Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering RAME-2016 (Proceedings)

75 years of excellence
RECENT ADVANCES
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
RAME-2016
th
(14 & 15th October, 2016)
ODB: LHD_1.odb Abaqus/Explicit 6.10-1 Thu 07 13:46:27 India Standard Time 2016
Step: Step-2
Increment 1206504 : Step Time = 1.000
Primary Var:S, Mises
Deformed Var: U Deformation Scale Factor: +1.000e+00
Editors
Dr. Raj Kumar Singh
Dr. Amit Pal
Sh. Vijay Gautam
Dr. Girish Kumar
Organized by
Department of Mechanical, Automobile and Production & Industrial Engineering
Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042
Published by:
Enriched Publications Pvt. Ltd
Editors
Dr. Raj Kumar Singh
Dr. Amit Pal
Sh. Vijay Gautam
Dr. Girish Kumar
Editorial Assistance
Sumiran Manghani
Deepanjali Nimker
Amrik Singh
Yash Gupta
ISBN: -----978-194523970-0
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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON
RECENT ADVANCES in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
RAME-2016
(14th& 15th October, 2016)
CHIEF PATRON
Prof. Yogesh Singh
Vice Chancellor, DTU
PATRON
Prof. S.K. Garg
Pro- Vice Chancellor, DTU
CHAIRMAN
Prof. R.S. Mishra, HOD
VICE CHAIRMAN
Prof. Samsher
ORGANIZING SECRETARY
Dr. Amit Pal
JOINT ORGANIZING SECRETARIES

Dr. Raj Kumar Singh
Sh. Vijay Gautam
Dr. Girish Kumar
TREASURER
Mr. M. Zunaid
INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD

Prof. D Yogi Goswami, University of South Florida, USA
Prof. HM Cho, Kongju National University, S Korea
Prof. Afzal Husain, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
Dr. Nitin Upadhye University of Modern Sciences, Dubai (UAE)
Dr. Sanjay Kumar Thakur, Rolls Royce plc, Singapore
Dr. Narendra Pal,United Hydrogen, Canonsburg, Pennsylvania
Prof. Avinash Agrawal, ERL, IIT Kanpur
Prof. M P Sharma, AHED, IIT Roorkee
Prof. D Ravi Kumar, IIT Delhi
Prof. KA Subramanian, CES, IIT Delhi
Prof. SC Mishra,IIT Gawhati
Prof. Nilesh Jain, IIT, Indore
Prof. Emran Khan, JMI University, Delhi
Prof. Sudhkar Jindal, CET, Udaipur
Prof. Subashish Maji, SOET, IGNOU Delhi
Prof. Rajesh Kumar Singh, MDI Gurgaon
Prof. OP Chaurasia, NIT Patna
Prof. SS Kachhwaha PDPU, Gandhinagar
Prof. PL Patel, NIT Surat
Prof. RB Anand, NIT T iruchirappalli
Prof. Gajendra Dixit MANIT Bhopal
Prof. Abhishek Mishra, NIT Delhi
Prof. Abhishek Gandhi, NIT Delhi
Prof. Joseph Anand Vaz, NIT Jalandhar
Prof. Anup Kumar, NIT Hamirpur
Dr. Prashant Jain, IIIT Jabalpur
Prof. Sharad Pradhan, NITTTR Bhopal
Prof. PK Purohit, NITTTR Bhopal
Dr. Vipul Tanna, IIPR Ahmedabad
PREFACE
The technological advances in the field of mechanical engineering are growing faster than
any other time. Mechanical engineering is a very broad field of engineering that involves the
application of physical principles for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of
mechanical systems. The characteristics like higher efficiency, functionality, precision, selfrepair and durability continue to attract engineers and designers to pursue research in the
field of mechanical engineering.
International Conference on Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering (2016) is being
organized in DTU Delhi, India from October 14th to 15th. This international conference
focuses on different aspects of mechanical engineering such as thermal, production, design
and industrial engineering. It aims to provide an international academic forum for all the
researchers, practitioners, professionals, faculty members and students in related fields to
share their knowledge and results from their experimental, analytical and computational
work.
RAME -2016 book of abstracts collects the most up to date knowledge in mechanical
engineering. All the accepted papers have gone through the peer-review process and are
selected on the basis of originality, significance and clarity.The conference provides all the
participants an opportunity for developing interaction among academicians, engineers
from industries, and researchers.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the committee members and
organizers for their enthusiasm and hard work. We are extremely thankful to the DTU
authorities and sponsors for their support and encouragement to the conference. We would
like to thank every author, speaker and participant for their contribution to the success of
RAME 2016. Last but not the least, we thank one and all, who helped to make this
conference successful.
(i)
MESSAGE
Vice-Chancellor
I am pleased to know that an International Conference on
Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering (RAME 2016) is
being organized by Department of Mechanical Engineering, DTU
th
th
on 14 -15 October 2016.
I welcome all the delegates and participants from across
India and abroad for participating in RAME-2016 conference at DTU, Delhi. I am sure
that RAME-2016 will bring together the National and International talents focusing on
excellent opportunities for researchers, scientists and industrialists to share and
converse on the latest developments in the areas of Mechanical Engineering.
The role of Mechanical Engineering is inevitable to improve productivity,
product quality and safe working environment in the applied fields for the society at
large.
I wish that this conference will give more insight to the R&D initiatives in these
areas. I also hope that the conglomeration of eminent experts from across the globe will
highlight the importance of research and innovation and discuss the best global
practices.
I congratulate the organizing team of RAME 2016 and wish that the conference
will be a grand success, and help in branding Delhi Technological University as a leading
research university.
Prof. Yogesh Singh

Vice Chancellor
(ii)
Message: Chairman, RAME-2016

It is my great pleasure to welcome you to the International
Conference on RECENT ADVANCES IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING, RAME-2016 at DTU, Delhi. This conference has
brought together delegates from around the globe to discuss the
latest advances in this vibrant and constantly evolving field.
Undoubtedly, mechanical engineering has played a key role in transforming our society
to a "High Tech" in the recent decades and the pace of change can only be described as
constructive. The technology itself is progressing and exploring new horizons. The
delegates in RAME-2016 will discuss and present the latest advances in the field of
mechanical engineering. A diverse range of topics from RAC to Robotics, and their
potential to lead to new paradigms in design, development, manufacturing and
transportation, will be deliberated.
Apart from this stimulating program of the conference, with its tourist attractions, the
diversity and quality of its cuisine, and world-class facilities, would be an unforgettable
place to visit. It is my hope, therefore, that you get a chance to explore Delhi and its
surroundings, and enjoy the exotic and vibrant atmosphere of our city.
It has been a great privilege for me to serve as the Chairman of RAME2016 and it is my
hope that you find the conference stimulating, fulfilling and enjoyable. I thank you for
your support of RAME and your attendance, and wish you a pleasant experience in Delhi
and RAME2016.
Prof R.S.Mishra
Head
Mechanical Engineering Department
and Chairman,RAME-2016
(iii)
Message: Convener, RAME-2016

On the behalf of organising committee of International Conference
on RECENT ADVANCES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (RAME2016), I extend a warm welcome to all the delegates from academia,
research institutes and industries.
The main aim of the conference is to bring together the researchers
across the globe to discuss the various aspects of thermal, design
and production which are inevitable to the field of mechanical engineering.
The conference would consist of key note lectures, regular paper and poster
presentations. I am glad to submit that RAME 2016 received an overwhelming response of
authors from the country and abroad. Within a duration of about 45 days we received
more than 120 papers of which finally 96 good quality papers were selected and
registered. Out of these, 66 were selected for oral presentation and 30 for poster
presentation.
The papers cover a wide range of topics such as analysis and synthesis of mechanisms,
CFD, Advances in Manufacturing, composite materials, Fuel quality and alternative fuels,
combustion and emissions analysis and design of IC engines, advances in industrial
engineering, mechanisms and machines for rural, agricultural and industrial applications,
mechatronic systems, modelling and simulation, robotics, corrosion etc. Each paper was
subjected to peer review for the originality, concept and relevance. For this we took the
help of 70 reviewers within the DTU and also from the other institutes and research
organizations.
We have specifically checked all the papers for plagiarism using URKUND s/w provided
from UGC to the DTU.
We have organised Eight technical sessions: four of which will be on thermal engineering
and two each on design and production engineering respectively. Two poster sessions are
also planned. Six key note lectures on advance topics are also scheduled for the discussion.
Many people contributed towards the success of this conference. I thank all the authors for
contributing quality work to the conference. I also thank the reviewers for taking time in
critically evaluating the manuscripts. The international advisory board also helped us in
different tasks. I would like to thank the DTU authorities and private organisations for
supporting the event through participation and sponsorship. I would like to thank the
colleagues in the organising committee, the faculty and staff of Mechanical, Production &
Industrial Engineering and automobile engineering department for their efforts towards
organising this conference. Last but not the least I would like to thank our students who
worked hard and helped in different activities of the conference.
Dr. Amit Pal
Organising Secretary
(iv)
CONTENTS
S.No.
Page No.
Title
1. Fabrication of Al6082/ZrO2 Surface Composite by Friction Stir

Processing
N.Yuvaraj and Vipin
2. Comparison of Micro-Hardness in Dry and Thermal Assisted Machining
on Turning of EN8 Steel.
Nitin Sehra, Jasvinder Singh, Prof. Sandeep Sharma, Mohit Gaba
1-6
7-12
3. Ultrasound Assisted Biodiesel Synthesis Via Enzymatic Interesterification

Onkar and Amit Pal
13-18
4. Overview of Carbon Nano Tubes

Navriti Gupta and Pushpendra
19-22
5.
23-30
Stress Life Fatigue Approach for the Design of Automotive Engine Thermostat
Kadir zdemir and Turker Temiz
6. A Review on Thermoelectric Generator used in Automotive Waste Heat Recovery

Vikrant Mishra and Amit Pal
31-38
7. Effect of Variation of High Temperature R1234ze Condenser Temperature

and Intermediate R1234yf Temperature Cascade Condenser and Low
Temperature Evaporator Circuit in three Stage Cascade Refrigeration
Systems
R S Mishra
39-44
8. Biodiesel Feedstock in India: A Review

Sanjay Mohite, Sudhir Kumar, Sagar Maji and Amit Pal
45-52
9. Triacylglyceride's Transesterification for Biodiesel: A Review

Amrik Singh, Amit Pal, Harwinder Singh and S. Maji
53-64
10. Mathematical Analysis of Exhaust Based Thermoelectric Generator

Vikrant Mishra, and Kiran Pal
65-74
11. Optimization of Solar Assisted Production of Biodiesel From Cotton Seed Oil
Manisha, Vikrant Mishra, R.S. Mishra, Amit Pal
75-80
12. Experimental Analysis of Solar Assisted Biodiesel Productionfor RAME 2016

Manisha, Amit Pal and R.S. Mishra
81-86
13. Biodiesel Production: A Review on Innovative Techniques

87-94
14. Fabrication of Magnesium Based Metal Matrix Composites Through Friction

Stir Processing A Review
Sumit Joshi, N Yuvaraj, Rajiv Chaudhary and R C Singh
(v)
95-100
15. Energy Analysis and Parametric Study of Flat Pate Collector Area
of a Solar Driven Water-Lithium Bromide Half Effect Vapour
Absorption Refrigeration System for a Given Cooling Load
Abhishek Verma, Akhilesh Arora and R.S. Mishra
101-110
16. Comparative Performance, Emissions and Combustion Analysis

of Single Cylinder CI Engine Fuelled With Biodiesel Derived From
Castor Oil
Akash Deep, Sarbjot Singh Sandhu and Subhash Chander
111-118
17. Process Optimization of Transesterification for Biodiesel

Production From Jatropha Oil
Kumar Gaurav, PB Sharma and Richa Srivastava
119-124
18. Analysis of the Merits of Hot Runner System Over Cold Runner
System in Moulding Technology
Sandeep Mathur, V. K. Mittal, Nitin Upadhye, Vipul Mathur and
Kshitij Mathur
125-134
19. Numerical Analysis of Forced Convection in A Lid Driven

Cavity With Different Heat Source Locations Along the Bottom Wall
Divyaj Shah, Ketaki Godbole and C.M Sewatkar
135-144
20. Application of Design of Experiment Technique For Optimization

of Machining Process Parameters: A Review
Lalit Kumar Sharma
145-150
21. An Empirical Study on Application of Information and Communication

Tools (ICT) in Indian SMEs
Dr. Ravinder Kumar, Udit Kukreja and Sahil Joshi
151-156
22. Thermoeconomic Insulation For Environmental Sustainability

Radhey Shyam Mishra
157-164
23. Thermo Economic Analysis and Optimization of Thermal Insulations

R.S. Mishra
165-172
24. Performance Analysis of Biogas Run Dual- Fueled Diesel Engine

S. Lalhriatpuia, Kunal Kumar Bose and Diwakar Gurung
173-180
25. An Empirical Study on Problems & Risks Faced by Indian

Small & Medium-Sized Enterprises
Ravinder Kumar, Shikhar Saxena and Ashish Kumar Aggarwal
181-190
26. Vibration Response of Finite Element Modeled FGM Plate n

Thermal Environment
Sanjay Singh Tomar and Mohammad Talha
191-198
27. Offshore Wind Resource Evaluation of Four Locations in Indian Ocean

Garlapati Nagababu, Surendra Singh Kachhwaha and Vimal Savsani
199-206
(vi)
28. Job Shop Scheduling Optimization Using Genetic Algorithm

Rohitash Singh and Ajai Jain
207-214
29.Optimisation of Ultrasound Assisted Enzymatic Interesterification

Biodiesel Production by Taguchi Methods
Onkar and Amit Pal
215-222
30. Numerical Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade at Different

Angle of Attack and Reynold Numbers Using Ansys
Mohammad Zunaid, Md. Gulam Mustafa and Nausad Ahmad Ansari
223-228
31. Performance Evaluation of Fouled Evaporator Vapour

Compression System
Naveen Solanki, Akhilesh Arora and Raj Kumar Singh
229-236
32. Effect of Diethyl Ether and Biodiesel Blend on the Performance

and Emissions from a Diesel Engine
Mohit Kumar, Shashank Mohan and Amit Pal
237-246
33. Effect of Grain Size on Springback in V-Bending of

Interstitial Free Steel
Vijay Gautam, Rohit Shukla, Jitendra Singh and D. Ravi Kumarr
247-252
34. CFD Analysis and Optimisation of Operational Parameters for

an F1 Racing Car's Front Wing to Maximize Its Aerodynamic
Performance
Raj Kumar Singh, Mohammad Zunaid, Md. Gulam Mustafa and Jasmeet Singh
253-260
35. Mechanical Characterization of Epoxy Based Thermoses Polymer Composite

With Sugar Cane Trash Natural Filler
Naveen J and Veerendra Kumar A N
261-268
36. Recent Research Development in Micro Forming

Dhruv Anand and K R Patel
269-276
37. Effects of Cetane Improver on Diesel Engine Performance and Emissions

Nitesh Bansal, Rajiv Choudhary and R. C. Singh
277-282
38. Storage Stability of Biodiesel: A Review

Ashok Kumar Yadav, M. Emran Khan, Amit Pal and Alok Manas Dubey
283-288
39. Catalysts used in Biodiesel Production

Balbir Singh and Amit Pal
289-294
40. Biodiesel Production from WCO using Heterogeneous Catalyst

295-302
41. CFD Analysis of Wavy Edge Rectangular Micro-Channel

Heat Sink at Different Reynolds Number
Mohammad Zunaid, Afzal Husain, Anant Jindal and Avinash Gupchup
303-308
(vii)
42. Availability Analysis of A Mechanical System With Load Sharing

Arrangement Using Semi-Markov Approach
Gaurav Khattar, Tushar Gupta and Girish Kumar
309-316
43. Go-Kart Chassis Analysis: Design Methodology Integrating

Revolutionary Safety Features
Aditya Natu
317-328
44. Performance Analysis of Solar Air Conditioning: A Review

Ashok Kumar Yadav, Vikram Pandey , Sachin Singh, Suyash Rai,
and Abhinav Verma
329-334
45. Thermodynamic Analysis of Different Desiccant Cooling Cycles

Ranjeet Kumar Jha and Durgesh Sharma
335-340
46. Evaluation of Static Fracture Toughness (KIc) of Al2014-T6

Sanjay Kumar and Vikrant Tiwari
341-346
47. Thermoeconomic Comparative Analysis of Constructal

and Conventional Heat Exchangers
Dr. Manjunath K.
347-360
48. Impact of Cutting Parameters on Tool Tip Temperature

in Turning Operation
Sagar Barvaliya and S. Jindal
361-368
49. A Review on Zeolite - Water Adsorption Refrigeration System

Navendu Srivastava, Rashi Srivastava, Ravi Shekhar Singh,
and Ashok Kumar Yadav
369-376
50. Application of Additives to Improve the Performance of

Biodiesel Fueled C.I. Engine: A Review
Siddharth Srivastava, Pragya Sharma, Gaurav Kumar Kanaujia,
377-382
51. Modeling and Analysis of Machining Parameters on Surface

Roughness and Cutting Force in Finish Dry Hard Turning
(FDHT) of AISI D2 Tool Steel by RSM Approach
Vaibhav Chandra, Umesh Khandey, Sudarshan Ghosh and P.V. Rao
383-392
52. Application of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies In

Indian SMEs: Opportunities and Challenges
Dimple Bhandari, Rajesh K. Singh and S.K Garg
393-402
53 Combustion Characteristics of Jatropha Biodiesel In A

Single Cylinder Diesel Engine
Hang Muk Cho and Bhupendra Singh Chauhan
403-408
(viii)
54. Production, Utilization and Performance of Diesel-BiodieselEthanol Blends in IC Engines

Neeraj Budhraja and Amit Pal
409-416
55. Kusum : A Potential Non Edible Feed Stock for Biodiesel Production
in India for 2016
Naveen Kumar Garg and Amit Pal
417-422
56. Review of Formula One Aerodynamic Devices

Salman Javed, Farhan Javed, Taha Bilal, Samsher Gautam and Tarun Mehra
423-436
57. Potential Research Study of Utilizing Water- Diesel Emulsion

In Diesel Engine An Overview
K R Patel and Dhruv Anand
437-444
58. Solving the Vendor Selection Problem Using Fuzzy Topsis

Pravin Kumar and Rajesh Kumar Singh
445-458
59. Sustainable Manufacturing System: Literature Review

Prashant Kumar Singh and Saurabh Agrawal
459-466
60. Design of Gear Train for Speed Magnification using the

Cumulative Effect of Compounded Sun-Planet Gear Train
Sameen Mustafa and Ateeb Ahmad Khan
467-470
61. Development of Polynomials for the Thermodynamic

Properties of Refrigerant R-134a.
Aseem Dubey
471-476
62. Comparison of Cooling Duty and Pressure Drop of Green

Secondary Refrigerant (Ice Slurry) with Chilled Water
in a Plate Heat Exchanger
Rajinder Singh and Surendra Singh Kachhwaha
477-484
63. Experimental Investigation of the Performance Characteristics

of a Spark Ignition Engine by Varying the Compression Ratio
P. Goyal, S.K. Sharma and Amit Pal
485-490
64. Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing Performance : An Experimental

and CFD Approach
Paras Kumar and Ashish Gupta
491-496
65. Characteristic Behavior Effect of Al 6061 By Tic in Metal

Matrix Composites (Mmcs)
Dr. S.K. Dhakad, Dr. Pankaj Agarwal and Utkrash Pandey
497-504
66. Design & Development of a Fixture to Study Biaxial

Behavior of Engineering Materials in Tension
Vijay Gautam, Rakesh Singla and Sunil Kumar
505-512
(ix)
67. Experimental Studies and Fe-Simulations on Spring Back

In U-bending of Deep Draw Quality Steel Sheet
Vijay Gautam and Jitender Singh Rajawat
513-520
68. Energy Analysis and Parametric Study of Flat Pate Collector Area
of a Solar Driven Water-Lithium Bromide Half Effect V Apour
Absorption Refrigeration System for a Given Cooling Load
521-528
69. Key Technologies of using Hydrogen as a IC Engine

Fuel in Indian Scenario
Gurpreet Singh and Amit Pal
529-536
70. Optimization of EDM Process Parameters with Al-8% SiC

Composite Produced by Stir Casting Route
Pankaj Kumar Sharma, Vijay Gautam and Atul Kumar Agrawal
537-542
71. Search for Ecofriendly Alternatives Refrigerants in Vapour

Compression Refrigeration Systems for Reducing Global
Warming and Ozone Depletion
R. S. Mishra
543-546
72. Modelling of Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems Using Ecofriendly

Alternatives Refrigerants in Primary Circuit and Nano Based Brine (R718)
in Secondary Circuit for Reducing Global Warming and Ozone Depletion
R. S. Mishra
547-552
73. Formability Characterisation of AISI202 Stainless Steel

Prahlad Tewari, Vijay Gautam and D Ravi Kumar
553-560
74. Experimental and Numerical Investigations on Formability of Aa1200

Manoj Kumar, Suresh Kumar , Vijay Gautam and Prahlad Tewari
561-568
75. Bio-Diesel Derived from Waste Vegetable Oil as an Alternative Fuel

for Diesel Engine: A Review
Shiv Kumar Ray and Om Prakash
569-576
76. Heat Transferin Microchannel Heat Sink: Review

Sunny Chandra and Om Prakash
577-584
77. Low-Cost Manufacturing and Implementation of an Optimized Model

of Horizontal Axis Hydrokinetic Turbine and Test Bed Assembly
Suyash Nigam, Tanmay Nema, Vansh Sharma, Shubham Bansal
and Raj Kumar Singh
585-592
78. Engineering Mathematical Assessment of Buckling Effect on the

Mechanical Pumps Column-Beam Structure During Crude
Deportation Through the Bore Well
L. N Das and R.K. Singh
593-598
(x)
79. Design of a Mechanical Hexapod using Klann Mechanism

Akshay Kaushika and Raj Kumar Singh
599-602
80. Exprimental Study of Two Stroke Engine on Variation of Exhaust

Pipe Diameter
Rajashekhar Sardagi
603-608
81. Automatic Turn-Off Indicator System for Vehicle Safety in two Wheelers
Jasminder Singh, Mudit Aggarwal and Prajay Lohani
609-614
82. Fuzzy Method for the Selection of Suitable Feed Stock for
the Production of Biodiesel
Kiran Pal and Naveen Kumar Garg
615-618
83. Effect Of Friction Coeficient On En-31with Different

Pin Materials Using Pin-On-Disc Apparatus
Ramakant Rana, R. S. Walia and Manik Singla
619-624
84. Clean India Mission: Issues and Challenges

Kiran Pal, Tulika Srivastav and Manish Jain
625-630
85. Biodiesel Feedstock in India: A Review

631-640
86. CFD Analysis of Single Phase Turbulent Flow with Forced

Convection Heat Transfer inside a Circular Micro-Channel
Shubham Srivastava and Raj Kumar Singh
641-652
87. Experimental Assessment of Waste Vegetable Oil As Alternative

Dielectric Fluid in Electric Discharge Machining
Nitesh Kumar and Manoj Kumar
653-662
88. Review on Morphology and Microstructure Analysis of

MGO Reinforced Al Composites For Rame 2016
Surabhi Lata, Nitish Kumar Verma, Chetan Singh ,
Roop Lal and Ramakant Rana
663-670
89. Harmonic Analysis of First Stage Gas Turbine Blade Made of 1N738 alloy
Sushila Rani and Atul K Agrawal
671-680
90. Corrosion and its Remedy in Dry Type Fire Sprinkler System in
LPG Bottling Plant: A Case Study:
Arpit Vashist and K. Srinivas
681-688
91. A Review of Solar Energy Utilization System

Dheeraj Kumar and Om Prakash
689-694
92. Current World and Indian Energy Scenario: The Challenges

of Achieving 175 gw of Renewable Energy by 2022.
Anubhav Uppa and J P Kesari
695-702
(xi)
93. Engine Performance Parameter and Combustion

Characteristics for Biodiesel: A Review
Amrik Singh, Amit Pal, Deepanjali Nimker, Harwinder Singh and S. Maji
703-712
94. A Literature Review of Hydrogen Production From Biomass Gasification

Koushik Maji, P. Goyal and Amit Pal
713-718
95. Performance Analysis of CI Engines Using Biodiesel-Diesel Blends

Shashank Mohan, Amit Pal and RS Mishra
719-726
96. Split and Recombination Micromixer with Offset Inlets

Farhan Ahsan Khan, Noorul Huda, Afzal Husain,
Mohammad O. Hamdan and M. A. Ansari
727-732
97. Thermal Performance and Emission Test of CI Engine Using Biodiesel

Produced from Waste Cooking Oil Blend With Diesel
Jatinder Kataria, S.K. Mohapatra and K. Kundu
733-742
98. A Comparative Study on Electronic Design Automation Tools

Neeta Pandey, Shruti Dutta and Naman Saxena
743-749
(xii)
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Fabrication of Al6082/ZrO2 Surface Composite

by Friction Stir Processing
N. Yuvaraj and Vipin
Abstract- Nowadays surface composites are given more attention in fabrication of service life of the
components. In this present work, Friction stir processing (FSP) was used to fabricate the surface composite on
Al6082 alloy with ZrO2 particles. Aluminum with four different volume % fractions of ZrO2 reinforcement
particles were used to synthesize the composite. The microhardness and tensile properties of the surface
composites and base alloy were investigated. Microstructural observations and fractured tensile surface of the
composite layer were studied using Scanning Electron Microscope. The results show that the hardness and
tensile strength of the composite produced by 15 % ZrO2 composite was higher than other volume percentage of
ceramic surface composites.
Keywords- Friction stir processing (FSP); ZrO2: Tensile; Hardness
ntroduction The conventional aluminum alloys does not provide the sufficient properties under all
service conditions, which are overcome by reinforcing those alloys with ceramic particles. Aluminum
based Metal Matrix Composites are used in automotive, aircraft and structural applications. Various
methods are used for fabricating the Aluminum matrix composites such as Thermal Spraying, Laser Beam
Techniques, Powder metallurgy, stir casting, pressure less infiltration, squeeze casting, and compo casting [12]. All these methods are difficult to reinforcing the ceramic particles in the matrix due to poor bonding between
reinforcement and matrix. Recently great attention has been paid for the new composite fabricating technique
named friction stir processing based on the Friction stir welding (FSW) [3]. In the FSP process, the rotating tool
non consumable tool with shoulder and specially designed tool pin is inserted in a work piece. The heating is
accomplished by friction between the tool shoulder and the work and pin causes intense stirring of the material.
The localized heating softens the material around the pin and translation leads to movement of material from the
front of the pin to the back of the pin causes intense stirring of the matrix and reinforcement material. M. Salehi
et al. [4] studied the process parameters for producing Al6061/SiC composites by FSP method and found that
rotational speed is most influential parameter. A. Devaraju et al. [5] found that the SiC and Graphite particles are
greatly influenced on wear & mechanical properties of aluminum hybrid composites via FSP. S. Shahraki et al.
[6] reported that rotational speed and traverse speed of the FSP are greatly influenced for fabrication of
Al5083/ZrO2 surface composites. F. Khodabakhshi et al. [7] reported that the hardness and yield strength of
FSPed Al-Mg/TiO2 surface composites was increased with increasing the volume fraction of TiO2 particles in
the composites. C. Maxwell Rejil et al. [8] reported that FSP of Al6360/TiC/B4C composite surface layer has
lower wear rate than base material. Both the TiC and B4C particles behaved as one type of reinforcement
particles which is difficult to be achieved by conventional liquid processing route due to segregation. N.Yuvaraj
N. Yuvaraj and Vipin

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi 110 042, India
e-mail: yuvraj@dce.ac.in, Tel:+91987153668
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Yuvaraj and Vipin
et al. [9] studied the effect of number of passes on the surface nano composite fabricated through FSP technique.
A.Thangarasu et al. [10] studied the effect of different volume content of TiC particles in the Al6082/TiC
composite and found that with increase in TiC particles the hardness of the composite was increased. Zirconium
di boride (ZrO2) ceramics have a high melting point, high hardness, high electrical conductivity, excellent
corrosion resistance and excellent thermal shock resistance [11]. In the present study, FSP technique is used to
fabricate the Al6082/ZrO2 surface composite. The effects of hardness and tensile properties of the surface
composite were investigated.
2. Materials And Methods
Al6082-T6 alloy of 6 mm thickness and commercially available ZrO2 powder size of 10m were used as
substrate and particulates. The chemical composition (%) of the base metal is 1.2Si, 0.78Mn, 0.75Mn, 0.4Fe,
0.15Cr and rest Al. The plates were cut into rectangular pieces of 180 mm80 mm6 mm. Four different groove
width sizes of 0mm, 0.5mm, 1.0mm and 1.5mm & constant 3mm depth of four such plates were prepared, in
order to get the different volume fraction (0, 5, 10% and 15%) of the particles in the composite. The volume
fractions of the particles are calculated based on the formula mentioned below [12].
The particles were mixed with acetone and packed on the groove tightly. Then the substrates were fixed in the
hydraulic fixture of the FSW machine (11 kW& 40KN). Fig. 1 shows the typical FSP experimental setup.
Figure 1. FSP Experimental setup
Non-consumable cylindrical threaded tool made of H-13 steel were used to perform the FSP. The
shoulder diameter, pin diameter and pin length were 18 mm, 6 mm and 5mm respectively. The
shoulder tilt angle was fixed at 1. In order to prevent scattering of ZrO2 powder and its ejection
from groove during the process, groove's gap initially was closed with pinless tool. Three FSP
passes were carried out for uniform mixing of the reinforcement particles in the matrix.
2
Fabrication of Al6082/ZrO2 Surface Composite by Friction Stir Processing

The tensile specimens were extracted from the surface composites along the FSP direction as per ASTM: E8/E8
M-011 standard by wire cut electrical discharge machining. Figure 2 (a) shows the tensile specimen extracted
from the FSP region and (b) shows the schematic sketch of tensile specimen. The tensile test was conducted
with universal testing machine (Tinius Olsen H50KS) at strain rate 1mm/min. Hardness testing was carried out
on Microhardness tester with test load of 100 gm and dwell time of 10 sec. Micro structural characterization was
observed on Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (Hitachi S3700).
Figure 2. (a) Tensile specimen extracted from the FSP region and (b) Schematic sketch of tensile
specimen.
3. Results And Discussions
Hardness
Figure 3 shows the SEM images of the different percentage of volume content of reinforcement composite
samples. It clearly indicates that the ceramic particles are distributed in uniform and homogeneous manner in
the matrix due to increase in FSP passes. Figure 4 shows the hardness values of the cross section of the
composite surface and base material. For experimental purpose, the average of three hardness value was taken
for all the samples. The hardness of the 15% ZrO2 specimen is higher than other Vol % of ZrO2 composite
samples. Composite sample exhibited increase in hardness by 37%, and the base material hardness was 802
Hv.
Figure 3 SEM micrograph of Al6082/ZrO2 surface composite

There was an increase in microhardness of the friction stir processed composite as compared base alloy. This
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Yuvaraj and Vipin
might be attributed to effective formation of refined grain structure due to the restrain of grain boundary and the
enhancement of the induced strain. Similar types of results are reported by various researchers [13-14]. As per
Hall petch relationship smaller grain size of the matrix has higher the hardness [15]. In addition uniform
dispersion of reinforcement particles in the matrix and good bonding between the matrix and reinforcement
enhances the hardness. With increase in number of passes and changing of tool direction between passes
increases the good bonding of ceramic particles with matrix also responsible for enhancement of hardness.
Figure 4. Effect of ZrO2 (vol%) content on microhardness of Al6082/ZrO2 surface composite

Tensile strength
Figure 5 shows the tensile results of the base alloy and composite samples. The 15% ZrO2 particles consists
composite sample has the maximum tensile strength value of 340Mpa. Similar type of results reported for
FSPed Al/6082/TiC composite samples [10]. The tensile strength is increasing with increase in % of ceramic
particles. The major contributions for enhancement of the mechanical properties of the surface composite is due
to fine grain size of matrix and load transfer from matrix to hard reinforcements. Figure 6 shows tensile tested
sample factography of the base alloy and composite sample. In base material larger size of dimples observed, in
the composite sample finer size of the dimples with some ceramic particles observed. It shows the composite
sample having good tensile properties with finer refinement of grain size and dispersion of the reinforcements.
Figure 5. Effect of ZrO2 (vol%) content on Tensile strength of Al6082/ZrO2 surface composite
4. Conclusion
In this study the effects of reinforcement particles on hardness and tensile strength of Al/ZrO2 surface composite
were fabricated through FSP and the following conclusions can be drawn.
1. Al-ZrO2 composite specimen exhibits with higher hardness and better tensile properties when compare to
base material.
2. ZrO2 particles are strengthened the Aluminum matrix composite. With increase in volume fraction of the
Fabrication of Al6082/ZrO2 Surface Composite by Friction Stir Processing

reinforcement particles in the matrix the mechanical properties of the composite was increased.
3. The composite specimens contains 15% ZrO2 has higher hardness of 110Hv and tensile strength of
340Mpa. Base material hardness and tensile strength were 80Hv and 302Mpa respectively.
4. Finer refinement of the grain size and uniform dispersion of reinforcement particles in the matrix are
responsible for enhancement of mechanical properties of the composite.
Figure 6. Tensile fractured surface of (a) Base Material (b) Al/15% ZrO2 surface composite
References
[1] D.B. Miracle, (2005) Metal matrix compositesFrom science to technological significance,
Composites Science and Technology Vol. 65, pp. 25262540, 2005.
[2] A.V. Muley, S. Aravindan, and I.P. Singh, Nano and hybrid aluminum based metal matrix composites:
an overview, Manufacturing Review. Vol. 2, pp. 1-13, 2015.
[3] V. Sharma, U. Prakash, and B.V.M. Kumar, Surface composites by friction stir processing: A review,
Journal of Materials Processing Technology Vol. 224, pp. 117-134, 2015.
[4] M. Salehi, M. Saadatmand, and J. A. Mohandesi, Optimization of process parameters for producing
AA6061/SiC Nano composites by friction stir processing, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China, Vol. 22,
pp 1055-1063, 2012.
[5]
A. Devaraju, A.Kumar, and B. Kotiveerachari, Inuence of rotational speed and reinforcement on wear
& mechanical Properties of aluminium hybrid composites via FSP, Materials and Design, Vol. 45, pp.
576585, 2013.
[6] S. Shahraki, S. Khorasani, R.A. Behnagh, Y. Fotouhi, and H. Bisadi, Producing of AA5083/ZrO2
Nanocomposite by Friction Stir Processing (FSP), Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Vol. 44,
pp. 1546-1553, 2013.
[7] F. Khodabakhshi, A. Simchi, A.H. Kokabi, M. Nosko, F. Simancik, and P. Svec, Microstructure and
texture development during friction stir processing of Al-Mg alloy sheets with TiO2 nano particles,
Materials Science and Engineering A, Vol. 605, pp. 108-118, 2014.
[8] C. M. Rejil, I. Dinaharan, S.J. Vijay, and N. Murugan, Microstructure and sliding wear behavior of
AA6360/(TiC + B4C) hybrid surface composite layer synthesized by friction stir processing on aluminum
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[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
Yuvaraj and Vipin
substrate, Materials Science and Engineering A Vol. 552, pp. 336-344, 2012.
N. Yuvaraj, S. Aravindan, and Vipin, Fabrication of Al5083/B4C surface composite by friction stir
processing and its tribological characterization, Journal of Materials Research Technology, Vol. 4, pp.
398-410, 2015.
A. Thangarasu, N. Murugan, I. Dinaharan, and S.J. Vijay, Synthesis and characterization of titanium
carbide particulate reinforced AA6082 aluminium alloy composites via friction stir processing,
Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 15, pp. 324-334, 2015.
H. Zhu, J. Min, Y.L. Ai, D.C.H. Wang, and H. Wang, The reaction mechanism and mechanical
properties of the composites fabricated in an AlZrO2C system. Materials Science and Engineering A,
Vol. 527, pp 61786183, 2010.
R. Sathiskumar, N. Murugan, I. Dinaharan, and S.J. Vijay, Characterization of boron carbide particulate
reinforced in situ copper surface composites synthesized using friction stir processing, Materials
Characterization, Vol. 84, pp. 16 27, 2013.
M. Amra, K. Ranjbar, and R. Dehmolaei, Mechanical Properties and Corrosion Behavior of CeO2 and
SiC incorporated Al5083 Alloy Surface Composites, Journal of Materials and Engineering and
Performance, Vol. 24, pp. 3169-3179, 2015.
N. Yuvaraj, S. Aravindan, and Vipin, Wear Characteristics of Al5083 Surface Hybrid Nano-composites
by Friction Stir Processing, Trans. Ind. Inst. Met., DOI10.1007/s12666-016-0905-9, 2016.
H. Izadi, R. Sandstrom, and A.P. Gerlich, Grain Growth Behavior and HallPetch Strengthening in
Friction Stir Processed Al 5059, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, Vol. 45A, pp. 5635-5644,
2014.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Comparison of Micro-Hardness in Dry and

Thermal Assisted Machining on Turning
of EN8 Steel.
Nitin Sehra, Jasvinder Singh, Sandeep Sharma
and Mohit Gaba
Abstract-With the advancement in technologies, the need for high strength and wear resisted materials is
rising. But the difficulty has been found in machining these materials efficiently, due to their extra strong
properties as compared to conventional materials. Advanced high-strength materials offer a huge application
potential within highly stressed components in various industrial areas. But their machinability is still limited
when applying established and conventionally available technologies. An alternative pathway to achieving
greater tool life is thermally assisted machining (TAM). This approach is seemingly contradictory to the
traditional method and instead relies on introducing heat from an external source to reduce the work piece
material's strength and hardness, thereby reducing cutting forces and making the material easier to machine. In
present research to investigate experimentally the role of thermal assisted machining on various parameters at
recommended speed, feed and depth of cut, and to compare the effectiveness of dry machining with thermal
assisted machining on EN-8 steel. The objective of present work is concluded and recorded that as there is
temperature involved in the process, it is expected to raise the micro hardness of the
material.
Keywords- Microhardness, Thermal Assisted Machining, Orthogonal Array
ntroduction Metal cutting is one of the most important methods of removing unwanted material in the
production of mechanical components. In metal cutting process in which a wedge shaped, sharp edged tool
is set to a certain depth of cut and moves relative to the work piece. Under the action of force, pressure is
exerted on the work piece metal causing its compression near the tip of the tool. The metal undergoes shear type
deformation and a piece or layer of metal gets repeated in the form of a chip. If the tool is continued to move
relative to work piece, there is continuous shearing of the metal ahead of the tool.
Over US$ 100 billion is spent annually worldwide on metal part finishing processes such as turning, milling,
boring and other cutting operations. It is envisaged that up to 20% savings should be possible by using the
correct choice of tooling and machining conditions [1].The metal working is used in machining which help to
increases tool life due to decrease in friction and heat generation at the machining zone. Cutting fluid may be
Nitin Sehra,
Mechanical and automation Engineering, Assistant Professor, NIEC, New Delhi (INDIA)
nitinsehra441@gmail.com
Jasvinder Singh
Assistant Professor, Mechanical and automation Engineering Department, NIEC, New Delhi (INDIA)
baaz_singh1987@yahoo.co.in
Prof. Sandeep Sharma1 and Mohit Gaba2
Professor1 , Assistant Professor2 , Mechanical Engineering Department, Asra College of Engg. & Technology,
Bhawanigarh (India)
sandeepsswastik2002@yahoo.co.in1 , asramemohit@gmail.com2 Contact No.:+91- 99962-90918, +91- 9253872990
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RECENT ADVANCES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DTU

DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
RAME-2016
Sehra et al.
significantly affecting the cutting temperature at interface of tool and work material.
1.1 Metal Working Fluid (MWF)
Metal Cutting fluids/ Metal working fluids are usually classified into four main categories: straight oils, water
soluble oils, synthetics, and semi-synthetics. The base oil used for straight and water soluble cutting fluids is
usually petroleum based, whereas synthetics are water based solutions of complex organics and contain no
mineral oil. Semi-synthetics are a combination of both synthetic and mineral oils. Straight oils are applied
undiluted, while water soluble, synthetic, and semi-synthetic fluids are usually diluted in water. In general,
dilutions are between 1% and 20% cutting fluid concentrate in water, with 5% being the most common.
As cutting fluids are complex in their composition, they may be irritant or allergic. Even microbial toxins are
generated by bacteria and fungi present, particularly in water-soluble cutting fluids, which are more harmful to
the operators. To overcome these challenges, various alternatives to petroleum-based MWFs are currently
being explored by scientists and tribologists. The major negative effect is particularly linked to their
inappropriate use, which results in surface water and groundwater contamination, air pollution, soil
contamination, and consequently, agricultural product and food contamination. So, to eliminate the use of metal
working fluids several new techniques are being investigated. The techniques like Dry Machining, Minimum
Quantity Lubrication and Thermal assisted Machining.
1.2 Thermal Assisted Machining
Workpiece temperature plays an important role in the chip formation during the metal cutting process as it
affects the material deformation. The large amount of energy generated due to the bulk deformation and friction
is almost exclusively converted to thermal energy, leading to high chip and tool cutting temperatures.
Temperature in the workpiece is especially important when thermally enhanced machining is used. The effects
of externally applied heat sources on the temperature distribution of the workpiece must be known. Peak
temperatures must be known so that thermal damage is prevented or minimized in the workpiece surface, and
the temperature must be known at the cutting point to control the process. TAM improves the machinability of
titanium alloys though a reduction in cutting forces, typically reported between 15% to 50% [3]. TAM shows
that 80% of the flank wear and 60% of the crater wear have been reduced 4[]. Laser Assisted Machining (LAM)
of Inconel 718 reported a reduction of tool wear by 40%, cutting force by 18% and increase in metal removal
rate by 33% 5[].
Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of thermal assisted machining. A heat source is normally used in thermal
assisted machining, as the assistance of thermal energy helps to soften the material, and thus easy removal of
metal. A heat source is normally introduced near the cutting tool while machining, at a constant temperature,
and softens the material while cutting. This process is normally used in hard to machine materials, as
conventional process would lead to premature tool failure, and causes irregularities in surface morphology,
which is obviously unwanted. For precision works a good surface finish is highly required, and ease of
Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Thermal Assisted Machining [].

machining could cause a lesser tool wear. Thermal assisted machining helps in ease of machining, and increase
machinability.
Comparison of Micro-Hardness in Dry and Thermal .......
1.2.1 Advantages of TAM

w Decreased tool wear
w Surface Integrity and Part quality
w Environmentally-friendly green manufacturing
w No More Hazardous Coolants
w Low Overhead Charges
w Sustainable Manufacturing
2. Experimentation
Figure 2. Thermal Assisted Machining

for the present experimental studies, EN 8 steel were plain turned in a rigid and powerful HMT lathe by carbide
inserts CNMG12408 at industrial speedfeed combinations under both dry and thermal assisted machining
conditions.
Since there was not any mechanism to control the temperature, a temperature range has been selected 3800 C to
4300 C. the temperature was continuously measured using an infrared thermometer. The experimental
conditions are given in Table 1.
The ranges of the cutting velocity, depth of cut and feed rate were selected based on the tool manufacturer's
recommendation and industrial practices
2.1. Experimentation Setup
Table 1. Experimental Conditions
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Sehra et al.
The present experiment is performed on EN8 steel material to investigate the effect of thermal assisted
machining processes by the varying different input parameters. In this experiment, the technique used for
introducing the heat to cutting zone is by Butane torch.
Figure 3. Thermal Assisted Machining Setup
Table 2.Experimental Data
10
Comparison of Micro-Hardness in Dry and Thermal .......

The experimental set up consists of a butane torch, Pressure gauge, and flow control valve shown in Figure 3.
Table 3. Orthogonal Array
The Detail of the experiments performed is represented by the following Table 2.

2.2 Design of Experimentation
A total of 18 experiments based on Taguchi's L9 orthogonal array were carried out with different combinations
of the levels of the input parameters as shown in Table 2. In this experimental work, the assignment of factors
will be carried out using L9 orthogonal array were conducted on Lathe machine for turning operations through
TAM technique and dry machining technique.
3. Results And Discussion
After all the experiments were completed the results were analyzed. The input factors cutting environment i.e
Thermal assisted and dry machining, cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were varied at different levels, the
value of output parameters micro-hardness was recorded and plotted graphically. This study is made to
investigate the effects of thermal assisted machining and dry machining techniques on EN8 steel. According to
the design of experiment, different values of output parameters were measured by precisely relevant
instruments. The observations are detailed as per experimental results given below: From the results of
experimentation, the effect of dry and thermal assisted machining at different cutting speed and feed
combinations on output parameter micro-hardness rate is observed, explained and plotted in graphs.
3.1 Effects of dry and thermal assisted machining on Micro-hardness.
Micro hardness is measured with Digital Micro-hardness Tester Mvh-II .Test force of 500gm was used with a
holding time of 15 sec. micro-hardness was measured in HV units. Following graphs show the results of testing
in dry and thermal assisted machining environments. The graphs clearly reveal the effect of TAM on microhardness at various speed, feeds and depth of cut. At high depth of cut the values of micro-hardness increased
Figure 4. Micro-hardness at different machining parameters

otherwise there is no significant change in micro hardness is found as compared to dry in other input conditions.
11
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Sehra et al.
This is also beneficial as the EN8 steel is used for axle shafts, gears and nut bolts, surface hardness is required in
most of its application. Increase in micro-hardness is thus desirable.
4. Conclusion
In the present research, an investigation of effects of various input parameters was done on EN 8 steel. Due to
the ease in machining by application of heat. Heat softens the material and helps in easy removal of the material,
hence lesser tool wear, lesser cutting forces. As there is temperature involved in the process, it is expected to
raise the hardness of the material. So micro-hardness is taken as another parameter for this research. But as the
both processes i.e. dry machining and TAM involves heat, there is no significant increase in micro-hardness
comparatively.
References
1.
Ezugwu, E., Key improvements in the machining of difficult-to-cut aerospace superalloys. International
Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2005. 45(12): p. 1353-1367.
2.
Abdalla, H., et al., Development of novel sustainable neat-oil metal working fluids for stainless steel and
titanium alloy machining. Part 1. Formulation development. The International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, 2007. 34(1-2): p. 21-33.
3.
Shivade, A.S., et al., Optimization of Machining Parameters for Turning using Taguchi Approach.
International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) ISSN: p. 2277-3878.
4.
Baili, M., et al., An Experimental Investigation of Hot Machining with Induction to Improve Ti-5553
Machinability. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 2011. 62: p. 67-76.
5.
Bermingham, M.J., et al., Tool life and wear mechanisms in laser assisted milling Ti6Al4V. Wear, 2015.
322323(0): p. 151-163.
6.
Rawat, U.M. and V. Potdar, A Review on Optimization of Cutting Parameters in Machining Using
Taguchi Method. International Journal of Innovative Research in Advanced Engineering (IJIRAE)
2014. ISSN: 2349-2163
7.
Amin, A.K.M.N., M.I. Hossain, and A.U. Patwari, Enhancement of Machinability of Inconel 718 in End
Milling through Online Induction Heating of Workpiece. Advanced Materials Research, 2011. 415417: p. 420-423.
8.
Jakhale Prashant, P. and B. Jadhav, Optimization of surface roughness of alloy steel by changing
operational parameters and insert geometry in the turning process. Int. J. Adv. Engg. Res. Studies, JulySept, 2013. 17: p. 21.
9.
Rebro, P.A., Y.C. Shin, and F.P. Incropera, Design of operating conditions for crackfree laser-assisted
machining of mullite. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2004. 44(7): p. 677694.
10.
Germain, G., P. Dal Santo, and J.-L. Lebrun, Comprehension of chip formation in laser assisted
machining. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2011. 51(3): p. 230-238.
11.
Pfefferkorn, F.E., et al., A metric for defining the energy efficiency of thermally assisted machining.
International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2009. 49(5): p. 357-365.
12.
Chang, C.-W. and C.-P. Kuo, An investigation of laser-assisted machining of Al 2 O 3 ceramics planing.
International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2007. 47(3): p. 452-461.
13.
Anderson, M., R. Patwa, and Y.C. Shin, Laser-assisted machining of Inconel 718 with an economic
analysis. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2006. 46(14): p. 1879-1891.
14.
Leshock, C.E., J.-N. Kim, and Y.C. Shin, Plasma enhanced machining of Inconel 718: modeling of
workpiece temperature with plasma heating and experimental results. International Journal of Machine
Tools and Manufacture, 2001. 41(6): p. 877-897.
12
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Ultrasound Assisted Biodiesel Synthesis Via

Enzymatic Interesterification
Onkar and Amit Pal
Abstract Biodiesel, being a greener energy fuel, is turning to a noteworthy alternative among all conventional
substitutes of fossil diesel. The conventional biodiesel production using chemical catalysts is a cost oriented
and involves many separation processes. The Interesterification of vegetable oils/fats uses alkyl acetates as a
reaction solvent and eliminates the need for glycerol separation but also produces a fuel additive triacetin (TA).
TA is completely soluble in biodiesel and also improves the fuel properties. The enzymes as a catalyst are
dominating over chemical catalysts due to their environmental benefits. Enzyme catalyzed biodiesel
production is carried out at normal reaction environments and biodiesel with high purity is obtained. The
ultrasonic assistance in the process significantly reduces the reaction completion time and thus eliminated the
major drawback of enzymatic production processes. Methyl acetate, ethyl acetate and higher alkyl acetates can
be used for interesterification of vegetable oils.
Keywords Biodiesel, enzyme, interesterification, ultrasonic, methyl acetate, triacetin.
ntroduction Biodiesel has an outstanding potential as an alternative to petroleum diesel fuel. Vegetable
oils or animal fats are the foremost sources of biodiesel feedstock, but all these are required in a highly
refined form for conventional biodiesel synthesis. Also, the production cost incurred in the vegetable oil is
quite high in itself, which further questions the economic feasibility of conventional biodiesel production. The
use of biocatalysts like lipase unable the use of relatively low quality feedstock like waste cooking oil,
vegetable oil with high FFA concentrationetc., for biodiesel synthesis [1].The use of biocatalysts for
transesterification has numerous advantages over chemical catalysts like moderate process environment, less
energy intensive, more environmentally sound, glycerol obtained is free from catalyst like KOH etc. and
therefore there is no need of complex operation to purify the glycerol, Easy elimination of catalyst from final
reaction mixture,immobilized biocatalysts can be reused several times.Although there are some limitations
associated with biocatalysts such as long process completion time, high cost of the biocatalyst, decreased
catalyst activity in the successive uses, a little change in process parameters has magnified Figure 1. Enzymatic
interesterification reaction of triglyceride with methyl acetateeffect on process yield [2].
The major limitations like longer process time and deactivation of catalyst sites are nullified by the ultrasound
assisted enzymatic interesterification. The interesterification process involves the reaction of alkyl acetate with
triglycerides instead of alkyl alcohols. Unlike alkyl alcohols, an increased alkyl acetate to oil molar ratio has no
effect on the biocatalyst activity. Ultrasound assisted process makes use of ultrasound waves to generate
disturbances on a micro level and have a much larger impact on the number of reactant collisions per unit time.
Whereas in conventional mechanical stirring the disturbances are produced on a macro scale which is not that
effective [3]. Therefore the process completion time for ultrasound assisted enzymatic process got reduced by
25-35 times of normal enzymatic process time. Apart this, a major advantage of the process is to yield a glycerol
Onkar and Amit Pal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, New Delhi, India
(onkarrathee@gmail.com, amitpal@dce.ac.in)
Onkar,: 1065,Sector 3, Rohtak-124001, Haryana (India), Tel:+911262285856
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
13
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Onkar and Pal
free end product i.e., a mixture of FAME and triacetin. The triacetin is soluble in biodiesel and used as fuel
additive too. The presence of triacetin in FAME has negligible effects on the biodiesel fuel properties.
Figure 1. Enzymatic interesterification reaction of triglyceride with methyl acetate

2. Enzymatic Interesterification
The process of biodiesel synthesis from triglycerides by reaction with alkyl acetates producing alkyl esters of
fatty acids i.e. biodiesel along with a byproduct triacetin instead of glycerol, is termed as inter-esterification.
The byproduct triacetin need not be separated out and it is indeed a fuel solvent for FAME unlike glycerol [4].
The biocatalyst used here can be immobilized lipase or raw lipase. The lipase used can be derived from
Pseudomonas sp.,Candida Antarctica, P. fluorescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fragi,
Pseudomonas cepacia, Candida rugosa, Rhizopusdelemar, Bacillus sp. etc. [3].All the above mentioned lipases
are bacteria derived. We can also use the plant sourced lipase too but they are not that popular.The major
technical advantage of enzyme catalyzed interesterification is that the waste cooking oil as feedstock can also
produce higher yields. This significantlyreduces the biodiesel cost to a huge extent if waste cooking oil is used
as feedstock. Using with methyl acetate as acyl acceptor byproduct formed is triacetin instead of glycerol as in
the case of conventional trans-esterification. As compared to glycerol triacetin has great commercial value
because it is widely used as an additive in the pharmaceutical, tobacco and cosmetic industry [1]. Moreover, if
triacetin is not separated and left as it is in the final reaction product, it doesn't degrade the biodiesel fuel
properties much.
Figure . Ultrasonic assisted interesterification setup

Also, no adverse effect of triacetin has been noticed on enzyme activity, unlike glycerol where the risk of
inhibited enzyme activity by glycerol covering remains persists. [3].
3. Key Process Variables
In most of the research works published, interesterification is carried out in batches using stirred tank reactors.
The ultrasonic assisted process makes use of a bioreactor with condenser arrangement to avoid alkyl acetate
loss, a separation funnel, ultrasonic generator with the horn. The reactor is provided a cooling bath to maintain
the constant process temperature as ultrasonic waves tend to increase the process temperature [5]. Some
researchers suggested the packed bed reactor operation too. Obviously, packed bed reactors offer a continuous
biodiesel production without a need to separate the catalyst [3].
The key operational variables in ultrasonic assisted interesterification are process temperature, enzyme
14
Ultrasound Assisted Biodiesel Synthesis Via Enzymatic Interesterification

loading, methyl acetate to oil molar ration (MAOMR), reaction time, ultrasonic power and duty cycle.
The reaction temperature is responsible for the mean kinetic energy of the reactant molecules and necessary
activation energy. As the triglyceride molecules involved in interesterification are of a much bigger size and
therefore, a high process temperature is obviously preferred for higher yield. But the lipase activity poses the
limit to maximum reaction temperature because lipase being a microorganism can't survive over a particular
temperature. The maximum temperature of the process varies from 400C - 600C and depend on the species from
which lipase is derived. Maddikeri et al. [1] investigated the process yield at temperature variations of 300C,
400C and 500C at MAOMR of 12:1 and catalyst loading of 1% by weight of oil using Novozyme lipase as
catalyst. The maximum yield 93% is obtained at temperature 500C with successive decreased yields of 88% and
78% for 400C and 300C process temperature respectively in 30 min. Subedharet al. [6] reported different results
for temperature variation of 300C, 400C and 500C using Lipozyme TL 1M lipase as enzyme and investigated
ultrasound process parameters as 180 min. reaction time, 400C temperature, 3% (w/v) catalyst loading,
MAOMR 9:1, 20kHz frequency, 80 W power with 60% duty cycle with a biodiesel yield of 96.1%. The data
depicts that the enzyme activity is very sensitive to process temperature and maximum process temperature is a
key property of species of lipase enzyme.
The enzyme loading is the amount of enzyme introduced to the process. Some researchers define it as x% by
weight of triglyceride, i.e., wt./wt. relation whereas many as y% by volume of triglyceride i.e., wt./vol. relation.
Subedhar et al. [6]investigated the yield for enzyme loading variation of 1%, 2%, 3% and 4% wt./vol. and
concluded 3% wt./vol. of Lipozyme TL 1M lipase enzyme loading as optimum. Maddikeri et al. [1] reported
1% wt./wt. of Novozym lipase enzyme loading as optimum out of 0.5%, 0.75%, 1% and 1.25%. It can be seen
that for the case of optimum enzyme loading, a weighty conclusion is troublesome as compared to the case of
conventional alkali (e.g.,. KOH) catalyzed transesterification i.e., 1% wt./wt. There should be a different unit
for the enzyme loading which should not show huge variations. The enzyme loading expressed in 'No.
ofenzyme units per unit wt. of triglyceride' i.e., U/gm. can be used for measuring the enzyme loading. Instead,
U/mole would be more specific. The 1 enzyme unit (U) is defined as the amount that catalyzes the 1mol of
substrate transformation per minute under standard conditions where the standard condition are meant to the
optimum conditions for enzyme activity.
The methyl acetate to oil molar ratio (MAOMR) required is 3:1 as per the reaction stoichiometry. But the
reaction is reversible in nature and to shift the equilibrium to product side there is a need to add excess methyl
acetate. Maddikeri et al. [1]investigated process yield for MAOMR from 4:1 to 14:1. The trend shows an
increased process yield for an increase in MAOCR except for the case when it goes from 12:1 to 14:1. A yield of
90% is reported for 12:1 MAOMR in 30 min. at 400C process temperature and 1% enzyme loading. The results
obtained by Subhedar at el. [6] depicted a decreased reaction yield of 84% from 96.1% when MAOMR
increased from 9:1 to 12:1 and reported 9:1 MAOMR as optimum MAOMR for conventional
interesterification.
The marginal decrease in reaction time was reported when ultrasonic cavitation is used instead of a simple
magnetic stirrer. The ultrasonic waves produced by generator horn induces the intense turbulence on a
microscopic level and liquid acoustic streaming across the reaction medium and increases the frequency of
collisions among reactants. Thus this induced turbulence leads to a shorter reaction time for ester conversion.
Whereas in the case of conventional enzymatic synthesis of biodiesel, no such turbulence is introduced.
However, turbulence is there due to magnetic stirrer but on a macro scale [3]. Thus even after mechanical
stirring in conventional enzymatic interesterification, the reaction rates are very high. Subhedar et al. [6]
investigated a reaction time of 25 hours for a conventional enzymatic process yield of 90.1% at MAOMR 12:1.
Xu et al. reported [7] a yield of 67% in 36 hours at 400C from interesterification of refined soybean oil with
MAOMR of 20:1 and Novazym as a catalyst. Immobilized Candida Antarctica, catalyzed interesterification
yields 80% FAME for 20:1 MAOMR. The process time of just 30 min.is investigated by Maddikeri et al. [1]
with a process yield of 90% for MAOMR 12:1 when ultrasonic cavitation is used.
It is obvious that the increase in ultrasonic power will increase the rate of energy supplied to the reaction
mixture, so the microscopic turbulence. This increase energy supply should increase the reaction rate
proportionally, but it doesn't happen. Subhedar et al. [6] investigated the FAME yield for ultrasonic powers of
40W, 60W, 80W and 100W. A consistent increase in yield is noticed for an increase in power from 40W to 80W
and the increment in FAME yield reduces to negligibly small for further increase in power to 100W. Maddikeri
15
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Onkar and Pal
et al. [1] reported a consistent increase in yield when power is increased from 300W to 450W but a slight
decrease for further increase in power to 525W. Ji et al. [8] investigated for biodiesel yield for ultrasonic power
levels of 100W, 150W and 200W and found that an optimum FAME yield of 100% was obtained at 100W for
MAOMR 6:1 at 450C. An enhanced biodiesel yield is obtained for increase in ultrasonic power but up to a
certain level. But at higher ultrasonic power will decrease yield by deteriorating the enzyme configuration and
enzyme could be denatured.
The duty cycle is the ratio of time when ultrasonic generator is ON to the total operation time. For intense, a duty
cycle of 30% means the ultrasonic generator will remain ON for 3 sec then turned OFF for 7 sec. It is
advantageous to operate the ultrasound at a certain duty cycle as a continuous impact of ultrasonic irradiations
possibly deactivates the enzyme. The duty cycle is maintained between 40% - 70% as higher duty cycles are not
recommended by the equipment suppliers too for the proper functioning of equipment. Subhedar et al. [6]
reported a duty cycle of 60% for 180 min. process time with a FAME yield of 96.1%.
4. Reusability of Enzyme
One of the major technical advantages of the enzymatic process is the ability to reuse the immobilized enzyme.
The immobilized enzyme doesn't get dissolved in the substrate and remainssticking to the immobilization
media. It is screened after every use and washed with water followed by drying at 400C which can be used
further in next cycle. Zhang et al. [9] investigated the activity for Lipozym TL 1M and reported that only 20%
conversion was achieved after 6 cycles of use. Subhedar et al. [6] also reported that that only 25% of enzyme
activity was found after seven successive cycles. The use of ultrasound under optimum conditions does not
influence the enzyme activity in a significant manner but a little deterioration was there due to some changes in
the protein structure.
5. Contemporaneous Lipase Application
With the development of enzymatic processes opens up the availability of a range of lipase enzymes. The
feasibility of using more than one enzyme in the single reaction by immobilizing on one media is a new area of
research. Ibrahim et al. demonstrated the use of simultaneous two enzymes in a single reaction. They reported
the overall increased enzymatic reaction when Novozym 435 or Lipozym RM 1M was added with Lipozym TL
1M in the same interesterification reaction. They suggested that the immobilized enzyme was acted as a carrier
for another lipase enzyme [10].
6. Conclusion
A sound alternative to fossil fuels should be derived from renewable raw material, lesser environment impacts
and economically feasible production. The Enzymatic interesterification process of biodiesel production is
comparatively more environmentally sound, wider area for choice of feedstock, simplified production and
purification process and less energy intensive than the conventional transesterification of oils. Immobilization
and subsequent reuses can reduce the cost incurred with the enzyme.
The process time of enzymatic interesterification can be reduced to as low as 30 min. from 25-35 hrs. by using
ultrasound cavitation. Indeed, the enzyme loading also got reduced for ultrasonic assisted enzymatic
interesterification. The use of methyl acetate in interesterification process eliminates the possibility of enzyme
deactivation from methanol and glycerol in conventional transesterification. Also, the presence of triacetin in
FAME doesn't impact much on biodiesel fuel properties. The optimum temperature of interesterification
depends on the lipase species.
References
[1] Ganesh L. Maddikeri, Parag R. Gogate and Aniruddha B. Pandit, Intensified synthesis of biodiesel using
hydrodynamic cavitation reactors based on the interesterification of waste cooking oil, Fuel, vol. 137,
pp. 285292, 2014
[2] A. Robles-Medina, P. A. Gonzlez-Moreno, L. Esteban-Cerdn and E. Molina-Grima, Biocatalysis:
Towards ever greener biodiesel production, Biotechnology Advances, vol. 27, pp. 398408, 2009
[3] Roberta Claro da Silva, Fabiana Andreia Schaffer De Martini Soares, Thas Gonzaga Fernandes, Anna
Laura Donadi Castells, Kelly Caroline Guimaraes da Silva, Maria Ines Almeida Goncalves, Chiu Chih
16
Ultrasound Assisted Biodiesel Synthesis Via Enzymatic Interesterification

Ming, Lireny Aparecida Guaraldo Goncalves and Luiz Antonio Gioielli, Inter-esterification of Lard and
Soybean Oil Blends Catalyzed by Immobilized Lipase in a Continuous Packed Bed Reactor, Journal of
the American Oil Chemists' Society, DOI 10.1007/s11746-011-1869-x, vol. 88, No. 12, pp. 1925-1923,
2011.
[4] C. Komintarachat, R. Sawangkeaw and S. Ngamprasertsith; Continuous production of palm biofuel
under supercritical ethyl acetate; Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 95, pp. 332-338, 2015
[5] Vishwanath G. Deshmane, Parag R. Gogate, and Aniruddha B. Pandit, Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of
Biodiesel from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., vol.48, pp.79237927, 2009.
[6] Preeti B. Subhedar and Parag R. Gogate, Ultrasound assisted intensification of biodiesel production
using enzymatic interesterification, UltrasonicsSonochemistry, vol. 29, pp. 6775, 2016
[7] Y. Xu, Wei Du and D. Liu, Study on the kinetics of enzymatic interesterification of triglycerides for
biodiesel production with methyl acetate as the acyl acceptor, Journal of Mol. Cat. B: Enzymatic, vol. 32,
No. 5-6, pp. 241-245, 2005
[8] J. Ji, J. Wang, , Y. Li, Y. Yu and Z. Xu, Preparation of biodiesel with the help of ultrasonic and
hydrodynamic cavitation,Ultrasonics, vol. 44, pp. 411-414, 2006
[9]
J.C. Zhang, C. Zhang, L. Zhao and C.T. Wang, Lipase-catalyzed synthesis of sucrose fatty acid ester and
the mechanism of ultrasonic promoting esterification reaction in non-aqueous media, Adv. Mater. Res.,
vol. 881883, pp. 3541, 2014
[10] Hans C. Holm and D. Cowan, The evolution of enzymatic interesterification in the oils and fats industry,
Euro. Journal of life sci. and tech. DOI 10.1002/ejlt.200800100, vol. 110, No. 8, pp. 679-691, 2008.
17
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Overview of Carbon Nano Tubes

Abstract- In all manufacturing industries, tool cost accounts for about 50-55%. So, greater emphasis is given to
cutting tool cost and inventing newer tool coatings which significantly increases Tool life. Carbon is abundant
and unique element in periodic table. Not only in nano form it is also used in cutting tool industry as CBN,
industrial diamond .CBN is artificial diamond and has very high hardness, next only to natural
diamond.Reseach is going on how to use carbon nano coatings. Various synthesis techniques as PVD, CVD,
CCVD, Laser Ablation etc. are available to deposit carbon nano coatings on substrate. The challenge is yet to
develop a mechanism for large scale production of nano tubes. Further the quality of Nano tube obtained is also
important. Single walled Nano Tubes (SWCNT) is far more superior to MWCNT as far as their mechanical
properties are concerned. But they are purest form of carbon nano tubes and are difficult to obtain. Carbon nano
tubes are coiled grapheme tubes which possess a very high aspect (L/D) ratio. These carbon molecules are tiny
tubes with diameters down to 0.4 nm, while their lengths can grow up to a million times their diameter. They are
very light in weight and their toughness is very high. The carbon nanotube reinforcement of metallic binders for
the improvement of quality and efficiency of diamond cutting wheels is being tested. Advantage of superior
mechanical properties of the carbon nanotubes, can be taken by using them as fillers in epoxy resins.
Keywords- Carbon Nano Tube; Aspect Ratio; Diamond;Tool Coating; MWCNT,SWCNT.
NTRODUCTION One of most advanced manufacturing technology which is often labelled as

technology of future is Nanotechnology. It is often referred as Extreme Technology.It combines
miniturisation with precision. Nanotechnology covers the molecules having at least one dimension of
about 1100 nm. [1]
Carbon Nano Tubes are first discovered by Ijima[2] and since then their discovery has contributed a lot in
Physics, Chemistry and aterial Sciences.[3]
Carbon Nano tube are rolled up graphene tubes which can be found as either Single walled Carbon Nano Tubes
SWCNT or Multi walled Carbon Nano Tubes MWCNT. Single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) have well
defined atomic structure, have high length to diameter ratio,and higher chemical stability.[4]
However synthesis of SWCNT is big challenge because of greater control needed while yielding them .
However MWCNT are easier to synthesise but they are far inferior than SWCNT as far their physical properties
are concerned.
Figure 1. Graphene sheet rolled to form CNT

Mechanical Engineering Department, DTU, Delhi-110042, India
Navritigupta22@gmail.com, Corresponding Author; Tel: +919911541972
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
19
Gupta and Pushpendra
RAME-2016
2. Synthesis of CNT
There are different techniques to synthesise SWCNT and MWCNT.
Previously very high temperature synthesis techniques as arc discharge method, laser ablation were used for
their synthesis, but nowadays low temperature synthesis thechniques as chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
techniques (<800) are abundantly used, as the latter process can be controlled better.[5]
Whatever types of CNTs are prepared by any above mentioned process, a number of impurities are present in
the CNTs. The extent of impurity will always depend upon the process of synthesis. Impurities present
generally are carbonaceous particles such as nanocrystalline graphite, amorphous carbon, fullerenes and
different metals (typically Fe, Co, Mo or Ni) that were introduced as catalysts during the synthesis.Therefore
one of fundamental challenge is to purify the CNTs.[6]
2.1 PVD Techniques:
These techniques involves deposition of carbon at very high temperatures.
2.1.1 ARC Discharge
Arc discharge processes use higher temperatures (above 1700 C) for CNT synthesis, as a result CNTs with
fewer structural defects are formed in comparison with other techniques.
Different catalytic precursors are used for the arc discharge deposition of CNTs.[7-8]
Usually the MWNTs are produced when no catalyst is used. On the other hand, the SWNTs are produced when
the transition metal catalyst is used.
Figure 2.Arc Discharge Method source: www.intechopen.com
2.1.2 Pulse Laser Deposition

Pulse Laser deposition (PLD) is dependant upon the laser properties as energy fluence, peak
power, repetition rate and oscillation wavelength, the structural and chemical structure of Target
workpiece, the chamber pressure, flow and pressure of the buffer gas, the substrate and ambient
temperature and the distance between the target and the substrate.Accelerated electrons are
discharged from cathode in short pulses ranging from milli to micro seconds.[9]
Figure 3: Pulse Laser Method Source:pubs.rsc.org
20
Overview of Carbon Nano Tubes

2.3 CVD Techniques
In 1996 a CVD method was invented for nanotube synthesis; 50 nm thick film of nanotubes that were highly
aligned perpendicular to the surface.[10]
This method is capable of controlling growth direction on a substrate. In this process a mixture of hydrocarbon
gas, acetylene, methane or ethylene and nitrogen is introduced into the reaction chamber. During the reaction,
nanotubes are formed on the substrate by the decomposition of the hydrocarbon at temperatures 700900 C
and atmospheric pressure [11]. Here the process is occurring at comparatively low temperatures.
Figure4: CVD Techniques Source:sites.google.com

3. Purification Of CNTs
Different post-growth treatments have been developed to purify the tubes and also to eliminate the defects in the
tubes. An ultrasonic bath method can be used to free many tubes from the particles that are originally stuck
together [12].
The smaller the particles the more difficult is the elimination. Impurities in MWNTs can be treated by oxidative
treatment by a liquid phase treatment in acidic environment. For SWNTs, methods are more complicated as
cross-flow filtration.
4. Properties oF CNTs
4.1 Physical Properties
The thermal vibrations of nanotubes can be used to find The Young's modulus of elasticity ; a very high average
value of 1.8 TPa was found by Wong et al. used a scanning force microscope [13-14].
The density of bundled nanotubes is 1.331.40 g/cm3, as compared with aluminium, possessing a density of 2.7
g/cm3 [15].
4.2 Electrical Properties
Carbon nano tubes are good conductors of electricity. Field emission is another good property of CNTs; they
emit electrons from their tips, when they are placed in an electrical field[16]
4.3 Thermal Properties
They possess good thermal properties and displays stability in vacuum up to 2800 C, and in air up to 750 C. is
6000W/mK at room temperature which is comparable with nearly pure diamond, which has 3320W/mK [17].
5. Application of CNTs
5.1 Genetic Engineering
The nanotubes conduct water at a rate similar to that of certain channels in the kidneys. These unusual transport
properties of carbon nanotubes might be used in biomedical applications, such as highly targeted drug delivery.
A carbon nanotube-tipped atomic force microscope can be used for tracing a strand of DNA and identify
chemical markers, used for gene identification.[18]
5.2 Aerospace And Automotive Industry
CNT have very high (L/D) or aspect ratio and has high strength combined with the low density which can be
used for the developing of a space elevator. Although this sounds a fancy but scientists are researching on
this.[19-20]
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Gupta and Pushpendra
5.3 Electronics And Chip Manufacturing

Essential devices like field-effect transistors (FET) have been developed using CNTs which have been termed
as carbon nanotube FET (CNT-FET).
The carbon nanotube-based devices operated at very low temperatures, with electrical characteristics
remarkably similar to silicon devices. [21]
6. Conclusions And Future Scope
CNTs are very promising materials of future engineering.They can be produced by high temperature processes
as PVD or low temperature processes as CVD.
Their mechanical properties are very promising strength comparable to diamond. Some researchers are using
them in Biomedicine and genetics. Also because of good semiconducting properties they are used for
developing microchips.
Their future usage includes developing Bullet-proof vests, Space elevators, Gene identifiers etc. Ijima et al. has
discovered revolutionary material as CNTs, for which he rightly got Nobel Prize in Physics in 1991.
References
[1]
A.G. Mamalis, L.O.G. Vogtlnder , A. Markopoulos. Nanotechnology and nanostructured materials:
trends in carbon nanotubes. Precision Engineering 28 (2004) 1630
[2]
S. Iijima, Nature 354 (1991) 56.
[3]
M. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, R. Saito, Carbon 33 (1995) 883.
[4]
H. Gommans, J. Alldredge, H. Tashiro, J. Park, J. Magnuson, A.G. Rinzler, J. Appl. Phys. 88 (2000)
2509.
[5]
11 Z. B. He, J. L. Maurice, C. S. Lee, C. S. Cojocaru and D. Pribat, Arabian J. Sci. Eng., Sect. B, 2010, 35,
1928.
[6]
I. Kruusenberg, N. Alexeyeva, K. Tammeveski, J. Kozlova, L. Matisen, V. Sammelselg, J. SollaGull_on and J. M. Feliu, Carbon, 2011, 49, 40314039.
[7]
N. Parkansky, R. L. Boxman, B. Alterkop, I. Zontag, Y. Lereah and Z. Barkay, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.,
2004, 37, 27152719.
[8]
Y. Y. Tsai, J. S. Su, C. Y. Su and W. H. He, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2009, 209, 44134416.
[9]
Neha Arora , N.N. Sharma.Arc discharge synthesis of carbon nanotubes: Comprehensive review.
Diamond & Related Materials 50 (2014) 135150
[10] Li WZ, Xie SS, Qian LX, Chang BH, Zou BS, Zhou WY, et al. Large-scale synthesis of aligned carbon
nanotubes. Science 1996;274:17013.
[11] Xie S, Li W, Pan Z, Chang B, Sun L. Carbon nanotube arrays. Mater Sci Eng A 2000;286(1):115.
[12] Ebbesen TW, Ajayan PM. Large scale synthesis of carbon nanotubes. Nature 1992;358:2202.
[13] Treacy MMJ, Ebbesen TW, Gibson JM. Exceptionally high Young's modulus observed for individual
carbon nanotubes. Nature 1996;381:67880.
[14] Wong EW, Sheehan PE, Lieber CM. Nanobeam mechanics: elasticity, strength, and toughness of
nanorods and nanotubes. Science 1997;277:19714.
[15] Collins PG, Avouris P. Nanotubes for electronics. Scientific American; December 2000. p. 3845.
[16] Rinzler AG, Hafner JH, Nicolaev P, Lou L, Kim SG, Tomanek D, et al. Unraveling nanotubes: field
emission from an atomic wire. Science.
[17] Collins PG, Avouris P. Nanotubes for electronics. Scientific American; December 2000. p. 3845.
[18]
Hebard AF. http://www.phys.ufl.edu/ argus/imagegallery/twotipssem.htm. Department of Physics,
University of Florida.
[19] http://flightprojects.msfc.nasa.gov/fd02 elev.html. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Flight Projects
Directorate, FD02 Advanced Projects Office, Huntsville, AL 35812.
[20] Edwards BC. Design and deployment of a space elevator. Acta Astronautica 2000;47(10):73544.
[21] http://ipewww.epfl.ch/gr buttet/manips/nanotubes/NTfieldemission1.htm. Ecole Polytechnique
Federale de Lausanne, Institut de Physiquedes Nanostructures (IPN).
22
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Stress Life Fatigue Approach for the Design of

Automotive Engine thermostat
Kadir zdemir and Turker Temiz
Abstract This article presents the findings of stress life fatigue (SLF) approach for the design of automotive
thermostat which is subjected to constant stress thus may cause safety concerns. In order to carry out stress life
fatigue investigation, CATIA and Ansys Workbench FEA software (Finite Element Analysis) were used and
linear static analysis and SLF theory were studied to evaluate fatigue life, meanwhile an experimental fatigue
test was performed to obtain specific results. Fatigue failure may derive from various sources including
mechanical stress, thermal stress and/or corrosion but this study concerns only mechanical fatigue damage of
the thermostat and aims to establish fatigue life improvement in which combination of experimental and FEA
tools and methodology. Comparison of FEA and experimental results for the evaluation of parts' fatigue
behaviour are presented. The integration of FEA tools and experimental test enable the designers to evaluate the
parts' fatigue behaviour.
Keyword- FEA, Stress life fatigue analysis, automotive component
1. Introduction
In order to remain competitive in a constantly evolving global economy, the automotive industry has
ambitioned to speed up product development processes. The trends have involved the utilization of computer
aided engineering technologies for accelerating the product development.
Thermostat is one of the most complex components among all engine components. Working principle of
thermostat is to control and maintain the engine optimum operating temperature by regulating the flow of
coolant to an air-cooled radiator. The thermostat progressively increases or decreases its opening, dynamically
balancing the coolant recirculation (fig.1). This continuous movement and cyclic loading can cause material
damage called fatigue which can be localized for structural damage. Because of the working principle of the
thermostat, fatigue occurs when the part is subjected to repeat loading and unloading conditions [1].
High frequency, low amplitude is an elastic cyclic behavior, and large numbers of cycles have a classification
called High Cycle Fatigue which usually refers to more than 100.000 cycles[4]. Stress life approach typically
deals with high number of cycles. Stress life analysis assumes that the stress always remain in elastic level
however if the loads are beyond the edge of its material properties, eventually a crack can occur then it reaches a
critical size, and the structure suddenly fractures. This study focuses on mechanical fatigue damage therefore
safety of the part and its fatigue life was aimed to be investigated by means of FEA linear static analysis, stress
life FEA fatigue analysis and experimental fatigue test, because fatigue testing alone is not adequate for fatigue
design procedure. CAE (Computer Aided Design) software programs are merely used to create models and
usually cannot take into consideration for all the aspects of fatigue such as corrosion, residual stress and
variable amplitude loading. Thus combination of CAE analysis and experimental testing are required for safe
Kadir zdemir
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Uludag University, 16059 Bursa, Turkey,
kadirzdemir@gmail.com
Turker Temiz
Simutek Solution, Design Research and Development Center, Kadikoy 34722, stanbul, Turkey
turker.temiz@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
23
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zdemir and Temiz
fatigue design [2].

Brooks et al. carried out structural optimization study using linear static stress analysis to determine stress
distribution for a double-wishbone suspension system then assessed fatigue life of the part with FEA fatigue
tool [3]. Fatigue types classified in Darlington and Booker study that highlighted high-cycle fatigue emerged
from their research as the most common fatigue failure in industry and commented on analytical techniques
such as FEA and concluded that they are very important to assist in failure predict [4]. Kurtaran et al. studied
hip prostheses, which was subjected to cyclic load and pointed out the benefit of stress life approach for their
solution [5].
Buciumeanu et al. worked on fretting fatigue of the suspension formed component, fatigue test was used to
finalize for the correct options of the different geometries which were evaluated by FEA results [6]. In the study
of Topac, Gunalay, Kural (2008) automotive rear axle housing was investigated by using FEA tool regarding
working life of the part, stress life approach was chosen due to part working conditions, study was supported by
an experimental test to conclude rear axle optimum design [7].
Figure 1
2. Methodology
The research focussed on the investigation of thermostat fatigue life. Fig.2 shows the architecture of study.
Initially, the designers developed 3D solid model of the thermostat with CatiaV5R19 software. Study moved to
Ansys Workbench FEA linear static analysis then following FEA stress life fatigue, the analysis was performed.
Meanwhile experimental fatigue test was carried out regarding stress base life. As mentioned above neither
fatigue test nor the CAE software was not able to finalize the design requirements, therefore both process were
carried out simultaneously.
24
Figure 2
Stress Life Fatigue Approach for the Design of .....

