Credit Hours System

Mechanical Design
Engineering
MDPN343 Sheet Metal
Processes

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering

Term Project
Advancements in Sheet Metal Forming

Submitted To: Dr. Alaa El Mokadem

Eng. Mahmoud Samir
Submitted By:
Mohammed Yasser Hussein
Mahmoud Sayed Zaghlool
Soheil Hussein El Saify
Ghada Emad El Din
Ahmed Mohammed Fayez
Hossam Ashraf Mohammed
Omar Ali Ibrahim
Submission Date: 24/12/2016

ID
1135273
1135487
1135159
1134177
1115705
1115826
1115824

Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction to Metal Forming............................................................................................................... 1
Hydroforming ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Introduction to Hydroforming............................................................................................................ 3
Principles of Hydroforming Systems ................................................................................................. 3
Sheet Metal Hydroforming ................................................................................................................ 4
Advantages and disadvantages of hydroforming process .................................................................. 4
Advantages ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Disadvantages ................................................................................................................................ 5
Applications of Hydroforming........................................................................................................... 5
Laser Forming ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Introduction to Laser Forming ........................................................................................................... 6
Principles of Laser Forming............................................................................................................... 6
Process Parameters............................................................................................................................. 8
Laser Forming Mechanisms ............................................................................................................... 8
Temperature Gradient Mechanism (TGM) .................................................................................... 8
Buckling Mechanism ..................................................................................................................... 9
Upsetting Mechanism .................................................................................................................. 11
Comparison of the Three Mechanism .......................................................................................... 12
Advantages and Disadvantages of Laser Forming Processes .......................................................... 12
Advantages ................................................................................................................................... 12
Disadvantages .............................................................................................................................. 12
Applications of Laser Forming .................................................................................................... 12
Summary of Laser Forming ............................................................................................................. 13
References ............................................................................................................................................ 14

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Table of Figures
Figure 1: Laser Forming Process ........................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2: Hydroforming Process ............................................................................................................ 1
Figure 3: Sequence of Operations for Obtaining Different Sections ..................................................... 1
Figure 4: Stages of Hydroforming Process ............................................................................................ 3
Figure 5: Examples of hydroformed parts ............................................................................................. 5
Figure 6: Schematic of Laser Forming Process ..................................................................................... 6
Figure 7:(a) Schematic of the laser beam bending process. (b) Photos of three sheet metals bent using
a laser. .................................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 8: Influence of sheet thickness on bend angle for a plain carbon steel. ..................................... 7
Figure 9: Temperature gradient mechanism. (a) Temperature variation in the thickness direction. (b)
Strain variation in the thickness direction. (c) The bend angle.............................................................. 9
Figure 10: An illustration of a shape produced by the temperature gradient mechanism. .................... 9
Figure 11: Buckling mechanismsequence of steps leading to bending of a plate. (a) Beginning of
heating. (b) Growth of buckle. (c) Development of bend angle. ......................................................... 10
Figure 12: Upsetting mechanism. (a) Isotherms in the workpiece. (b) Temperature variation in the
thickness direction. (c) Strain variation in the thickness direction. ..................................................... 11
Figure 13: Sample product resulting from the upsetting mechanism. ................................................. 11

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Abstract
In this report, we will discuss the new technological advancements in metal forming process. To be
specific, we will be discussing the laser forming and hydroforming in sheet metal processes. We will
try to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each process as well as the process steps to produce
the desired final product.

Figure 1: Laser Forming Process

Figure 2: Hydroforming Process

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Introduction to Metal Forming

Metal forming processes are those processes that change the form of a metal without adding or
removing material from the workpiece. The workpiece is deformed using mechanical machines
exceeding the elastic limit of the material. This means that the workpiece is permanently deformed to
the desired shape.
Metal forming is characterized by:
1- Very high loads and stresses, between 50 and 2500 MPa.
2- Large, heavy and expensive machinery.
3- Production of many parts to compensate for high capital cost.
Metal forming includes the following types based on type of force:
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Tensile Forming
Compressive Forming
Combined Forming (Tensile and Compressive)
Bending
Shearing

Primary metal forming processes includes:

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Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Tube and Wire Drawing
Deep Drawing

Figure 3: Sequence of Operations for Obtaining Different Sections

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However, therere new technological advancements in metal forming over the time since the start of
the industrial revolution. We will be discussing in detail the following processes:
1- Hydroforming
2- Laser Forming
In short, laser forming processes includes the use of laser beams to induce heat in the material. The
induced heat provides the required compressive and tensile stresses to bend the material. While the
hydroforming processes include the use of pressurized fluid to force the workpiece to take the die
shape. The following pages will discuss the two processes in further detail.

