
some geological processes
or events; Right: A bend of
a winding river (a meander
loop) migrates slowly over
thousands of years until it
is cut-off, forming an
oxbow lake, in the space of
an hour under flood
conditions.
(adapted from Press and
Seiver, 1982).

A good illustration of the nature of the geological record can be deduced from the
spectacular sections exposed in the Grand Canyon (figure 27), where we find a stack
of rocks a mile or so thick (2.5km). The oldest rocks, at the base of the canyon (known
as Precambrian), are about 1500Ma (Ma = million years before present) old, as
determined by radiometric dating. The youngest rocks on the flanks of the canyon
(known as Permian) are dated at 225Ma. Simple arithmetic implies a rate of deposition
of 0.001mm/year - this is too low when compared to observations in modern
depositional settings. Geologists use the present as the key to understanding the past,
assuming that many of the processes are similar. In this case, the depositional rate
appears anomalous. The reason for the low estimate is that much of the time is
"missing" (figure 28). By "missing" we mean that there are no rocks that record
deposition during that time. These missing sequences or gaps are marked by
unconformities, which represent erosion or non-deposition in the geological record.
In general, when we see a sedimentary sequence we can be pretty sure that much of
the (originally deposited) material is missing. The geological record is very
discontinuous as a result.
Figure 27
The sequence of rocks
exposed in the Grand
Canyon (after Press and
Seiver, 1982).

Permian sediments

Pennsylvanian sediments

2500m

Mississippian sediments
Devonian sediments
Cambrian sediments
Precambrian sediments
Precambrian
metamorphics and
igneous complex
River level

Major unconformities

24

Precambrian, Cambrian,
Devonian, Mississippian,
Pennsylvanian and
Permian refer to periods of
geological time, from older
to younger. Sediments,
metamorphics and igneous
complex refer to different
rock types.

Introduction To The Earth

Gap

Gap
Figure 28
The patchy nature of the
stratigraphic record. The
thicknesses of the rocks do
not equate to their relative
time period in this
illustration.

Geological
Column

Gap

Present Day
Column

Thickness

Time

There are three basic types of unconformity in the sedimentary sequence (refer to
figure 29):
Angular: in which older strata have been tilted or folded prior to the deposition of
the newer strata
Parallel: in which the strata dips are the same above and below the unconformity.
This type of unconformity would usually be marked by evidence of erosion or a
sudden change in rock type. Parallel unconformities are also called disconformities.
Non-depositional: in which similar strata lie above and below and there is no
evidence for erosion. This type may be difficult to detect and usually requires careful
age dating of the sequence.
An unbroken sequence of rocks without an unconformity is known as a conformable
sequence or succession.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

25

Deposition

Non-deposition

Deposition

Uplift

Non-deposition

Erosion

Non-deposition

Deposition

Non-depositional

Angular

Parallel

As a result of these disrupted sequences, the main job of a Geologist is to work out the
succession of geological events which have given rise to the observed sequence of
strata. Figure 30 shows a number of geological sections with increasing complexity.
By looking at the relationships of beds and applying the concepts of unconformities
and that beds on top are younger than beds underneath - the succession of layers in time
can be determined. Seemingly complex geological sections can be simplified.

26

Figure 29
The making of the various
types of unconformity.
Note that the terms relate to
the beds immediately
overlying and below the
discontinuity. The same
unconformity (dashed line)
can be non-depositional,
parallel and angular along
its length.

Introduction To The Earth

9
8
7
6
5
2

1
Rock Units in Correct Order
Younger
Figure 30 (A)
Stratigraphic
reconstruction of nine rock
layers separated by two
unconformaties. Tilting and
erosion have occured at
each unconformity surface
(marked UNC)

9
8
7
6
5
4
3

UNC
UNC

2
Older

6
B

5
4

5
3
A

2
1

4
3

3
2

Rock Units in Correct Order

Figure 30 (B)
Stratigraphic
reconstruction of seven
rock layers, two faults and
an unconformity. Faults
are shown at relative time
scales to the sedimentation
of the layers.