3. Finite Element Modelling
Linear static analysis by ANSYS Workbench is used to find out stress distribution under loading which does not
cause yielding occurrence. Static method is a linear elastic analysis that relates to linear material properties,
small deflection and constant load and boundary conditions. The detailed geometric model of the thermostat is
first created using the commercial CAD Package CatiaV5R19. The geometry is then exported as shown in
Figure 3 to ANSYS Workbench for static structural analysis that shows part stress results under load condition.
[8]
Figure 3
For the static structural analysis inputs need to be introduced to Ansys Workbench. ASIS1212 Otomat Steel is
used and its material specifications are shown below in figure 4.
Figure 4
The geometry is then auto-meshed using hex dominant element and additional body sizing defined for fillets
and cut out areas as shown below in figure 5. This mesh consideration is used to prevent any possible inaccurate
results. FEM model consisted of total 12911 eigth-noded orthotropic elements, SOLID164 type element which
is only used in static analysis.
Regarding the load and boundary conditions, side surface of the part subjected to fix support and frictionless
support is defined to quarter cross boundary of the part, subsequently 0.2 MPa load applied to the back side
results of working conditions.
Figure 5
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zdemir and Temiz
Ansys Workbench Static analysis pointed out high stress concentrations were found at the connection side of
the wheel bridge, encircled area. Stress result is lower than material yield point however stress life fatigue
approach should be considered for safety of the design due to the cyclic load.
Figure 6
4. Experimental Fatigue Test
Many parameters affect the fatigue intensity and performance of components. Some of these are related to
stress (load), geometry and properties of the component as well as the external environment. The stress
parameters include state of stress, stress range, stress ratio, constant or variable loading, frequency and
maximum stress. [9]
The aim of fatigue testing is two fold: 1) to obtain fatigue properties of the materials; and 2) to determine
geometrical fatigue durability of component. The part, which is manufactured for fatigue testing,is just like a
production part. The test machine in Fig.7 produces a uniform load for the duration of the entire test of the
specimen. The test method is known as constant load amplitude machines because despite changes in
material properties or crack growth, the load amplitude does not change. [9]
Figure.7
Figure.8
Specimen in Fig.8 was finely polished to minimize surface roughness effect and placed to test machine at room
temperature. Control and test data outputs were observed through computer with in house software.
During experimental fatigue testing, specimen was subjected to alternating load until failure. The test
26

parameters are shown in Fig.9
Test
Force
22 kg-44 kg
Cycle
578000
Figure. 9
Upper limit of the load was obtained from Static FEA study, which was 191 MPa that was multiplied with 0.545
to obtain for the lower limit of load. Loading ratio was between 1 and 0.545 in this study and these figures were
obtained from 24-44 kg load conditions. Under these conditions experimental fatigue test results can be seen
below in Fig.10
Figure. 10
5. Fatigue Analysis of Thermostat using ANSYS Workbench
5.1 To Draw Wohler Diagram
Fatigue limit has been one of the main considerations in long-life fatigue design. The stress-life method is based
on the Whler S-N curve which is a plot of alternating stress (S) versus cycles to failure (N). In order to draw SN curve, the mean stress (Sa1) and fatigue strength (Sult) values should be calculated. The mean stress is equal to
ultimate tensile strength minus m. There is a relationship between fatigue strength Se and tensile strength Sult
that it can be defined one half of the tensile strength which is very close to the fatigue limit. [10]
m= max-min
2
Se = 0.504 Sult
There are other factors influencing S-N behaviour. For a brief definition, ka is surface finish factor, kb is size
factor, kc is load factor, kd is bending and temperature factor, ke is strength modification factor.
k=ka x kb x kc x kd x ke
S'e =k x Se
The results of these contributing factors are as follows: Sa1= 369 MPa and S'e =146 MPa respectively.
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zdemir and Temiz
Fig. 11 S-N data curve
Fig.12 Cycle Results
5.2 ANSYS Workbench Stress Life Analysis

ANSYS Workbench is one of the finite Element code that can be used to find out fatigue life. This study utilizes
FEA tools to evaluate the factors of safety and damage distribution on the thermostat. Von Misses stresses from
linear static analysis are employed into fatigue life process. Results indicate at Fig. 6 that maximum stress
concentration is 191 MPa. Loading type assigned as a ratio and loading ratio is 0.545 which was obtained from
experimental fatigue study according to 24-44 kg load conditions. Sodenberg theory considers from material
yield points of view for the stress life fatigue approach hence it is applied here. Fatigue simulation results can be
seen at Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 , which demonstrate that life of the high concentrated area has 348.800 cycles. These
findings can be accepted as a crack initiation cycle. According to the experimental test at Fig. 10, the part has
exactly the same failure, however requested working life should be more than 5.105 .
Figure. 13
28
Figure. 14
6. Discussion and Evaluation
According to S-N graph in this study, the part goes to infinite cycle life at 146 MPa. If stress concentrations
dropped around infinite cycle life figure, it would be a significant improvement. It is the general target to be as
close as possible for this infinite cycle level by reducing stress concentrations. In order to reach this goal
different options and approaches could be used. First of all, one could be assigning new material with higher
fatigue resistance that might demonstrate close stress figures regarding infinite cycle life level. Secondly,
changing the curvature of the radius of stress concentrated area is also an attractive option to obtain possibility
of close stress figures to reach infinite cycle life level. These two solutions could increase the life of the
component but often, owing to the company request by means of project restrictions, geometry and material
type cannot be changed. Therefore authors have decided to increase the part thickness to 1.5 mm. As a results of
thickness change, the linear static analysis and the subsequent stress base fatigue life analysis fulfilled again.
Fig 15 represents stress concentration figures and factor of safety results for this second proposed solution.
Figure. 15
7. Conclusion
Improvement of the thermostat fatigue life was the main concern of this study. Linear static analysis and
subsequent stress base fatigue approach have been conducted to understand and predict the part fatigue
29
RAME-2016
zdemir and Temiz
behaviour. Even though there could be additional contributors for the fatigue life of the part, experimental test
results provided a sound conclusion that increasing the part thickness results in better fatigue life. Improvement
of the fatigue life is closely associated with reducing of the stress concentration which was achieved by
increasing of the part thickness as indicated FEA tool. It can be highlighted that the methodology leaded to
scientific approach to solve fatigue life issue.
References
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermostat (Last accessed 10.02.2013)
[2]
2006 international ANSYS Conference, hand-outs
[3]
M. Hilba, D.C Barton, P.C Brooks, M.C Levesley, Review of life assessment techniques applied to
dynamically loaded automotive components, Computer and Structures 2002, 80; 481-490
[4]
J.F. Darlington, J.D Booker Development of a design technique for the identification of fatigue
initiating features, Engineering Failure Analysis 2006, 13; 1134-1152
[5]
A. Z.Sunalp, O. Kayabasi, H. Kurtaran Static, dynamic and fatigue behaviour of newly designed stem
shapes for hip prosthesis using finite element analysis, Material and Design, 2007, 28; 1577-1583
[6]
M. Buciumeanu, A.S Miranda, A.C.M. Pinho, F.S Silva, Design improvement of an automotiveformed suspension component subjected to fretting fatigue, Engineering Failure Analysis, 2007, 14;
810-821
[7]
M.M Topac, H. Gunay, N.S Kuralay Fatigue failure prediction of a rear axle housing prototype by
using finite element analysis, Engineering Failure Analysis, 2009, 16; 1474-1482
[8]
Donald M, 2011, Practical Stress Analysis with Finite Element
[9]
Davis G, 2001 Materials for Automotive Bodies, Elsevier Ltd.
[10]
Stephens R, Fatemi A, FuchsH, 2001, Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Willy&Sons Ldt
30
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
A Review on Thermoelectric Generator used

in Automotive Waste Heat Recovery
Vikrant Mishra and Amit Pal
Abstract-The increasing demand for electric power in passenger vehicles has motivated several research and
advancement since the last two decades. This demand has been revolutedby the unrelenting, rapidly growing
reliance on electronics in modern vehicles. Thermoelectric Generators can generate electrical energy by
utilizing waste heat of automobile exhaust gases on the basis of Seebeck Effect. This paper presents the review
of previous work done related to thermoelectric conversion from automobile exhaust gases. Most of the
previous researches are related to design consideration of heat exchangers used in complete unit of
thermoelectric generator, but there is a few literature about power loss during module mismatching when two or
more thermoelectric generators are electrically connected. This paper also presents the concept of module
mismatch in the operation of thermoelectric generator. If power loss due to module mismatching could be
minimized, the thermal of electrical conversion efficiency of the system will increase significantly.
Keywords- Thermoelectric Generator; Seebeck effect; Heat exchanger; Module Mismatch.
ntroduction In recent years, Energy crisis has become a major challenge due to quickly increasing
demands and consumption of Energy. The scientific and public awareness on environmental and energy
issue has brought in key interest to the advancement in technologies and research particularly in highly
efficient internal combustion engines. Generally, there are two basic methods to improve efficiency of internal
combustion engine. First method is optimization of combustion process and second is to recover waste heat of
the engine exhaust gases. In a typical IC engine driven automobile, Vehicle mobility and accessories utilize
only about 25% of the supplied fuel energy. During the combustion process in an automobile engine, 40% of the
energy is lost through exhaust gases and about 30% is reflected in the form of the heat carried away by the
engine coolant liquid [1].So, an effort should be made to capture a significant portion of the available heat
energy of exhaust gases. It can not only help in reducing engine loads and alternator size but also decrease
pollutant emissions and fuel consumption [2]. There are many waste heat recovery (WHR) technologies such as
Rankine bottoming cycle technique, Six-stroke internal combustion engine cycle technique, Turbocharger and
Thermoelectric energy conversion technique [3]. But thermoelectric power generation technique directly
convert thermal energy into electrical energy. Moreover, Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) has no moving parts
and it is compact, quiet, highly reliable and environmentally friendly.
In 1821, Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered the phenomenon of thermoelectricity. When a temperature
gradient is established between the hot and cold junctions of two dissimilar materials (metals or
semiconductors), a voltage is generated, i.e., Seebeck Voltage. Based on this Seebeck effect, thermoelectric
devices can act as electrical power generators [4]. The major drawback of thermoelectric generator is their
Vikrant Mishra
P.G. Student, Mechanical Department, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road Delhi-110042,
E-mail- mishra92vikrant@gmail.com
Amit Pal
Associate Professor, Mechanical Department, Delhi Technological University,
Bawana Road Delhi-110042, E-mail- amitpal@dce.ac.in
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RECENT ADVANCES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DTU
DELHI , INDIA
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
31
Mishra and Pal
RAME-2016
relatively low conversion efficiency (typically 5-10%). Therefore, TEGs have mostly been used in specialized
electrical equipment in aerospace and military applications [5]. With technological advancement in the last two
decades, The TEG has shown ever increasing potential for application that can be widely used in power
generation from automobile exhaust waste heat, industrial waste heat, solar energy and other natural thermal
energies.
The total energy consumption in India, as per Global Energy Statistical yearbook 2015, is 872 Mtoe. The
transportation sector consumes approximately 30% (261.6 Mtoe) of the total energy consumption [6]. So there
is a great scope for thermoelectric power generator in automotive applications, which can reduce fuel
consumption.
2. Seebeck Effect
Seebeck effect is the direct conversion of temperature gradient into electricity. Basically, the materials used to
generate Seebeck effect are two different metals or semiconductors. The output is a measure of the magnitude of
an induced thermoelectric voltage in response to a temperature difference across that material.In Figure 1, the
materials used in the two legs are N and P-type semiconductors. The open circuit voltage Voc generated by this
TE couple is then governed by the equation
(1)
Where Sn and Sp are Seebeck Coefficients for N-type and P-type semiconductors respectively.
Figure 1.Basic illustration of Seebeck Effect

If the Seebeck coefficients are approximately constant for the measured temperature range in the TE legs
(which is often true), Equation (1) can be simplified as [7]:
(2)
If the temperature difference T between the two ends of a material is small, then the Seebeck coefficient of this
material is approximately defined as [7]:
(3)
where V is the voltage seen at the terminals.
3.
Thermoelectric Materials
Attempts are being made to improve the performance of thermoelectric material by improving the figureof-merit. Saniya LeBlanc [8] discussed about new thermoelectric materials and material performance. The
32
A Review on Thermoelectric Generator used in Automotive .......

classification of TE materials is based on material structure and composition. Generally chalcogenide,
skutterudite, clathrate, half-heusler, silicide and oxide are some types of TE materials.
Figure 2. Figure of merit (ZT) versus Temperature curves.[9]

In these types, Chalcogenide materials are widely used in demonstrated thermoelectric application with
bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) and lead telluride (PbTe) being the most noticeable. Bismuth Telluride and its solid
solution with antimony and selenium are commercially used for thermoelectric modules in case of low
temperature. Whenever there are higher temperatures (500~600C), Lead Telluride is used for better
thermoelectric properties. The properties of TE materials mainly depend on temperature which emphasize
multiple challenges for application-specific materials selection.
4. Analysis Of Previously Developed Models Of Teg
Wang et al. [10] presents a mathematical model of a Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) device using the exhaust
gas of vehicles as heat source based on Fourier's law and Seebeck Effect. The model pretends the influence of
various related factorson the output power and efficiency, such as vehicles exhaust mass flow rate, mass flow
rate of different types of coolants,temperature of exhaust gas, temperature difference across TEG, convection
heat transfer coefficient, height of P-N couple and the ratio of external electrical resistance to internal resistance
of the circuit on the output power and efficiency of the TEG system. The results showed that the output power
and efficiency increase significantly by varying the convection heat transfer coefficient of the hightemperature-side than that of low-temperature-side. The results also showed that the power output achieved a
peak value for optimum height of P-N couple. Besides it the peak output power value decreases when the
thermal conductivity of the PN couple is decreased, and increases when the Seebeck coefficient and electric
conductivity of the material are increased. Additionally, a maximum value of power output and efficiency of
TEG device appear when external electrical resistance is greater than internal resistance. This is not usual as
common circuit and with the augmentation of dimension-less figure of merit (ZT), the maximum value of
output moves toward the direction of an increasing ratio of external resistance to internal resistance.
Zhang et al. [11]designed, employed and compared the parallel-connected thermoelectric power generator
system. The advantage of this system is that it provide dual DC bus and it has high overall system efficiency.
The low efficiency in the pure battery discharging mode can be evaded with other switching circuit. So this
parallel-connected system is a superior choice for automotive application excluding the series-connected
system.
Martins et al. [12]assessed the potential of the use of heat pipes (HP) as a means of transferring energy from the
hot exhaust gases to the TEG modules at a well-suited temperature level while diminishing the loss of efficiency
due to reducing temperature. In this work, Variable Conductance Heat Pipe (VCHP) was used and its
arrangement has the benefit of inducing good temperature control. Various types of heat pumps were designed,
33
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Mishra and Pal
manufactured, verified and improved with the purpose of enhancing the overall heat transfer process, enabling
an optimal level of electric energy recoveryusing proper arrangement of TEG modules. The results indicate that
the use of VCHPs in conjunction with thermoelectric generators is a convincing technique for recovering waste
heat energy from the automobile exhaust gases.
Tongcaiet al. [13]proposed a new type of open-cell metal foam-filled plate heat exchanger based thermoelectric
generator (TEG) system to utilize low grade waste heat. In this system thermoelectric generation works as a
parasitic mode which is attached to heat exchanging process. The major portion of waste heat is captured by the
process of heating water and an amount of this waste heat flux is converted by means of TEG into electricity as
by product. Performance of TEG is much dependent of the temperature difference. The open circuit voltage of
One TE couple increased approximately linearly from 0 to 5.5 mV with the variation of temperature difference
from 0 to 13.8C. When load resistance becomes equal to internal resistance, maximum power output of one TE
couple was obtained. The feasibility of increasing the number of TE couples was also demonstrated which helps
in enlarging the electricity generation capacity. The maximum open circuit voltage increases up to 108.1 mV
from 5.5 mV, when the number of TE couples was varied from 1 to 16.
Orr et al. [14] presented a combination of two promising technologies to recover waste heat of automobile
exhaust. The useful two technologies for this purpose were thermoelectric cells (TECs) and heat pipes. In this
work a bench type model was demonstrated which produced power by Thermoelectric cells using heat
pipes.The heat to electrical conversion efficiency of whole system was found 1.43% and the predicted
efficiency was 2.31%. The difference between predicted and actual efficiency was due to the cells not operating
at their optimum voltage.
5. Design Considerations Of Automotive Teg System
For an efficient automotive thermoelectric generator system, the designs of the complete device and its
components are considerably significant. Design of Heat Exchangers, Optimization of Fin distribution and
Thermal performance of heat exchangers are very important parameters which should be optimized while
designing the complete assembly of TEG system. The overall conversion efficiency also increases when design
heat exchanger is optimized. In the last decade, more researchers have worked in this area which gave better
result in the sense of making automotive TEG system commercial in automobile industries.
Deng et al. [15] discussed the thermal performance of the heat exchanger in automobile exhaust based
thermoelectric generator. Various internal structures of heat structures were applied with different TE
materials.This thermal optimization is done by the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation and then by
infrared image capture experiment. For CFD simulation two 3-dimensional models of hexagonal-prism-shaped
and plate-shaped heat exchangers were designed and taken into consideration. CFD simulation results show
that the interface temperature for hexagonal prism-shaped heat exchanger is just around 120C which is far less
than the required temperature of hot side of automotive TEG system. But in case of plate-shape heat exchanger
with several baffle plates, the interface temperature is around or sometimes more than 240C. Additionally, the
volume of hexagonal prism-shaped heat exchanger is very large compared to plate shaped heat exchanger
which is not advantageous due to greater heat loss. So all results depicted that plate shaped heat exchanger are
more suitable for waste heat recovery using TEG device.
Liu et al. [16]simulatedthe design ofheat exchanger with different internal structure. In the first case, no internal
fins were used which caused sudden expansion of exhaust gas flowing through the pipe. Uneven thermal
distribution occurred inside the heat exchanger and the outside temperature found (144C) was less and heat
exchanger could not meet the requirement. So after this, two 3-dimensional models of heat exchangers with
fishbone-shaped and chaos-shaped internal structures were designed. Simulation results showed that heat
exchanger with chaos-shaped internal structure have higher outlet temperature (220C on average) than in case
of fishbone-shaped (190C). Thus, Chaos-shaped heat exchanger design is more ideally suitable in TEG
application. Additionally, the thickness of the heat exchanger is also responsible for thermal performance. Heat
exchanger of chaos-shaped internal structure with different thicknesses of 3 mm, 5 mm and 8 mm respectively
were used for simulation comparison. The results shows that in case of 3 mm thickness heat exchanger the
outlet temperature is approximately 180C which is lesser than expected hot side temperature in automotive
TEG application. So heat exchanger with 5 mm and 8 mm thicknesses were used and there was little difference
in the interface temperatures. So the lighter size of TEG (5 mm thickness) is better because of reduction in
weight.
34

DeokIn et al. [17]presented various types of heat sinks used in automotive exhaust based thermoelectric
generator. The types used were rectangular pillar-shaped heat sink, forward facing triangular pillar heat sink
and backward facing triangular pillar heat sink. The generated peak voltage measured for rectangular heat sink
was approximately 2.7 V which was higher than generated 2.5 V and 2.4 V in forward facing and reverse facing
triangular heat sink respectively.
Ramade et al. [18] presented thermal optimization technique of thermoelectric generator system with different
kinds of heat sink. The observed efficiency was not quite in case of single stacked type cold side heat sink, so
thermal optimization of system is done to improve efficiency. Double stacked type heat sink was used which
gave better temperature difference across TEG. Thermal insulation was applied on the uncovered area to
neglect heat loss and counter flow type heat exchanger was arranged which increased the effective heat transfer.
Results were obtained with Bismuth-Telluride thermoelectric material at hot side temperature of 250C. Result
show that efficiency of TEG device and power developed increases with increase in speed of engine. The
efficiency of TEG device was 5.0708% and power generated was 15.12 W at engine speed of 3970 rpm.
Su et al. [19]presented experimental study on thermal optimization of the heat exchanger in an automobile
exhaust-based thermoelectric generator. In order to achieve temperature uniformity and higher interface
temperature, three-dimensional models of different types of heat exchangers were developed and then
compared with the help of CFD simulation. These types of internal structure of heat exchangers are fishboneshaped, accordion-shaped and scatter-shaped. The CFD simulation result indicates that the accordion-shaped
internal structure of heat exchanger provide a better uniform temperature distribution and it has also higher
interface temperature than the other two internal structures.
Yiping et al. [20]discussed about optimization of fin distribution to maximize the electrical power generated. A
CFD model of heat exchanger was constructed to describe the effect of various fin distributions on the
temperature uniformity. Four Factors: length of fins, spacing between the fins, angle of fins and thickness of the
fins, were considered for the optimization of fin distribution. Optimization of these four factors improved the
temperature uniformity without too great pressure loss.
Bai et al. [21] presented CFD analysis of heat exchangers used in automotive TEG with six different designs.
This CFD analysis was done to compare the pressure drop and heat transfer for all six different structures of heat
exchanger. The descending order of heat transfer as follows:serial plate structure, separate plate with holes,
parallel plate structure, pipe structure, inclined plate structure and empty cavity.The descending order of
pressure drop is same for all structures except the pipe structure which has the 2nd highest pressure drop.
6. Module Mismatch
There is a little literature available on the issue of module mismatch in thermoelectric generators. When two or
more thermoelectric modules are connected, the combined power is less than the sum of individual power
outputs of the modules. This phenomenon is known as module mismatch.
Nagayoshi et al. [22] introduced mismatching in their work and developed a Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) system. The MPPT power conditioner consists of internal power supply, a Buck-Boost converter and
microcontroller. MPPT system can increase conversion efficiency but particularly in case of transients system.
When thermoelectric generators are in steady state, MPPT system are not so useful but it still has the ability to
cause the modules to operate at their peak power. In this work, no analytical analysis was presented to find the
source of mismatch.
Module mismatching in case of thermoelectric modules is quite similar to the mismatching in photovoltaic
arrays. So the mismatch losses concepts in PV arrays should be considered in the development of the
thermoelectric module mismatch predictive equations. Chouder and Silvestre [22] presented experimental and
modeling results on mismatch effects in PV modules. In this study, power losses were observed around 10%
associated with mismatch between PV modules forming the PV array.Picault et al. [23] developed several
connection schemes for each of the PV modules and analyzed the mismatch losses for each of the connection
schemes. Because of the similarities between photovoltaics and thermoelectrics, parallels can be drawn with
regards to performance. There is need of further exploration to conclude the significance of the module
mismatch effect for thermoelectric modules.
7. Conclusion
This paper presents a brief review of automobile exhaust based thermoelectric generator which use exhaust gas
35
RAME-2016
Mishra and Pal
of vehicle as a heat source and convert this heat energy into electrical energy on the basis of Seebeck effect.
Most of the previous researches are focused on the making efficient TEG system. So some other technologies
suchas variable conductance heat pipes and open cell metal foam-filled heat exchanger, are used alongwith the
use of TEG. The combined system of heat pipes or heat exchanger with TEG made thecomplete waste heat
recovery unit efficient. This paper also presented the various design considerations of heat exchanger. It can be
depicted that for higher conversion efficiency the proper internal structure of heat exchanger is needed. In the
end, the concept of mismatch is introduced in case when two or more modules are electrically linked. Further
research should be focused on increasing conversion efficiency of complete waste heat recovery unit and
modules should operate at optimum parameters.
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37
Effect of Variation of High Temperature

R1234ze Condenser Temperature and
Intermediate R1234yf Temperature Cascade
Condenser and Low Temperature Evaporator
Circuit in three Stage Cascade Refrigeration Systems
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
R S Mishra
Abstract- The global warming and ozone depletion effects are well documented in the literature causes
Climate change through global surface temperatures increase in the last century.For stoping this phenomenon,
new regulations in terms of ban of CFC containing chlorine content refrigerants / greenhouse gas fluids (HFC
among them) have been approved. Only low-GWP refrigerants will be allowed in developed countries. HFO
fluids and most HFCs as refrigerants in HVACR systems possess similar thermo-physical properties such as
that the most promising modern refrigerant is R1234ze and R1234yf. In this paper three stage cascade vapour
compression refrigeration is proposed for industries (i.e. food, chemical, pharmaceutical and liquefaction of
gases) using HFO-1234ze in the high temperature circuit and HFO-1234yf in intermediate temperature circuit
and
effect of eight ecofriendly refrigerants in the lower temperature circuit and best performance have been
using R600 for better system's COP and second law efficiency with minimum exergy destruction ratio. And
worst performances (i.e. lowest COP and higher exergy destruction ratio occurs using R407c .The numical
computations have been carried out for three stages cascade refrigeration systems and optimum temperature
range of components have been observed for optimum performances (i.e.minimum exergy destruction ratio
alongwith optimum overall (Maximum System coefficient of performance) occurs) at -45oC of evaporator
temperature and -5oC of intermediate cascade evaporator optimum temperature.
Keywords- Three stage VCR; Reduction in global warming; Ozone depletion; Energy-Exergy computation;
first & second law analysis ; Ecofriendly refrigerants.
ntroduction Low temperature cascade refrigeration systems using HFC134a, R507a , HCFC 22 HFC 123
and R508b in the high temperature circuit are normally required in the temperature range from -30 oC to 100oC in the various industries such as food, chemical, pharmaceutical and liquefaction of gases such as
nitrogen, helium hydrogen etc [1]. The application of multistage vapour compression refrigeration system is
also not desirable for attaining very low temperatures due to the solidification temperature of the refrigerant
and also low evaporator pressure with larger specific volume along with operational difficulties in the
equipment with using single evaporator Gupta et.al [2] optimized the cascaded refrigeration-heat pump system
using R-12 refrigerants in the higher temperature circuit and R-13 in low temperature circuit for optimum
overall Coefficient of performance. The exergy analysis of multistage cascade refrigeration system for natural
gas liquefaction is carried out by Kanolu [3] in terms of performance parameters for exergy destruction and
exergetic efficiency with minimum work requirement for liquefaction of natural gases.
Dopazo et al. [4] carried out the optimization of coefficient of performance of a cascade refrigeration system for
R S Mishra
Department of Mechanical Preoduction & Industrial and Automobiles Engineering,
Delhi Technological University Delhi-110042
e-Mail: hod.mechanical.rsm@dtu.ac.in,
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91-9891079311,
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
39
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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R S Mishra
cooling applications at low temperatures. in the variation of evaporation temperature range (- 55C ) to (-30C)
using CO2 in low temperature circuit, 25 to 50C condensation temperature in high temperature circuit using
NH3 and (- )25 to 5C in cascade condenser. The overlapping (approach temperature) was varied between 36C. The effect of compressor isentropic efficiency on system COP is also examined and also optained
optimum condenser temperature. The effect of HFOrefrigerants was not studied by them . Ratts and Brown [5]
used the entropy generation minimization method an ideal cascade vapour compression cycle for determining
the optimal intermediate temperatures. Bhattacharyya et al. [6] predicted the optimum performance of the
cascade system with variation in the design parameters and operating variables by using CO2 in the high
temperature cycle of about 120C and C3H8 (Propane) in the low temperature cycle of about -40C. Agnew and
Ameli [7] used finite time thermodynamics approach for cascade refrigeration system refrigerants R717 in high
temperature circuit and R508b low temperature circuit and found better performance in comparison to R12 in
high temperature circuit and R13 low temperature. Nicola et al. [8] carried out first law performance analysis
using ammonia in high temperature circuit of a cascade refrigeration system , blends of CO2 and HFCs in low
temperature circuit of 216.58 K and observed that the ecofriendly CO2 (carbondioxide i.e. R744) blends are
excellent options for the low-temperature circuit of cascade systems operating at temperatures arround 200 K.
Lee et al. [9] carried out exergy analysis of a two stage cascade refrigeration system for ammonia and carbon
dioxide for maximization of COP and minimization of energy loss by optimising condensing temperature and
concluded that optimal condensing temperature increased with condensation and evaporation temperatures.
Kruse and Rssmann [10] computed COP of a cascade refrigeration system using NH3, C3H8, propene, CO2 for
the high temperature stage of heat rejection temperatures between 25 to 55 C and N2O (Nitrous oxide) as
refrigerant in the low temperature cascade stage and compared its result s with a conventional HFC134a
cascade refrigeration system and observed that by replacing the lower stage refrigerant R23 by N2O have same
energetic performance with high stage fluids R134a, ammonia and hydrocarbons. Niu and Zhang [11] compared
experimental results of a cascade refrigeration system using R290 in high temperature circuit and a blend of
R744/R290 in low temperature circuit with performance of with R13 in low temperature circuit and R290 in
high temperature circuit and found that good cycle performance of blended R744/R290 in low temperature
circuit gives promising performance by replacing R13 refrigerant by blends of R744/R290 when low
temperature evaporator temperature is higher than 200 K. Getu and Bansal [10] studied the effect of
evaporating, condensing and cascade condenser temperatures, sub-cooling and superheating in high
temperature circuits and low temperature circuits and carried out energy analysis of a carbon dioxide
ammonia (R744/R717) cascade refrigeration system using multi-linear regression analysis and developed
mathematical expressions for optimum COP using optimum evaporating temperature of R717 and the
optimum mass flow ratio of R717 to that of R744 in the cascade system.
2. Performance Evaluaton of three Stages Vapour Compresson Refrgeraton System
The three stages cascade vapour compression refrigeration system choosen in this paper has is that
tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234ze) is a hydrofluoroolefin has zero ozone-depletion potential and a low globalwarming potential (i.e. GWP = 6) was used in high temperature circuit which has as a "fourth generation"
refrigerant to replaceR404a, R407c R-410a in the high temperature circuit in the range of -10oC to 60oC and in
the intermediate temperature cycle HFO-1234yf is used because R1234yf is a new class of refrigerant
acquiring a global warming potential (GWP) of (1/335th) that of R-134a (and around four times higher than
carbon dioxide, which can also be used as a refrigerant in the intermediate temperature circuit between (-200C to
-500C) which has properties significantly different from those of R134a, especially requiring operation at
around five times higher pressure) and an atmospheric lifetime of about 400 times shorter. In the low
temperature circuit R134a has zero ODP and 1300 GWP is very good Good performance in medium and low
temperature applications because of very low toxicity and also not miscible with mineral oil and results were
compared by using hydrogen carbon in the low temperature circuit has very promising non-halogenated
organic compounds with no ODP and very small GWP values. Their efficiency is slightly better than other
leading alternative refrigerants. Iso butane (R 600a) has : ODP-0,GWP-3 has higher boiling point hence lower
evaporator pressure and also lowest discharge temperature alongwith very good compatibility with mineral oil.
Similarly Propane (R290 has zero ODP- and -3 GWP is also compatible with copper miscible with mineral oil
40
Effect of Variation of High Temperature R1234ze Condenser .......

alongwith highest latent heat and largest vapour densityand third of original charge only is required when
replacing halocarbons refrigerant in existing equipmentwith energy saving up to 20% due to lower molecular
mass and vapour pressure. The Approximate auto ignition temperatures for R134a is 740 C, and For R600a is
470 oC, and For R-290 is 465 oC respectively. The carbon dioxide has Zero ODP & GWP is also non
flammable, non toxic, inexpensive and widely available and its high operating pressure provides potential for
system size and weight reducing potential has draw back that operating pressure is very high side around 80
bars with low efficiency and only to be used up to -50 oC. The effect of Approach_1 (Overlapping temperature)
means intermediate temperature circuit Condenser temperature high temperature circuit Evaporator
temperature and effect of Approach_2 (Overlapping temperature) means Low temperature circuit Condenser
temperature intermediate circuit Evaporator temperature on the performance are also highlighted in this paper.
3. Results And Dscussons
Following data have been considered for numerical computation
Condenser Temperature=50 [oC ]
Evaporator_HTC=0.0 [oC ]
Evaporator_ITC=-50.0 [oC ]
Evaporator_LTC=-100.0 [oC ]
Compressor Efficiency_HTC=0.80
Compressor Efficiency_ITC=0.80
Compressor Efficiency_LTC=0.80
Approach_ITC=10[oC ]
Approach_LTC=10[oC ]
As overlapping temperature is increasing the total exergy destruction ratio of the system is also increasing.
Similarly by increasing low temperature circuit approach the second law efficiency , coefficient of performance
of whole system is also decreasing along with decreasing low temperature as coefficient of performance shown
in table-1(a) respectively. It was also observed that thre is no effect on COP of high temperature circuit using
R1234ze ( COP=3.215) and also no effect on COP of intermediate temperature circuit using R1234yf
(COP=2.204)and also similarly trends occurred by variation of approach (overlapping temperature between
intermediate circuit condenser temperature and high temperature circuit evaporator temperature as shown in
Table-1 (b) . As high temperature circuit condenser temperature increases along with total system exergy
destruction ratio (EDR) the the overall COP and high temperature circuit COP are also is also decreases along
with decreasing exergetic efficiency and no change of coefficient of performances of low temperature circuit
(COP=2.204) and coefficient of performance of intermediate temperature circuit COP=1.79 as shown in
Table-2. The table-3 shows the variation of evaporator temperature of high temperature circuit using HFO1234ze from -20oC to +20oC. It was observed that exergetic efficiency and overall COP of system is increases
and exergy destruction ratio decreases first and reached a range to a minimum level and then increases. The
optimum performances of cascade systems occurs at intermediate cascade evaporator optimum temperature of
-5oC.The variation of cascade evaporator of Intermediate circuit is increasing from -55oC to -30oC, The COP of
LTC circuit is decreasing while The COP of ITC circuit is increasing along with increasing exergetic efficiency
as shown in Table-4 respectively. It was also observed that there is a optimum (minimum) exergy destruction
ratio alongwith optimum overall (Maximum System coefficient of performance) occurs at -45oC.Similarly the
increasing temperature of LTC evaporator from -120oC to -90oC , the overall system COP and LTC COPis
decreasing and exergy destruction ratio is increasing as shown in Table-5. The effect of various refrigerants
used in low temperature circuit is shown in table-6 and it was observed that R600 gives better COP and better
second law efficiency with minimum exergy destruction ratio while R407c gives lowest COP and higher exergy
destruction ratio. It is seen that use of hydrocarbons are beneficial than using other ecofriendly refrigerants. R134a is also used up to a temperature -100oC.
Table-1a: Effect of Overlapping temperature of low temperature condenser and Intermediate evaporator
temperature Approach in the LTC of three stages Cascade Vapour compression Refrigeration systems using
R1234ze in high temperature circuit and R1234yf in Intermediate temperature circuit and R134a in lower
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R S Mishra
temperature circuit for a given data
Table-1b: Effect of Approach in the ITC of three stages Cascade Vapour compression Refrigeration systems
using R1234ze in high temperature circuit and R1234yf in Intermediate temperature circuit and R134a in lower
temperature circuit for a given data
Table-2: Effect of High temperature circuit condenser temperature in the LTC of three stages Cascade Vapour
compression Refrigeration systems using R1234ze in high temperature circuit and R1234yf in Intermediate
temperature circuit and R134a in lower temperature circuit for a given data
Table-3: Effect the HTC evaporator temperature of three stages Cascade Vapour compression Refrigeration
systems using R1234ze in high temperature circuit and R1234yf in Intermediate temperature circuit and R134a
in lower temperature circuit for a given data
Table-4: Effect the cascade intermediate evaporator temperature of three stages Cascade Vapour compression
Refrigeration systems using R1234ze in high temperature circuit and R1234yf in Intermediate temperature
42
Effect of Variation of High Temperature R1234ze Condenser .......
37
circuit and R134a in lower temperature circuit for a given data
Table-5: Effect the Low temperature evaporator temperature(LTC) of three stages Cascade Vapour
compression Refrigeration systems using R1234ze in high temperature circuit and R1234yf in Intermediate
temperature circuit and R134a in lower temperature circuit for a given data
Table-6: Effect the ecofriendly refrigerants temperature used in low temperature circuit evaporator of three
stages Cascade Vapour compression Refrigeration systems using R1234ze in high temperature circuit and
R1234yf in Intermediate temperature circuit for a given data
4. Conclusions & Recommendations

The numical computations have been carried out in the three stages cascade refrigeration systems and following
conclusions have been made.
1. There is a optimum (minimum) exergy destruction ratio alongwith optimum overall (Maximum System
coefficient of performance) occurs at -45oC.
2. The optimum performances of cascade systems occurs at intermediate cascade evaporator optimum
temperature of -5oC
3. R600 gives better COP and better second law efficiency with minimum exergy destruction ratio.
4. The minimum performances occurs using R407c gives lowest COP and higher exergy destruction ratio
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R S Mishra
References
[1] Bansal, P. K. and Jain, Sanjeev( 2007), Cascade systems: past, present, and future. ASHRAE
Transactions; Vol-113,No.1: pp.245-252.
[2] Gupta V. K. (1985)Numerical optimization of multi-stage cascaded refrigeration-heat pump system. Heat
Recovery Systems Vol.5, No.4: pp.305-319.
[3] Kanolu M. (2002)Exergy analysis of multistage cascade refrigeration cycle used for natural gas
liquefaction. International Journal of Energy Research; Vol.26: pp.763774.
[4] Dopazo J. A, Fernndez-Seara J, Sieres J., Uha F. J. (2009) Theoretical analysis of a CO2NH3 cascade
refrigeration system for cooling applications at low temperatures. Applied Thermal Engineering ,Vol- 29,
No-8-9, pp.1577-1583.
[5] Ratts E.B. and Brown J. S. (2000) A generalized analysis for cascading single fluid vapour compression
refrigeration cycles using an entropy generation minimization method. International Journal of
Refrigeration Vol.23:,pp.353-365.
[6] Bhattacharyya, S., Mukhopadhyay, S., Kumar A., Khurana R.K. and Sarkar J. (2005) Optimization of a
CO2/C3H8 cascade system for refrigeration and heating. International Journal of Refrigeration;
Vol.28,pp. 1284- 1292.
[7] Agnew B. and Ameli S.M.( 2004 )A finite time analysis of a cascade refrigeration system using alternative
refrigerants. Applied Thermal Engineering Vol-24: pp.25572565.
[8] Nicola G. D., Giuliani, G. , Polonara, F. and Stryjek, R.( 2005) Blends of carbon dioxide and HFCs as
working fluids for the low-temperature circuit in cascade refrigerating systems. International Journal of
Refrigeration; Vol.28: pp.130140. [
[9] Lee T. S., Liu C. H. and Chen T.W.(2006) Thermodynamic analysis of optimal condensing temperature of
cascadecondenser in CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration systems. International Journal of
Refrigeration;Vol.29:pp.1100- 1108.
[10] Kruse, H. and Rssmann, H. (2006)The natural fluid nitrous oxide-an option as substitute for low
temperature synthetic refrigerants. International Journal of Refrigeration; Vol.29: pp.799-806.
[11] Niu, B. and Zhang, Y.( 2007) Experimental study of the refrigeration cycle performance for the
R744/R290 mixtures. International Journal of Refrigeration; Vol.30: 37-42.
[12] Getu, H.M., Bansal P.K. (2008); Thermodynamic analysis of an R744/R717 cascade refrigeration
system. International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol.31, No.1:,pp.45- 54.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Biodiesel Feedstock in India: A Review

Abstract- The demand for petroleum products are rising day by day due to rapid industrialization in the world.
But the petroleum resources are limited and these will be depleted in the near future due to excess exploitation
of these resources. Researchers are working to find out alternative feedstock which may have economic
viability as well. Non-edible vegetable oils are one of the best alternatives as compared to edible vegetable oils.
India has scope for the cultivation of non-edible plants and hence, the production of biodiesel. In this paper,
Thumba, Linseed, Wild Apricot, Algae, Cottonseed and Mahua are chosen to find out its viability as potential
resources for biodiesel in India.
Keywords- Biodiesel Feedstock; Thumba; Mahua; Algae; Wild Apricot; Cottonseed.
ntroduction It is reported that there are 100 billion barrels reserves of petroleum in the world and are
presumed to be exhausted in around 40 years [1]. In comparison to gasoline, the consumption of diesel is
more than five times in India [2]. India will become the third biggest consumer of fuel in the transport
sector after USA and China in 2020 with annual fuel consumption growth rate of 6.8% [3-4]. Fossil fuel
reserves are limited in earth and its depletion is a major concern because of its extensive use in the world. Its use
also deteriorates the atmosphere, giving harmful emissions. Serious efforts are required to prevent further
deterioration of the environment. Considering these factors, there should be search for renewable source of
energy which can replace fossil fuels. Therefore, renewable energy technologies from solar, wind and biomass
are being explored and its popularity is also increasing. Utilization of renewable energy technologies is at a
slow pace because of lack of availability and its technical know-how with economic constraints. But, biofuel is
becoming more popular as a renewable energy source because it can be used as a substitute for fossil fuel
directly in internal combustion engine without any engine modification or little engine modification. Biofuels
are obtained from various plant seeds [7]. In comparison to other petroleum fuels, diesel fuel is widely used to
generate power in various sectors like transport, agriculture, commercial and industrial. Various researchers
considered biodiesel as the best alternative fuel to substitute diesel [8].
Biodiesel is a fatty acid alkyl ester derived from a chemical reaction between vegetable oils and alcohol with or
without the presence of a catalyst. Biodiesel acts as a renewable energy sources to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions (GHG). It can also replace the fossil fuels in case of depletion of its reserves [9]. Biodiesel is
generally renewable fuel and is derived from vegetable oils or animal fats. It is generally produced by the
method of transesterification in which, vegetable oils or animal fats is converted into fatty acid methyl esters
Sanjay Mohite and Sudhir Kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra,
Haryana, India
1
Sagar Maji and Amit Pal

Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 9953190067, Fax: +91 1744 238350
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Mohite et al.
[10-11]. It is evident that biodiesel reduces harmful emissions. Biodiesel can be produced easily and it has
higher cetane number, good lubricating properties, higher density and low sulphur emissions as compared to
diesel. Biodiesel production has reached up to 2.2 billion gallon in the world. It is reported that more than 350
numbers of oil bearing crops are found to be used in the manufacture of biodiesel [11-12]. Soybean, palm,
rapeseed, peanut and sunflower oils are considered as potential source for biodiesel production among more
than 350 oil bearing available plants. However, non-edible oils such as Jatropha, Cottonseed, Mahua, Karanja
etc. are more advantageous in comparison to edible oils [15-17]. Developing countries like India can produce
renewable energy from non- edible oils in an effective and economical manner [19]. Required characteristics of
feedstocks for biodiesel production should be its local availability, compatible with present farm infrastructure,
high oil yield, easily grow in local environment conditions which includes type of soil, latitude, rain etc., good
fatty acid composition, lesser requirement of water, pesticides and fertilizer, well-known growth season,
uniform seed maturity, useful by-products and ability to grow on wastelands and with off-season also. Oilseeds,
algae, animal fats and low-value materials such as greases, used cooking oil etc. are the four types of major
feedstock for biodiesel production [20]. First generation biodiesel is made from edible vegetable oils. Second
generation biodiesel produced from non-edible plants can be raised in semi or non-arable lands which results in
higher revenue collection for under-utilized lands. These feedstocks are relatively cheaper thereby reducing the
price of biodiesel production. Scientific knowledge for these feedstocks are unfortunately not sufficient,
resulting in a pile of challenges for their development [21]. Biodiesel produced from macroalgae and
microalgae is called third generation biodiesel. Their yields are higher in comparison to first and second
generation biodiesel with respect to per cultivation area due to algae's higher photo-synthesis capability. Algae
also absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere during its growth. Algae can be grown without the use of land or fresh
water resources if cultivated on or near sea unlike other oil crops. Technologies use in the production of
biodiesel from algae are not sufficient, resulting in higher consumption of energy and unsatisfactorily yield
during harvesting and drying. Microalgae production is troublesome to maintain with advanced bio-reactor
while there are hazards of pollution by other microorganisms in open pond system [21-22].
Biodiesel Feedstock in India
Thumba
Thumba is a non-edible vegetable oil plant. It is a creeper type plant. It can grow in sandy soil. It springs up in
several regions of Rajasthan and Gujrat in India and rely on rain. Local soap industries use raw thumba seed oil
for soap preparation. It starts bearing after 6 months [4]. It is called Indrayan in Hindi and Bitter apple in
English. It originates from Turkey and found in various portions of Asia and Africa. The plant has 3-7 lobed
leaves which are 5-10 cm in length at the middle portion. Its fruit is round in figure and yellow in color. Its
flowers are monoecious. It grows alongwith Bajara crops and hence minimal care is required. This plant is
eatable by animals. Laxative and anti-inflammatory drugs are being prepared with its use [23]. Its other names
are Colocynth, bitter cucumber, wild gourd. It is a desert viny plant which grows in sandy, arid lands. This plant
is native to the Mediterranean basin and Asia. It is an annual or a perennial plant in Indian arid zones and causes
a great survival rate under extreme xeric conditions. It survives in areas of annual rainfall 250 mm to 1500mm
and an annual temperature of 14.80C to 27.80C. It grows from sea level up to 1500 meters above sea level on
sandy loam, subdesert soils and sandy sea coasts with a pH range between 5 and 7.8. The roots are large, fleshy
and perennial, leading to a high survival rate due to long tap root. Leaves are palmate and angular with 3 to 7
divided lobes. The flowers are yellow and solitary in the axes of leaves and are borne by yellow-greenish
peduncles. Each has a subcampanulated five lobed corolla and a five parted Calyx. They are monoecious. The
fruit is smooth, spheric with a 5-10 cm diameter and extremely bitter taste. Each plant produces 15 to 30 fruits.
The seeds are gray and 5mm long and 3mm wide. The seeds are bitter in taste, nutty flavored and rich in fat and
protein. The oil content of the seeds is 17-19% (w/w). It contains 67-73% Linoleic acid, 10-16% oleic acid, 58% stearic acid and 9-12% palmitic acid. The yield of oil is 400 liter per hectare. The thumba oil can also be used
for medicinal and soap products. The yield of seeds is about 6.7 to 10 tons/hectare [24]. The seeds also contain
high amount of arginine, tryptophan and sulfur containing amino acids. The seed flour is rich in micronutrients
and could thus be applied in food formulations in regions with low milk consumption as West Africa [25]. This
plant can be produced on marginal soils and can improve soil quality with intercropping. Colocynth is
46

generally cultivated with Cassava (intercropping) in Nigeria [26]. Cucurbitaceae is a large plant family
consisting of 100 genera and 750 species and is available in regions of tropical, subtropical, deserts and
temperate regions. Cucurbits seeds contain about 50% oil and up to 35% protein. Thumba belongs to genus
Citrullus species of Cucurbitaceae family, consisting of different varieties called as melons. Thumba is also
found in middle east, Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, Benin and other African countries. It is interplanted as a crop with
Maize, Cassava and Yam. It resembles as Safflower, Corn, Cottonseed, Sunflower and Sesame oil due to the
presence of unsaturated fatty acid in it [27].
Algae
Chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment of Algae. Algae does not like the various structures that
characterize plants on land as the phyllids of bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants and the roots, leaves
and other organs that are found in tracheophytes ( vascular plants) [28]. As algae biodiesel does not compete
with food production for land, its importance is increasing day by day. Algae can be developed in farm or
bioreactor. Its production cost is high and therefore, it creates hindrance for its commercialization. Researchers
have also reported that algae can also be grown on flue gas, thus consuming greenhouse gases [29]. Oils of
micro and macro algae are one of the best sources for biodiesel production. Diatoms (Bacillar- iophyceae),
golden brown (chryso-phyceae), green algae (chlorophyceae) and blue green algae (cyano phyceae) are the
types of micro-algae. 25,000 micro-algae species are available and only 25 species are being practiced today. It
is a high yielding feedstock. It is an organism with a capacity to cause photo- synthesis and is less than 2mm
in diameter. Micro-algae oils are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids with four or more double bonds [30-32].
Microalgae is the third generation feedstock and is very economical as compared to edible oils. It has the
highest oil yield capacity as compared to other oil crops and it is up to 25 times higher than the yield of palm oil
[33-34]. Microalgae have faster growth rates than other crops. The yield is 20,000 to 80,000 liters of oil per acre
in a year. Farmland or freshwater is not needed for its development. Microalgae grow faster than Macroalgae
and it contains more oil also. Biodiesel production process from algae is similar to other ordinary crops with
some minor changes in the process of extraction. The extraction operation to retrieve the oil from microalgae is
of high cost. The methods use for the extraction of oil from algae are supercritical fluid extraction, solvent
extraction, ultrasonic extraction and mechanical pressing. Solvent extraction, ultrasonic extraction and
mechanical pressing methods require lots of time and solvent and the supercritical fluid extraction method
require a lot of energy [35-39]. Greenhouse gas emissions would be reduced by 4.7% if diesel is replaced by
algae biodiesel. The production cost of algae biodiesel is 60% more than that of diesel in present scenario [40].
Linseed
It belongs to Linaceae family. Linseed is a herbaceous plant. Its botanical name is Linum usitatissimum and it is
also called flax. This plant produces seeds 4 to 6 cm long, pale, dark brown, oval and flattened in shape. The tree
rises to a peak of 0.3 to 1m. It is utilized for the production of cloth fiber, seed and linseed oil. Fertile, fine
textured and loamy soils are suitable for the cultivation of Linseed crops. The favorable conditions for oil
content and quality in Linseed crop, is sufficient moisture and cool temperature. Seeds are placed in round
capsules containing one to ten seeds per capsules. Linseed seeds contain 33 to 47% oil. The yield of irrigated
crop is 1200 to 1500 kg per hectare. Linseed seeds contain 30-40% lipids, 20-25% proteins, 4-8% moisture, 34% ash and 20-25% dietary fiber. Linolein, Linolenin and olein are important glycosides in Linseed oil.
Arachidic and palmitic are also present in a small amount. Linseed oil contains free fatty acids such as stearic,
oleic, palmitic, linoleic and alpha- Linolenic. Linseed oil contains 1.94% free fatty acids. Linseed cake, obtain
after extraction of oil, is used to feed cattle. It is also employed as an additive in baking goods. Big amount of
decrease in viscosity and flash point of linseed oil biodiesel is reported after transesterification. Several
methods are employed for the production of Linseed oils like alkali refined, cold pressing, sun bleached and
solvent extraction method. It is an edible oil. But its consumption is very less in human food because of its
potent smell and aroma. India produces 500 tons of linseed per annum. Linseed is available in various
countries of Europe, North and South America and Asia (particularly India). Climate and soil conditions are
favorable for the production of Linseed in India. Linseed oil contains 60% unsaturated fatty linolenic acid,
whereas this acid is available below 1% in other types of oils with the exception of soybean and rapeseed oil
containing 8 and 7% linolenic content. Presence of Linolenic acid in large quantity in Linseed oil makes it
47
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Mohite et al.
suitable for drying paints purpose. Wood is also treated when linseed oil is used on it. It is likewise utilized in the
manufacture of Linoleum, a floor cover made from natural materials mixture. It is likewise applied in industrial
lubricants, leather product, treatment and to prevent rust. Drying alkyd paints are made up with the oil prepared
by crushing these seeds. Drying alkyd paints contain linseed oil which has a higher amount of linolenic acid.
This is a unsaturated compound which is oxidized easily [16,19, 41-44]. Number of double bonds are
responsible for oxidation stability of biodiesel. Methyl Linolenate is more susceptible to oxidation in biodiesel
and therefore, EN 14214 restricts its content up to 12%. Methyl Linolenate content in Linseed oil biodiesel is
around 45-47%, which is more susceptible to oxidation [45-46]. At the temperature of 9000C when the diesel
engine is running, Linseed oil biodiesel may be polymerized and oxidized due to the presence of two double
bonds between reactive methylene groups [46-47].
Cottonseed
Soya bean oil, sunflower oil and rapeseed oil are the common oils which are mostly used for biodiesel
production. Cottonseed oil is a cheaper oil used for biodiesel production. The botanical name of cottonseed oil
is Gossypium hirsutum L and it belongs to Malvaceac family. It gives natural fiber, which is used in textile
industry. It is also reported that it is ninth best crop for oil production. Cotton seeds are extracted to produce oil,
which gives the cottonseed oil and cottonseed cake. It is reported that cottonseed cake contains 20% oil and
37% polysaccharides so that biodiesel and biohydrogen can be produced out of this cake [48-51]. It is a cooking
oil extracted from seeds of G. hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum species of cottonseed. Its oil has clear light
golden color. Because of its stability properties, Cottonseed oil is used in preparing food for mayonnaise, salad
oil, salad dressing, etc. After extraction, the level of Gossypol is reduced in untreated cottonseed oil by
intensive treatment, as it has undesirable side-effects on consumption. Cottonseed oil contains natural
saturated fatty acids like oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. It is also named as being naturally hydrogenated by
scientists. The production capacity of its oil is 4.6 MT per annum. It consists of 70% unsaturated fatty acids
which includes 52% polyunsaturated (linoleic) and 18% monounsaturated (oleic) and 26% saturated (stearic
and palmitic) [32,52-53]. It is a herbaceous annual plant. It is cultivated in 3 months per year. Cottonseed
contains 15% oil and yields 0.1 to 0.2 t/ha. In Brazil, cottonseed is used for biodiesel production because of its
low cost [54-56].Cottonseed oil has been used in foods such as potato chips. Now cottonseed is being used in
processed foods, including cereals, breads and snack because of its lower price than Olive or Canola oil [57].
Mahua
Mahua is a medium size, deciduous tree which is available in various rural area in India. The Mahua tree grows
up to a height of 60-70 feet. 20 to 40 kg of seeds can be brought about by a Mahua tree per annum. 1,35,000
million tons of Mahua oil is produced per annum in India. Greenish yellow is the color of raw Mahua oil [58].
Mahua seed and kernel contains 35-40% and 70% oil respectively. Mahua oil can be used for soap making and
biodiesel production. Its flowers are used to produce ethanol in an economical way. Its oil cake can be used to
feed in a poultry farm. It contains about 20% FFA. India has a production capacity for Mahua oil as 181000
metric tons per annum [53, 32,59-60]. Mahua tree is a tropical tree. It is from Sapotaceae family. It grows to 20
m height in a short span of time. It is adaptable to arid climate. It gives fruits in a span of 4 to 7 years which is
non-edible. Mahua oil biodiesel has poor low temperature properties because of presence of relatively high
percentage of saturated fatty acid [60-64]. It is cultivated in warm and humid regions for its oleaginous seeds. It
produces 20 to 200 kg of seeds annually per tree. The seed cakes obtained after extraction of oil constitute
fertilizer. The flowers are used to produce an alcoholic drink in tropical India. Various portions of the tree,
including the bark, are utilized for the medicinal purposes. [65]. The two major species of Madhuca are
Madhuca Indica (Latifolia) and Madhuca Longifolia which are available in India. In India, seed potential of the
tree is 50,00,000 tons and oil potential is 1,80,000 tons. The flowering seasons range from February to April. It
is rich in sugar (73%) and next to cane molasses. It is the most significant raw material for alcoholic
fermentation. Mahua seeds contain 35% oil and 16% protein [66].
Wild Apricot
Wild apricot is grown in temperate region of the world and its major producers countries are Greece, Italy, USA,
Spain and France [67]. India covers 2.42% earth surface, i.e. 328 million hectares geographical areas. Wild
48

apricot (Prunus armeniaca Linn) is also called Chullu, Khurmani, Shara, Aaroo and Khubani in local language
in India. It belongs to Rosaceae family and subfamily Prunoidea. The tree is found in dry, temperate regions of
northwestern Himalayas in India upto an altitude of 3000 m. It is also found in the Kumaon region of India. It is a
hardy plant. It is having 45-50% oils in kernel resembling almond oil. This oil is used in cosmetic, medicine and
confectionery. The tree has 50-60 years age. The cake after extraction of oil can be used as manure as it contains
Nitrogen (6.64%), Phosphorus (2.2%) and potash (1.14%). After detoxification of hydro-cyanic acid, the cake
may also be used for feeding cattle. The tree can be grown in deep and well drained soils with pH values of 6 to
6.8. Its fruits can be grown favorably in the long winter, frost free and warm spring seasons. The suitable
temperature for its growth is 16.60C to 32.30C. Annual rainfall of 100 cm is suitable for its growth. The wild
apricot tree is approximately 10-15 m tall with a red brown bark. The tree starts yielding over 4-5 years and
continues to do so up to 50-60 years. After 10-15 years, it starts full yielding of about 85-100 kg fruits per tree.
Well maintained tree yields 120-150 kg fruits [68]. Weight of fruit ranges from 8 to 15.1 g, diameter from 2.3 to
2.5 cm and pulp ranged from 77.8% to 87.3%. Pulp to stone ratio varies from 3.5 to 6.9:1 [69]. The wild apricot
is not suitable for table purpose due to the presence of high acids and low sugars. The seed yields 27% of the
kernels and Kernels contains 47% of oil [70]. Presence of a cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin causes bitterness
in the taste of kernels [71]. Oil contains 94% unsaturated fatty acids. It contains 75% oleic acid and linoleic
acids [72-73]. Libing Wang and Haiyan Yu found that Siberian Apricot has a high oil content, low acid value and
water content. Excellent Cold flow properties of Siberian apricot were found to be -140C. It is also stated that
Siberian apricot is low cost, low acid value and high oil producing species for biodiesel production in China
[74]. New castle, fruit of wild apricot is used for the preparation of jams, chutney and naturally fermented and
distilled liquor. It is also reported that apricot-soya leather, toffee and fruit bars have been prepared to cater the
requirements of proteins for adult and children. It is also reported that every part of wild apricot is used for the
preparation of different types of value added products and therefore, economy of farmers can be enhanced by
the commercial use of this fruit [75]. Wild apricot fruits are used as medicine to get relief from diarrhea, fever,
thirst and its seed tonic are used in liver troubles, earache, piles and deafness [76]. It is reported that apricot cake
after oil extraction contains 0.06% hydrocyanic acid and hence it is not recommended for animal feed as such. It
may be employed as animal feed only after removal of essential oil (1.2% -1.8%) with the distillation operation.
After boiling, apricot cake is used for feeding animals in Ladakh. Wild apricot seedling yields bitter kernel
constituting about 22-34% of the pit. These bitter kernels are used for oil extraction. The oil content in kernel
ranges from 36%-62%. The apricot oil is rich in Carotenoids and vitamin E. It contains 70-75% oleic acid and
16-22% Linoleic acid as major fatty acids. The protein content in kernel ranges from 20.5 -45.2%. Bitterness in
apricot kernel is due to the presence of Amygdalin which on hydrolysis yields hydrocyanic acid, which are
harmful for consumption to human. Therefore oil cake must be detoxified before using it for food purposes. A
sizeable quantity of apricot kernels is available in Ladakh which are mostly used for oil extraction. Oil color is
generally light to deep yellow [77].
Conclusion
Non-edible vegetable oils are one of the best alternatives as compared to edible vegetable oils. India has scope
for the cultivation of non-edible plants and hence, the production of biodiesel. Thumba, Linseed, Wild Apricot,
Algae, Cottonseed and Mahua may be used as potential resources for biodiesel production in India.
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52
Triacylglyceride's Transesterification for

Biodiesel: a Review
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Amrik Singh, Amit Pal, Harwinder Singh and S. Maji
Abstract-Biodiesel can be produced from various oils or TAG's by transesterification in the presence of
different catalyst. Biodiesel can be used either in pure form or blended form can be directly used in diesel engine
without any modification or little modification. This review presents the transesterification of oil using
different catalyst and their mechanism. Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts are discussed along with
their advantages and disadvantages. This review also gives insight on the microwave heating of reactions and
traditional method of heating of reactions. Apart from this use of enzyme based catalyst and current status is
explained. Now a day's nano-size catalyst also gains much attention due to large surface contact area.
Keywords- Transesterification; Catalyst; Enzyme; Nanoparticle catalyst.
ntroduction There are many feedstock's from which biodiesel is obtained. This oil cannot be directly used
to run engine due to high viscosity and low volatility which leads to injector coking and engine deposit
[1,2]. However this problem is eliminated by transesterification of oil to alkyl ester [1, 3].
Transesterification is also called alcoholysis. Transesterification is reversible reaction in which triglycerides
are converted to di-glycerides and to mono-glycerides which finally gives glycerol. Biodiesel floats at the top
while glycerol sinks to the bottom which is separated easily [4]. In transesterification methanol and ethanol is
mainly used as alcohol due to low cost. However octanol, propanol, butanol and tert butanol can also be used
but their cost is higher as compared to methanol and ethanol [5,6,7,8]. If methanol is used in reaction then
process is called methanolysis. General equation for transesterification is represented as in fig. 1 [9].
This reaction generally takes place in presence of catalyst which may be acidic or basic in nature as alcohol is
scarcely soluble in oil, so catalyst increase the solubility, thus accelerates the reaction [4]. The
transesterification process removes the glycerin, so viscosity decreases but heating value and cetane number
does not change [10].
Figure1: Transesterification reaction
Amrik Singh, Amit Pal, Harwinder Singh and S.Maji

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
Corresponding author: amriksingh200@gmail.com
1

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Singh et al.
1.1. Kinetics of transesterification reaction

The oil from which biodiesel is produced is known as triglyceride (TAG). TAGs are formed by covalent
bonding of carboxylic acid with alcohol. In this context, TAG is an ester formed by combining of three
molecules of fatty acids covalently bonded with glycerol molecule [11]. Fatty acid has carboxylic group while
glycerol has three hydroxyl group which while combining form ester or TAGs. Transesterificationis a chemical
process in which carboxylic acid ester is converted into different carboxylic acid esters.
Figure2 transesterification reaction

2. Base-Catalysed Transesterification
Base catalyst are mostly used for transesterification of vegetable oils [12,13,14,15,16]. When the tryglyceride
contains free fatty acids or excess amount of water then acid catalyst are used to reduce the soap formation
[13,16, 17]. Base catalyzed transesterification reaction is 4000 times faster then acid catalyzed reaction but it is
used only if trygleceride contains less then 2% free fatty acids [18]. Sodium and potassium hydroxide are
mostly used for industrial purpose.
2.1. Mechanism of Base catalyzed Transesterification
The transesterification using base catalyst involves four step pre step or first step in which base reacts with
alcohol and form protonated catalyst and an alkoxide. In the next step carbonyl group of oil is attacked by
nucleophilic and forms intermediate [19, 20,12]. In third step alkyl ester and anion of diglyceride are formed. In
fourth step the catalyst deprotonates, thus regenerating the base which again reacts with second molecule of
alcohol and starts another cycle.
Base catalyst are mostly used because reaction takes place at low temperature and pressure that is 60oC and 20
psi and obtain high yield about 98%. However there are some shortcomings it requires high energy, to separate
the catalyst from the media after transesterification pro-reaction treatment is required, difficult to recover
glycerol after the reaction moreover it forms soap with free fatty acids.
2.2. Factors affecting base catalyzed transesterification.

Effect of alcohol to oil molar ratio: the yield of methyl esters generally depends upon methanol to triglyceride
molar ratio. Theoretically three moles of methanol are required per mole of oil for transesterification. A
vegetable oil [21] studied the amount of alcohol required for transesterification of vegetable oil in terms of
alcohol to oil molar ratio.
Shazia sultana [22] studied transesterification on five different molar ratios in the range 2:1 to 10:1 and obtained
maximum yield 92% with 6:1 methanol to oil molar ratio.On further increase in methanol to oil molar ratio the
54
Triacylglyceride's Transesterification for Biodiesel: a Review
Figure 3 mechanism for base catalyzed transesterification reaction

ester yield decreases.
Encinar J.M et al [23] studied different ethanol to oil molar ratio between range 3:1 to 15:1 for the
transesterification of cynarer oil and reported that reaction is incomplete when molar ratio is less than 6:1. The
yield of ester increases as the molar ratio increased upto 12:1 and obtained optimum value at 9:1. However
many authors reported that [24,25] with increase in methanol to oil molar ratio the yield decreases, for instance,
Lu et al [24] worked on different molar ratio ranges from 1:1 to 1:10 and reported that the maximum yield is
obtained at 1:1 and this may be due to inhibitory effect of alcohol on lipase activity.
Similarly Li et al [25] given same trend that with increase in molar ratio yield decreases, the achieved 95% yield
in 12 hour at molar ratio 4:1.
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Singh et al.
2.3 Effect of Catalyst Concentration

Mostly alkaline, acid and enzyme catalyst are used. If the oil contains high free fatty acids and large quantity of
water then acid catalyst is used for transesterification. Sultana Shazia [22] studied the effect of NaOH
concentration between the range of 0.1-0.9 wt% and obtained that yield increases with increase in catalyst
concentration from 0.1-0.5%. The yield decreases with further increase in NaOH concentration and reduced to
50% with 1.5% NaOH concentration. This is because with increase in the concentration of catalyst, soap
formation will take place and reduce the yield with increase in viscosity. Ma F et al [27] studied the effect of
NaOH and NaoME concentration and found that at 3% and 5% w/w of catalyst to beef tallow oil maximum
yield is obtained.
3. Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification
The acid catalyzed transesterification does not gain much popularity because it is 4000 times slower than the
alkali catalyzed reactions [18]. Its performance does not affected by the presence of free fatty acids and can
catalyze simultaneously both esterification and trans-esterification. Acid catalyst can produce biodiesel from
low cost feed stock having high free fatty acid FFA. The transesterification of triglyceride consist of three
reversible reactions.
Acid catalyzed transesterification mechanism is shown in fig for monoglyceride. Carbonyl group protonation
leads to carbocation which forms tetrahedral intermediate after the nucleophilic attack of alcohol. The glycerol
is separated and forms new ester. These reactions should be carried in the absence of water because carbocation
reacts with water to form carboxylic acids.
Figure 4. Mechanism of acid catalyzed reaction.

4. Catalyst for transesterification Process
For transesterification following catalyst are investigated, heterogenous, enzymatic and homogenous or alkali
catalyst like potassium and sodium hydroxide are mostly used in industrial transesterification because they
promote reaction at low temperature also [28].
4.1. Homogenous Catalyst
Homogeneous catalysts are further divided as homogeneous acids and homogeneous base catalyst.
56

Homogeneous base catalysts are commonly used for transesterification of triglyceride. Homogeneous base
catalyst such as carbonates [29], alkaline metal hydroxide [30,31] and alkoxides [17, 32] are most commonly
used [28] the alkoxide are more difficult to handle then hydroxide because alkoxide are hygroscopic in nature.
Alkoxide does not form soap from triglyceride saponification due to the presence of hydroxide ion which act as
an impurity in alkoxide [28]. While using alkaline catalyst the free fatty acid content should not increase 0.5%
by wt. otherwise soap formation will takes place which hampers the production of biodiesel. Various authors
reported that 90% yield is obtained by using potassium hydroxide and boiler ashes in the methanolysis and
ethanolysis of coconut and palm oil [3323, 34, 35]. Ma et. al. [27] found that alkaline catalyst Naoh perform
better than NaoMe. However to obtain higher yield the concentration of naome is slightly higher as compared to
Naoh Ma et. al. [27]. Singh et al. [36] studied about alkaline catalyst (NaoH, KoH, KoMe and NaoMe) and
found that better yield is obtained by potassium based catalyst as compared to sodium based catalyst. Where
methoxide based catalyst produces higher yield compared to hydroxide based catalyst.
4.2. Homogeneous Acid Catalyst
For the transesterification of free fatty acid (FFAs) homogeneous acid catalyst are more effective as compared
to base catalyst. Acid catlysed reactions proceed 4000 times slower than the base catalyzed reaction[15].
However acid catalyzed reactions have lower moisture sensitivity as well as non-appearance of soap formation.
Acid catalysts are used where oil has higher FFAS [28]. If base catalyst are used it will form soap. Acid
catalyzed reactions are two stage processes, in first stage esterification takes place in the presence of acid
catalyst while in the second stage reaction takes place in the presence of base catalyst.
The acid catalyst mostly used are, sulphonic acid, organic sulfonic acid, hydrochloric acid, and phoshphoric
acid. Freedman et al. [32] uses sulphuric acid as catalyst with alcohol oil ratio 30:1 and found that to obtain 90%
yield reaction took 50h to complete at 65o C. Zullaikah et. al. [37] uses sulphuric acid as catalyst for the
transesterification of rice bran oil between temperature range of 60-80oC.
4.3. Heterogeneous Catalyst
It is difficult to separate homogeneous catalyst from the reaction mixture so heterogeneous catalysts are
developed. Heterogeneous catalyst. heterogeneous catalyst are advantageous because they does not form soap
through saponification of triglyceride and eliminate corrosion problems and reaction requires high temperature
and pressure. However there are some limitations like, they have poor performance compared to homogeneous
catalyst, and due to less surface contact catalyst does not participate effectively in reaction so catalyst must be in
porous state. The surface of heterogeneous catalyst must be hydrophobic in nature so that it adsorb triglyceride
and to avoid adsorption of polar by products like water and glycerol on surface. Solid catalyst which are mostly
used are, alkaline earth oxide, solid organic base, basic oxides supported, basic zeolite, insoluble metal salt and
hydroxide, basic metal oxide, hydrotolerite and hetropolyacids [38].
4.3.1 Alkaline Earth Oxide
Ca and Mg are alkaline earth metals which are most widely used as heterogeneous base catalyst. Gryglewicz
[31] found that alkali earth metal oxides sucessfuly catalyzed the transesterification reaction. Alkaline earth
oxides are basic due to M2+ and O2- ion pairs [39]. Various authors reported the use of Cao as catalyst for the
transesterification of sunflower, and rapeseed oil with methanol [40, 41]. Moreover, strontium oxide, Cao, Mgo
also investigated as catalyst for transesterification with high basicity [42, 43, 44].
Martyanov and Sayari [45] used calcium methoxide as catalyst for the transesterification of triglyceride and
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Singh et al.
found that initially reaction is slower as compared to homogeneous sodium methoxide and magnesium
methoxide, but at later stage the rate of reaction is higher than magnesium methoxide. Alkaline earth metal
oxides assimilate with metal oxide and form composite oxide [46] which can be used as solid base catalyst for
transesterification. Composite oxides are more stable and easy to separate from the reaction media.
4.3.2. Acid Zeolite
Zeolites are most widely used as solid acid catalyst for transesterification of oil and made hydrophobic by
elimination of water of hydration. Shu et al, [47] uses La/Zeolite beta catalyst for the batch transesterification of
soybean oil and found that La/Zeolite base catalyst have higher conversion rate than zeolite beta heterogeneous
acid catalyst used in biodiesel production are mostly mesoporous [48, 49]. Subsume of microporous H-Zeolite with secondary mesoporosity create a heterogeneous solid catalyst which accelerates microalgae
transesterification by reducing the diffusion barriers [50, 51] uses zeolite catalyst for the transesterification of
waste cooking oil and found that yield is independent of porosity of zeolite and found that yield increases with
increase in strength of the acid.
4.3.3. Hetropolyacids
Hetropolyacids attains much attention due to its superacidic nature (PK H+> 12) and porous structure. They are
highly soluble in polar media in their native form which make their contribution in reaction as homogeneous
catalyst [52]. Chai et al, [53] uses heterogeneous catalyst (CS2.5 H0.5PW12O40) for transesterification of eruca
sativa gars oil and obtained the same result as by using sodium hydroxide or sulphuric acid with one advantage
of easy separation of catalyst from media and its reuse. Cao et al [54] use the hetroppolyacids (H35PW12O40.
6H2O) catalyst for transesterification of waste cooking oil. In 10h 87% yield is obtained using hexhydrate
catalyst. The catalyst would be separated easily and was reused many times.
5. Microwave Irradiation Effect on Biodiesel Production
Traditionally organic reactions are heated by various equipments such as sand bath, heating jackets and oil
baths. These techniques are not effective because they are slower and temperature gradient took place. But now
a days microwave dielectric heating is preferred in microwave heating radiation passes the wall and only heat
the solvent and reactants without heating the vessel [55].
Patil et. al., [56] used micro-algal oil to produce biodiesel by transesterification by heating with microwave
radiation and observed that microwave irradiation effect the reaction in two way 1. reaction is boosted by
thermal effect. 2. Vaporization of methanol due to strong microwave radiation. Ma et al, [57] observed that
microwave heating reduce energy and reaction time due to volumetric heating.Ma et al, [57] produced biodiesel
by transesterification of micro-algal oil in the presence of KOH by conventional heating and microwave
heating method and find that with conventional heating system reaction completes in 210 minute while with
microwave heating reaction completes in 5 min, obtained 96.54% conversion using KOH 1% wt, 1:8 oil to
methanol at 65oC.
6. Nanoparticle Catalyst In Transesterification
For the conversion of triglyceride to methyl esters transesterification takes place in the presence of catalyst.
Catalysts used are either base catalyst or acid catalyst. Base catalyzed reactions are much faster than that by acid
catalyzed reaction. However basic catalyst have some drawbacks such as loss of catalyst, some catalyst remain
in the biodiesel does not separated. To overcome this drawback heterogeaneous catalyst are used but require
58

long reaction time and large volume. Therefore, to improve the conversion of free fatty acid, lots of efforts are
done to produce catalyst with high surface area. Highest methyl esters can be produced by catalyst with high
surface area [58]. Many authors investigated that Nano sized catalyst have large contact area. For instance,
Wang et. al., [59] produced biodiesel from waste cooking oil in the presence of nano-sized catalyst (Aluminum
dode catungs to phosphate AIPW ) and observed that 96% conversion was achieved at 55o C due to large
surface area of nano paticle.
6.1. CaO/ MgO catalyst
Calcium oxide is heterogeneous base catalyst mostly used for transesterification reaction. It has many
advantages, such as easy availability, higher activity, reusability, low cost and mild reaction condition.
Pretreatment temperature range between 700-1000 K is used to remove water and CO2 which is adsorbed on the
surface of CaO [60]. Most of the catalyst has adverse effect on yield of methyl ester in the presence of water.
However CaO catalyst performs well in the presence of water, it forms methoxide ion in the presence of
methanol which is highly active. Mechanism of transesterification with CaO as catalyst is given in fig [61].
As shown in equation 1, Ca2+ extracts OH-and O2- extracts H+ from water so they are easily extracted by reactants
during chemical reaction. As shown in equation 2, methoxide anion and H2O forms when OH- extracts H+
methanol. In equation 3 again O-2 extract H+ and form surface methoxide anion. If water exceed by 2.8 wt% of
oil it hydrolyze the methyl esters and forms fatty acid and methanol. Liu et. al., [61] obtained 95% yield at
temperature 65o C by using CaO catalyst. Hsiao [75] used nano powder CaO as catalyst and obtained 96.6%
yield at 1:6 oil to methanol ratio, reaction time 1 hour, 338 K temperature and 3 wt% catalyst.
Fig 5. Transesterification mechanism in the presence of water using CaO as catalyst.
Due to easy preparation and low cost researcher focus attention on MgO and CaO catalyst. Huaping [62]
obtained 93% yield using CaO as catalyst. Di serio [63] achieved 92% yield by using MgO as catalyst. Dossin
[64] use MgO as catalyst in batch work reactor and found that satisfactorily at ambient condition. Magnesium
oxide is identified as good homogeneous catalyst for transesterification of ethyl acetate with methanol [64].
6.2. CaOZnO Catalyst
The combination of Cao and ZnO (CaOZnO) catalyst in palm kernel oil transesterification is studied. The
mixture of CaO and ZnO has small particle size which result in large surface contact area as compared to
59
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Singh et al.
individual oxides. Ngamcharussrivchai [53] used CaOZnO catalyst with Ca/Zn ratio 0.25 for the
transesterification of palm kernel oil and obtained greater than 94% yield at reaction temperature 60oC,
methanol to oil ratio 30 and reaction time 60 minute. CaOZnO catalyst is used for the transesterification of sun
flower seed oil and 90% yield is obtained [65]. The CaO and ZnO are synthesized by Co-precipitation method
or impregnation method. Ngamcharussrivchai [53] found that the catalyst synthesized by the co precipitation
method result in higher yield (94.2%) compared to impregnation method (90%). The literature shows that the
activity of reaction depends on Ca to Zn atomic ratio it is synthesized between ratio, from to 4. At atomic ratio
of 0.25 the CaOZnO catalyst produce 93.5% of esters which is larger as compared to other atomic ratio.
7. Enzyme catalyzed transesterification
The problem related to conventional catalytic process, like removal of catalyst, treat large amount of waste
waterand high energy requirement are solved by using enzymes. Enzyme do not form any soap like alkaline
catalyst and without the need of washing they esterify both FFA and TAG in single step. These are biological
catalyst and can catalyze different chemical reactions. They can be either used in free or immobilized form in
transesterification that leads to the production of biodiesel [66]. A wide range of enzymes such as lipase has
been used for esterification [67]. Lipase from fungi and bacteria are mostly used for process and they belong to
group of hydrolytic enzymes which is also known as hydrolases.
The lipase catalyzed reaction is classified as [68].
1. hydrolysis 2. Synthesis a) esterification b) transesterification.
1) Hydrolysis
R1COOR2 + H2O
R1COOH
2
+R OH
Esterication
R1COOH +R2OH
R1COOR2
+H2O
Transesterification
Alcoholysis
R1COOR2
+ R3OH
1
3
2
R COOR + R OH
Acidolysis
R1COOR2
+ R3COOH
R3COOR2 + R1COOH
7.1.Immobilization of lipase
Immobilization of lipase is the state of arrest of the enzyme in region [69]. Immobilization provide number of
benefits such as enzyme reuse, easy separation of product from enzyme [70]. Many other properties are also
improved such as chemical, thermal and mechanical properties making them to use in harsher environmental
condition [71,72].Salah [73]obtained 25% conversion with immobilized lipase and 3% conversion with free
lipase while butanolysis of acetic acid. General technique used for immobilization are 1). Adsorption 2)
Entrapment 3) Cross linking 4) Encapsulation . Adsorption is simplest method; in this enzymes are attached to
the surface by combination of Vander wall or electrostatic forces.
7.2. Effect of presence and absence of solvent enzyme based transesterification
Using enzyme as catalyst for biodiesel production of oil is tried in the presence and absence of solvent. Nelson
[74]done methanolysis of tallow oil using hexane as solvent in the presence of Mucormehei lipase and obtained
77.8% yield. But many workers favours solvent free reactions. Furthermore toxicity and inflammability of
60

solvents, prevent the use of solvent enzyme based transesterification. Oznur [76] done transesterification of
cotton seed oil using immobilized lipase and obtained 92% of yield in a solvent free medium.
8. Conclusion
This review includes the transesterification of oil using alkali and acid catalyst. The effect of parameters such
as, molar ratio, catalyst concentration and methanol to oil ratio are discussed. Selection of homogeneous,
heterogeneous and enzymatic catalyst is explained. Homogeneous base catalysts are commonly used for
industrial purposes whereas heterogeneous and homogeneous acid catalysts have lesser use. Homogeneous
acid and base catalyst require excess alcohol. Homogeneous catalyst is mainly used for batch mode process,
followed by catalyst separation. Moreover homogeneous alkali catalysts are sensitive to free fatty acids and
H2O, results in saponification. The feed stock having FFA require acid and base catalyst which is two stage
process in which acid catalyst are firstly used and then removed before the use of alkaline catalyst. However the
use of acid catalyst increases the corrosiveness. Now a days much more attention is focused on enzyme based
catalyst instead of chemical catalyst because enzyme based catalytic reaction proceed at moderate conditions,
require low alcohol to oil ratio, and easy product recovery. Use of nanoparticle catalyst and heating reactions
with the help of microwave is discussed.
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RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Mathematical Analysis of Exhaust Based

Thermoelectric Generator
Vikrant Mishra, and Kiran Pal
Abstract-This paper presents a mathematical analysis of automobile exhaust based thermoelectric generator.
In this analysis, power produced from the thermoelectric generator is calculated on the basis of Seebeck effect
and laws of heat transfer. The conversion efficiency is determined by comparing the power output produced to
the total heat transferred by exhaust gases to the hot side of thermoelectric module. In this paper, mathematical
expression for power ratios in case of module mismatching are also determined for both series and parallel
configuration of linking thermoelectric modules. The main purpose of connecting thermoelectric modules is to
increase the power produced. As single module can't generate enough amount of power which could be utilized
in small electronics accessories in vehicle, modules are connected in a large number to increase power output
which can be used in charging batteries or small electronics applications in vehicles.
Keywords- Thermoelectric Module, Thermoelectric Generator, Seebeck effect, Module Mismatch
ntroduction Transportation sector is one of the significant causes for increasing environment pollution
and petroleum fuel crisis. So there is a greater need of efficient utilization of petroleum fuels. In an internal
combustion engine approximately 40% of fuel energy is wasted through exhaust gases [1]. The heat
energy of exhaust gases can be utilized by many waste heat recovery technologies such as Organic Rankine
cycle, Thermoelectric power generation, Six stroke IC engine cycle [2]. Among these technologies,
thermoelectric power generation provides a promising technology in which the waste heat energy of exhaust
gases is directly converted into electrical power on the basis of Seebeck effect. Thermoelectric Generator
(TEG) are getting more attention in waste heat recovery from exhaust gases due to rapidly increasing
advancement in semiconductor technology. TEGs have no moving components and it is compact, quiet, highly
reliable and environmentally friendly in operation [3]. But the main disadvantage of using TEG is its low
conversion efficiency. The conversion efficiency is around 2.5% on a system and around 3.5% on a
thermoelectric generator level, despite the significant increase in the figure of merit (ZT) value of
thermoelectric materials [4]. The figure of merit (ZT) value is an important parameter in determining the
performance of thermoelectric module. The efficiency of the TEG will be higher for the thermoelectric material
with higher value of figure of merit [5]. So further research should be focused on increasing conversion
efficiency of automobile exhaust based thermoelectric generator with the development of thermoelectric
material with higher figure of merit value.
Vikrant Mishra
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana
Road Delhi-110042,
E-mail- mishra92vikrant@gmail.com
Kiran Pal
Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Delhi Institute of Tool Engineering,
Okhala, New Delhi-110042
E-mail- kiranpaldite@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
65
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Mishra and Pal
2. Power and Efficiency Calculation

Generally, TEG is composed of several thermoelectric modules which consists couple of assembled P-type and
N-type thermoelectric materials. The thermoelectric modules are arranged in 'r' rows and in each row, there are
'm' thermocouples of P-type and N-type thermoelectric materials. So, total number of couples (n) will be equals
to multiplication of number of rows and number of couples in single row (n= r*m). In this analysis, exhaust gas
is considered as hot source of TEG device and ambient air as cold source. Let us consider the jth unit in the
theoretical model presented in figure 1. The power produced can be calculated in generalized way by
calculating power produced by jth unit (where, j = 1,2,3..,m). In the calculation of power produced, the outlet
temperature of the former module will be considered as the inlet temperature for the next module unit. In this
way, the power can be calculated for each unit.
Figure 1. Schematic model of thermoelectric generator containing 'n' number of modules [6]
In this analysis, there are some assumptions:
i. Thermal and flow properties of TE module should not vary with time i.e. steady state condition.
ii. The exhaust gas which entrapped in the gaps of device should be ignored.
iii. As the thickness of copper plate is enough small, thermal resistance of copper plate should be assumed
negligible (copper plate is used as an interface between exhaust gas and module).
iv. The thermal conductivity (k) of the thermoelectric material should not be the function of temperature,
i.e. it should be constant.
This mathematical analysis is based on the Seebeck effect of thermoelectricity, Fourier's law of heat
conduction. Based on Fourier's law, heat is transferred from exhaust gases to the hot side of TEG device.
The rate of heat transfer for P material at the hot side (Qp1) for jthunit can be expressed as:-
(1)
The rate of heat transfer for N material for jthunit:

(2)
Here, Sp1 and Sn1 are the Seebeck coefficient of P and N-type material at hot side, I is the output current, T1 is the
mean temperature of the hot side per unit length in axial direction, kp and kn are thermal conductivities of P and
N-type materials respectively. Ap and An are the cross sectional area and (dT/dy) is the temperature gradient in ydirection.Similarly equations for heat transfer rate (Qp2 and Qn2) at the cold side of the jthunit of TE module can be
written as:
(3)
(4)
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Mathematical Analysis of Exhaust Based Thermoelectric......