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Hydroforming
Introduction to Hydroforming
Hydroforming is a specialized type of die forming that includes the use of highly pressurized
hydraulic fluid to press the working piece at room temperature into a die.
It is relatively a new forming process that is popularized by design studies that suggest that automobile
parts can be made much lighter by using hydroformed components made of steel. The structural
strength and stiffness of the part can be improved using hydroforming process. Furthermore, the
production costs can be reduced due to the fact that several components can be formed in one step
using one die with a complex design. The hydroformed parts show little or negligible springback
behavior compared to other forming processes.

Figure 4: Stages of Hydroforming Process

Principles of Hydroforming Systems

All hydroforming systems include:
1- Tooling and Dies
2- A Hydraulic Press
3- A Fluid Pressure Intensification System
Hydroforming dies vary dramatically with regards to sheet metal and tubular hydroforming operations.
Dies may be single or multi-cavity.
Hydroforming utilizes hydraulic presses rather than mechanical presses for various reasons. The
hydraulic presses are able to provide full tonnage at any point in the stroke. It can be adjusted to provide
optimal part clearance. They can also be stopped in mid-stroke. The fluid pressure intensification
system consists of a low-pressure, high flow rate filling system and a high-pressure intensifier to raise
the fluid pressure to forming levels. The forming fluid is water based and contains additives such as
lubricants, drying agents, rust preventatives and bactericides. A typical hydroforming process starts
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with placing the workpiece on the lower die and then closing the press. After that, the fluid then flows
to either both sides of the workpiece or one of the sides. The fluid pressure is then intensified forcing
the workpiece to form into the die. Lubricants are used in the fluid to minimize the friction and stresses
as the metal flows into its final shape.

Sheet Metal Hydroforming

In sheet metal hydroforming, controlled metal flow during the operation minimizes localized stress
concentrations that my lead to buckling or wrinkling of the workpiece. The process is much slower
than traditional stamping and hence limiting its use to short runs of highly specialized parts.
There are two common methods of sheet metal hydroforming:
1- Rubber Diaphragm Forming
2- Active Hydro-Mechanical Drawing
In Rubber Diaphragm Forming, a fluid forming chamber is attached to the slides of a hydraulic press.
Fluid is retained within the chamber by a flexible rubber diaphragm, which serves as a universal die
capable of accommodating any shape. Attached to the rubber diaphragm is a wear-pad which acts as a
blankholder and protects the diaphragm. A single tool, typically a punch, but in some cases a cavity
die, is mounted to a hydraulic cylinder on the bed of the press. A blank is placed on the lower
blankholder of the rubber diaphragm forming press. The forming chamber is then lowered and initial
pressure is applied. The punch moves upward and into the flexible die member, shaping the sheet metal
material. Typical forming pressures range from 5,000 to 15,000 PSI/345 to 1,034 BAR. After forming
is completed, pressure is released, the forming chamber is raised, and the punch is stripped from the
finished part.
Active Hydro-Mechanical Drawing is used in fabricating large sheet metal panels and can improve the
buckling strength of the finished part. The lower blankholder is a reservoir containing an oil and water
emulsion as a fluid medium, while the top die holds the punch. As the press closes over the blank it
forms a water tight seal between the die halves. At this stage, a part-specific gap exists between the
clamped blank and the punch. As soon as the blank-holding force has built, the fluid is brought to a
defined pressure. This pressure causes a controlled bulging of the blank over its entire surface, resulting
in work hardening of the workpiece and a substantial improvement in buckling strength of the part.
Bulging continues until the blank comes to rest against the center of the punch surface. After this prestretching process, the punch is lowered into the blank. The sheet metal flows rather than rubs against
the punch and female die by fluid pressure. Active Hydro-Mechanical Drawing is cost effective since
only one die half needs to be machined to achieve the required part shape.

Advantages and disadvantages of hydroforming process

Advantages
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Draws material into mould.