Fault B
Younger

UNC

Older

5
4
3
2
1

Fault A

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

27

10

9
8
8

3
B

6
5
Fault A

2
1

Rock Units in Correct Order

Younger

UNC

10

9
8
Dike B
7

Older

6
5
4
3
2
1

A few simple concepts provide the basis for understanding the time and space
relationships between rock units. This temporal and spatial analyisis is known as
stratigraphy. Stratigraphic constructions are key to understanding the distributions of
rock types. The three basic principles of stratigraphy, first identified by Nicholas
Steno in Italy in 1669 and known as Steno's Principles, are:
Original horizontality - the sediment strata were laid down more or less flat
Superposition - younger strata lie on top of older strata
Original continuity - the strata were originally laterally extensive
In modern stratigraphy, these simple laws have been modified a little in recognition
of the fact that gradual lateral changes do occur. To illustrate this, we should look at
the Grand Canyon sequence (introduced in figure 27) in a little more detail. The
"Cambrian sediments" are made up of three subdivisions - Tapeats Sandstone, the
Bright Angel Shale and the Muav Limestone. In the west of the area, the Bright Angel
Shale is older (dated by trilobites - a type of marine fossil animal) than the same shale
in the east (figure 31). The interpretation of these units is that, rather than sand being
deposited as a layer, followed by shale and limestone, the sand, shale and limestone
were deposited simultaneously (a time line represents the ancient surface at a certain
28

Figure 30 (C)
Stratigraphic
reconstruction of ten rock
layers, an intrusive dike, an
unconformity and a fault

Introduction To The Earth

time in the geological record). The depositional environments migrated from west to
east through this time period. A rock unit that looks similar but is actually deposited
at different times in different locations is called diachronous. The migration of
environments is usually not smooth, but often has irregularities. This results in small
shifts of the boundaries of the rock units, which we depict graphically by the small
wedges seen in figure 31.

Figure 31
Stratigraphic relationships
in the Cambrian of the
Grand Canyon sequence.
Fossil evidence indicates
that the shale at A is older
than at B, allowing the
stratigrapher to infer time
lines (after Press and
Seiver, 1982). Sediments
that cross time lines are
said to be diachronous.

As deposition at any one location continued, the sediment type gradually changed
from sand to shale to limestone. Since we know that limestones, in this case, were
deposited in deep seas and the sandstones on land or in shallow water, this implies
gradually deepening of the water conditions. This is caused by a marine transgression
as the sea covers (or transgresses) the land. Because the transgressing sea was
advancing from the west (over the land), the shales and limestones were deposited
earlier in the west than the east. Lithology is the term used to describe sedimentary
rock types (e.g., sandstone, shale and limestone).
Lithostratigraphy refers to the study of the spatial relationships of the various
lithologies. Biostratigraphy is the study of temporal relationships established by the
occurence of the same species (or groups of species) of animals or plants in the rocks
as fossils. The evolution and extinction times of the various biological markers are
often known by calibration with the radiometric dating. Thus, when fossils are found,
Geologists use them to date the rocks in which they occur (fossils may also be more
abundant than appropriate radioactive minerals). When geologists refer explicitly to
the time scale they are using chronostratigraphy, which usually gives the same results
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

29

as biostratigraphy, but can produce quite different rock relationships from

lithostratigraphy (as was observed in the Grand Canyon example).
To this more basic understanding of the basic principles of stratigraphy we must add
one further law, known as Walthers Law (1894), which allows for more advanced
understanding and can be paraphrased:
Lithostratigraphic transitions in a vertical sequence reflect laterally migrating
environments
This principle provides the key to interpreting stratigraphic data and provides the basis
for the main correlation tools in Petroleum Geoscience. If a sand lies immediately
above a shale, then (providing there is no major unconformity) it is assumed that the
two lithologies were deposited adjacent to each other and that, through time, the
depositional environments shifted laterally to produce the vertical change in sediment
type. This often allows the nature of the sand body to be determined, since shales often
preserve fossils better, and these are often distinctive of the depositional environment.
As well as using the sequence of fossils - the fossil record - and radiometric age dating
to provide absolute ages of the sediments, we can use the relationships of the beds to
unconformity surfaces. When we observe onlap (younger beds overstep older) on an
unconformity surface, we can infer a transgression, as younger strata extend
progressively towards the land. When we observe offlap (younger beds being
deposited in a more restricted area than the older ones), the opposite (a regression) can
be inferred (figure 32).
Onlap