The correlation between temperature gradient with joule heat per unit height of P-N couple is expressed as:
(5)
(6)
Here is termed as the electrical resistivity of the material. For derivation of important mathematical relations
boundary conditions are:
At y = 0 ; Temperature of module (P-side temp), T = T1
At y = H; Temperature of module (N-side temp), T = T2.
Using boundary condition and integrating equations (5) and (6), we get:
(7)
(8)
Now using equation (7) in equations (1) & (2) and equation (8) in equations (3) & (4), the unit heat absorbed Q1
(at y=0) and unit heat released Q2 in jth unit of TE module can be obtained:
(9)
(10)
Where,
Hence 'K' is equivalent thermal conductance of the jth unit and R1 is the electrical resistance. The reciprocal of
thermal conductance (1/K) gives the value of thermal resistance in the unit module.
The output power for each unit of P-N couple can be expressed as:
(11)
And we can also calculate the efficiency of single module as:

(12)
For overall conversion efficiency and power output we take summation of all power values found from
individual modules:
(14)
(13)
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Mishra and Pal
Where Pjis the power generated from jthTE module and Q1 is the total heat transferred by exhaust gases to the hot
side of thermoelectric module. In the formula of overall power output 'r' is the number of rows as described
earlier and m is the number of TE modules in single row.
3.
Comparison of Theoretical and Actual Efficiency
In this work, a single thermoelectric module was tested by locating it on the exhaust pipe of vehicle between
catalytic converter and muffler because the average interface temperature is better in this location [8].The
theoretical efficiency for thermoelectric module is given by following expression [9]:
(15)
Putting all the values at an instant when hot side temperature is 105.3C and cold side temperature is 33.5C.
w T = temperature difference between both sides of module = 105.3 33.5 = 71.8 K
w Z = figure of merit of thermoelectric material; For Bismuth Telluride module, Z = 3*10-3 K-1
w Tm = (Th+ Tc)/2 = 69.4 C = 342.55 K.
After calculation theoretical efficiency is found as:
The actual power produced by the module for same hot and cold side temperature is observed as 2.28312 W. So
the actual efficiency of module:
Where Q1 is equal to the heat absorbed by hot side interface of module from the exhaust gases, so it can be
calculated from Newton's law of heat convection.
(16)
w
w
w
w
Where, h = heat transfer coefficient in W/m2-K = 10 W/m2-K

As = Area of surface to which heat is transferred = dl = 3.14*5.08*10-2*0.15 = 0.0239 m2
Te = Exhaust gas temperature = 400C
T= Temp of surface (base plate) which is being heated. = 105.3C
Then, Q1 = 10 * 0.0239 * (400 105.3) = 70.433 W
act= 2.28312/70.433 = 0.0324 = 3.24%.
ence, Actual efficiency is comparable to theoretical efficiency which is 3.60% for same hot side and cold side
temperature condition.
4. Module Mismatch
It is seen that there are discrepancies among predicted power output and actual power output when
thermoelectric modules are connected electrically in series or in parallel. This phenomenon of differences
between predicted and actual power output is known as module mismatch [10-11]. This case generally occurs
when parameters of connected thermoelectric modules differ. Mathematically, the problem of module
mismatch can be analyzed as followThe power generated by unit TE module from equation (11) can be simplified as:
(17)
Here, S in the Seebeck coefficient of TE couple. For maximum value of power output concept of maximaminima is used. Hence,
(18)
68

On solving above eq. (18),
(19)
Or
(20)
By putting this value of current (I) in equation (17), formula for maximum power produced by unit TE module
can be derived as:
(21)
If two modules are added electrically and P1 and P2 are the individual output power for module 1 and module 2
respectively. Then from equation (21),
(22)
Here, C1 and C2 are two ratios used to simplify equations, C1 is the ratio of seebeck coefficient of second module
(S2) to that of first module (S1). C2 is the ratio of electrical resistance of second module (R2) to electrical
resistance of first module (R1),
(23)
(24)
Equations (23) and (24) can be used to set up mismatch ratio when modules are connected electrically.
Now with the help of following governing equations the power ratio in case of series connection and parallel
connection of thermoelectric modules can be estimated. Governing equation are:
(25)
(26)
3.1.Module mismatching for Series connection

In series connection of modules, the current remains constant and voltage increases. Let us consider there are
two modules connected in series and voltage induce through them are V1 and V2respectively. Then from
governing equation (30),
(32)
(33)
(34)
Current passing through serially connected module (Is) by rearranging equation (34):
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Mishra and Pal
(35)
From here, the equivalent maximum voltage (which is half of open circuit voltage) and equivalent maximum
current (which is half of the short circuit current) in case of series-connection of module 1 and module 2 can be
calculated as:
(36)
(37)
Here V0 is the open circuit voltage and I0 is the short circuit current. The value of maximum power will be
multiplication of maximum current and maximum voltage value of series-connected module.
(38)
Using the values of C1 and C2 in above equation (38), the value of peak power in terms of C1 and C2:
(39)
Now we can compare the maximum power produced by the module 1 and module 2 connected in series. This
value is lower than the sum of individual peak powers produced by both module. If we divide equation (39) by
equation (27) the ratio will indicate the level of mismatch.
(40)
3.2.Module mismatching for parallel connection

Parallel connection thermoelectric modules provide that there is same voltage induced across all the TE
modules but the current differs. From governing equation (31), electrical current passing through module 1 and
module 2 separately are:
(41)
(42)
The electrical current passing through full TE unit will be the sum of currents in individual module. Hence the
current passing through the parallel-connected modules (Ip):
(43)
Rearranging the equation (43) for the value of Vp,

(44)
Now, to find maximum value of current and voltage induced in parallel-connected TE module, the value of
70

short circuit current (I0) and open circuit voltage (Vo) will be halved:
(45)
(46)
Now, peak power output can be determined by multiplying maximum current and maximum voltage in parallelconnected TE module:
(47)
Using the values of C1 and C2, the peak power can be calculated in term of C1 and C2
(48)
Now, the maximum power produced by parallel-connected modules can be compared with the sum of power
produced by individual modules. Parallel-connected modules have lesser value of power output. If we divide
equation (48) by equation (27) the ratio will indicate the level of mismatch.
(49)
3.3 Special cases

Some special cases for power ratios in series and parallel connection are as follow:
i.
When C1 = C2 ,
In this case, the power ratio for series connection,
For parallel connection,
So the condition when ratio C1 and C2 becomes equal, the problem of mismatch is incapacitated in seriesconnection of modules. But for parallel connection there is still a mismatching even the value of the parameters
ratios are same.
ii. When the seebeck coefficient of both the module are equal (S1 = S2) In this case the value of ratio constant C1 will equal to 1. Putting the value C1=1 in equation of power
ratios (eq. 40 and eq. 49),
The expression for series connection,
For parallel connection,
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Mishra and Pal
Hence for the second case, parallel connection overcome the problem of mismatch and there is similar
mismatching in series-connection as in the parallel connection for the first case. From the second case it can be
concluded that if the value of seebeck coefficient (S) is same for all TE module, the performance of TEG system
will not be affected by mismatching in parallel configuration of connection.
iii. When the electrical resistance is same for both moduleIn this case the value of C2 will be equals to 1. This case gives same value of power ratio for both series
and parallel type connection of modules.
From the above equation, it is clear that when both modules have same electrical resistance, the value of power
ratio will never be less than 0.5.
5. Validation of Power Loss Due To Module Mismatching
To validate the power loss due to module mismatching, two different types of modules were connected and
observations found are as follow:
Figure 2. Voltage-current curve for individual and connected modules
Figure 3. Power-current curve for module 1, module 2 and the connected module
72

The Power-current relationship clearly shows that maximum power generated by connected module is less than
the sum of maximum power produced by the both modules individually. These discrepancies between
predicted power output and actual power output can be minimized by using the condition described in the
previous section. In this work the power loss ratio due to module mismatching is calculated as:
Hence, the value of power loss ratio is less than one i.e. maximum power produced by the connected module is
less than the sum of individual peak powers produced by both modules.
6. Conclusion
This paper presents a mathematical analysis of automobile exhaust based thermoelectric generator. The
expression for power produced and conversion efficiency are determined on the basis of Seebeck effect,
Fourier's law of heat conduction and Newton's law of heat convection. The concept on mismatching in
thermoelectric generator is also mathematically analyzed. Power ratios for mismatching in series and parallel
configuration are derived which can help in using optimum values of Seebeck coefficients and electrical
resistances.
References
[1]
Yu C, Chau KT, Thermoelectric automotive waste heat energy recovery using maximum power point
tracking; Energy Convers Manage 2009; Vol. 50, pp. 15061512.
[2]
R. Saidur, M. Rezaei , W.K. Muzammil, M.H. Hassan, S. Paria, M. Hasanuzzaman, Technologies to
recover exhaust heat from internal combustion engines; Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
2012, Vol. 16, pp. 56495659.
[3]
Basel I. Ismail and Wael H. Ahmed, Thermoelectric Power Generation Using Waste-Heat Energy as an
Alternative Green Technology; Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 27-39.
[4]
Fairbanks J. Thermoelectric applications in vehicles status 2008. In: Proceedings of the 6th European
conference on thermoelectrics, ICMPE-CRNS; 2008,pp. 18.
[5]
Saniya LeBlanc, Thermoelectric generators: Linking material properties and systems engineering for
waste heat recovery applications, Sustainable Materials and Technologies 2014, Vol.1-2, pp. 2635.
[6]
Yuchao Wang, Chuanshan Dai and Shixue Wang, Theoretical analysis of a thermoelectric generator
using exhaust gas of vehicles as heat source, Applied Energy 2013, Vol. 112, pp. 11711180.
[7]
J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer, Tenth Edition, The McGraw-Hill publisher, 2010, pp. 27-57.
[8]
X. Liu, Y.D. Deng, S. Chen, W.S. Wang, Y. Xu and C.Q. Su, A case study on compatibility of automotive
exhaust thermoelectric generation system, catalytic converter and muffler, Case Studies in Thermal
Engineering 2014, Vol. 2, pp. 6266.
[9]
Terry M.Tritt and M.A.Subramanian, Thermoelectric Materials, Phenomena, and Applications: A
Bird's Eye View; MRS Bulletin, March 2006, Vol. 31, pp. 188-198.
[10] A. Chouder and S. Silvestre, Analysis model of mismatch power losses in PV systems, Journal of Solar
Energy Engineering, 2009 Vol. 131, no. 2, pp. 024504-1 024504-5.
[11] D. Picault, B. Raison, S. Bacha, J. de la Casa, and J. Aguilera, Forecasting photovoltaic array power
production subject to mismatch losses, Solar Energy, 2010 vol. 84, no. 7, pp. 1301-1309.
73
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Optimization of Solar Assisted Production

of Biodiesel From Cotton Seed Oil
Manisha, Vikrant Mishra, R.S. Mishra and Amit Pal
Abstract - At present, there are many research and developments are taking place in every aspects of human
life, but still millions of people are facing the problem of deficient-electricity in India and all around the world.
It's true that biodiesel can be an alternative to petroleum-fuels (Gasoline and Diesel), but the production process
of biodiesel is still not so cost effective that it can be used commercially in automobiles. To make it cost
effective, a small parabolic dish type solar reflector was used for heating required in transesterification process
which avoid the use of electrical heating and magnetic stirrer. This paper presents optimization of different
process parameters used in solar assisted biodiesel production.
Keywords- Biodiesel; Solar irradiation; Taguchi's method; Transesterification; Yield.
ntroduction In recent years, new technologies of biodiesel production are becoming more promising.
Solar assisted biodiesel production is one of the new technologies which not only utilize solar energy for
heating purpose in place of electrical heater, but also produce biodiesel of better quality. In solar assisted
method, a parabolic dish type solar reflector is used which concentrate heat at its focal point. A vessel containing
oil, methanol and catalyst in different proportions is placed on the focal point of reflector and transesterification
process takes place when it is maintained at around 70C for one hour [1]. In transesterification process, there
are four process parameters: oil to methanol molar ratio, reaction time, reaction temperature, catalyst
concentration. In some previous work on conventional method biodiesel production, these process parameters
were optimized to increase the yield of biodiesel produced. Mishra et al. [2] presented optimization of process
parameters on the Neem oil methyl ester production. In this work, they used Taguchi's method of optimization.
Sherbiny et al. [3] discussed the production of biodiesel from jatropha oil using microwave irradiation method
and then optimization of process parameters was performed to increase the conversion yield. The optimum
conditions in this work were methanol to oil molar ratio as 7.5:1 and 1.5% potassium hydroxide as the catalyst.
The optimum reaction temperature was 60C. The conversion yield was found as 97.4% in just 2 min using the
microwave irradiation technique.
In this paper, process parameters are optimized using the Taguchi's method. This method not only optimized the
Manisha and Vikrant Mishra

P.G. Student1,2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi110042,
E-mail- manishasingh3090@gmail.com, mishra92vikrant@gmail.com,
R.S. Mishra
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042
E-mail- professor_rsmishra@yahoo.co.in
Amit Pal
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi110042
E-mail- amitpal@dce.ac.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
75
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Manisha et al.
process parameters but also make the better feasibility of solar assisted biodiesel production.
2. Design of Experiments using Taguchi's Method
At first, the design of experiments was done using Taguchi's method. In this work, the experiments were
designed using a 3-level and 4-factor database. The process parameters or factors and their level are tabulated as
follow:
Table 1. Process parameters and their levels
Taguchi's software generate a L9 type orthogonal array on the basis of 3-level 4-factors. The experiments were
performed using these nine iterations of L9 orthogonal array and the yield is calculated by performing
experiments. The following table shows the different yield percentage at different conditions of process
parameters:
Table 2. L9 orthogonal array with yield (%) calculated
With the help of this orthogonal array, Main effect plots for mean values of yield and signal to noise ratios are
generated by Taguchi's software.
3. Experimental Method of Solar Assisted Biodiesel Production
A parabolic dish type solar reflector was used in this work. At first, the cotton seed oil was heated up to remove
moisture content then it was cooled to 60C. A mixture of methanol and KOH is prepared in different beaker
then it is mixed with the cotton seed oil. Now, this mixture of oil, methanol and KOH is heated by putting it at
focal point of reflector. The flux temperature is maintained around 60C-80C for 50 to 70 minutes. In this way,
solar assisted transesterification is performed. The different yields of cotton seed oil methyl ester found from
different experiments are shown in table 2.
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Optimization of Solar Assisted Production of Biodiesel.....
Figure 1. Solar assisted transesterification.

4. Determination of Optimal Experimental Condition By the Design of Experiment
The yield of biodiesel produced under nine sets of experimental conditions are estimating by performing
experiments under the same experimental conditions. After conducting nine experiments and measuring the
percentage yields, there are nine observations in total for each experiment. According to the analysis for the
case of 'larger the better', the mean squared deviations (MSD) of each experiment were evaluated using the
following equation [2]:
Where 'n' is the number of repetitions of each experiment and 'yi'is the yield of biodiesel.
Figure 2. Main effect plot for means.

Signal to Noise (S/N) Ratio
In Taguchi optimization Signal to Noise Ratio is a significant parameter which is used to estimate the extent of
deviation of quality function from the expected value. Taguchi approach uses three types of S/N Ratios on the
basis of objective of the problem.
I.
Nominal-the-Best
ii. Smaller-the-Better
iii. Larger-the-Better
In normal-to-best S/N ratio, normalization problems are solved. Smaller-the-better S/N ratio is used for
minimization problem and larger-the-better is used for maximization of problem. In the transesterification
process, we need to maximize conversion yield of biodiesel, so larger-the-better ratio is used.
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Manisha et al.
The mathematical equation for these three types of S/N ratios are as follow-
Where,
i Experiment number
j Trial number
n Number of trials
So the optimum level of design factor will be the level with maximum signal to noise ratio.
Figure 3. Main effect plots for signal to noise ratios

ANOVA Table
The optimal value of different process parameters can be simply determined by signal to noise ratio
analysis. But this S/N ratio analysis can't distinguish the reason for different fluctuation of each factor level.
Improper experimental conditions or experimental errors might be the reason for this. Therefore, the
experimental error can't be estimated by S/N ratio analysis. Additionally, S/N ratios cannot systematically
calculate the differences among the mean values and specify the magnitudes of the factor effects using the same
standard.
Due to these drawbacks of S/N ratio analysis, ANOVA analysis is necessary for calculating the
magnitudes of the factor affecting the index. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) is conducted for identification
of the optimum set of process parameters. Response data is used for ANOVA analysis. The most significant
process parameter can be identified by calculating the percentage contribution of each parameter on the
conversion yield of biodiesel. The percentage of contribution can be calculated using the following equations-
78
Optimization of Solar Assisted Production of Biodiesel.....
Here SSi is the sum of the square for ith parameter and SST is the total sum of the square of all parameters.
In this work, ANOVA table generated by Taguchi's software is as follow:
Table 3. ANOVA Table
ANOVA table clearly shows that P-value is minimum for molar ratio, so the contribution of molar ratio is
affecting yield will be greatest. Reaction temperature and catalyst concentration have less contribution in
affecting yield.
Maximum yield prediction
The theoretical maximum yield of biodiesel can be predicted by using the following equation. The process
parameters are taken in optimum condition.
Where, SNRo S/N ratio under optimum conditions

Yo - Theoretical optimum yield
5. Results and Discussions
Taguchi's method used for optimization of process parameters also generate main effect plots of yield with
respect to different process parameters individually. The optimum conditions for transesterification can be
found by analyzing these main effect plots.
Main Effects Plot for Yield (%)
Data Means
95.0
94.5
Mean
94.0
93.5
93.0
92.5
92.0
1
Molar Ratio
Figure 4. Yield vs Molar ratio
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RAME-2016
Figure 5. Yield vs reaction time
Manisha et al.
Figure 6. Yield vs reaction temperature
Figure 7. Yield vs Catalyst concentration

Main effects plots for yield with different parameters clearly depict that optimum conditions in this solar
assisted biodiesel production are: oil to alcohol molar ratio 6:1, reaction time 60 min, reaction temperature 70C
and catalyst concentration 1.0 wt%. At these conditions, the conversion yield was found maximum (95.56%).
The ANOVA table also depicts the P-values for every process parameters. Lower the P-value, higher is the
contribution of parameter in affecting yield. So, Effect of oil to methanol molar ratio on conversion yield is
higher than the effects of other parameters.
6. Conclusion
In this work, optimization of process parameters were done using Taguchi's software. Solar assisted biodiesel
production is cost effective because there is no use of electrical heater in this process. To make this process more
qualitative and commercialized, optimization of parameters is important. The maximum yield was obtained in
this case was 95.56% at optimum condition of molar ratio 6:1, reaction time 60 min, reaction temperature 70C
and catalyst concentration of 1.0 wt%.Thus, it can be said that solar assisted biodiesel production is not only
cost effective but also a qualitative method of biodiesel production.
References
1. Brian M Agee, Gene Mullins and Daniel J Swartling, Use of solar energy for biodiesel production and use of
biodiesel waste as a green reaction solvent, Sustainable Chemical Processes (2014), pp. 2-211
2. R. S. Mishra, Amit Pal, Anand Prakash Mall, Application of Taguchi Experimental Design for the
Optimization of Effective Parameters on the Neem oil Methyl Ester (Biodiesel) Production, International
Journal of Advance Research and Innovation (2015), Volume 3, Issue 3, pp. 490-497.
3. El Sherbiny SA, Refaat AA, El Sheltawy ST. Production of biodiesel using the microwave technique.
Journal of Advanced Research (2010), Vol. 1, pp. 30914.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Experimental Analysis of Solar Assisted

Biodiesel Production for RAME 2016
Abstract - In recent years, fossil fuels are rapidly diminishing due to increasing demand. Biodiesel has been
renowned as an alternative fuels for depleting fossil fuels since it is produced mainly from vegetable oils and
animal fats, is a renewable resource, and is non-toxic. Transesterification is the most commonly used biodiesel
production process in which triglyceride is heated with alcohol and catalyst. If this heating process in
transesterification can be done by the renewable source, the overall cost of biodiesel production could be
reduced. In this work, a parabolic dish type solar reflector is used which utilized solar energy for heating in
transesterification project. This paper presents an experimental analysis of biodiesel production from cotton
seed oil with the assistance of solar energy. The result shows that the yield of biodiesel produced is better in case
of solar assisted method than in conventional method.
Keywords- Transesterification; Solar irradiation; Biodiesel; Yield.
ntroduction It is well known fact that fossil fuel constitute a finite resource, so biofuel can be an
alternative source of energy in place of petroleum fossil fuels. Biofuels are generally organic combustibles
derived from biomass. These are mainly used for combustion to produce heat for industrial processes,
electricity generation and heat engine carburation in IC engines. Edible and Non-edible different kinds of crops
used as feedstock material for biodiesel. Generally, biodiesel is produced by transesterification of feedstock oil.
In the present scenario, although petroleum-based fuels can't be entirely replaced by biodiesel, there are various
advantages of biodiesel over diesel fuel. It is biodegradable and more than 90% biodiesel can be biodegraded
within 21 days. Cetane number and combustions efficiency are higher for biodiesel than in case of diesel fuel.
The Sulfur and aromatic content is lower in case of biodiesel i.e. use of biodiesel for combustion process in
engines does not produce toxic emission gases. Additionally, it reduces most exhaust emissions such as
monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and particulate matter except oxides of nitrogen (NOx) [1].
Biodiesel production process can be made cost effective if the heating required in transesterification is done by
the use of solar energy. Agee et al. [2] discussed the production of biodiesel using solar energy for processing
heat in transesterification. In this work, a parabolic solar reflector made of satellite dishes was developed to
concentrate solar irradiation on its focal point. Feedstock oil with alcohol and catalyst was placed on the focal
point of the reflector and then transesterification process takes place in approximately in one hour. In this work
Manisha,
P.G. Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi110042,
E-mail- manishasingh3090@gmail.com,
Amit Pal and R.S. Mishra
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042
E-mail- amitpal@dce.ac.in, professor_rsmishra@yahoo.co.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
81
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Manisha et al.
soybean oil was used as feedstock oil. For successful processing of transesterification, solar irradiation should
be greater than 400-450 W/m2. The result indicates that solar assisted biodiesel production is successful at millimolar and small molar scale. So further improvisation is needed to enhance the quality of biodiesel production.
Design modification such as making large size of solar reflector should be developed. Hou et al. [3] proposed a
new concept of utilizing solar energy application to supply steam and electricity for biodiesel production. As in
the biodiesel production process, the combustion of fossil fuels takes place to supply steam and electricity
needed for the refinement of crude fatty acid methyl ester (FAME). In this process, some pollutant gases such as
CO2, NOx and SOx are also released into the environment. To reduce these disapproving condition, solar energy
appliances can be utilized.
2. Experimental Setup
In this experiment, a small paraboloid solar reflector was used which concentrate heat at the platform placed on
its focal point. The specifications of the solar reflector are shown in following table 1:
Table 1- Specifications of the parabolic dish collector
The high concentration ratio of parabolic dish collector helps in rapidly increasing the temperature of the oil,
alcohol and catalyst mixture. The objective of this type of setup is to produce biodiesel without the use of
electrical heating. The vessel containing oil, methanol and catalyst mixture should be placed at the platform
provided at the focal point of the reflector. The parabolic solar collector should be installed in such a way that it
concentrate reflected solar rays to the vessel used for transesterification process.
Figure 1. Concentrating solar reflector used in the experiment

3.
Experimental Procedure
The edible or non-edible feedstock oils, used in biodiesel production process, may contain free fatty acids,
water, triglycerides and other contaminants in different quantity. So there is need of various pretreatment before
transesterification. Some undesirable contaminants in feedstock oil can be removed by different kinds of
degumming methods. The phospholipids solubility can be significantly reduced in case of hydration
degumming method, but this method is only applicable to hydratable phospholipids. Non-hydratable
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Experimental Analysis of Solar Assisted Biodiesel Production.....

phospholipids are extracted by acid micelles degumming method in which phosphoric acid is added into the
feedstock oil. The supercritical extraction method can effectively extract the free fatty acids from the crude oil
by the refinement with supercritical CO2 extraction. But the requirement of high pressure in this process
restraints its application [4].
The next step in production of biodiesel is selection of catalyst for transesterification. Generally, three types of
catalyst are generally used- Alkali, Acid and enzymes. If the free fatty acid (FFA) content in feedstock oil is less
than 2.5 wt%, alkali base catalyst is used in transesterification and in case of FFA higher than 2.5 wt%, acid
catalyst are used. Enzymes are used when better quality of biodiesel is needed, but these are expensive. In this
work, Cotton seed oil is used as feedstock oil which has FFA content around 0.74 wt%, So alkali catalyzed
transesterification process is used in this work [5].
Solar assisted TransesterificationIn transesterification process, triglyceride is ultimately converted into methyl or ethyl ester of oil, which
is named as biodiesel. Triglycerides are esters of saturated and unsaturated monocarboxylic acids which found
in common feedstock oils along with trihydric alcohol glyceride. Triglyceride reacts with alcohol in presence of
the catalyst and converts into diglyceride and then into monoglyceride into consecutive processes. The
chemical reaction is shown as follows [5]:
In this work, methanol and potassium hydroxide (KOH) are used as alcohol and catalyst. The experimental
procedure for solar assisted transesterification is as follows:
Take 50 gram of cotton seed oil and heat up the oil using solar energy to remove the water content
present in it.
Then cool the heated oil up to 60 C in ambient air.
Then prepare a mixture of methanol and KOH in separate beaker and after mixing, this solution is
poured into cotton seed oil.
Transesterification reaction starts after this, maintain flux temperature around 70C for one hour to
accomplish the transesterification reaction properly.
After completion of transesterification, two layers appears in the beaker. The lower layer is of glycerol
which is higher in density and appears as dark brown color. The upper layer is of cottonseed oil methyl
ester (CSOME) which is our required product.
CSOME is separated from glycerol using a burette and then purified using the water washing process.
In this process, warm water (30% of oil quantity at 60C) is poured into the crude CSOME and the
contaminants of remaining alkali catalyst are neutralized due to water washing process.
The final product is gained by heating the CSOME after water washing to remove remaining water
content. Thus, quality of biodiesel production is maintained.
Figure 2. CSOME and glycerol produced
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Manisha et al.
4.
Medium Scale Production
To perform solar assisted trans-esterification at medium scale, a scheffler reflector was used in place of small
solar paraboloid reflector as it can rapidly heat up the oil-methanol-KOH mixture to flux temperature and then
the solution is maintained at flux temperature approximately for 40 to 50 minutes. The specifications of
scheffler reflector are as follow:
Table 2. Specifications of the scheffler reflector
Figure 3. Transesterification process using Scheffler reflector
In medium scale production, 500 grams of cottonseed oil were used. The oil to methanol ratio used was 6:1 and
catalyst concentration 1.0 wt%. The solution was maintained at flux temperature 70C approximately for 50
minutes. The final product is in the form of two separate layers. The lower layer of dark brown color is of
glycerol and upper layer is of CSOME. Glycerol is separated from biodiesel (CSOME) and water washing is
done to remove the alcohol impurities in the biodiesel produced. After 4 hours of water washing, the biodiesel is
heated to remove water content. In this way, the purified biodiesel is produced from cottonseed oil. The
conversion yield found for CSOME was 93.60% which is comparatively better than yield of CSOME produced
in conventional method.
5.
5.1
Results And Discussions

Effect of reaction time
Figure 4. Comparison of yield at different reaction time (a) for molar ratio 4.5:1 (b) for molar ratio 6:1
84
Experimental Analysis of Solar Assisted Biodiesel Production.....

For small scale production, the reaction time was kept at 50 min and 60 min respectively. The yield
percentage shown is figure 4 depict that better yield was found at 60 min than in case of 50 min. Yield
percentage is also greater for oil to methanol molar ratio 6:1 than in case of molar ratio 4.5:1.
5.2 Effect of reaction temperature
Figure 5. Comparison of yield at different reaction temperature (a) for oil to methanol molar
ratio 4.5:1 (b) for molar ratio 6:1
Reaction temperature is a significant factor which affects yield of biodiesel produced. In this experiment, the
flux temperatures of mixture were maintained at 60C and 70C respectively. Results show that better yield is
found in case of 70C reaction temperature than in case of 60C.
5.3
Effect of Solar irradiation on Yield of biodiesel
For successful completion of solar assisted transesterification process, The average intensity of solar radiation
should be above 400 W/m2 [2]. The conversion yield increases with increasing solar intensity. The reaction time
also gets reduced with increasing solar intensity.
Figure 6. Conversion yield with respect to Average solar intensity
Figure 7. Comparison of yield at different scale for different alcohols.
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Manisha et al.
As from the results in the previous section, it is clear that yield is better for the case of molar ratio 6:1 and
catalyst concentration 1.0 wt%. So the experiments were performed at these condition and also at the same time
and reaction temperature was maintained around 70C. The results depict that conversion yield of CSOME
found from solar assisted method is better than in case of conventional method. It can also be seen that ethanol
should be preferred for solar assisted transesterification at medium scale.
6. Conclusion
This paper presented an experimental analysis of biodiesel production from cotton seed oil using solar energy
as a medium of heating required in transesterification process. Experiments were performed at small and
medium scale. The results show that the conversion yield of CSOME (biodiesel) is comparatively better in case
of solar assisted biodiesel production than in conventional method. This new technique of biodiesel production
does not use electrical heater and magnetic stirring, so it is a cost-effective technique and it can be
commercialized in future in the field of biodiesel production from various feedstocks.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of National Institute of Solar Energy, Gurgaon in this
work.
References
[1]
Dennis Y.C. Leung, Xuan Wu, M.K.H. Leung, A review on biodiesel production using catalyzed
transesterification, Applied Energy 87 (2010), pp. 10831095.
[2]
Brian M Agee, Gene Mullins and Daniel J Swartling, Use of solar energy for biodiesel production and
use of biodiesel waste as a green reaction solvent, Sustainable Chemical Processes (2014), pp. 2-21.
[3]
ZhiHou, Danxing Zheng, Solar utility and renewability evaluation for biodiesel production process,
Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009), pp. 31693174.
[4]
Dennis Y.C. Leung, Xuan Wu, M.K.H. Leung, A review on biodiesel production using catalyzed
transesterification, Applied Energy 87 (2010), pp. 10831095.
[5]
Vineet Kumar, Manish Jain, Amit Pal, An experimental study on biodiesel production from cotton seed
oil through conventional method, International Journal of Engineering Technology, Management and
Applied Sciences (2014), Volume 2 Issue 7, ISSN 2349-4476.
86
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Biodiesel Production: A Review on

Innovative Techniques
Abstract - Global demand for energy is continuously rising as the world economy is growing. Petro-fuels are
also depleting due to excessive usage, so biodiesel, which is non-toxic, biodegradable and environmentally
friendly, can be a good alternative to petro-fuels. In this paper, a review of different technologies used for
biodiesel production over the past decade has been presented. Among these different technologies,
transesterification is the most commonly used method of biodiesel production. Several factors affect the
conversion efficiency of biodiesel via transesterification e.g. feedstock type, amount and type of alcohol and
catalyst, reaction temperature and reaction time. In this paper, Conventional methods of biodiesel production
with the use of alkaline, acidic and enzymatic catalysts have been reviewed. New Trends of biodiesel
production have also been discussed, e.g. Microwave irradiation assisted biodiesel production, ultrasonic
irradiation and solar irradiation assisted biodiesel production.
Keywords- Transesterification, Biodiesel, catalyst, molar ratio, microwave irradiation, ultrasonic cavitation,
solar irradiation
ntroduction The role of energy and energy sources is highly significant fo r the development of a country.
Industrial development over the years and population growth have led to a vast increase in the global
demand for energy. Improper utilizations of energy resources over the past years have also created serious
issue of energy crisis in the upcoming time. So there is an emerging need to develop unconventional and
renewable sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy, bioenergy and biofuels, tidal power, geothermal
energy etc. It is well known fact that fossil fuel constitute a finite resource, so biofuel can be an alternative
source for energy in place of petroleum fossil fuels. Biofuels are generally organic combustibles derived from
biomass. These are mainly used for combustion to produce heat for industrial processes, electricity generation
and heat engine carburation in IC engines. Edible and Non-edible different kinds of crops used as feedstock
material for biofuel. Although at present Petroleum-based fuels can't be entirely replaced by biodiesel, still
there are numerous advantages of biodiesel over diesel fuel. It is biodegradable and more than 90% biodiesel
can be biodegraded within 21 days. Cetane number is higher for biodiesel than in case of diesel fuel. The
Sulphur and aromatic content are lower in case of biodiesel i.e. use of biodiesel for combustion process in
engines does not produce toxic exhaust gases. Additionally, it reduces most exhaust emissions such as
monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and particulate matter except oxides of nitrogen (NOx) [1]. So biodiesel can
provide an alternative solution to the problems of petro-fuel crisis and environmental degradation.
Manisha,
P.G. Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road,
Delhi-110042,
E-mail- manishasingh3090@gmail.com,
Amit Pal and R.S. Mishra
E-mail- amitpal@dce.ac.in, professor_rsmishra@yahoo.co.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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2.
Various Feedstocks for biodiesel productionBiodiesel can be produced from both edible and non-edible oil-seeds. Various conventional and nonconventional feedstock, used for the production of biodiesel, are shown in Table 1. These include edible oils,
non-edible oils, wild oils, waste cooking oils, animal fats and non-conventional feedstocks [2]. The most
commonly used biodiesel feedstock in India are jatropha and waste cooking oil. The availability of sufficient
amount of feedstock is an essential condition for biodiesel production.
Table 1 Various feedstocks for biodiesel production [3]
Figure 1. Different feedstocks
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Biodiesel Production: A Review on Innovative Techniques

3.
Conventional Method of Biodiesel Production
Both Edible and Non-edible oils can be converted into fuels by several procedures such as pyrolysis, microemulsification, cracking, blending and Transesterification. These fuels have properties comparable to petrofuels.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of transesterification [2]

Mostly, Transesterification method is used for biodiesel production due to its merits over other biodiesel
production processes. For example,Transesterification is carried out under normal conditions and the yield of
biodiesel produced is comparatively good. Transesterification is a chemical method in which the triglyceride is
converted into diglyceride and diglyceride is converted intomonoglyceride which is methyl or ethyl ester
named as biodiesel.The reactions consist of consecutive reversible processes are shown in following chemical
equations below. In transesterification process, triglyceride is ultimately converted into methyl or ethyl ester of
oil, which is named as biodiesel. The chemical reactions are shown below [3]:-
Here, R1, R2 and R3 are long-chain hydrocarbons, sometimes these are also called fatty acid chains. Generally,
there are five main types of chains invegetable oils and animal oils: palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic,
andlinolenic. In case of transesterification, when the triglyceride is converted stepwise to diglyceride,
monoglyceride and finally to glycerol, 1 mole of fatty ester is liberated at each step [4]. Usually, the alcohol
preferred for transesterification is methanol because of its high reactivity.
Uddin et al. (2013) presented a study on synthesis of biodiesel from waste cooking oil. A three-step method was
used in which first step was the saponification of the oil, second was acidification to produce FFA and the third
step was transesterification to produce biodiesel. In saponification process, the reaction time was noted as 2
hours when heated at 100C and the optimum molar ratio was 1:2 oil to NaOH. The molar ratio of soap to
hydrochloric acid in acidification process was 1:2 and in the third step of esterification, the molar ratio of
CH3OH to FFA was 6:1. The concentration of HCl was 5wt% of FFA, the chemical reaction temperature was
60C and the reaction time was 2 hour, with silica gel reaction time was reduced to 80 min and FFA content was
reduced to 0.94%.A factorial design was applied which enabled the esterification reaction to occur in optimum
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conditions. The result showed that 79% conversion yield was found at optimum condition. [5].
Berchmans et al. (2008) discussed a technique of biodiesel production from high FFA containing oil. For
example, crude jatrophacurcas seed oil (CJCO) contains high free fatty acids and use of alkali base catalyst in
transesterification could reduce the yield of methyl esters of fatty acids by a considerable amount. In such cases
of high FFA oil, Acid pretreatment is done at first step. The FFA content of crude jatrophacurcas seed oil is
reduced to less than 1% after acid pretreatment. In second step, transesterification process with alkali base
catalyst gives 90% yield of jatropha oil methyl esters [6].
Huang et al. (2010) presented the process of biodiesel production using microalgae in place of conventional
biodiesel feedstock. Microalgal oil have fatty acids content similar to common vegetable oils and it has short
term growth cycle. Composition of microalgae is relatively single. Heterotrophic cultivation of microalgae is
preferred for lipids production. The reaction temperature was maintained at 30C and 100% catalyst quantity
was achieved. But for large scale production of biodiesel from microalgal oil is not successful due to many
drawbacks such as high cost of production process, low lipid content and low biomass [7].
Pal et al. (2013) discussed two different technologies of biodiesel production from thumba oil and waste
cooking oil (WCO). These two technologies are low frequency ultrasonic energy (28-33 kHz) and conventional
mechanical stirrer method. The experiments were performed for alcohol to oil molar ratios of 4.5:1 and 6:1
respectively with different concentrations of KOH (0.5%, 0.75% and 1%). The results showed that the viscosity
and density values of thumba and WCO biodiesel are with in permissible limits but these value in comparison to
petroleum diesel were slightly higher.[8].
4. New Trends in Biodiesel Production
To enhance the process of biodiesel production, some new technologies are developed such as
microwave irradiation techniques, Supercritical transesterification, ultrasonic baths, ultrasonic reactors
techniques and use of solar energy in chemical heating process of esterification. The use of these technologies
reduce reaction time and enhance the quality of biodiesel as a product.
4.1
Microwave assisted production of biodiesel
Chen et al. (2012) discussed production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil using a microwave heating system.
The comparison of conventional and microwave assisted method was also done. The maximum yield of
biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil under conventional heating was 96.6%. In microwave assisted
system, the reaction time reduced to 1-6 minutes. The yield of biodiesel produced increased with reaction time
from 1 to 3 min, but then decreased from 3 to 5 min. For the microwave assisted production, the maximum yield
of biodiesel produced in microwave assisted method was 97.9%. The result showed that optimal condition in
this work were use of 0.75 wt% CH3ONa catalyst, a methanol to oil molar ratio of 6:1, microwave power of 750
W and reaction time 3 min [9].
Azcan and Danisman (2007) used microwave technology for transesterification of cottonseed oil in
the presence of methanol (CH3OH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH). A Start S model microwave unit was used
in this work. Both conventional and microwave irradiation assisted method of biodiesel production were
compared by the estimation of critical reaction parameters such as the amount of catalyst, reaction temperature
and reaction time. High conversion yield of biodiesel, produced from cotton seed oil, were obtained in the range
of 89.3-92.8% at the reaction temperature of 333K for both types of methods. Also the optimal catalyst to oil
ratio for both methods was same as 1.5% except the reaction time. Microwave irradiation technique consume
only 7 min in comparison of 30 min used for reaction in conventional biodiesel production process [10].
Yaakob et al. (2008) presented the method of Fatty acid methyl ester preparation form jatrophacurcas oil with
the assistance of microwave oven for heating required in chemical process. In this experiment the maximum
yield of biodiesel produced was obtained as 86.3% with excess oil to methanol molar ratio of 30:1. The catalyst
used in this experiment was 4% NaOH at a reaction temperature of 55C. The quality of FAME prepared from
jatrophacurcas oil using microwave assisted method was better and reaction time also magically reduced. [11].
Kamath et al. (2010) studied the method of biodiesel production from Pongamiapinnata non-edible oil under
batch microwave irradiation technique. The free fatty acid content in Pongamiapinnata oil is higher, so a twostep method was adapted. The conversion yields were different for both one-step and two-step approaches. In
one-step approach the yiels was 80% while in two-step approach, the yield was 90% with a molar ratio of
alcohol to oil equals to 10:1 and amount of catalyst KOH as 1 wt% [12].
Sherbiny et al. (2010) discussed the production of biodiesel from jatropha oil using microwave irradiation
90

method. In this experiment, same optimum reaction conditions to the microwave irradiation technique as in the
case of conventional method. In conventional process the best conversion yield was 99.8% using optimum oil
to methanol molar ratio as 7.5:1 and 1.5% potassium hydroxide (KOH) as the catalyst. The optimum reaction
temperature in this was 60C and reaction time was 60 min. On the other hand, under the same reaction
conditions for 2 min, conversion yield was found as 97.4% using the microwave irradiation technique [13].
Kanitkar et al. (2011) discussed transesterification process for rice bran oil and soybean oil using a batch
microwave heating system. The conversion yields were compared for methanol and ethanol. The results
showed that microwave technology reduce reaction time with both types of alcohols used and also reduce the
catalyst demand in comparison with conventional production. It was observed that ethanol is better in terms of
environmental issues and methanol is better in terms of effectiveness and performance [14].
Kumar et al. (2011) carried out a microwave-assisted transesterification of Pongamiapinnatausing methanol as
the alcohol and two types of alkaline catalyst, NaOH and KOH.The results indicated that optimum
concentration for NaOH was 0.5 wt% and for KOH was 1 wt%. An appropriate amount of methyl esters were
obtained as 97.5% using 1.0wt% KOH for 10 min and 96.0% yield using 0.5 wt% NaOH for 5 min. In both
condition, the optimum reaction temperature remained at 60C. Finally, the fuel properties were investigated
for all the reaction conditions and it was concluded that biodiesels produced from pongamiapinnata oil met the
ASTM standards for biodiesel. Microwave irradiation technique also reduced reaction time significantly from
3 hours in convention process to 5-10 min which makes the production process qualitative [15].
Hsiao et al. (2011) discussed the microwave-assisted biodiesel production from soybean oil using Nano powder
calcium oxide as catalyst. The maximum conversion yield under optimum condition was 96.6%. The results
indicated that combined use of microwave irradiation technique with nanopowder calcium oxide (nanoCaO)
catalyst make the biodiesel production from soybean oil very efficient and qualitative. [16].
Priambodo et al. (2015) conducted the experiments using novel technology to create biodiesel product from
cooking oil and waste cooking oil using microwave irradiation technique. They used the SrO catalyst which is a
heterogeneous base catalyst and insoluble into any liquid solution. Therefore, it can be recycling and reused.
The optimum condition using commercial SrO were, 40 to 180 seconds reaction time, around 80C reaction
temperature, oil to methanol molar ratio equals to 6:1 and 1000 W microwave power output. They determined
the conversion yield as 99% for the cooking oil and 93% for waste cooking oil [17].
Gude et al. (2013) presented potential of microwave energy for biodiesel production. Firstly they described the
characteristics of microwave irradiation and energy associated with microwave. The influence of microwave
energy is not strong enough to break chemical bonds, so microwaves cannot induce chemical reaction.
Microwave heat transfer mechanism was also discussed. In microwave enhanced transesterification process,
catalyst may or may not be required, heat losses are low. Reaction temperature is kept at 40-100C for a very
short period (3-6 minutes). Heating is done by electrical energy applied through microwaves. Process
efficiency is high, in the end, catalyst and soaps are extracted from biodiesel produced [18]. In this study the
following advantages of microwave assistance in biodiesel production were discussed:
Low energy consumption
Substantial reduction in reaction time of esterification
Reduction in amount of solvent requirement
Enhanced selectivity for production process
The conversion yield increases with less by-product formation
Many reaction that did not occur in conventional heating, could be completed with high
conversion yield under microwave irradiation technique.
So, it can be concluded that microwave irradiation assisted technique of biodiesel production can be better
option for biodiesel production on a commercial level.
4.2 Ultrasonic assisted production of biodiesel
Pal et al. (2013) discussed the production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil as feedstock using power
ultrasound and hydrodynamic cavitation technology. In this work the stress was given to the development of
laboratory test rigs for ultrasound cavitation technique which enhanced the biodiesel production from waste
cooking oil. The best conversion yield was above 90% with optimum conditions of methanol to oil molar ratio
equals to 4.5:1 and amount of catalyst concentration equals to 0.5% (w/w). The transesterification process
using ultrasound cavitation techniques appeared to be effective and rapid in comparison of conventional
transesterification. The reaction time was also sufficiently reduced. The conversion yield obtained for methyl
ester was high which make this process viable for industries [19].
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Koberg et al. (2011) reported the direct methods of biodiesel production from microalgae biomass of
Nannochloropsis. In the first technique, Microalgae was cultivated by the application of a biotechnological
environmental system, so the cost of algae production was reduced significantly. In the second method,
microwave and ultrasonic irradiation technique were compared with the assistance of SrO catalyst. For the
second case, the result showed that direct transesterification using microwave oven technique is more simple
and efficient than the ultrasonic assisted technique. The yield of biodiesel was also observed higher (37.1%) for
microwave oven technique in reaction time of 5 min, while ultrasonic technique could provide only 20.9% yield
in same reaction time [20].
Lin et al. (2012) presented production of biodiesel from waste frying oil with the assistance of ultrasonic energy.
In the first step, the acid value of the waste frying oil was reduced by acidification process. The FFA content of
waste frying oil was found higher, so esterification process took place with H2SO4 catalyst. Observations were
taken under various oil to alcohol molar ratio from 6:1 to 11:1 with a step of 1. The amount of catalyst was also
varied from 1.0 to 3.0 wt%. In the second step, triglycerides in waste frying oil (acid value < 2.0) were
transesterified with oil to alcoholmolar ratio of 6:1. The alkali-base catalyst NaOH was used (1.0 wt%) in this
second step. After this two-step reaction, FAMEs were found as the top layer in the separating funnel which
were removed in a beaker after settling minimum 30 minutes, then water washing process of FAMEs took place
at least three times with acetate 30% and distilled water. At last the separated FAME was dried in an oven at 378
3 K. The ultrasonic mixing in second step increase yield of FAME in this process. 97.1% of conversion rate of
waste frying oil into FAME was achieved [21].
4.3 Use of Solar Energy in biodiesel production
Agee et al. (2014) discussed the production of biodiesel using solar energy for processing heat in
transesterification. In this work, the mixture of soybean oil with alcohol and catalyst was placed on the focal
point of a parabolic solar reflector in a black painted round bottom flask and then transesterification process
takes place in approximately in 1 hour. For successful processing of transesterification, Solar irradiation should
be greater than 400-450 W/m2. In this experiment, synthetic process of biodiesel took place without generating
any chemical and electrical waste. All thermal energy was supplied through solar without any electricity use, so
no electrical waste was there. [22].
Hou et al. (2009) proposed a new concept of utilizing solar energy application to supply steam and electricity
for biodiesel production. As in the biodiesel production process, the combustion of fossil fuels takes place to
supply steam and electricity needed for the refinement of crude FAME. In this process, some pollutant gases
such as CO2, NOx and SOx are also released into the environment. To reduce these disapproving condition, solar
energy appliances can be utilized. In this experiment, the proposal started with the reported process of biodiesel
production using fossil fuels utility; then a alkali- catalyzed transesterification process was developed with the
use of solar energy utility on a 8000 t per annum scale. The simulation was done using the Aspen Plus software.
The results indicated that renewability index of the biodiesel production process with solar utility is 99.9%
which is 10.5% higher than the renewability index in conventional method. Also the 4676 t of CO2 gas release
were eliminated in a year. 1275 t of coal consumption was saved per year. [23].
5. Conclusions
The selection of biodiesel production method is mainly depends on various parameters such as type of
feedstock used, reaction time, reaction temperature, oil to alcohol molar ratio and amount of catalyst used, some
other technologies such as microwave irradiation, ultrasonic cavitation and solar irradiation are being
investigated to enhance the quality and effectiveness of biodiesel production process.
References
1. https://beeindia.gov.in/sites/default/files/1Ch1.pdf accessed on May 20, 2016.
2. Ejaz M. Shahid, Younis Jamal, Production of biodiesel: A technical review, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews 15 (2011), pp. 4732 4745.
3. F. Motasemi, F.N. Ani, A review on microwave-assisted production of biodiesel, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012), pp. 47194733.
4. Ma F, Hanna MA. Biodiesel production: a review. Bio resource Technology (1999), Vol. 70, pp. 115.
5. M. Rakib Uddin, KanizFerdous, M. Rahim Uddin, Maksudur R. Khan, M. A. Islam, Synthesis of Biodiesel
92

from Waste Cooking Oil, Chemical Engineering and Science (2013), Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 22-26.
6. HannyJohanesBerchmans, Shizuko Hirata, Biodiesel production from crude Jatropha curcas L. seed oil
with a high content of free fatty acids, Bioresource Technology 99 (2008), pp. 17161721.
7. GuanHua Huang, Feng Chen, Dong Wei, XueWu Zhang, Gu Chen, Biodiesel production by microalgal
biotechnology, Applied Energy 87 (2010), pp. 3846
8. Amit Pal, Surendra Singh kachhwaha, Application of ultrasound energy for biodiesel production of nonedible oils and CI engine performance testing, journal of scientific and industrial research (2013), pp. 387392.
9. Kang-Shin Chen, Yuan-Chung Lin, Kuo-Hsiang Hsu, Hsin-Kai Wang, Improving biodiesel yields from
waste cooking oil by using sodium methoxide and a microwave heating system, Energy 38 (2012), pp. 151156.
10. Azcan N, Danisman A. Alkali catalyzed transesterification of cottonseed oil by microwave irradiation. Fuel
86 (2007), pp. 26392644
11. Yaakob Z, Sukarman IS, Kamarudin SK, Abdullah SRS, Mohamed F. Production of biodiesel from
Jatropha Curcas by microwave irradiation, International conference on Renewable Energy Sources (2008).
12. Venkatesh Kamath I, Regupathi MB Saidutta. Microwave-assisted batch synthesis of Pongamia biodiesel.
Biofuels (2010), Vol. 1, pp. 847854.
13. El Sherbiny SA, Refaat AA, El Sheltawy ST. Production of biodiesel using the microwave technique.
Journal of Advanced Research (2010), Vol. 1, pp. 30914.
14. Kanitkar A, Balasubramanian S, Lima M, Boldor D. A critical comparison of methyl and ethyl esters
production from soybean and rice bran oil in the presence of microwaves. Bioresource Technology (2011),
Vol. 102, pp. 78967902.
15. Kumar R, Ravi Kumar G, Chandrashekar N., Microwave assisted alkali-catalyzed transesterification of
Pongamiapinnata seed oil for biodiesel production, Bioresource Technology (2011), Vol. 102, pp. 661720.
16. Hsiao M-C, Lin C-C, Chang Y-H. Microwave irradiation-assisted transesterification of soybean oil to
biodiesel catalyzed by nanopowder calcium oxide, Fuel (2011), Vol. 90, pp. 19631967.
17. Ricky Priambodo, Teng-Chien Chen, Ming-Chun Lu, AharonGedanken, Jiunn-Der Liao, Yao-Hui Huang,
Novel Technology for Bio-diesel Production from Cooking and Waste Cooking Oil by Microwave
Irradiation, Energy Procedia 75 (2015), pp. 84 91.
18. Veera GnaneswarGude, PrafullaPatil, Edith Martinez-Guerra, Shuguang Deng and
NagamanyNirmalakhandan, Microwave energy potential for biodiesel production, Sustainable Chemical
Processes (2013), pp. 1-31.
19. Amit Pal and Surendra S. Kachhwaha, Waste cooking oil: a promising feedstock for biodiesel production
through power ultrasound and hydrodynamic cavitation, journal of scientific and industrial research
(2013), Vol. 72, pp. 387-392.
20. Miri Koberg, Moshe Cohen, Ami Ben-Amotz, AharonGedanken, Bio-diesel production directly from the
microalgae biomass of Nannochloropsis by microwave and ultrasound radiation, Bioresource Technology
102 (2011), pp. 42654269.
21. Chin-Chiuan Lin, Ming-Chien Hsiao, Peir-Horng Liao, Ultrasonic-Assisted Production of Biodiesel from
Waste Frying Oil Using a Two-Step Catalyzing Process, Journal of Sustainable Bioenergy Systems (2012),
issue 2, pp. 117-121.
22. Brian M Agee, Gene Mullins and Daniel J Swartling, Use of solar energy for biodiesel production and use of
biodiesel waste as a green reaction solvent, Sustainable Chemical Processes (2014), pp. 2-21.
23. ZhiHou, Danxing Zheng, Solar utility and renewability evaluation for biodiesel production process,
Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009), pp. 31693174.
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Fabrication of Magnesium Based Metal Matrix

Composites Through Friction Stir
Processing A Review
Abstract- The scientists are concerned about the environment and they are inclined towards the light weight
materials fabricated by green technology. Magnesium is one of the light weight materials which have low
density, high strength to weight ratio, high damping capacity and excellent machinability. The properties of
magnesium alloys ensure fuel economy, reduced harmful emissions which ultimately lead to healthy
environment. Magnesium alloys exhibit appreciable decrease in mechanical properties when their components
are subjected to high mechanical/thermal stresses that discourage their application for critical components in
the automotive and aerospace sectors. So, to utilise the full capability of magnesium alloys, these alloys matrix
are incorporated with reinforcement particles to produce Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs). The potential
applications of the MMCs can be found in automotive, aerospace, biomedical and power industries. In order to
produce MMCs keeping in mind the environmental effect, an eco friendly and a solid state technique named
Friction Stir Processing (FSP) evolved which uses a non consumable rotating tool inserted into the workpiece
for heating and softening the material. This results in material severe plastic deformation resulting in improved
mechanical properties and refined grain structure. This paper presents the investigations of magnesium based
metal matrix composite fabrication by FSP carried by researchers. It was concluded that MMCs are
successfully fabricated through FSP and the processed region resulted in improved mechanical properties.
Keywords- Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs); Friction Stir Processing (FSP); Magnesium Alloys;
Reinforcement particles.
ntroduction Magnesium alloys are replacing aluminium and steel in the aerospace and automobile
industries and plastic in the electronic and computer industries due to light weight and excellent thermal
and electrical conductivity. This increasing demand of magnesium alloys is due to its low density, high
specific strength, good castability, weldability and machinability [1]. Magnesium alloys are developing their
demand in industries mainly due to their high strength to weight ratio. However, most of magnesium alloys
generally exhibit poor creep resistance at high temperatures, which discourages their industrial applications.
Further, Mg alloys posses inferior formability at room temperature due to their Hexagonal Closed Packed
(HCP) crystal structure; only three independent slip systems. Therefore, enhancement in ductility is the major
concerns for the industrial application of magnesium alloys, this is the reason that Mg based MMCs came into
existence. It is known that grain refinement is an effective approach to enrich the mechanical properties of
magnesium alloys. Fine grained structures have been achieved by applying various techniques, e.g. grain

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi 110042, India,
sumitrke1989@gmail.com, nyuvdce@yahoo.com, rch_dce@rediffmail.com,
rcsingh68@hotmail.com
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 9997581291

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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refiners [2], altering, rapid solidification [3], spray co-deposition, recrystallization, and severe plastic
deformation such as equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) [4]. Friction Stir Processing (FSP) is one of the
severe plastic deformation (SPD) and solid state method which works on the principle of Friction Stir Welding
(FSW) invented by The Welding Institute (TWI) in UK in 1991 [5]. The schematic illustration of FSP operation
is shown in Figure 1.
FSP was initially applied for grain refinement of aluminum and magnesium alloys, but with the technology
development it also becomes a useful process for fabricating Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs). Mishra et al.
[6] fabricated the SiC/Al MMCs by FSP, and indicated that SiC particles were finely dispersed in the Al matrix,
and good bonding with the Al matrix was generated. There are various conventional methods for fabricating
MMCs such as powder metallurgy, laser melt treatment, plasma spraying, stir casting etc but these techniques
results in deterioration of composite properties due to interfacial reaction between reinforcement particle and
the metal matrix [7]. Moreover, These techniques involve the material transformation from solid to liquid or
vapour state during the process as compared to solid state technique. Further, precise control of processing
parameters is required to obtain desired microstructure in surface layer after solidification. FSP is one of the
solid state processing techniques which have proved its capability in fabrication of all variants of MMCs with
little or no interfacial reaction with the reinforcement. The present paper aims at overall summary of the
Friction Stir Processed (FSPed) MMCs for magnesium alloys and the influence of FSP parameters on the
mechanical properties of produced composite.
2.
Magnesum Based Mmcs Fabrcaton By FSP
Metal Matrix Composite (MMCs) fabrication is one of the important applications of FSP. t is defined as a
multiphase material in which the surface of the material is changed by embodying secondary phase in the form
of particles and fibres. Almost all literature reported groove filling and closing method for incorporation of
secondary phase particles in the metal matrix. In this method, groove on the plate is closed with a pinless FSP
tool to prevent escape of reinforcement particles, before performing the real FSP operation.
Figure 1 Schematic Illustration of FSP Technique.

Most of the FSP investigations is limited to AZ series magnesium alloy. Commonly used reinforcements for
fabrication purpose are Titanium Carbide (TiC), Silicon Carbide (SiC), Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3), MWCNTs
and Boron Carbide (B4C) etc. This paper includes the different results regarding MMCs processsed by FSP with
special emphasis on effect of different processing parameters.
Morisada et al. [8] dispersed the Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in AZ31 matrix by FSP. After
doing FSP, it was revealed that dispersion of MWCNTs particles in AZ31 matrix depend on traverse speed of
the rotating tool. Lower transverse speed exhibited fine distribution of reinforcement particles in the Mg alloy
matrix since it gives enough time for heat flow to produce desired viscosity in the matrix. An excellent
dispersion wass obtained for the sample FSPed at 25mm/min and 1500 rpm. Grain refinement due to FSP and
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Fabrication of Magnesium Based Metal Matrix Composites.......

extreme high strength of MWCNTs leads to increase of microhardness in composites. Maximum
microhardness obtained is 78 Hv compared to 55 and 41 Hv of FSPed without reinforcement and as cast alloy
respectively. Also, pinning effect exhibited by MWCNTs increase mechanical properties due to reduction in
grain growth of AZ31 matrix. Morisada et al. [9] further developed SiC/AZ31 MMCs by FSP. SiCp results in
grain refinement after FSP through recrystallisation process. Due to grain refinement by SiC particles and high
hardness of particles, microhardness of stir zone with SiC particles is high compared to parent Mg alloy and
FSPed Mg alloy. Fine grain structure of AZ31 obtained by FSP becomes unstable at high temperature while that
of AZ31 having SiC particles is not affected by heat treatment process.
Number of FSP passes also affects the grain distribution during FSP. C.J. Lee et al. [10] fabricated AZ61/SiO2
nanocomposite by FSP. After FSP, the nano-SiO2 particles were observed to be clustered in a size ranging from
0.1 to 3m and the level of clustering was found to be reduced for the composites produced with higher number
of passes and nano-particles were uniformly dispersed after four FSP passes. Moreover, M. Dadashpour et al.
[11] fabricated AZ91/SiO2 by FSP and concluded that reinforcement particles were distributed evenly inside the
base metal matrix without any defect formation. Also, agglomeration of nanoparticles is observed at lower
number of FSP passes, which can be corrected by increasing the no. of FSP passes. This leads to increase of
strength of material. Further, Navazania and Dehghani [12] fabricated AZ31/ZrO2 nanopowders by FSP and
found that increase in the passes of the FSP led to finer grains as well as less agglomeration of the ZrO2 particles,
thus enhancing the pinning effect of particles. This pinning effect will retard the grain growth which leads to
improvement of mechanical properties such as strength and hardness. Navazania and Dehghani [13] further
synthesized 5m TiC particles on the surface of AZ31 magnesium alloy matrix and observed that by
incorporating TiC particles; average grain size was reduced from 40 to 12 . Also, TiC particles had pinning
effect on Grain Boundaries which restrict grain boundary movement and therefore grain growth is retarded.
Intense temperature and severe plastic deformation results in fine microstructure. Also, discontinuous dynamic
recrystallization is the main mechanism responsibel for refinement of microstructure. Average hardness is
increased from 50Hv to 79Hv after embodying reinforcement particle. Recently, M. Balakrishnan et al. [14]
fabricated TiC/AZ31 MMCs using FSP. There is even distribution of TiC particles without any formation of
clusters. Moreover, there is no interfacial reaction between the Mg matrix and TiC particles due to inadequate
temperature developed in the matrix which can start the reaction. Jiang et al. [15] successfully synthesized
nano-SiO2 particles in the AZ31 Mg a matrix through FSP. The authors revealed that SiO2 particles resulted in
grain refinement of equiaxed ultrafine grains with sizes of less than 1 m. Moreover, hardness of the SiO2/AZ31
composites was found to be 90 Hv which was nearly two times than that of the original alloy. This increase in
hardness was attributed to dispersion of high strength SiO2 particles and grain refinement taking place in the stir
region of AZ31/SiO2 composites.
Asadi et al. [16] fabricated AZ91/SiC surface nanocomposite layer by 8 FSP passes with the help of groove
filling and closing method. From a starting grain size of 150 m, grain refinement was achieved up to 600 nm
and 7.21 m in AZ91/SiC composite and FSPed AZ91 without SiC particles, respectively. It was observed that
the increase in the tool rpm influenced the microstructure evolution due to the generation of higher amounts of
heat, which led to grain growth and also decreased the surface hardness. But increase in the tool traverse speed
resulted in lower grain size and higher hardness. Microhardness increased from 63 Hv to 115 Hv and 90 Hv for
the composite and AZ91 without SiC particles, respectively, after eight FSP passes. A higher level of uniformity
in the distribution of SiC was achieved by changing the tool rotating direction. In a similar work by Khayyamin
et al. [17], FSP was done to fabricate AZ91/SiO2 surface composites at three different traverse speeds (20, 40, 63
mm/min) and a fixed rpm of 1250. It was revealed that with increase in tool travel speed, grain size reduced
which ultimately increased the hardness. Therefore, it is evident from the following discussion that higher tool
travel speeds decrease the localized heat and reduce the grain growth issue during FSP.
Some of the studies also mentioned about the optimum traverse speed which will produce the sound and defect
free processed zone. Similar to the work of Asadi et al. [16], Erfan and Kashani-Bozorg [18] observed the
influence of tool rpm and tool traverse speed on the distribution of nano-sized SiC particles in AZ31 magnesium
alloy. It was reported that as tool rpm increases, the level of clustering of SiC particles was found to be reduced.
Also, the grain size was reduced with the increase in tool traverse speed due to the less generation of heat.
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Another important observation from the work is the development of tunneling defect with higher traverse
speeds. Therefore, it is clear from the above studies that there should be an optimum traverse speed which can
achieve grain size reduction along with the sound and defect free stir zone.
Most of the above mentioned literature review is concerned with grain refinement, microhardness
improvement, pinning effect of particles. Some of the research is also done on the improvement of mechanical
properties such as UTS and elongation. K. Sun et al. [19] synthesized high strength AZ63/SiCp nano-composite
using FSP. In their study, 5 FSP passes is done to fabricate the 40nm SiC particles on AZ63 magnesium alloy.
Moreover, SiC particles were ultrasonically dispersed in ethanol before filling into groove to avoid clustering of
nanoparticles. Some of the conclusions were: Base metal containing irregular coarse second phase intermetallic
compound Al12Mg17 get dissolute after 5 pass FSP. Only two phases occurred in the in SiC-AZ63 composite
which clearly states that no interfacial reaction occurred between the base material and reinforced particles
during FSP. Vicker hardness was found to be increased from 80 Hv to 109 Hv. Further, UTS was found
increased from 160 Mpa to 312 MPa. The strengthening mechanism of composites was explained by the
pinning effect of particles at grain boundaries and the particles present inside the grain which prevent the
dislocation slipping as shown in fig.4. This was explained like, as the tensile stress is increasing, the dislocation
inside the grain began to slip. The existence of nanoparticles can stop the dislocation slipping. The dislocation
line would form a dislocation loop around the nanoparticles, which increase the dislocation density, so the
material would need more stress to deform.
FSP parameters like traverse speed, pin profile, rotational speed, tool tilt angle and Penetration Depth play role
in the modification of microstructure and defect formation. Parviz Asadi et al. [20] fabricated 5m SiC/AZ91
surface composite by FSP and studied the effect of process parameter, Penetration Depth (PD). There is an
optimum penetration depth which results in formation of defect free FSPed specimen. At high PD, sliding mode
of friction changes to sticking mode of friction which results in sticking of base metal to the tool. But at low PD,
a longitudinal crack develops in the processing zone which results in tunneling type of defects in the stirred
zone. Optimum PD depends on tool tilt angle and rotational speed like, increasing rotational speed and
decreasing tilt result in decrease of PD. Also, there is an opposite effect of traverse speed and rotational speed on
grain growth. Increase of traverse speed leads to decrease in grain size while increase of rotational speed leads
to an increase in grain size. Therefore, by adding SiC particles, grain structure is refined from 150 to 7.17 m
and microhardness is increased from 63 to 96 Hv.
M. Azizieh et al [21] investigated the effect of rotational speed, pin profile, no. of FSP passes and particle size on
the AZ31/Al2O3 nano-composite synthesized by FSP. Firstly, the authors concluded that the threaded probe tool
is best among the non threaded probe tool and three flute probe tool, since threaded profile fabricate the
composites without any development of cavity and with good particle distribution unlike the tunnelling defect
and tool jamming exhibited by three flute profile while poor particle dispersion exhibited by non threaded
probe. All further investigations were done on threaded profile produced MMCs. Secondly, the authors
investigated the combined effect of rotational speed and no. of FSP passes on the particle dispersion, grain size
and microhardness of the composite fabricated by threaded probe tool. It was revealed that with increase in
rotational speed from 800 to 1200, the average grain size of the composite was increased due to greater heat
input while with increase in no. of passes from 2 to 4; average grain size was reduced at a fixed rpm. Moreover,
with increase in rpm and no. of passes, the agglomeration of nanoparticles reduces i.e. good particle distribution
due to higher heat input and more material flow in the processed zone. One of major finding from this study was
that at higher rotational speed of 1200, even the finely distributed Al2O3 particles were not able to retard the
grain growth in the stir zone due to the combined effect of shattering or fragmentation of matrix grains and
alumina particles, and grain growth by heat generation. Due to these effects, composites fabricated at higher
rpm of 1200 shows less microhardness value (86 Hv at 4 passes) compared to the composites (92 Hv at 4 passes)
processed at lower rpm of 800. At last, authors studied the effect of particles size ranging from no particle
addition to micro particle (0.35 m and 1 m) and ultimately to nanoparticles (35 nm) on grain size and
microhardness of the composite. Results shows that grain size was effectively refined in case of nanocomposite
compared to composite with micro-particles, FSPed sample without particles addition and initial state of
matrix. Also, with decrease in particle size the hardness value increases i.e. the nanocomposite had the highest
hardness value of 90Hv in the stir zone compared to other studied particles. This is due to higher distribution of
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Fabrication of Magnesium Based Metal Matrix Composites.......

nanoparticles which ultimately lead to severe pinning effect at the grain boundary of the matrix.
Some studies also include the rotational speed and traverse speed ratio (/) as a FSP parameter. Faraji and
Asadi [22] synthesized AZ91 with Al2O3 nanoparticles (30 nm) through FSP and investigated the effect of
rotational speed/traverse speed ratio (/), FSP tool pin profile and no. of FSP passes on the microstructure and
microhardness of the developed nanocomposite. Initially, with the help of square and circular profile FSP
tool, investigaters fabricated the composite at a rotational speed of 900 rpm and traverse speed of 40 mm/min
and revealed that it was difficult to achieve uniform dispersion of particles even in low traverse speed in the case
of circular probe tool. This is due to the absence of pulsating stirring action in case of circular probe tool as this
action magnified the mixing of particles in the matrix. All further investigations were carried out using square
probe tool. It was revealed that higher / ratio results in good distribution of Al2O3 nanoparticles i.e. less
clustering of alumina particles and consequently smaller grain size of the composite layer. Thus, optimum
conditions for developing the sound surface layer was achieved by square tool and rotational speed of 900 rpm
and traverse speed of 40 mm/min. Moreover, microhardness was also accelerated at higher / ratio due to the
small grain size which was justified by Hall-Petch relationship. It was also reported that increase in number of
passes results in increase of microhardness; since more passes homogenizes the particles dispersion, decreases
the alumina clustering and consequently decreases the grain size.
3. Conclusion
The FSP technique is an effective method to fabricate metal matrix composites. The findings are as below:
w
Mostly AZ series based Mg alloys surface composite are developed with the help of FSP. Important
machine parameters considered during FSP which have considerable effect were tool traverse speed,
rotational speed, and penetration depth.
w
It was observed that in the fabrication of MMCs, tool traverse speed and rotational speed have both
positive and negative effects. Increase in tool rotational speed results in increase of grain size which
decreased the microhardness due to the more heat input but higher rotational speed results in
homogeneous distribution and breaking up of clusters. Moreover, greater rotational speed accelerates the
pinning effect of particles at the grain boundary which deaccelerates the grain growth and thus increasing
strength and hardness. But another investigation revealed that even the finely distributed Al2O3 particles
were not able to retard the grain growth due to the combined effect of shattering of matrix grains and
alumina particles, and grain growth by heat input. While increase in traverse speed exhibited decrease in
grain size and grain refinement which results in increase of hardness due to less local heat input.
w
Number of FSP passes also affect the fabrication of MMCs by reducing the clustering of particles. Multipass FSP results in reduction of size of cluster and uniform distribution of reinforcement particles and thus
decreases the grain size of matrix.
References
[1] B.L. Mordike and T. Ebert, Magnesium Properties applications potential, Materials Science and
Engineering A302 (2001) 3745.
[2] Ma Qian and A. Das, Grain refinement of magnesium alloys by zirconium: Formation of equiaxed grains,
Scripta Materialia 54 (2006) 881-886.
[3] J. Cai, G.C. Ma, Z. Liu, H.F. Zhang, Z.Q. Hu, Influence of rapid solidification on the microstructure of
AZ91HP alloy, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 422 (2006) 9296.
[4] K. Mathis, J. Gubicza, N.H. Nam, Microstructure and mechanical behavior of AZ91 Mg alloy processed
by equal channel angular pressing, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 394 (2005) 194-199.
[5] R.S. Mishra and Z.Y. Ma, Friction Stir Welding and Processing, Materials Science and Engineering R 50
(2005) 1 78.
[6] R.S. Mishra, Z.Y. Ma, I. Charit, Friction stir processing: a novel technique for fabrication of surface
composite, Materials Science and Engineering A341 (2003) 307310.
[7] Vipin Sharma, Ujjwal Prakash, B.V. Manoj Kumar, Surface composites by friction stir processing: A
review, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 224 (2015) 117134.
[8] Y. Morisada, H. Fujii, T. Nagaoka, M. Fukusumi, MWCNTs/AZ31 surface composites fabricated by
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friction stir processing, Materials Science and Engineering A 419 (2006) 344348
[9] Y. Morisada, H. Fujii, T. Nagaoka, M. Fukusumi, Effect of friction stir processing with SiC particles on
microstructure and hardness of AZ31 Y, Materials Science and Engineering A 433 (2006) 5054.
[10] C.J. Lee, J.C. Huang, P.J. Hsieh, Mg based nano-composites fabricated by friction stir processing,
Scripta Materialia 54 (2006) 14151420.
[11] M. Dadashpour, A.Mostafapour, R.Yesildal, S.Rouhi, Effect of process parameter on mechanical
properties and fracture behavior of AZ91C/SiO2 composite fabricated by FSP, Materials Science &
Engineering A655 (2016) 379387.
[12] Mohammad Navazania and Kamran Dehghani, Fabrication of Mg-ZrO2surface layer composites by
friction stir processing, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 439449.
[13] Mohammad Navazania and Kamran Dehghani, Investigation of microstructure and hardness of Mg/TiC
Surface Composite Fabricated by Friction Stir Processing (FSP), Procedia Materials Science 11 (2015)
509-514.
[14] M. Balakrishnan, I. Dinaharan, R. Palanivel, R. Sivaprakasam, Synthesize of AZ31/TiC magnesium matrix
composites using friction stir processing, Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 3 (2015) 76-78.
[15] Yupei Jiang, XuyueYang, Hiromi Miura, Taku Sakai, Nano-SiO2 particles reinforced Mg Alloy Produced
FSP, Reviews on Advanced Materials Science 33 (2013) 29-32.
[16] P. Asadi, M.K. Besharati Givi, G. Faraji, Producing Ultrafine-Grained AZ91 from As-Cast AZ91 by FSP,
Mater. Manuf. Process. 25 (2010) 12191226.
[17] D. Khayyamin, A. Mostafapour, R. Keshmiri, The effect of process parameters on microstructural
characteristics of AZ91/SiO2 composite fabricated by FSP, Materials Science & Engineering A559 (2013)
217221.
[18] Y. Erfan and S.F. Kashani-Bozorg, Fabrication of Mg/SiC nanocomposite surface composite layer using
FSP technique, International Journal of Nano science 10 (2011) 1073.
[19] K. Sun, Q.Y. Shi, Y.J. Sun, G.Q. Chen, Microstructure and mechanical property of nano-SiCp reinforced
high strength Mg bulk composites produced by friction stir processing, Materials Science and Engineering
A 547 (2012) 32 37.
[20] Parviz Asadi, Ghader Faraji, Mohammad K. Besharati, Producing of AZ91/SiC composite by friction stir
processing (FSP), International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 51 (2010) 247260.
[21] M. Azizieh, A.H. Kokabi, P. Abachi, Effect of rotational speed and probe profile on microstructure and
hardness of AZ31/Al2O3 nano composites fabricated by friction stir processing, Materials and Design 32
(2011) 20342041.
[22] Ghader Faraji and Parviz Asadi, Characterization of AZ91/alumina nanocomposite produced by FSP,
Materials Science and Engineering A528 (2011) 24312440.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Energy Analysis and Parametric Study of Flat