Part consolidation (many parts formed in one step as one part).
Weight reduction through more efficient section design and tailoring of the wall thickness.
Improved structural strength and stiffness.
Reduced scrap.
Reduced Cost.

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Disadvantages
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Slow cycle time.

Expensive equipment.
Lack of extensive knowledge base for process and tool design.
Requires new welding techniques for assembly of parts.

Figure 5: Examples of hydroformed parts

Applications of Hydroforming
Hydroforming is typically used in aerospace, automobile and sanitary industries. This is because the
process can form parts that have high stiffness and strength as well as lighter weight.

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Laser Forming
Introduction to Laser Forming
Laser forming (LF) is a highly flexible rapid prototyping and low-volume manufacturing process. It
uses thermal distortion induced by laser to shape the sheet metal parts. This process doesnt include
the use of hard tooling or external forces ("Laser Forming: Total Materia Article", 2016).

Figure 6: Schematic of Laser Forming Process

Principles of Laser Forming

Laser forming technique is very similar to the technique used for laser surface heat treatment. The
process involves scanning a defocused laser beam over the surface of the sheet to form it. For the sheet
to bend, a laser beam is scanned along a straight line without interruptions. The sheet metal is bent
along this line.
The components of the equipment required for the process are as follows:
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A laser source with beam delivery system.

Motion table to mount the workpiece or a robot for holding the laser system.
Cooling system where necessary.
Temperature monitoring system.
Shape monitoring system.
Computer control system.

Figure 7:(a) Schematic of the laser beam bending process. (b) Photos of three sheet metals bent
using a laser.

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Typically, the bend angle achieved in a single step is about 2 but it can be maximized up to 10. The
total bend angle can be as high as 90 but can be higher by repeating the process. In laser forming, the
first bend angle is maximum and the following stages bend angle is lower than the first stage. After
the first scan, the bend angle increases in proportion to the number of stages. Complex shapes can be
achieved by offsetting each scan track by a small amount. The radius of the part depends on the value
of the offset as well as other process parameters. The radius is proportional to the amount of offset, the
smaller the offset is, the small the radius of the part.

Figure 8: Influence of sheet thickness on bend angle for a plain carbon steel.
The bend angle of the sheet metal depends on the thickness of the sheet. The relation is inversely
proportional. In other words, the bend angle increases if the thickness of the sheet metal decreases.
When the thickness of the sheet decreases, the bending restraint decreases and hence larger bend angle.
Furthermore, the bend angle, per stage, decreases if the width of the plate decreases. The reason behind
this is the fact that the amount of material that acts as a heat sink for the process decreases and as a
result, the temperature gradient associated with the process decreases which leads to reduced
compressive stress and thus reduced bend angle. However, if the width-to-thickness ratio is higher
than 10, the bend angle is almost independent of the plate width.
The bend angle is also affected by the process parameters such as beam power and scan rate. The
higher the beam power is, the larger the bending angle will be. The scan rate inversely affects the bend
angle. The lower the scan rate is, the higher the bend angle will be. However, if the beam power is too
high or the scan rate is too low, a molten pool will be formed. A molten pool is undesirable since the
surface coating will be absorbed into the workpiece. The surface coating function is to increase the
absorptivity of the laser beam by the workpiece. The cooling method does not affect the bending angle
significantly.

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Process Parameters
The process parameters are as follows:
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Power
Defocused beam diameter
Scanning velocities
Sheet thickness

The thicker the sheet is, the higher the beam power is used to effectively bend the sheet. However, this
requires increasing the defocused beam diameter to avoid melting the sheet. For materials that have
high thermal conductivity, a higher scanning velocity is required. Low thermal conductivity materials
require lower scanning velocities to allow conductivity of heat through the thickness of the workpiece.
The process efficiency can be increased by using proper absorptive coatings to increase the beam
absorption especially on metallic surfaces. The beam angle is directly proportional to the beam power,
inversely proportional to the scan velocity and inversely proportional to the thickness of the sheet
squared.
Parameter
Value
Unit
Power
1
kW
Defocused Beam Diameter
2-6
mm
Scanning Velocity
20-600
mm/s
Sheet Thickness
Up to 10
mm
Table 1: Typical Process Parameters

Laser Forming Mechanisms

The basic mechanism for laser forming is the local deformation of the material as a result of thermally
induces stresses. This can happen by using one of the three laser forming mechanisms, depending on
the temperature field that is generated, the beam shape and the dimensions of the part to be formed.
The three mechanisms are:
1- The Temperature Gradient Mechanism (TGM).
2- The Upsetting Mechanism.
3- The Buckling Mechanism.