Sea-level rise

Shoreline advancing

Offlap

Original Depositional Edges

Sea-level fall

Shoreline retreating

Geophysical surveys are used to map the relationships between the rock sequences in
the subsurface (refer to figure 24) and see chapter 5. Angular relationships (between
the sequences marked 1-5 and underlying section) can be seen. The section shown in
figure 33 shows an onlap surface in the lower part, changing up the dipping surface
(updip) into a conformable sequence. Also indicated on figure 33 are downlap
truncations, which occur when originally inclined strata terminate downdip against an
older surface, and toplap surfaces which mark updip terminations of inclined strata.
The determination of these stratigraphic relationships on such geophysical surveys is
called seismic stratigraphy (or seismo-stratigraphy)

30

Figure 32
Onlapping and offlapping
relationships to
unconformity surfaces.

Introduction To The Earth

Onlap

Toplap

Onlap
Figure 33
Characteristic types of
terminations recognised on
geophysical sections (after
Wilson, 1992).

Downlap
Surface

Downlap

The simplest interpretation of transgressions and regressions (when the sea retreats
from the land) is that they are the response in the sedimentary record of changes in
relative sea level. Furthermore, the rate of sediment deposition may or may not keep
up with the rate of subsidence, so that the sedimentation rate alone usually does not
control relative sea level. The interaction between the factors may result in sediment
aggradation, in which sediment builds up vertically, or sediment progradation, in
which sediment builds out laterally (figure 34). Downlap and toplap are characteristic
angular relationships of prograding sediment sequences, such as when a delta builds
out into shallow seas. These stratigraphic relationships define the accommodation
space, which is the volume on the Earth's surface available for the accumulation of
sediment.
Geologists have classified the Earths stratigraphic record (the geological record) in
terms of the key periods of geological time (figure 35). The Petroleum Engineer needs
to be familiar with these Periods and their approximate age (there are basically twelve
Geological Periods). The Periods are grouped within major Era and are further
subdivided into Epochs and Ages. These subdivisions are important, and will become
familiar, when describing detailed (e.g., basin or oilfield) stratigraphy but need not be
learned by heart. The absolute ages of these Periods have been established by
radiometric dating and are agreed, and occasionally refined, by international
stratigraphic committees. The details of the stratigraphy at the reservoir scale are
usually defined by lithostratigraphic and/or biostratigraphic correlations. Locally the
units are given Formation and Member (subdivision of Formation) names as well.
These are lithostratigraphic names and are used when discussing the field at a local
(national) scale. The Period/Epoch names are more usually used for comparing
sections at the global (international) scale.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

31

Slow
1

Progradation
Figure 34
The relationship bewteen
rates of relative sea level
change (in this case slow
and rapid rise) and
sedimentary progradation
and aggradation (after
Wilson, 1992).

Aggradation
Rapid

4
3

2
1

Chronostratigraphy

Epoch

Period

Lithostratigraphy

Series

System

Recent

Era

Quaternary

Pleistocene

Cenozoic

2
Pliocene
7
Miocene
26
Oligocene

Tertiary

37
Eocene
53
Palaeocene
136
Jurassic
190
Triassic

Mesozoic

65
Cretaceous

225
280
320
Ages in Ma
345

Carboniferous

Pennsylvanian
Mississippian

Devonian
395
Silurian
430

Palaeozoic

Permian

Ordovician
500
Cambrian
570
Precambrian

32

Figure 35
The Geological Time Scale.
Ages are given in millions
of years before present
(Ma) (after Press and
Seiver, 1992). The
Pennsylvanian and the
Mississippian are known as
the upper and lower
Carboniferous outside of
North America

Introduction To The Earth

In summary, having understood the basic geological timescale and main geological
periods, it is important to appreciate the episodic character of sediment sequences (the
presence of unconformities) and the ideas which allow the geologist to infer lateral
changes in sedimentary enironment from vertical sequences (Walthers Law). A good
illustration of these integrated concepts is given in figure 36, which shows deposition
and non-deposition in North America through geological time. The continental
interior experienced much more erosion than the margins, and marine transgressions
and regressions caused the depositional area to expand and contract across the
continent through time.