Pate Collector Area of a Solar Driven
Water-Lithium Bromide Half Effect
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
for a Given Cooling Load
Abhishek Verma, Akhilesh Arora, and R.S. Mishra
Abstract - In the modern times,Solar Cooling systems are becoming popular to reduce the carbon footprint of
air conditioning. The need and importance of solar based cooling system can play a very prominent role in
attenuating energy crisis by the use of solar energy. This paper presents the thermodynamic analysis and
calculation of flat plate collector area of vapour absorption half effect cooling system using sun as source of
energy.The cooling load is assumed to be 25 kW. The evaporator temperature is maintained constant at 7C and
condenser temperature is varied from 30C and 46C and generators temperatures are varied from 65 to 85 C.
For a given condenser temperature (say 38C) there is an optimum generator temperature for which the total
area flat plate collector is minimum. This optimum generator temperature comes out to be 80C. This generator
temperature gives the maximum COP which is obtained as 0.4158. For these values the Area of flat plate
collector on High Pressure side (Ah) is 130 m2.Area of flat plate collector on Low Pressure side (Al) is 154 m2.
Total Area of flat plate collector (A) is 284 m2.
Keywords- Half Effect, Energy Analysis, Vapour Absorption Refrigeration, Water-Lithium bromide, Flat plate
Collector. Solar Driven.
Introduction At present, the conventional resources of energy are being reduced every day, led to the
researchers to identify the systems which use renewable sources of energy. The depletion of conventional
sources of energy not only increasing the cost of energy production but also polluting the environment in a
severe manner.The refrigeration and air conditioning systems have a major demand of the total energy
consumption of the world. The harmful emissions of fossil fuels and chlorine based refrigerants used are
responsible for the global warming and the ozone layer depletion. All these problems have led the scientists to
develop a refrigeration system which uses renewable sources of energy. The energy of the sun may be harnessed
to produce the refrigerating effect which reduces the dependency on high-grade energy and do not pollute the
environment.
Abhishek Verma
P.G. Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road Delhi110042
e-mail- abhishek.ret@gmail.com
Akhilesh Arora and R.S. Mishra
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road Delhi-110042
e-mail- akhilesharora@dce.ac.in, e-mail- rsmishra1651956@yahoo.co.in
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RECENT ADVANCES IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING,
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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The primitive characteristic of the half-effect absorption cycle is the running capableness at lower temperatures
compared to others. The name half-effect rising from the COP, which is almost half that of the single-effect
cycle. It must be eminent that COP of the half-effect vapour absorption system is comparatively less as it
discard more heat than the absorption cycle working on single-effect, it is approx..50%. However, it can be
work with the relatively low temperature heat origin.[1].
Gomri [2] simulated the operation of a half-effect absorption refrigeration system of 10 kW. The energy from
the sun is utilized to run the flat plate collector, which are used as the source of heat generation for the vapour
absorption refrigeration system. The system has two units, one unit is for the generation of heat which would be
utilized to run the second unit i.e. the absorption cooling unit.
Adhikari et al. [3] examined and evaluated the practicability of a vapour absorption refrigeration unit work on
solar Energy. The system was designed with the postulate of vapour absorption refrigeration cycle with Lithium
Bromide as an absorbing medium and water as a refrigerant.5 kW cooling load for the office building is
considered. The designed absorption refrigeration system has COP equitable to 0.77. It proved that the best
performance in terms of COP would be succeeded when operated at low generator temperature and the low
generator heat. Solar collector area to conduct system is 8 m2. On the increase of mass flow rate of the
refrigerant, the overall cooling effect increases, but the COP decreases. The absorption cooling system is an
alternative to the conventional vapour compression system.
Arora et al. [4] carried out the analysis of exergy and energy of half effect lithium bromide water vapor
absorption refrigeration system. The optimum intermediate pressure is evaluated to maximize the exergetic
efficiency and COP under different conditions. The optimum pressure for both maximum COP and exergy is
same. The calculation of optimum pressure involves the effect of high and low pressure temperatures of
generator, evaporator, difference of high and low pressure of generator and evaporator, effectiveness of heat
exchangers carrying strong and weak solution of Lithium bromide and water. The maximum COP obtained in
the range of 0.415 to 0.438,and the value of maximum efficiency is varied from 6.96 to 13.74%.
This paper presents the thermodynamic analysis and calculation of flat plate collector area of vapour absorption
half effect cooling system using sun as source of energy.
2. Thermodynamic Analysis of Half Effect System
The half-effect water-lithium (H2O-LiBr2) bromide vapour absorption refrigeration system, consists of an
condenser, evaporator, LP & HP generators, LP & HP absorbers, LP and HP solution heat exchangers, , solution
pumps and solution and refrigerant throttle valves. The condenser and HP generator work at same pressure
which is the maximum pressure of the system. The LP generator and HP absorber work at the same intermediate
pressure whereas the evaporator and the LP absorber work at same lowermost pressure of the system.
The refrigerant (i.e., water) is circulated through the condenser, evaporator, LP absorber, LP generator, HP
absorber, HP generator. When the water vapour has condensed in the condenser, it revert to the evaporator
through an expansion valve.
However, the absorbent that is the lithium bromide aqueous solution is circulated within two distinct stages i.e.
the LP stage between the LP generator and the LP absorber, and the HP stage between the HP generator and the
HP absorber. Compared to a single-stage vapour absorption refrigeration system, there are two additional
components namely LP generator and HP absorber, in a half effect system. These are utilized to concentrate the
lithium bromide aqueous solution in the LP stage cycle.
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Energy Analysis and Parametric Study of Flat Pate Collector ......
Figure 1 -Block diagram of Half Effect Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
Table 1: p-t-x data for Half effect vapour absorption system
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2.1 Assumptions :
In direction to simulate these absorption refrigeration systems, several assumptions are made, comprehend the
succeeding. [5]:
The analysis of the system is prevailed under steady state conditions.
The refrigerant (i.e., water) at the exit of the condenser is assumed to be the saturated liquid.
The refrigerant (i.e., water) at the exit of the evaporator is assumed to be the saturated vapour.
The Lithium bromide solution at the exit of the absorber is a strong solution and it is at the absorber
temperature.
The exit temperatures from the generator and the absorber from corresponding to equilibrium
conditions of the separation and mixing particularly.
The pressure losses in the pipelines and all the heat exchangers are assumed to be negligible.
Heat exchange between the surroundings and the system, other than in that is prescribed by heat
transfer at the absorber, generator, condenser, evaporator, do not appear.
The reference state for the system is assumed water at an environment temperature To25C and 1
atmospheric pressure (Po).
The system exhibit chilled water.
The half effect system rejects heat to cooling water at the absorber and the condenser.
2.2 Mass Conservation:
The mass conservation law applied for each component is written as:
mi=me
(1)
This law applied for each component of the cycle is written as:
.m1 = m2 = m3
(2)
m4 = m5 = m6
(3)
m7 = m8 = m9
(4)
m10 = m11 = m12
(5)
m13 = m14 = m15 = m16 = m17 (6)
LP generator or LP absorber
.
m3 = m4 + m17
(7)
HP generator or HP absorber
.
m9 = m10 + m13
(8)
2.3 Conservation of concentration:
The law justifying the concentration conservation for each component is written as:
miXi = emeX
(9)
Where m is the mass flow rate in the system and X the is mass concentration of lithium bromide in the solution.
The law is applied for each component of the cycle is written as:
m3X3 = m4X4
(10)
m9X9 = m10X10
(11)
X1 = X2 = X3,
(12)
X4 = X5 = X6,
(13)
X7 = X8 = X9,
(14)
X10 = X11 = X12,
(15)
X13 = X14 = X15 = X16 = X17 = 0.
(16)
104

3. Calculation For The Half-effect System (HVARS):
The computer program is coded in Engineering Equation Solver (EES) for the thermodynamic analysis of
HVARS.
In the analysis of this cycle the following assumption is considered
1. The pumping is isentropic
2. Across Solution expansion valve entropy change is neglected and temperature is also constant.
3.1 Input Parameters:
The following are the input parameters to half effect system:
Condenser Temperature
TC = 38oC
Evaporator Temperature
TE = 7oC
High Pressure side Generator Temperature Tgh = 80oC
Low Pressure side Generator Temperature
High Pressure side Absorber Temperature
Refrigeration Capacity
Qe = 25 kW
Intermediate Pressure
Pi = 4.953 kPa
Effectiveness of high pressure side solution heat exchanger EHXh = 0.7
Effectiveness of low pressure side solution heat exchanger EHXl = 0.7
Tgl = 80oC
Tah = 38oC
Tah = 38oC
4. Calculation of Flat Plate Collector Area:

The area of the flat collector is calculated on the basis of the requirement of heat in the two generators. The heat
required in the two generators is calculated by the computer based EES program with input parameters given
above.
4.1 Flat Plate Collector Specifications:
Dimensions = 2.005mm x 1.505mm
Gross Area (AF) = 3 m2
Efficiency (K) = 0.85
Cost = Rs. 6000
The Energy absorbed by the flat plate collector is given as [8] :
Q = K x S xA
(17)
Where,
K = efficiency of collector plate (K = 0.85)
S = average solar heat falling on earth's surface = 6 kwhr/ m2/day = 250 W/m2
A=Area of Flat Plate collector .
4.2 Calculation Of Area Of Flat Plate Collector For High Pressure Generator :
Heat required in the high pressure generator of the system,
Qgh = 27.48 kW = 27480 W
Hence, the approx. area of the flat plate collector necessary for providing this much amount of energy is given
by
= 27480 / (250 K)= 27480 / (250 0.85)
= 129.32 m2(i.e.,130 m2)
Area of Flat Plate collector used in high pressure side (Ah) = 130 m2
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4.3 Calculation Of Area Of Flat Plate Collector For Low Pressure Generator :
Heat required in the low pressure generator of the system,
Qgl = 32.65 kW (i.e, 32650 W)
by
= 32650 / (250 K)= 32650 / (250 .85)
= 153.6 m2(i.e.,154 m2)
Area of Flat Plate collector used in Low pressure side (Al)= 154 m2
4.4 Total Area Of Flat Plate Collector (A) :
A = Ah + Al
A = 130 + 145
A = 284 m2
4.5 Number Of Flat Plate Collectors Required :
Number of Flat Plate Collectors required in High Pressure Side (N1)
N1 = Ah/ AF = 130/3 = 43.33
N1 = 44 Plates
Number of Flat Plate Collectors required in Low Pressure Side (N2)
N2 = Al/ AF = 154/3 = 51.33
N2 = 52 Plates
5. Results :
The variation of various parameter with respect to generator temperature (TG in C) at different temperature of
condenser (TC ) is shown as :
5.1 COP:
The variation of COP with generator temperature is shown in Figure 2. The high values of COP are hold at high
generator temperature and low condenser temperature. For a assumed condenser and evaporator temperature,
there is a minimum temperature of generator, which address to the maximum COP. It should be noticed that the
COP initially show the significant increase with an increase of generator temperature, and then the slope of the
COP curves gets almost flat. In other words, increasing the generator temperature higher than a fixed value does
not contribute to much improvement for the COP.
Figure 2 -Coefficient of performance (COP) versus generator temperature (TG in C) and condenser temperature
106

(TC) at (TE = 7C)
5.2 Area of flat plate collector on High Pressure side (Ah) :
The variation of Area of flat plate collector on high pressure side is shown in Figure 3. As the generator
temperature increases the Ahincreases linearly. When the condenser temperature is increased the value of Ah
also increases. In the present study, where the evaporator temperature is maintained fixed at 7C and condenser
temperature is 38C, generators temperature is 80C the value of Ah is 130 m2.
Figure 3 Area of flat plate collector on High Pressure side (Ah in m2) versus generator temperature (TG in C)
and condenser temperature (TC) at (TE = 7C)
5.3 Area of flat plate collector on Low Pressure side (Al) :
The variation of Area of flat plate collector on low pressure side is shown in Figure 4. The Al of the absorption
cooling system drops keenly to a minimum value with an increase in temperature of generator and then further it
approximately remains constant. In the present study, where the evaporator temperature is maintained fixed at
7C and condenser temperature is 38C, generators temperature is 80C the value of Al is 154 m2.
Figure 4 Area of flat plate collector on Low Pressure side (Al in m2) versus generator temperature (TG in C)
5.4 Total Area of flat plate collector (A) :
The variation of Total Area of flat plate collector is shown in Figure 5. The A of the absorption cooling system
drops keenly to a minimum value with an increase in temperature of generator and then further it approximately
remains constant. In the present study, where the evaporator temperature is maintained fixed at 7C and
condenser temperature is 38C, generators temperature is 80C the value of A is 284 m2.
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Figure 5 Total Area of flat plate collector (A in m2 ) versus generator temperature (TG in C) and condenser
temperature (TC) at (TE = 7C)
6. Conclusions:
The main results obtained are concluded below:
Higher temperature of evaporator and generator, results in higher COP of the system due to the fact that as
generator temperature increases, the heat transfer to the solution available in the generator increases, which
results in the increase of mass flow rate and so does the COP.
For the given temperature of condenser there is an optimum temperature of generator for which the total
area flat plate collector is minimum. This optimum generator temperature comes out to be 80C. This
generator temperature gives the maximum COP.
There exists a specific generator temperature below which a half effect system ceases to work. In the
present work, this value is found to be 67.51C, corresponding to an intermediate pressure of 4.953 kPa (for
TC = Tal =Tah = 38C, TE = 7C and Tgh = Tgl = 80C).
For these values the Area of flat plate collector on High Pressure side (Ah) is 130 m2.Area of flat plate
collector on Low Pressure side (Al) is 154 m2. Total Area of flat plate collector (A) is 284 m2.
References :
[1] Abdulateef, J.M., 2008, Review on solar-driven ejector refrigeration technologies. Renew SustainEnergy
Rev.
[2] RabahGOMRI , (2010). Solar Energy to Drive Half-Effect Absorption Cooling System, Int. J. of Thermal
& Environmental Engineering, Volume 1, No. 1 , 1-8.
[3] Jhalak Raj Adhikari, BivekBaral, Ram Lama, BadriAryal, and Roshan Khadka , 2012, Design and analysis
of solar absorption air cooling system for an office building Design and analysis of solar absorption air
cooling system for an office building, Rentech Symposium Compendium, Volume 2, December.
[4] Akhilesh Arora, Manoj Dixit, and S.C. Kaushik, 2016, Computation Of Optimum Parameters Of A Half
Effect Water-Lithium Bromide Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System, Journal of Thermal Engineering,
Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 683-692, April.
[5] Saeed. Sedigh , Hamid. Saffari, 2011, Thermodynamic Analysis Of Single Effect And Half Effect
Absorption Refrigeration Systems, International Journal of Energy & Technology Vol. 3 pg 1-9.
[6] Absorption Chillers and Heat Pumps, Second Edition, By Keith E. Herold, ReinhardRadermacher,
Sanford A. Klein, 1994.
[7] Jianzhao Wang, Danxing Zheng ,2009, Performance of one and a half-effect absorption cooling cycle of
H2O/LiBr system, Energy Conversion and Management Vol. 50, pg 30873095.
[8] V.K.Bajpai, 2012, Design of Solar Powered Vapour AbsorptionSystem Proceedings of the World Congress
on Engineering 2012 Vol IIIWCE 2012, July 4 6, London, U.K.
[9] Refrigeration And Air Conditioning, Third Edition, published by Tata McGraw-Hill Education private
Limited, 2012 By C.P. Arora.
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[11] V Mittal, K S Kasana and N S Thakur, 2006, Modelling and simulation of a solar absorption coolingsystem
for India, Journal of Energy in Southern Africa Vol 17 No 3 August.
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Strategy Of Development In South China, Solar Energy Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 155165.
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Comparative Performance, Emissions and

Combustion Analysis of Single Cylinder CI
Engine Fuelled With Biodiesel Derived
From Castor Oil
Akash Deep, Sarbjot Singh Sandhu and Subhash Chander
Abstract- An experimental study was conducted to investigate the behaviour of castor biodiesel as an
alternative fuel for an existing compression ignition (CI) engine. The castor biodiesel was produced using the
transesterification process and the important physico-chemical properties of various blends was also being
evaluated. A series of experiments were carried out on a CI engine fuelled with various castor biodiesel and
diesel blends (B20, B40 and B100) turn by turn, over the entire range of engine loading conditions. The
comparative analysis of combustion parameters such as cylinder pressure, heat release rate, ignition delay,
cumulative heat release, rate of pressure rise and combustion duration; engine performance parameters, such as
brake thermal efficiency (BTE), specific fuel consumption (SFC) and exhaust gas temperature (EGT); exhaust
emissions such as CO, HC, NOx and smoke opacity, were carried out. Results were then compared with the base
line data for diesel. The comprehensive analysis of the data colleted from the experimentation revealed that the
20% blend of castor biodiesel with diesel (B20) improved the thermal efficiency of the engine and lower
exhaust emissions.
Keywords- Biodiesel; Castor oil; Combustion; engine performance; emissions; diesel engine.
ntroduction In the past few decades, Biodiesel diverted the attention of the research community from
conventional fuels for being originated from renewable resources. Approximately, 350 oil-bearing crops
are identified which are having potential to be used for producing biodiesel [1]. India is the major producer
of castor oil in the world [2]. Castor oil is characterized by the presence of its unique constituent i.e. Ricin oleic
acid (85-90%) due which it has the highest viscosity among all the other vegetable oils. In spite of being
available in abundance in India at a low cost as compared to other non-edible oils, its suitability as an alternative
fuel for CI engines needs to be explored.
Several studies have been reported, which explored the engine behaviour using biodiesel from various
feedstocks such as jatropha, karanja, mahua, waste cooking oil etc. [3-5]. The results from the various studies
shows that the performance and emissions depends upon the various properties of the fuel. The fuel properties
put significant influence on its combustion behaviour. Therefore, knowledge of the combustion process of a
Akash Deep
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Research Scholar, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Postal
address, G.T. Road, Amritsar Bye-Pass, Jalandhar (Punjab), India - 144011
akashgoelengg@gmail.com
Sarbjot Singh Sandhu and Subhash Chander
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Assistant Professor, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Postal
address, G.T. Road, Amritsar Bye-Pass, Jalandhar (Punjab), India 144011
sandhuss@nitj.ac.in, chanders@nitj.ac.in
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 9478371029, +91 9872873956

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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fuel is also very important because it ultimately influence the performance and emissions of the engine [16]. The
parameters which indicate the effectiveness of the combustion process are: in-cylinder pressure, heat release
rate, cumulative heat release rate, rate of pressure rise, ignition delay and combustion duration [17]. The engine
performance and emissions are the results of combustion behaviour of fuel.
In the present work, the biodiesel was derived from castor oil using transesterification process. The important
physico-chemical properties of the resultant biodiesel were evaluated according to ASTM standards. The
biodiesel was blended with diesel in various proportions. The experimentation was carried out on a single
cylinder compression ignition engine test rig equipped with data acquisition system. Then, the comparative
analysis of performance, emission and combustion characteristics, using different fuel blends, was made with
respect to baseline data of diesel. On the basis of these analysis, the optimum fuel blend was found.
2. Experimental Methodology
Castor oil was converted into biodiesel by using transesterification reaction with 30C reaction temperature,
9:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 30 minutes of reaction time and 1.5 wt. % of KOH as catalyst.:
RCOOR' + R''OH
RCOOR'' + R'OH (1)
Table 1. Specifications of the engine.
Table 1 shows the detailed specifications of the engine. All the fuel blends were tested turn by turn for the engine
performance, emissions and combustion characteristics under varying load conditions (20%, 20%, 40%, 60%,
80% and 100%) at rated speed of 1500 rpm. Data was recorded after the engine attained stable conditions. AVL
4000 Di-Gas Analyser was used for measurement of HC, CO and NOx. Smoke opacity was measured using
AVL 437 smoke meter.
3. Results And Discussions
The various properties of castor biodiesel in comparison with raw castor oil, diesel and their various blends are
given in the Table 2.
112
Comparative Performance, Emissions and Combustion......
107
Table 2. Physical properties of castor oil and castor biodiesel and its various blends.
3.1.
Engine performance
Figure 1 (a c) shows the variation of engine performance parameters i.e. brake thermal efficiency (BTE),
brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and exhaust gas temperature at different engine loads.
The thermal efficiency generally increases with an increase in the engine load [18-22]. It can be observed that
the biodiesel blended fuels are having higher BTE as compared to diesel. The maximum BTE can be oberved at
80% of engine load for B20 which is 39.81%. The possible reason for this is the additional lubricity provided by
the biodiesel and the molecules of biodiesel contain some amount of oxygen, which takes active part in the
combustion process. The blends B40 and B100 showed comparitively lower BTE than B20. Higher kinematic
viscosity and density of higher seems to be dominating for the higher blends. High viscosity, density and
evaporation energy of biodiesel may cause formation of larger droplets during atomization fuel which results in
poor air-fuel mixture [23,24].
For all blends tested, BSFC is found to decrease with increase in load. This is due to the fact that the increase in
percentage fuel consumption in order to operate the engine is less than the increase in brake power percentage
and also relatively less proportion of heat losses at higher loads [13]. Overall, B20 showed the lowest BSFC,
whereas, B100 showed highest BSFC.
Almost linear increase in EGT was observed with the variation in engine load for all the fuels blends tested. This
increase in EGT is due to the additional fuel requirement to produce extra power for taking up the additional
loads. The higher value of EGT, at same engine loads, also gives the indication of higher heat loss which shows
the actual utilization of available heat energy to produce useful work or brake power [12,13,18,25]. This
statement is quite evident as BTE for B20 is highest and EGT is lowest at all engine loads.
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Figure 1. Variation of: (a) brake thermal efficiency (BTE) vs. engine load, (b) brake specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) vs. engine load and (c) exhaust gas temperature vs. engine load
3.1.
Engine emissions
Figure 2 (a d) shows the average exhaust emissions such as CO, HC, Nox and smoke opacity from the diesel
engine with different fuel blends tested and engine loads. engine loads.
Figure 2. Variation of: (a) CO vs. engine load, (b) HC vs. engine load, (c) Nox vs. engine load and (d) Smoke
opacity vs. engine load
114
109
It can be observed that both CO and HC follow the same trend because they occur because of incomplete
combustion. Overall, B20 fuel showed the lower CO and HC emissions. On the other hand B40 and B100
showed the higher CO and HC emission. The possible reason for that the higher values of kinematic viscosity
and density. The requirement of latent heat of vaorization give rise to incomplete combustion as compared to
diesel and B20. A slightly higher NOx can be observed for B20 from 20 80% of engine load. NOx emissions
are the function of in-cylinder tempeature and duration of burnt products remained in high temperature inside
the cylinder while power stroke. Higher BTE for B20 is the indication of better combustion and so the NOx
emissions. It can be observed that the smoke opacity get increased with the increase in engine load due to
increase in fuel consumption. A wide difference can be observed for the smoke opacity of diesel at 80% and
100% load as compared to all the other fuel blends. B20 and B40 showed the lower smoke opacity for 40
100% engine loads as compared to diesel. It can also be observed that the smoke opacity for B100 is lower than
that of diesel but higher than B20 and B40. It is well known that the smoke is mainly generated during diffusive
combustion phase. The biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel, therefore, it improves the diffusive combustion and
hence less smoke [26].
3.1. 1 Combustion analysis
It has been observed that the maximum energy was obtained at 80% of engine load. Figure 2 (a c) shows the
various combustion characteristics i.e. cylinder pressure (CP), heat release rate (HRR) and rate of pressure rise
(ROPR) vs. crank angle (CA) respectively at 80% of full load. The 0 CA represents the position of TDC at the
end of compression stroke.
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Figure 3. Variation of: (a) cylinder pressure (CP), (b) heat release rate (HRR) and (c) rate of pressure rise
(ROPR) vs. crank angle (CA) at 80% of full load
t can be observed that the peak CP for B20, B40 and B100 fuel is the higher as compared to diesel which is also
reflected as higher BTE in Fig. 1(a). B20 fuel showed the maximum CP as compared to all fuels tested. The
ROPR plot showed the earlier rise in CP which is also closer to TDC as compared to all fuels tested. The HRR
plot also reflects that B20 released maximum of its heat energy near to TDC. Therefore, a greater force may be
experienced by the piston during the power stroke and hence increase the power output of the engine. Rest of the
fuels, i.e. diesel, B40 and B100, released their energy at the later stages of the power storke. the heat added after
the TDC, reduces the maximum pressure which further lowers the efficiency whereas, the heat added before the
TDC causes higher cylinder pressure but also increases the heat loss and resistance to piston movement till the
completion of compression stroke [27].
4.
Conclusions
Biodiesel from castor oil can be a promising alternative fuel to mineral diesel. n this experimental study, the
neat castor biodiesel and its blends showed relatively better permormance and reduced emissions. Due to
significantly high kinematic viscosity and density, the 100% castor biodiesel can not be recomended as injector
may get choked in the long run. The lubricity of castor oil and beign an oxygenated fuel appears to be
advantageous to its combustion process. The blend B20 exhibits better thermal efficiancy even if it has lower
calorific value than that of diesel. The trends of CO and HC emisions for B20 are on the lower side. The trends of
NOx emission for B20 are nearly same as that of diesel at lower loads and slighly higher at full loads. It has been
noticed that the biodiesel blended fuels showed the different combustion behaviour than that of diesel because
biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel whereas diesel consists of aromatics compounds.
Acknowledgements
This experimental study has been done in Biodiesel Research Laboratory, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology. The authors would like to acknowledge the
financial support extended by the Department of Science & Technology (DST), Technology Bhavan, New
Mehrauli Road, New Delhi - 110016.
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Karabektas M. The effects of turbocharger on the performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine
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a.J. Kinney, Clemente TE. Modifying soybean oil for enhanced performance in biodiesel blends. Fuel
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Lin B-F, Huang J-H, Huang D-Y. Experimental study of the effects of vegetable oil methyl ester on DI
diesel engine performance characteristics and pollutant emissions. Fuel 2009;88:177985. (Article)
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Lin C-Y, Lin H-A. Diesel engine performance and emission characteristics of biodiesel produced by the
peroxidation process. Fuel 2006;85:298305. (Article)
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Muralidharan K, Vasudevan D. Performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a

variable compression ratio engine using methyl esters of waste cooking oil and diesel blends. Appl
Energy 2011;88:395968. (Article)
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Muralidharan K, Vasudevan D, Sheeba KN. Performance, emission and combustion characteristics of

biodiesel fuelled variable compression ratio engine. Energy 2011;36:538593. (Article)
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Murugan S, Ramaswamy MCCC, Nagarajan G. A comparative study on the performance, emission and
combustion studies of a DI diesel engine using distilled tyre pyrolysis oildiesel blends. Fuel
2008;87:211121. (Article)
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Panwar NLL, Shrirame HY, Rathore NSS, Jindal S, a.K. Kurchania, Kurchania a. K. Performance
evaluation of a diesel engine fueled with methyl ester of castor seed oil. Appl Therm Eng 2010;30:2459.
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Raheman H, Ghadge S V. Performance of compression ignition engine with mahua ( Madhuca indica )
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Raheman H, Phadatare AG. Diesel engine emissions and performance from blends of karanja methyl
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Dhar A, Agarwal AK. Performance, emissions and combustion characteristics of Karanja biodiesel in a
transportation engine. Fuel 2014;119:7080. (Article)
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Tesfa B, Mishra R, Zhang C, Gu F, Ball a. D. Combustion and performance characteristics of CI

(compression ignition) engine running with biodiesel. Energy 2013;51:10115. (Article)
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Gumus M. A comprehensive experimental investigation of combustion and heat release characteristics

of a biodiesel (hazelnut kernel oil methyl ester) fueled direct injection compression ignition engine.
Fuel 2010;89:280214. (Article)
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Ramadhas AS, Muraleedharan C, Jayaraj S. Performance and emission evaluation of a diesel engine
fueled with methyl esters of rubber seed oil. Renew Energy 2005;30:1789800. (Article)
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Sahoo PK, Das LM, Babu MKG, Naik SN. Biodiesel development from high acid value polanga seed
oil and performance evaluation in a CI engine. Fuel 2007;86:44854. (Article)
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Savariraj S, Ganapathy T, Saravanan CG. Performance, emission and combustion characteristics of

fish-oil biodiesel engine. Eur J Appl Eng Sci Res 2013;2:2632. (Article)
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Singh B, Kumar N, Muk H. A study on the performance and emission of a diesel engine fueled with
Jatropha biodiesel oil and its blends. Energy 2012;37:61622. (Article)
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Sivalakshmi S, Balusamy T. Effect of biodiesel and its blends with diethyl ether on the combustion ,
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]Srivastava PK, Verma M. Methyl ester of karanja oil as an alternative renewable source energy
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Qi DHH, Chen H, Geng LMM, Bian YZ. Experimental studies on the combustion characteristics and
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Agarwal AK, Dhar A. Experimental investigations of performance, emission and combustion

characteristics of Karanja oil blends fuelled DICI engine. Renew Energy 2013;52:28391. (Article)
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Singh B, Kumar N, Muk H, Chang H. A study on the performance and emission of a diesel engine fueled
with Karanja biodiesel and its blends. Energy 2013;56:17. (Article)
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Hsu BD. Heat Release, Cycle efficiency and Maximum Cylinder Pressure in Diesel Engine - The Use of
an Extended Air Cycle Analysis. SAE Tech Pap 841054 1984. (Article)
118
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Process Optimization of Transesterification

for Biodiesel Production From Jatropha Oil
Kumar Gaurav, PB Sharma and Richa Srivastava
Abstract-In present study, transesterification of Jatropha oil was studied by homogenous catalyst system. The
optimal conditions of transesterification of oil with methanol and potassium hydroxide as catalyst were found
to be 9:1 methanol/oil ratio, catalyst loading 5% (wt) with 3 h reaction time and at a temperature of 65 C.
Jatropha biodiesel was examined for various fuel properties such as kinematic viscosity (5.2 mm2/s at 40 C),
density (0.86 Kg/L) , flash point (99 C), fire point (133 C), acid value (0.46 mg KOH/g) and calorific value
(40.3 MJ/Kg).
Keywords- Renewable energy; Biodiesel; Jatropha Oil; Transesterification; Homogenous catalyst; Fuel
properties.
Introduction At present time, energy crisis, shortage of fuel and emission of green houses gases aggravates
the global warming [1]. The world is looking for alternative sources of energy to meet the current demand of
fuel such as biofuel. Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable, nontoxic, sulphur and aromatic-free in
comparison with petroleum- based fuel [2]. Chemically, biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters with long-chain
fatty acids and is typically made from biological resources such as vegetable oils, animal fats or even used
cooking oils [3].
Several methods have been developed for the production of biodiesel such as microemulsion, pyrolysis and
transesterification. Out of these methods, transesterification is most common to produce biodiesel and
glycerol and it involves alcoholysis of vegetable oil [4,5]. Transesterification is catalyzed by homogenous
catalysts, e.g. NaOH, KOH , heterogeneous catalysts and enzymatic catalysts. The present study is focused to
produce biodiesel from Jatropha oil and its process optimization. The physicochemical properties were also
evaluated and they were compared to ASTM standards. .
2. Materials And Methods
2.1 Materials
Jatropha oil was purchased from local market. Analytical grade methanol (99.9%), was purchased from
Rankem, India and potassium hydroxide in pellet form was purchased from Fisher Scientific, India.
Kumar Gaurav
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Gurgoan Haryana,122413,
Kgaurav1@ggn.amity.edu
PB Sharma
Vice Chancellor , Amity University Gurgoan Haryana, 122413
vcauh@ggn.amity.edu
Richa Srivastava
Department of Applied Chemistry and Polymer Technology, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi- 110042
richa_srivastava@dce.ac.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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2.1 Transesterification
Potassium hydroxide catalyzed transesterification process was adapted for conversion of oil into biodiesel.
In this study, 1 L of Jatropha oil was added to Biodiesel reactor. Oil was heated up to 60 C. The prepared alcohol
and catalyst mixture was then added to the reactor with constant stirring at 120 rpm. The reaction is allowed to
take place for 3-4 h. After the completion of reaction, the mixture is left to settle and separate into two phases for
24 h. The upper layer consists of biodiesel along with catalyst, whereas the bottom phase consists of impurities
and glycerol. The products were washed several times with distilled water to remove excess catalyst and by
products of saponified reaction. The different variables including methanol/oil molar ratio, temperature,
reaction time and catalyst loading would influence the transesterification. The main objective was this study to
optimize these physiochemical parameter to attain higher biodiesel yield.
3.1Optimization of physiochemical parameters
3.1.1 Effect of catalyst loading
Catalyst loading is the important parameter that requires to be optimized to get higher yield of biodiesel
(FAME). In present investigation, the optimum concentration of catalyst was determined by varying mass ratio
of catalyst from 1 wt% to 7 wt%. As shown in fig.1, it was found that the yield of biodiesel increased with
loading concentration was increased from 1 wt% to 5 wt%. Beyond the optimum concentration of catalyst 5
wt% did not give higher biodiesel yield because of the mass transfer limitations. Higher amount of catalyst also
increases the viscosity of the system to the point that the adequate mixing is not reached. Hence, the optimal
catalysts loading was 5 wt% for production of biodiesel from Jatropha oil.
Figure 1: Effect of catalyst loading

3.1.1 Effect of methanol to oil ratio
The molar ratio of methanol to oil is one of the most important parameter that directly affects the FAME yield.
The FAME yield % with respect to the different molar ratio of methanol to oil is shown in fig 2. The
stoichiometric ratio between alcohol and triglycerides is 3:1, but the transesterification is commonly carried out
with excess amount of alcohol in order to shift the equilibrium toward the forward direction and higher yield of
FAME. The effect of molar ratio of methanol to oil (in range of 3:1 to 15:1) on the transformation was examined
at 5 wt% catalyst. It was observed that when the ratio was 3:1 the yield of FAME was 22.35% and when the
molar ratio was increased from 3:1 to 9:1, biodiesel yield was increased upto 72.3%. The molar ratio 9:1 was
sufficient to complete the reaction, beyond 9:1, FAME yield did not change due to dilution effect. Thus the
maximum FAME yield was achieved at the to oil molar ratio of 9:1.
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Process Optimization of Transesterification for Biodiesel......
Figure 2: Effect of methanol to oil molar ratio

3.1.1 Effect of reaction temperature
The effect of reaction temperature on FAME yield were investigated by varying the temperature from 35 C to
75 C with a constant reaction of time 3 h. FAME yield increases from 9.04% to 75.32% when the reaction
temperature from was increased from 35 C to 65 C as presented in fig 3. From the fig 3, it was clear that
reaction temperature directly affects the transesterification reaction. At higher temperature, faster reaction
equilibrium is reached as compared to lower temperature. Above the optimum temperature (70 C), the
reduction in FAME yield due to lack of methanol and vaporization of methanol
Figure 3: Effect of reaction temperature
3.1.1
FAME yield using KOH catalyst estimated at a normal interval of 1 h and the yield against time is shown in fig4.
In first 1h, the reaction is slow (45% yield) and then increased gradually after 1 h of reaction. The maximum
yield was 78.23% after 3 h. After 3 h, yield is decreased due to backward reaction of transesterification.
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Figure 4: Effect of reaction time
3.2 Biodiesel fuel properties

The main fuel properties of Jatropha biodiesel such as kinematic viscosity, density, flash point, fire point
and calorific value were determined and compared with ASTM biodiesel standard and listed in table
1. The obtained values are comparable to those reported by Xu et al [6].
Table 1: Fuel properties of Jatropha biodiesel
4. Conclusion
Biodiesel, renewable source of energy and provides a greener and cost effective solution to the problem of
depleting fossil fuel. Under the optimum condition the yield was biodiesel 76% at 65 C.
Acknowledgements
The authors thanks AIB, AUH for their instrumental facilities for the carried out work.
References
[1] K. Gaurav, R. Srivastava, J.G. Sharma, R. Singh,V. Singh Molasses based growth and lipid production
by Chlorella pyrenoidosa: A potential feedstock for biodiesel, International Journal of Green Energy,
Taylor & Francis, DOI: 10.1080/15435075.2014.966268, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 320-327.
[2] K. Gaurav, R. Srivastava, R. Singh, Exploring biodiesel: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Microalgal
source, International Journal of Green Energy, Taylor &
F r a n c i s ,
D O I :
10.1080/15435075.2012.726673 Vol. 10, , pp.775-796.
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Process Optimization of Transesterification for Biodiesel......

[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
A. Singh, S. Maji, K. Gaurav, Production of Biodiesel from the algae: State of the art review,
International Journal of Development Research, 2014. Vol. 13, No.3 , pp. 320-327.
O . Farobie, Y. Matsumura, A comparative study of biodiesel production using methanol, ethanol and
tert-butyl methyl ether (MTBE) under supercritical conditions, Bioresource Technology, 2015. Vol.
191, pp. 306-311.
M.R. Avhad, J.M. Marchetti, A review on recent advancement in catalytic materials for biodiesel
productionRenewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2015, Vol. 50, pp. 696-718.
H. Xu, X.L. Miao, Q.Y. Wu, High quality biodiesel production from a microalga Chlorella
protothecoides by heterotrophic growth in fermenters Journal of Biotechnology 2006, Vol. 126, , pp.
499-507.
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Analysis of the Merits of Hot Runner System

Over Cold Runner System in Moulding
Technology
Sandeep Mathur, V. K. Mittal, Nitin Upadhye,
Vipul Mathur and Kshitij Mathur
Abstract In the conventional moulding processes, the mould cavity is filled through the traditional cold runners
in which plastic therein gets solidified along with the moulding parts produced. This method although cheap in
terms of initial investment results in huge wastage of material, more operating cycle time and incurred
regrinding costs. Hot runner technology is advancement over this traditional technique viz. cold runner
technology and can be applied effectively to multi-cavity moulds in large scale and flexible production. The
extensive analysis of the advantages and limitations of the two methods in this study will help in taking prudent
industrial decisions regarding production, profit and infrastructure required.
Keywords- hot runner; cold runner; supply chain, injection moulding.
ntroduction In Injection molding, the thermoplastic resin is pushed into the mould cavity under pressure
to attain the configuration of the product to be formed. The process control is best established in injection
molding by using simulation models for improving observability through decoupled gating [1]. A runner is
employed which acts as a pathway for the resin to fill the mould. The runner plays a crucial role in the entire
process affecting the cooling time, maximum section thickness of the casting and coloration. The systems in
which the material in the runner and the gates are solidified along with that in mould cavity are termed as Cold
Runner systems and are widely used in all molding applications such as fast moving electrical goods (FMEG).
Cold runner systems, although cheap, suffer from some limitations namely-material wastage, degrading
complexity, regrind costs and increased molding cycle. For assembly line productions comprising two or more
moulding components in which the output may vary from few thousand to lakhs of pieces at a time, these losses
become substantial and result in additional burden on supply chain systems. Also, the runner thickness and
length is sometimes even greater than the maximum cross section of the product, making these losses even more
uneconomical for similar situations.
Sandeep Mathur and V. K. Mittal

1
Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Noida,
sandeep_mathur66@yahoo.com, vkmittal@amity.edu
Nitin Upadhye
University of Modern Sciences, Dubai
nupadhye@gmail.com
Vipul Mathur
Mechanical Engineering Department, NIT Kurukshetra, Haryana,
vipul95mathur@gmail.com
Kshitij Mathur
Mechanical Engineering Department, BITS, Pilani Goa,
k.mathur68@gmail.com
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 8800405556, Fax: +97142646713

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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The runner-less systems i.e. hot runner systems were evolved to tackle these issues in injection molding. The
advantage of having the plastic in the runner, gates and nozzles continuously heated via electric heating coils
leaves no extraneous material. Although design and analysis of nozzles and pressure valves are critical in hot
runner system, present study does not deal with these aspects and only focusses on the complete hot runner
system vis a vis cold runner system [2, 3]. In hot runner system, cycle time is reduced and less injection
pressure/force is required. The structure of hot runner systems consists of a heated manifold which houses the
runner, gating section and nozzles and is quite complex as compared to cold runner technology. The large
investment for hot runners is not justified for small scale production and it is an important aspect while
considering the installation of hot runner systems. In this work, an electrical assembly comprising of two
functionally dependent parts is manufactured with both cold and hot runner processes to generate a comparative
study of both systems to provide options for improving productivity and efficiency of a supply chain.
2. Description
While there are several case studies related to quality and productivity improvements in the injection molding
processes [4], the present study deals with manufacturing of two parts using two distinctive mould making
Fig. 1 Part 1
technology which are modeled as shown in the Fig. 1 and 2 with the respective CAD orthographic views
alongside it.
Fig. 2 Part 2
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Analysis of the Merits of Hot Runner System Over......
2.1 Part Properties for Cold Runner Mould:

The part properties are provided in the Table 1 with the shot weight as it would be required for a cold runner
mould. Thus, it includes the runner weight and also the shrinkage and draft allowances. This data is projected
from the mass properties in the 3D model. The material for the parts is PBT-20% which stands for Poly Butylene
Terephthalate (density=1.38 g/cc). Since the type of polymer is critical in melt flow characteristics, the
simulation model for visualization of hot runner design could not be employed as it was unrelated to this work
[5].
2.2 Machine Specifications:
For Hot runner experiment, the valve type hot runner automated injection mould is used whereas, for the Cold
runner experiment, a 200 ton 580 mm x 580 mm semi-automatic injection mould is used for both the parts. Fig.
3 shows the cold runner machine with the injection mechanism and Fig. 4 shows the Valve Gate (VG) hot runner
machine with the mould open for injection. The machines are pneumatically actuated and are capable of
producing 16 pieces at a time. The parts are produced at the rate of 16 and 8 pieces per shot respectively. The
thermoplastic is fed from an overhead hopper which is injected into the mould cavity at the preset pressure. The
temperatures inside the mould are recorded through sensors.
Fig. 3 Cold Runner injection Mould
Fig. 4 Hot Runner injection Mould
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The typical stages in a molding cycle are explained in Fig. 5 as a block diagram:
Fig.5.Stages in molding cycle

In the beginning of the cycle, the mould opens (1) and the solidified part is ejected from the cavities by the help
of several ejector pins (2). The mould then closes (3) to prepare for the next shot and is clamped up (4) by
applying high hydraulic or pneumatic pressure specified usually as tonnage of the machine. Then the molten
thermoplastic is injected into the mould cavity (5) and the mould is retained in this configuration till the resin
fills it completely. Subsequently, the cooling begins (6) and the resin starts to solidify. During this time, the
screw or plunger moves, create a new shot, and returns to its original position. This is termed as Recovery period
(7) and as soon as recovery is completed, the mould unclamps (8) and opens again. This entire process is then
repeated.
In this work, the Hot and Cold runner designs are compared on the following criteria:
1) Machine Performance and maintenance: The thermoplastic resin must flow through the profiles, curves
and sections for each cavity in the mould so as to ensure that it enters at same pressure and thermal distribution
[6].To achieve this, the machines performance is checked by identifying the intermittent maintenance
operations which facilitates the production of consistent parts.
2) Part quality: The parts are checked for flaws and shortcomings and tested in their field of application. The
two designs are checked for defects such as-Short Shot, Sink marks, Voids and flashes.
3) Cycle time and maximum capacity of production: Cycle time is the total time in which all the operations
from injection of resin to ejection of part are satisfactorily completed. From Fig. 5
Cycle time= total time of operations (1+2+3+4+5+ 6+7+8)
In hot runner system injection time (5) is reduced as the plastic is already available in molten form in gates and
runners.
4) Return of Investments in batch production: For this study, the efficiency of production is estimated by
comparing the initial investment in the infrastructure of systems with the savings per day.
Certain precautions are to be kept in mind in the manufacturing process:
The injection pressure is carefully monitored so that it is within the optimum range. Too low pressure will
not fill the cavity completely while a higher pressure will result in degradation of material for the next shot and
may cause ceasing of the machinery.
Regular maintenance of hot runner machinery and its components like the electric heating arrangement and
nozzles is essential. In cold runner setup, the waste solidified in runners need to be disposed off efficiently.
The gating mechanism and runner design plays a pivotal role in deciding the properties of the part
produced. Gate selection should be made considering molded product shape, number, looks, economic
efficiency, and moldability [7].
3.
Experimental Study
The criteria of comparing the two systems are elaborated in this experimental study carried for one month.
Machine Performance and maintenance: For this test, the machine performance is evaluated on the basis of
the maintenance operations which are required to ensure the similarity or consistency of parts. In cold runner
systems, it is observed that for both part 1 and part 2, the mould life was around 5 lakh shots after which, the
parts showed deviations from the others in terms of quality, thermal history and defects. Whereas in Hot runner
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systems, the discrepancies and quality degradation arrived only after 10 lakhs shots which is significantly more
than those in the cold runner system. Fig. 6-9 shows the runner arrangements in the mould and the resin flow
pathway:
Fig. 6 Cold runner gating (Part 1)
G- 7 Hot runner gating (Part 1)
Fig. 8 Cold runner gating (Part 2)
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Fig. 9 Hot runner gating (Part 2)

Table 2 shows the operations which are required to keep the mould in running condition alongside their
frequency.
Table 2. Maintenance data of one month on hot and cold runner
1)
Part quality: The quality of the parts is analyzed by checking for the following defects:
Short Shot- Failure to completely fill the mold or cavities of the mold is called short shot. Edges may
appear melted in this defect [8].
Sink marks- An indentation on the surface of the part as a result of significant local change in wall
section is a sink mark. The mark will occur in the thicker area.
Voids- These are the unfilled spaces within a solid material.
Flash- Flash refers to any excess material that is formed with and attached to the component along a
seam or mold parting line.
In this experiment, the total rejections in a month were recorded and they were classified into various defects.
Table 3 shows the respective rejections. Care was taken to use fresh raw material to prevent any aging effect on
polymer to interfere in the findings [9].
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Table 3. Rejection status
The relative proportions of the different defects are shown by the graphs (Fig. 10 and 11).
6
5
4
3
2
2
1
2
1
22
cold runner
hot runner
1
0
Short Sink Voids Flash
Shot marks
Fig. 10 Part Quality chart (Part 1)
Fig. 11 Part Quality chart (Part 2)

3)
Cycle time and speed of production: In calculation of cycle time, the time (in seconds) for the molding
operation and the production of 22 hours per day is calculated and the results are tabulated. Table 4 shows the
time taken by the machines for both components and Table 5 gives the respective production per day.
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Table 4.Cycle time
Table 5. Max. Production Capacity
1)
Return of Investments in batch production: The production study is carried out for a time period of 22
hours with the actual cost per piece calculated by using raw material cost, machine running cost, mould
maintenance cost and the special hot runner maintenance cost. This is given as in table 6.
Results
Table 6.Cost analysis
From each criteria considered, the results are collected which depict the performance of the two molding
machines.
In Machine Performance and maintenance test, it is found that there are many maintenance operations of
replacing and cleaning in hot runner moulds which are not required in the simple construction of cold runner
moulds. However, the expected working life of hot runner moulds is nearly double as compared to the old
runner moulds which accounts for their high productivity and endurance.
In part quality test, the production of one month duration was taken to account for all types of variations in the
moulding processes. It is clearly established from the process data that the rejection rate is approximately one
third of the rate evidenced in the case of cold runner systems.
Under the Cycle time criteria, it took 18 sec and 20 sec to produce part 1 and part 2 respectively in the hot runner
machine. For the cold runner machine, the cycle time is 40 sec for both parts. This, it is clear that hot runner
technology is almost twice as fast as its counterpart.
For the purpose of return on investment calculations, the additional investment is calculated as given in table 7
and divided by the total savings with hot runner worked out in table 6. The resultant number shows the ROI in
days which in this case has come about 90 days that is 3 months.
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Table 7. Actual cost
These four criteria put together make hot runner a resource efficient injection moulding with low environmental
impact [10].
5. Conclusions
In this work, a four criteria analysis is used to study the hot runner and cold runner injection molding systems to
facilitate sound supply chain management decisions. Two functionally interdependent parts of an electrical
assembly are manufactured using the two types of molding systems and the data on their performance and their
properties is collected. This was done in an industrial environment and setting to simulate real life and dynamic
conditions during production. The study has achieved its prime objective of highlighting the various
advantages and limitations of hot runner and cold runner technologies and comes to the conclusion that for the
considered part and parts of similar dimensions, hot runner moulds are more effective in mass production.
While there is no appreciable difference in the quality of parts produced by the two systems, lower injection
pressures, rapid production and no material wastage in hot runner moulds make them ideal for such situations.
The material and time savings can amount to over 50 to 100 percent. The study also suggests from experimental
observations that the product formed through hot runner systems shows enhanced properties than its
counterpart in melt flow and coloration. But the cold runner moulds are very cheap as compared to hot runner
ones and for supply chains involving small scale industries, the hot runner technology is not feasible due to their
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large initial costs.

References
[1]
S. Johnson, D. O. Kazmer, Decoupled Gating and Simulation for Injection Molding, PolymerPlastics Technology and Engineering, vol. 45:4, pp. 575-584, 1999.
[2]
P. S. Rao, D. V. S. Rao, Design and Analysis of Hot Runner Nozzle Using Fem, International Journal
of Mechanical and Industrial Technology, vol. 3, iss. 1, pp. 228-241, September 2015.
[3]
D. Kazmer, V. Kudchadkar, R. Nageri, Validation of Moulding Productivity with Two Self
Regulating Melt Presuure Valves, Plastics, Rubbers and Composites, vol. 33, pp. 446-451, 2004.
[4]
T. Lin, B. Chananda, Quality Improvement of an Injection-Molded Product Using Quality
engineering, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 99104, 200304
[5]
T. Chan, C. Huang et al. Material Saving and Product Quality Improvement with the Visualization of
Hot Runner Design in Injection Molding, International Journal of Precision Engineering and
Manufacturing, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1109-1112, June 2013.
[6]
Autronic Plastics Inc, Additional Resources, Glossary of Plastic Injection Molding Terms, available
a t :
h t t p : / / w w w . a p i s o l u t i o n . c o m
downloads/glossary_plastic_injection_molding_engineering_manufacturing, pp.17
[7]
J. Thirlwell, Seven Key Advantage of HRS, Mold Making Technology, pp.1-2, 2002.
[8]
Mitsubishi Engineering Plastics Corporation, Technical Service, available at http://www.mep.co.jp/en/pdf/product/novaduran/molding.pdf
[9]
T. Jachowicz, T. Garbacz et al. Investigation of Selected Properties of Injection-Molded Parts
Subjected to Natural aging, International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characteristics, 20:4, pp.
307315, 2015.
[10]
G. Gantar, A. Glojek, M. Mori et al. , Resource Efficient Injecction Moulding with Low
Environmental Impacts, Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 59, pp. 193-200, 2013.
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Numerical Analysis of Forced Convection In

A Lid Driven Cavity With Different Heat
Source Locations Along the Bottom Wall
Divyaj Shah, Ketaki Godbole and C. M Sewatkar
Abstract-The lid driven cavity problem is a standard tool for investigations of heat and fluid flow problems.
Many researchers have studied the effects on heat transfer in a shear driven cavity with mixed convection. In the
present work an in-house code is developed to carry out the simulations for a lid driven cavity which is under
forced heat convection. The bottom wall is heated with various positions of heat location such as extreme left,
left middle, middle, right middle and extreme right. Remaining part of the bottom wall and all other walls are
thermally insulated. The vertical walls and the bottom wall have a no slip boundary condition. The top boundary
is moving at a constant velocity. A Finite Volume semi explicit method is employed to study the effects of
Prandtl number (Pr 0.71, 9.47 and 56) and Reynolds number 10 Re 400. It is observed that an increase in
Prandtl number greatly affects the heat transfer by decreasing the boundary layer thickness and thus increasing
the temperature gradient. An increase in Reynolds number changes the flow field by creating a secondary
vortex in the bottom rightcorner of the cavity. By moving the heat source from left to right the effect of
temperature on the flow is studied and it is observed that a single isothermal cell is formed near the right wall
and as the heat source is moved towards the right, the flow field influences the formation of the isothermal cell.
Keywords-Finite volume method, semi explicit method, Lid driven cavity, forced convection
1. NOMENCLATURE
A Surface area (m2)
K Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)
L Cavity side lengthPrPrandtl number
Re Reynolds number
T Temperature (K)
U,V Dimensionless velocities in x and y direction
Q Heat flux (W/m2)
x, y Cartesian coordinates (m)
X, Y
Dimensionless Cartesian coordinates
Divyaj Shah
Mechanical Department, College of Engineering, Pune, 232/3 Armamnet Estate, Necklace area, Pashan, Pune 411021, divyajshah28@gmail.com
Ketaki Godbole
Mechanical Department, College of Engineering, Pune, 79, Saikripa society, Dhankawadi, Pune -411043,
ktkgodbole.kg@gmail.com
C.M Sewatkar
Mechanical Department, College Engineering, Pune,
cms.mech@coep.ac.in Divyaj Shah; Tel: +91 99753 12842
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
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Greek Symbols
Step size
Dimensionless temperature
Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
2. Introduction
Lid-driven cavity flow of Newtonian fluids is one of the most well-known problems in the Computational Fluid
Dynamics.
Many applications involving heat transfer have been studied with the help of the lid driven cavity flow problem.
This finds its use in the applications such as geothermal systems, lubrication technologies, turbine nozzles,
chemical processes, solar energy system, nuclear reactors [1-4]. Mixed convection heat transfer in a cavity with
thermal sources were studied in a series of papers by Papanicolaou and Jaluria [5]. These papers aimed at
analyzing effect of Richardson and Reynolds number in the range 0-10 and 50-2000 respectively. It was
observed that the average Nusselt number increases with an increase in Richardson number at fixed Reynolds
number. Hsu and Wang [6] carried out a numerical study on mixed convection in a cavity with discrete heat
sources placed along the bottom wall. It was observed that highest temperature gradients were located near the
heat sources. An increase in Reynolds number at fixed Richardson number showed an increase in heat transfer
rate. Przemyslaw and Piotr [7] observed that Prandtl number does not have an impact on flow field patterns but
strongly influences temperature field and heat transfer.
Previous researchers have focused at the solution of this problem with uniform heat flux throughout the bottom
wall. The present study focuses on the solution of forced convection with heat flux at different sections along
the bottom wall.
3. The Problem Description
Figure 1 shows the computational domain for two-dimensional flow in a lid driven cavity with forced
convection heat transfer. Fluid is treated as Newtonian and incompressible. The radiation heat transfer effects
are neglected.
The transient governing equations for the fluid flow and heat transfer are the continuity, momentum and energy
equation. These equations in the non-dimensional form are presented below.
Where U and V are the dimensionless velocities in the X and Y directions respectively. P is the dimensionless
pressure and is the dimensionless temperature. The non-dimensional variables and non-dimensional
parameters are as described below:
136
Numerical Analysis of Forced Convection in A Lid......

Where L is the characteristic length and Ut is the characteristic velocity. The thermo-physical properties in the
above equation are kinematic viscosity ( ) and thermal diffusivity ().
These equations are solved using the boundary conditions such that the top lid moves with a constant velocity U
from left to right and is thermally insulated. The other walls are assigned no slip boundary conditions and are
thermally insulted as well. The fluid is constantly heated through bottom wall which is divided into 5 sections
such as Extreme Left (EL), Left Middle (LM), Middle (M), Right Middle (RM) and Extreme Right (ER) with
heat flux (Q) acting through one section each time in different cases. The remaining part of the wall is insulated.
The simulations are carried out for Pr = 0.71, 9.54, 56 and Re = 10, 100, 400. The Pr values considered
correspond to air, water and industrial aniline.
Top wall:
4. Numerical Details
The set of governing equations were discretized and solved by a finite volume semi explicit method [8]. A
MATLAB code is developed to solve the momentum and energy equations. The momentum equation is solved
in a two-step process in which an internal pressure correction loop is implemented to satisfy the continuity
equation. The converged values of pressure are further used to calculate the correction velocities. These
velocities are then added to the predicted velocities which are run to a specific convergence criterion.
The gird size used for the simulation is 101 x 101. The corresponding time step is in the range of 0.001<<0.004
as satisfied by the CourantFriedrichsLewy (CFL) criterion. The convected variable at the center of each
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control volume face is calculated by using QUICK (Quadratic Upwind Interpolation for convective
kinematics) scheme.
The code is validated against the results reported by Przemysaw Basiak1 and Piotr Kolasinski1 [7]. The case
considered was a uniformly heated bottom wall with the upper lid moving. Excellent agreement is noticed and
the comparison of plots for streamlines and isotherms showed one to one correspondence. The results for Re =
100 and Pr = 0.71 are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Comparison of results for Re = 100 and Pr = 0.71

In the present study, streamlines and isotherms are presented to understand the effect of Reynolds and Prandtl
numbers on fluid flow and hear transfer for each of the five sections of the bottom wall.
5.1 Effect of fixed Prandtl number
The results for fixed Prandtl number (Pr=9.47) and 10 Re 400 for the heat source acting through EL are
shown in Figures 3 & 4. It is observed that an increase in Reynolds number affects the flow field such that the
primary vortex is observed to move towards the right with an increase in Reynolds number. The nature of
streamlines and isotherms is different at low Reynolds number. However, the contours show similar patterns at
higher values of Reynolds number as shown in Figure 4.
5.2 Effect of fixed Reynolds number
The streamlines and isotherms for Re=100 and 0.71 Pr 56 are shown in Figures 5 and 6 for the heat flux
acting through EL. The streamlines are observed to follow the same pattern for different values of Prandtl
number as seen in Figure 5. The isotherms, on the other hand are observed to be influenced by the change in
Prandtl number. It is thus clear that Prandtl number does not affect the flow field much but affects the heat
transfer. For Prandtl number 0.71, the temperature contours occupy the domain of the grid space evenly but this
occupied space reduces as the Prandtl number increases. With an increase in Prandtl number, the thickness of
the boundary layer is observed to decrease. Consequently, the temperature gradient near the boundary increases
with a decrease in thermal boundary layer.
138
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 3: Comparison of streamlines for Reynolds

number 10, 100 and 400 and Prandtl number 9.47
Figure 4: Comparison of Isotherms for Reynolds number

10, 100 and 400 and Prandtl number 9.47
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Figure 5: Comparison of streamlines for

Prandtl number 0.71, 9.47 and 56 and Reynolds
number 100
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Shah et al.
Figure 6: Comparison of isotherms for Prandtl

number 0.71, 9.47 and 56 and Reynolds number 100

5.3 Effect of change in location of heat source
The streamlines and isotherms are also studied for a fixed value of Reynolds and Prandtl number by varying the
position of heat source along the bottom wall. From Figure 8 it is observed that the streamlines are independent
of the application of the heat source for fixed Reynolds and Prandtl number in forced convection. Figure 7
shows the comparison for isotherms for the same case. When the heat source is placed at the left most section
(EL), the fluid which flows in the clockwise direction experiences colder fluid first and then interacts with the
hot fluid. As the heat source is moved towards the right side, the fluid flowing carries hot fluid to the left
uniformly. A small isothermal cell is seen to be formed near the right wall when the heat source is moved
towards the right. This formation is influenced by the flow field moving in the clockwise direction.
Figure 7: Comparison of isotherms for different locations of heat source for Re = 100 and Pr = 0.71
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Figure 8: Comparison of streamlines for different locations of heat source with Re = 100 and Pr = 0.71
6. Conclusion:
The results for the numerical simulations are presented and studied for fluid flow and heat transfer in an
insulated lid driven cavity with the heat source placed at different locations along the bottom wall. It is noticed
142

that with an increase in Prandtl number the boundary layer thickness decreases and the temperature gradient
increases at the boundaries. An increase in Reynold number causes the streamline patterns to change and move
the primary vortex toward the right. A secondary vortex is seen to be formed at the right bottom corner with an
increase in Reynolds number. Further, by moving heat source along the bottom wall, the streamlines show the
similar pattern; however, single isothermal cell is seen to be formed near the right wall as the heat source is
moved from left to right. As the heat source moves towards the right, the flow field influences the formation of
the isothermal cell.
References
1.
J.R. Koseff, A.K. Prasad, The lid-driven cavityflow: a synthesis of quantitative and qualitative
observations, ASME J. Fluids Eng. 106 (1984) 390398.
2.
M. Morzinski, C.O. Popiel, Laminar heat transfer in a two-dimensional cavity covered by a moving
wall, Numer. Heat Transfer 12 (1988) 265273.
3.
Shankar P, Despande DE (2000) Fluid mechanics in the driven cavity. Annu Rev Fluid Mech
32:93136 4.
4.
Bruneau CH, Saad M (2006) The 2d lid-driven cavity problem revisited. Comput Fluids 35:326348
5.
Papanicolaou E, Jaluria Y (1991) Mixed convection from an isolated heat source in a rectangular
enclosure. Numer Heat Transf Part A 18:427461
6.
Hsu TH, Wang SG (2000) Mixed convection in a rectangular enclosure with discrete heat sources.
Numer Heat Transf Part A 38:627652
7.
Przemysaw Basiak1 Piotr Kolasinski1(2015) Modelling of the mixed convection in a lid-driven
cavity with a constant heat flux boundary condition
8.
Atul Sharma and V. Eswaran, A Finite Volume Method, Chapter12, pp. 445-482: Computational Fluid
Flow and Heat Transfer, Edited by K. Muralidhar and T. Sundararajan, Narosa Publishing House, New
Delhi, India and Alpha Science, UK, 2nd Revised Edition, 2003.
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Application of Design of Experiment Technique

For Optimization of Machining Process
Parameters: A Review
Lalit Kumar Sharma
Abstract- Turning is an important machining operation which is widely used in industrial applications. It is
important to study turning process at different cutting parameters in order to find out the optimum solution for any
particular material. Various studies have been carried out on the same for different materials at various parameters in
the past. Machining parameters which affects the output parameters are cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, work
material, temperature conditions, etc. that has a great impact and same can be adopted as input parameters for the
study. Surface finish, material removal rate, cutting time, etc can be selected as the output parameters. If surface
finish and material removal rate is to be selected then material removal rate must be high and surface finish to be
minimum possible so 'Large the best' and 'Small the best' is chosen respectively for best results. In order to optimize
the output response design of experiment techniques such as S/N ratio, ANOVA, Taguchi methodology, fuzzy logic,
etc. can be used. Outcomes of study will help user to identify the best and worst results from the set of data available.
Keywords- CNC Turning, Design of experiment, Optimization, Input parameters, Output parameters
ntroduction The turning operation is one of the most basic machining processes in which a single point cutting
tool is moved parallel to the axis of rotation. It is a machining process in which a non rotary cutting tool removes
the materials from a work piece by moving and work piece rotates. The axes tool movement may be literally a
straight line along some set of curves or angles but they are essentially linear. Some essential cutting action when
applied to internal surfaces like holes is called boring. The cutting of the faces on the work piece whether with a
turning or boring tool is called facing.There are three primary factors in any basic turning operation are speed, feed
rate and depth of cut. The other factors like types of materials and types of tools have a large influence but these three
are those in which operator can change by adjusting the control at the machine tools. All the parameter is shown in fig.
Figure 1. Turning Operation

The turning is one of the metal cutting operations which is widely used manufacturing technique in the
industries and there are various studies done to investigate the complex process in industrial field as well as
academic field. The metal cutting process represent the large class of manufacturing operation where turning
Lalit Kumar Sharma
Asst. Professor, Dept. of Mechanical and Automation Engg, Northern India Engg. College, New Delhi
Email: lalitsharma_89@yahoo.com,
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
145
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Lalit Kumar Sharma
process is the most commonly used in material removal process. Turning can be done in a traditional form of
lathe which frequently requires continuous supervision by using an automated lathe. Today the most common
type of such automation is computer numerical control. The turning processes are carried out on a lathe
machine that is considered to be the oldest machine tools. There are various types of turning process like
straight turning, taper turning, profiling and external grooving. These types of turning process produces various
shapes of materials like straight, conical, curved and grooved work piece. Generally turning process uses single
point cutting tools and each group of work piece materials has an optimum set of tools angles.
2. Design of Experiment
An experiment is a systematic approach carried out in order to find out unknown effects under controlled
environment to establish relation and for illustration of the known effect. For the analysis of a process
experiments are carried out which have significant inputs and have impact on output of process. Finally best
results can be found. Many different ways are there for experiment design in order to collect information.
Design of experiment techniques are used for the same. DOE are also referred as designed experiment or
experiment design.
Design of experiment reduce the design of costs by speeding up the process of design, reduces engineering
design changes, reduces product material and complexity of labor. It is a powerful tool of cost saving by
minimizing variation of process, reduces rework, scrap and need of inspection
3. Literature Review
Biswajit Das et al. [1] used artificial neural network and Taguchi technique to find out cutting parameters
effects on surface finish. Study was carried out on Al- Cu-TiC MMCs. Experiments were performed on
'FLEXTURN SIEMENS 802D' CNC Lathe machine. Input cutting parameters were cutting speed, feed rate
and depth of cut. Experiments were carried out in dry mode and for the measurement of surface finish 3D
profilometer was used. It was concluded from the analysis that ANN helps in finding the surface finish for non
linear relationship between input and output parameters. It was observed that surface roughness prediction
established successfully.
A.Srithar et al. [2] studied the impact of process parameter variations on surface roughness. Study was
performed on AISI D2 steel with coated carbide insert. Machining parameters selected were cutting speed, feed
and depth of cut. Roughness was measured by Surtronic 3+ stylus-type instrument. It was concluded that feed
rate is the main factor responsible for the surface roughness. Also surface roughness decreases with the gradual
increase in cutting speed and gradual increase in feed rate & depth of cut increases surface roughness.
Arshad Noor Siddiquee et al. [3] optimized deep drilling process parameters by Taguchi technique. The
objective of the experiment was to minimize surface finish of AISI 321 austenitic stainless steel. Experiments
were performed on CNC lathe machine (Make: Jyoti; Model: DX 150) with solid carbide cutting tool. Cutting
fluid, speed, feed and hole-depth were cutting parameters. Taguchi L18 orthogonal array was used for
experiments. For measuring machining parameters significance signal to noise ratio and ANOVA analysis was
carried out. Hocut 795-H which is water soluble mineral oil was used as cutting fluid. Taylor-Hobson SurfCom
instrument was used to measure surface finish. It was concluded from the experiments that cutting speed had
maximum contribution followed by cutting fluid, feed and hole depth for surface roughness.
C.J.Rao et al. [4] analyzed tool life and found optimized process parameters for turning operation. Experiments
were performed on several aluminium workpieces with the help of CNC MTAB CNC with Fanuc controller.
Tungsten carbide cutting tool was used for the cutting operation. Process parameters selected were Speed, Feed
& Depth of cut and output response was tool life. MATLAB was also used for finding optimum results. From
experiments it was concluded that as the cutting force, cutting speed and material removal rate increases tool
life decreases.
D.V. Srikanth et al. [5] investigated the effects on material removal rate in Abrasive jet drilling of Glass Sheets.
Process parameters selected were Pressure, Stand of Distance, Nozzle diameter, and abrasive flow rate.
Tungsten carbide was used for jet nozzle. Taguchi and ANOVA analysis were used for optimization and
optimized responses were tabulated.
Hari Vasudevan et al. [6] investigated the effect of hybrid multi objective optimization algorithm involving
grey and fuzzy coupled with Taguchi methodology on process parameters. Process parameters selected were
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Application of Design of Experiment Technique.........

cutting tool nose radius, cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. Output parameters were Surface roughness,
tangential cutting force and material removal rate. Experiments were performed on GFRP/Epoxy composites
by using PCD cutting tool. Machine used was Ace Jobber XL CNC lathe machine. For roughness, tangential
cutting force & MRR measurement Taylor Hobson Talysurf-5 surface roughness tester, Kistler piezo electric
dynamometer and by measuring weight before and after the operation & machining time respectively were
used. By Taguchi technique multi-response optimization problem was converted into an equivalent single
objective optimization problem. It was concluded that the used approach was robust finish turning process for
GFRP/Epoxy composites.
Hitesh Patel et al. [7] studied various research papers and the effect of process parameters on the surface
roughness. Now they have chosen AISI D2 tool steel material and gray relational analysis technique for
optimization. They want to study the variation of process parameters on surface roughness and material
removal rate. For experimental work process parameters selected were speed, feed and depth of cut.
Ivana eskov et al. [8] investigated the importance of cutting tool geometry. They studied the radius of the
cutting edge, K factor and roughness. Cutting edge was evaluated by IFM G4 device. It was concluded that
cutting edge has great influence on tool life, forces and temperature load.
A Mahamani [9] studied the influence of process parameters on surface roughness and cutting force in turning.
Experiments were carried out on AA2219-TiB2/ZrB2 in-situ metal composites. Turn master-35 lathe machine
was used for experimental work with uncoated tungsten carbide insert in dry working condition. Machining
parameters selected were cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. Taguchi method and dynoware software was
used for optimization and cutting force measurement respectively. Response graph and analysis of variance
techniques were used for effects measurement. Response analysis results showed that feed rate had great
impact on surface finish and cutting force. Also ANOVA showed percentage contribution of parameters. Depth
of cut had little influence as compared to cutting speed.
P. Jayaraman et al. [10] studied the effects of machining parameters on the surface response and optimized
multi response parameters in turning operation. Experiments were performed on AA 6063 T6 aluminium alloy.
Uncoated carbide insert was used for the turning operation and operation was carried out in dry condition. Input
parameters selected were cutting speed, feed rate & depth of cut and output parameters were surface roughness,
roundness & material removal rate. Machining was done on CNC lathe. Grey relational grade, ANOVA and
Taguchi parameter design techniques were used for optimized result determination. Surfcorder SE 1200,
Surface profilometer was used for the measurement of surface roughness. From analysis it was concluded that
feed rate influenced the output to a great extent followed by depth of cut and cutting speed.
R.Ramanujam et al. [11] analyzed and optimized machining parameters in dry turning operation. Inconel 625
was used as a work material. Principal component function which is based on fuzzy along with Taguchi
technique was used for the optimization of process parameters. Cutting speed, feed rate & depth of cut were the
input parameters and surface roughness, power consumption & material removal rate were the output
parameters. Analysis was done on Minitab software and feed rate was identified as the most influencing factor.
Satish Chinchanikar et al. [12] studied temperature of chip tool interface. PVD and CVD coated tool were used
for the study. Experiments were performed on HMT centre lathe in dry condition. Input parameters selected
were cutting speed, feed rate & depth of cut and output response was interface temperature. Tool-work
thermocouple principle was used for interface temperature measurement. For experiment hardened AISI 4340
steel was used as work material. It was concluded that interface temperature of CVD coated tool was higher.
PVD cutting tools are more sensitive for cutting conditions and cutting speed is main influencing factor
followed by feed rate. Depth of cut had minor impact in the study.
Sayak Mukherjee et al. [13] studied the effects of cutting parameters on material removal rate and optimized
the results by Taguchi technique. Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were selected process parameters for
the experiments. Experiments were performed on EMCO Concept Turn 105 CNC lathe and carbide tool was
used. Mild steel SAE 1020 was workpiece material. To maximize MRR was the objective of the experiments.
Total 25 experiments were carried out and calculations were carried out on Minitab software. It was concluded
from the analysis that most significant factor of MRR was depth of cut followed by feed. Within the studied
range it was observed as depth of cut increases, MRR also increases. Also cutting speed had very little effect.
Surendra Kumar Saini et al. [14] optimized the multi objective response by using Taguchi-Fuzzy Application.
Experiments were carried out on Aluminum alloy 8011 with carbide insert. Cutting Speed, Feed & Depth of Cut
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Lalit Kumar Sharma
and material removal rate & surface roughness were selected as process input parameters and output
parameters respectively. CNC Turn 250 CNC machine was used for the turning operations. Digital surface
tester (Taylor-Hobson, Surtronic 3plus instrument) and digital weighing machine was used for surface
roughness and MRR measurement respectively. Full factorial design of experiment technique was used for
input parameters and levels. It was concluded that feed was the most significant parameter followed by depth of
cut and spindle speed for surface roughness while depth of cut effects material removal rate followed by feed
and spindle speed.
Varaprasad.Bh et al. [15] studied impact of various process parameters on tool wear. AISI D3 hardened steel
was used as work material for experimental work. Operations were performed on Turn Master-35 lathe
machine and Al2O3/TiC mixed ceramic cutting tool was used. Cutting speed, feed rate & depth of cut were
input parameters and tool wear was the output response. Response Surface Methodology helped to develop
different models and Analysis of Variance technique was used for the analysis of developed models. Tool flank
wear was measured by a tool maker's microscope and surface response analysis was carried out with the help of
Minitab software. Analysis resulted depth of cut as most significant factor for tool wear. Also feed and cutting
speed had little impact.
Doriana M. D'Addona et al. [16] optimized machining cutting parameters to obtain the desired results. Genetic
algorithm was used to find out the optimum solution. Study was carried out to get the best production time by
considering factors tool life, number of passes, cutting forces, power consumption, stable cutting region,
surface finish, finishing and roughing relationship and temperature of chip tool interface. Experiments were
performed on NC lathe machine with HSS cutting tool. Cast steel blank was used as a work piece material. All
readings were taken within allowable limits due to machining limitations. Matlab's GA toolbox was used for
genetic algorithm generation. From the experiments it was concluded that GA methodology given optimized
results by considering various material and machining constraints. It also helps in finding suitable solution
taking less time.
E. Garca-Plaza et al. [17] performed experiments and used Artificial Neural Network & Multiple Regression
Methods for online monitoring of surface roughness. The workpieces were machined on a numerical control
lathe Goratu GCRONO 4S with Sandvik insert. Total 64 workpieces were machined on the CNC in order to
carry out the study. Cutting speed, feed and cutting depth were the machining parameters. Standard stainless
steel AISI 1045 was used as a workpiece material. Three sensors: a triaxial dynamometer, a triaxial
accelerometer and a piezotron were used to monitor cutting forces, machine vibration, and acoustic emission
respectively for surface finish monitoring. Surface roughness profilometer Hommel Tester T-500 was used for
measurement of surface finish. Results showed that Cutting force signals were the most significant for surface
roughness. Machine vibration and acoustic emission signals had not much influence on surface roughness.
Regression models involve less economic and computational cost in comparison to ANN but ANN provides
precise prediction for data validation.
Senthilkumar N et al. [18] studied the effects of cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, material hardness, cutting
insert shape, relief angle & nose radius on flank wear and surface finish. Taguchi DOE, ANN techniques were
used. Uncoated cemented carbide inserts having different included angle were used for machining the work
piece. Flank wear was measured by Mitutoyo digital tool maker's microscope and surface Surface roughness by
Surfcorder SE1200. The results obtained by the analysis shows that ANN the predicted values are closer to the
experimental observed values showing the supremacy of the system.
A. J. Makadia et al. [19] studied design of experiment methods which is helpful to find relation between factor
and generated responses for turning process of engineering products. Four process parameters were selected
for this study which is cutting speed (v), feed rate (f), depth of cut (d), and tool nose radius (r). Surface response
methodology was used to develop experiments for this study. Total 81 experiments were solved for study. CNC
lathe machine was used for carrying out the experiments. Main response for current study is surface roughness,
which was measured by Surf test model No. SJ-400 (Mitutoyo make). Quadratic regression equation shows
that the feed rate is the main factor followed by tool nose radius influences the surface roughness. The surface
roughness was found to increase with the increase in the feed and it decreased with increase in the tool nose
radius. Effect of surface roughness was studied by using analysis of variance (ANOVA). This test confirms that
feed rate is most critical factor for this study. Quadratic model is also developed using ANOVA modeling.
Parveen Kamboj et al. [20] studied the Taguchi method and Grey relational analysis for the optimization of
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Application of Design of Experiment Technique.........

machining process parameters. They reviewed many research papers and came to the conclusion that both the
methods are effective in order to solve any complex problem having multi performance characteristics.
R.A. Mahdavinejad et al. [21] investigated the effect on surface finish of turning using artificial neural
networks and fuzzy logic methods. Experiments were carried out on WEILER T07/LZ330 turning machine and
work piece material was steel. SN MGO 90204, SNMGO 90208 and SNMGO 90212 inserts were used and
surface roughness was measured with the help of Perthometer. It was concluded that surface finish improves by
increasing cutting speed. Surface finish value decreases with the depth of cut and feed rate.
Chen Lu [22] studied the effect of cutting parameters on the surface profile by RBF Neural network.
Experiments were carried out on CNC Lathe using carbide coated inserts in dry environment. Total 27
experiments were carried out on Stainless steel 304L in order to predict the surface response. Cutting speed,
feed and depth of cut were machining parameters with three levels. It was concluded that RBF Neural network
predict surface profile with accuracy, low cost and high speed.
Mr. John L. Yang et al. [23] studied the effect of process parameters on surface roughness. Experiments were
performed on VMC-40 vertical milling machine. Material used was 6061 Aluminium. Process parameters
selected for the study were depth of cur, cutting speed, feed rate and tool diameter. HSS end mill cutting tool
was used. Surface finish was measured by pocket Surf stylus type instrument. By using Taguchi and ANOVA
techniques it was concluded that these methods provides effective and efficient response for finding the
optimum surface finish. In addition to this reduction in defective parts and process variation can also be
achieved.
4. Conclusion
Based on the literature review following conclusions are made:
Input parameters which have major effects on output response can be identified. As seen in most of the cases
cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are chosen as input parameters.
Output responses can be selected as per requirement such as surface finish, material removal rate, machining
time, etc.
To optimize results suitable design of experiment technique can be employed such as Taguchi methodology,
Analysis of variance, Response surface methodology, etc.
Experiments can be performed on suitable material.
In addition to this graphical representation can be made to easily understand the variation of different
parameters.
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Hari Vasudevan, Naresh C.Deshpande, Ramesh R. Rajguru. Grey Fuzzy Multiobjective
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Oct. 14 & 15.
An Empirical Study on application of

Information and Communication Tools
(ICT) in Indian SMEs
Ravinder Kumar, Udit Kukreja and Sahil Joshi
Abstract-The purpose of this research paper is to study the application of Information & Communication tools
(ICT) in Indian SMEs of different sectors. Paper aims to analyze the areas where such technologies are used
and the problems faced by the SMEs. For collecting data, a question-based survey was conducted. 148 valid
responses were received in total. Data received from survey has been analyzed using statistical tools like T-test
and reliability test . Emails, Websites, Electronic fund transfer (EFT) and Social Messaging Software are the
main IC tools used in SMEs. Customer care and services, internal communication, Material handling and
procurement and Enhancing manufacturing capability are the most effective areas where ICT are currently
being used. Scale of operation, Top management unwillingness and Lack of professionals are the main
problems occurring in ICT implementation & usage.
Keywords: Small and Medium Enterprises, Information and Communication Tools, India
ntroduction Indian Small and Medium Enterprises (SME) have emerged as a highly vibrant and dynamic
sector of the Indian economy over the last five decades. SMEs not only play crucial role in providing large
employment opportunities at comparatively lower capital cost than large industries but also help in
industrialization of Indian rural areas. SMEs are complementary to large industries as ancillary units and this
sector contributes enormously to the socio-economic development of the country. The Sector consists of 36
million units, as of today, provides employment to over 80 million persons. The Sector through more than 6,000
products contributes about 8% to GDP besides 45% to the total manufacturing output and 40% to the exports
from the country. They contribute about 42 million in employment, create one million jobs every year and
produces more than 8000 quality products for the Indian and international markets [15].
However, despite their high enthusiasm and inherent capabilities to grow, SMEs in India are also facing a
number of problems. To survive with such issues and compete with large and global enterprises, Indian SMEs
need to adopt innovative approaches in their operations and ICT tools are certainly the way forward. [8]
Observed that supplier selection and evaluation, involvement of customers in decision making and use of IT for
different tools has significant impact on business performance of Indian SMEs.
The remaining part of the paper is organized as follow. Section 2 discusses the literature review. Section 3
discusses the research methodology. Section 4 discusses the observations & finding from the questionnaire
based survey on Indian SMEs. Finally the concluding remarks & implications are presented in Section 5.
Ravinder Kumar
Associate Professor, Amity University, Noida-201313
Udit Kukreja
Student, IIM, Shillong, India; E-mail: udit6310@gmail.com,
Sahil Joshi
Student, MAIT, Delhi-86; Email: sahiljoshi93@gmail.com
Corresponding Author; Tel:+91 9869387251, E-mail: ravinderkumar.ap@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
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Kumar et al.
Information technology (IT) and information system (IS) adoption has been defined in many different ways
depending on the research model being used. [7] Observed that the characteristics of the firm and industry
sector have an effect on the adoption and use of ICTs to support business processes. There have been research
studies for identifying the inhibitors and promoters for implementation of ICTs in SMEs.
As SMEs are strategic allies of large companies, they are supposed to be efficiently using electronic data
interchange [2]. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Supply Chain Management (SCM) software have
been used by large corporations for a long time. However, SMEs have been shown to use these applications
independently and not in an integrated manner which makes the entire process of acquiring and creating
explicit knowledge to be more complex for them [12]. [10] Observed that Indian SMEs faces problems in
supply chain like uncertainty of customer order/demand, insufficient knowledge of SCM and involvement of
middlemen. Most of these problems can be solved by using ICT tools and timely availability of information in
SC. [14] observed that, IT for management information and decision support had low priority and SCM/ERP
software had been used rarely in SMEs. [5] Observed that in Iranian SMEs, intranet and EDI are used more
intensely. SMEs adopting intranet, EDI, web sites, other SCM practices have significantly improved in terms of
annual sale. For Indian SMEs of auto sector, top management commitment, long-term vision for survival and
growth, devoted resources for supply chain and development of effective SCM strategy are the main critical
success factors of SC [9]. [1] Observed that, Iranian SMEs using ICTs like intranet, extranet, E-mails, intranet
and extranet, manages communication in better way both within and outside the company. Impact of ICT
application can be greatly observed in three and five years after ICT adoption. E-Procurement functionalities
especially those that rely on commonly available technologies, are used in New Zealand SMEs [6]. [8] Have
observed that interacting with customers, product design and development and interacting with suppliers are
the preferred area of IT implementation for Indian SMEs. Most of the organizations used e-procurement to
purchase goods than services. The use of complex e-procurement technologies such as e-auctions and e-tenders
was uncommon. [11] Observed that various type of IT tools such as bar-coding, EDI, intranet/extranet,
electronic payment, ASNs, own web sites, ERP/SCM software, automatic replenishment of basic goods, radio
frequency identification (RFID) technologies and E-commerce are required for making supply chain more
flexible.
3. Research Objectives and Methodology
The present study being an empirical study of Indian SMEs has its own importance for academia and industry
sector. To analyze the issues related with ICT practices, a survey instrument was developed. Survey has been
done among Indian SMEs (From October 2015 to March 2016) of different sector. All of SMEs were having
investment in plant and machinery as per guidelines in Indian context. Authors conducted a pilot survey of
about 20 organizations from different sectors for finalizing the questionnaire.
The methodology was based on a questionnaire survey done across various sectors using hard as well as soft
copy of the questionnaire. A structured, well-rehearsed questionnaire was designed via the feedback received
against an intermediate questionnaire. Two forms of the questionnaire were prepared- hard copy and soft copy
using Google Docs. The questionnaire contained three Parts A, B and C. Part A contained nine questions
pertaining to SMEs organization profile. This contains name of company, year of establishment, number of
Employees, number of professionals, total investment in plant & machinery, sector, main type of products
manufactured (Raw/Semi finished Etc.), level of use of products (Exports/End user etc.) and e-mail addresses;
Part B contained six questions related to ICT tools used, problems and advantages of their usage;
Part C contained six questions concerning to respondent's profile. This included their name, designation,
education, years of Experience and area of work but it was optional. It was then forwarded to 250 SMEs
operational in the area with at least three years for their feedbacks. The area chosen were four critical industrial
states and union territory of central India-Delhi, Haryana. Uttarakhand and Punjab. This ensured a wide
geographical and industrial pool of data ensuring more profound acceptability of the results. In this study,
executives were asked to rate the intensity of each attribute for their respective organisation on a five-point
Likert scale (1 lowest, 5 highest).
Out of 250 SMEs, 148 SMEs responded, thus the response rate is 59.2%. The SMEs participated in survey were
from different sectors such as plastic, auto, electronics, light Engg. Components, consumer durables,
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An Empirical Study on Application of Information......