Temperature Gradient Mechanism (TGM)

The temperature gradient mechanism is illustrated in the figure below. It evolves from processing
conditions such as rapid heating of the workpiece surface, coupled with a relatively low heat
conduction that generate very high temperature gradients in the thickness direction (Fig. 9a). Thermal
expansion of the heated surface results in initial bending of the sheet away from the heat source, or
toward the cold side of the workpiece during heating. This is often referred to as counter bending, and
the bend angle at this stage is very small, 0.05. As the heated surface tries to expand, however, the
constraint of the surrounding material, which is at a lower temperature, restricts its free expansion.
This results in compressive thermal stresses that induce plastic compressive strain in the heated layer
(Fig. 9b). Plastic strains are induced since the yield strength of the material is lower at higher
temperatures. With increasing ratio of plastic to elastic strain, the amount of final bend angle that
results increase. Thus, ideally, it is desirable to minimize the elastic strain by inducing very high
temperatures at the top surface layers, where the flow stress is very low.
On cooling, the heated surface layer contracts more than the lower layers which are not heated as much
as the surface layers, resulting in bending of the sheet toward the heat source (Fig. 9c). Figure 10
illustrates a shape that is produced by the temperature gradient mechanism.
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In the simplest case, a sheet of metal may be bent along a straight line. Repeating the process increases
the bend angle, B. During the bending process, the sheet thickness increases in the region along the
bend as a result of the compressive strain. The temperature gradient mechanism is significant for
relatively thick sheets. The ratio of the heated area diameter to the sheet thickness is relatively low, of
the order of 1. It will not be effective for relatively thin materials of high thermal conductivity, since
the resulting temperature gradient then will not be adequate to produce any effective bending.

Figure 9: Temperature gradient mechanism. (a) Temperature variation in the thickness direction. (b)
Strain variation in the thickness direction. (c) The bend angle.

Figure 10: An illustration of a shape produced by the temperature gradient mechanism.

Buckling Mechanism
The buckling mechanism occurs in relatively thin sheets where the ratio of the diameter of the heated
area to the sheet thickness is relatively high, of the order of 10. The temperature gradient that arises
in the thickness direction is then relatively small, so the material is heated almost uniformly through
its thickness. The heated region tends to expand. However, this expansion is hindered by the
unheated surrounding material. The restraint results in thermal compressive stresses being developed
in the sheet, which for very thin sheets may lead to buckling when a critical stress value is reached
(Fig. 11). Buckling is more likely to occur when the sheet is relatively thin. Otherwise the critical
load for buckling will not be reached.

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Figure 11: Buckling mechanismsequence of steps leading to bending of a plate. (a) Beginning of
heating. (b) Growth of buckle. (c) Development of bend angle.
Bending of material close to the center of the heat source occurs plastically due to the high
temperatures in that region, while farther away, close to the root of the buckle, the material is
subjected to elastic bending as a result of the lower temperatures in that region. If the heat source
traverses the entire length of the sheet, then no restraining forces exist to hold the elastically bent
portion in place during cooling. Thus, elastic recovery occurs at the root, while the center remains
bent, resulting in the sheet being bent along the centerline. The direction of the bending that results
from the buckling mechanism is unpredictable. It could be either toward or away from the heat
source. This is because it is influenced by a number of factors such as the boundary conditions, the
pre-curvature (or pre-bending) of the sheet, residual stresses, and external forces. However, it has
been observed that at relatively high scan rates, say 15 mm/s (depending on the processing
conditions), bending is always toward the laser beam. It only becomes unpredictable at lower speeds.
Bending by the buckling mechanism does not increase the sheet thickness at the bend.

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Upsetting Mechanism
The upsetting mechanism evolves when uniform heating of a
localized zone is achieved through the thickness of the sheet
(Fig. 12a and 12b). Thus, the process parameters may be
similar to those of the buckling mechanism, except for the
diameter of the heat source area that is relatively small. As a
result of the near homogeneous heating of the sheet in the
localized zone, and prevention of thermal expansion by the
surrounding material, the sheet is subjected to near uniform
compressive strain through its thickness (Fig. 12c). During
cooling, the heated region contracts, resulting in
corresponding deformation of the sheet. This mechanism
enables shapes that are similar to deep drawn parts to be
produced (Fig.13).