Cordilleran
Basins

Cratonic
Interior

Appalachian
Basins

Quaternary Tertiary
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Pennsylvanian

Figure 36
Stratigraphy of North
America showing gaps in
the record (dark shading)
which becomes smaller
towards the continental
margin, where the main
sediment basin occurs
(adapted from Eicher,
1976).

Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian

Deposition

Ordovician
Cambrian

Non-deposition
West Coast

East Coast

Six sequences

A stratigraphic column representing a vertical well bore interval, encountering

various rock types, from the surface to 7000ft (0-2134m) is shown in figure 37.
Boundaries between the layers are noted at the respective depth. The ages and local
formation names are also identified within these layers.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

33

Figure 37: A stratigraphic

column for a 7000ft
(2134m) well section.
Drilled depth is shown on
the left. The two righthand columns show the
Periods/Epochs and Age/
Group (i.e., the Geological
Column). Next to that are
the Formation and Member
Names of the
lithostratigraphic column.
Members are only shown

In this well, the sediments range in age from Jurassic (136-190Ma) at the surface to
Cambrian (500-570Ma) at 7000ft. Comparison with figure 34 shows that the section
is fairly continuous, but the Permian is absent, suggesting at least one unconformity
is present. Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary rocks were either not deposited, or
possibly deposited and subsequently eroded, at this location.
The reservoir section is shown at approx. 4000ft by a porosity and saturation log and
is Upper Ordovician in age (430-450Ma). The Silurian shales (395-430Ma) immediately
overlying the reservoir are also of interest as they help trap the hydrocarbons in the
reservoir. Local formation names are also shown for the stratigraphic units on the
geological column but the Period/Epoch names are most useful as they are not
dependent on local knowledge. Indeed it doesnt matter to Geologists where in the
world this log comes from (actually from North Africa) as they can read and
understand the international language of the geological record. For historical interest,
the names Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian come from Wales in the UK where
rocks of this age were first described in detail and are based on names of ancient British
tribes.

5. SUMMARY
This chapter has introduced the student to the important geological concepts that are
relevant to the exploration for and development of hydrocarbon reservoirs. The nature
of the Earth, the various rock types, their deposition and stratigraphic relationships
have been introduced and will be discussed further in subsequent chapters.

34

Introduction To The Earth

Exercise 1
1. Find two examples of each of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks and
describe them. These can be picked up from your local environment, on holiday or
acquired from a friendly geologist.
In describing a rock, one should systematically describe various properties:

Colour
Hardness/Density
Texture
Structure
Porosity & Permeability (poroperm)

and provide a photograph or a sketch illustration (in 3-D) before interpreting. Be

careful to put a scale in the photograph and on the drawing.

Exercise 1: Solution
These samples were shown in the text of chapter 1 and are here more fully described.

Rock Sample A (refer to Figure 4A in Chapter 1)

Colour:

Light brown to tan, with dark brown to black, concave-up lamina.

Hardness:

Friable (grains can be scraped off) to well cemented. Moderately

dense.

Texture:

Uniform fine grained sandstone with micaceous/carbonaceous

partings.

Structure:

Rippled with micaceous/carbonaceous material concentrated in

ripple troughs.

Poroperms:

Medium porosity, low permeability.

Interpretation:

Sedimentary rock - rippled sandstone deposited by water currents

(fluvial).

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

35

Rock Sample B (refer to Fig 26B)

Colour:

Grey-green with white bands

Hardness:

Hard and dense

Texture:

Finely laminated grey-green material sub-parallel to discontinuous

white bands that have been deformed

Structure:

White bands and grey-green laminated matrix deformed in a

plastic state by shortening and elongation.

Poroperm:

Nil

Interpretation:

Metamorphic rock - deformed sedimentary rock. White material

is quartz, probably a metamorphosed sandstone, grey is
metamorphosed shale or siltsone. Rock has been deformed and
re-crystallised in a plastic state at high pressure and temperature.
It has not completely melted.