Textile/Apparels, Agro- products and Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) sectors. The questionnaire
sought responses covering company profile, ICT practices and facilities, its inhibitors as well as promoters and
general view of SMEs towards ICT. The findings, therefore, should be considered exhaustive and as a
substantive proof of the current scenario and practices in Indian SMEs. SPSS 17 software has been used to
analyze the collected responses.
4. Observations & Findings
Inter-item analysis is used to check the scales for internal reliability of the study so conducted. Cronbach's
coefficient is calculated for each scale, as recommended for empirical research in operations management [4].
The coefficients of Cronbach's for all constructs were in range from 0.672 to 0.968. These values exceed the
minimum requirements of 0.5 for an exploratory study [13]. Data acquired from survey of Indian SMEs are
analyzed statistically in the following sections.
4.1 ICT Tools
On the basis of the extensive literature review and pilot survey, 15 ICT tools have been identified. These are
electronic fund transfer (EFT), social messaging software like Whats-App, bar coding, E-commerce, e-mails,
biometrics, websites, social media platforms, electronic data interchange (EDI), cloud computing, intranet,
enterprise resource planning(ERP), extranet, e-procurement and radio frequency identification (RFID).
Respondents were asked to indicate the degree of application of these tools on a Likert Scale of 5(1-lowest and
5-highest).
It is observed that E-mails (4.0317) is the most applicable ICT tool followed by EFT (3.619), Websites
(3.5556), Social Messaging Services (3.4286), Intranet (3.2857) and E-commerce (3.1746). With the increased
reach of mobile networks and broadband facilities in India, internet driven technologies are becoming the
obvious choice by SMEs. Social Messaging Services especially Whats-app and Ecommerce have allowed
SMEs to reach out to the buyers and suppliers across the globe. There are effective tools for customer service.
As observed by [14], Intranet is a popular IS technology among the Indian SMEs.
Tools of medium priorities are ERP/SCM (2.8095), Cloud Computing (2.6190), EDI (2.3968), Social Media
network like Face-book, Twitter Etc. (2.2381), and Biometrics (2.1111). ERP/SCM require high budget for
implementations and training. Cloud Computing is popular among SMEs which require data security and have
large volume of data. Tools of low priority are E-procurement (1.8889), RFID (1.6825), Extranet (1.5397) and
Bar coding (1.5079). These technologies require trained personnel or investment for its implementation and
thus are used rarely by Indian SMEs.
4.2 Use of ICT
SMEs were asked to rate the purpose of using ICT in different activities. Today SMEs in India, is facing
competitions not only from domestic markets but also from global competitors. The new competition is in
terms of reduced costs, improved quality, products with high performance, a wider range of products and better
service, all delivered simultaneously to enhance value to customer [3]. Thus, Customer Care and Service
(3.9655) is the most frequent usage of ICT followed by Internal Communication (3.9079), Enhancing
Manufacturing Capability (3.8965), Procurement and Purchasing (3.7462), Inventory handling and
Maintenance (3.5086), Quality and warranty management (3.4839) and Market Competition (3.1968).
However, Marketing and Promotion (2.7097), Forecasting and Planning (2.5806) and Cost Reduction (2.4839)
do not have significant usage of ICT tools.
4.3 Advantages of Information and Communication Tools
Based on the findings of literature review and conducted pilot survey, 15 ICT tools were identified. On the basis
of the literature review and pilot survey, 11 advantages were identified and the SMEs were required to scale
them on the Likert scale. Better capacity utilization (4.2839) has been found to be the biggest advantage of ICT
usage which is closely followed by Innovativeness (4.1903), Better communication with suppliers (4.0716)
and Stringent Quality Control (4.0586). These results are similar to the findings of [14] where the mentioned
advantages except innovativeness have got high priority. Advantages of medium priority are Competitive
Advantage (3.9023), Improved Customer Service (3.8174), Reduction in Product cycle time (3.4194) and
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Kumar et al.
Reduction in unit cost of the product (2.7964). However, increase in turnover and profits (2.251) and
Forecasting accuracy (1.6284) have the lowest priority since their usage according to the study was also very
low.
4.4 Problems Faced by SMEs using ICT
On the basis of the extensive literature review and pilot survey, 8 major problems were identified. These are
time requirement for implementation and personnel training, Resistance to change traditional practices, fear of
supply chain breakdown, scale of operation, top management unwillingness, lack of data security, lack of
qualified employees and lack of financial capacity. Respondents were asked to indicate the degree of
application of these tools on a Likert Scale of 5(1-lowest: 5- highest). It is observed that scale of operation of the
SMEs (4.1452) is the biggest obstruction to implementation of ICT tools in Indian SMEs. It is followed by lack
of qualified professionals (3.5645), top management unwillingness (3.4194), lack of data security (3.2258) and
resistance to change traditional practices (3.1452). Indian SMEs are conventionally run by families through
various generations and there is a complacency to modernize the working practices unless there is competitive
pressure. Time for training and implementation (2.8710) and Fear of supply chain breakdown (2.4677) cause
least problems towards ICTs usage.
5. Concluding Remarks & Implications
The objective of this study is find the application of Information & Communication tools (ICT), advantages of
using ICT and factors promoting and inhibiting the usage of ICT in Indian SMEs. The results show that SMEs
management is aware about the modern tools and their advantages. However, the Indian SMEs have a
traditional tendency to resist changes in existing systems which cause a hindrance to their overall growth. The
study shows that the IS systems used in large corporations do not suite the working of SMEs. Tools like RFID,
Extranet and SCM/ERP software are not very popular in SMEs. From the study some of the concluding
observations are as follows:
Preferred IT tools used by Indian SMEs are e-mail, website, intranet and ERP.
Preferred areas of IT applications are internal communication, material procurement & handling,
customer care and services, market competition.
Advantages of ICT application observed by Indian SMEs are stringent quality control, reduction in
product cycle time, improved customer services and better communication with suppliers.
Problem faced by SMEs in using ICT are resistance to change traditional practices, fear of supply chain
break down, knowledge among staff and scale of operation.
However, there is a common tendency to use tools that are using E-platforms. The government of India has been
focusing on rollout of internet services across regions which promote more internet backed ICT tools. As
evident from various comments by the respondents, the government should initiate action in collaboration with
the industrial chambers to promote use of other new technologies as well. They also require assistance in
training the employees to use the technologies and the government should focus on rollout of programs that
focus on skill training and updating workers about new technologies available in the market. In a highly
globalized era, the SMEs need to manufacture products with highest standards of quality and proper customer
service if they want an advantage of their competitors. SMEs need to invest more in research and development
to improve their product and services and it is evident from the research which points to the high advantage of
using ICT for innovation and stringent quality control measures.
This research aims to cover all the factors concerning the use of ICT tools with respect to Indian SMEs. Authors
have used holistic approach to the study and thus, the findings of the study have many crucial implications for
SMEs and academia. However, this research is limited to India and thus, other regions can be explored on
similar lines.
References
[1]
Bayo-Moriones, A., Billn, M. & Lera-Lpez, F., (2013), Perceived performance effects of ICT in
manufacturing SMEs, Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol.113 No.1, pp. 117 - 135.
[2]
Blili, S. & Raymonds, L., (1993), Information technology: opportunities and threats for small and
medium sized enterprises, International Journal of Information Management,, Volume 13, pp. 439-
154
An Empirical Study on Application of Information......

[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
48.
Dangayach, G. & Deshmukh, S., (2000), Manufacturing strategy: experiences from select Indian
organizations, Journal of Manufacturing Systems, Vol.19 No.2, pp. 134-148.
Flynn, B.B., Sakakibara, S., Schroeder, R.G., Bates, K.A. and Flynn, J.B. (1990), Empirical research
methods in operations management, Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 250-284.
Ghobakhloo, M., Arias-Aranda, D. & Benitez-Amado, J., (2011), Adoption of e-commerce
applications in SMEs, Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol.111 No.8, pp. 1238 - 1269.
Hassana, H., Tretiakovb, A., Whiddettb, D. & Adona, I., (2014), Extent of e-procurement use in
SMEs: A descriptive study, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol.164, pp.264 270.
Helen, S., Ronan, M. & O'Reilly, D., (2003), Understanding the implications of ICT adoption:
insights from SMEs, Logistics Information Management, Vol.16 No.5, pp. 312 - 326.
Kumar, R., Singh, R.K. and Shankar, R. (2016), Study on collaboration and information sharing
practices for SCM in Indian SMEs, International Journal of Business Information Systems, Vol.22
No.4, pp.455-475.
Kumar, R., Singh, R.K. and Shankar, R. (2015), Critical success factors for implementation of
Supply Chain Management in Indian SMEs and their impact on performance, IIMB Management
Review, Vol. 27 No.2, pp.92-104.
Kumar, R., Singh, R.K. and Shankar, R. (2014), Strategy development by Indian SMEs for improving
coordination in Supply chain: An Empirical study, Competitiveness Review, Vol. 24 No.5, pp. 414432.
Kumar, R., Singh, R. K., & Shankar, R. (2013), Study on coordination issues for flexibility in Supply
chain of SMEs: a case study, Global Journal of Flexible Systems Management, Vol.14 No.2, pp. 8192.
Maguire, S., Koh, S. & Magrys, A., (2007), The adoption of e-business and knowledge management
in SMEs, Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol.14 No.1, pp. 37-58.
Nunnally, J., 1978. Psychometric Methods. New York, NY, McGraw-Hill.
Sharma, M. K. & Bhagwat, R., (2006), Practice of information systems, Journal of Manufacturing
Technology Management, Vol.17 No.2, pp. 199 - 223.
Small and Medium Development chamber of India, N.D. Small and Medium Development chamber of
India. [Online] Available at: http://www.smechamberofindia.com/ [Accessed 22 12 2015].
155
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Thermoeconomic Insulation for

Environmental Sustainability
Radhey Shyam Mishra
Abstract-In this paper, simple economic analysis has been carried out for several insulating materials (such as
cellular plastic, pearlite, corrugated asbestos, polyurethane rubber, styro-foam and rock-wool) with the
objective in terms of most economic thickness. The various costs of insulations have been computed using
explicit expressions & effect of various parameters i.e. thickness, heat transfer coefficients, temperature
difference, payback period , interest rate for cylindrical geometry of pipes on the costs have been explained. It
was observed that the most efficient and economic material comes to be cellular plastic of 0.031(W/m C)
thermal conductivity.
Keywords: Thermal Insulations Environmental Sustainability, Thermo-Economic Analysis
ntroduction For environmental sustainability, three main threats have been observed today in terms of the
climate change driven by man-made emissions of gases which is referred as Global warming and also
including the depletion of non-renewable resources along-with damage of the renewable resources and
ecosystems is known as the resource depletion & also the largely dealt with under the Montreal Protocol known
as the ozone depletion.
The ozone is also beneficial and harmful for mankind near the ground. The ozone forming is a result of
chemical reactions involving due to traffic pollution & solar light, which may cause a number of respiratory
problems. Although, in the stratosphere region, ozone is filtered out from incoming ultraviolet (UV) radiation
from the Sun.
Without this ozone layer, life on earth would not have evolved in the way it has like an infection that grows more
and more, Due to man made mad activities , the ozone destruction is increasing along with area of the ozone
layer every day. The area of the ozone layer is also seasonally depleted of ozone is known as ozone hole
Resource depletion is also defined in economic term relating to the exhaustion of raw materials within the
region.
If these resources can be used of their beyond rate of replacement termed as considered as the resource
depletion. The most important resources among others resources is a fossil fuel. If these fossil fuels were to run
out now, there would not be a suitable replacement for them that are equally as efficient at producing the same
amount of energy.
Energy conservation is a cost-effective ways for reducing the energy consumption through existing and
improved technologies as well as through sound energy use practices is defined largely in terms of energy
efficiency technologies and practices which can therefore be playing a significant role in the reducing the
threat of global climate change. Therefore the judicious and effective use of renewable and non renewable
Radhey Shyam Mishra
Department Mechanical , Production & Industrial and Automobile Engineering
Delhi Technological University Delhi-110042 (INDIA)
Email :e-professor_rsmishra@yahoo.co.in,
Tel: +91-9891079311
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Radhey Shyam Mishra
energy for the optimizing (maximizing) the profits (minimize costs) for enhancing competitive positions.
Insulations are very important in the industrial & domestic applications.
because it is reducing the heat energy losses from the atmosphere or heat gain in the cryogenic applications for
conserving energy in terms of money saving through reducing the burden on energy resources & environment.
Mathematical modelling of thermal insulation has been carried to find the effect of various parameters such as
payback period, rate of interest, heat transfer co-efficient and temperature differences in the cost of insulation,
cost of heat losses and the total cost for a cylindrical surfaces and flat surfaces, it was observes that cellular
plastic gives better properties of insulation than other materials. Insulations are very important in industrial
applications & domestic use because it reduces heat losses to atmosphere or heat gain in cryogenic applications
for conserving Energy in terms of money saving by reducing burden on energy resources & environment. The
popular use of insulation is governed by economic considerations in terms of critical economic thickness. The
method for finding the economic thickness of insulation is progressed significantly. Many researchers have laid
down different methods of tackling thickness of insulation... M. Mc Chesney (1983) has calculated heat losses
and developed thermal models which can be used for determining thickness of insulation. They have not
considered if economic factors are not known so that heat losses considered without the fact that actual variable
market conditions. Rubin (1982) has calculated thickness of insulation as a function of pipe size, fuel costs,
pipe temperature based on wind speed of 12 km/hr with 15.5 degC ambient temperatures. Mishra (1984) has
studied the effect of insulating materials on solar cooker thermal performance experimentally and calculated
economic thickness theoretically by modifying running and inertial cost equations. In this paper, simple
economic analysis has been carried out for five insulating materials such as cellular plastic, pearlite, corrugated
asbestos, polyurethane rubber, styrofoam and rock-wool with the objective in terms of most economic
thickness. The various costs of insulations are also computed in terms of explicit expressions & effect of
various parameters i.e. thickness, heat transfer coefficients, temperature difference, payback period , interest
rate for cylindrical geometry of pipes on the costs have been explained. Insulations are very important in
industrial applications & domestic use because it reduces heat losses to atmosphere or heat gain in cryogenic
applications for conserving Energy in terms of money saving by reducing burden on energy resources &
environment. The popular use of insulation is governed by economic considerations in terms of critical
economic thickness .The various terms and quantities involved are as follows. . Length of pipe L, m, Outer
radius of the insulation= ro , m, Inner radius of the insulation ( this is the same as the outer radius of the pipe) ri
Thermal conductivity of insulation = Kc kcal/h m2oC). Film coefficient at the outer surface on the insulation = h0
(kcal/hrm2oC). Pipe wall temperature (which is equal to the temperature of the inner surface of the
insulation)=Ti (oC)
Ambient temperature = To (oC)
Cost of insulation = C' (Rs/m3)
Life of insulation = n years
Number of working day in year=300 days
(i.e. 7200 hours)
Cost of heat energy =CH (Rs/kcal)
Interest rate = I (Rs/year) (Rupees)
The inside heat transfer coefficient hi is assumed to be large.
If (ro-ri) is the insulation thickness and ho the outer surface heat transfer coefficient, the overall heat transfer
based on the inner radius of insulation can be expressed by following eq.(
) Ui= 1/((ri/Kc)*ln(ro/ri) +(ri/(ro*ho)))
The rate of heat losses per year
Q=2*(3.14)*ri*L Ui* (Ti-To) *24*300
=2*3.14*ri*L Ui*(Ti-To)*(7.2 X1000) Kcal
Cost of heat loss = Q CH )Rs/year)
If i is the fractional annual compound interest rate (compounded annually), the total present value of heat loss
P1 over the service life of the insulation ( n years) is given by
Pi= Q CH / (1+i) + Q CH / (1+i)2 +
158
Thermoeconomic Insulation For Environmental Sustainability

Q CH / (1+i)3 +Q CH / (1+i)n
Volume of insulation applied 3.14( ro2-ri2) L (m3)
Present value of the insulation P2= 3.14*(ro2-ri2) L C' (Rs)
The total present value or cost from Eqs( ) and ( ) is
PT= Q CH / (1+i) + Q CH / (1+i)2 +
Q CH / (1+i)3 +Q CH / (1+i)n
3.14*(ro2-ri2) L C' (Rs)
The optimum insulation thickness is obtained by putting dCT/dRo = 0.
The development of a general expression for ro and therefore for the optimum insulation thickness (ro-ri) based
on the expression for PT given by Eq.( ) is cumbersome.
.In this paper, simple economic analysis has been carried out for sixteen insulating materials such as Paper
wood, cellotex, wood felt, Cork ,Mineral Fibre, Kapok Magnesia, Styrofoam Rook-wool Cement Polystyrene
foam Silica aero-gel Rubber Fibre glass Plywood with the objective in terms of most economic thickness. The
various costs of insulations have been computed using explicit expressions & effect of various parameters i.e.
thickness, heat transfer coefficients, temperature difference, payback period , interest rate for cylindrical
geometry of pipes on the costs have been explained. It was observed that the most efficient and economic
material comes to be cellular plastic of 0.031(W/m C) thermal conductivity. For increasing the thermal
conductivity, the total cost also increases as same value of temperature difference. For increase in payback
period, the total cost also increases linearly. Increase in the heat transfer co-efficient the total cost of insulation
first increases rapidly and stabiles for higher value of heat transfer co-efficient. Numerical computations was
carried out for sixteen different insulation materials for a given pipe internal radius of 0.05m to find out most
economic insulating materials.
2.
Results And Discussions
The most efficient economic material comes out to be cellular plastics. With increase in thermal conductivity
the cost of insulation decreases and cost of heat losses increases and hence total cost also increases. Increases in
interest rate leads to increases in total cost. For increase in heat transfer co-efficient , the total cost first increases
rapidly and stabilizes for higher values of heat transfer co-efficient. For increases in temperature differences the
total cost increase linearly. For increase in thermal conductivity the total cost also increases for same value of
159
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Radhey Shyam Mishra
temperature differences. For increase in payback period the total cost of insulation also increases linearly
160
Fig-1(h) : Variation of various cost of

Insulation with thickness of Insulation
of paper-wood
Fig-1(k) : Variation of various cost

of Insulation with thickness of
Insulation of polystyrene
Fig-1(i) : Variation of various

cost of Insulation with thickness
of Insulation of cork
Fig-1(l) : Variation of various cost of

of pvc
Fig-1(j) : Variation of various cost

Insulation of roockwool
Fig-1(m) : Variation of various cost of

Insulation with thickness of Insulation of pvc
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Fig-1(n) : Variation of various cost

Insulation of Styrofoam
Fig-1 ( q): Variation of cost with

inner heat transfer coefficient
of Insulation for fibre glass
Fig-1(o) : Variation of various cost

Insulation of silica aeroge
Fig-2 (a ): Variation of cost with

inner heat transfer coefficient of
kook Megnesia
Fig-1(p) : Variation of various cost of

of wood felt
162
Radhey Shyam Mishra
Fig-2 (b ): Variation of cost with inner

heat transfer coefficient of insulation
of plywood
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Fig-2 (h ): Variation of cost with

inner heat transfer coefficient silic
a aeroge
Radhey Shyam Mishra
Fig-2 (i ): Variation of cost with

inner heat transfer coefficient of brick
3. Conclusions
The thermal analysis was done for the materials for sixteen different insulation materials for a given pipe
internal radius of 0.05m and numerical computation was carried out to find out most economics materials. The
following conclusions have been drawn:
1) The most efficient economic material comes out to be cellular plastic.
2) With increase in thermal conductivity the cost of insulation decreases and cost of heat losses increases and
hence total cost also increases.
3) Increases in interest rate leads to increases in total cost.
4) For increase in heat transfer co-efficient the total cost first increases rapidly and stabilizes for higher values
of heat transfer co-efficient.
5) For increases in temperature differences the total cost increase linearly.
6) For increase in thermal conductivity the total cost also increases for same value of temperature differences.
7) For increase in payback period the total cost of insulation also increases linearly
References:
[1]
Harrison MR (1977) Journal of chemical engineering . Vol. 84, page 61-63
[2]
Malloy, JF(1969); Thermal insulation, Van Nostrand - Rainhold, Newyork.
[3]
Mc Chesney, M (1981), Journal of chemical engineering Vol. 88,page 58-60
[4]
Mishra, RS (1983); Effect of rural insulation on solar cooker, proc. International conference on
renewable energy sources at Lahore (Pakistan) Page 391-399.
[5]
Mishra, RS (1984); Evaluation of solar cooker thermal performance using different rural low cost
insulating materials. International journal of Energy Research , John Wiley & Sons , NY, Vol 8 No.4,
page 393-397
164
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Thermo Economic Analysis and Optimization

of Thermal Insulations
R.S. Mishra
Abstract-In this paper, techno-economic analysis has been carried out for six insulating materials such as
cellular plastic, pearlite, corrugated asbestos, polyurethane rubber, styro-foam and rock-wool with the
objective in terms of most economic thickness. The various costs of insulations have been computed using
explicit expressions & effect of various parameters i.e. thickness, heat transfer coefficients, temperature
difference, payback period , interest rate for cylindrical geometry of pipes on the costs have been explained. The
numerical computation has been carried out for six insulating materials and It was observed that the most
efficient and economic material comes to be cellular plastic of 0.031(W/m C) thermal conductivity for
increasing the thermal conductivity, the total cost also increases as same value of temperature difference. For
increase in payback period, the total cost also increases linearly. Increase in the heat transfer co-efficient the
total cost of insulation first increases rapidly and stabiles for higher value of heat transfer co-efficient
Key Words: Critical Thickness, Thermo-economic analysis, Thermal insulation
ntroduction Insulations are very important in industrial applications & domestic use because it reduces
heat losses to atmosphere or heat gain in cryogenic applications for conserving Energy in terms of money
saving by reducing burden on energy resources & environment. The popular use of insulation is governed
by economic considerations in terms of critical economic thickness. The methods to find thickness of insulation
have progressed significantly. Many researchers have laid down different methods of tackling thickness of
insulation. M. Mc Chesney (1983) has calculated heat losses and developed economic models which can be
used for determining thickness of insulation. They have not considered if economic factors are not known so
that heat losses considered without the fact that actual variable market conditions. Rubin (1982) has calculated
thickness of insulation as a function of pipe size, fuel costs, and pipe temperature based on wind speed of 12
km/hr with 15.5oC ambient temperature. Mishra (1984) has studied the effect of insulating materials on solar
cooker thermal performance experimentally and calculated economic thickness theoretically by modifying
running and inertial cost equations.
In this paper, simple economic analysis has been carried out for six insulating materials such as cellular plastic,
pearlite, corrugated asbestos, polyurethane rubber, styrofoam and rock-wool with the objective in terms of most
economic thickness. The various costs of insulations have been computed using explicit expressions & effect of
various parameters i.e. thickness, heat transfer coefficients, temperature difference, payback period , interest
rate for cylindrical geometry of pipes on the costs have been explained.
R.S. Mishra
Department of Mechanical &Production & Industrial and Automobiles Engineering
Delhi Technological University (Delhi College of Engineering) Delhi-110042
Email: hod.mechanical.rsm@dtu.ac.in, Tel: +91-9891079311
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
165
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R.S. Mishra
2. Analysis and Optimization of Thermal Insulation

Considering flat surfaces, the heat losses per square meter per year is given by the following expression:
Q = (T1-Ta) *Y / ((L/K)+R) watt/year .
Where
T1 = Temperature of surface without insulation(0C),
Ta =Ambient Temperature (0C),
L =Thickness of insulation(m,cm),
K = Thermal conductivity of insulation material (W/mK),
R =Thermal resistance of outer surface
of insulation (m2 K/W),
h0 =Heat Transfer coefficient of outer surface of insulation(W/m2 K),
Y = Hours of operation per year
Assuming M is the cost of heat losses (rupees per million watts), therefore, the cost of heat losses per year
per meter is expressed by the following equation:
M = Q*M/106 (Rs).
Substituting equation (1) in equation (2), one gets following equation:m=(T1-Ta) & Y*M / (106)(R+(L/K)) (Rs)...
(3)
The cost of insulation can be expressed as
n = 100B*L+C ...
(4).
Where,
C =Installation Cost which is fixed (in Rs) and
B =Cost of installed insulation per square m per cm length of insulation per year.
Therefore, the cost of insulation can be given by adding Eq(3) and Eq.(4) respectively i.e.:
Ct = P1+P2 = (T1-Ta)*Y*M/(106)(R+(L/K)) + 100*B*L + C
(6).
Assuming
A=y*(T1-Ta)*M/106.
Therefore, total cost of insulation can be expressed as
Ct = A*K/(L+(K*R)) + 100*B*L + C.. (7)
To get minimum value of above expression, one can differentiate equation (7) with respect to thickness.
i.e. dCt/dL = 0
and solving, one can get following expression:
dCt/dL = AK/((L+RK)(L+RK)) + 100B = 0.
One gets, AK=100B((L+RK)(L+RK) ..(8).
Rearranging (8), one can get quadratic equation in terms of L as follows
L2=2LRK+R2K2K AK/100B = 0. (9)
Solving equation 9, the economic thickness of insulation for flat surface becomes
L = (AK)1/2 / (100B)1/2 RK..
(10).
Similarly, heat losses per meter length of insulating cylinder can be expressed as
Q= 2*3.14(T1-Ta)/((1/K)*(ln (r2/r1)) +
(1/h0r2)) Watt/m ..(11).
Where
r1=Radius of inner surface of insulation (m),
r2=radius of outer surface of insulation (m).
The cost of heat losses per year per meter can be expressed by the following
P1 = [2*3.14(T1-Ta)/((1/K)*(ln (r2/r1)) + (1/h0r2))] *Y*M/106 (Rs/year)]
Where
R=1/h0
and
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Thermo Economic Analysis and Optimization of Thermal Insulations

P2= 2*3.14(r2*A*K)/(r2ln(r2/r1) + RK)
and A= y*(T1-Ta)*M/1000000.
The cost of insulation per liner metre per year can be expressed as
P2= 2*3.14*(r22-r1r2)*B + C
and
P2=2*3.14*r2*1] (r2-r1)*B + C.
Therefore, total cost per metre per year can be expressed as
Ct =P1+ P2
Ct = [*3.14*AK / ((r2 ln(r2/r1) + RK) + 2*3.14(r22-r1r2)*B + C] .
(13).
To get optimum value of r2, we differentiate eq. 13 with respect to r2 because inner dia of a cylinder is constant.
Differentiating eq. 13 one gets following expression:
dCt/dr2 = [2*3.14*(r2 ln(r2/r1)+RK)AK
r2AK* (1+ln(r2/r1))]/(r2ln(r2/r1)+RK)2
+2*3.14* (2r2-r1)B= 0
(14).
Rearranging equation (14), one gets following expression
[(2*3.14*(r2 ln(r2/r1) +RK)AK))/B]
[(r2AK(1+ln(r2/r1)))/B] + (2r2-r1)*(r2ln(r2/r1)) + RK)2 = 0
(15)
Solving Eq(15) and rearranging, one can get following transcendial Eq which was solved by trial and error
method.
(r2 ln(r2/r1) +RK)*(2r2-(r1/r2)-RK)1/2
= (Y(T1-Ta)BMK/106)1/2
(16).
The economic thickness of insulation is obtained by (r2_opt r1) in this paper by considering following 6
insulating materials such as Cellular plastic (K=0.031 W/m K), Perlite (K=0.06 W/m K), Corrugated Asbestos
(K=0.1 W/m K), Polyurethane rubber (k=0.15 W/m K), Polystyrene Styrofoam (K=0.263 W/m K), Rock Wool
(K=0.4 W/m K). Length of pipe = 1m, Temperature of inner surface = (172+273) K, Ambient temperature = 293
K. Heat transfer Coefficient 10.32 (W/m2 K), Cost of insulation 5540(Rs/m2), Payback period = 5 Years
(variable), cost of heat generation 0.001437 (Rs/kJ). The variation of total cost of insulations with rate of
interest has been presented in the tables. It was observed that increasing the rate of interest, the total cost of
insulation decreases significantly. For all insulating materials increasing heat transfer coefficient, the cost also
increases. Similarly, payback period also increases with the total cost. Similarly, by decreasing temperature
differences, the total cost of insulation also decreases significantly for a insulating materials. The thickness of
insulation increases, the total cost of insulation decreases, and optimum value of thickness of insulation has
been obtained.
3. Result And Discussions
Insulations are very important in industrial applications & domestic use because it reduces heat losses to
atmosphere or heat gain in cryogenic applications for conserving Energy in terms of money saving by reducing
burden on energy resources & environment. Numerical computation is carried out for six thermal insulation
materials for finding the effect of various parameters (such as payback period, rate of interest, heat transfer coefficient and temperature differences) in the cost of insulation, cost of heat losses and the total cost for a
cylindrical surfaces, it was observes that cellular plastic gives better properties of insulation than other
materials. It was observed that the most efficient and economic material comes to be cellular plastic of
0.031(W/m K) thermal conductivity.. For increasing the thermal conductivity, the total cost also increases as
same value of temperature difference. For increase in payback period, the total cost also increases linearly. The
Increase in the heat transfer co-efficient the total cost of insulation first increases rapidly and stabiles for higher
value of heat transfer co-efficient . The table-7 gives economic thickness of insulation with total economic
costs
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Table 1: Variation of cost with thickness of Pearlite insulation (K=0.06 W/mK)
Table 2: Variation of cost with thickness of Corrugated Asbestos insulation (K=0.10)W/mK)
Table 3: Variation of cost with thickness of Rockwool (K=0.04W/mK) insulation
168
Table 4: Variation of cost with thickness of Polyurethane Rubber insulation ( K=0.015W/mK)
Table 5: Variation of cost with thickness of Cellular Plastic insulation ( K=0.031 W/mK)
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Table 6: Variation of cost with thickness of Styrofoam insulation ( K=0.263 W/mK)
Table-7: Optimum cost with optimum economic thickness of insulation materials
4. Conclusions And Recommendation

The thermal analysis was done for the materials for 6 different insulation materials for a given pipe internal
radius of 0.05m and numerical computation was carried out to find out most economics materials. The
following conclusions have been drawn:
1. The most efficient economic material comes out to be cellular plastic.
2. With increase in thermal conductivity the cost of insulation decreases and cost of heat losses
increases and hence total cost also increases.
3. Increases in interest rate leads to increases in total cost.
4. for increase in heat transfer co-efficient , the total cost first increases rapidly and stabilizes for higher
values of heat transfer co-efficient.
5. For increases in temperature differences the total cost increase linearly.
6. For increase in thermal conductivity the total cost also increases for same value of temperature
differences.
7. For increase in payback period the total cost of insulation also increases linearly.
170
References:
[1] Harrison MR (1977) Journal of chemical engineering . Vol. 84, page 61-63
[2] Malloy, JF(1969); Thermal insulation, Van Nostrand - Rainhold, Newyork.
[3] Mc Chesney, M (1981), Journal of chemical engineering Vol. 88,page 58-60
[4] Mishra, RS (1983); Effect of rural insulation on solar cooker, proc. International conference on
renewable energy sources at Lahore (Pakistan) Page 391-399.
[5] Mishra, RS (1984); Evaluation of solar cooker thermal performance using different rural low cost
insulating materials. International journal of energy research ,Vol 8 No.4, page 393-397
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Performance Analysis of Biogas Run

Dual- Fueled Diesel Engine
S. Lalhriatpuia, Kunal Kumar Bose and Diwakar Gurung
Abstract
In this work a systematic experimental investigation is carried out for the performance of the biogas run
compression ignition diesel engine in dual fuel mode. Many Experiments were conducted in a modified engine
test unit to run biogas under dual fuel operations. For an equal power output from each of the diesel and dual
fuel engine operation, the performance results were evaluated. This type of comparison approach can decide
the feasibility of a dual fuel engine usage in place of a conventional diesel engine.
Keywords: Biogas, dual fuel engine
ntroduction One of the most serious problems that the world is being confronted is the use of limited
fossil fuel like petrol, diesel etc. which has severely harm the environment. So these days' alternatives to
this fossil fuel so-called renewable source of energy has been a topic of investigation for researchers.
Among the many different available energy sources Biogas from anaerobic digestion of animal manure waste
can be used and has proved to meet the demand of environment concern [1]. Biogas may be characterized based
on its chemical composition and physical characteristics, which result from it. It is primarily mixture of
methane (CH4) and inert carbonic gas (CO2). However, the name biogas gathers large variety of gasses
resulting from specific treatment processes, starting from different organic wastes like industries, animal or
domestic origin waste etc. Earlier Biogas was used for cooking in the rural household but it can be also used for
generating shaft power and electricity. Biogas has variety of combustion and compositional characteristics
compared to natural gas, so it needs a different system of preconditions compared to the combustion of natural
gas [2]. One way of using this biogas can be duel fueled compression ignition diesel engine. The basic concept
behind this type of engine is the use of primary fuel also known as gaseous fuel and pilot fuel. The duel fuel
engines are classified into two categories depending on the utilization of pilot and gaseous fuel.one category
includes the injection of small amounts of liquid fuel to provide ignition to a lean mixture of gas and air. Here
the bulk of energy comes from the gaseous fuel (also called primary fuel). And another one is associated with
the addition of some gaseous fuel to air in a fully operational diesel engine. The interest of this paper lies within
the second category of the dual fueled engine. Earlier there was obscurity about the feasibility of the engine to
S. Lalhriatpuia
ME Dept., Delhi Technological University, sactrix777@gmail.com
Kunal Kumar Bose
ME Dept., IIT Madras , kunalbose07@gmail.com
Diwakar Gurung
ME Dept., NIT Rourkela , diwakargurung007@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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be run by biogas but the compression of biogas is possible and the application of biogas as a fuel for dual fuel
diesel-biogas engines is feasible and economical (Cheng-qiu et al.,1989). An investigation on small
biogas/diesel dual-fuel engine for on-farm electricity generation and it was found that the, dueled fuel operation
in diesel engine showed superior efficiency compared to normal diesel operation (N. Tippayawong et
al.,2007).The gas engine tests for the energy utilization was concluded for the development of experimental
variants useful for improvement of biogas produced from pig manure and plant additives and establish the
satisfied condition for running the heat engine properly (Attila Meggyes et al.,2012). It was found that found
that a small addition of O2 to intake combustion air improve combustion stability in a biogas-diesel engine. The
additional O2 helps to attenuate negative effects of CO2 in combustion such as decreases in overall gas-air
mixture temperature and low burning velocities of biogas regarding methane (Cacua et al.,2009).
Considering the above literature review it is found that the researchers have done marvelous development in the
context of combustion characteristics, improvement of energy utilization, quality improvement of biogas and
designing of engine parameter for power output. The present study deals with the study of the performance of
dual fuel compression ignition diesel engine which is run by biogas. Here the biogas will be added to the air in a
fully operational diesel engine. Initially, baseline performance tests are carried out with the engine operating on
diesel fuel only and then with biogas. The main objective is to compare the performance of dual fuel
compression ignition diesel engine with a normal diesel engine in terms of brake power, brake power
efficiency, volumetric efficiency, exhaust temperature and air consumption.
2. Experimental
2.1 Biogas and pilot Fuel
Biogas which has been employed as the gaseous fuel mixed with the air for the dual fuel operation. biogas was
collected from the Gobar gas plant, Yupia, Naharlagun, Arunachal Pradesh, India. It was produced by the
anaerobic digestion of cow manure. In our investigation, the standard diesel is used as the pilot fuel for the
experimental work for both baseline and dual fuel mode. This diesel is supplied through the injection pump
from the fuel tank under the gravity fed.
2.2 Engine test rig set-up and procedure
The engine used for the investigation is the Petter AA1 Diesel Engine. It is a single cylinder constant-speed,
four-stroke, direct injection, water-cooled diesel engine. The rated power is 2.6kW at 3600 min-1 and it has a
bore of 70mm and stroke of 57mm. It is designed conventional fuel injection system and loaded with a
hydraulic dynamometer. The injection nozzle has three holes of 0.3mm diameter with a spray angle of 120.
The liquid fuels are supplied to the engine injection pump from a fuel tank under gravity feed. Type K
thermocouples are installed on different locations of engine setup and connected to a data logger for measuring
various temperatures. The airflow to the engine was monitored by passing the intake air through an air box with
orifice meter and manometer. The pressure drop was measured by an inclined tube manometer, calibrated in
millimeters of diluted ethyl alcohol. The air flow was calculated from the viscous Flowmeter calibration.
During the dual fuel operation, Biogas was supplied through a plastic pipe and mixed with inlet air in simple
mixing chamber consists of a T-junction of a tube or flow channel(fig.1) with an inlet for air and for gasses each
and an outlet for the mixture of both. The outlet is connected to the intake channel or manifold of the engine. the
flow rate of Biogas was measured in the Biogas Flowmeter. figure.2 shows the schematic view of dual fuel
engine and the connection between various components.
Table 1. Characteristics of Diesel, Biogas, Manometry fluid and Air used
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Performance Analysis of Biogas Run Dual- Fueled ....
Fig 1. - T-joint tube type mixer
Fig2. - Schematic Diagram of Dual Fuel Diesel Engine
Initially, the engine was run idly at 1500 rpm without any load to reach stable operating
conditions for 20 minutes. To establish a basis for comparison of results baseline performance
tests was carried out with the engine operating on diesel fuel only. The load was varied in steps
from 1.5N to 4N in the hydraulic dynamometer. For each load all the required parameters like
rpm, exhaust temperature, the difference in the liquid level of the manometer, Volume of diesel
fuel consumption by the engine in one minute etc. are noted. For the biogas dual fuel mode
operation, biogas flow was opened up slowly from the gas balloon and allowed biogas to reach the
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gas carburetor. The homogeneous air-gas mixture from carburetor was hence sucked into the cylinder to take
part in the dual fuel combustion via engine manifold. During the process, engine speed was increased due to
addition extra chemical energy from biogas. To maintain a constant speed for both diesel and dual fuel modes,
the quantity of diesel was varied by adjusting the liquid fuel cut-off valve. The data acquisition was undertaken
similar to baseline tests for each step load.
To present the air consumption measured in kghr-1 and volumetric efficiency the following expression is
adopted
Air flow rate, F=Cd
where Cd is discharged coefficient, d is the diameter of orifice meter in millimeter, h is the height of manometry
fluid (diluted ethyl alcohol) in millimeter,
Volumetric efficiency,
Where D is the diameter of cylinder in millimeter, L is the stroke length of cylinder in millimeter, N is the speed
in revolution per minute, K is the number of cylinder andn=1(for Two stroke engine), =2(for four stroke engine)
The brake power and brake thermal efficiency are calculated according to
2x3.142xNxWxR
B r a k e
P o w e r ,
60x1000
B P
Mass flow rate of diesel in kghr-1, md=(X60Lf/106)

Where, X is the cc liquid fuel consumption of engine in cc/min) and Lf is the liquid fuel density in kg.m-3
Thermal brake efficiency,
for normal diesel operation,
for dual fuel operationWhere, LHVd Low heating value of diesel and LHVg is
Low heating value of biogas in MJ.kg-1
All these performance parameters were obtained from the above relation and compared the performance of the
dual fuel compression ignition diesel engine and normal compression diesel engine. During the process, the
serious attention was given for the proper functioning of each component during the experiments.
The results of the experiments conducted for the comparison of dual fuel compression ignition diesel engine
with normal compression diesel engine are shown in figs 3,4,5 and 6. The patterns of variation for each
parameter are found to be almost same. Fig.3 shows the greater air consumption for diesel mode than dual mode
at equal loading conditions. more substitution of air takes place by fuel at higher load.Fig.4 shows lower
volumetric efficiencies for dual fuel operations than diesel mode. The higher temperature of the retained
exhaust gas preheats the incoming fresh air and lowers the volumetric efficiency and at higher power outputs
higher biogas substitution displaces a greater proportion of air. The brake power and the brake thermal
efficiency obtained for diesel were more than that for dual fuel mode as shown in figure 5 and 6. A considerable
reduction in thermal efficiency (about 19% to 40%) was observed under dual fuel modes as
compared to diesel mode for the entire load range. This is mainly due to the lower heating value of biogas and by
increasing the quality of biogas giving the higher heating value may increase the efficiency to greater extend.
Lastly, fig.7 shows the Variation of Exhaust
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Table 2. Experimental observations and performance parameters for diesel
Table 3. Experimental observations and performance parameters for dual
Temperature in which the temperature for dual mode was less than diesel mode.
Fig3. Variation of air consumption rate with load from diesel and duel fuel operation
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Fig 4. Variation of volumetric efficiency with load from diesel and duel fuel operation
Fig5. Variation of brake power with load from diesel and duel fuel operation
Fig6. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with load from diesel and duel fuel operation
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Fig7.Variation of exhaust temperature with load from diesel and duel fuel operation
4. Conclusion
Diesel engines are established as a unique combination of energy efficiency, power, reliability, and durability.
They play a vital role in transport sectors, farm and construction purpose, power generation, etc. But these
engines adopt fossil diesel fuel-based technology which contributes to the production of greenhouse gasses by
CO and CO2 emissions. In order to reduce these carbon emissions, there are possible and available clean diesel
technologies viz., alternative fuels, hybrid-electric power and fuel cell etc. Use of clean gaseous fuel like
biogas, alternative to diesel, is one of the techniques which have the potential for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. dual fuel compression ignition diesel engine can be used for obtaining power from biogas. In the
present work, an experimental investigation has been carried out to evaluate the various performance
parameters of dual fuel compression ignition diesel engine compared it with the normal diesel engine. There
was an increase in brake power and brake thermal efficiency with a load for both diesel and dual fuel mode. The
brake power for diesel mode was greater than dual fuel mode. The maximum brake power obtained for diesel
mode was 0.50kW at 4N load, for dual fuel mode was 0.41kW at 4N load. thermal efficiency obtained for diesel
mode was 12% at 4N load and for dual mode was 2.82% at 4N load. Use of biogas having higher heating valve
can increase the brake power and the brake thermal efficiency of the dual fuel engine. This indicates the
adoption of this biogas may reduce the diesel fuel cost which causes higher CO and CO2 emissions. Although
the power obtained through the dual fuel compression ignition diesel engine was found to be less in the
experiment conducted but this dual-fuel engine appeared to perform well and have great potential for producing
power and also meet the criteria of environment concern.
References
[1]
Tippayawong N., Promwungkwa A. and Rerkkriangkrai P. (2007), Long-term operation of a small
biogas/diesel dual-fuel engine for on-farm electricity generation. Biosystems Engineering, Vol. 98,
No. 1, pp. 2632
[2]
Bari S. 1996, Effect of carbon dioxide on the performance of biogas/diesel dual-fuel Engine.
Renewable Energy, Vol. 9, No. (14), pp. 10071010
[3]
Seung H.Y., Chang S.L., 2011, Experimental investigation on the combustion and exhaust emission
characteristics of biogasbiodiesel dual-fuel combustion in a CI engine. Original Research Article:
Fuel Processing Technology, Vol. 92, pp. 992-1000
[4]
Attila M. and Valria N. (2012), Biogas and Energy Production by Utilization of Different Agricultural
Wastes. Vol. 9, No. 6
[5]
Sahoo B.B., Sahoo N. and Saha U.K.(2009), Effect of engine parameters and type of gaseous fuel on the
performance of dual-fuel gas diesel enginesA critical review'. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, Vol. 13, pp. 11511184
[6]
AbdAlla G.H., Soliman H.A., Badr O.A. and AbdRabbo M.F.(2000), Effect of pilot fuel quantity on the
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[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
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performance of a dual fuel engine. Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 41, No. 6, pp. 559572
Jiang, C., J, Liu, T., and Zhong, J. 1989, A study on compressed biogas and its application to the
compression ignition dual-fuel engine. Biomass, Vol. 20, pp. 5359
Sahoo BB. Clean development mechanism potential of compression ignition diesel engines using
gaseous fuels in dual fuel mode. Ph.D. thesis. India: Centre for Energy, IIT Guwahati; 2011.
Yoon SH, Lee CS. Experimental investigation on the combustion and exhaust emission characteristics
of biogas biodiesel dual-fuel combustion in a CI Engine. Fuel Process Technol 2011;92(5):9921000.
Henham A, Makkar M. Combustion of simulated biogas in a dual-fuel diesel Engine.Energy Convers
Manage 1998;39(1618):20019.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
An Empirical Study on Problems & Risks Faced

by Indian Small & Medium-Sized Enterprises
Ravinder Kumar, Shikhar Saxena, and
Ashish Kumar Aggarwal
Abstract- Purpose of this research paper is to study and analyze the problems faced by Indian Small &
Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) while working in global market. SMEs form the backbone of industrial
development in a growing economy like India. A rigorous literature review has been done to identify the
problems faced by Indian SMEs. According to their nature, the problems have been classified into different
sections like market problems, technological problems, production problems etc. A questionnaire based
survey has been done to collect the data on problems faced by Indian SMEs. Collected data has been analysed
by using different statistical techniques. Authors have observed that increased production cost and tough
competition were among the biggest problems faced by the SMEs while union strikes and lack of loans were the
least bothering one. Finding of the current research can help the India SMEs in identifying the problems and
make strategies to removes these problems.
Keywords- Small and medium enterprises, production problems, training problems, market problems, supply
chain problems.
ntroduction SMEs serve as integral institutions in the development of an economy. A majority of them are
covered under the secondary sector of an economy & assist various large firms in their production. The
definition of SMEs significantly varies from country to country. Indian SME sector has emerged out to be
highly vibrant, dynamic sector of the economy over the last five decades. They have been providing large
employment opportunities at comparatively lower capital cost than large industries alongside the
industrialization of rural areas. Being complementary to large industries as ancillary units, this sector
contributes enormously to the socio-economic development of the country. Comprising of 36 million units, as
of today SMEs, provides employment to over 80 million persons. The Sector through more than 6,000 products
contributes about 8% to GDP besides 45% to the total manufacturing output and 40% to the exports from the
country [17].
Uncertainty of customer order/demand, insufficient knowledge of SCM and involvement of middlemen in
supply chain are the main problems faced by Indian SMEs and fluctuating prices of raw materials, sharing of
sensitive information and seasonality of demand are main risks which Indian SMEs feel while working in
supply chain [11]. To survive in global competitive atmosphere and to compete with large and global
enterprises, SMEs need to cope up with the risks & problems coming to their path. The remaining part of the
paper is organized as follow. Section 2 discusses the literature review. Section 3 discusses the research
methodology. Section 4 discusses the observation and finding from the questionnaire based survey on Indian
Ravinder Kumar,
Associate Professor, Amity University, Noida-201313
E-mail: ravinderkumar.ap@gmail.com; Ph.No.9868387251
Shikhar Saxena
Student, MAIT, India; E-mail: shikhar.sxn93@gmail.com
Ashish Kumar Aggarwal
Student, MAIT, India; Email: ashaggarwal94@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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SMEs. Finally the concluding remarks & implications are presented in Section 5.
An extensive literature review has been done to find out different problems faced by the Indian SMEs. Indian
SMEs faces different problems like limited resources, lack of skilled human capital, reduced volume of
production, increased production cost, insufficient knowledge; IT related issues etc. [4]. Supply chain
management capability of small and medium sized family businesses in India mostly faces low implementation
of software, supply chain issues and reduction in entrepreneurship etc. [9]. Indian Manufacturing SMEs faces
problems like lack of cross functional training programs, limited utilisation of social media and communication
channel and language acting as a communication hurdle etc. [19]. Lack of technological innovations by SME's
in India is the source root of multiple obstacles such as limited resources, increased production cost, poor
technological advancement & adoption along with strict governmental regulations etc. [16]. Mediocre
innovation incentives & poor R&D infrastructure affects patenting culture along with reduced knowledge
sharing [18].
Inefficient training system for employees though might reduce the cost to the SME, yet long term gains are
severely impacted [5]. To run a business, finance acts as a significant pillar for SMEs. However lack of loans
from banks & other monetary sources gravely impacts SMEs sustainability [1]. At times, lack of monetary fund
affects the payments or bonus of skilled human capital. Thus, retaining this capital for long run seems to be
harder [13]. Tough government policies & regulations beside complex taxations rules hamper SME operations
[8]. Demanding labour laws also pose as glitches, failing which labour adopts protest and agitation [15].
Ineffective competitive and proactiveness nature among SME officials affects them in long run. Thus, being
avid of taking risks by such officials seems to a rare act [2].
At times crisis namely natural ones like earthquake, drought or man-made ones like wars, political instability in
the region plays detrimental to the SMEs. However such crisis is affecting areas either with similar
geographical or social infrastructure of their governments [7]. Recognizing the market needs as well as
understanding the constraints active in the market seems to be highly complex in nature. Low partnership and
information interchange culture affects in terms of competitiveness. Insufficient knowledge sharing,
knowledge management & in related infrastructure also risks SMEs in the present age. Lower interaction with
other pioneers from the same field & conferences among officials of SMEs leaves less space for collective
development for SMEs [3]. High competition especially from China is very challenging due to its deeper
penetration into the market, with greater affordability [10]. Low penetration of the outsourcing phenomena in
SMEs sector will prove detrimental for their survival, as it opens up new ways of improving efficiency, cost &
effectiveness [12]. Overall, SMEs would have to sort out all such diversified set of issues with adaptiveness so
as to gain strong with effective & efficient system.
3. Research Methodology
The present study being an empirical study of Indian SMEs has its own importance for academia and industry
sector. To analyze the issues related with problems & risks faced by SMEs, a survey instrument was developed.
Survey has been done among Indian SMEs (From January 2016 to April 2016) of different sector. All of SMEs
were having investment in plant and machinery as per guidelines in Indian context. The methodology was based
on a questionnaire survey done across various sectors using hard as well as soft copy of the questionnaire. A
structured, well-rehearsed questionnaire was designed via the feedback received against an intermediate
questionnaire. Majority of them were located in urban areas. Pilot survey had been conducted on 20 SMEs
from varied sectors so as to give final touch to the questionnaire. Questionnaires were sent through via email or
by taking appointment from the SMEs. In this study, associates of SMEs were given questionnaire to mark the
intensity of each variable for their respective firm on a five-point Likert scale (1very low, 5 very high).
Respondents participated in survey were at the level of managers, engineers or top management in the SMEs. A
total of 250 SMEs were approached for survey out of which 140 replied with a response rate of 56%. SPSS 20
software had been used to do the analysis of collected responses.
4. Observation & findings
Observations from questionnaire based survey of different sector's SMEs are discussed in following sections.
Inter-item analysis is used to check the scales for internal reliability of the study so conducted. Cronbach's
coefficient is calculated for each scale, as recommended for empirical research in operations management [6].
The coefficients of Cronbach's for all constructs were in range from 0.672 to 0.968. These values exceed the
minimum requirements of 0.5 for an exploratory study [14]. Data acquired from survey of Indian SMEs are
analyzed statistically in the following sections. The problems faced by the Small and Medium Enterprises are as
follows.
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An Empirical Study on Problems & Risks Faced.....

4.1 Human Resource Training problems
The results of this study for various problems being faced by Indian SMEs on a Likert scale of five (1 very low,
5 very high) are shown in the Figure 1. Mean of these responses has been plotted on bar graph.
Figure 1 Human resource Training problems

It has been observed that lack of providing appropriate training to the human resource is a major shortcoming in
the development of the Small and Medium Enterprises (2.516). Generally the SMEs have workforce which is
not trained up to the mark and hence hampers the productivity. Mostly, these firms demand for already trained
labour so as to save time & money. But due to lack of availability of such facility, it leads to higher inaccuracies
in industrial operations. Poor human capability is also a prominent factor which deeply affects SMEs
performance (2.419). Lack of recreation facility & guidance are the main causes of this problem. Skilled human
labour is also a constraint for these companies (2.323). Skilled labour demands high labour rates which these
companies are unable to provide and so human resource is a major shortcoming of such SMEs. Another issue is
the limited devoted resources for HRT in SMEs (2.323). This variable critically depends on affordability &
competitiveness of SME. The management of these human resources is also an issue that bothers companies on
a considerable scale (2.226). Limited professional employed in HR is the cause for it. A manager might
sometimes be averse to taking calculated risks (2.194). This might lead to saturation in the development of the
SME. The lack of interactive atmosphere proves to be a bottleneck in the all round development of the Small
and Medium Enterprises (2.194). This is because the employees can't catch up with new SME practices and
trends & meet experts from the same sector of varied fields, whose knowledge might come handy.It is also
found that sometimes the manager or the official selected for a particular job role is not educationally qualified
for that position and so is not able to contribute enough to the growth of the company (2.129). Sometimes the
manager's attitude causes problems in such enterprises (2.032). There is incompetency of the manager in
maintaining the much required harmony at the workplace & he might be concerned only with desirable
production, without paying any heed to working atmosphere. Lastly the lack of loans and other monetary
investments from the banks and similar financing institutions is another persistent risk (1.871). The banks are
reluctant in providing loans due to lack of trust on the business prospects of these enterprises.
4.2 Production Related Problems
Production is the converting of the raw materials into the finished goods. Survey opinion of various production
problems being faced by Indian SMEs has been collected on a Likert scale of five (1 very low, 5 very high)
are shown in the Figure 2 . The foremost and most important issue faced by the companies in this category is the
increase in cost of production due to various reasons also adds to the problems faced by the Small and Medium
Enterprises as growing cost of production but same sale value leads to decrease in the return on investment and
so the development is hampered (3.613). Absenteeism of workers is a considerable issue as it severely affects
the working hours & thus leads to reduced or inefficient production process (2.935). Also the decrease in the
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rate of production due to various tangible and intangible issues (2.871). This directly affects the revenue of the
company. Time constraint plays a major part here (2.742). The lack of ample time to meet the production
demand leads to the loss of the sales and so the development of the company is hampered. Machine Breakdown
has also been also found to affect SMEs (2.581).There is also sometimes no reservation on the items that can be
produced by patents etc (2.548). In this case, SME can't share & learn about different industrial products or
procedure which again hampers the growth prospects of the SME and so is a considerable problem. Union
Strike isn't a significant risk (1.581). It may happen occasionally along with disturbing coordination within the
firm.
Figure 2 Production related problems

4.3 Market related problems
Market is the place where the exchange of the commodity takes place. Survey opinion of various problems
being faced by Indian SMEs have been collected on a Likert scale of five (1 very low, 5 very high) are shown
in the Figure 3.The main problem that the SMEs face is the inability to extend to the new markets (2.516).
Figure 3 Market related problems
184

These enterprises have a very limited market geographically as well as functionally and the extension is
generally not that comprehensible due to the presence of tough competition and market regulations. Another
big problem faced by these enterprises is the lack of a perfect strategy for marketing and managing market
information (2.419). In today's cut-throat competition, the inability to reach out to the existing market also
causes a leak in the development process of the company. The available market information may also not be
managed sometimes due to the incompetency of the marketing managers. Recognition of the newer markets
may even be absent sometimes (2.226). It can be followed up by low demand for their product & thus
questioning on SME's survival. It is also found that lack of distribution channels are far below the required
amount (2.194). Due to this the expansion in the marketplace becomes highly difficult and so these issues pose
big problems in the path of progress of a Small and Medium Enterprise. Difficulty in getting feedback about
new launches might also pose to be problematic (2.129). It doesn't rectify the future roadmap of that product
towards a better direction. Lastly lack of awareness about the product is also a critical issue (2.129). Supplying a
product without understanding its demand in the market wastes resources time, energy & money. Effective
planning to understand that product's demand & forecast is must.
4.4 Trade Related Problems
Exports and Imports form a driver in the path of accelerated growth of any company at any level. Details are
shown in the Figure 4. But they have their own pros and cons. Tough competition has been considered as a major
problem by the SMEs (3.419). Trends like globalisation and liberalisation, which is the trend today, pose a great
threat for the domestic SMEs as the imported products are generally cheaper and also more qualitatively
superior. SMEs also face costlier import due to falling rupee value (2.968). Thus import quantity falls due to this
apparent inflation & production is affected. Increased competition from China is another major problem
(2.871). It provides cheap substitute to SMEs & taps their market. Then there is ineffective competitive
aggressiveness (2.645) & proactive nature (2.387) in SMEs which increases their concerns. If they acquire the
thinking of a salary substitute firm without inculcating new practices, they tend to become sedentary.
Ineffective risk taking nature of SMEs has also come in light (2.548). Not exploring new incentives & lack of
flair for learning new trends somewhere leads to outdated stage which slowly but surely causes damage &
hurdles which won't be visible in the short term. Lastly low partnership & information interchange in SME also
proves to be a hurdle (2.258). It tends to make SME more vulnerable with the sole proprietor bearing the entire
risk & low information sharing proceeds towards incoherence eventually the hampering of the uplifting of the
Small and Medium Enterprises. The lack of proper communicating medium as a language leads to insignificant
loss in the trade (1.935).
Figure 4 Trade related problems
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4.5 Supply Chain Management Issues

The results of this study for various problems being faced by Indian SMEs have been observed on a Likert scale
of five (1 very low, 5 very high) as shown in figure 5.. The foremost problem faced by the SMEs here is the
lower level of the supply chain management capability (2.226). The various stages are not effectively managed
which leads to a reduction in the efficiency of the enterprise. It has also been found that there is lack of trust
among the members of the supply chain and so coordination is limited in such a scenario (2.097). Certifications
from concerned authorities might provide a standard & help develop trust. Lastly the lack of vendors also
bothers the SMEs as without proper raw materials the company cannot function (2.097). So the supply chain
issues form an important part of the discussion of the problems faced by the Small and Medium Enterprises.
Figure 5 Supply chain management issues

4.6 Standards & Regulation Problems
Regulation means the standards set by any regulating authority for any particular product to be produced.
Where on one hand these regulations ensure transparent production of standard goods, some of these
regulations are unnecessary and create problems for the SMEs operating in that domain. The results of this
study for various problems being faced by Indian SMEs has been recorded on a Likert scale of five (1 very
low, 5 very high) as shown in figure 6. Tough/Non cooperative policies, tax rules & regulations of government
agencies & bureau create difficulty for the SME (2.806). They are always expected to provide different
facilities in their industries so as to achieve license of permit. Multiplicity & complexity in such policies also
create concerns. Apart from this the SMEs face problems in complying with the strict labour laws set by the
unions (2.548). Unions may sometime act stubborn and so the company faces troubles regarding this.
Figure 6. Standards & Regulation Problems
186

4.7 Research & Innovation Related Problems
Knowledge forms the basis of development of any company. Insufficient knowledge creates difficulty in all
aspects of the SME (2.613). Details are shown in figure 7. In manufacturing & engineering sector, only
knowledge can help firms to move by leaps & bounds. Another problem is that Time taken for innovation's
effect (convert knowledge into economic performance) is longer than expected (2.548). This proves to be very
harmful in this age of competition. The major issue relating to knowledge is the research and development in the
SME (2.516). Without innovative research ideas, the SME stagnates in the growth process and finally declines.
So having excellent R&D is of utmost importance for any SME. One problem worth mentioning which relates
to the knowledge domain is insufficiency in knowledge sharing and management inside the company (2.452).
This issue may not be sought after a lot but it bothers the company in the long run. Lastly there is lack of
Absorptive Capacity (ability to gather and implement new knowledge of various fields) in the companies
(2.323). A company reluctant to absorb knowledge by any means possible has a really difficult path towards
progress. So this knowledge related problems cannot be overlooked while looking at the development of a
Small and Medium Enterprise.
Figure 7 Research & Innovation Related Problems

5. Concluding Remarks
SMEs face different problems, as discussed under different sections in the section 4.In this sections authors are
going to conclude the finding of this paper:
-Observing section-wise distribution of issues, production based issues (2.696) regulation issues (2.677) &
trade issues (2.629) were among the three major risks area identified by the authors.
-Production cost, production time constraint, production volume & absenteeism of workers proved significant
factors.
-Higher number of rules, licensing conditions regulations, policies, diversified taxes with, multiple stages &
complex understanding are definitely chaotic. Failing any if these standards impacts the SMEs in the long term.
-Trade issues indicated us a diversified picture that how SMEs actually face problems when it comes to the
domain of business. Higher competition, aggressive competitors, better substitutes, tough existence, expansion
constraints in this present scenario of globalization & liberalization tends to make survival of SMEs very
difficult.
-From all sections of problems & risks , Authors observed that: Increased production cost (3.613), tough
competition (3.419), costlier import due to falling rupee value (2.968), absenteeism of workers (2.935),
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reduced volume of production (2.871), increased competition especially from china (2.871), tough & complex
policies taxes rules regulations of govt (2.806), problems created by time constraint (2.742), problems due to
clients changed preferences (2.742) are top nine problems for Indian SMEs.
This research aims to cover all the factors concerning the problems & risks faced by Indian SMEs. Authors have
used holistic approach to the study and thus, the findings of the study have many crucial implications for SMEs
and academia. However, this research is limited to only India and thus, other regions can be explored on similar
lines.
References
1.
Anand, B. and Chaudhary, S. (2015). Reverse Globalization by Internationalization of SME's:
Opportunities and Challenges Ahead. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 195 (2015) 1003
1011.
2.
Arshad, A.S., Rasli, A., Arshad, A.A., Zain, Z.M. (2013).The Impact of Entrepreneurial Orientation on
Business Performance: A Study of Technology-based SMEs in Malaysia. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences 130 (2014)46 53.
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Brazinskas, S. and Beinoraviius, J.(2014). SMEs and integration driving factors to regional and
global value chains. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 110 (2014) 1033 1041.
4.
Deshmukh, P.D., Thampi, G.T., Kalamkar, V.R. (2014).Investigation of Quality Benefits of ERP
Implementation in Indian SMEs. Procedia Computer Science 49 (2015) 220 228.
5.
Ezzahra, K.F., Mohamed, R., Omar, T., Mohamed, T. (2014). Training for effective skills in SMEs in
Morocco. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 2926 2930.
6.
Flynn, B.B., Sakakibara, S., Schroeder, R.G., Bates, K.A. and Flynn, J.B. (1990), Empirical research
methods in operations management, Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 250-284.
7.
Giannacourou, M., Kantaraki, M., Christopoulou, V. (2015).The Perception of Crisis by Greek SMEs
and Its Impact on Managerial Practices. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 175 (2015) 546551.
8.
Hasnan, N.Z.N. , Aziz, N.A., Zulkifli, N., Taip, F.S. a Department of Process and Food Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, (2014). Food Factory
Design: Reality and Challenges Faced by Malaysian SMEs. Agriculture and Agricultural Science
Procedia 2(2014) 328 336.
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Jayaram, J., Dixit, M., Motwani, J. (2014). Supply chain management capability of small and medium
sized family businesses in India: A multiple case study approach. Int.J. Production Economics147
(2014)472485.
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Kemayel, L. and Emanuel, C. (2015). Success Factors of Lebanese SMEs: an Empirical Study.
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 195 (2015) 1123 1128.
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Kumar, R., Singh, R.K. and Shankar, R. (2014), Strategy development by Indian SMEs for improving
coordination in Supply chain: An Empirical study, Competitiveness Review, Vol. 24 No.5, pp. 414432.
12.
Kumari S., Singh, A, Mishra, N., Garza Reyes, J.A. (2015). A multi-agent architecture for outsourcing
SMEs Manufacturing supply chain. Robotics and Computer- Integrated Manufacturing 36
(2015)3644.
13.
Mrva, M. and Stachov, P. (2014). Regional development and support of SMEs how university
project can help. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 110 (2014) 617 626.
14.
Nunnally, J., 1978. Psychometric Methods. New York, NY, McGraw-Hill.
15.
Saini, D.S. and Budhwar, P.S. (2008). Managing the human resource in Indian SMEs: The role of
indigenous realities. Journal of World Business 43 (2008) 417434.
16.
Sikka, P. and Sen, K. (1999). Technological innovations by SME's in India. Technovation 19
(1999)317321.
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Small and Medium Development chamber of India, N.D. Small and Medium Development chamber of
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Subrahmanya, M.H.B. and Mani, P. (2015). Innovation and growth of engineering SMEs in
Bangalore: Why do only some innovate and only some grow faster? Journal of Engineering and
Technology Management 36 (2015) 2440.
Vasudevan, H. and Chawan, A. (2014).Demystifying Knowledge Management in Indian
Manufacturing SMEs. Procedia Engineering 97 (2014) 1724 1734.
189
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Vibration Response of Finite Element Modeled

FGM Plate in Thermal Environment
Sanjay Singh Tomar and Mohammad Talha
Abstract- This paper presents a linear vibration response of square ZrO2/Ti-6Al-4V functionally graded plate
in the thermal environment. The formulation was done using the First order and higher order shear
deformation theory. The governing equation for vibration analysis of FGMs plate is derived using Variational
principle, which is the generalization of the principle of virtual displacement. The gradation of material
properties in the thickness direction of functionally graded plate is assumed according to a power law
distribution. Convergence and comparison studies with numerical techniques reported in literature are carried
out to establish the accuracy and reliability of the solutions. Parametric studies have been conducted to
investigate the effect of various boundary conditions, thickness ratio and volume fraction index. It is concluded
that the gradient of material properties as well as the temperature has a significant effect on the natural
frequency of the plate.
Keywords- Functionally graded plate; first order shear deformation theory; Higher order shear deformation
theory,boundary conditions.
ntroduction Material, energy and methods are the three constituents which makes the foundation of the
modern technological world. So the development of new materials is the need of this fast developing
world. The Functionally graded materials (FGM's) are one of those materials which can match the need of
present fast growing industries. FGM's type of hybrid composite material which is able to seek the attention of
the various researchers now a days. This is due to their high temperature application in the aerospace
industry[1].
FGM's are microscopically inhomogeneous materials which can be tailored as per the application. The
constituent materials in FGM are metal and ceramics. And these materials are graded in some particular fashion
to give the desired properties[2]. This gradation is based upon the smooth variation in the of the volume fraction
index from one end to the other. These material provide some advantage over the conventional material. Now a
days the coatings of these materials are used to eliminate stresses at the surface, reduce the crack driving forces
and can used to increase the bond strength of the two incompatible materials[3]. Due to this a tremendous
amount a tremendous amount of research has been done in in this this field in the past few decades. Since 1980's,
the concept of FGM [4] many research studies has been done in this field. Among them vibration is one of the
important factor which need to be considered in the structural analysis of the component. Cheng et al. [5]
performed the buckling and vibration analysis of the functionally graded composite plate using the classical and
first order shear deformation theory while comparing with the membrane vibration. Yang and Shen [6] studied
the dynamic response of the functionally graded plate which was initially stressed. In the continuation same
author [7] extended this work for the thermal environment while considering the material properties as a
Sanjay Singh Tomar,
School of Engineering, IIT Mandi, Himachal Pradesh-175005,
sanjay_singh_tomar@students.iitmandi.ac.in
Mohammad Talha
School of Engineering, IIT Mandi, Himachal Pradesh-175005,
talha@iitmandi.ac.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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function of temperature. Sundararajan et al. [8] made out an investigation on the dynamic characteristic of FGM
plate considering the effects of parameters such as gradient index, temperature, skew angle etc. under the
thermal environment. Kim [9] gave a theoretical method taking the basis of TSDT to calculate the dynamic
characteristics of FGM plater in thermal environment. Talha and Singh [10] incorporated a special modification
in the displacement field of the HSDT to calculate the free vibration and static behavior of the FGM plate using
the finite element method. Zhu and Liew [11] developed a kringing meshless method to calculate the free
vibration response of metal ceramic FGM plate. Jha et al. [12] used HSDT to investigate the free vibration
response of FGM plate considering the shear and normal deformation. Akavci et al.[13] presented two and three
dimensional shear deformation theories to calculate the static and free vibration response of the functionally
graded plate considering the Mori-Tanaka homogenization technique.
In this present investigation the vibration response of FGM plate is calculated using various shear deformation
theories. The effect of temperature, aspect ratio, boundary conditions on the non-dimensional frequency
parameter is calculated.
2. Theoretical formulation
2.1. Definition of the material properties
Let us consider a FGM plate with length a, width b and uniform thickness h. As explained before the plate is
made up of a mixture of two materials for example metals and ceramic. The material properties of plate is
assumed to vary from one face of the plate to the other in the thickness direction (Fig 1). This variation is
described with the help of power law distribution eq (1) in which the behavior is varied with volume fraction
index. Due to this behavior one layer becomes ceramic rich while the other metal rich [14].
Here P denotes the specific material properties of the plate while Pc and Pm denotes the properties of ceramic and
material respectively and Vc denotes the volume fraction of the ceramic, n is the volume fraction index.
Figure 1: Geometry and dimension of FGM plate

FGM's are commonly used for the high temperature application, and the material properties of the material
varies with the changes in the temperature so it is mandatory to assume the properties to be temperature
dependent in order to predict the behavior of the structure accurately. In this paper we have considered Young's
modulus E, Poisson's ratiou, coefficient of thermal expansion to be temperature dependent while the other
properties such as mass density rand thermal conductivity k are independent of temperature. For the
temperature dependent properties corresponding material the corresponding properties are given by Eq.
(2).[15]
3
P(t ) = P0 ( P- 1T - 1 + 1 + PT
+ P2T 2 + PT
),
1
3
(2)
Where P0, P-1, P1, P2, P3 ate the coefficient to the temperature T, and their values (see Table-1) depend upon the
type of the material being used.
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Vibration Response of Finite Element Modeled......

2.2. Temperature field
It is assumed that the temperature variation in the plate is across its thickness direction. This variation is
considered to be linear. Temperature field remains constant in the plane of the plate. Temperature field across
thickness can be expressed as
Where
respectively.
Tt and Tb are the uniform temperature at the top and bottom face of the plate
Table 1: Temperature dependent Material coefficients for metal and ceramic
2.3. Displacement Field

In this case the governing equations of the ceramic-metal FGM plate in the thermal environment using the
first and higher order shear deformation theory. The displacement field for the shear deformation case is written
as,[16]
Where u, v, w are displacement of a point along x, y and z directions respectively,v0 , and w0 , u0 are the
inplane displacement component along x, y, z directions respectively and fx , fy are the rotation along x and y
axis respectively
2.4. Stress-Strain relationship
In this study only linear strains associated with the vibration response has been considered. The stress strain
relationship for the FGM plate in thermal environment can be written as:[12]
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Where
Here sij and eijare the stress and strain vectors for the FGM plate.
3. Soluton methodology
This section includes the finite element formulation of the plate and the calculation of the strain energy, the
governing equation for the plate vibration problem.
3.1. FEM Model
Here a nine noded isoparametric element (Fig. 2) is employed to discretize the domain. The displacement
vector and the geometry elements can be written as:
Where, Ni and {Li}are the shape function matrix and displacement vector at ith node.
For FSDT,
For HSDT
3.2. Strain energy of plate
The strain energy of FGM plate is given by
(7)
This strain energy will be the summation of stain energy of all the elements which is given by
Where 'nl' is the number of element in the plate mesh and S(e) elemental strain energy, [K] is the elemental
stiffness matrix.
Figure 2. 9 noded isoparametric element
194

3.3. Kinetic energy of plate
(8)
Where .Land are the global velocity vector and mass density of the plate. Using equation (6) in eq (8) the
equation can be written as
Where m is the overall mass matrix of the system.