Figure 13: Sample product resulting from the upsetting

mechanism.

Figure 12: Upsetting mechanism.

(a) Isotherms in the workpiece. (b)
Temperature variation in the
thickness direction. (c) Strain
variation in the thickness direction.

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Comparison of the Three Mechanism

Parameter

TGM

Buckling Mechanism Upsetting Mechanism

Nearly Homogeneous Nearly Homogeneous
Temperature Field
Steep Temp. Gradient with Larger Diameter with Smaller Diameter
in X-Y Plane
in X-Y Plane
May remain constant,
Increases, mostly
Increases towards
Sheet Thickness
determined by pretowards laser beam,
laser beam;
Forming Direction
curvature and residual
depends on original
determined by process
stresses
part geometry
Bending sheets along
Spatial sheet metal
Bending sheets along
Applications
straight lines, tube
forming, profile
straight lines
forming
forming
Table 2: Comparison between TGM, Buckling and Upsetting Mechanism

Advantages and Disadvantages of Laser Forming Processes

Advantages
1- No external forces and hence no contact between the tool and the workpiece. Therefore, there
will be no tool inaccuracies due to wear and deflection. This makes the process more flexible.
2- Ability to accurately control the process energy source and thus the forming process.
3- Ability to form parts in confined or inaccessible locations by remote application.
4- Minimal heat-affected zone size or material degradation compared to flame bending.
5- Ability to form hard and brittle materials that are considered difficult-to-form by
conventional methods.
6- More applications compared to conventional mechanical forming such as adjusting and
aligning of sheet metal components
7- Easy control of the process.
8- Slow rate of production and hence allows time for maintenance in case there are no spare
parts.

Disadvantages
1- The process is relatively slow compared to mechanical forming processes, by a factor of 520.
2- The high capital cost of the laser equipment compared to other thermomechanical forming
processes such as flame bending.
3- Low efficiency of laser absorption results in high energy consumption.
4- Due to reflection of the laser in various directions, special safety precautions are required.

Applications of Laser Forming

There are lots of fields that laser forming is found very useful. One of the fields is part straightening
where laser forming is used to deform and thus straighten parts which become distorted during one
of their production stages. Furthermore, laser forming is found useful in forming of small parts due
to the small size of the laser beam and controllability of the beam. Although the production rate of
forming is very small, it might be used to form some parts in the automobile industry. The slow
process rate of laser forming, it is very suitable for the production of ship planks and aerospace
fuselage parts since the volume requirement of those industries is very low.

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Summary of Laser Forming

Laser forming is one of the many thermomechanical forming processes. It allows the forming of
sheet metal parts and pipes without the need to external forces. A laser beam is scanned along a
straight line which allows the sheet metal part to bend along this line. Complex parts can be formed
using a complex trajectory of the equipment. There are three main laser forming mechanisms:
1- Temperature Gradient Mechanism (TGM): It results due to processing conditions that
generate very high temperature gradients through the sheet metal thickness.
2- Buckling Mechanism: It is very common in thin sheet forming. The ration of the diameter of
the heated area to the sheet thickness is very high, of the order of 10.
3- Upsetting Mechanism: It includes the use of uniform heating of a localized zone using a heat
source area that is relatively small, allowing the bending of the sheet.
When compared to conventional mechanical forming processes, laser forming process is relatively
slow. On the contrary, its noncontact nature with the workpiece and ease of control makes it suitable
for the forming of small parts. Furthermore, the process is suitable for applications that require very
little damage to the microstructure compared to other thermomechanical forming processes.

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References
-

Forming (metalworking). (2016). En.wikipedia.org. Retrieved 23 December 2016, from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forming_(metalworking)
Fundamental Manufacturing Processes Study Guide. (2016) (1st ed.). Retrieved from
https://www.sme.org/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=73737
Kannatey-Asibu, Jr, E. (2008). Principles of Laser Materials Processing (1st ed., pp. 616631). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Retrieved from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470459300.ch18/pdf
Laser Forming :: Total Materia Article. (2016). Totalmateria.com. Retrieved 23 December
2016, from http://www.totalmateria.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=260

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