Rock Sample C (refer to Figure 4B)

Colour:

Pink, grey and black

Hardness:

Very hard, dense

Pink softer (feldspar) than grey (quartz)

Texture:

Crystalline

Structure:

Isotropic, structureless

Poroperm:

Nil

Interpretation:

Igneous rock -> granite (pink = feldspar, grey = quartz, black =

biotite) that has crystallised slowly from a melt.

36

Introduction To The Earth

(Note: Polished surfaces and natural surfaces of rock samples are useful for comparison. Polished surfaces are described as marble by stone masons. However, marble
is also a specific term when used by geologists to describe a metamorphosed
limestone.)

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

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Exercise 2
Work out the correct sequence of events in the table given below. To help you get
started, Unit C is the oldest unit present. Note that the basalt sill and dike are igneous
intrusive events. Basalt is a once-molten, cooled rock. Here, it has been injected in a
(semi-) liquid state into previously-compacted sediments, so cut the layers that are
older. Dikes are injected vertically (or almost vertical, i.e., sub-vertical) into the host
rock, whereas sills are injected (sub-) horizontally, usually between the layering.

Basalt dike
land surface

Basalt sill

J
H

G
F

E
D

B
A

Unconformities
Rock unit/feature in
Reason
correct order (top=last)

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Cut by all younger features

Introduction To The Earth

Exercise 3
1. What is the light-coloured rock sampled in the canyon wall and shown in the SEM
and photomicrograph?
2. What do you think the layers above and below it are?
3. What is the nature of the pores and pore connectivity?
Will this make a good reservoir rock?

SEM

Photomicrograph

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

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Exercise 2: Solution

Basalt dike
land surface

Basalt sill

J
H

G
F

E
D

B
A
Unconformities

Rock unit/feature in
correct order (top = last)

Reason

Sill

Dike

J
H

Unconformity

G
F
E
D

Unconformity

Dike

A
C

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Cut by all younger features

Introduction To The Earth

Exercise 3: Solution
1. The rock is a sandstone
2. There is shale above it and more sandstone. There is sand below it and more shale.
This picture is taken on the backside of the butte shown in figure 15b.
3. The pores are large and well connected. There are no clays. The grains have quartz
overgrowths. This will be an excellent reservoir rock (Porosity 12.5%: Permeability
2000mD)

INDIVIDUAL STUDY ASSIGNMENTS

(a) In order for you to appreciate the concepts introduced above, we suggest you carry
out some individual research into your nearest sedimentary basin. Find out the
following:
The geographical extent of the basin - does it cross national boundaries?
The plate tectonic setting of the basin - plate margin or plate centre?
The age of the oldest to youngest rocks (refer to the geological time scale, figure 22)
What are the major unconformities and gaps in the record - can you draw a
stratigraphic column (refer to figure 23) for your basin?
What is the lithology of the main sedimentary units?

(b) Collect together your own reference collection of the common rocks and minerals.
Approach geological colleagues or create your own collection on trips or on holiday.
Photograph and/or describe these in your own terms (hardness, colour, structure, etc.)
Be sure to include the location and its description.
(c) Essay topics
1. Describe and explain the origin of the internal and surface layers of the Earth.
Explain why the Earth is considered dynamic.
2. Describe the geological timescale, how was it determined and explain how it is
used by geologists in the petroleum industry.
3. Describe the difference between the major rock types and explain how sedimentary
rocks may be classified.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

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SOURCE REFERENCES
Press, F., and Seiver, R., 1982, The Earth, W.H.Freeman and Co., New York.
Brown, G.C., Hawkesworth, C.J., and Wilson, R.C.L., 1992, (Eds.) Understanding
the Earth, Cambridge University Press
Whitten, D.G.A., and Brooks, J.R.V., 1977, The Penguin Dictionary of Geology,
Penguin
Ager, D.V., 1993, The nature of the stratigraphic record, John Wiley and Sons
Eicher, D.L., 1976, Geologic Time, Prentice-Hall Inc
North, F.K., 1985, Petroleum Geology, Allen and Unwin

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Introduction To The Earth

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

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