3.4. Governing Differential equation
Governing equation for the undamped free vibration plate problem is given by:
Where [M],[K],{q} are the global mass matrix, global stiffness matrix and global displacement vector
respectively.
The natural frequency of the system can be calculated by converting this equation into an eigenvalue
problem:
_
_
2
Where [ K], [M] are the global mass and stiffness matrix after applying the constraints and l= , is the
natural frequency of the plate.
4. Numercal Results And Dscusson
The natural frequency of the FGM plate under thermal environment is calculated under three type of boundary
condition (i.e. CCCC, SSSS, SCSC) (Fig(3)). Three shear deformation theories are compared on the basis of the
different aspect ratio, boundary condition and the effect on non-dimensional frequency parameter is observed.
First two shear deformation theories are first order theories with shear correction factor (SCF) 5/6 and 2/12
(named as FSDT1 and FSDT2). The other theory which is considered is third order shear deformation theory
with 7dof (named as HSDT).
Figure 3. Boundary condition used in the study
4.1. Convergence and validation studies

In order to verify the accuracy of the current results it is necessary to perform the convergence and validation
study with the open literature. Figure 1 shows the convergence plot of the ZrO2/Ti-6Al-4V FGM plate with
CCCC boundary condition for all the three theories. The non-dimensional parameter used is
. It shows that the results are getting converged as we increase the
mesh size and the convergence of FSDT and HSDT are different. Table 2, 3, 4 shows the validation of the results
with the literature. The variation of temperature is also shown in order to measure the effect of thermal
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environment on the non-dimensional frequency parameter
The
current results are getting converged at mesh size 6x6. Due to this further results will be
shown on the same mesh size. Material properties of two materials are as follows:
3
Ti-6Al-4V: Mass density (m)=3000 kg/m , Poisson ratio()=0.3;Thermal cond.(km)=1.80
W/mK
ZrO2 : Mass density(c)=4429 kg/m3 , Poisson ratio()=0.3; Thermal conductivity(kc)=7.82
W/mK
Figure 4. Convergence plot

Table 2: variation of non-dimensional frequency
parameter using FSDT1(SCF=5/6)
Table 3: variation of non-dimensional frequency

parameter using FSDT2(SCF=pi^2/12)
Table 4: variation of non-dimensional frequency parameter using HSDT(7DOF)
196
191
4.2. Parametric Studies

It is shown in the previous section that our results shoes a good agreement with the results in the literature.
The following section will cover the parametric studies have been carried out to investigate the effect of
thickness ratios (a/h), volume fraction index (n), boundary conditions along with all three theories explained
above. FGM plate maintained at a temperature of T= 100.
Table 5 shows the frequency parameter for square FGM plate under CCCC boundary conditions. Variation
is noted down with respect to various volume fraction index, thickness ratios and results are presented with
various theories. It has been observed that by increasing a/h ratio frequency parameter increases. And it is also
noted that value of frequency parameter decrease with the increase in volume fraction index. The core reason
for this is the reduction in the stiffness of the plate with increase in volume fraction index.
Table 6 and 7 shows the variation of frequency parameter under SSSS and SCSC boundary conditions
respectively. It has been noted that in both the tables the value of frequency parameter increases with the
increase in thickness ratio and decrease with the increase in volume fraction index. It is also noticed that the
values are slightly greater in case of HSDT as compared to FSDT. But this variation fluctuates with the increase
in volume fraction index (.8%-1.2%).
Table 5: Comparison of frequency parameter
with volume fraction
index (n) of ZrO2/Ti-6Al-4V square plate under CCCC boundary condition at T= 100
Table 6: Comparison of frequency parameter =

(n) of ZrO2/Ti-6Al-4V square plate under SSSS boundary condition at T= 100
with volume fraction index
Table 7: Comparison of frequency parameter
with volume fraction
index (n) of ZrO2/Ti-6Al-4V square plate under SCSC boundary condition T= 100
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5. Concluson
In this paper the vibration response of functionally graded square plate is presented. Convergence and
validation studies has been conducted to show the agreement of our result with the literature. Various
parametric studies has been performed to account the effect of thickness ratio, volume fraction index and the
boundary condition. Two shear deformation theories has been considered to calculate the effect of various plate
theories on the natural frequency calculation. These are the following conclusion's which can be drawn from the
following study:
1. With the increase in volume fraction index the frequency parameter decreases.
2. With the increase in the thickness ratio the frequency parameter decreases.
3. Results obtained by HSDT is higher than that of FSDT1 and FSDT2.
4. There is a slight difference in the results on changing the shear correction factor and this difference
increases on increasing the temperature.
5. The value of frequency parameter is more in case of CCCC boundary condition as compared to the
SSSS and SCSC.
References
1.
D.K. Jha, T. Kant, R.K. Singh, A critical review of recent research on functionally graded plates;
Composite Structures 96 (2013) 833849.
2.
A. Gupta, M. Talha M. Recent development in modeling and analysis of functionally graded materials
and structures. Prog Aerosp Sci 2015;79:114.Doi:10.1016/j.paerosci.2015.07.001.
3.
SS Vel, RC. Batra Three-dimensional exact solution for the vibration of functionally graded
rectangular plates. J Sound Vib 2004;272:703 30.
4.
M. Koizumi, FGM activities in Japan, Composites B 28 (1997) 14.
5.
ZQ Cheng, RC Batra, Exact correspondence between eigenvalues of membranes and functionally
graded simply supported polygonal plates. J Sound Vib 2000;229:87995.
6.
J. Yang, H-S. Shen Dynamic response of functionally graded rectangular thin plates. Compos Struct
2001;54:497508.
7.
J. Yang, H-S Shen, Vibration characteristics and transient response of shear deformable functionally
graded plates in thermal environments. J Sound Vib 2002;255(3):579602.
8.
N. Sundararajan, T. Prakash, M. Ganapathi, Nonlinear free flexural vibrations of functionally graded
rectangular and skew plates under thermal environments, Finite Elem. Anal. Des. 42 (2005) 152168.
9.
Y.-W. Kim, Temperature dependent vibration analysis of functionally graded rectangular platesJ
Sound Vib, 284 (2005), pp. 531549.
10.
M. Talha, BN Singh. Static response and freevibrationanalysis of FGMplates using higher order shear
deformation theory. Appl Math Model 2010;34:39914011.
11.
P. Zhu, K.M. Liew Free vibration analysis of moderately thick functionally graded plates by local
Kriging meshless method Compos Struct, 93 (11) (2011), pp. 29252944.
12.
DK Jha, T Kant, Singh RK. Free vibration response of functionally graded thickplates with shear and
normal deformations effects. Compos Struct 2013;96:799e823.
13.
S.S. Akavci, A.H. Tanrikulu, Static and free vibration analysis of functionally graded plates based on a
new quasi-3D and 2D shear deformation theories Compos Part B Eng, 83 (2015), pp. 203215.
14.
P. Pai, F., Highly flexible structures: modelling, computation, and experimentation. AIAA Educational
Series, 2007.
15.
M. Talha, B.N. Singh, Thermo-mechanical induced vibration characteristics of shear deformable
functionally graded ceramic-metal plates usingfinite element method, Proc. IMech Eng. C: J. Mech.
Eng. Sci. 25 (2011) 5065.
16.
C.M. Wang, J.N. Reddy, K.H. Lee, Shear Deformable Beams and Plates, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2000.
17.
X. L. Huang, Shen, H. S., Nonlinear vibration and dynamic response of functionally graded plates in
thermal environments. Int. J. Solids Struct., 2004, 41, 24032427.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Offshore Wind Resource Evaluation of Four

Locations in Indian Ocean
Garlapati Nagababu, Surendra Singh Kachhwaha
and Vimal Savsani
Abstract- This paper presents an assessment of wind resource of four offshore locations (coded as AD04,
BD11, CALVAL, and CB02) in Indian Ocean near southern India, by using four years (2011-2014) wind speed
data and was subjected to two-parameter Weibull analysis. The results showed that maximum annual mean
wind speed of 7.66 m/s is obtained at BD11 while the minimum value of 5.09 m/s is obtained at CB02 amongst
all the locations considered. At the hub height of 80 m, the annual wind power density and energy variation
ranges from 146.36 W/m2 and 1287.25 kWh/m2/year respectively at CB02 to 443.34 W/m2 and 3908.24
kWh/m2/year at BD11. The annual mean wind speed and wind power density were found to be equal to or more
than 5.09 m/s and 146.36 W/m2 respectively, at the hub height of 80 m, suggesting the suitability of all the sites
for offshore wind power development.
Keywords- offshore wind energy; moored buoy; Indian Ocean; two-parameter Weibull distribution, wind
turbine.
ntroduction The environmental risks due to climate change caused by the greenhouse gases[1]. In view of
this and also to achieve energy security, robust steps are being taken by the concerned governments to
encourage the utilization of renewable energy sources as an alternative to the fossil fuels [2], [3].
Involvement of multiple stakeholders in the development of commercial onshore wind power plants has led to
various challenges including the Not-In-My-Back-Yard (NIMBY) attitude and other environmental impacts
like deforestation, land acquisition, bird hits, adverse effects on marine and wildlife, noise and flicker generated
by the wind turbines, etc. [4], [5]. Offshore wind resources are abundant compared to onshore ones. Factors like
stronger and more consistent offshore winds, relatively easier offshore land access, ease in transportation of
wind turbines to the offshore locations, etc. draw interest towards the development of offshore wind power [1].
Table 1. Targeted and achieved capacity of grid interactive power in India through renewable sources of
energy [7].
Garlapati Nagababu, Surendra Singh Kachhwaha and Vimal Savsani

Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University,
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India,
garlapatinagu@gmail.com, Surendra.Singh@sot.pdpu.ac.in, vimal.savsani@gmail.com

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Table 1. Targeted and achieved capacity of grid interactive power in India through renewable
sources of energy [7].
The total installed wind power capacity across the globe is around 369.6 GW, and indicates a cumulative annual
market growth of more than 16% at the end of year 2014 [6]. At present, India has emerged as the second largest
wind market in Asia, thus opening a wide range of opportunities for both the national as well as the international
investors. For the financial year 2015 2016, the government of India has set the target to achieve total grid
interactive power of 4460 MW capacity by developing it's renewable sources, as shown in Table 1 [7], which
indicates the dominance of wind power sector over other renewable sources in India.
Unlike onshore applications, direct measurement of wind data for the offshore locations is relatively difficult
and involves heavy expenditure. In most of the cases, assessment of the available offshore wind resources
depends on the long term measurements recorded at the nearby land sites rather than the on-site moored buoy or
ship data. However, the marine meteorological stations or moored buoys directly measures real time wind data
with high time resolution [8]. Wind speed frequency distributions can be modelled by using various probability
density functions (pdf) [9], [10]. According to the studies [11][14] available in literature,the Weibull function
has been frequently used to model the wind speed distribution due to its ability to fit a wide variety of measured
wind speed data with relatively better accuracy.
Main objective of present study is to perform the statistical analysis of the available measured wind data
obtained from four offshore locations in Indian Ocean near the southern coast of India. Here, measured wind
data has been subjected to the best fit of 2-parameter Weibull distribution to study the wind speed frequency
distribution. Wind characteristics has been estimated for each offshore location along with the seasonal
variation.
2. Methodology And Mathematical Model
The present study deals with wind speed calculation at turbine hub height; which usually ranges between 70 m
and 120 m for most of the wind turbines commercially available in the market. The variants with hub height of
80 meter above the sea level (asl) are common for most of the wind turbine original equipment manufacturers
(OEM) in India. Hence, in this study, the hub height of 80 m asl has been selected and log-law has been used to
extrapolate wind speed data measured at 3 m height. The atmosphere was assumed to be neutrally stable and a
surface roughness factor of zo = 2.0mm was used [8], [14]. As per the log-law, at any given height z the wind
velocity V is given by
V = Vref
ln (z / zo )
ln( z ref / zo )
(1)
Where zref is the height at which the wind speed Vref has been measured by the moored buoys.
The wind power density indicates the amount of power generated at a particular wind speed, per unit area swept
by the wind turbine rotor (W/m2) and calculated by
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(2)
Where a constant value 1.225 kg/m3 has been assumed for wind density ( ) [8], [14].
Weibull function has been used in order to study the wind speed frequency distribution at each location [13]. In
terms of Weibull distribution, the probability density function is given by
where k and c are the Weibull shape and scale parameters respectively. The corresponding cumulative
distribution function is given by
Various analytical or empirical methods are available to evaluate Weibull parameters which provide quite
similar results. Some of the commonly used methods are the graphical method, moment estimation and
quartiles, maximum likelihood method, standard deviation method, modified maximum likelihood and energy
pattern factor method amongst others. The maximum likelihood method has been adopted in this study, where
Weibull parameters k and c can be evaluated by the following approximations
Fig. 1. Variation of monthly mean wind speed
Based on the wind power density (WPD), annual energy (Ea) indicates the maximum (i.e. ideal amount of) of
electricity that can be extracted from each location has been calculated using the following expression [13], [14]
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where
is the mean monthly extractible energy, d is the number of days in the month
and Pavg is the monthly mean WPD (W/m2).
Fig. 2. Variation of monthly average wind power density

Table 2. Monthly variations of average wind speed, power densities and energies for the four locations
3. Results & Discussion

3..1.
Wind resource analysis
Monthly variations of average wind speed, power densities and energies of four moored buoys at 80 m height
are tabulated in Table 2. It can be inferred from table, the mean annual wind speed for all locations are greater
than 5 m/s which is fairly higher than the cut-in speed of 3 m/s specified for most of the commercially available
wind turbines. Figs 1 and 2 depicts the monthly variations of mean wind speeds and average power densities of
four moored buoys and it further corroborated the fact that CALVAL and BD11 locations are very windy. The
monthly mean wind speed is maximum (11.6 m/s) in July at CALVAL having a corresponding mean WPD of
202

1019.9 W/m2. However, the maximum annual mean wind speed and corresponding annual mean WPD is 7.6
m/s and 443.3 W/m2 respectively, at the moored buoy BD11. The minimum monthly mean wind speed and the
corresponding WPD is 3.3 m/s and 38.2 W/m2 respectively in the month of November at moored buoy AD04.
The minimum annual mean wind speed and annual mean WPD are found to be 5.0 m/s and 146.3 W/m2 at the
moored buoy Cb02.
Table 3. Variation in seasonal mean wind speed and seasonal average wind power
density at the extrapolated hub height of 80m for the four locations
Moreover, the minimum and maximum monthly energy values are 27.51 and 758.86 kWh/m2/year respectively,
at AD04 (in November) and CALVAL (in July), while the minimum and maximum annual values are 1287.25
and 3908.24 kWh/m2/year respectively at CB02 and Bd11.
3.2.
Seasonal variability
The span from January to December in India is generally classified into following four seasons
1.
Winter: January to February (59 days)
2.
Pre-Monsoon: March to May (92 days)
3.
Monsoon: June to September (122 days)
4.
Post-Monsoon: October to December (92 days)
Variation of seasonal mean wind speed and corresponding WPD are given in Table 3. From table it can be
inferred that seasonal mean wind speed and WPD are highest during the monsoon season. The mean wind speed
and WPD for monsoon season are 8.5, 9.6, 8.9, 6.9 m/s and 482.9, 662.4, 608.8, 269.6 W/m2 respectively for the
locations of AD04, BD11, CALVAL and CB02. A second peak in wind speed and WPD is encountered during
the post-monsoon period for moored buoy BD11. The WPD during post monsoon is more than two times
greater for BD11 as compared to other locations.
For the remaining three sites at the locations of moored buoys AD04, CALVAL and CB02; apart from monsoon,
the seasonal mean wind speed and WPD in the remaining three seasons are between 3.8 to 5.1 m/s and 70.1 to
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113.1 W/m2 respectively. These three sites exhibit similar variations in the seasonal mean wind speed and WPD
because all three are located in the Arabian Sea, off the south-western coast of India, unlike the moored buoy
BD11 which is located in the Bay of Bengal, off the south-eastern coasts of India. As shown in Figs. 1 and 2, the
wind speeds at all the four locations follow a similar pattern for the duration of January to October, however
from October to December, the wind speed pattern observed at the location of BD11 is different because, in the
north Bay of Bengal a continental high-pressure system produces north-eastern winds (the north-eastern
monsoon) from November to April; and also during the months of April-May and October-November, intense
tropical storms having high wind speeds occur accompanied with torrential rains.
Table 4. Monthly variation of Weibull parameters (k and c) at the selected sites
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Fig. 3.Weibull probability density function and Cumulative distribution function of monthly wind
speeds at 80m, averaged on Daily basis, for (a) Buoy AD04 (b) Buoy B11 (c) Buoy CALVAL (d) Buoy CB02
3.3. Wind speed probability distributions

The monthly variation of the Weibull shape and scale parameters (k and c) has been listed in Table 4. It has been
observed that the Weibull parameter k varies between 1.5 at CB02 (October) to 8.4 at CALVAL in July. Hence,
amongst the four sites the wind speed is most uniform at CALVAL in July while least uniform in October at
CB02. However, the scale parameter c ranges from a minimum value of 3.7 m/s in October at CB02 to 12.4 m/s
in July at CALVAL which indicates that amongst the four locations, the plot of the Weibull probability density
function (pdf) has maximum span at CALVAL and minimum at CB02. This means that the pdf spreads over a
wide range of velocities at CALVAL and a relatively narrow range of velocities at CB02, thereby indicating the
possibility of encountering highest and lowest wind speeds at CALVAL and CB02, respectively. However, it
should be noted that the location with the possibility of the highest wind speed need not be the one having
highest annual mean wind speed (Table 2). Weibull pdf and Cumulative distribution function (cdf) of monthly
wind speeds determined at 80 m height for the four sites are shown in Fig 3.
The plots of pdf, provide information about the possibility or chances of obtaining wind speeds equal to or
greater than a particular value. However, plots of cdf provie information about the percentage of time for which
the winds can be expected to blow at speeds greater than a specific value. Fig. 3 shows that most of the peaks are
skewed towards the higher values of mean wind speeds along-with indicating that how the respective sites are
expected to behave within the speed limits of turbine operation. Wind speeds equal to or above 6.5 m/s are
observed for certain fraction of all the months at all the locations under consideration. Further, the wind turbines
are expected to run at or above the cut-in speed of 3 m/s for at least 45% of the time during every month for all
the sites. For the rated speed of 11 m/s and above the wind turbines are expected to run for an average 7%,
20.54%, 12.95% and 2.95% of the time per month at AD04, BD11, CALVAL and CB02 respectively.
Monthly peak frequencies indicate wind speed with highest probability of occurrence. For all the sites, the
monthly peak frequencies range from 23.5% to 26 % (i.e. 23.5% for BD11, 24.5% for AD04, and 26% for both
CALVAL and CB02). Moreover, around 10% of the time duration in every month, the wind turbines are
expected to run for the wind speed greater than or equal to 5 m/s for all the sites. Fig. 3 further shows that the
turbines having lowest possible cut-in speeds and rated speeds should be selected to increase the total duration
of turbine operation and rated power generation respectively, across the year.
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4. Conclusions
From the statistical data and computations, the following facts can be drawn from present study:
All the locations under consideration have mean annual wind speeds above 5 m/s. The maximum and
minimum monthly mean wind speeds and WPDs are 11.7 m/s and 1019.9 W/m2, and 3.3 m/s and 38.2 W/m2,
respectively at CALVAL (in July) and AD04 (in November). However, the maximum and minimum annual
mean wind speeds and WPDs are 7.7 m/s and 443.3 W/m2, and 5.1 m/s and 146.4 W/m2 respectively at
BD11 and Cb02.
Weibull parameter k varies between 1.5 in October at CB02 to 8.4 in July at CALVAL. Moreover, the scale
parameter c ranges from a minimum 3.7 m/s in October at CB02 to a maximum of 12.4 m/s in July at
CALVAL.
Amongst the four locations, classification based on WPD, AD04 and CB02 are of class 1, CALVAL is of
class 2 and BD11 is of class 3. The maximum and minimum values of extractable energy are 3908.2
kWh/m2/year at BD11 and 1287.2 kWh/m2/year at CB02 respectively.
Acknowledgement
We are thankful to the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) for providing the
measured moored buoy data for the present research study.
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F. Onea and E. Rusu, An Evaluation of the Wind Energy in the North-West of the Black Sea, Int. J.
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O. S. Ohunakin, Wind resource evaluation in six selected high altitude locations in Nigeria, Renew.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Job Shop Scheduling Optimization Using

Genetic Algorithm
Rohitash Singh and Ajai Jain
Abstract- Production scheduling is generally considered to be one of the most significant issue in the planning
and operation of a manufacturing system. Better scheduling system has significant impact on cost reduction,
increased productivity, customer satisfaction and overall competitive advantage. Job Shop Scheduling problem
is one of the challenging combinatorial optimization problems that has drawn the attention of researchers. In
job shop scheduling, there are 'n' jobs to be processed at 'm' machines with the objective of minimizing the
makespan, total tardiness or any other objective.
In the present work an attempt is made to optimize the job shop scheduling problem using simulation based
Genetic Algorithm Approach in the presence of multiple process plans with the objective of minimizing the
makespan. Four case studies are considered to optimize the JSS problem. Sequence Oriented representation is
used to encode the chromosome for Genetic Algorithm. GA operators such as Two-Point Crossover, Linear
rank Selection with Stochastic Universal Sampling Method, Exchange Mutation and Elitism are applied on the
chromosome and new offsprings are created. Evaluation of fitness value is done through simulation as it yields
better performance than mathematical functions. A restart scheme, as suggested in literature, is also taken into
consideration to avoid premature convergence. These four case studies reveal that there are more than one
process plan combinations that yield the same optimized makespan.
Keywords- Job Shop Scheduling; Genetic Algorithm; Simulation; Optimization; Multiple Process Plans.
ntroduction Scheduling is broadly defined as the process of assigning a set of tasks to resources over a
period of time [1]. Scheduling has considerable significance in manufacturing domain. The environment
of scheduling problem is called the job shop. Several types of manufacturing shop configurations exist in
real world such as single machine, job shops, flow shops, etc. In industries job shop problems arises because of
the diverse characters of the jobs and order sizes are relatively small. Job shop problems have a set of 'n' jobs to
be processed on a set of 'm' machines. Each job has a set of operations to be performed on set of machines in a
particular order and each machine can process at most one operation at a time. Job shop scheduling (JSS) deals
with the allocation of jobs to various machines with the objective of minimizing the makespan, the time to
complete all jobs, or minimizing the tardiness (not meeting the due date) in jobs or any other required
objectives. Job shop scheduling problems are one of the most challenging Non Polynomial hard problems [2].
Thus it has drawn the attention of researchers because of its theoretical, computational and empirical
significance since it was introduced. Optimization is the act of obtaining the best result under given
circumstances. There are various optimization algorithms that have been developed to implement the various
optimization techniques. An optimization algorithm is a procedure, which is executed iteratively by comparing
various solutions till the optimum or a satisfactory solution, is found. There are two categories of optimization
Rohitash Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, Ph.D. Scholar
rohitashsingh2703@gmail.com
Ajai Jain
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Professor, N.I.T, Kurukshetra (Haryana),
ajayjainfme@nitkkr.ac.in

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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algorithms. One category includes those algorithms that are deterministic with specific rules for moving from
one solution to another (for example Lagrangian, Branch and Bound, etc.). Another category includes those
algorithms that are stochastic in nature and with probabilistic transition rules (for example, Genetic Algorithm,
Simulation Annealing, Tabu Search, etc.). These algorithms are called Metaheuristics.
In this work, a simulation based GA is used for optimization of makespan performance measure as GA is well
suited for hard combinatorial problems. Genetic Algorithm uses basic Darwinian mechanism of survival of the
fittest and repeatedly utilizes the information contained in the solution to generate new solutions with better
performance. Simulation is used in this work as it yields better results than mathematical calculations [3].
2. Litrature Revew
GA has been applied to scheduling problem since Davis (1985) [4] first suggested and demonstrated the
feasibility by using a GA on a simple JSS Problem [5]. Kumar and Srinivasan (1996) [6] solved the JSS
problems faced by an organization using GA and a combination of dispatching rules. The proposed algorithm
showed an improvement of about 30% in makespan over the present system. Bierwirth and Mattfeld (1998) [7]
proposed a general model for JSS which can be applied to static, dynamic and nondeterministic production
environment. The algorithm was tested in a dynamic environment under different workload condition. Werner
et al. (2000) [8] solved JSS problem using genetic programming. Results for a set of benchmark problems with
both conventional and evolved GA were obtained. Gupta (2002) [9] discussed an excursion into various
scheduling problems arising in the manufacturing environment and possible approaches that could be taken to
solve them. Ombuki and Ventresca (2004) [10] proposed a hybrid GA for JSS on local search strategy. This
proposed algorithm is based on scheduling scheme that is deadlock free. Omar et al. (2006) [11] used GA to
solve JSS, the initial populations were randomly including the results obtained from some well known priority
rules such as the Shortest Processing Time (SPT) and the Longest Processing Time (LPT). From there the
population would go through the process of reproduction, crossover and mutation to create a new population for
new generation. A 5 job 5 machine problem was solved. The number of generation which in this case was 200
generations was used as stopping criteria.
Mendes (2010) [12] presented an optimization approach for the JSS problem based on GA. The algorithm
produced good results in comparison to other approaches. Bagheri A. and Zandieh M. (2011) [13] consider
Flexible Job Shop Scheduling Problem (FJSP) with sequence-dependent setup times to minimize makespan
and mean tardiness.
Phanden et al. (2012) [14] used GA for Flexible Job Shop Scheduling. The authers introduced a simulationbased GA approach to solve flexible job shop scheduling problem. Tsung-Che Chiang et al. (2013) [15]
proposed A Simple and Effective Evolutionary Algorithm for Multi-Objective Flexible Job Shop Scheduling
(MOFJSP) regarding minimizing the makespan, total workload, and minimum workload.
2.1 Research Gaps & Problem Formulation
Literature review reveals that few researchers focused on JSS optimization problem with the consideration of
flexible process plan. Therefore, there is a need to carry out further study in this area using GA and simulation.
Thus, in the present work, an attempt will be made to optimize JSS with the consideration of flexible process
plans. A Genetic algorithm based approach is planned to be utilized where simulation will be used to evaluate
the fitness function as simulation yields better results than mathematical functions. Thus, the problem statement
is described below:
There is a job shop consisting of 15 machines. It can process a production order consisting of 'n' part types.
Each part type can be processed with several multiple process plans. The objective is to select the process plan
of each part type in order to minimize makespan using simulation based Genetic Algorithm approach. The
various assumptions that will be taken into consideration are given below:
w
w
w
w
w
w
Production quantity of each part type is unity

Infinite buffer capacities are assumed in front of individual machine and each part enters buffer location
before the processing at machine.
All parts are available at the start of processing.
A part may return to an earlier visited machine. However, two consecutive operations are not allowed in the
same machine.
Shortest Processing Time (SPT) is used as dispatching rule with First Come First Serve rule as tie breaker to
process the part.
All machines are available at zero time.
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3. Methodology
Following are the parameters and their values taken for our case studies:
w Number of Machines (m) = 15
w Number of Parts (n) = 12
w Crossover Probability (pc) = 0.8w
w Mutation Probability (pm) = 0.2
w Elitism Rate (e_rate) = 0.9
w Population Size (pop_size) = 10
3.1 Representation/ Encoding

In this work, sequence oriented encoding is used for representation of chromosome. Here, a bit (gene) of
chromosome is formed by a process plan number (i.e. alphabets) of a job type. Each bit of the chromosome is in
fixed order to represent associate process plan of a job type. For example, there are twelve job types 1, 2, 4, 6, 7,
8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 17 and 18 having one, two, four, three, nine, ten, two, two, four, four, sixteen and eight process
plans respectively and each job type can be processed through any of its given Multiple Process Plan (MPP). A
chromosome following sequence oriented encoding for the above parts can be coded as [11 11 13 11 16 15
11 12 11 14 112 18]. Here the first gene i.e. 11 represents processing of job type 1 by following its 1st Process
Plan of sequence 1st and the second gene i.e. 11 represents processing of job type 2 by following its 1st Process
Plan of sequence 1st. Similarly third gene i.e. 13 represents processing of job type 4 using its 3rd Process Plan of
sequence 1st and so on. These numbering of process plans for the particular job type as well as the job sequence
are already known. In a chromosome the number in the ith position represents the selected process plan of the
job type j.
3.2 Initialization
For the initialization, population is generated randomly as performance of Genetic Algorithm is found better
with a random start than from a reselected starting population [16]. The population is generated randomly,
covering the entire range of possible solutions.
3.3 Evaluation Of Fitness Function
After the generation of new population, fitness value of each chromosome is calculated. Fitness is the
performance evaluation of chromosomes [17]. Higher the fitness value, better the performance of the
chromosome. Hence, parents with higher fitness values have more chances to survive. Genetic Algorithm is
naturally suitable for solving maximization problems [18]. The objective function in this research work is the
minimization of makespan f(x). This minimization problem is transformed into maximization problem by using
the following relation:
F(x) = 1/ (1+f(x))
Where f(x) = makespan of a chromosome
F(x) = fitness function of GA
For finding out the makespan of each chromosome i.e. job mix f(x) simulation is used. Simulation is preferred
to mathematical functions as it results in good performance close to actual system performance. Mathematical
calculations are time consuming and sometimes tedious to solve. Moreover, the results obtained from
mathematical functions may not reflect the performance of actual system. ProModel software is used for
simulation and to calculate the makespan for the part mix due to its adaptability and easy to use functions.
Modelling of job shop for each chromosome is carried out using ProModel and makespan is provided by
software after simulation. Further, this value of the makespan is converted into the fitness value as discussed
above.
3.4 Selection
Linear Ranking Selection is used for selection in the present study. In this method, individuals are sorted first
according to their fitness value and the rank N is assigned to the best individual and the rank 1 to the worst
individual. The individuals in the population are ranked according to their fitness and the expected value of each
individual depends on its rank rather than on its absolute fitness. Once the expected value has been assigned,
Stochastic Universal Sampling (SUS) method is applied to sample the population (i.e. choose parents). In this
manner, a mating pool consisting of selected individuals is created.
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3.5 Crossover
A two point crossover is used and applied on the individuals of mating pool. In order to carry out crossover two
strings are selected randomly from the mating pool to make a pair. Each pair is then assessed for the desirability
of crossover operation with the crossover probability of 0.8. During crossover, the crossover sites are selected
randomly from first to last position. Due to above crossover methodology, some illegal offspring may generate.
Then repairing is done to resolve the illegitimacy of the offspring.
3.6 Mutation
In the present study, exchange mutation is utilized. In this method, two genes of a chromosome are randomly
selected and their positions are swapped. The mutation probability (pm=0.2) is used and is applied on offspring
produced after crossover operation. Then process plans at randomly selected sites get interchanged due to this
process.
As discussed above during mutation, some illegal offsprings may generate. These illegal offsprings are
generated due to limited number of multiple process plans of each part type and it may happen that during
mutation one job type exceeds the limit of available multiple process plans. Thus, a repairing strategy is
necessary to sort out this illegitimacy. Initially, a check is performed to find out the job types that are exceeding
the limit of available multiple process plans. If there is no job type that exceeds the limit, the offspring is not
illegal and does not require repairing process. However, if there is/are job type(s) that exceed the limit of
available multiple process plans, then repairing process is activated. It repairs the genes of the illegal offspring
by replacing it with randomly selected multiple process plans of the part type.
3.7 Reproduction
Reproduction pertains to the further generating the new generation. Once offsprings are generated after
crossover and mutation operations, they along with parent population form the extended population. Elitism
method of reproduction is embedded with Linear Rank Selection method. It prevents losing the best found
solution. It transfers few good individuals from the previous population to the population of the next generation.
In the present study, an elitism rate of 0.9 is considered to transfer the best individual from the previous
population to the population of next generation.
3.8 Restart
As GA proceeds, population evolves over time. Sometimes, the population has a low diversity which may cause
it to be trapped in a local optimum. In order to avoid premature convergence, a restart scheme is embedded in
regular GA. If the best Makespan is not promoted for more than a pre-specified number of generations (i.e. does
not change), the restart phase commences to regenerate the population by the following process [19]:
Step 1: Sort the population in ascending order of fitness value
Step 2: Skip the first 10% of the individuals from the sorted list
Step 3: The remaining 90% of the strings in the sorted list are neglected and are reproduced in the following
way:
a.
From the first 10% best chromosome, first half (50%) of new population is produced by reciprocal
exchange mutation
b.
Another half (50%) of new population are produced randomly.
All newly generated genetic material will only replace 90% of the worst chromosome of the population if they
hold out fitness value better than the worst chromosome of the previous population. Also repetition of the
individuals in the newly generated 90% population is not permitted.
In the present work, restart scheme is applied if there is no improvement in the fitness value (makespan) for
more than 15 successive generation/iterations.
3.9 Termination Criterion
Termination criterion refers to the stopping criterion for further exploration in search space. In the present work,
maximum number of generation is considered as the termination criteria. The iteration procedure continue until
the generation number equals to product of the number of jobs (n) and number of machines (m). For example for
a 12 jobs 15 machines problem, the termination criteria is 180 (12 15) generations i.e. GA will stop after 180
generations and best fitness value obtained in last iteration is taken as optimal solution. Figure 1 shows the flow
chart of the adopted methodology.
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Figure 1: Flow Chart of the Adopted Methodology

4. Results And Dscusson
For Case Study-1, the optimized makespan is 511 Minutes. There are two process plans combinations of part
type of the production order that yield same optimized makespan. The convergence curve is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 3 shows the convergence curve for the Case Study-2. The optimized makespan is 506 Minutes and for
same optimized makespan, there are twenty one process plans combinations of the part type of the given
production order.
Comparison of optimized makespans of case study-I and case study-II reveals that by changing the MPP of part
type, optimized makespan is reduced from 511 to 506. For same optimized makespan, there are 21 process plan
combinations of part types. It clearly reveals that availability of different MPP of a part type in a production
order affects optimized makespan.
Figure 4 shows the convergence curve for Case Study-3. The optimized makespan is 497 Minutes. For same
optimized makespan, there are nine process plans combinations of part type of the production order.
Comparison of optimized makespans of case study-II and case study-III reveals that by changing the MPP of
part type 2, optimized makespan is further reduced from 506 to 497. For same optimized makespan, there are 9
process plan combinations of part types. It clearly reveals that availability of different MPP of a part type in a
production order affects optimized makespan.
For Case Study-4, the optimized makespan is 495 Minutes. Figure 5 shows the convergence curve. It clearly
shows that for same optimized makespan, there are nine process plans combinations of part type of the
production order.
All the results are tabulated in Table-1. It reveals that if we have a choice of MPP than there are more than one
process plan combinations that yield the same optimized makespan.
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4.1 Figures And Tables
Figure 2: Convergence Curve of case study I
Figure 3: Convergence Curve of case study II
Figure 4: Convergence Curve of case study III

212
Figure 5: Convergence Curve of case study IV
5. Conclusion
In the present work, an attempt is made to optimize job shop scheduling using simulation based Genetic
Algorithm approach in the presence of multiple process plans. From the case studies considered, it is concluded
that for a given production order in which part type can be processed by multiple process plans, there are more
than one process plan combinations of the part types in a production order that yield the same optimized
makespan.
6. Scope For Future Work
The present work can be extended in several ways. It can be extended by incorporating the aspects of due dates,
tardiness, earliness, flow time, throughput, etc. Dispatching rules used in this work is Shortest Processing Time
(SPT). The problem can be extended by using other dispatching rules such as Longest Processing Time (LPT),
Earliest Due Date (EDD), Most Work Remaining (MWR), etc. and comparative analysis of the results obtained
could be done. Different combination of crossover and mutation probabilities can be implemented and results
obtained can be compared. The case studies considered in the present work can be solved by other MetaHeuristics techniques such as Simulated Annealing, Tabu Search, Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic Techniques,
etc. and comparison of the results can be done. Production Quantity used in the case study can be changed.
The jobs and processing time are manually fed to ProModel software. This is time consuming and likely to
cause errors particularly when scheduling larger problems. This can be upgraded by modifying the software by
incorporating some external files to capture data from any data files available on the computer. This can
considerably reduce the time consumed in entering the job details.
References
[1] Pinedo, M. L. (2005), Planning and Scheduling in Manufacturing and Services:, Springer Series in
Operations Research, New York.
[2] M. Mitchell, An introduction to genetic algorithms. Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 2002.
[3] Rakesh Kumar Phanden, Ajai Jain, and Rajiv Verma; (2013) An approach for integration of process
planning and scheduling, International Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Vol. 26, No. 4,
page 284302.
[4] Davis, L. (1985), Job-Shop Scheduling with Genetic Algorithm, Proceedings of the 1st International
Conference on Genetic Algorithms and their Applications, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
[5] Michalewicz Z, (1999), Genetic Algorithm+ Data Structures=Evolution Programs, Springer Series
Artificial Intelligence USA.
[6] Kumar, S. Hemant and Srinivasan, G. (1996), A Genetic Algorithm for Job Shop Scheduling - A Case
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Study, Computers in Industry, Vol. 31, pp.155-160.

[7] Bierwirth Christian and Mattfeld, Dirk. C., (1998) Production Scheduling and Rescheduling with Genetic
Algorithms, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Evolutionary Computation Vol.7, Issue 1, pp. 1-17.
[8] Werner, James. C.; Aydin, Mehmet E.; Fogarty, Terence. C. (2000), Evolving Genetic Algorithm for Job
Shop Scheduling Problems, Proceedings of ACDM 2000 PEDC, Unviersity of Plymouth, UK.
[9] Gupta, Jatinder N. D.(2002) 'An excursion in scheduling theory: An overview of scheduling research in the
twentieth century', Production Planning & Control, Vol: 2, pp. 105 -116.
[10]Ombuki, B. and Ventresca, M. (2004), Local Search Genetic Algorithm for Job Shop Scheduling
Problem, Journal of Applied Intelligence, Vol. 21, pp. 448-465.
[11]Omar, Mahanim; Baharum, Adam and Hasan, Yahya Abu (2006), A JSSP using Genetic Algorithm,
Proceedings of the 2nd IMT-GT regional conference on Mathematics, Statistics and Applications,
University Sains Malaysia.
[12]Mendes J, (2010), An Optimization Approach for the Job Shop Scheduling Problem, International
Journal of Recent Advances in Applied Mathematics, pp. 120-125.
[13]Bagheri, A.; Zandieh, M.; (2011) Bi-criteria flexible job shop scheduling with sequence-dependent setup
times-Variable neighborhood search approach Journal of manufacturing systems, Vol. 30, page 8-15.
[14]Rakesh Kumar Phanden et al. (2012); A Genetic Algorithm-based Approach for Flexible Job Shop
Scheduling. Applied Mechanics and Materials Vols. 110-116 (2012) pp 3930-3937.
[15]Chiang Tsung-Che, Lin Hsiao-Jou; (2013) A simple and effective evolutionary algorithm for
multiobjective flexible job shop scheduling, International Journal of Production Economics, Vol. 141,
page 87-98.
[16]Anderson and Ferris (1994), Genetic Algorithms for Combinatorial Optimization: The Assembly Line
Balancing Problem, ORSA Journal on Computing. Vol. 6, Issue 2, pp. 161-173.
[17]Zhou, Hong, Cheung, Waiman (2001), Using Genetic Algorithms and Heuristics for Job Shop Scheduling
with Sequence-Dependent Setup Times, Annals of Operations Research Vol. 107, pp. 6581.
[18]Deb K, (2006), Optimization for Engineering Design, Algorithm and Examples, PHI, New Delhi.
[19]Naderi, B.; Fatemi, S. M. T. Ghomi; Aminnayeri, M. (2009), Scheduling Job Shop Problems with
Sequence-Dependent Setup Times, International Journal of Production Research Vol. 47, No. 21, pp.
59595976.
214
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Optimisation of Ultrasound Assisted Enzymatic

Interesterification Biodiesel Production
by Taguchi Methods
Onkar and Amit Pal
Abstract Taguchi method is based on the statistical methods for the evaluation of the sensitivity of a set of
response variables or output to a set of independent variables (control parameters). The method is used to
analyze the ultrasonic assisted enzymatic interesterification of Linseed oil. In this work, for an optimum
combination of reaction temperature, catalyst loading, Methyl accetate to oil molar ratio (MAOMR, an L9
orthogonal array is selected in Taguchi methods using Minitab 17. The kinematic viscosity is chosen as the base
indication of ester conversion.
Keywords Biodiesel, enzyme, interesterification, ultrasonic, methyl acetate, Taguchi.
Introduction Biodiesel can be synthesised by transesterification based reaction from oils or fats.
Transesterification being primitive, is the most famed among all other techniques of biodiesel production. The
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical breaking of organic matter at high temperature in the absence of any halogen and
oxygen. The similar mechanism which converted the fossils buried underground to petroleum, but
performed artificially. The mechanism is least famous for being a very slow, energy intensive, low conversion
ratio and finally massive separation process of pyrolysis products [1]. Transesterification too faces some
disadvantages as energy intensive, requirement of highly purified feedstock, cost oriented separation of byproductsetc [2]. With the increase in the use of greener fuels in the wake of environment protection,the
increased production of biodiesel increases the glycerol production too. The cost inherited in the purification of
crude glycerol from transesterification is somehow higher than the convention glycerol and results in an
increased effective cost of biodiesel production [3].
Interesterification is the process of biodiesel synthesis from triglycerides by reaction with alkyl acetates
producing alkyl esters of fatty acids i.e. biodiesel along with a by-product triacetin instead of glycerol. The byproduct triacetin need not be separated out and it is indeed a fuel solvent for FAME unlike glycerol. Apart this
triacetin has other commercial applications too like pharmaceuticals formulations, cosmetic industry, food
industry etc [2].
Figure 1. Enzymatic interesterification reaction of triglyceride with methyl acetate

Onkar and Amit Pal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University,
New Delhi, India
(onkarrathee@gmail.com, amitpal@dce.ac.in)
Corresponding Author;
Onkar,: 1065, Sector 3, Rohtak-124001, Haryana (India), Tel:+911262285856
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Onkar and Pal
Like transesterification, interesterification too is a three stage reaction as depicted by the fig. 2. The reaction is a
catalytic process which can be catalysed by a chemical catalyst viz., PEG200, PEGK, CH3OK etc. or a lipase
enzyme. The process is performed near the boiling point of alkyl acetate used in the presence of a catalyst to
prevent the loss of alkyl acetate at higher temperatures. Methyl acetate and ethyl acetate are the most preferred
for their higher reactivity [4]. A catalyst free supercritical interesterification method is also used for biodiesel
production. The supercritical process needs a very high temperature and pressure of order 350oC and 12MPa
respectively for the commencement of
chemical
reaction.
The critical temperature and pressure
mentioned above are indicative only, the actual critical temperature and pressure depend on the type of alkyl
acceptor used.
Figure 2. Enzymatic interesterification reaction of triglyceride with methyl acetate [5]

Enzymatic interesterification is the other method to produce biodiesel at moderate process temperatures. Easy
catalyst separation, catalyst reusability, use of low quality feedstock, environmentally sound, simplified crude
biodiesel production etc. are the added advantages of enzymatic interesterification [6]. Also, the triacetin
produced during the process does not have any harmful effect on enzyme activity, unlike enzymatic
transesterification. The process can be used as continuous packed bed type as suggested by Silva et al. [7] or
batch production. The disadvantage of longer reaction time for higher yield conversion is significantly
denatured by the use of ultrasonic or hydrodynamic cavitation. The disturbance produced byultrasonic
waves on molecular level decrease the reaction time to 120 min to 180 min as compared to 25 h to 30 h in
conventional magnetic stirrer assisted enzymatic process. The main aim of the present work to investigate the
effect of variation in MAOMR, process temperature, catalyst loading and reaction temperature on the process
yield. Furthermore, the optimum process parameters have been perceived using Taguchi design methods. The
kinematic viscosity is considered as the base indication of ester conversion.
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Optimisation of Ultrasound Assisted Enzymatic Interesterification........

1. Materials and methods
Materials
Linseed oil was obtained from the Biodiesel Research Lab., Delhi Technological University, New Delhi. The
analysis of oil revealed the main content viz., linolenic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmatic acid and steric
acid as shown in Table 1. Composition of linseed oil. Methyl acetate was procured from Sigma-Aldrich.
Lipase enzyme, Lipoprotein from Pseudomonas sp., lyophilized powder, 0.1 M pH 7.5 phosphate buffer
solution are procured from Sisco Research Laboratories Pvt. Ltd.
Table 1. Composition of linseed oil
Experimental procedure
Ultrasonic horn obtained from Thoroughclean (India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi was used for the work. The horn is
submerged 15mm 20mm in the reaction mixture and ultrasonic irradiation was set to 20 kHz. The maximum
rated power of the generator machine was 150W which can be regulated by a regulating knob. The fig. 3
represents the experimental setup used to perform a set of experiments. Minitab 17 software was used to
perform Taguchi design method. Al9 orthogonal array materix as shown in Table 3 .L experiment table was
selected form available list of arrays depending on process variables. There were 9 experiments were performed
using the process parameters as suggested by Taguchi method to complete the orthogonal array. As, the
kinematic viscosity is considered as base indication, smaller the better S/N ratio criteria is selected for
calculation. experiment table was selected form available list of arrays depending on process variables. There
were 9 experiments were performed using the process parameters as suggested by Taguchi method to complete
the orthogonal array. As, the kinematic viscosity is considered as base indication, smaller the better S/N ratio
criteria is selected for calculation.
Reaction temperature (oC), MAOMR, catalyst loading and reaction time (min.) were selected as the four
process control factors. The selected factor levels were as shown in Table2. Factors and their levels.
Figure 3. Experimental setup of ultrasonic assisted enzymatic interesterification

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A 50 gm. dried and pre-filtered Linseed oil sample at desired temperature is taken in the air tight glass reactor
equipped with a waterbath to maintain the constant process temperature. A condenser was used to
condense the vapour methyl acetate from the reaction and reintroduced to the reactor. The desired enzyme
amount is incubated with 0.1 M pH 7.5 phosphate buffer solution for 5 min. and added to the oil sample in the
reactor. After the predefined reaction time, the mixture is heated to 60o C in vacuum for 1h in kinematic
viscometer to remove the excess methyl acetate added.
Table 2. Factors and their levels
The kinematic viscosity of the resulting mixture after each experiment was measured by Petrotest Viscobath
manufactured by SCHOTT Instruments, Mainz.
2. Result And Discussion
Effect of methyl acetate to oil molar ratioM e a n o f S N ra tio s
Methyl acetate to oil molar ratio (MAOMR) is a major governing factor for the biodiesel yield. The MAOMR
was varied from 6:1 to 12:1 as 6:1, 9:1 and 12:1 and the corresponding kinematic viscosity has been
investigated. The viscosity gradually decreases with increase in MAOMR reason being the increased molar
ration increases the collision frequency among reactants. But after 12:1 MAOMR the increase in yield was
insignificant. The S/N ratio curve and mean viscosity for various molar ratios have been shown in fig. 4.
218
Effect of catalyst loading

The catalyst loading is meant by the weight of enzyme added per unit weight of vegetable oil. With the increase
in catalyst loading the viscosity significantly decreases but all this happened up to a catalyst loading of 1% after
that there was no increase in yield had been noticed. Fig. 5 depicts the variation in S/N ratio with enzyme
Figure 5. S/N ratios for different catalyst loadings

loading such that an increase in catalyst loading from 0.5% to 1.25% there has been a decrease in S/N ratio.
Therefor an increased catalyst loading of 1.25% will be uneconomic.
Effect of process temperature
Three different process temperatures viz. 30 o C, 40o C, 50o C have been investigated for the influence on
biodiesel viscosity. The viscosity got decreased significantly after increasing temperature from 30o C to 40o C. It
could be due to the fact that increased temperature increases the kinetic energy of molecules thus increases the
interaction among the reactants. But further increase in temperature decreases the extent of decrease in
viscosity after reaching the threshold temperature because at this temperature the enzyme works at its
maximum capacity beyond which its activity starts decaying and falls substantially. A slight increase in
viscosity has been observed over 50o C process temperature as shown in fig. 6.
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Figure 6. S/N ratios for different reaction temperature ( C)

The reaction time is taken in three intervals of 60 min., 120 min and 180 min. The result obtained are shown in
the fig. 7. As depicted by S/N ratio curve there is a magnificent effect of reaction time on biodiesel viscosity
when it is increased from 60 min to 120 min. But the effect got diminished for further increase in process time to
180 min. If we look at the average viscosity curve too the decrease is very low for increasing reaction time from
120 min to 180 min.
Figure 7. S/N ratios for different reaction time

3. Conclusion
The ultrasonic assisted enzymatic interesterification of linseed oil with methyl acetate has been investigated
using Lipoprotein lipase as catalyst. Taguchi design method evaluates the reaction time as the most influencing
process parameter followed by MAOMR, reaction temperature and catalyst loading as shown in Table 4.
Taguchi L9 result table. Enzymes are verysensitive to the process parameters, unlike chemical catalysts which
show a proportionate behavior.
220
References
[1]
F. Shafizadeh, Introduction to pyrolysis of biomass,

Pyrolysis, vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 283-305, 1982
Journal
of
Analytical
and
Applied
[2]
C. Komintarachat, R. Sawangkeaw and S. Ngamprasertsith; Continuous production of palm biofuel

under supercritical ethyl acetate; Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 95, pp. 332- 338, 2015
[3]
D.T. Johnson, K.A. Taconi,The glycerin glut: options for the value-added conversion of
crudeglycerol resulting from biodiesel production, Environ Prog and Sust En, vol. 26, No. 4,
pp. 338348, 2007
[4]
A. Casas, M.J. Ramos and A. Perez, New trends in biodiesel production: hemicalinteresterification
of sunflower oil with methyl acetate, Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 35,No. 5, pp. 1702-1709, 2011
[5]
G.L. Maddikeri, A.B. Pandit and P.R. Gogate, Ultrasound assisted interesterification of waste
cooking oil and methylacetate for biodiesel and triacetin production, Fuel Processing Technology,
vol. 116, pp. 241-249, 2013
[6]
Preeti B. Subhedar and Parag R. Gogate, Ultrasound assisted intensification of biodiesel production
using enzymatic interesterification, UltrasonicsSonochemistry, vol. 29, pp. 6775, 2016
[7]
Roberta Claro da Silva, Fabiana Andreia Schaffer De Martini Soares, Thas Gonzaga Fernandes, Anna
Laura Donadi Castells, Kelly Caroline Guimaraes da Silva, Maria Ines Almeida Goncalves, Chiu Chih
Ming, Lireny Aparecida Guaraldo Gonc alves and Luiz Antonio Gioielli, Inter-esterification of Lard and
Soybean Oil Blends Catalyzed by Immobilized Lipase in a Continuous Packed Bed Reactor, Journal of the
American Oil Chemists' Society, DOI 10.1007/s11746-011-1869-x, vol. 88, No. 12, pp. 1925-1923, 2011.
221
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Numerical Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade at

Different Angle of Attack and Reynold
Numbers Using Ansys
Mohammad Zunaid, Md. Gulam Mustafa
and Nausad Ahmad Ansari
Abstract- This paper work is on, how the lift force and drag force changes with different angles of attack and
Reynold numbers for wind turbine blade. Analysis of wind turbine blade is done by using the NACA0012 airfoil profile . The Lift and Drag forces are computed at different angles of attack by varying from 50 to 750 for
Reynold numbers ranging from 65,000 to 800,000 by ANSYS. The validations of the present work are done by
comparing the results obtain from computation with the refined the mesh obtain by increasing the number of
element. It is observed that results obtained by CFD analysis matches closely. Almost all CFD computation
utilizes NavierStokes equations for its computation. From this CFD analysis, it is thus concluded that, with the
increase of Reynold numbers, lift forces and drag forces increases. NACA0012 gives maximum lift and drag at
larger Reynolds number.
Keywords- CFD; Air-foil; Drag Force; Lift Force; Angle of Attack; Reynold number.
ntroduction Computational Fluid Dynamics has become an essential tool in almost every branch of fluid
dynamics, is used in the development of aircraft, submarine, surface ship,and recently wind turbine. CFD
utilises the numerical analysis and algorithm to solve and analyse the problem involving fluids, by
computational methods, calculation is mainly to model the effect of liquid and gases with surfaces defined by
boundary condition. The fundamental governing equations of CFD are the Navier-Stokes equations, which
define the single phase fluid flow. In the early days two-dimensional methods were used to solve linear potential
equations, like orthomorphic transformation of the flow over a cylinder to the flow about an air-foil. All CFD
analysis is first started by defining the geometry of the product. However, for CFD the geometry, is the
geometry where the fluid will flow [5], this means that it is important to define the boundaries for inlets, outlets,
far-field conditions etc.
Lift Force,
Lift Coeffienct,
Drag Force,
Drag Coeffienct,
Mohammad Zunaid, Md. Gulam Mustafa and Nausad Ahmad Ansari

Department of Mechanical Engineer, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042.
mzunaid3k@gmail.com, gm09mes31@gmail.com, naushad.nsr@gmail.com
Corresponding Author- Tel: +91-9312045421

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
223
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Zunaid et al.
Chris Kaminsky et al. [1] study is based on the VAWT with air-foil of NACA0012-34 aerofoil, with the help of
SolidWork model, and imported in the STAR-CCM software for the CFD analysis. Two-dimensional air flow
over the air-foil. 2D and 3D simulations of thre air-foil is done using the different angle of attack (00 to 150) and
speed (15 to 30 mph). This study gave the stall angle is 80 for 2D and 3D gave no stall angle.
David Hartwanger et al. [2] research to develop a system, to assess multiple turbine installation using CFD
analysis. They built NREL S809 air-foil wind turbine in two-dimensional and matched their results with 3D
CFD model. Created the cylindrical with geometry radius 2L and length 5L, for generation uses ANSYS, thus
founded that with higher-resolution mesh generation; at high turbulence gave better result and it matches with
experiment data of flow regime.
R S Amano et al. [3] research is based on the aerodynamic design of wind turbine rotor blade by CFD, and to
optimize it. They uses Straight edge blade and Swept edge blade. In their work, they reasarch the way of
increasing the efficiency of the blades at higher wind speeds, while maintaining the efficiency at the lower
speeds of wind. Thus founded in their research that the swept edge geometry gave maximum efficiency at low
wind speed, and power is increased by 20% with the increase of wind speed by over 10 m/s.
Franck Bertagnolio et.al[4] explain the experimental and 2D CFD simulation result of NACA six digit wing
section families, obtain the Ellipsys 2D provide better match result in both attache and stalled flow regime. The
Ellipsys 2D CFD code uses Mentor shear stress transition turbulence model to predict turbulence effect in the
laminar and turbulent regime.
S. Sarada et al. [5] worked on NACA 64618 air-foil, for the 2D and 3D CFD analysis, with the help of
FLUENT code. The result of 2D CFD simulations shows that K-epsilon model do not provided satisfactory
results in stalling regime and while the 3D CFD simulations shows satisfactory results in stalling regime.
Vance Dippold [6] has done series analyses to find performance of wall and different turbulence model,
available in WIND CFD code. Thus concluded that turbulence models, i.e SST and K-e model work well with
the neutral or favourable pressure gradient; however, in the SST model shows better result in the flow with
adverse pressure gradient.
H.Gao et al. [7] have done analysis and CFD simulations to investigate unsteady 2D flow about the streamlined
low speed GA(W)1 air-foil and corrugated dragonfly air-foil at Reynold numbers 55000 to 68000. 2D and 3D
CFD simulations is done using unsteady Navier-Stokes solver. The work found that 2D and 3D simulation
results is totally different at higher angles of attack and 3D CFD simulation results matches closely with the
experimental data.
2. Geometry and Mesh generation
In this CFD analysis, two-way velocity inlet method is used, in the C-type mesh. Figure 1 and Figure 2 shows
the geometry of air-foil with the boundary condition. This mesh generation is done using ANSYS. Two mesh
sizes having 100 and 40,000 elements are used for analysis. Mesh having 100 elements defined as unrefined
mesh and mesh size having 40,000 elements defined as refined mesh.
Figure 1. C- type Mesh

224
Numerical Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade at Different Angle ....
Figue 2. Geometry of Airfoil
3. Result and Discussion

Initially, CFD analysis is carried out for Reynolds number 6.5x104, 1.5x105, 5.0x105 and 8.0x105 and angle of
attack of 50, 150, 250, 350,450, 550, 650, 750. The results are shown in Figure 3-10 and Tables 1-4.
Table 1. CD and CL at various angle of attack at Re=65,000
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Zunaid et al.
Figure 3. Graph of CD vs AoA at Re=65,000
Figure 4. Graph of CL vs AoA Re=65,000

From above graphs and tables we can conclude, that, for the lower angle of attack (50 to 250), results obtained in
CFD simulation is distinct compared to experimental values. However, for angle of attack between (350 to 750)
the value of CL matches closely with refined mesh iteration. However, CD values obtained by CFD simulation
matches. The sudden decrease in CL value occurs for Reynold Number=150,000.
226
Numerical Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade at Different Angle ....
Figure 9. Graph of CD vs AoA Re=800,000
Figure 10. Graph of CL Vs AoA Re=800,000
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Zunaid et al.
4. Conclusion
Validation of analysis is done by four Reynold number between 65,000 to 800,000 and eight different angles of
attack between 50 to 750. It has been observed that, close matching in CL and CD values are obtained by CFD
analysis in comparison to experimental values.
It is found during the analysis, that CL shows some deviation from experimental data at lower values of angles of
attack, however, for higher angle of attack it closely match with experimental results.
In general, it can be concluded that with the increase in Reynold numbers, lift forces and drag forces increases.
CFD simulation shows, NACA0012 provides highest lift force and drag force at higher Reynolds numbers.
Thus, it can be concluded from the above simulation that in turbulent zone, efficiency of wind turbine is better
than in laminar zone.
References
Kaminsky, Chris, et al. "A CFD Study of Wind Turbine Aerodynamics."Conference, a CFD study of
[1]
wind turbine aerodynamics, Ohio, USA. American Society for Engineering Education. 2012.
Hartwanger, David, and Andrej Horvat. "3D modelling of a wind turbine using CFD." NAFEMS
[2]
Conference, United Kingdom. 2008.
Amano, R. S., and R. J. Malloy. "CFD analysis on aerodynamic design optimization of wind turbine
[3]
rotor blades." World Academy of science, Engineering and technology 60 (2009): 71-75.
[4]
Bertagnolio, F., Srensen, N. N., Johansen, J., & Fuglsang, P. (2001). Wind turbine airfoil catalogue.
(Denmark.Forskningscenter Risoe. Risoe-R; No. 1280(EN)).
Sarada, S., M. Shivashankar, and G. Rudresh. "Numerical Simulation of Viscous, Incompressible
[5]
Flow around NACA 64618 Subsonic Airfoil Using Computational Fluid Dynamics." Advances n
Mechanical Engineering (2010): 256.
Dippold III, Vance. "Investigation of wall function and turbulence model performance within the wind
[6]
code." 43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit-AIAA-2005-1002. 2005.[7]Gao, Haiyang,
Hui Hu, and Z. J. Wang. "Computational study of unsteady flows around dragonfly and smooth airfoils
at low Reynolds numbers." 46th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. 2008.
Rainbird, J. M., J. Peir, and J. M. R. Graham. "Blockage-tolerant wind tunnel measurements for a
[8]
NACA 0012 at high angles of attack." Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 145
(2015): 209-218.
Ferrer, E., and X. Munduate. "Wind turbine blade tip comparison using CFD."Journal of Physics:
[9]
Conference Series. Vol. 75. No. 1. IOP Publishing, 2007.
Menter, Florian R. "Two-equation eddy-viscosity turbulence models for engineering applications."
[10]
AIAA journal 32.8 (1994): 1598-1605.
Abbott, Ira Herbert, and Albert Edward Von Doenhoff. Theory of wing sections, including a summary
[11]
of airfoil data. Courier Corporation, 1959.
228
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Performance Evaluation of Fouled Evaporator

Vapour Compression System
Naveen Solanki, Akhilesh Arora and Raj Kumar Singh
Abstract: - In this paper, effect of evaporator fouling is measured on the performance of a vapour compression
system with refrigerants HFO1234yf as a substitute to HFC134a. The condenser coolant temperature (Tin, cond)
has been varied between 35 - 400C to evaluate the effect of fouling, while keeping the evaporator air inlet
temperature (Tin, evap) and efficiency of compressor ( cp,isn) constant. The conductance of evaporator has been
reduced up to 50% for analyzing the effect of fouling on the system performance. A simulation program is
developed in Engineering Equation Solver (EES) for computing the results. The fouling decreases the
compressor power, cooling capacity and COP. The second law efficiency is also observed to decrease with
decrease in the evaporator conductance.
Key Words Vapour Compression; Compressor; Evaporator; Fouling; R1234yf; R134a
ntroduction Refrigeration involves heat transfer from a low-temperature region to a high-temperature

region. This process is typically utilized by means of a Vapour compression refrigeration cycle (VCRC)
involving a particular refrigerant. In recent past the most commonly used refrigerants are R11, R12, R500,
R22 and R123, but due to their high ODP these refrigerants have either been phased out or are to be phased out in
near future. In recent years, HFC134a is used in many refrigeration applications viz. automobile airconditioning, refrigerators. HFC134a has high GWP, and hence needs replacement by a low GWP refrigerant.
Calm [1] reported HFO1234yf is a low GWP refrigerant. Ding [2] and Cabello et al. [3] have modeled the
system components and computed the performance of the vapour compression system. Lee and Jung [4]
worked on mobile air-conditioning bench tester under summer and winter conditioning for HFO1234yf and
HFC134a. And their results showed that the COP, cooling capacity and discharge temperature (Compressor) for
HFO1234yf are 2.7%, 4.0%, and 6.5oC lower as compared to HFC134a. Jarall [5] compared the performance of
HFO1234yf with HFC134a at nominal output power (550W) in a refrigeration plant. Their results showed that
HFO1234yf gives less cooling capacity, COP, and compressor efficiency by 3.4-13.7%, 0.35-11.88% and 06.3% in comparison to HFC134a. Reasor et al. [6] studied that due to environmental concerns, refrigerants with
Naveen Solanki
Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, PSP Area
Sector-22, Rohini Delhi-110086, E-mail: naveensolanki1984@gmail.com
Akhilesh Arora and Raj Kumar Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Shahbad Daulat Pur, Bawana Road,
Delhi-110042,
E-mail: akhilesharora@dce.ac.in, rajkumarsingh@dce.ac.in
2
Corresponding Author; Tel: 9310279932
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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a low global warming impact are gaining importance in the refrigeration industry. Refrigerant R1234yf has a
low GWP of 4, compared to 1430 for R134a, and has thermodynamic properties similar to R134a, making it a
desirable choice for future automotive refrigerants.
The literature survey shows that HFOs are next generation refrigerants. These are the alternative refrigerants
but their performance evaluation is must, before putting them into commercial use. Their performance should
be evaluated under ideal and actual working conditions.
During the operation of system, the performance under actual working condition is dependent on the fouling of
heat exchanger. The scale deposition on the surfaces of heat exchanger (evaporator) tubes increases thermal
resistance and hence affecting the system performance. The sensitivity of the heat exchanger to fouling is
strongly dependent on the type of fouling as well as the specifics of the heat exchanger geometry. Ahn et al. [7]
examined experimentally the air-side particulate fouling in fin-and-tube heat exchangers of air conditioners.
They observed that the important parameters influencing the fouling of heat exchangers are the concentration
and size of indoor pollutants, the filter efficiency, hydrophilicity of fin surfaces and fin spacing. The pressure
drop of heat exchangers increases due to the deposition of indoor pollutants larger than 1 m in size and
increases up to 44% in the samples used for 7 years. The air-side particulate fouling degrades the cooling
capacity by 10-15% in the samples. Yang et al. [8] discussed the impact of evaporator fouling on the
performance of R22 packaged air conditioners. In this study it was found that the equipment cooling capacity is
reduced with fouling primarily because of a decrease in airflow due to the increased pressure drop. Fouling
affects evaporator-side fan power which in turn affects the equipment EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio)
significantly. Comparing the fan power for fouled conditions to the fan power for clean conditions, the variation
ranged from approximately 7% to a value as high as 40%.
From the literature survey it clear that there does not exist any study on the effect of fouling when using low
GWP HFO refrigerants. Accordingly in this paper the system performance is computed on the basis of
combined first law (Energy analysis) and the second law (Exergy analysis) of thermodynamics under fouled
conditions for HFO1234yf and HFC134a. The effect of variation in evaporator conductance and condenser
coolant inlet temperatures has been examined on the performance of the system. The parameters computed are
COP, cooling capacity, compressor work and second law efficiency.
2. Model Descriptions
The schematic and T-S diagrams of vapour compression system/cycle are shown in figures 1 and 2 respectively.
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a simple VCRS
230
Performance Evaluation of Fouled Evaporator Vapour.....
Figure 2: Temperature Entropy diagram of VCRC

The various processes occurring in vapour compression cycle
I) Process 4-5s: Isentropic compression of the vapour from state 4 to 5s. However the compression is never
isentropic and hence in actual compression process (4-5) the exit state from the compressor is 5.
ii) Process 5-6: Heat rejection at constant pressure to the surrounding from the discharge line.
iii) Process 6-1: Heat rejection in condenser at constant pressure.
iv) Process 1-2: An irreversible adiabatic expansion of vapour through the expansion valve or throttling device.
The pressure and temperature of the liquid are reduced. The process is accompanied by partial evaporation of
some liquid. The process is shown by dotted line because it is irreversible.
v) Process 2-3: Heat absorption in evaporator at constant pressure. The final state 3 the refrigerant is in the dry
saturated state at the exit from the evaporator.
vi) Process 3-4: The temperature at the exit is lower than the ambient temperature hence heat is transferred
from surroundings to the refrigerant in the suction line at constant pressure.
Considering the steady-state cyclic operation and applying the first law of thermodynamics to the system as
shown in Figure 2, the equation (1) can be obtained as under:
The heat-transfer rate in the evaporator is given by:

(2)
In terms of effectiveness (), minimum heat capacity (Cmin) and temperature difference Qevap can be written as
(3)
Where T2 is the temperature of refrigerant entering to evaporator and T7 is the outside air temperature entering to
evaporator.
Similarly, the heat-transfer rate in the condenser is given by
Where T1 is the temperature of saturated liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser and T9 is the outside air
temperature entering the condenser for cooling the refrigerant in the condenser.
The power required by the compressor is presented in terms of isentropic efficiency of the compressor, given by
Where point 5 shows the actual state of refrigerant vapour at the exit from compressor.
Work input to the compressor can also be expressed using steady flow energy equation as under:
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(6)
Where Qcp is the heat transfer from the compressor to the surrounding.
The heat leaking into the suction line is represented by
(7)
The heat leakage from the discharge line to surrounding can be expressed as
(8)
The COP is the ratio of refrigerating effect to compressor power, i.e.
(9)
The first law efficiency alone is not a realistic measure of performance of engineering device. To overcome this
deficiency, we define second-law efficiency (II) of a refrigeration system which is the ratio of the actual
coefficient of performance (COP) to the maximum possible coefficient of performance (COPrev) under the same
operating conditions.
(10)
(11)
The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined using equation (12) as under

(12)
The effectiveness of evaporator and condenser is given by equation 13 and 14
Incropera et al. [9] derived the expression for relation between effectiveness, heat capacity and overall
(13)
(14)
conductance (UA) which is expressed as
The fouling on air side of a heat exchanger is the reason for reduction of UA. The percentage reduction in
(15)
conductance is represented using the equation (16).
The above methodology is used to develop a program, for performance computation, in Engineering Equation
(16)
Solver (EES).
3.
Results And Discussion
The thermodynamic model given above is used to evaluate the performance of vapour compression system.
232

The performance is evaluated with two refrigerants (R134a and R1234yf).
Input conditions
Table 1: Values of inputs at design point.
The values given in table 1 are used for computation of results in current work.
Effect of evaporator fouling (evaporator conductance for R134a) on percentage change in compressor
power, cooling capacity and COP
Figures 3, 4 and 5 represent the effect of evaporator fouling with variation in condenser coolant temperature for
the refrigerants R134a and R1234yf respectively. It is observed that with increase in evaporator fouling the
compressor power, cooling capacity and COP decreases.
-2
-4
-6
-8
o
R134a T in ,co nd=40 C

R134a T in ,co nd=37.5oC
-10
R134a T in ,co nd=35 C
Percentage change (%) in compressor work
Figure 3: Percentage change in cooling

capacity v/s percentage decrease in evaporator
conductance for R134a.
-12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Percentage decrease in evaporator conductance

(1-UAev /UA ev, cl )*100
Figure 4: Percentage change in compressor

work v/s percentage decrease in evaporator
The effect of evaporator fouling with variation in condenser coolant temperature decreases the COP, because
with percentage decrease in evaporator conductance ((1-UAev/UAev,cl)*100), cooling capacity and compressor
work both decrease. However the cooling capacity decreases at a higher rate as compared to compressor work.
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R 1234y f T in, con d=4 0 C
R134 a T in,co nd=40o C
0.0
R134 a T in,co nd=37.5 C
R 1234y f T in, con d=3 7.5 C

o
R 1234y f T in, con d=3 5 C
R134 a T in,co nd=35 C
- 0.5
-2
- 1.0
-4
- 1.5
-6
- 2.0
-8
- 2.5
-10
Percentage change (%) in COP
- 3.0
Pe rc ent age c han ge (% ) in coo ling c apac it y
- 3.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
-12
0
10
60

(1-UA ev/UA ev,cl)*100
Figure 5: Percentage change in

COP v/s percentage decrease in
evaporator conductance for R134a.
20
30
40
50
60
Percentag e decrease in evaporat or con ductance

(1-UA ev /UA ev, cl )*10 0

cooling capacity v/s percentage
decrease in evaporator conductance
for R1234yf.
Figures 6, 7 and 8 show the variation of percentage changes (%) in Qevap, Wcp, and COP with percentage decrease
in evaporator conductance for R1234yf.
R1234yf Ti n,cond=40 C
R1 234yf T i n,cond =4 0 C
R1234yf Ti n,cond=37.5 C
R1 234yf T i n,cond =3 7.5 C
R1 234yf T i in,co nd=35 C
R1234yf Ti n,cond=35 C
-2
-1
-4
-2
-6
-3
Percentage change (%) in compressor work
-1 0
0
10
20
30
40
50

(1-UAe v/UAe v, cl )*100

compressor work v/s percentage
decrease in evaporator conductance
for R1234yf
60
Percentage change (%) in COP
-8
-4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60

(1-UAev /UAe v,cl )*100
Figure 8: Percentage change in COP v/s

percentage decrease in evaporator
conductance for R1234yf.
The trends are similar in figures 6 to 8 for R1234yf when compared with the results of R134a shown in figures 3
to 5; hence it does not require explanation. The percentage decrease in the values of cooling capacity and
compressor power is more in case of HFC134a as compared to HFO1234yf. However the percentage decrease
in COP for HFO1234yf is more than HFC134a. The decrease in value of COP for R1234yf is 3.59% and for
R134a is 2.99%.
Figures 9 and 10 show the variation of second-law efficiency (II) %, with evaporator fouling from 0% to 50%,
at Tin,cond = 40oC, 37.5 oC, 35 oC, for refrigerants R134a and R1234yf.
234

25.0
21.5
o
R134a Ti n,cond =40 C

24.8
R134a Ti n,cond =37.5 C
21.0
R134a Ti n,cond =35o C

II
(%)
II
(%)
24.6
20.5
24.4
24.2
20.0
24.0
19.5
o
R1234yf Tin,cond=40 C
23.8
23.4
0
10
20
30
40
50

(1-UAev/UAev,cl)*100
Figure 9: Second-law efficiency (%)

v/s percentage decrease in evaporator
60
Second - law efficiency, n
Second - law efficiency, n
23.6
19.0
o
R1234yf Tin,cond=37.5 C
o
R1234yf Tin,cond=35 C
18.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60

(1-UAev/UAev,cl)*100
Figure 10: Second-law efficiency (%)

v/s percentage decrease in evaporator
conductance for R1234yf.
The comparison of the result of second law efficiency at condenser inlet temperature of 40oC, 37.5 oC, & 35 oC
for unfouled condition & 50% reduction in evaporator conductance due to fouling are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 : Comparison of second-law efficiency (evaporator under fouled condition) for Refrigerant R1234yf
with R134a.
From the above table it is clear that, the second-law efficiency for R1234yf is about 5-6% lower than R134a
under clean as well as fouled condition.
4. Conclusions
On the basis of results obtained from thermodynamic model, following conclusions are drawnEffect of fouling on the performance of a simple vapour compression cycle has been evaluated by varying
condenser coolant inlet temperature Tin,cond (i.e. 35oC, 37.5 oC and 40 oC), and also by varying evaporator
conductances (i.e. 0% - 50%), for the refrigerant R134a and R1234yf.
In evaporator fouling it has been observed that:It is observed that the evaporator fouling has larger effect on cooling capacity (Qevap%) as it decreases by 12.08
for R134a and 11.19 for R1234yf. The compressor power (Wcp%) also decreases by 9.63 for R134a and 8.31
for R1234yf. The maximum percentage decrease in value of COP for R1234yf and R134a is 3.59 and 2.99
respectively. The second-law efficiency is also observed to decrease with decrease in the evaporator
conductance for both Refrigerants (R134a and R1234yf).
Refrences
[1]
Calm, J., 2008. The next generation of refrigerants Historical review, considerations, and outlook.
International Journal of Refrigeration 31: 1123-1133.
[2]
Ding, G., 2007. Recent development in simulation techniques for vapour-compression refrigeration
systems. International Journal of Refrigeration 1-15.
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[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Cabello, R., J., Navarro and E., Torrella, 2005. Simplified steady-state modelling of a single stage
vapour compression plant Model development and validation. Applied Thermal Engineering 25,
17401752.
Lee, Y., and D. Jung, 2011. A brief performance comparison of R1234yf and R134a in a bench tester for
automobile application. Applied Thermal Engineering 35: 240-242.
Jarall, S. 2012. Study of refrigeration with HFO-1234yf as a working fluid. International Journal of
Refrigeration 35: 1668-1677.
Reasor, P., V., Aute, and R. Radermacher. 2010. Refrigerant R1234yf Performance Comparison
Investigation. International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue University
Paper No.1085.
Ahn, Y., S., Cheong, Y., Jung, and J., Lee, 2006. An Experimental Study of the Air-Side Particulate
Fouling in Fin-and-Tube Heat Exchangers of Air Conditioners. International Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning conference at Purdue University Paper No. 818.
Yang, L., J., E., Braun, and E., A., Groll, 2004. The Impact of Evaporator Fouling on the Performance
of Packaged Air Conditioners. International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at
Purdue University Paper No. 687.
Incropera, F.P., D.P. DeWitt, T., Bergman, and A. Lavine. 2006. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
NOMENCLATURE
Minimum value of the thermal
Capacitance rate (kWK-1)
CFCs- Chloro-fluoro-carbons
COP- Coefficient of performance
EES- Engineering equation solver
GWP- Global warming potential
HCFCs-Hydro-chloro-fluoro-carbons
HFO- Hydro-Fluoro-Olefin
mRefrigerant mass flow rate (kg s-1)
Specific volume (m3 kg-1)
ODP- Ozone depletion potential
PPressure (MPa)
QRate of heat transfer (kW)
TTemperature (K)
UA - Overall conductance (kWK-1)
VCRC-Vapour compression refrigeration cycle
VCRS -Vapour compression refrigeration system
WPower requirement (kW)
C-
Greek
Efficiency (%)
- Heat exchanger effectiveness
Subscripts
Act-Actual
cl Clean condition
cd, cond- Condenser
ev, evap- Evaporator
cp - Compressor
dl - Discharge line
sl - Suction line
fFouled condition
isn- Isentropic
min- Minimum
ref - Refrigerant
IFirst-law
IISecond-law
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Effect of Diethyl Ether and Biodiesel Blend

on the Performance and Emissions
from a Diesel Engine
Mohit Kumar, Shashank Mohan and Amit Pal
Abstract The goal of this study was to evaluate the performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine
using oxygenated fuels (blending agents). In view of this, experimental investigations were carried out on a
single cylinder four stroke direct injection water-cooled diesel engine using biodiesel(B) of waste cooking oil
and diethyl ether (DEE) blended fuels in different volume ratios with diesel fuel. The investigation was
performed with four different blends (B0DEE0D100, B10DEE10D80, B20DEE20D60&B0DEE20D80) to
assess the impact of using biodiesel and diethyl ether-diesel blends on diesel engine performance and
emissions. No emulsifier was needed for blend to retain homogeneity and prevent the interfacial tension
between two liquids in case of DEE. For the same rated speed and compression ratio, different blended fuels as
well as pure diesel, various engine parameters such as brake thermal efficiency, brake specific energy
consumption, brake specific fuel consumption, exhaust gas temperature and exhaust emissions such as smoke
opacity, hydrocarbon, CO,CO2 and NOx, were measured. The results indicate that the brake thermal efficiency
was increased with an increase in biodiesel and DEE contents in the blended fuels and break specific fuel
consumption and break specific energy consumption being almost same for all fuel blends at overall operating
conditions. At higher loads, reduced CO emission levels were observed for blends of biodiesel and DEE at high
load. HC emissions increased for all blends of biodiesel and DEE compared with diesel and NOx emission
slightly reduced with biodiesel and DEE blends compared to diesel at lower loads.
Keywords: Renewable fuels, Diethyl Ether, waste cooking oil, brake thermal efficiency, nitrogen oxides and
emissions
Introduction Diesel engines are the most popular well known efficient prime mover among the internal
combustion engines because of their simple, robust construction coupled with high thermal efficiency and
specific power output with better fuel economy, much longer life span and reliability which results in their wide
spread use in transportation, thermal power generation and many more industrial and agricultural applications.
Inspite of many advantages, the diesel engine is inherently dirty and is the most significant contributor of
various air polluting exhaust gases such as particulate matter (PM), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide
(CO) and other harmful compounds which contribute to serious public health problems. Particulate matter
(PM) emissions from diesel combustion contribute to urban and regional hazes. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
hydrocarbons (HC) are precursors for O3 and PM. NOx emissions from diesel vehicles play a major role in
ground-level ozone formation. Ozone is a lung and respiratory irritant causes a range of health problems related
to breathing, including chest pain, coughing and shortness of breath. Particulate matter has been linked to
premature death, and increased respiratory symptoms and disease. In addition, ozone, NO, and particulate
matter adversely affect the environment in various ways, including crop damage, acid rain and visibility
Mohit kumar, Shashank Mohan and Amit Pal

1
.Mechanical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University,
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042,
mohitofficialid@gmail.com,
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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impairment.
In view of increased concerns regarding the effects of diesel engine particulate and NOx emissions on human
health and the environment and more stringent government regulation on exhaust emissions, reducing the NOx
and particulate emission from diesel engines is one of the most significant challenges. The rapid depletion,
uneven distribution of petroleum fuels, their ever increasing costs and great concern over pollution led to search
for an alternative fuel to replace conventional fuels. The most promising alternative possibility to clear this
critical issue is to use the oxygenated fuels either in pure form or blended with diesel to provide sufficient
oxygen and promote combustion and reducing PM emission and possibly decreasing NOx emission.
Oxygenated fuels are the attractive class of synthetic fuels in which Oxygen atoms are chemically bound within
the fuel structure. This Oxygen bond in the oxygenated fuel is energetic and provides a chemical energy that
result in no loss of efficiency during combustion. The optimization of oxygenated fuels, to be used either as,
neat fuel or as an additive, offers significant potential for reduction in particulate emission. In this study, two
oxygenates are tested with diesel in blended form to investigate the performance, combustion and emissions of
a diesel engine.
Table 1. Comparison of properties of potential CI engine fuel components[3,6,14]
ether, also known as ethoxy ethane, ethyl ether, sulfuric ether, or simply ether, is an organic compound in the
ether class with the formula (C2H5)2O. It is a colorless, highly volatile, flammable liquid produced as a
byproduct of the vapor-phase hydration of ethylene to make ethanol. Diethyl ether has a high cetane number of
85-96 and is used as a starting fluid, in combination with petroleum distillates for gasoline and diesel engines,
due to its high volatility and low flashpoint.
DEE has long been known as a cold-start aid for engines, but little is known about using DEE as a significant
component in a blend or as a complete replacement for diesel fuel or biodiesel. To identify the potential of DEE
as transportation fuel a comprehensive literature review was carried out by Baily et al. [7]
Many researchers have conducted experimental investigation on the diesel engines fuelled with diesel blended
fuels. Some of those are briefly highlighted in the following section.
Geo et al. [1] found that thermal efficiency of the engine was improved from 26.5% with neat Rubber Seed Oil
to a most of 28.5% with DEE injection rate of 200 g/h. Smoke was reduced from 6.1 to 4 BSU with DEE
injection at the maximum efficiency flow rate. Hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide gas emissions were also less
with DEE injection. Sivalakshmi and Balusamy [2] concluded that the addition of diethyl ether into biodiesel
improved the physicochemical properties of biodiesel. Smoke emissions were found lower and HC &NOx
emission was higher for BD5 compared to that of neat biodiesel. Hence, they reported that addition of diethyl
ether up to 5% (by vol.) would be a promising technique for using biodiesel efficiently in diesel engines with
none modifications in the engine. Sezer [3] investigated the use of dimethyl ether and diethyl ether in diesel
engines as alternative fuels. Engine performance for dimethyl ether and diethyl ether was extensively improved
for the same equivalence ratio condition, but a more amount of fuel was needed about 64% for dimethyl ether
238
Effect of Diethyl Ether and Biodiesel Blend on the.......

and 32% for diethyl ether. In the experiments of Ashok and Saravanan [4] the oxygenated additive diethyl ether
was added on a 10th by volume basis along with the emulsified fuel 70D:30E. They found that Use of
emulsified fuel increases the brake thermal efficiency and reduces the specific fuel consumption, smoke
density, and particulate matter with much rising of NOx. But Addition of diethyl ether to the emulsified fuel
improved the performance and reduces the emissions, NOx and ignition delay. Phan and Phan [5]carried out
alkali-catalysed trans-esterification of waste cooking oils, collected within Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, with
methyl alcohol in a laboratory scale reactor and revealed that the biodiesel experienced a higher but much
narrower boiling range than conventional diesel& there was little variation in properties among the WCO
samples in terms of chemical and physical properties. Banapurmath et al. [6] did experiments using ethyl
alcohol and diethyl ether blended fuels in distinct volume ratios with diesel fuel. DEE-diesel blends showed
lower emissions compared to ethyl alcohol-diesel blends. Ali et al. [8] blended an oxygenated additive diethyl
ether (DEE) with palm oil biodiesel (POME) in the ratios of 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% and tested for their properties
improvement to characterize how the key fuel properties changed when diethyl ether were blended with palm
oil methyl esters. Iranmanesh et al. [9] showed that the 5% DEE-Diesel fuel and 15% DEE-Biodiesel blend
were the optimal blend based on performance and emission characteristics. Lapuerta et al. [10] tested two
different alcohol-derived biodiesel fuels: methyl ester and ethyl ester, both obtained from waste cooking oil.
These biodiesel fuels were tested pure and blended (30% and 70% biodiesel content, volume basis) with a diesel
reference fuel, which was tested too, in a common-rail injection diesel engine and thus the type of alcohol used
in the production process was found to have a significant effect on the total hydrocarbon emissions and on the
particulate matter composition. Zhang et al. [11]revealed that Brake-specific fuel consumption of biodieseldiesel-DEE blends increases with the increase of oxygenated-fuel fraction in these blends. Brake thermal
efficiency exhibits minimal variation when operating on different biodiesel-diesel-DEE blends. NOx emission
increases with increasing biodiesel fraction in the diesel-biodiesel-DEE blends at medium load and at high load
but Particle mass and HC and CO emissions decrease with the increase of oxygenated fuel fraction in the
blends. Zhang et al. [12] developed four different continuous process flow-sheets for biodiesel production from
virgin vegetable oil or waste cooking oil under alkaline or acidic conditions on a commercial scale. Detailed
operating conditions and equipment designs for each process were obtained. The acid-catalyzed process using
waste cooking oil proved to be technically feasible with less complexity than the alkali-catalyzed process using
waste cooking oil, thereby making it a competitive alternative to commercial biodiesel production by the alkalicatalyzed process and The alkali-catalyzed process using virgin vegetable oil as the raw material required the
fewest and smallest process equipment units but at a higher raw material cost than the other processes.
Sivalakshmi and Balusamy [13] observed effects of diethyl ether and ethanol as additives to biodiesel (neem oil
methyl ester NOME) on the performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine at different loads and
constant engine speed. Compared with biodiesel, slightly lower brake specific energy consumption for diethyl
ether and ethanol blended biodiesel fuels was observed. At higher engine loads, CO and smoke emissions were
found significantly lower with all blends. Patil and Thipse [14] showed that DEE can be mixed in any
proportion in diesel and kerosene as it is completely miscible with diesel fuel. The density, kinematic viscosity
and calorific value of the blends decreased while the oxygen content and cetane number of the blends increased
with the concentration of DEE in the blends. Sachuthananthan and Jeyachandran[15] found that DEE when
added to water-biodiesel emulsion can significantly lower NOx and smoke levels without adverse effect on
brake thermal efficiency. High HC and high CO, which are problems with the water-biodiesel emulsions, can be
significantly lowered with the addition of DEE particularly at high outputs.
In the present work, the purpose of this investigation is to study the effect of DEE and biodiesel (WCO) as a
supplementary oxygenated fuel with high speed diesel fuel (HSD as baseline fuels on the simultaneous
reduction of NOx and smoke emissions. It is also desired to find out optimum blend with diesel fuel on the basis
of performance and emissions characteristics.
The setup consists of single cylinder, four strokes, Multi-fuel, research Engine connected to eddy current type
dynamometer for loading. Instruments are provided to interface airflow, fuel flow, temperatures and load
measurements. The setup has stand-alone panel box consisting of air box, two fuel tanks for duel fuel test,
manometer, fuel measuring unit, transmitters for air and fuel flow measurements, process indicator and
hardware interface. Rotameters are provided for cooling water and Calorimeter water flow measurement. The
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main engine specifications are: bore 80 mm, stroke 110 mm, compression ratio 17.5, maximum power 3.5 kW
at 1500 rev/min. Engine speed and load are controlled by varying excitation current to the eddy current
dynamometer using dynamometer controller. An AVL exhaust gas analyzer (Model: diGas 444) and AVL
Smoke meter (Model: 437) are used to measure emission parameters CO, HC, and NOx and smoke intensity
respectively.
1-Control Panel, 2-Computer system, 3-Diesel flow line, 4-Air flow line,5-Calorimeter, 6-Exhaust gas
analyzer, 7-Smoke meter, 8-Rota meter, 9,11-Inlet water temperature, 10-Calorimeter inlet water
temperature,12-Calorimeter outlet water temperature, 13-Dynamometer, 14-CI Engine, 15-Speed
measurement, 16-Burette for fuel measurement, 17-Exhaust gasoutlet, 18-Outlet water temperature, T1-Inlet
water temperature, T2-Outletwater temperature, T3-Exhaust gas temperature.
Fig. 1. Kirloskar diesel engine test set up
Loads are changed in five levels from no load to the maximum load. The engine is operated at the rated speed
i.e., 1500 rev/min for all the tests. For each load condition, the engine was run for at least 5 minutes after which
data was collected.
Fuel formulations were made with addition of diethyl ether and biodiesel (from Waste cooking oil) as
supplementary fuels to the high speed diesel fuel (HSD). DEE and WCO biodiesel were blended with HSD as
B10DEE10D80, B20DEE20D60 &B0DEE20D80.The observations made during the test for the determination
of various engine parameters included brake load, engine speed, time for fuel blends consumption, drop in air
pressure across the orifice of the air-stabilizing tank, exhaust gas temperature and exhaust emissions.
Fig. 2.Variation of BSFC with brake power
240

Table 2. Properties of test fuels
3. Result and discussions

Performance characteristics
Fig. 2 represents the variation of brake specific fuel consumption with brake power for different fuels. The
BSFC is high at low load for all the fuels and as we increase the load the BSFC start decreasing, this trend
follows approximately up to 50% to 70% load and if we further increases the load then the value of BSFC start
increase. And here it can be seen that the value of BSEC at higher load or even at moderate load is very close in
case of different fuels.
Brake specific energy consumption is the ratio of energy obtained by burning fuel for an hour to the actual
energy or Brake power obtained at the wheels. It is indicative of how effectively the energy obtained from the
Fig. 3.Variation of BSEC with brake power
Fig. 4.Brake Thermal Efficiency variations
fuel is reaching the wheels. In the following Fig. 3, throughout the brake power variation, change in BSEC
value with different fuel blends is not that much.
Even at full load, it is negligible with B20DEE20D60 having minimum BSEC, that shows fuel burnt per unit
brake power is minimum for this blend.
Here Fig. 4 represents the variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake power for different fuels. As the load
increases the BTE start rising. The value of BTE at any load show small variation from fuel to fuel.
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) shows the amount of heat taken away with the flue gases, hence showing fuel's
inefficient utilization. Therefore its value should be minimum. In Fig. 5, it could be seen that at 50-100% load,
B20DEE20D60 is having minimum or equal value of T6 (exhaust gas temperature) as compared to other fuel
blends.
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Fig. 5.Variation in EGT with brake power
Kumar et al.
Fig. 6.Variation in CO with brake power
Emission characteristics:
Fig. 6 shows the variation of CO with brake power for different percentage of blends. It is formed as a result of
incomplete combustion. CO emissions are higher at lower loads. This due to fact that at low load condition,
although DEE has higher cetane number, its latent heat of evaporation is slightly higher than that of diesel; as
result there is not enough vaporization and hence very less time to burn fuel completely that results in
considerable increase in CO emissions.
At higher loads, enough time available for combustion to occur, better mixing and inbuilt fuel oxygen that
results in complete combustion and hence slightly reduces the CO emissions, for blends at high load. At full
load, there is no significant change between the fuels for CO emissions. The blends of DEE and diesel have
lower CO emissions at full load signifying the complete combustion whereas biodiesel addition to this blend
relatively increase the CO emission at 75% of full load, though the difference is negligible throughout all load
variations.
Fig. 8. NOx emissions variation with brake power

Fig. 7. HC emissions vs brake power
In Fig. 7 represent the emission of unburned hydrocarbons with respect to brake power. As we increases the load
the amount of unburned hydrocarbon emission varies without showing any consistent nature. Addition of
biodiesel to DEE-diesel blend is making the conditions better by providing better combustion and having
242

minimum HC emissions at full load. The reduction of unburned hydrocarbon signifies the improvement in the
combustion properties of fuel.
10% biodiesel with 10% DEE in diesel is proven to be the best fuel with regards to HC emissions. The HC are
one of the major pollutants thus reduction of HC by addition of DEE-biodiesel is a very welcome outcome. It
can be seen that the HC emissions for all the fuel blends are higher with the increase being higher in the
percentage of diethyl ether in the blend. As known, the formation of unburned HC originates from various
sources and varies widely with operating conditions. The increase of HC may be due to the higher latent heat of
evaporation of diethyl ether causing lower combustion temperature, especially the temperature near the
cylinder walls during the mixture formation. In this case more HC will be produced from the cylinder boundary.
Fig. 8 represents the trends of emission of NOx with respect to brake power. The NO emissions are very harmful
and cause acid rain. As increased the load the NOx emission increased for all types of fuel.
Fig. 9. Carbon dioxide (CO2) variation with

brake power
Fig. 10. Smoke opacity variation with brake power
The Fig.9 represents the variation of emission of CO2 with respect to brake power. The percentage of CO2 in
total emission increased when load is increased, this is mainly due to incomplete combustion. When DEE is
blended with biodiesel and diesel there is increase in the percentage of the amount of CO2 in exhaust gases at full
load. Diesel is having minimum CO2 emissions at full load. The increase of CO2 is welcome because it signifies
complete combustion. And hence blending with DEE is a good option to reduce the demand of diesel.
The smoke meter readout displays the smoke density giving a measure of the efficiency of combustion. The
amount of smoke is shown in terms of Hart ridge Smoke Units (HSU). From the Fig. 10, we can easily conclude
that smoke opacity i.e. considered as an indicator of dry soot emissions, as well as particulate matter emissions,
which have soot as one of their main components, are both noticeably reduced with biodiesel blends. Value is
higher in case of combustion with diesel as compared to others.
Since the smoke is mainly produced in the diffusive combustion phase, the addition of oxygenated fuel can
overcome poor mixing of the fuel with air and leads to improvement in diffusive combustion .The reason for the
fluctuations may explained by the fact that the properties of DEE such as its oxygen content and its latent heat of
vaporization (LHV) are in competition. In the other words, its oxygen content leads to smoke reduction and its
high LHV decreases the combustion temperature.
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4. Conclusions
With thorough analysis of obtained result it can be concluded that the Biodiesel, diethyl ether and diesel blend is
very beneficial to use as a feedstock for CI engine. The heating value of the blends decreases with addition of
DEE.
w
From the various DEE-Biodiesel blends tested, the B20DEE20D60 blend is found to be the optimum
blend on the basis of emission and performance characteristics.
w
DEE and biodiesel blended fuel does not affect mechanical efficiency, BSEC and brake thermal
efficiency (BTE) negatively i.e. the above parameters are almost similar in case of all fuels.
w
Use of DEE addition to diesel fuel and biodiesel increases the BTE in a general trend. BTE rises 8.32%
with blend B20DEE20D60 with respect to neat diesel.
w
There is increase in the CO2 emission at peak load for B0DEE20D80 which indicates the complete
combustion i.e. combustion quality is improved when diesel is blended with diethyl ether.
w
Smoke opacity reduces with addition of DEE to the blends.
w
NOx emission of rich DEE blends i.e. B0DEE20D60 and B20DEE20D60is decreased drastically. The
effect of DEE on NOx reduction is more effective than the other emissions.
w
HC emissions produced were more and CO were almost same by DEE blends than baseline fuel.
Considering the advantages and obstacles of DEE, diesel fuel and biodiesel; and utilization of their
combinations in suitable ratio can amplify their advantages and overcome their shortcomings.
References
1. V. Edwin Geo, G. Nagarajan, B. Nagalingam, 2010, Studies on improving the performance of rubber seed
oil fuel for diesel engine with DEE port injection, Fuel 89,pp. 35593567
2. S. Sivalakshmi, T. Balusamy, 2013, Effect of biodiesel and its blends with diethyl ether on the
combustion, performance and emissions from a diesel engine, Fuel 106, pp. 106110
3. Ismet Sezer, 2011, Thermodynamic, performance and emission investigation of a diesel engine running
on dimethyl ether and diethyl ether, International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50, pp. 1594-1603
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232410179_Thermodynamic_performance_and_emission_in
vestigation_of_a_diesel_engine_running_on_dimethyl_ether_and_diethyl_ether
4. Brent, Bailey, Steve Guguen and Jimell Erwin, Diethyl Ether (DEE)as a Renewable fuel, 972978, SAE
5. Anh N. Phan, Tan M. Phan, 2008, Biodiesel production from waste cooking oils, Fuel 87, pp. 34903496
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222078826_Biodiesel_Production_from_Waste_Cooking_Oi
ls
6. Banapurmath NR, Khandal SV, RanganathaSwamy and Chandrashekar TK, 2015,Alcohol (Ethanol and
Diethyl Ethyl Ether)-Diesel Blended Fuels for Diesel Engine Applications-A Feasible Solution, Adv
Automob Eng, 4(1), pp. 100-117
http://www.omicsgroup.org/journals/alcohol-ethanol-and-diethyl-ethyl-etherdiesel-blended-fuels-fordieselengine-applicationsa-feasible-solution-2167-7670-1000117.php?aid=59635
7. A.M. Ashraful, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, I.M. Rizwanul Fattah, S. Imtenan, S.A. Shahir, H.M.
Mobarak, 2014, Production and comparison of fuel properties, engine performance, and emission
characteristics of biodiesel from various non-edible vegetable oils: A review, Energy Conversion and
Management 80, pp. 202228
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260194211_Production_and_comparison_of_fuel_properties
_engine_performance_and_emission_characteristics_of_biodiesel_from_various_nonedible_vegetable_oils_A_review
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8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Obed M. Ali, Rizalman Mamat and Che Ku M. Faizal , 2013, Effects of Diethyl Ether Additives on Palm
Biodiesel Fuel Characteristics and Low Temperature Flow Properties, International Journal of Advanced
Science and Technology, Vol. 52, pp. 111-120
http://www.sersc.org/journals/IJAST/vol52/10.pdf
Masoud Iranmanesh , J.P.Subrahmanyam , M.K.G.Babu, 2008, Application of Diethyl Ether to reduce
smoke and NOx emissions simultaneously with Diesel and Biodiesel fuelled engines, ASME
International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, IMECE-69255, pp. 1-8
http://science.fire.ustc.edu.cn/download/download1/paper/proceedings/ASME2008/data/pdfs/trk3/IMECE2008-69255.pdf
Magn Lapuerta, Jos M. Herreros, Lisbeth L. Lyons, Reyes Garca-Contreras, Yolanda Briceo, 2008,
Effect of the alcohol type used in the production of waste cooking oil biodiesel on diesel performance and
emissions, Fuel 87, pp. 31613169
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222246723_Effect_of_the_alcohol_type_used_in_the_produ
ction_of_waste_cooking_oil_biodiesel_on_diesel_performance_and_emissions
Ni ZHANG, Zuohua HUANG, Xiangang WANG, Bin ZHENG, 2011,Combustion and emission
characteristics of a turbo-charged common rail diesel engine fuelled with diesel-biodiesel-DEE blends,
Front. Energy, 5(1): pp. 104114
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226897631_Combustion_and_emission_characteristics_of_a
_turbo-charged_common_rail_diesel_engine_fuelled_with_diesel-biodiesel-DEE_blends
Y. Zhang, M.A. Dub, D.D. McLean, M. Kates, 2003,Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil: 1.
Process design and technological assessment, Bio resource Technology, 89,pp. 116
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12676496
S Sivalakshmi and T Balusamy, 2011,Effect of biodiesel and its blends with oxygenated additives on
performance and emissions from a diesel engine, Journal of Scientific and industrial research, Vol. 70,
pp. 879-883
http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/12685
K.R. Patil, S S. Thipse, 2015,Experimental investigation of CI engine combustion, performance and
emissions in DEEkerosenediesel blends of high DEE concentration, Energy Conversion and
Management 89,pp. 396408
B. Sachuthananthan and K. Jeyachandran, 2007,combustion, performance and emission characteristics of
water-biodiesel emulsion as fuel with DEE as ignition improver in a DI diesel engine, Journal of
Environmental Research And Development Vol. 2(2), pp. 164-172
http://www.jerad.org/ppapers/dnload.php?vl=2&is=2&st=164
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Effect of Grain Size on Springback in V-Bending

of Interstitial Free Steel
Vijay Gautam, Rohit Shukla, Jitendra Singh
and D. Ravi Kumar
Abstract
In bending operation, geometrical inaccuracies occur due to springback. To predict the springback, various
bending parameters and material properties should be considered. In this paper effect of grain size on
springback in V-bending of interstitial free steel has been investigated. To achieve coarse and fine grain sizes,
vacuum annealing and oil quenching were adopted respectively. Microstructures of the heat treated specimens
were studied to reveal the grain size. The tensile properties of the specimens were tested as per the ASTM-E8M
standard. The bend specimens were prepared in the size of 25X150 mm to ensure plane strain bending. The
bending experiments were carried out with the help of a punch-die set with a punch profile radius of 12.5mm.
Springback results were predicted with FE software and are in close agreement with the experimental results.
Keywords: Microstructure, Grain size, Annealing, Plane strain bending, Springback.
ntroduction Bending of sheet metal is a major forming process. In analysis of bending operations,
springback is a major concern as it affects the geometrical dimensions of a formed component and leads to
lower productivity [1]. Springback is the elastic driven process that adjusts the internal stresses to attain
the zero moment and force through sheet thickness [2]. Some major factors such as mechanical properties,
tooling geometry & shape and process parameters have been extensively studied to characterize the springback
[3-4]. The grain refinement is one of the most effective strengthening mechanisms, improving mechanical
properties without loss in ductility [5]. The grain boundary acts as a source of dislocations and the resistance to
the dislocation motion from one grain to another. Strength increases with decrease in grain size or vice-versa as
discussed by Hall-Petch relationship [6]. In this research, major concern is towards the effect of grain size on
mechanical properties which influences the springback. The grain size has been varied successfully by
annealing and quenching and its effects on tensile properties of Interstitial Free (IF) Steel sheet have been
studied to design a material model following power law of strain hardening in FE analysis.
2. Microstructure Analysis
The IF Steel strips of dimensions 150mmx25mmx1.2mm were used for the heat treatment to vary the grain size.
Vijay Gautam, Rohit Shukla and Jitendra Singh

Department of Mechanical Engineering, DTU, Delhi, India
vijay.dce@gmail.com,the.rohit.shukla@gmail.com, rajwat.jitendrasingh08@gmail.com
D. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Delhi, India
dravi@mech.iitd.ac.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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The two methods used for heat treatment were: Vacuum Annealing and Oil Quenching. Temperature selected
for both operations was 850C. Vacuum annealing was done in a vacuum furnace in a protective atmosphere
consisting of 90% of N2 and 10% of H2 to prevent oxidation of the samples. Temperature cycle for vacuum
annealing is shown in Fig. 1. One set of bend samples were quenched in oil bath to get finer grain size.
Microstructure analysis of parent, annealed and quenched specimens was done to reveal the grain sizes & is
shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 Temperature cycle for vacuum annealing

The changes in grain size were observed due to heat treatment of sheet metal and were calculated on the basis of
linear intercept method. In linear Intercept method, 20 intercepts were considered and then mean of grain size
was taken.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 2 Microstructure of Interstitial Free Steel: a) Parent, b) Annealed and c) Quenched

3. Tensile Properties
The tensile tests were carried out as per ASTM E8M-04 shown in Fig.3 on 50kN table top UTM machine in
metal forming laboratory at DTU Delhi. The representative tensile samples of Parent, annealed and quenched
IF steel were tested and each test was performed thrice to ensure good reproducibility of the experiments. All
the tensile tests were conducted at a cross head speed of 2.54 mm/min. The true stress - true strain curve is
plotted for all the specimens and is shown in Fig. 4.
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Effect of Grain Size on Springback in V-Bending.....
Fig. 3 Tensile Test Specimen according to ASTM E8M-04

The strain hardening exponent (n) and the strength coefficient (K) values were determined from the ln(true
stress) Vs ln(true strain) plot in the uniform elongation region.
Fig. 4 True Stress Strain curve obtained from tensile test of all Specimens.
4. Experimental Set-up For V-bending
The experimental set up as shown in Fig. 5, consists of a punch and die set of D2 steel with included bend angle
of 90 and a punch corner radius of 12.5mm. The punch and die set was designed for 50kN UTM. The punch
was gripped in the cross head and the die was held by the stationary wedge grip. The bend specimen of size
25X150X1.2mm was freely placed on the die and the punch displacement equal to the die depth was precisely
controlled with help of dedicated software.
Fig. 5. Complete Set-up of the bending experiment
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A clearance of 0.5 mm was provided between the Die and lower surface of blank to prevent any type of localized
excess punch force on blank to avoid squeezing action on the sheet thickness.
5. Measurement of Springback
In bending experiment, the specimens conforms to the shape of the die and therefore included bend angle of the
die was used to define the initial bend angle (0) and is equal to 45 for all the experiments. After the removal of
deforming load, springback occurs in bent specimens due to elastic recovery of elastic strain and hence angle
after springback is defined as final bend angle (f). Initial and final bend angles are determined by Eq. (2) and
Eq. (3) respectively. The final included bend angle of the specimens was measured with the help of a coordinate
measuring machine (CMM).
Therefore, Spring Back as shown in Fig. 6, can be calculated by subtracting equation (2) from equation (3), we
get = ( 0 - f )
0
f
where, b = Initial Bend Angle (90 for the die) and m = Measured Bend Angle after springback
6. Finite Element Analysis
Abaqus, an FE software was used for simulations for prediction of springback in V-bending process. The punch
and die were modeled as rigid bodies and the blank as deformable with quadrilateral elements. The elasticplastic Hill's material model obeying power law of strain hardening was adopted for the blank. The Coefficient
of friction between Blank and Punch is taken as 0.125 and coefficient of friction between Blank and Die is taken
as 0.05. The Modulus of Elasticity is taken as 210 GPa and Poisson's ratio as 0.3. The boundary and loading
conditions were imposed on the die and punch. FEA model for springback was solved with Abaqus implicit and
is shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 Overlay plot of simulation of Spring Back

7. Results and Discussion
Parent material was cold rolled close annealed IF steel with a grain size of 31.33m. Different heat treatments
given to the IF steel successfully varied the grain size and the results for grain size are given in Table 1. Tensile
test results shown in Table 2 depicted that coarser grain size results in softer steel with lower tensile strength
while the specimens with finer grain size renders the steel comparatively harder and stronger. The percentage
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Effect of Grain Size on Springback in V-Bending.....

elongation is highest for annealed samples and minimum for quenched samples which is a well established fact.
The springback results shown in Table 3 depicts that springback is almost negligible in annealed specimens but
significantly highest in quenched samples.
FE simulation results are in good agreement to the experimental results.
Table 1 Grain Size of specimens subjected to heat treatment
Table 2 Mechanical Properties of parent material and heat treated samples of IF Steel
Table 3 Comparison of Experimental and numerical results of springback
Conclusions
Mechanical properties change due to reduction in grain size. It is observed that specimens with coarse grains
possess lower hardness, yield strength and higher ductility than that of specimens with finer grains. Annealed
samples show a grain size of 35.6m on an average, whereas quenched samples were observed with grain size
of 26.2m. There is a significant change in the springback value due to the grain size. Coarser grain size in
annealed specimens leads to negligible springback suggesting elimination of springback compensation.
Whereas, finer grain size depicted very high springback, necessitating significant springback compensation in
tooling.
References
[1]
W. Hosford, R. Caddell, Metal forming: Mechanics and Metallurgy, Prentice Hall, NJ, 1993.
[2]
H. Kim, N. Nargundkar, T. Altan, ASME Journal of Manufacturing in Science & Engineering 129
(2007) 342-51.
[3]
R. H. Wagoner, M. Li, International journal of Plasticity 23 (2007) 345-60.
[4]
M. G. Lee, D. Kin, R. H. Wagoner, K. Chung, ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics 74 (2007) 12641275
[5]
Krzysztof Muszaka, Jamusz Majta, Lukasz Bienias, Effect of grain refinement of mechanical
properties on steels, Journal of Metallurgy and Foundry Engineering Vol-32 (2006) 87-98.
[6]
Hossein Beladi, Gregory S. Rohrer, The Distribution of Grain Boundary of Interstitial Free Steel, The
Minerals, Metals and Materials Society and ASM International 2013, Volume 44A.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
CFD Analysis and Optimisation of Operational

Parameters for an F1 Racing Car's Front
Wing to Maximize Its Aerodynamic
Performance
Raj Kumar Singh, Mohammad Zunaid, Md. Gulam Mustafa
and Jasmeet Singh
Abstract- A great deal of research has been done on the aerodynamic characteristics of race cars competing in
major racing series throughout the world. The aerodynamic performance of a racing car is greatly influenced by
the front wing, producing the downforce which is responsible for overall car performance. The study focuses on
finding the efficiency of a front wing expressed in lift to drag ratio in the case of different operational parametric
combinations and selecting the combination corresponding to maximum efficiency. K-epsilon turbulence
model was used in computational fluid dynamics analysis using Gambit and Fluent software along with Solid
Works as the tool for designing the front wing. The parametric study was conducted to find the effect of change
in ground clearance, Reynolds number and angle of attack on wing's aerodynamic performance for the design
of high performance high-speed race cars the adjustable wings capable of altering the angles of attack and
ground clearance is the best design option for any race car for racing safely with variable speeds. The results
obtained can be used to develop a mathematical model that can predict the aerodynamic forces acting on the
front wing for any operational condition. Consequently, this model can be used for governing the front wing
through an automatic intelligent software based operating system.
Keywords- Computational fluid dynamics; Formula 1; Angle of attack; Coefficient of drag; Coefficient of lift;
NACA.
Introduction Aerodynamics of racing cars is very important in achieving the maximum operational
performance and to get the lowest lap times. The lift acting on the car is due to the reduction in normal reaction
forces at the inner wheels ground interphase due to the gyroscopic and centrifugal couple acting on the car
body while taking a turn during racing. This results in an overturning tendency of the car thus reducing its lateral
stability during the race. The aerodynamic designer has two primary concerns: the creation of downforce, to
help push the car's tires onto the track and improve cornering ability; and minimizing the drag that gets caused
by turbulence and acts to slow the car down. The downforce allows the race car to withstand corners at high
speeds and to have better traction during acceleration.
According to Katz [10], there is a strong ground effect and analysing the aerodynamics of the open wheel race
car, the wings, and other vehicle components undergo strong interaction which explains why it is important to
take into account every single body part of the car. However, our study is limited to modelling the front wing
only and the future investigations with full car model can be used to support our results.
Raj Kumar Singh, Mohammad Zunaid, Md. Gulam Mustafa and Jasmeet Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042,
rajkumarsingh@dce.ac.in, mzunaid3k@gmail.com, gm09mes31@gmail.com,
asmeetsingh16593@gmail.com.
Corresponding Author: Tel: +91 9312045421
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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The front wing of the Formula One car directly influences the way in which the airflow takes place over the rest
of the car since the front wing is the first part of the car to come in contact with the air. It also influences the
diffuser, and also to the main engine intake. It directs air towards the under-body of the chassis, the intakes,
turbos and most importantly over and around the tires. The main factor influencing the down force generated
by the front wing is the ground effect, the angle of attack and Reynolds number. A typical lift to drag force ratio
for a front wing is usually 7-9 (Mehta 2006).
As shown by the research of Seljak [2], the front wing creates about 33% of the car's downforce and it has
experienced more modifications than the rear wing.
Sanal Kumar et al. [4], a substantial revision of the existing idea is required for the design of high performance
and high-speed race cars. Wings in ground effect possess many aerodynamic features of both practical and
fundamental importance. When an aerofoil moves near the ground, flow around the aerofoil is viscous and has
many viscous interactions with the ground. In the analysis of ground effect on the aerodynamic properties of the
aerofoil, the boundary layer on the aerofoil must be considered.
Von Doenhoff [5] investigated boundary layer around the symmetrical NACA aerofoil in zero lift condition.
His surveys were made considering different Reynolds number based on aerofoil's chord. In that work, drag on
aerofoil, distribution of skin friction over the surface of the aerofoil and onset of the transition point were found.
Lian and Shyy [7] investigated the performance of a rigid airfoil and a flexible airfoil by numerical method. All
the cited works were focused on the investigations of aerofoils at a distance far from the ground surface, but
limited work has been performed or reported for the aerofoil that moves near the ground. One such work is V. R.
Sanal Kumar [4] which dealt with the 3D analysis of an aerofoil wing in ground effect and studied the change in
aerodynamic behaviour of wings at different ground clearances. The ground clearance h/c (where h is the
distance between the lifting body and the ground, and c is the chord of the aerofoil (cross-section of the wing)
and the baseline values, are selected based on typical values from literature pertaining to a Formula Mazda car
[9]. Thus the study uses a chord length of 0.381254 m (15.01 inch), four ground clearances 0.2c, 0.36c, 0.5c, and
0.7c and four velocities 40, 50, 60, and 80 m/sec. The corresponding four Reynolds numbers modelled are
1044006, 1305007, 1566009, and 2088012 for velocities 40, 50, 60, and 80 m/sec respectively. Since the
Reynolds number values are greater than 5x105, the threshold value for the turbulent zone in case of flat body
flow, the study is conducted using k-epsilon turbulence modelling. Isothermal flow will be used so that type of
material used for the front wing will not affect the results.
2. Numerical Modelling Gambit and Fluent
The study uses 3D model of NACA 23012 aerofoil as the front wing operating at different ground clearances,
flow velocities and Angle of attack. The gambit software will be used for physically positioning the wing with
respect to the ground wall, defining boundary zones and meshing the flow domain whereas Fluent will be used
as a solver, providing comprehensive modelling capabilities for a wide range of incompressible and turbulent
fluid problems. Since the operating conditions of wings lie in turbulent zone and due to the presence of large
Reynolds numbers, streamlined curvatures, adverse pressure gradients, separated flow comprising of eddies
and vortices and higher accuracy desired, realizable k-epsilon is selected for turbulence modelling.
For experimentally validating the model, 2D aerofoil wing is modelled in different mesh sizes till grid
independency was reached. The experimental validation was carried out for 00 angle of attack (AOA) and the
chord length of 0.2286 meters and velocity of 22.86 m/sec [9] with no ground effect. Our computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) results are found to be in satisfactory accuracy with experimental data on section drag and
section lift coefficients recorded using wind tunnel testing [6].
Ranzenbach [4] suggested dimensions of a calculation grid, placing the leading edge 1.75 times the chord
length downstream from the inlet with the outlet located 3 times the chord length downstream from the trailing
edge. The suggested distance of the grid above the aerofoil is 2.56 times the chord. However the distance below
the leading edge has to be equal to the ground clearance. The grid extends 1.4 meters in the z direction. The grid
domain size is 2.192x1.052 x1.4 for a ground clearance of 0.2c. The 3D wing is then subtracted from the flow
domain after rotating at the required angle of attack.
The remaining volume is then meshes with an interval size of 0.02 mm and the element type is
Tetrahedral/hybrid. The number of nodes corresponding to 0.02 mm mesh interval size is 421487 which give
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CFD Analysis and Optimisation of Operational Parameters ...

the grid insensitive results and also save time as compared to 739093 nodes which help in only marginal
improvement in accuracy (4%). Figure 1 shows car front wing mesh.
Figure 1. Mesh generated in GAMBIT

A numerical is said to be converged if the solution of the discretized equations tend to exact the solution of the
differential as the grid spacing tends to zero. The convergence criterion of 10e-4 for all variables is taken for all
the iterations.
Figures 2 to 4 shows variation between angle of attack (AOA) and drag force, AOA and lift force, AOA and ratio
of lift force to drag force respectively for ground clearance 0.2c.
Figure 2. Variation in AOA Vs Drag Force at ground clearance 0.2c
Figure 3. Variation in AOA Vs Lift Force at ground clearance 0.2c
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Figure 4. Variation in AOA Vs Lift/Drag force ratio at ground clearance 0.2c

Figures 5 to 7 shows variation between AOA and drag force, AOA and lift force, AOA and ratio of lift force to
drag force respectively for ground clearance 0.36c.
Figure 7. Variation in AOA Vs Lift/Drag ratio at ground clearance 0.36c

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From Figure 2-13, it shows with the increase in AOA, the drag force increase for a given velocity due to increase
in the wing area intercepted at high angle of attacks. Similar patterns can be observed in drag forces as well. The
increase in velocity result in decreasing drag coefficients for a given AOA, however, results in higher drag
forces for the same AOA due to the presence of 'v2' term in the drag expression. This effect is much more
significant at very high velocities near 80 m/sec. For the same, with the increase in AOA, lift force decreases,
and with increase in velocity lift coefficent decrease for same velocity. The peak value of negative lift
coefficient is observed at 80 for lower ground clearances and 100 for ground clearance greater than 0.5c. Thus the
critical AOA is 80 and 100 respectively. However, the negative ratio of lift to drag first increases till 40 and then
start decreasing for higher values of AOA for all operating velocities and ground clearances. Thus, the optimum
AOA or the AOA corresponding to maximum operational efficiency is 40.
Figure 14. CL Vs AOA for different ground clearances (V =60 m/s)

4. Comparative Study: Graph and Inferences
The curve in Figure 14 shows that the lift coefficient first increases and then subsequently decreases once the
critical angle of attack is reached. This is due to the flow separation over the lower surface of the wing. At lower
258

AOA, the flow begins to separate over the wing's lower surface .With an increase in AOA, this separation point
shifts towards the leading edge and subsequently at critical AOA, the excessive separation results in formation
of eddies and vortices in the turbulent boundary layer. This detached flow (eddies and vortices) result in
destroying the suction pressure by slowing down the air flow at the lower wing surface thus resulting in less
pressure gradients and consequently lower downforce. The lift coefficient then continues to decrease beyond
the stall point. However, with increase in ground clearance, the critical AOA is shifting from 80 to 100. Thus, it
can be interpreted that the stalling behaviour for the front wing is dependent on the ground clearance of the wing
and thus gets delayed with increasing clearances. Moreover, the negative lift coefficients are found to be much
higher at ground clearance of 0.2c than at higher values of 0.36c, 0.5c and 0.7c for all corresponding AOA. It
can be seen that with on decreasing the ground clearance from 0.7c to 0.2c, an 80 % increase in maximum lift
coefficient can be realised. Thus for the given wing model, the downforce generated can almost double within a
19 cm change in ground clearance. This effect can be attributed to the fact that with decreasing ground
clearance, air velocity increases as the air flows under the lower surface of the wing and consequently the static
pressure gets converted to dynamic head as per the Bernoulli principle. Lower the gap between wing and
ground, greater the decrease in static pressure below the wing. However on the other hand, the static pressure
above the upper wing surface is higher due to lower dynamic head. It can also be suggested that the change in lift
coefficients on changing the AOA is much more significant for lower clearances than at higher ones. As the
ground clearance increases, sensitivity to critical AOA decreases resulting in a marginal change in values near
to the stall point.
Figure 15. Cd Vs Ground Clearance for different AOA (V = 60 m/s)

The figure 15 shows that with increasing ground clearance, the drag coefficient decreases for all AOA. Also at
the higher angle of attacks, the decrease in drag coefficient is much more significant. This means that drag is
actually intensified my reducing the clearance of the wing with respect to the road .
Figure 16. CL Vs Ground Clearance for diff. AOA (V = 60m/s)

The figure 16 shows that with increasing ground clearance, the downforce generated decreases for all angles of
attack. This can be attributed to the fact that decreasing ground clearance decreases the area of flow under the
wing and thus increases flow velocity and the dynamic head, this decrease in dynamic pressure results in
decrease in static pressure by Bernoulli principle. It can further decrease below atmospheric pressure.
5. Conclusion
The negative lift coefficients (downforce) follow an increasing trend till the critical angle of attack is
reached for a given ground clearance and Reynold numbers. Beyond the critical angle of attack, the lift
coefficient starts decreasing this corresponds to stalling condition in race car aerodynamics. Generally
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Singh et al.
operating beyond this stall point results in poor car performance and should be avoided.
The critical AOA comes out to be 80 for 0.2c and 0.36c ground clearances but this point shifts to 100 for
higher ground clearances of 0.5c and 0.7c. Thus the stalling condition is dependent on the operating
ground clearance making this an important consideration in race car design.
The negative lift coefficient is found to increase with decreasing ground clearances for a given angle of
attack and flow velocity. However the drag coefficient tends to decrease with increasing ground
clearances.
The lift and drag coefficients are found to have dependence on flow Reynolds number as well. The drag
coefficients tend to decrease with increasing velocities (Reynolds number) for a given angle of attack and
ground clearance [6]. However, an opposite trend is observed for lift coefficients which tend to increase in
the negative direction with increasing velocities.
The most important parameter to evaluate the operational efficiency of a wing is the lift to drag ratio.
Higher this value on the negative side, higher is the ability of the front wing to generate maximum
downforce along with minimum drag force. The angle of attack corresponding to maximum efficiency is
found to be 40 for all ground clearances and Reynold numbers.
Thus for the front wing model considered in the present work, highest operational efficiency corresponding to
maximum aerodynamic performance of racing car is attained at following operating conditions :
AOA = 400
Ground Clearance = 0.2c = 0.076 meters
Velocity = 80 m/s
As a result, we can conclude that for the design of high performance high-speed race cars the adjustable wings
capable to alter the ground clearance and the angles of attack is the best design option for any race car for racing
safely with variable speeds.
References
[1]
Katz, Joseph. "Aerodynamics of race cars." Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 38 (2006): 27-63.
[2]
Seljak, Gregor. "Race Car Aerodynamics." University of Ljubljana Faculty of mathematics and
physics, Department of physics (2008-05) (2008).
[3]
Abbott, Ira H., Albert E. Von Doenhoff, and Louis Stivers Jr. "Summary of airfoil data." (1945).
[4]
Kumar, V. S., Shankar, S. G., Saravanan, A., Lenin, C., Kumar, N. S., & Sathyan, P. Phenomenological
Introduction of Propulsion Aspect of External Flow Choking at Wing in Ground Effect.
[5]
Von Doenhoff, Albert E. Investigation of the boundary layer about a symmetrical airfoil in a wind
tunnel of low turbulence. No. NACA-WR-L-507. 1940.
[6]
Abbott, Ira Herbert, and Albert Edward Von Doenhoff. Theory of wing sections, including a summary
of airfoil data. Courier Corporation, 1959.
[7]
Lian, Yongsheng, and Wei Shyy. "Laminar-turbulent transition of a low Reynolds number rigid or
flexible airfoil." AIAA journal 45.7 (2007): 1501-1513
[8]
Venkatesan, D. V., Sanjay, K. E., Sujith Kumar, H., Abhilash, N. A., Ashwin Ram, D., & Sanal Kumar,
V. R. (2014). Studies on race car aerodynamics at wing in ground effect. International Journal of
Mechanical, Aerospace, Industrial, Mechatronic and Manufacturing Engineering, 8(7), 1169-1174.
[9]
Kieffer, W., S. Moujaes, and N. Armbya. "CFD study of section characteristics of Formula Mazda race
car wings." Mathematical and Computer Modelling 43.11 (2006): 1275-1287.
[10]
Anderson Jr, J. D. (2010). Fundamentals of aerodynamics. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
260
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Mechanical Characterization of Epoxy Based

Thermoses Polymer Composite With Sugar
Cane Trash Natural Filler
Naveen J and Veerendra Kumar A N
Abstract- Many researches are being carried out in the field of material science in order to develop new
materials which can provide better mechanical properties, low in cost and does not harm our eco-system. Much
attention of the scientists and engineers is towards reinforced polymer matrix composites in which a binder
material is taken and reinforcement is done in the forms of particles, fibers and flakes or lamina in order to
improve its mechanical properties. Reinforcement with the help of natural filler has many advantages like they
are easily available, renewable, bio-degradable and has less weight to strength ratio. In this paper an attempt has
been made to develop a composite material using epoxy as a binder material and sugarcane trash as
reinforcement in particle form using compression molding process in different wt % i.e. 10%,15%,20% & 25%.
Various tests like tensile test & bending test are performed on the prepared samples and analyzed in detail.
Keywords- Epoxy, Natural filler- Sugarcane Trash, Compression Molding Process, Tensile Test, Bending Test.
Introduction Nowadays composite materials are used in myriad applications in engineering structures that
includes automobiles, airplanes, spacecraft, bridges building, sports equipments etc. Composite materials are
used tremendously in industries. Application of composite material was started in aerospace industry in late
1970's but today it is booming inevitably. Also in automobile industries, due to progresses in technology
composites are replacing metallic automotive parts [1].
Natural filler has gained importance as a reinforcement material in the reinforced polymer matrix composite
due to increasing concern towards environment. Using natural fillers as additives for composite materials gives
a satisfactory result for improving their performance and applications due to biodegradability, abundance, low
cost and high specific strength. It is also beneficial due to low density, mass of composite is reduced by the use
of natural filler.[2]
Sugarcane trash is a abundantly available waste material which can be used as a natural filler material in the
reinforced polymer matrix composites. It is obtained from the agricultural waste and can be treated as filler
material [3].
Epoxy resins are one of the important class of thermosetting polymers which are widely used as a matrix for
reinforced polymer composite materials and also as structural adhesive. It improves resistance to fatigue and
micro-cracking and does not forms volatile products.[4]
According to latest studies on properties and preparation of reinforced polymer matrix composites using
natural filler like sugarcane, bamboo, jute, kenaf, pineapple were carried out.[4][5][6] In recent practice it is
Naveen J
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering Delhi Technological University, Delhi
naveen.j.murthy@gmail.com,
Veerendra Kumar A N
Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noida, INDIA
anvkumar38@gmail.com.
Corresponding author; Tel: +91 7503758119
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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seen that natural fiber composites are used in both interior and exterior parts in car manufacturing, this fulfills
two motives of companies i.e. to reduce the overall weight of vehicle which increases the fuel efficiency and
sustainability of manufacturing process is also increased. It is accomplished in many companies like Mercedes
benz, Daimler Chrysler and Toyota and also scoping to expand the use of natural fiber composites.
1.1. Objective
The main objective is to study and evaluate the mechanical and physical properties of sugarcane trash as a
reinforcement material in the epoxy resin matrix. A series of composite material will be developed by varying
the wt% of sugarcane trash i.e. 10%, 15%, 20% & 25%. and testing will be performed in order to analyze the
mechanical properties of the developed material. The various tests includes tensile test & bending test.
2. Material Used
2.1. Sugarcane
Sugarcane trash is an abundantly available waste material which can be used as a natural filler material in the
reinforced polymer matrix composites. It is obtained from the agricultural waste and can be treated as filler
material. It is obtained by crushing and extraction of juice from the sugarcane, the residue left out in the form of
fiber is converted into particle form which is generally grey-yellow to pale green in color. The two main
constituents of sugarcane trash are cellulose & hemi-cellulose and lignin. Cellulose and hemi-cellulose
contributes about 70% of total chemical constituent and lignin acts as a binder material for the cellulose
fibers[7]. Some other abundantly available natural fillers are jute, sisal, coir, ramie, bamboo, banana etc. These
fillers are used as reinforcement with a binder material to develop newer materials. The selection of the natural
filler should be such that it has excellent chemical bonding with the binder material i.e. the affinity of bonding
should be good between reinforcement material and binder material.[8]
2.2. Epoxy
Epoxy resins are one of the important class of thermosetting polymers which are widely used as a matrix for
reinforced polymer composite materials and also as structural adhesive. It is amorphous, highly cross-linked
polymer which possesses various desirable properties like high tensile strength and modulus, good thermal and
chemical resistance, dimensional stability, excellent adhesion to different materials and negligible
shrinkage.[4]
2.3. Hardener (Araldite HY 951)
Hardeners are used to enhance the physical properties of epoxy resins such as adhesion, impact strength and to
alter the viscosity of the polymer matrix. It also improves the life, lower exotherm and reduce shrinkage.
3. Mechanical, Physical Properties And Testings
3.1. Density and Particle size of sugarcane trash
Sugarcane is obtained by crushing and extraction of juice from the sugarcane, the residue left out in the form of
fiber is converted into particle form by spray dryer method. It is a method of producing a dry powder from liquid
or slurry by rapidly drying with a hot gas. All spray dryers are some type of atomizer to disperse the liquid or
slurry into a controlled drop size spray. The obtained particle size (in mm ) of the sugarcane trash was 2.224mm
in length and 0.479 mm in width with projection microscopic method. The density of sugarcane trash was 0.904
gm/cm3 which was obtained by in-house method.
3.2. Tensile Strength
Tensile strength of a material is obtained by tension test in which specimen is prepared as shown in Figure 1 and
subjected to uni-axial load until fracture in order to find out various mechanical properties of the specimen such
as ultimate tensile strength, yield strength etc on tensile testing machine, shown in Figure 3. The tension test
specimen has two shoulders and a gage in between, shoulders are made large so that it can be gripped firmly in
262
Mechanical Characterization of Epoxy Based Thermoses ......

the tension test machine and gage section has smaller area so that the deformation and failure can occur in this
area.[9]. The specimen has been prepared as per ASTM D 638
Figure 1. Tensile Test Specimen (Dog-Bone Type) line diagram
Figure 2. Tensile Testing Machine

3.3. Bending Test
A three point bending test is performed on the specimen as shown in Figure 3 as per ASTM D 790, to find out the
flexural stress of the material. The specimen is placed on two supporting pins and set distance apart and the third
pin is lowered from above at constant rate until the specimen gets fracture[10][14] the mounting of the
specimen is shown in the Figure 4. For rectangular sample under a load in three point bending set-up, the
formula for calculating the flexural stress is given by Eq (1):
Sf = 3PL / 2 bd2
(1)
Sf flexural stress
P Load at fracture point
L Length of support span
b Width of the spceimen
d Thickness of the specimen.
The span length is taken as 12.6 cm
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Figure : 3 Beam of Material Under Bending

Figure 4. Flexural Testing Machine
4. Experiment Procedure
4.1.
Design and preparation of mould
For mould preparation a ceramic plate was used over which (mould of dimension 25cm 20cm 0.4cm) was
made with overlapping twice the double sided tape of thickness 2mm. A thin sheet is placed in mould first and
then epoxy mixture is poured into mould [11] as shown in below Figure 5
Figure 5. Design of Mould

4.2. Preparation of pure epoxy resin
Epoxy resin and hardener were mixed in ratio of 10:1 after separately weighting them an electronic balance
[13].
4.3. Preparation of composite specimen
Epoxy mixture is taken in the bowl and thoroughly mixed and added sugarcane particle in mixture according to
volume fraction and then continue mixing till its solidification states as shown in Figure 6. Gradually poured the
mixture in the mould and spread it in the mould thoroughly. The mould was filled to brim and was placed on flat
surface. Sharp needle was used for punching to remove the excess bubble. Finally covered the mould with OHP
sheet and pressure exerted on it by putting weight [16]. Left the mould to cure for 24 hours under normal
atmospheric condition. Finally, composite was taken out from mould and stored safely for further test. [15]
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Figure 6. Mixing of Epoxy resin and Sugarcane Trash
5. Result And Discussion

5.1.
Tensile Strength
Dimension of specimen = (18.3cm x 2cm x 0.4cm)
Parallel length= 1cm,
Gage length= 9cm,
Grip width= 3cm
The Table 1 below shows the average value of the tensile strength for three specimens for each wt % of filler
and corresponding graphical representation as shown in Figure 7. The tensile strength of the parent material
without filler is found to be 22.15MPa.
Table 1- Tensile Strength
Figure 7. Filler content (wt%) v/s Tensile Strength (MPa)
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5.2.
Percentage of Elongation
The Table 2 below shows the average value of the tensile strength for three specimens for each wt % of filler
and graphical representation for the same shown, in Figure 8.
Table-2 Percentage of Elongation obtained in tension test
Figure 8. Filler content (wt%) v/s Percentage of Elongation

5.3 Flexural Strength
Dimension of specimen = (12.6cm x 1.3cm x 0.4cm).
The flexural strength of the parent material without filler is fount to be 40.5MPa.
The Table 3 below shows the average value of flexural strength for three specimens for each wt% of filler and
corresponding graphical represntation shown, in Figure 9.
Table-3 Flexural Strength
Figure 9. Filler content (wt%) v/s Flexural

Strength (MPa)
6. Conclusion
(i)
As we get the density of sugarcane trash as 0.904 gm/cm3 so sugarcane trash can be used as filler material
because adding this will reduce the weight of the specimen.
(ii)
Developed composite having 15% filler is showing good results in tensile test.
(iii) Developed composite having 10% filler by weight is showing good results in elongation.
(iv) It is observed that when percentage sugarcane trash increases, tensile strength of the specimen increases
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(v)
upto 15% and then it shows decline. The elongation% decreases as the percentage of sugarcane trash
increases.
The flexural strength comes out to be maximum at 10% filler content and then it start decreasing when
the percentage of filler content increases.
Reference
[1]
Fuchs, E. R., Field, F. R., Roth, R., & Kirchain, R. E. (2008). Strategic materials selection in the
automobile body: Economic opportunities for polymer composite design. Composites Science and
Technology, 68(9), 1989-2002.
[2]
Taj, Saira, Munawar Ali Munawar, and Shafiullah Khan. "Natural fiber-reinforced polymer
composites." Proceedings-Pakistan Academy of Sciences 44, no. 2 (2007): 129.
[3]
Begum, K., & Islam, M. (2013). Natural fiber as a substitute to synthetic fiber in polymer composites: a
review. Research Journal of Engineering Sciences.
[4]
Sapuan, S. M., M. Harimiand, and M. A. Maleque. "Mechanical properties of epoxy/coconut shell filler
particle composites." Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering 28, no. 2 (2003): 171-182.
[5]
Raju, G. U., and S. Kumarappa. "Experimental study on mechanical properties of groundnut shell
particle-reinforced epoxy composites." Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 30, no. 12
(2011): 1029-1037.
[6]
Deka, Harekrishna, Manjusri Misra, and Amar Mohanty. "Renewable resource based all green
composites from kenaf biofiber and poly (furfuryl alcohol) bioresin." Industrial Crops and Products
41 (2013): 94-101.
[7]
Wirawan, Riza, S. M. Sapuan, Robiah Yunus, and Khalina Abdan. "Properties of sugarcane
bagasse/poly (vinyl chloride) composites after various treatments." Journal of Composite Materials 45,
no. 16 (2011): 1667-1674.
[8]
Luz, S. M., J. Del Tio, G. J. M. Rocha, A. R. Gonalves, and A. P. Del'Arco. "Cellulose and cellulignin
from sugarcane bagasse reinforced polypropylene composites: Effect of acetylation on mechanical and
thermal properties."Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 39, no. 9 (2008): 13621369
[9]
Yang, Han-Seung, Hyun-Joong Kim, Jungil Son, Hee-Jun Park, Bum-Jae Lee, and Taek-Sung Hwang.
"Rice-husk flour filled polypropylene composites; mechanical and morphological study." Composite
Structures63, no. 3 (2004): 305-312.
[10] Rao, K. Murali Mohan, K. Mohana Rao, and AV Ratna Prasad. "Fabrication and testing of natural fibre
composites: Vakka, sisal, bamboo and banana."Materials & Design 31, no. 1 (2010): 508-513.
[11] Shenoy, Srinivas, Suhas Y. Nayak, Ayush Prakash, Ankit Awasthi, and Rishabh Singh Kochhar.
"Interlaminar shear and flexural properties of E-glass/jute reinforced polymer matrix Composites."
(2015): 26-31.
[12] Sen, Tara, and HN Jagannatha Reddy. "Flexural strengthening of RC beams using natural sisal and
artificial carbon and glass fabric reinforced composite system." Sustainable Cities and Society 10
(2014): 195-206.
[13] Kranthi, Ganguluri, and Alok Satapathy. "Evaluation and prediction of wear response of pine wood dust
filled epoxy composites using neural computation." Computational Materials Science 49, no. 3 (2010):
609-614.
[14] Sapuan, S. M., A. Leenie, Mohamed Harimi, and Yeo Kiam Beng. "Mechanical properties of woven
banana fibre reinforced epoxy composites."Materials & Design 27, no. 8 (2006): 689-693.
[15] Yu, Long, Katherine Dean, and Lin Li. "Polymer blends and composites from renewable resources."
Progress in polymer science 31, no. 6 (2006): 576-602.
[16] Tatara, R. A., S. Suraparaju, and K. A. Rosentrater. "Compression molding of phenolic resin and cornbased DDGS blends." Journal of Polymers and the Environment 15, no. 2 (2007): 89-95.
267
Recent Research Development in Micro Forming

RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Abstract- In the recent years there has been a growing demand for micro technical products in various fields of
science and engineering such as electronics, micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS), telecommunication,
medicine, sensor-technology, optoelectronics and bio-technology. For some applications, metal forming
processes are best suited for producing miniaturized parts because of the advantage of the net shape or near net
shape processes, higher productivity, minimized material waste, excellent mechanical properties and accuracy
as well where high volumelow cost production is desired. Because of their growing importance, an overview
of important aspects of micro forming processes is presented in this paper. The current research trends on size
effects on forming behavior due to miniaturization, mechanics of micro forming processes, design and
development of equipment and tooling have been discussed.
Key words: MEMS, Micro forming, size effects
ntroduction The general trend towards miniaturization in the last decade resulted in an increasing
demand for metallic miniature components and an estimated rise in turnover from 15 to 30 billion US $ in
the last few years (Vollertsen, Hu et al. 2004) in automotive, electronics, medical sector, micro systems
technology (MST) and watch industries. There are important applications for micro-scale mechanical systems,
such as micro-resonators, micro-surgical tools and devices, micro springs, micro gears, micro lead frames,
micro-motors, micro-transmission components (Engel 2002; Vollertsen, 2004). All these parts need high
functionality, high reliability and accuracy.
In orer to obtain mass production of micro metallic parts with high precision, micro forming technology
becomes important to fabricate micro-parts. Micro forming is defined as the production of metallic parts by
forming processes with at least two part dimensions in the sub-millimeter range (Geiger et.al 2001). Typical
examples for such parts are shown in figure 1. An important observation is that it is not easy to directly apply the
knowledge from the Classical forming processes. Although at a first sight the process appears simple, being
nothing but geometrical matching of the die and work piece, in reality, micro forming is different from meso
forming and macro forming.
Figure 1 Micro parts for various application made by micro forming (Nguyen et.al. 2008)
Vishwakarma government Engineering college, Mechanical Engineering Department
dhruv_30@rediffmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Anand and Patel
2. The micro forming System

In order to understand the problems and difficulties associated with micro forming processes, important issues
and to find solutions, the analysis starts with the micro forming system. Micro forming system can be split-up,
similar with conventional forming processes, into four groups. The four groups are material, process, tools and
machines and e quipment. Figure 2.1 illustrates the variables that appear with miniaturization, related with the
four groups (Engel et al., 2002).
This systematic approach was and is the basis for investigating and identifying the so-called size effects, which
in some way directly or indirectly are present in all the four groups, and which are commonly accepted as the
reason why the knowledge of conventional (macro) forming technology cannot be simply transferred to microapplication. When a forming process is scaled down from conventional scale to the sub millimeter range, some
aspects of the work piece remain unchanged, such as the microstructure and the surface topology.
This causes the ratio between the dimensions of the part and parameters of the microstructure or surface to
change, and is commonly known as the size effect. The sources of the size effects that occur have been
subdivided by into physical (e.g. ratio of surface to volume) an d structural (e.g. surface structure scalability)
sources (Jeswiet, Geiger et al. 2008).conditions of orientation and size of every single grain are reflected in the
forming behavior as it is no longer averaged by huge number of grains. Additionally scatter of results also
increases.
3.Major issues in micro forminng
3.1. The general size effects
3.1.2 Effect of friction
For the investigation of the influence of miniaturization on friction, scaled double cup extrusion (DCE) tests
have been carried out. The diameters of the specimen were varied between 4 mm down to 0.5 mm. Figure 4
outlines the experimental setup: a cylindrical specimen is placed in a die between a stationary and a moving
punch of identical shape. The upper punch moves down and causes the material to form two cups with the cup
heights hu and hl. In the theoretical case of no friction (friction factor m=0) both these cups have the same
height, whereas the higher friction gets, the more the forming of the lower cup is prevented. Therefore, the ratio
hu/hl is quite a sensitive measure for friction.
The ratio of hu/hl increases with miniaturization. The amount of changes in friction conditions was determined
by a numerical identification with FE-simulation. It can be seen that the cup height ratio and thus, friction
increases distinctly with miniaturization, especially in microforming with lubrication. Higher friction causes
Figure 2 Variables that become important with miniaturization

non-uniform strain distribution and reduces formability (Ghobrial, Lee et al. 1993).
270
3.2. Micro forming processes

3.2.1 Micro bulk forming processes
Various metal forming processes were scaled down and the effect of the miniaturization was studied. Bulk
micro forming processes like extrusion of micro parts and micro drawing of wires have been studied by Cao et
al.(2004), Rosochowski,et al. (2007) and Y. Saotome et al. (2001). A micro-scale extrusion experiment had
been conducted by Cao et al.(2004) to extrude micro pins of CuZn30 brass with grain sizes of 32, 87, and 211
m, respectively with 1.0 and 0.48 mm in diameter. Figure 5 shows an example of the deformed pin made
during extrusion and extrusion machine. The smallest part known from industrial applications that is produced
by a multi-stage forming operation is a forward rod and backward can extruded copper pin with a shaft diameter
of 0.8 mm and a wall thickness of 125 pm (Figure 6) (Geiger et.al. 2001). Micro-gear is an important actuating
component used widely in micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) devices. The isothermal micro forming
process of micro gears was performed with the developed micro forming apparatus (figure 7). The diameter of
the female micro die pitch circle is 1.0 mm with a module of 0.1 mm. The experimental material was 5A02
aluminum
alloy, and the dimensions of the specimens were 0.7 X 1.0 mm2 (Chunju WANG y 2007). The formed micro
gear was observed with the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The contour of the micro gear is very clear,
Figure 3 (a) Surface model

(Mahabunphachai and Ko 2008)
(b) Flow stress curve

(Engel and Eckstein 2002)
Figure 4 DCE test: (a) dependence of cup height on friction; (b)(d) FEM analysist.
(Eng el a nd Eckstein 2002).
Figure 5 Extruded pin and Micro extrusion

apparatus ( Cao et al.2004)
Figure 6 Extruded copper pin

(Geiger et.al. 2001)
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Anand and Patel
and there is no burr on the surface of the parts ( Figure 7).

3.2.2 Micro Sheet Metal Forming
3.2.2.1 Micro Deep Drawing
Some investigations were conducted regarding the effect of the miniaturization in deep drawing. Micro deep
drawing of very thin sheets below 0.2 mm thickness was investigated by Saotome et al.(2001). The punch
diameter to thickness ratio( Dp/t), was chosen as an important parameter which varies between 10 and 100. It is
found that when the ratio Dp/t increases, the limiting drawing ratio (LDR) decreases.
Micro deep drawing experiments of Al 99.5 foil with sheet thickness of 20m and mild steel foil with sheet
thickness of 25m were carried out using 1mm punch diameter. The final shapes of drawn cups obtained at
macro and micro scales were compared. Wrinkling was observed on the flange of micro cup Figure 8(a).
Friction force was found to decrease in both cases when lubricant was applied, however, the amount of the
decreased friction force was significantly higher in the micro cup than that in the macro cup (Vollersten et al.,
2004).K. Manabe et.al (2008) carried out FE simulations and experiments for two stage micro deep drawing
process considering tool/material surface roughness. A micro cup of 500m diameter was drawn (Figure 8 (b))
from SUS304-H of 23m thick foils to investigate the effect of tool surface asperity. A surface roughness was
noticed at the inner wall and cup corner, where there are no traces of sliding of the die. This is due to orange peel
texture.
Xiao et al. (2008) studied effect of grain size and orientation on the earing profile of the micro cup drawn from
copper blanks. The study revealed that the grain size and orientation has an important influence on forming
earing profile, but has little influence on punch force. Estimation of grain size and grain orientation which
influence the micro deep drawing processes was studied by H.Justinger et al. (2009). Brass foils of 300m to 40
m thickness with various annealed conditions were used to form micro cups of 8mm down to 1mm diameter as
shown in Figure 8(c). A decrease of geometrical accuracy, a decrease of flow stress and increase of scatter of
flow stress and part geometry are observed as a scaling effect.
Apart from micro deep drawing, a series of tests in sheet metal forming, such as bending, coining and punching
have been carried out in order to observe the effect of miniaturization on the flow stress. The coining process has
been studied using silicon die, Al 99.5 as material which embossed at room temperature. Based on this
experimental result, the feasibility of molding structures smaller than the grain size of the material without
demining the silicon die is verified. Micro-hole punching machine which meets the requirements of process
accuracy for 25m size holes has been developed by Byung et.al.(2005). All these investigations showed a
scale effect of the miniaturization. The embossing technology is often used to produce the small components in
micro chips. The small material region direct on surface will change the form depending on the form of punch
under high press force. Hydro forming processes have been employed successfully in industry for producing
products predominantly relating to lightweight automotive components. A machine system has been developed
for the forming of miniature tubes with diameters down to 0.8 mm and thickness down to 20 m (Hartl C
et.al.2007).
3.3 Machines for Micro Forming
The problems associated with machines or equipment grow with miniaturization. Suitable machines/presses
are required for carrying out micro forming operations. As forming components are small in size, forming
equipment and tooling must also be small in size. Most of the systems are laboratory-based prototypes, with the
exception of some micro-such as bench types of machinery) is available commercially and has been used in
industry. A typical micro press with data acquisition system is shown in Figure 9.
Micro-manufacturing demands micro-handling systems. Micro-handling is the manipulation of small parts
with high accuracy. The clearance between the machine parts that are negligible for conventional forming
processes may have a detrimental influence on the need to be developed to overcome these assembly systems
which may not be a micro-forming in full context. Some individual equipment difficulties in placing,
positioning and assembly of the parts. (Geiger et.al. 2001). Since the surfaces where they can be gripped are
272

very small and the part weight is low compared with the adhesion forces; as a result, the parts do not separate
(a) (Vollersten et al., 2004)
(b)K. Manabe et.al (2008)
) H.Justinger et al. (2009)
from a gripper by themselves
Figure 8 Micro deep drawn cups
Figure 7 Micro forming apparatus and

SEM photograph of micro gear
(Chunju et.al 2007)
Figure 9. Micro Froming Press

(Presz, Andersen et al. 2006).
4 Tools for micro forming.

As mentioned earlier, researchers have used miniaturized tools with diameter in the range of 50m to 10 mm in
micro sheet metal forming applications. Manufacturing of these tools with high precision by conventional
manufacturing process is difficult. However, new manufacturing methods have been developed in order to
overcome these difficulties. Engel et al. (2002) presented a review of the various techniques used to machine
micro-dies, such as electric discharge machining (EDM) in which tungsten wire of 30m can cut steel and WC
with tolerance of 2m.Fabrication of the diamond micro- dies using chemical vapor deposition (CVD).
Uhlmann et al., (2005) discussed several existing variants of micro-electrical discharging machining: microwire EDM (-WEDM) [Chunju et .al. 2006], micro die sinking, electrical discharge drilling, micro-electrical
discharge grinding (-EDG), micro-electrical discharge milling, and micro-wire electrical discharge grinding
(-WEDG). Another method for the production of very accurate tooling is grinding by which a punch of 60 m
in diameter with tolerance of 1.5m and cavity of micro extrusion die (0.2 mm) has been produced (Geiger et
al.,1996).
Summary
An overview of micro forming technology presented in this paper highlights the importance of micro forming
processes and the efforts that have gone into investigations in to various aspects of micro forming processes. It
also presents the challenges in manufacturing of micro parts by this technique considering the effect of
miniaturization on material flow behavior, high precision required and complexity involved in design and
development of micro presses and tooling. These challenges provide an opportunity for further research in
micro forming technology.
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Anand and Patel
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275
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Effects of Cetane Improver on Diesel Engine

Performance and Emissions
Nitesh Bansal, Rajiv Choudhary and R. C. Singh
Abstract- Fossil fuels are diminishing with each and every passing day and there are a lot of emissions from the
internal combustion engines. Government in many countries have revised the restricted norms on the usage of
the fuel and most of the people also believe in being environment friendly. In India, the cetane number of diesel
fuel must be atleast 48 in order to be used in internal combustion engines. Cetane number improvers are added
to the fuel in order to enhance its cetane number and help reducing overall Emissions from the engine exhaust.
Cetane improver can increase the cetane number upto 12-16 and reduces nitrogen oxides, carbon mono-oxide
and unburnt hydrocarbon emissions. Oxygen class cetane improvers such as diethyl ether or 2-ethoxymethyl
ether, added in the diesel fuel in about 5~15% concentration can increase the oxygen content of the fuel for
better combustion process. And Nitrogen class improvers such as Ethylhexyl Nitrate or cyclohexyl nitrate are
used in comparatively smaller quantities ie. 0.1~0.3% in concentration to improve the cetane number of the
fuel. In this study review, the effects of cetane improver on the engine performance and emissions are discussed.
The study reveals that by using these additives, nitrogen oxides emissions can be reduced upto 20-25%, and
hydrocarbon and carbon mono-oxide emissions upto 20 and 25% respectively.
Keywords- Cetane number improver; Diesel Engine; Engine Performance; Engine Emissions; Pollutant; Fuel
Additive.
ntroduction Production of fossil fuels is expected to rise, approximately doubling the amount of use of
each fossil fuel. As world population continues to grow and the limited amount of fossil fuels begin to
diminish, it may not be possible to provide the amount of energy demanded by the world by only using
fossil fuels to convert energy. [1]
Burning of fossil fuels causes emissions of nitrogen oxides, carbon mono-oxide, unburnt hydrocarbons and
some others. Nitrogen dioxide is an irritant gas, which at high concentrations causes inflammation of the
airways. When nitrogen is released during fuel combustion it combines with oxygen atoms to create nitric oxide
(NO). This further combines with oxygen to create nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitric oxide is not considered to be
hazardous to health at typical ambient concentrations, but nitrogen dioxide can be. Nitrogen dioxide and nitric
oxide are referred to together as oxides of nitrogen (NOx). NOx gases react to form smog and acid rain as well as
being central to the formation of fine particles (PM) and ground level ozone, both of which are associated with
adverse health effects.[2]
Generally, cetane additive is used in the diesel engine for controlling NOx emissions. There are certain cetane
Nitesh Bansal
Delhi Technological University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Student.
bnslboy@gmail.com
Rajiv Choudhary and R. C. Singh
Delhi Technological University, Department of Mechanical Engineering.
rch_dce@rediffmail.com, rcsingh@dce.ac.in
Nitesh Bansal; Tel: +91 8950870033
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Bansal et al.
additives used widely such as Ethyl hexyl nitrate, alkyl nitrate, peroxide compounds, methyl oleate.[3]
Cetane number is a measure of the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. It is often mistaken as a measure of fuel
quality. Cetane number is actually a measure of a fuel's ignition delay. This is the time period between the start
of injection and start of combustion (ignition) of the fuel. In a particular diesel engine, higher cetane fuels will
have shorter ignition delay periods than lower cetane fuels. Cetane number should not be considered alone
when evaluating diesel fuel quality. API gravity, BTU content, distillation range, sulfur content, stability and
flash point are all very important. In colder weather, cloud point and low temperature filter plugging point may
be critical factors.[4]
There is no benefit to using a higher cetane number fuel than required. The ASTN Standard Specification for
Diesel Fuel Oils (D-975) states, "The cetane number requirements depend on engine design, size, nature of
speed and load variations, and on starting and atmospheric conditions. Increase in cetane number over values
actually required does not materially improve engine performance. Accordingly, the cetane number specified
should be as low as possible to insure maximum fuel availability." This quote underscores the importance of
matching engine cetane requirements with fuel cetane number.
Diesel fuels with cetane number lower than minimum engine requirements can cause rough engine operation.
They are more difficult to start, especially in cold weather or at high altitudes. They accelerate lube oil sludge
formation. Many low cetane fuels increase engine deposits resulting in more smoke, increased exhaust
emissions and greater engine wear.
Using fuels which meet engine operating requirements will improve cold starting, reduce smoke during startup, improve fuel economy, reduce exhaust emissions, improve engine durability and reduce noise and
vibration. These engine fuel requirements are published in the operating manual for each specific engine or
vehicle.
Overall fuel quality and performance depend on the ratio of parafinic and aromatic hydrocarbons, the presence
of sulfur, water, bacteria and other contaminants, and the fuel's resistance to oxidation. The most important
measure of fuel quality included API gravity, heat value (BTU content), distillation range and viscosity.
Cleanliness and corrosion resistance are also important. For use in cold weather, cloud point and low
temperature filter plugging point must receive serious consideration. Cetane number does not measure any of
these characteristics.[4]
2. Diesel Emissions
Diesel engines convert the chemical energy contained in the fuel into mechanical power. Diesel fuel is injected
under pressure into the engine cylinder where it mixes with air and where the combustion occurs. The exhaust
gases which are discharged from the engine contain several constituents that are harmful to human health and to
the environment.
Table 1 lists typical output ranges of the basic toxic material in diesel fumes. The lower values can be found in
new, clean diesel engines, while the higher values are characteristic for older equipment.[5]
Table 1. emissions from Diesel engine
Carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and aldehydes are generated in the exhaust as the result of
incomplete combustion of fuel. A significant portion of exhaust hydrocarbons is also derived from the engine
lube oil. When engines operate in enclosed spaces, such as underground mines, buildings under construction,
tunnels or warehouses, carbon monoxide can accumulate in the ambient atmosphere and cause headaches,
dizziness and lethargy. Under the same conditions, hydrocarbons and aldehydes cause eye irritation and
choking sensations. Hydrocarbons and aldehydes are major contributors to the characteristic diesel smell.
Hydrocarbons also have a negative environmental effect, being an important component of smog.
Exhaust gases of an engine can have upto 2000 ppm of oxides of nitrogen. Most of this will be nitrogen oxide
(NO), with a small amount of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). NOx is very undesirable. Regulations to reduce NOx
emissions continue to become more and more stringent year by year. Released NOx reacts in the atmosphere to
278
Effects of Cetane Improver on Diesel Engine Performance....

form ozone and is one of the major causes of photochemical smog. We would be using different chemicals or
additives to improve the cetane number. Therefore, they are termed as Cetane improvers.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is generated from the sulfur present in diesel fuel. The concentration of SO2 in the exhaust
gas depends on the sulfur content of the fuel. Low sulfur fuels of less than 0.05% sulfur are being introduced for
most diesel engine applications throughout the USA and Canada. Sulfur dioxide is a colorless toxic gas with a
characteristic, irritating odor. Oxidation of sulfur dioxide produces sulfur trioxide which is the precursor of
sulfuric acid which, in turn, is responsible for the sulfate particulate matter emissions. Sulfur oxides have a
profound impact on environment being the major cause of acid rains.
Diesel particulate matter (DPM), as defined by the EPA regulations and sampling procedures, is a complex
aggregate of solid and liquid material. Its origin is carbonaceous particles generated in the engine cylinder
during combustion. The primary carbon particles form larger agglomerates and combine with several other,
both organic and inorganic, components of diesel exhaust. Generally, DPM is divided into three basic fractions:
Solids dry carbon particles, commonly known as soot,
SOF heavy hydrocarbons adsorbed and condensed on the carbon particles, called Soluble Organic
Fraction,
SO4 sulfate fraction, hydrated sulfuric acid.
The actual composition of DPM will depend on the particular engine and its load and speed conditions. Wet
particulates can contain up to 60% of the hydrocarbon fraction (SOF), while dry particulates are comprised
mostly of dry carbon. The amount of sulfates is directly related to the sulfur contents of the diesel fuel.[5]
3. Types of Additives
3.1 Oxygen Based Additives
Another group of fuel additives is oxygenated compounds. The idea of using oxygen to produce a cleaner
burning of diesel fuels is half a century old. Since that early work, numerous researchers have reported the
addition of a variety of oxygenated compounds to diesel fuel. Some oxygenate compounds used are ethanol,
acetoacetic esters and dicarboxylic acid esters, ethylene glycol monoacetate, 2-hydroxy Ethyl esters,
diethylene glycol dimethyl ether, sorbitan mono-oleate and poly-oxy-ethylene sorbitan mono-oleate, dibutyl
maleate and tripropylene glycol monomethyl ether, ethanol and dimethyl ether, 20 dimethyl ether (DME),
dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and dimethoxy methane, 1-octylamino-3-octyloxy-2-propanol and N-octyl
nitramine, dimethoxy pro-pane and dimethoxy ethane, and a mixture of methanol and ethanol.[6]
3.2 Nitrogen based additives
A common cetane improving additive, 2-ethylhexyl nitrate (2-EHN, EHN), can used to improve diesel fuel
ignitability, it is widely used in industries. The chemical formula is C8H17NO3, with the basic structure an ethyl
hexane molecule with one of the hydrogen atoms replaced with an NO3 nitrate radical. EHN is stable at room
temperature conditions, and its decomposition reaction rates are even slower when in a fuel solution at high
pressure. EHN decomposes at temperatures in the range of 450-550K. Examination of the EHN decomposition
process described indicates that NO and NO2 are formed by the initial decomposition, and the final reaction
products include NO. This implies that introducing EHN into the combustion process results in an additional
(fuel-borne) NOx formation mechanism that would otherwise not be present.
Substantial prior research concludes that EHN addition does not increase NOx emissions but in many cases
actually decreases it. However, these studies were carried out with conventional diesel combustion. Relative to
the high levels of NOx produced by conventional diesel combustion, the amount of NOx resulting from EHN
decomposition would be insignificant. Increasing fuel cetane number, which occurs when EHN is added,
reduces the premixed burn fraction of conventional combustion, leading to lower peak combustion
temperatures and decreased thermal NOx formation. This reduction would overshadow any NOx directly
formed by EHN decomposition. For combustion processes resulting in low engine-out NOx levels, the amount
of NOx formed directly by EHN decomposition may be significant.[7]
4.1 Effect on BTE and BSFC
Amr Ibrahim analysed the effect on BTE with using diethyl ether as an additive and he found the diesel fuel
improved the engine performance significantly as the engine brake thermal efficiency increased and the engine
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Bansal et al.
bsfc decreased for the most of engine load conditions. The engine maximum thermal efficiency increased from
32% for the diesel fuel to 32.5%, 34.3%, and 34.3% when the DEE was blended with the diesel fuel with
proportions of 5%, 10%, and 15%; respectively. On the other hand, the lowest engine bsfc decreased from 0.252
kg/kW h to 0.247, 0.235, and 0.235 kg/kW h when the DEE was blended with the diesel fuel with proportions of
5%, 10%, and 15%; respectively.
Alpaslan Atmanly performed an experiment using diesel engine fueled with the blends of diesel, hazelnut oil
and he found, higher carbon alcohol and DnBH and DPnH showed slight power loss, attributable to the lower
heating values. Decrease in power for DnBH and DPnH was 2.91% and 4.69%, respectively when compared
with diesel. The lower heating values of DnBH and DPnH are 41.62 and 41.80 MJ/kg, which are 4.11% and
3.69% lower as compared to diesel. Thus, the average increase of BSFC for DnBH and DPnH was 28.64% and
20.87% as compared to diesel, which is in agreement but it reduced the HC and NOx emissions.
S Imtenan analysed the effect of n-butanol and diethylether on engine performance of a diesel engine fuelled
with diesel-jatropha biodiesel blend, J20 and its modified blends with n-butanol showed reasonably higher
BSFC than diesel on average. J20 showed on average 5.4% increment of BSFC than diesel. J15B5 and J10B10
showed better BSFC results than J20. They showed on average 2.3% and 3.9% decrement of BSFC than J20.
J15D5 and J10D10 showed even better results than n-butanol blends. They showed 5.5% and 6.8% decrement
of BSFC than J20 respectively. [8-10]
4.2 Effect on Fuel Properties
In diesel engine fuelled with blends of diesel, hazelnut oil and high carbon alcohol, Alpaslan atmanly concluded
the effect of EHN addition, the overall density of diesel fuel was increased. The densities of DnBH and DPnH
were 0.8360 and 0.8380 g/ml, which were 1.70% and 1.95% higher, respectively, compared to that of diesel.
The addition of EHN to DnBH and DPnH decreased density on a mean of 0.7% and 0.82%, respectively as
compared to DnBH and DPnH. Similar changes were observed in kinematic viscosity of the microemulsion
fuels.
The addition of EHN to DnBH for the concentrations of 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm shows an increase in cetane
number of 4.65%, 13.62% and 21.09%, respectively. Increases of 4.52%, 12.69% and 19.57% were observed
for DPnH for the concentrations of 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm, respectively.[9]
4.3 Effect on NOx Emissions
Nicos Ladommatos concluded that as the cetane number increases, the NOx level generally decreases. The
decline in the NOx level with increasing cetane number can be explained in terms of decreasing cylinder gas
temperature. An increase in the cetane number is accompanied by a reduction in the ignition delay. In turn, the
decreasing ignition delay results in less mixture being involved in premixed combustion, lower peak cylinder
gas temperatures and lower NOx formation rates. At low cetane numbers, the injection timing control method
has little effect on the NOx level. However, at higher cetane numbers the NOx level becomes dependent on the
method of timing control.[11]
Figure 1. shows NOx emissions comparison between pure diesel, B20 (20% biodiesel blend) and B20 with
additive.[12]
The BTHE for B20 was found to be 1.61% higher than fossil diesel when engine was operated at 50% of full
280
Fig 1. Variation of NOx emissions
Effects of Cetane Improver on Diesel Engine Performance....

load, and 10.79% at higher when operated at full load, the reason being the increase in cetane number by 5.49%
in B20 and when compared to fossil diesel.
4.4 Effect on CO Emissions
Carbon monoxide results from the incomplete combustion where the oxidation process does not occur
completely. This concentration is largely dependent on air/fuel mixture and it is highest where the excess-air
factor () is less than 1.0 that is classified as rich mixture. It can be caused especially at the time of starting and
instantaneous acceleration of engine where the rich mixtures are required. In the rich mixtures, due to air
deficiency and reactant concentration, all the carbon cannot convert to CO2 and be formed CO concentration.
Although CO is produced during operation in rich mixtures, a small portion of CO is also emitted under lean
conditions because of chemical kinetic effects[13]
It was concluded that in the hazelnut oil and n-butanol/1-pentanol blend CO emissions increased due to lower
oxidation of carbon atoms and oxygen molecules as a result of lower in-cylinder temperature, lower oxygen
concentration and fuel-rich zones inside the cylinder. DnBH and DPnH blends increased CO emissions with an
average of 17.64% and 11.43% as compared to diesel. The main reason for this increase is that n-butanol and 1pentanol have higher latent heats of evaporation than diesel.
A higher latent of evaporation causes higher evaporative cooling in the combustion chamber, which leads to
lower exhaust gas temperature. DnBH and DPnH blends have 19.67% and 17.69% lower cetane numbers than
that of diesel. A lower cetane number increases ignition delay and causes accumulation of n-butanol and 1pentanol in the combustion chamber which requires additional heat from the combustion chamber in order to
evaporate, creates a cooling effect in the combustion chamber and increases CO emissions.[9]
4.5 Effect on HC Emissions
Hydrocarbon emissions are composed of unburned fuels as a result of insufficient temperature which occurs
near the cylinder wall. At this point, the airfuel mixture temperature is significantly less than the center of the
cylinder. Hydrocarbons consist of thousands of species, such as alkanes, alkenes, and aromatics. They are
normally stated in terms of equivalent CH4 content.
Diesel engines normally emit low levels of hydrocarbons. Diesel hydrocarbon emissions occur principally at
light loads. The major source of light-load hydrocarbon emissions is lean airfuel mixing. In lean mixtures,
flame speeds may be too low for combustion to be completed during the power stroke, or combustion may not
occur, and these conditions cause high hydrocarbon emissions.[13]
In a diesel-Jatropha biodiesel blend, J20 gave significantly lower HC than diesel fuel all over the engine speed
range. It gave about 28% decreased emission than diesel on average. Such decrement can be attributed to the
higher oxygen content of biodiesel which influenced the amount of hydrocarbon oxidation. On the contrary,
J15B5 and J10B10 showed 28.4% and 48% increment of HC emission than J20 on average while J15D5 and
J10D10 showed 32% and 52% increment. HC emission was supposed to be reduced due to even higher oxygen
content of n-butanol and DEE.[10]
Table 2. Possible Emissions reduction due to the use of Cetane Improvers
5. Economic Implications
With the use of cetane improvers, the break thermal efficiency of the engine increases due to better combustion
process. Brake Power slightly decreases and so does BSFC but its acceptable because of better exhaust
composition of Nitrogen oxides, carbon mono-oxide and unburnt hydrocarbons. Also some widely used cetane
improvers like EHN are available easily at cheaper prices and give very good results.
6. Conclusion
In this study, this is concluded that a cetane improver really does improve the engine performance and help
reducing the emissions. The cetane number of the fuel can be increased 4.52 %, 12.69% and 19.57% by using
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Bansal et al.
DPnH in concentrations of 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm respectively. There is a decrease in power for DnBH and
DPnH by 2.91% and 4.69%, respectively when compared with diesel but the combustion process gets better.
The NOx and HC emissions can be reduced and CO emissions slightly increases but while performing trade off
among the emissions, the overall emissions reduces.
Nitrogen Class additives causes wear to the engine but they are more effective as compared to oxygenative
additives. Nitrogen class additives such as EHN are used in small concentration ie 0.3~3% and give good
results. Oxygen class additives such as DEE are used in comparatively higher concentration ie 5~15% as they
do not cause engine wear and give good results. As biodiesel and hazelnut oils blends are used, the cetane
number of the fuel decreases and the use of cetane improver becomes necessary.
References
[1]
Towards Sustainable Energy- http://web.stanford.edu/class/e297c/trade_environment/energy/hfossil.

html
[2]
Nitrogen Oxide Pollution - Health Effects- http://www.icopal-noxite.co.uk/nox-problem/noxpollution.aspx
[3]
K Velmurugan, S. Gowtham - Effect of Cetane number additives on Emissionshttps://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved

=0ahUKEwj4l9S11__OAhUHLo8KHZfNALUQFgggMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww .ijmer.co
m % 2 F p a p e r s % 2 F Vo l 2 _ I s s u e 5 % 2 F B L 2 5 3 3 7 2 3 3 7 5 . p d f & u s g = A F Q j C N G e 0 vTEpHPZoLAmFiteaLa0JvWzg&sig2=0GELvJhoLTNqY0HXRf47hw
[4]
Fuel-Magic-How does a cetane booster affects the engine performancehttp://www.fuelmagic.net/Cetane%20Booster.html
[5]
Nettinc - Different types of Diesel emissionshttps://www.nettinc.com/information/emissionsfaq/what-are-diesel-emissions
[6]
Diesel Engine Performance Improvement by Using Cetane Improverhttps://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved

= 0 a h U K E w j n - s - a 6 v _ O A h X M u 4 8 K H T 7 AAUQFggdMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijeit.com%2Fvol%25202%2FIssue%252010%2FI
JEIT1412201304_36.pdf&usg=AFQjCNFy45npAhn2vYoF2D3OdDdhsrLKgg&sig2=P4pJBqODsqJqY3R5WhKzQ
[7]
Andrew Ickes, Dennis N. Assanis, Stanislav V. Bohac - Effect of 2-Ethylhexyl nitrate on NOx
E m i s s i o n s - h t t p s : / / w w w. r e s e a r c h g a t e . n e t / p u b l i c a t i o n / 2 4 5 2 3 5 0 1 3 _ E ff e c t _ o f _ 2 Ethylhexyl_Nitrate_Cetane_Improver_on_NO_x_Emissions_from_Premixed_LowTemperature_Diesel_Combustion
[8]
Amr Ibrahim - Investigating the effect of using diethyl ether as a fuel additive on diesel engine
p e r f o r m a n c e
a n d
c o m b u s t i o n http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359431116311929
[9]
Alpaslan Atmanly - Effects of a cetane improver on fuel properties and engine characteristics of a
diesel engine fueled with the blends of diesel, hazelnut oil and higher carbon alcoholhttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016236116000223
[10]
S Imtenan, HH Masjuki, M. Verman, H. Sajjad - Effect of n-butanol and diethyl ether as oxygenated
additives on combustionemission performance characteristics of a multiple cylinder diesel engine
f u e l l e d
w i t h
d i e s e l j a t r o p h a
b i o d i e s e l
b l e n d http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890415000515
[11]
Nicos Ladommatos, Mohammad Parsi, Angela Knowles - The effect of fuel cetane improver on diesel
pollutant emissions - http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0016236194002231
[12]
Syed Aatif Avase, Shivank Srivasta - Effect of Pyrogallol as an Antioxidant on the Performance and
E m i s s i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f B i o d i e s e l D e r i v e d f r o m Wa s t e C o o k i n g O i l https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279804774_Effect_of_Pyrogallol_as_an_Antioxidant_on
_the_Performance_and_Emission_Characteristics_of_Biodiesel_Derived_from_Waste_Cooking_O
il
[13]
Springer - Pollutants Emissions from diesel engine - http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10098014-0793-9
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Storage Stability of Biodiesel: A Review

Ashok Kumar Yadav, M. Emran Khan, Amit Pal
and Alok Manas Dubey
Abstract Global warming, a spurt in population growth and an increase in demand for transport fuels in
developing economies, all coupled together with limited reserves of fossil fuels, are realities that have
convinced many countries of the need to develop alternative and renewable energy sources such as biofuels.
Biodiesel is considered to be apromising alternative biofuel. Recently, biodiesel has received additional
attention and intense research has been performed in this field all over the world due to its lower environmental
impact compared to the conventional diesel fuels.The main problem of using biodiesel as fuel is its poor
stability characteristics. Poor stability leads to gum formation which further leads to a storage problem of these
fuels for a longer period of time. Oxidative degradation occurs in biodiesel on aerobic contact during storage as
well as with metal contaminants. Antioxidants are very effective for the eradication of those oxidation stability
problems. This article presents an overview of the factors affecting the oxidation stability of biodiesel and the
methods available for the prediction of oxidation stability.The effect of antioxidants in preventing the
oxidation of biodiesel is also discussed.
Key Words: Biodiesel; Oxidative stability; Stability parameters; Antioxidants
nroduction Stability is one of the important criteria concerning fuel properties. The stability of biodiesel
is lower than common diesel fuel. The formation of deposits and gum and the darkening of fuels as a result
of the formation of contaminants, such as alcohols,acids, aldehydes, peroxides, etc., occur during longterm storage of biodiesel fuel [1-2]. Various processes, including oxidation in aerobic conditions, hydrolysis in
the presence of moisture, thermal decomposition by excess heat, contamination of impurities, etc., account for
the instability of biodiesel that can change the fuel properties considerably [4-5]. Among these processes,
oxidation is one of the signicant stability concerns associated with bio diesel because it has a lower resistance
capacity to oxidation and can easily be affected by air oxidation during long-term storage [3]. The composition
of the fatty acid portion of the biodiesel ester molecule is the most important factor that affects its properties.
The composition varies based on the feedstock used for biodiesel production. When compared to diesel fuel, the
unsaturation in the molecule accounts for biodiesel instability. As the unsaturation in the fatty acid chain portion
Ashok Kumar Yadav
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology,
Ghaziabad, 201003, India, Email: ashokme015@gmail.com
M. Emran Khan
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi 110025, India, Email: mikhan@jmi.ac.in
Amit Pal
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University,
Delhi 110042, India, Email: amitpal@dce.ac.in
Alok Manas Dubey
Professor,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad, 201003,
India, Email:alokmanas28@rediffmail.com
Corresponding author ;Tel: 8285423046
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
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increases, the biodiesel becomes more unstable. Oxidation starts at the allylic positions to double bonds.
Therefore, the fatty acid composition of the ester, especially the position of and the number of allylic and bisallylic methylene moieties adjacent to the double bond, determines the rate of oxidation. In Fig. 1, the positions
in the oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid (most common unsaturated acids present in the oils or fats and
thus in the biodiesel) that are vulnerable to oxidation are highlighted by a circle with dotted lines. The allylic and
bis-allylic methylene moieties are the most susceptible to oxidation as a result of the radical chain reaction
[3].The oxidative degradation during long-term storage occurs mainly in the presence of air, heat, light and prooxidants [1-3]. Biodiesel oxidation is of two typesauto-oxidation and photo- oxidation. Auto-oxidation is a
major cause of biodiesel oxidation. The auto-oxidative degradation of biodiesel is a radical chain reaction and
involves initiation, propagation, and termination steps. During the initial stages of biodiesel oxidation, the
methylene groups allylic and bis-allylic to the double bonds are more active and hydrogen radicals are
abstracted by radical initiatorsThe resultant radicals interact with oxygen, which results in peroxide formation
for the propagation step. The peroxides propagate the chain reaction by the further abstraction of hydrogen
from the methylene moieties and form carbon radicals and hydro peroxides. Next, the newly formed carbon free
radicals will again combine with oxygen and continue the propagation process. This chain process continues
until the termination step, which provides the formation of stable products the hydro peroxide formation during
the auto-oxidative degradation of linoleic acid methyl ester. The ultimate decomposition of peroxides results in
the formation of aldehydes, such as hexenals [1,18]. At high temperatures, highly stable conjugated structures
are formed by the isomerization of methylene-interrupted polyunsaturated olen units. For the isomerisation
process, one of the conjugated diene groups in the chain can react with the olenic group from the nearby fatty
acid chain and can form a substituted cyclohexene ring from the Diels alder reaction. At high temperatures of
180 0C, thermal dimerization occurs for the fatty acid methyl ester due to the Diels Alder reaction and forms the
dimer. shows the cyclohexene ring formed from linoleic acid methyl ester and illustrates the formation of
dimers via the Diesel Alder reaction of linoleic acid methyl esters. The same reactions can also occur during the
frying process of oil or fat and can adversely affect the performance of biodiesel obtained from used cooking oil
or animal fat. The fatty acid compositions (mass%) of several biodiesel feedstocks are given among the
different feedstock shown in, coconut oil has a small amount of unsaturated fatty acid (9%) and may be less
susceptible to oxidation. Addition- ally, feedstock with more unsaturated fatty acid part may have more bisallylic hydrogen and may generate less stable biodiesel. Among the different feedstock given in the table,
linseed oil (with 53% linolenic acid) may have the highest tendency for oxidation based on its fatty acid
composition. Most of the parameters affecting the oxidation stability also depend on the fatty acid composition
of the ester.
2. Parameters Indicating the Extent of Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel
An understanding of selected fuel parameters is highly important in evaluating the oxidation stability of
biodiesel. Most of those parameters are directly related to the fatty acid composition of the biodiesel ester
molecules. The important parameters that help to predict the oxidation stability of a biodiesel sample, their
determination and its effect on the oxidation of biodiesel are discussed below.
2.1 Iodine value (IV)
The estimation of the IV for biodiesel fuel, which is the measure of the total degree of unsaturation, provides
useful guidance for preventing various problems in engines. The IV is based on the reactivity of alkyl double
bonds, and an increased IV of biodiesel indicates the possibility for the formation of various degradation
products that can negatively affect engine operability and reduces the quality of lubrication [1]. The IV is
expressed as the gram of iodine consumed per 100 g of the substance, which is the most parameter employed for
determining the magnitude of unsaturation in the esters of fatty acids, fats, oils and their derivatives [1-4]. The
local and international standard organisations provided procedures for the determination of IV in biodiesel. The
IV indicates the tendency of biodiesel to oxidise or polymerise, which leads to the formation of insoluble
sediments. An increase in the degree of unsaturation causes an increase in the iodine used. The IV considers that
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the nature, position in the chain and the amount of oleniccarbons in the fatty compounds are equal and thus
equally reactive, which makes the IV not able to distinguish the structural differences that are present in
different fatty compounds [3]. Therefore, the IV does not provide a measure to determine whether the
hydrogens are allylic or bis-allylic to the double bonds, which is an important factor for determining the
oxidisability of biodiesel. Biodiesel stability is not related to the total number of double bonds expressed by the
IV but is mainly related to the number and position of the bis-allylic methylene moieties adjacent to the double
bond.
2.2 Induction period (IP)
Biodiesel oxidation is mainly the result of a radical chain reaction that causes the formation of hydro peroxides.
During the initial period of storage, the formation of hydro peroxides is very low. This dead time will vary
based on the nature of the FAME, the presence of additives, the conditions of storage, etc. This characteristic
time period is called the induction period (IP). The relative oxidation rate study of the methyl esters conformed
that biodiesel with more poly-un-saturations in the sample can easily experience oxidation [5]. The oxidation
rate of oleic (18:1), linoleic (18:2), and linolenic (18:3) acids is noted as 1:12:25. Additionally, the stability
predicting parameter, called the oxidation stability index, is related to the IP. The minimum IP limits, which are
specified by the American (ASTM D6751-11b) [1] and European (EN 14214) [26] standards for biodiesel in the
resistance of oxidation, are 3 h and 6 h, respectively. The Indian speciation IS-15607 recommends a minimum
of 6 h as the induction time
2.3 Peroxide value (PV)
The PV is generally based on the primary oxidation products, such as the hydro peroxides of the biodiesel, and
is a measure of the peroxide units formed during the oxidation process. The PV is measured in mill equivalents
of peroxide units per kg of the biodiesel sample. The PV influences various parameters in the fuel standard, such
as the cetane number (CN), density, viscosity, etc. [13]. The increase in PV increases CN, which may reduce the
ignition delay time [12]. The increase in PV as well as the acidity after the IP can also cause the corrosion of the
fuel system components, the hardening of the rubber components, the fusion of the moving components and
engine operation problems Several studies exist for storage stability tests for biodiesel, which show that
oxidation can affect fuel quality with respect to the PV [15] report that a low PV is required for the high stability
of biodiesel against oxidation. [1] haveanalyzed the PV of karanja oil methyl ester (KOME). According to the
results obtained from the 180-day storage study, the PV increased as the storage time of biodiesel increased.
Therefore, oxidation stability decreases with an increase in storage time.
2.4 Viscosity
Lower atomization characteristics in the fuel injector are the result of higher viscosity and create many severe
effects on engine performance [7-8].The blending of biodiesel is an effective method for improving the
properties at low temperatures [9-12].Because the vaporization and atomization of the fuel is reduced as a result
of the high viscosity of the fuel, the fuel requires the viscosity of biodiesel increases with an increase in the
carbon chain length, the degree of saturation of the fatty acid and its ester and the presence of free fatty acids.
The viscosity of the biodiesel obtained from the used cooking oil is higher than the biodiesel obtained from neat
vegetable oils. Samples with cis double bond configurations have lower viscosity, whereas samples with trans
double bonds have higher viscosity. However, the position of the double bond has a minor effect on the viscosity
.Highly viscous samples also have a high tendency for oxidation. The main reason for the rapid oxidation
processes with a high viscosity is due to the isomerization of the double bond, usually cis to trans, along with the
formation of high molecular weight products. Viscosity is useful for the measurement of the oxidation
progression of biodiesel. The polymeric secondary oxidation products of biodiesel cause the formation of
soluble gums and insoluble sediments and will result in an increase in the viscosity.
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3. Methods Used to Predict the Stability of Biodiesel

A wide variety of techniques have been used for the stability determination of fatty acid esters. The type of test
method depends mainly upon the nature of the stability, including thermal stability, oxidation stability and
storage stability. For the determination of thermal stability, the Rancimat test, ASTM D6408-08 and TGA/DTA
are used. For the storage stability determination, a modified Rancimat test, ASTM D4625-04, and ASTM
D5304-06 are used. The Active Oxygen Method (AOM), ASTM D2274, ASTM D3241, EN 14112, and ASTM
D5483 are the methods used for the oxidation stability determination of biodiesel.
3.1 ASTM D4625-04
The ASTM D4625-04 method is the most widely established method for the estimation of storage stability for
the middle distillate petroleum fuels [1]. In this method, the fuel is stored at a temperature of 43 1C for a period
of time, such as 24 weeks. The sample is then filtered to evaluate the insoluble sediments of the sample, and the
remaining filtrate was investigated to determine the total AV and kinematic viscosity. These tests must be
carried out weekly. For the precipitation of polar polymers present in the sample, isooctane is added. This
modification is necessary in cases where soluble products are formed by the oxidation [1-3]. Because the
temperature in the test conditions is slightly higher than room temperature, fuel oxidation and other degradative
reactions lead to the formation of sediment that is mildly accelerated in this method when compared with
typical storage conditions. In this method, the storage stability prediction is more reliable than the other more
accelerated tests. However, because the storage periods are lengthy (424 weeks), the test method is not
appropriate for quality control testing and only provides a tool for research on the storage properties of fuels.
The storage material is also an important aspect for this study.
3.2 ASTM D6468-08 Light Reectance Method
For the high temperature stability determination of the middle distillate fuels (including biodiesel), the ASTM
D6468-08 method is more prominent [1]. Here, the sample is aged at 15 0C in open tubes with air contact for
approximately 90 or 180 min. After the aging process, the sample is cooled and the insoluble sediments are
ltered and estimated by the light reectance method of the lter paper. For comparison purposes, a blank is
conducted without the sample using an unused lterpad [6]. The lter paper used for this ASTM method has a
nominal porosity of 11 m, and thus, it cannot capture all of the sediment formed during aging, although it
allows differentiation over a broad range of particle sizes for the sediments. The method of reectance
measurements can be affected by the colour of the lterable insoluble and may thus not be successfully
correlated to the mass of the material that is ltered. Thus, the accuracy of the method is not 100%. This method
can provide an estimate of the stability of fuel when exposed to high temperatures in situations, including a
recirculating engine or burner fuel delivery system, and under other high temperature conditions with limited
exposure to air. In addition, the test method is also helpful in the study of operational problems related to fuel
thermal stability. This method is not suitable for fuels whose ash point is less than 38 1C. This test method is
also not suitable for fuels containing residual oil and is thus only suitable in the estimation of the high
temperature stability of biodiesel with a very high FAME content.
3.3 ASTM D2274 Gravimetric Analysis
This method is based on the ltration, which is followed by the gravimetric analysis of the insoluble materials
that are formed by the oxidation in the presence of heat. Here, the sample is rst aged at 95 C for 16 h by the
bubbling of oxygen at a rate of 3 L/h. The insoluble sediments formed by the thermal oxidation stick on the
oxidation cell and are detached with the help of a tri-solvent containing equal parts of toluene, acetone, and
methanol. The solvent is then evaporated to recover the insoluble sediments (insoluble) formed. The total yield
of the insoluble, expressed as milligrams per 100 ml, is reported as total insoluble. An additional analysis exists
for the determination of biodiesel-soluble polymers. In this case, iso-octane is added to the sample so that the
soluble polymers will precipitate. This precipitate is ltered to acquire the measure of the soluble polymers
[1,3]. The use of an elevated temperature and a pure oxygen atmosphere for the test may cause differences in the
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nature and amount of insoluble formed in real storage situations. This test method is also not applicable to fuels
containing residual oil. This test method has not been validated for the testing of biodiesel or blends of middle
distillates and biodiesel meeting ASTM specications. The test method D7462 is more suitable for testing B100
and all blends of middle distillates and biodiesel because samples containing biodiesel can cause a partial
dissolution or compromise of the membrane lter, providing erroneous results.
3.4. EN 14112, Rancimat Method-IP measurement
The Rancimat method is the usual and the ofcial method for determining the oxidative stability of oils and fats
by the American Oil Chemists' Society (AOCS). In this method, the temperature range is usually limited to a
maximum of 130 C [1]. After that, air is bubbled through the sample so that the oxidation of the sample takes
place. As a result of the oxidation process, a release of some gases along with the air occurs, which is then passed
to deionized water in a ask. Theask has an electrode, which is connected to a device for a measurement of the
conductivity. The induction period (IP) is measured for this test method. Here, the IP is noted as the time at
which the conductivity starts to increase very quickly. The continuous measurement of this conductivity gives
an oxidation curve. The point of inection of this curve is known as the induction period. Volatile acidic gases,
such as formic acid, acetic acid and some other acids, are produced by the oxidation and are absorbed in the
water, which is the main reason for the increment in the conductivity and in the IP measurement [1,3].
3.5 Effect of Antioxidants on the Biodiesel Stability
It is evident from literature that higher concentration of antioxidants is more effective in radical trapping and
hence minimize the extent of oxidation of a biodiesel. The increase in viscosity of the biodiesel sample over a
period of time is an indicator of loss of stability i.e. this value provides an indication of the oxidative reactivity
of a biodiesel. Both synthetic and natural antioxidants showed that they were able to retard the oxidation
process and improve the storage stability.However, the synthetic antioxidant (BHT) showed better
performance when compared to natural antioxidant. These results have clearly showed that the type of
antioxidant and its dosage plays an important role in retarding auto oxidation of biodiesel during storage. The
results of these experiments (acid value vs. time and viscosity vs. time) contributed to the development of a
predictive model.[3]
3.6 Effect of Metal Contaminants and the Storage Container on the Stability of Biodiesel
The presence of metal contaminants is another reason for the deterioration of biodiesel during storage. Eduardo
Pereyra mentioned about the storage materials for biodiesel [3]. Biodiesel undergoes an interaction with the
metals, especially with Cu and its alloys, and as a result, insoluble sediments are formed in bulk quantities by
the oxidation process. Among the different metals, Cu has the strongest catalyzing effect on the oxidation
process. In addition, biodiesel is infused into plastic materials, such as ethyleneand polypropylene, during its
contact [1,3]. Therefore, these plastic materials and Cu-containing tanks are not suitable for the storage of
biodiesel. In the case of metals and alloys, the compatible ones include aluminium, carbon steel, stainless steel
and bre glass [26]. Storage materials made up of copper, bronze, tin, zinc, etc. may hasten the oxidation of
biodiesel and may result in the formation of insoluble sediments.
4. Conclusions
The biodiesel stabilitymay be affected by large number of parameters which can be categorized by oxidation,
thermal and storage stability parameters. The present review has covered the different types of the fuel
stabilities, mechanism of occurrence and correlations/equations developed to investigate the impact of various
stability parameters on the stability of the fuel. Main parameters related to stability are PV, AV, IP, BAPE, APE,
OSI and OX. And it was found that impact of APE is more on induction period than with that of BAPE. A review
of the use of different types of natural and synthetic antioxidants has also been presented which indicates that
natural antioxidants, being very sensitive to biodiesel production techniques and the distillation processes have
varying impacts on the fuel stability. The work on the use of synthetic antioxidants on the stability of biodiesel
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fromvarious resources have indicated that out of various synthetic antioxidants studied so far only 3
antioxidants have been found to increase the fuel stability significantly. However, effectiveness of these
antioxidants is if the order of TBHQ > PY >PG. The reviewreveals that, lot ofworkis requiredtobe done for
stability of non-edible oils. Apart from this, additional research is required tobe done to investigate the effect of
stability of biodiesel on engineperformance as well as effect on emissions.
References
[1] ZahiraYaakob, Binitha N. Narayanan , SilijaPadikkaparambil , Surya Unni K. , Mohammed Akbar P.A
review on the oxidation stability of biodiesel,Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews(2014)
[2] Siddharth Jain, M.P. Sharma, Study of oxidation stability of Jatropha curcas biodiesel/ diesel blends,
energy and environment
[3] A. VenkatramKiran, J. Jayapriya&. Manoj Ravi (2015): Evaluation and Predictive Model Development
of Oxidative Stability of Biodiesel on Storage, Chemical Engineering Communications, DOI:
10.1080/00986445.2015.1085383
[4] M. Balat and H. Balat, "Progress in biodiesel processing," Appl. Energy, vol. 87, pp. 1815-1835, 6,
2010.
[5] A. Pal, A. Verma, S S. Kachhwaha, S. Maji, Biodiesel production through hydrodynamic cavitation and
performance testing. Renewable Energy, 35, 619(2010).
[6] Raheman, H., Phadatare, A.G. Diesel engine emissions and performance from blends of karanja methyl
ester and diesel. Biomass Bioenergy, 27, 393397, (2004).
[7] Shahidi F, Zhong Y. Lipid oxidation and improving the oxidative stability. ChemSoc Rev 2010;39:406779.
[8] Yadav, A.K..Khan, M.E. Dubey, A. M. Pal, A. Performance and emission characteristics of a
transportation diesel engine operated with non-edible vegetable oils biodiesel, Case Studiesin Thermal
Engineering 8(2016)236244
[9] Monyem A, Van Gerpen JH. The effect of biodiesel oxidation on engine
[10] A.K. Yadav et al., Kaner biodiesel production through hybrid reactor and its performance testing on a CI
engine at different compression ratios, Egypt. J. Petrol. (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2016.07.006
[11] Ryu K. The characteristics of performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine using a biodiesel with
antioxidants. Bioresource Tech. 2010; 101: 578582.
[12] Yadav, A.K., Khan, M.E., Pal, A., Sharma, D. Optimisation of biodiesel production from bitter groundnut
oil using Taguchi method and its performance and emissions characteristics on a 4-cylinder Tata Indica
engine', Int. J. Sustainable Agricultural Management and Informatics, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.285300,2015
[13] Rao TV, G. Rao P, K. Reddy HC. Experimental investigation of 458 Pongamia, Jatropha and Neem
methyl esters as biodiesel on c.i. engine. Jordan J Mech. and Ind. Eng. 2008;460 2(2):117 22
[14] ChakrabortyM,BaruahDC.InvestigationofoxidationstabilityofTerminaliabelericabiodiesel and its
blends with petrodiesel. Fuel Process Technol 2012;98:518.
[15] Hiroaki Imahara, Eiji Minami, Shusaku Hari, Saka Shiro. Thermal stability of biodiesel in supercritical
methanol. Fuel 2008;87(1):16.
[16] B a n n i s t e r C D , C h u c k C J , B o u n d s M , H a w l e y J G . O x i d a t i v e s t a b i l i t y o f b i o d i e s e l f u e l .
ProcInstMechEngPartD:JAutomobEng2011;225:99114.
[17] Santos NA, Cordeiro AMTM, Damasceno SS, Aguiar RT, Rosenhaim R, Filho JRC, et al. Commercial
antioxidants and thermal stability evaluations. Fuel 2012;97:638-43.
[18] Xue, J., Grift, T.E.; Hansen, A.C. Effect of biodiesel on engine performances and emissions. Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev., 15, 10981116. (2011)
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Catalysts used in Biodiesel Production

Abstract- Biodiesel fuel has come up as one of the potential substitutes to petro-diesel fuel. Biodiesel
production is mainly carried out through transesterification reaction using homogeneous or heterogeneous
catalysts. The main distinguished catalyst used in production of biodiesel is the homogeneous alkaline catalyst
like Potassium hydroxide (KOH), Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), Sodium Methoxide (CH3ONa) and Potassium
Methoxide CH3OK. These catalysts are preferred mainly due to their high kinetic reaction rates. In case of low
quality feedstock with high level of free fatty acids, various homogeneous acid catalysts are used. There are
various problem associated with homogeneous catalysts in biodiesel production which can be overcome by
developing heterogeneous catalyst such as solid and enzymes catalysts. Therefore this study analyzes the
effects of different catalysts used for biodiesel production using the results available in the literature available.
Also, this critical review could allow identification of research areas to explore and improve the catalysts
performance commonly employed in producing biodiesel fuel.
Keywords- Biodiesel; FFA; Transesterification; Homogeneous Catalyst; Heterogeneous Catalyst.
ntroduction The economic development of a nation depends upon its energy adequacy. In recent years,
there have been concerns over price rise of crude oil due to the depleting fossil fuel resources. In addition,
environmental pollution, through the emission of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbon and
hazardous particulates, and the threat of climatic change associated with green house effect are the most serious
problems across the world. Therefore, to increase energy security for economic development and to minimize
emission, the need to search for an alternative source of energy such as biodiesel is necessary. Biodiesel is
renewable, sustainable, biodegradable, and emits low greenhouse gases, consisting of mono alkyl esters of fatty
acids derived from sources such as vegetable oils and animal fats. Unlike fossil fuel, biodiesel contains oxygen
in its molecular structure help in speeding up the combustion of fuel in compression ignition engines resulting
in decrement in the emission of carbon monoxide (CO), soot etc.
Biodiesel can be produced through different methods like direct/blends, micro emulsion, thermal cracking
(pyrolysis) and transesterification. Among these methods alkali-catalyzed transesterification is the most
common method for producing biodiesel. In transesterification reaction, high viscosity of vegetable oil is
reduced to a value closer to that of diesel fuel while cetane number and heating value are saved and glycerin is
obtained as by-product in this reaction. The reaction necessitates alcohol to react with triglycerides (Vegetable
oils) in the presence of catalyst. Methanol is the commonly used due to its low cost and quick reaction with
triglycerides.
Balbir Singh
Mechanical Engineering Department, ABES Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad, India.
Email bsingh810@yahoo.co.in
Amit Pal
Mechanical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, Delhi -42
Email amitpal@dce.ac.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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(Transesterification of triglycerides via alkaline catalyst)

2. Role of Catalyst In Production of Biodiesel
Catalyst can cause a change in the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being consumed in the reaction. It
works by changing the activation energy for a reaction, i.e., the minimum energy required for the reaction to
occur. It provides a new mechanism or reaction path through which the reaction can proceed. When the new
reaction path has lower activation energy, the reaction rate is increased and the reaction is said to be catalyzed.
The catalysts usually employed to catalyze transesterification reaction are homogeneous catalysts and
heterogeneous catalysts.
Homogeneous Catalyst
Homogeneous catalyst and reactants remains in same phase. Homogeneous catalyst dissolves in a solvent with
the substrates. Homogeneous Base Catalysts (NaOH, KOH, CH3ONa, and CH3OK etc.) and Homogeneous
Acid Catalysts {H2SO4, HCl, Fe2(SO4)3 etc.} are used for transesterification reaction. Conventionally,
homogeneous alkaline catalysts are more often used in producing biodiesel due to its faster reaction rate almost
4000 times than that of acid catalyst [1].
Biodiesel Production Using Homogeneous Base-catalyzed Transesterification
NaOH and KOH are most commonly employed as catalyst in industrial biodiesel production process due to its
low price. These catalysts needs high-quality refined feedstocks for the reaction to take place. The high cost of
refined feedstocks results in high price of biodiesel compared to diesel fuel. Biodiesel yield using alkaline
catalyzed transesterification is more when vegetable oil of high quality is used. However, low quality feedstock
like waste cooking oil and used frying oil contain significant amounts of water and FFAs, reduces the biodiesel
yield. Water reacts with triglyceride and produces FFA and these FFAs further reacts with the alkaline catalyst
to produce soaps. Soaps formation consumes the catalyst, deactivates it and makes biodiesel purification
process difficult and expensive.
Transesterification of triglycerides can be achieved in batches in the presence of alkaline catalyst at normal
atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of approximately 60C with the methanol. But the time taken to
complete alkali catalytic transesterification reaction is quite long. And removal of these catalysts from the
produce is technically difficult and it increases the cost of biodiesel production.
(a)
Vicente Et Al. used different catalysts (NaOH, KOH, CH3ONa and CH3OK using sunflower oil with
reaction temperature 65 C, methanol to oil ratio of 6:1 and catalyst 1% by weight of vegetable oil and
got a yield of 85.9%, 91.67%, 99.33% and 98.46% respectively) [2]
(b)
100 ml of Karanja oil was transesterified using KOH as catalyst dissolved in CH3OH in a molar ratio of
290
(c)
(d)
8-10 at reaction temperature of 70 and maximum yield of 90% was obtained in 30-40 min of reaction
time [3].
Alkaline metal alkoxides (like CH3ONa) are very active catalysts as compared to alkaline metal
hydroxides (KOH and NaOH). Biodiesel yield is more than 98% for a short reaction time of 30 min.
Alkaline metal hydroxides (KOH and NaOH) are preferred due to their low cost. [4]
A. Demirbas reported that transesterification reaction of 100 g of vegetable oil in methanol (200 ml)
containing fresh sodium (0.8 g), was very fast. The triglycerides were completely transesterified in 25
min at room temperature through sodiummethoxide-catalyzed transesterification compared to 60360
min in acid and alkali-catalyzed processes at higher temperature of 303338 K [5].
Biodiesel production using Homogeneous Acid-catalyzed Transesterification

The acid catalysts commonly employed in transesterification are sulfuric acid, sulfonic acid, hydrochloric acid,
organic sulfonic acid, ferric sulfate, etc. Hydrochloric acid, sulfonic acid and sulfuric acid are usually favored
as catalysts for the production of biodiesel. The catalyst and the alcohol are mixed with a mechanical stirrer in a
small reactor. The oil is fed into the biodiesel reactor and then the mixture of alcohol and catalyst is fed into the
oil. Sulfuric acid or sulfonic acid is used to catalyze the reaction. The catalysts help in producing high yield of
biodiesel, whereas the reaction rate is slow. The molar ratio (alcohol to oil) is the main influencing factor in the
reaction. Therefore addition of excess alcohol fastens the reaction for the formation of biodiesel.
Leung found that esterification using acid-catalysts makes the best use of the FFAs in oils and converts it into
fatty acid alkyl esters. If the acid value of the oils is very high then one-step esterification may not reduce the
FFAs efficiently. This is because of the high content of water produced during the reaction [6].
Conventionally, commercial biodiesel is produced by using customary liquid base catalysts. However, there is a
significant motivation for the substitution of liquid bases by solid bases for the following reasons:
(a) Expensive catalyst separation from reaction mixture.
(b) High energy consumption.
(c) Corrosiveness.
(d) Formation of unwanted soap by-product due to presence of FFAs.
(e) The costs associated with the disposal of spent or neutralized caustics.
(f) Generation of large amounts of wastewater during products separation and cleaning.
In other words, the use of heterogeneous catalysts allows a more environmental friendly method to be used for
production of biodiesel. In addition, the use of heterogeneous catalysts could enable the design of an efficient,
continuous process and improve the economics of biodiesel production. Furthermore, the use of
heterogeneous catalysts does not produce soaps through free fatty acid neutralization, which simplifies the
post-treatment processes. Because of these advantages, research on the transesterification reaction using
heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production has increased over the past decade. So there is a need to find
novel heterogeneous catalysts that have desirable physical and chemical properties for biodiesel production.
Effect of Homogeneous Catalyst
(a)
Homogeneous alkaline catalysts initiate faster transesterification reaction than that of acid catalysts.
(b)
CH3ONa and CH3OK are better than NaOH and KOH in terms of biodiesel yield.
(c)
NaOH and KOH do not form water during reaction, so mostly preferred in biodiesel production.
Advantages of Using Homogeneous Base Catalyst
(a)
Mostly cheap like NaoH and KOH
(b)
Leung and Guo revealed that KOH is better than NaOH in terms of separation of biodiesel from
glycerol. As potassium soap is soft and does not sink in glycerol. [7]
(c)
Less corrosive.
(d)
High reaction rate.
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Disadvantages of Using Homogeneous Base Catalyst

(a)
Formation of soap.
(b)
Water washing is inevitable.
(c)
High energy consumption.
(d)
High waste water production.
(e)
High purification cost.
(f)
Catalysts are not recycled.
(g)
Use is limited to 0.5wt% FFA only.
(h)
Water in raw material interferes with reaction.
(i)
Recovery of glycerol is difficult.
Advantages of Using Homogeneous Acid Catalyst
(a)
No soap formation.
(b)
Single step esterication and transesterication can be achieved simultaneously.
(c)
Single step esterication and transesterication process decrease the cost of production.
(d)
Production cost of catalyst is lower.
Disadvantages of Using Homogeneous Acid Catalyst
(a)
Recycling difficulty.
(b)
High purification cost.
(c)
High Energy consumption.
(d)
Low reaction rate.
(e)
Recovery of glycerol is difficult
Heterogeneous Catalyst
Heterogeneous catalyst is in a different phase from the reactants. Most heterogeneous catalysts are solids that
act on substrates in a liquid or gaseous reaction mixture. A solid catalyst adsorbs reacting species onto its
surface where the reaction takes place. Heterogeneous Solid Alkaline catalysts (such as CaO, Al2O3 etc),
Heterogeneous Solid Acid catalysts (Zinc Stearate/SiO2, MoO3/ZrO2) and Heterogeneous Enzymes catalysts
(Candida antarctica lipase, Pseudomonas cepacia, Pseudomonas fluorescens) are used for biodiesel production
Biodiesel production using Heterogeneous solid alkaline catalyzed transesterification
(a) CaO catalyst derived from CaCO3 is a best know base catalyst used for transesterification of oil having low
FFA. Being non toxic and cheap it is best suited for transesterification.
(b) Granados produced CaO by calcinations of CaCO3 at 800C for 1 hour and used it for transesterification of
sunflower oil, using methanol and oil molar ratio 14:1 at a temperature of 60C for 5 hours and obtained
90% biodiesel yield. [8]
(c) Kouzu treated CaCO3 at 900C for 1 hour to obtain CaO and this catalyst used for transesterification of
Soybean oil with methanol and oil molar ratio 12:1 at a temperature of 65C for 2 hours and nearly complete
conversion obtained. This catalyst has high surface basicity due to increased calcinations temperature and
time. The same catalyst when used with Jatropha curcas oil (JCO), only 18% biodiesel was obtained due to
large quantity of soap formed due to presence of high level of FFA. But nearly complete conversion was
obtained form Rape seed oil (RSO) under similar conditions for a reaction time of 3 hours. [9]
(d) Watkins used catalyst CaO doped with Lithium (Li-CaO) for transesterification of vegetable oil with high
moisture content of 15 wt.% and high FFA content of 6% with methanol at a temperature of 60C for 2
hour and obtained complete conversion to biodiesel. Increasing of Lithium doping on CaO decreased the
surface area of CaO and increase the pore diameter. High pore diameter allows massive triglycerides to
diffuse easily to the catalytic sites. Li-CaO has better activity than CaO. A complete conversion was
achieved for RSO but only 66.4% conversion in case of JCO. The yield was better for Li-CaO than CaO in
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case of high FFA containing oil. However formation of soap was still a problem for JCO and RSO due to
presence of high FFA. [10] & [11]
(e) Transition metal oxide catalysts are used for transesterification and esterification of high FFA
simultaneously. These metal oxides are prepared by combining Lewis base metal oxides and Lewis acid
metal oxides leading to base and acid sites in a single catalyst for simultaneous transesterification and
esterification reaction. Ya prepared La2O3-ZnO catalyst using molar ratio of Zn and La as 3:1 and tested for
transesterification and esterification reaction at 200C esterifies up to 32% FFA using methanol to oil ratio
as 36:1. The very high methanol to oil ratio limits the use of these catalyst. [12]
(f)
Zeng attempted Mg-Al hydrotalcite catalysts for producing biodiesel from rape oil and achieved
90.5% conversion. The performance of the catalyst is dependent on the ratio of Mg and Al. The catalyst in
3:8 ratios of Mg and Al was considered most suitable. Di Serio investigated Mg-Al hydrotalcite for
transestrification of vegetable oil at reaction temperature 215-225C using methanol/oil weight ratio of
0.45 and catalyst of 1wt% to produce a biodiesel yield 94wt%. Wen used Li doped magnesium oxide
catalysts in range of 3-15wt%, methanol to oil molar ratio of 12 and reaction temperature of 65C for 2
hours. [13]
Biodiesel Production Using Heterogeneous Solid Acid Catalyzed Transesterification
(a)
Helwani investigated and found that solid acid catalysts are better than homogeneous acid, although
having poor catalytic activities. The authors assessed different solid catalysts for the production of
biodiesel from high FFAs feedstocks like waste cooking oil. The catalysts investigated are zinc
stearate/SiO2, MoO 3 , WO 3 /ZrO 2 , WO 3 /ZrO 2 Al 2 O 3 , MoO 3 /SiO 2 and zinc ethanoate/SiO 2 .
Zinc stearate with silica gel was most active catalyst. The catalyst reused many times at optimized
conditions of reaction temperature of 197C, oil to alcohol molar ratio 1:18, and 3 wt% catalyst loading
without being deactivated. 98 wt% biodiesel yields were recorded. Recycling of catalyst reduces the cost of
biodiesel production. [14]
(b)
Kitiyanan used solid acid catalysts such as KNO3/ZrO2, KNO3/KL zeolite, SO42-/SnO2 andSO4/ZrO
catalysts. SO42-/SnO2 andSO4/ZrO catalysts provided biodiesel yield 90.3wt%. [15]
Advantages of using heterogeneous base/acid catalyst
(a)
Environmental friendly.
(b)
Easily recycled.
(c)
Separation difficulty reduced.
(d)
High purity of glycerol.
(e)
Lower cost of separation.
Disadvantages of using heterogeneous base/acid catalyst
(a)
Leaching effect.
(b)
Catalyst preparation is difficult and expensive.
(c)
Relatively slow rate of reaction.
Biodiesel production using enzymes catalyzed transesterification
Various enzymes catalyst tested for transesterification of vegetable oil are Candida antarctica lipase, Candida
sp., Pseudomonas uorescens, Pseudomonas Cepacia, Rhizomucor miehei, Chromobacterium viscosum and
Rhizopus oryzae lipase. Author Casimir investigated that using enzymes lipases as catalyst for
transesterication reactions biodiesel can be produced. Casimir found that using lipase may reduce the cost of
biodiesel production downstream processing difficulties. This approach is also environment friendly.
Shah used lipase catalyst to prepare biodiesel from jatropha oil. He took 0.5 gm jatropha oil and ethanol in
molar ratio of 1:4 and 50 mg of immobilized enzyme in a screw capped bottle and kept it in 40C with a uniform
shaking of 200rpm for 8 hours.
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Advantages of Using Enzyme Catalysts

(a) No soap formation.
(b) Non polluting.
(c) Easy separation.
(d) High purity of glycerol.
(e) Lower cost of separation
Disadvantages of Using Enzyme Catalysts
(a) High cost of enzymes.
3. Conclusion
This study is done to identify the catalyst that is efficient in fast conversion of FFAs, environment friendly,
reusable and economical viable.
References
[1] F. Hideki, K. Akihiko, N. Hideo, Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 92 (2001) 405.
[2] G.Vicente, M.Martinez, J.Aracil, Bioresource Technology 92 (2004) 297.
[3] Vivek and AK Gupta, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research Vol 63 Jan 2004, pp 39-47
[4] Z. Helwani, M.R. Othman, N. Aziz, W.J.N. Fernando, J. Kim, Fuel Processing Technology 90(2009)1502.
[5] A. Demirbas, Comparison of transesterication methods for production of biodiesel from vegetable oils
and fats, Energy Conv. Mgmt. 49 (2008) 125130.
[6] D.Y.C. Leung, X. Wu, M.K.H. Leung, Applied Energy 87 (2010) 1083.
[7] D.Y.C. Leung, Y. Guo, Fuel Processing Technology 87 (2006) 883
[8] Granados ML, Alonso DM, Alba-Rubio AC, Mariscal R, Ojeda M, Brettes P. Transesterication of
triglycerides by CaO: increase of the reaction rate by biodiesel addition. Energy Fuels 2009;23:2259e63.
[9] Kouzu M, Kasuno T, Tajika M, Sugimoto Y, Yamanaka S, Hidaka J. Calcium oxide as a solid base catalyst
for transesterication of soybean oil and its application to biodiesel production. Fuel 2008;87:2798e806.
[10] Watkins RS, Lee AF, Wilson K. LieCaO catalysed tri-glyceride transesterication for biodiesel
applications. Green Chem 2004;6:335e40.
[11] Alonso DM, Mariscal R, Granados ML, Maireles-Torres P. Biodiesel preparation using Li/CaO catalysts:
activation process and homogeneous contribution. Catal Today 2009;143:167e71.
[12] Yan S, Salley SO, Simon Ng KY. Simultaneous transesterication and esterication of unrened or waste
oils over ZnOeLa2O catalysts. Appl Catal A 2009;353:203e12.
[13] D. Siano, M. Nastasi, E. Santacesaria, M. Di Serio, R. Tesser, G. Minutillo, M. Ledda, T. Tenore, WO
050925 A1 (2006).
[14] Z. Helwani, M.R. Othman, N. Aziz, W.J.N. Fernando, J. Kim, Fuel Processing Technology 90 (2009)
1502.
[15] J. Jitputti, B. Kitiyanan, P. Rangsunvigit, K. Bunyakiat, L. Attanatho, P. Jenvanit- panjakul, Chemical
Engineering Journal 116 (2006) 61.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Biodiesel Production from WCO using

Abstract- Biodiesel can be prepared from vegetable oils, animal fats and waste lipids and it is a low emission,
clean renewable fuel and is one of the alternative of petro diesel. Transesterification is the most commonly used
method to produce biodiesel from raw oils. Other three methods of biodiesel production are: Direct use and
blending of raw oils, micro-emulsion and thermal cracking. The study deals with heterogeneous catalyst based
transesterification reaction for conversion of raw WCO into biodiesel. Calcium oxide used as heterogeneous
catalyst was prepared from easily available and cheap white chalk (CaCO3) by the process of calcinations. The
heterogeneous catalyst was easily separated from the crude biodiesel produced by transesterification reaction.
Further, catalyst separation did not require water washing process during purification process of biodiesel.
Biodiesel production was investigated for various factors such as molar ratio of methanol to oil, reaction time
and wt% of catalyst to oil with the help of recycled heterogeneous catalyst. Sustainable yields were obtained
when the proposed catalyst was used in mechanical stirring, hydrodynamic cavitation and ultrasonic cavitation
methods. The present research has the potential to ease the process of biodiesel production without
environmental degradation from low quality feedstocks.
Keywords- Biodiesel, FFA, Heterogeneous Catalyst, Calcined Chalk, Waste Cooking Oil.
ntroduction Advancement in the global industrialization and transportation has led to a steep rise for the
demand of petroleum-based fuels. Petroleum-based fuels being limited are highly concentrated in certain
regions of the world. Therefore, those countries not having these resources are facing energy/foreign
exchange crisis, mainly due to the import of crude petroleum. In recent years, there is growing concerns over
increasing prices of crude oil due to the depleting fossil fuel resources. In addition, environmental pollution
through the emission of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbon and hazardous particulates, and the
threat of climatic change associated with green house effect are the most serious problems across the world.
Therefore, to increase energy security for economic development and to minimize emission, the need to search
for an alternative and environment friendly source of energy such as biodiesel is necessary [1]. Biodiesel is
biodegradable, non-toxic and essentially free from sulphur; it is renewable and can be produced from
agriculture and plant resources. Biodiesel is an acceptable alternative fuel, which has a correlation with
sustainable development, energy conservation, management, efficiency and environmental preservation .
Moreover biodiesel can be used with little or no modification in existing C.I engines. Unlike fossil fuel,
biodiesel contains oxygen in its molecular structure help in speeding up the combustion of fuel in compression
ignition engines resulting in decrement in the emission of carbon monoxide (CO), soot etc. [2].
Biodiesel can be produced through different methods like direct use and blending of raw oils, micro-emulsion,
thermal cracking (pyrolysis) and transesterification. Raw vegetable oils are the mixture of organic compounds
Balbir Singh
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, ABES Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad, India.
Email bsingh810@yahoo.co.in
Amit Pal
Mechanical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, Delhi -42
Email amitpal@dce.ac.in

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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ranging from simple straight chain compound to complex structure of proteins and fat-soluble vitamins
whereas the petroleum diesel fuel molecules are saturated non-branched molecules with carbon atoms ranging
between 12 and 18 [3]. The disadvantages of vegetable oil as diesel fuels are higher viscosity, higher flash point
attributing to its lower volatility and the reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbons [4]. Short term problems like
cold weather starting; Plugging and gumming of filters, lines and injectors; engine knocking and long term
problems such as coking of injectors; excessive engine wear and failure of engine lubricating oil due to
polymerization takes place due to above mentioned properties of vegetable oil [5] when used in existing
unmodified direct and indirect diesel engine. When the vegetable oil are used in C.I engines directly or by
diluting it with petro diesel than that method is called direct use and blending of raw oils. [6]
Micro-emulsions are the colloidal equilibrium dispersion of optically isotropic fluid microstructures
with dimension generally in the 1-150nm range formed spontaneously from immiscible vegetable oil and
alcohol (Methanol, Ethanol and 1-Butanol). Micro-emulsions were found to have better spray patterns during
combustion and lower fuel viscosity. However the micro-emulsions have lower cetane number and lower
calorific value which makes it unsuitable for use in C.I engine for long time [7]
Transesterification is the process of exchanging the alkoxy group of an ester compound by another
alcohol. The reaction necessitates alcohol to react with triglycerides (vegetable oil) in the presence of catalyst.
Methanol is commonly used alcohol due to its low cost and quick reaction with triglycerides [8].
Transesterification is the most commonly used method of biodiesel production. Biodiesel produced by
transesterification reaction have higher cetane number, lower emissions and higher combustion efficiency.
However the main disadvantage associated with transesterification is safe disposal of by-products (glycerol
and waste water)[5]. The reactions are often catalyzed by an acid or a base.
Biodiesel Production Process with Catalyzed Reaction
The major shortcoming of alkali catalyst is its rapid reaction with free fatty acids to form soap. Equation 1
represents saponification reaction between FFA and alkali catalyst to form water and soap.
(1)
This reaction is undesirable because the soap lowers the yield of the biodiesel and inhibits the separation of the
esters from the glycerol. In addition, it binds with the catalyst meaning that more catalyst will be needed and
hence the process will involve a higher cost. The water already present in the oil along with water produced in
saponification reaction reacts with triglycerides to form diglyceride and free fatty acids. These undesirable
reactions can be avoided by employing acid catalyzed transesterification reaction. Acid catalyst directly
transforms free fatty acid in oil into biodiesel. Due to the slow reaction rate and the high methanol to oil molar
ratio that is required, acid-catalyzed esterification has not gained as much attention as the alkali-catalyzed
transesterification [9]. The oils with high value of FFA undergo a pre - treatment process (before being
converted into biodiesel) where the oil undergoes neutralization process in the presence of acidic catalyst.
Alkali catalyst based transesterification reaction requires neutralization and separation steps from the reaction
mixture. Recovery of glycerol is difficult, catalyst has to be removed from the product and alkaline waste water
requires treatment [10]. Enzymatic catalysts like lipases are able to effectively catalyze the reaction avoiding
soap formation and the purification process is simple to accomplish. However enzymes are not used
commercially because of longer reaction times and higher cost [11]. Another range of catalyst is heterogeneous
catalyst (alkaline or acidic) which shows easy regeneration from the product by filtration without water
washing and eliminating the need of pre-treatment of feedstocks with high FFA content.
Homogeneous Catalyst
Homogeneous catalyst is in the same phase (Liquid) as the reactants. Typically homogeneous catalysts are
dissolved in a solvent with the substrates. Homogeneous base catalysts (NaOH, KOH, CH3ONa, and CH3OK
etc.) and homogeneous acid catalysts (H2SO4, HCl, Fe2 (SO4)3 etc.) are used for transesterification reaction.
These catalysts have well defined, active sites, moderate activity level and reasonably well understood reaction
mechanism. The important factor in homogeneous base catalyzed reaction is to create nucleophilic alkoxide
from the alcohol to attack the electrophilic part of the carbonyl group of the triglycerides [12] while in acid
catalysis the carbonyl group in triglycerides is protonated and the alcohol attacks the protonated carbon to
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Biodiesel Production from WCO using Heterogeneous Catalyst

create a tetrahedral intermediate. The breakdown of triglyceride requires three steps. The first step is to produce
an intermediate tetrahedral and the second step is the breakdown of the unstable intermediate tetrahedral to
diglyceride ion and fatty acid ester. The last step is the recovery of the catalyst by proton transfer. These three
mechanisms are repeated for cleavage of each fatty acid ester and then finally three fatty acid esters and a
glycerol are formed [13]. After gravity separation of glycerol, the crude biodiesel is purified by water washing,
dry washing or membrane extraction process to remove residual catalyst, free glycerol, unreacted alcohol and
soap that were formed during transesterification reaction.
These catalysts are of the form of supported metals or metal oxides in solid state. In heterogeneous catalysis
contrary to the homogenous system, adsorption of reactants and desorption of products have to take place on the
surface of the solid catalyst for the reaction to take place at increased rate. Heterogeneous catalysts can easily be
tuned to include desired catalyst properties so that the presence of FFAs or water does not adversely affect the
reaction steps during transesterification. Active sites are not well defined and the reaction mechanism is poorly
understood. Compared with the former one, solid acid-catalysts is cheaper, offer some advantages for
eliminating separation, corrosion, toxicity, and environmental problems, but the reaction rate is slower..
Materials
Many vegetable oils like Soybean, Groundnut, Rapeseed, Palm, Olive etc. are wildly used for frying a number
of food items. But after heating above a critical temperature for deep frying, they become unfit for further
cooking, as their further use may lead to cholesterol formation in human beings. Presently, the WCOs are still
lower cost feedstock making biodiesel production more competitive to the production of petroleum based
diesel fuel. WCO was brought from 5 star hotel ITC Maurya Sheraton, Delhi. Methanol was purchased from
nearby local market and white dustless chalk pieces (black board chalk) of Apsara Company containing high
quality calcium carbonate are used to produce calcium oxide (CaO). Table 1 presents the details of ingredients
used for biodiesel production. Experiments were carried out for molar ratio of 6:1, 9:1 and 12:1 for 3%, 4% &
5% catalyst by weight of oil.
Preparation of Heterogeneous Catalyst (CaO) from White Chalk (CaCO3)
Calcination is a thermal treatment process in presence of air or oxygen applied to ores and other solid materials
to bring about a thermal decomposition. The calcination process normally takes place at temperatures below the
melting point and at or above the thermal decomposition temperature. This temperature is usually defined as the
temperature at which the standard Gibbs free energy for a particular calcination reaction is equal to zero. For
Calcium carbonate decomposition process, the chemical reaction is shown in equation 2.
Table 1: Oil, alcohol and catalyst used for mechanical stirring and ultrasonic cavitation.
(2)
White chalk pieces were kept in muffle furnace at 850C for 2 hour. Thermal decomposition started at these
temperatures to drive out CO2 gas and residual is CaO. The chalk pieces (CaO) were allowed to cool in furnace
itself and stored in an airtight container to avoid exposure to air.
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Preparation of WCO, Catalyst and Methyl Alcohol Mixture

WCO is filtered to remove impurities. The raw oil is then heated up to 110C in order to remove any water
content in oil to avoid soap formation during reaction. This oil is then allowed to cool up to 60C temperature.
Catalyst (CaO) (crushed to powder form) in 3%, 4% & 5% by weight of oil and mixed with methyl alcohol
(CH3OH) with in a molar ratio of 6:1, 9:1 and 12:1.
Transesterication by Mechanical Stirring
WCO sample is introduced in the beaker containing mixture of CH3OH and recycled CaO after 1
transesterification process. The beaker is placed on the hot plate of mechanical stirrer functions as a heating
source to maintain the temperature of the solution. The transesterification reaction was carried by conventional
mechanical stirring method. A magnetic capsule is dipped in the mixture and rotated with the help of
mechanical stirrer. The solution is stirred with a speed of 300 rpm. During the reaction the temperature of
mixture is kept within 55-60C for the reaction time period of 3hr, 3 hr, 4hr & 4 hr. When reaction is
completed sample in the beaker is in poured in a separation flask for 2-3 hour for the separation. Catalyst CaO,
soap, Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and methanol settled down in order as per their specific weight (catalyst
at the bottom and methanol at the top).
The insoluble catalyst and glycerine recovered by filtration, dried in an oven at 250 C, sieved and catalyst
reused in subsequent reactions. The remaining solution was put into the beaker. Excess methanol present in
biodiesel has been removed by distillation process and left over is biodiesel.
Transesterification by Ultrasonic Cavitation
Cavitation is a process of formation of vapour cavities in a liquid i.e. formation of small bubbles or voids in the
mass of liquid [14]. It is the process in which a bubble in a fluid is forced to oscillate in size or shape due to some
form of energy input, as in a case of acoustic field. Such cavitation is often employed in ultrasonic cleaning
baths [15]. The transesterification reactions were carried out in an ultrasonic reactor. Ultrasonic horn type
processor is shown in Figure 1.
In horn type reactor, horn is attached with the transducer which produces ultrasonic irradiation in the mixture.
Horn type reactor has been used for this experiment. The ultrasonic cavitation generates ultrasonic processor
frequency of 25-28 kHz. The transducer horn is clamped in a separate stand having jack type table to support the
beaker and for its proper adjustment so that sufficient length of horn is dipped in the sample without touching
the boundaries of the beaker.
Figure 1: Ultrasonic Generator

The mixture of oil, methanol and catalyst is kept inside the ultrasonic processor transducer. Adjust the beaker
so that ultrasonic horn sufficiently dips in the solution. Reaction time was varied for different samples from
half an hour to 2 hour with an increment of half an hour. After the completion of reaction the biodiesel is
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separated in the same way as in mechanical stirring method.
Experimental Results
Figure 2, figure 3 and figure 4 shows comparison of biodiesel yield for mechanical stirring transesterification
process at molar ratio 6:1, 9:1 and 12:1 of methanol to alcohol respectively for varying concentration of
recycled heterogeneous catalyst and reaction time. % yield of biodiesel produced was found to increase sharply
with increase in reaction time from 3 hr to 4 hr and then achieve almost constant yield with increased reaction
time.
Figure 2 shows percentage yield for 5 % catalyst by weight for 4 hr reaction time was 20% higher than that for
4% catalyst and 2.4% higher than for 3 % catalyst for 6:1 molar ratio. The maximum yield was around 85% for
5% CaO catalyst by weight.
Figure 3 shows percentage yield for 5 % catalyst by weight for 4 hr reaction time was 7% higher than that for 4%
catalyst and 2% higher than for 3 % catalyst for 9:1 molar ratio. The maximum yield was around 90% for 5 %
CaO catalyst by weight.
Figure 2: Effect of reaction time and catalyst

concentration on biodiesel yield using
MR 6:1 in Mechanical Stirring



MR 6:1 in Ultrasonic Cavitation
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Figure 4 shows percentage yield for 5 % catalyst by weight for 4 hr reaction time was 6.5% higher than that for
4% catalyst and 2% higher than for 3 % catalyst for 12:1 molar ratio. The maximum yield was around 92% for 5
% CaO catalyst by weight.
Figure 5, figure 6 and figure 7 shows comparison of biodiesel yield for ultrasonic cavitation transesterification
process at molar ratio 6:1, 9:1 and 12:1 of methanol to alcohol respectively for varying concentration of
recycled heterogeneous catalyst and reaction time. % yield of biodiesel produced was found to increase sharply
with increase in reaction time from 0.5 hr to 1 hr and then increases gradually upto 1.5 hr and then achieve
almost constant yield for increased reaction time.

concentration on biodiesel yield using MR
9:1 in Ultrasonic Cavitation

MR 12:1 in Ultrasonic Cavitation
Figure 2 shows percentage yield for 5 % catalyst by weight for 1.5 hr reaction time was 12% higher than that for
3% catalyst and almost equal to that for 4 % catalyst for 6:1 molar ratio. The maximum yield was around 87%
for 5 % CaO catalyst by weight.
Figure 4 shows percentage yield for 5 % catalyst by weight for 1.5 hr reaction time was 10.5% higher than that
for 3% catalyst and 3% higher than for 4 % catalyst for 9:1 molar ratio. The maximum yield was around 93.5%
for 5 % CaO catalyst by weight.
Figure 4 shows percentage yield for 5 % catalyst by weight for 1.5 hr reaction time was 8.5% higher than that for
3% catalyst and 2.5% higher than for 3 % catalyst for 12:1 molar ratio. The maximum yield was around 94% for
5 % CaO catalyst by weight.
Discussion
An increase in methanol to oil molar ratio of 12:1 has given maximum yield for every variation of catalyst
concentration. A further increase in molar ratio does not increase the yield in all the methods of production.
An increase in catalyst concentration has given maximum yield for every variation of different molar ratio of
methanol. A further increase in catalyst quantity does not increase the yield in all the methods of production.
Increase in catalyst quantity beyond 5% raised the viscosity of solution, so the hindrance in the mixing of
reactants.
Conclusion
Heterogeneous base catalyst has proved to be economical, environmental friendly, easily recyclable, ease in
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separation and low cost of separation in comparison with homogeneous catalyst, whereas the catalyst
preparation is difficult and expensive task. Heterogeneous catalyst transesterification reaction was slow when
comparing with homogeneous catalyst. It is probably due to inadequate mass transfer of reactants in the
solution, thus improper and inefficient contacts of reactants with the catalyst to complete the reaction. However
the rate of reaction increases in ultrasonic cavitation method of transesterification reaction. CaO catalyst leads
to sustainable yield even at molar ratio of 12:1 whereas most of the commonly used heterogeneous catalyst
requires high molar ratios upto 20:1.
References
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Oh KK, Kim YS, Yoon HH, Tae BS, Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic biomass using combination of
ammonia recycled percolation and dilute-acid process, Journal of Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry 8 (2002) 64.
2.
Lee SB, Lee JD, Hong IK, Ultrasonic energy effect on vegetable oil based biodiesel synthetic process,
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 17 (2011) 138.
3.
Avinash Kumar Agarwal, Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuels for internal
combustion engines, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 33 (2007) 233271.
4.
Gui MM, Lee KT, Bhatia S. Feasibility of edible oil vs. non-edible oil vs. waste edible oil as biodiesel
feedstock. Energy 2008;33:164653.
5.
Ma F, Hanna MA. Biodiesel production: a review. Bioresour Technol 1999;70:115.
6.
Srivastava A, Prasad R. Triglycerides-based diesel fuels. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2000;4:11133.
7.
Demirbas A. Biodiesel production via non- catalytic SCF method and biodiesel fuel characterstics.
Energy Conv. Mngt 2006; 47:2271-82.
8.
Sahoo PK, Das LM. Process optimization for biodiesel production from Jatropha, Karanja and Polanga
oils. Fuel 2009;88:158894.
9.
Soriano Jr NU, Venditti R, Argyropoulos DS. Biodiesel synthesis via homogeneous Lewis acidcatalyzed transesterification. Fuel 2009;88:5605.
10.
Meher L.C, Vidtasagar D, Naik S.N. Technical aspect of biodiesel production by transesterification a
review. Renew and sustainable energy reviews 10(2006) 248-268.
11.
Dennis Y.C. Leung, Xuan Wu, M.K.H. Leung. A review on biodiesel production using catalyzed
transesterification. Applied energy 87 (2010) 10831095.
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Schuchardta U, Serchelia R, Vargas RM. Transesterification of vegetable oils: a review. J Braz Chem
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Bender ML. Mechanisms of catalysis of nucleophilic reactions of carboxylic acid derivatives. Chem
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Gogate, P. R.; Tayal R K and Pandit A B. Cavitation: A technology on the horizon, Current Science
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Pal, A. and S. S. Kachhwaha. Waste Cooking Oil A Promosing Feedstock for Biodiesel Production
through power ultrasound and hydrodynamic cavitation, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research
72 (2013) 387-392.
301
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CFD Analysis of Wavy Edge Rectangular

Micro-Channel Heat Sink at Different
Reynolds Number
Mohammad Zunaid , Afzal Husain, Anant Jindal
and Avinash Gupchup
Abstract- In this work fluid flow, pressure drop and characteristics of heat transfer in two types of microchannel heat sinks have been analyzed using computational fluid dynamics. One of them is a straight
rectangular micro-channel heat sink on which validation is done by comparing experimental results with
numerical results while the other is a wavy edge type rectangular micro-channel heat sink for which simulation
results are obtained. Water is used as a coolant for the simulation. The material for heat sink is copper. Both the
micro-channels have a width of 0.23 mm and height of 0.71 mm. The aspect ratio () and the length of both the
channels is kept same as 0.32 and 44.7mm respectively. The analysis for both the micro-channels is done for
three sets of Reynolds number which are 400, 800 and 1200 respectively and the heat flux is 200W/cm2. After
constructing the geometry in Solidworks the simulation is done on ANSYS CFX. For both the straight microchannel and the wavy micro-channel investigated, it is found that the thermal performance of wavy edge microchannels is better in comparison to that of straight micro-channels. The temperature rise of water is more in
wavy edge type micro-channels in comparison to that of straight micro-channels of the same hydraulic diameter
for different sets of Reynolds number. Further the pressure drop is more in wavy type of channels which can be
compensated due to the high heat transfer characteristics of wavy micro-channels.
Keywords- CFD; microchanel; heat sink; rectangular; wavy.
ntroduction Large amount of heat from small areas can easily remove by help of micro-channel. The heat
sinks can be used for the next generation of cooling technology in various high performance
supercomputer chips and diodes of laser. The construction of a typical micro-cooler comprise of very large
number coolant channels. Heat sinks can be classified as single phase or two phase depending as to whether the
fluid or liquid boils inside the microchannels or not.
Various types of coolants can be employed in a micro-channel cooler for heat removal. A commonly used
coolant in a heat sink is water. However, for better cooling performance of the micro-channel nano-fluids can be
used. The material of the heat sink has high thermal conductivity such as silicon, copper and aluminum.
Peng and Peterson [1] practically analyses micro-channel and found that heat transfer is dependent upon
the aspect ratio. Fedorov and Viskanta [2] analyze 3-D micro-channel and found that the mean channel wall
temperature along the direction of flow was nearly same except in the region close to the micro-channel inlet
Mohammad Zunaid, Anant Jindal , Avinash Gupchup
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042,
mzunaid3k@gmail.com, anantjindal@hotmail.com, avi.gupchup10@gmail.com.
Afzal Husain
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat Oman,
afzal19@squ.edu.om.
Corresponding Author: Tel: +91-9540609832.
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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portion. Kandlikar et al. [3] study heat transfer and fluid flow in mini-channel and micro-channel. This study
analyzed microchannel heat sink by help of surrogate analysis and hybrid multi-objective evolutionary
approach and found that design variables have significant effect on the thermal performance of microchannel
heat sink [4]. A 3-D rectangular micro-channel heat sink has been geometrically optimized for minimum
thermal resistance using surrogate models [5]. Weilin and Mudawar [6] practically and numerically studied
fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics of a micro-channel heat sink and discussed detailed description of
the local and mean heat transfer characteristics of the heat sink. The use of three-dimensional microchannels
that incorporate either microstructures in the channel or grooves in the channel surfaces may lead to significant
enhancements in single-phase cooling [7]. Yang et al. [8] say friction factor decreases slightly as the curvature
radius of micro-channel increases.
2. Problem Description
For creating geometry, first the heat sink was made in solid works as per the dimensions given in Table1. The
wave dimensions were given according to the length of the channel which is 44.7 mm. A sinusoidal sine wave
(Eq. 1) was constructed in the solid heat sink. The amplitude of the wave was taken as 0.15 mm while the
wavelength was taken as 2 mm. However, fluid channel was created of the same dimensions as of the wavy
rectangular slot along the length of heat sink.
y=A sin (2x/)
(1)
Here , 'A' is wave amplitude and ' is wave length.

Both parts were created separately using Solidworks and were later assembled by inserting fluid channel in
solid heat sink using the insert components and mate option in solid works. Water is moving through a wavy
edge rectangular smaller scale channel heat sink assembly. In this analysis a design for wavy edge type of
micro-channel heat sink is constructed.
The mesh was generated in Ansys. Boundary conditions for the problem are: No slip on the surface,
Uniform inlet temperature and static pressure were given at the entry of the channel, outlet of the channel is
based on mass flow rate, a uniform heat flux of and 200 W/ cm2 at the bottom wall of the heat sink was applied.
3. Validation
In this computational analysis validation is done for straight rectangular micro-channel heat sink
developed by Weilin and Mudawar [6] and the results given for pressure drop and heat transfer in straight
rectangular micro-channel for 200W/cm2 heat flux. Three values of Reynolds number are taken for the analysis
which are 400, 800, 1200 respectively.
From Table 2 it clear that the values of computational pressure drop and temperature rise for heat flux value
of 200W/cm2 are found to be in close agreement with the experimental pressure drop and temperature rise.
Hence the computational model is successfully validated on the basis of pressure drop and temperature rise
along the channel length.
4. Results
In the following computational fluid dynamics analysis, the results are plotted for pressure drop and heat
transfer in wavy edge type rectangular micro-channel for two different values of heat fluxes applied at the
bottom of the heat sink for varying set of values of Reynolds number. The value of heat flux used in the analysis
is 200W/cm2 and 400, 800 and 1200 Reynolds number are shown in Fig 3-11 and in Table 4.
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CFD Analysis of Wavy Edge Rectangular Micro-Channel.....
Figure 1. Geometry of wavy micro-cannel

heat sink.
Figure 3. Pressure contour along wavy

channel at Re=400.
Figure 2. Meshing of geometry in ANSYS CFX
Figure 4. Temperature contour of water

and heat sink for wavy channel at Re=400.
Figure 5. Velocity contour along

wavy channel at Re=400.
Figure 6. Pressure contour along
wavy channel at Re=800.
Figure 7. Temperature contour for

heat sink and water at Re=800.
Figure 8. Velocity contour for wavy

edge channel at Re=800.
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Table 1: Dimensions of the unit cell used for simulation
Figure 9. Pressure contour along wavy edge

channel at Re=1200.
Figure 10. Temperature contour of

heat sink and water at Re=1200.
Figure 11. Velocity contour along wavy

edge channel at Re=1200.
Table 2: Experimental and computational pressure drop and temperature rise for
different Reynolds number for heat flux =200W/cm2
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CFD Analysis of Wavy Edge Rectangular Micro-Channel.....

Table 3: Computational temperature rise, pressure drop and maximum velocity for different
Reynolds number for heat flux =200W/cm2
5. Conclusion
Based on the numerical study on both straight and wavy edge type micro-channel following conclusions can be
made(I)
Water temperature rise is more at the outlet of wavy edge type of micro-channels in comparison to
straight micro-channels for same values of Reynolds number and heat flux.
(ii)
From the above results both for straight rectangular micro-channel and wavy edge type micro-channel
the thermal performance of wavy edge micro-channel is found to be better in comparison to that of
straight micro-channel of same hydraulic diameter.
(iii) Pressure drop is found to be more in wavy edge micro-channels in comparison to that of straight microchannels, however the loss in pressure is compensated by the better heat transfer characteristics of the
wavy micro-channel.
(iv) Velocity of water is more in wavy type of micro-channels closer to inlet for different values of Reynolds
number.
(v)
Velocity of water decreases along the flow direction in wavy micro-channels due to loss in energy of
fluid while travelling along wavy channel.
References
Peng, X. F., and G. P. Peterson. "Convective heat transfer and flow friction for water flow in
[1]
microchannel structures." International journal of heat and mass transfer 39, no. 12 (1996): 25992608.
Fedorov, Andrei G., and Raymond Viskanta. "Three-dimensional conjugate heat transfer in the
[2]
microchannel heat sink for electronic packaging. "International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 43,
no. 3 (2000): 399-415.
Kandlikar, Satish, Srinivas Garimella, Dongqing Li, Stephane Colin, and Michael R. King. Heat
[3]
transfer and fluid flow in minichannels and microchannels. Elsevier, 2005.
Husain, Afzal, and Kwang-Yong Kim. "Optimization of a microchannel heat sink with temperature
[4]
dependent fluid properties." Applied Thermal Engineering 28, no. 8 (2008): 1101-1107.
[5]
A. Husain and K. Y. Kim, "Shape Optimization of Micro-Channel Heat Sink for Micro-Electronic
Cooling," in IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 322330, June 2008.
Qu, Weilin, and Issam Mudawar. "Experimental and numerical study of pressure drop and heat transfer
[6]
in a single-phase micro-channel heat sink. "International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45, no. 12
(2002): 2549-2565.
Kandlikar, Satish G., and William J. Grande. "Evaluation of single phase flow in microchannels for high
[7]
heat flux chip coolingthermohydraulic performance enhancement and fabrication technology." Heat
transfer engineering 25, no. 8 (2004): 5-16.
Yang, Wei-hua, Jing-zhou Zhang, and Hui-er Cheng. "The study of flow characteristics of curved
[8]
microchannel." Applied thermal engineering 25, no. 13 (2005): 1894-1907.
Anderson, John David, and J. Wendt. Computational fluid dynamics. Vol. 206. New York: McGraw[9]
Hill, 1995.
[10] Patankar, S. V. "Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, Hemisphere, New York, 1980." There is no
corresponding record for this reference (1980).
307
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Availability Analysis of A Mechanical System

With Load Sharing Arrangement Using
Semi-Markov Approach
Gaurav Khattar, Tushar Gupta and Girish Kumar
Abstract In this paper, an analytical approach based on Semi-Markov process has been proposed for
availability assessment of a system with load-sharing arrangement. The current approaches are simulation
based which takes more time. The model is developed by incorporating multi-level degradation at the
component level. For a realistic analysis of mechanical systems, the time to failure of the components is
modelled by a Weibull distribution and the time to repair is assumed as Lognormal distribution. The results of
the proposed model have been compared with the results of a Markov model that is limited to exponential
distribution.
KeywordsSemi-Markov, Markov, Weibull, lognormal, availability, steady state.
Introduction Mechanical systems are employed in numerous applications such as power plant, aviation,
manufacturing, air-conditioning, automotive, etc. These demand better performance for economic
considerations and availability is the most desired requirement. Availability of a system is a combined effect of
reliability and maintainability. It is a percentage of the system uptime. The availability analysis has gained
immense attention of plant and maintenance engineers due to the development of increasingly complex
industrial systems with higher cost. To maximize the utility of such systems, the time to repair (MTTR) should
be minimized which increases the availability of the system [7]. The availability analysis also helps in A
Markov model invariably assumes an exponential distribution for time to failure. However the failure rate of
mechanical components is better represented by non- exponential distributions such as the Weibull distribution
[1] thereby rendering the Markov approach inapplicable. Currently, simulation based approaches are used to
handle non-exponential distributions. In this paper, an attempt has been made for analytical solution based on
Semi-Markov process (SMP).
II. Overview of Semi-Markov Process
A Semi-Markov process is essentially different from a Markov process in that it is memory-less, i.e. while
Markov processes are regenerative in each single moment, semi- Markov processes lose their memory only
during the state transitions. The transition time between states can also be arbitrary random variables in SMP.
Furthermore, in SMP, the amount of time spent in any of the states after entering it is a random variable
described by a probability density function that depends not only on the state in which the process is in the
considered moment, but also on the state that the system will change to at the next step.
Analytical Approach for SMP
The semi-Markov kernel which entirely describes the semi Markov process is described as follows:
Q , (t )= Pr{X= j,T T t|X ,,X ;T ,,T } = Pr{X =j,T -T t| X } = P .F(t)
ij
k+1
k+1
i,j
Gaurav Khattar, Tushar Gupta, Girish Kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering Delhi Technological University
Delhi, India gaurav02khattar@gmail.com , Tushargupta120@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Where:
w Xk demarcates the state after k transitions where the state k can take values ranging from 1 to n.
w Tk Tk-1 is the time that is spent in the state k-1. This time depends upon the present state and the next state to
which the transition takes place.
w Pij is the transition probability from state i to state j and F(t) is the cumulative probability density function.
Semi-Markov models are more appropriate for mechanical systems since they are capable of handling non
exponential distributions. The absence of exact methods for solving SMP models, however, makes it difficult to
be treated analytically [4]. Some simulation-based softwares (such as RAPTOR, BlockSim) are widely used for
the availability analysis of repairable systems, but the simulation based approaches are more time consuming
than analytical approaches. Also, if the number of simulations performed is not large enough, the results are
error-prone. At the same time, the increasing complexity of the SMP model with increasing number of
components and/or increasing number of degradation and repair states limit the usage of analytical approaches.
A number of approaches have been proposed for solving Semi-Markov models, most notable of which is the
two-stage analytical approach for determining the steady-state availability of a SMP model. In the existing
literature, this approach has been mostly attempted for software reliability [2, 6] and rarely applied for
mechanical systems. Also, the steady state solution of SMP models for mechanical components with multiple
degradation states haven't been explored much.
This paper overcomes these limitations by firstly developing a model considering multi state degradation and
then providing an analytical approach based on Semi Markov to evaluate the availability. The results have also
been compared with a Markov model by approximating Weibull distribution to an exponential distribution
[5]. Only the steady state availabilities have been evaluated, since the computation is difficult in case
of
time-dependent transition probabilities because of the convolution product of integrals.
The remaining paper is organized as follows: the two-stage analytical approach is presented for the steady-state
availability analysis of SMP model, followed by a methodology for the same. Further, an example of a twocompressor load sharing system is illustrated and the last section concludes with the advantages, utility and the
limitations of this method.
III
Methodology
A. Two-stage analytical approach
The proposed two-stage analytical approach involves the development of a Semi-Markov model for the system
with corrective repair after identification of all the states. The state transition time distribution and appropriate
parameters for failure time and repair time are identified. It is followed by the generation of the Semi-Markov
Kernel characterising the SMP which deals with the evaluation of one-step transition probability matrix Z of the
discrete time Markov chain of the SMP model. This one-step transition probability is used to compute the
steady state probability of the state transitions of Semi-Markov chain which is followed by the calculation of
mean sojourn time between any two transitions for each state. Steady state probability of each state is finally
computed and summing the steady state probability values of all working states gives the availability measure
B. Methodology
Solution of the system model with the analytical semi- Markov approach involves the following steps:
Step 1
Construct a state diagram of the system displaying all the states of the system. The direction of arrow connecting the
two states indicates the transition with the arrow showing the direction of transition.
Step 2
Select a proper system failure and repair distribution and their CDFs.
Step 3
Generate the Kernel matrix, Z for the system using the following element definition with
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Availability Analysis of A Mechanical System With Load.....
:If there is no possible transition from State I within the transition time t.
:If there is a single possible transition from State i to State j within the transition
time t.
:If there are multiple possible transitions from State I such as State j, State k and
State m within transition time t.
(1)
Steady state probability, v of all the Embedded Markov Chain n (EMC) states is found using the equation.
(2)
Step 4
Mean Sojourn time for all the states is evaluated using the following definition .
:If there is no possible transition from State i within thetransition time t.

:If there is a single possible transition from State i to State j within the transition
time t.
:If there are multiple possible transitions from State I such as State j, State k and
State m within transition time t.
(3)
Using the value of the steady state probabilities of the EMC and the mean sojourn time for the states, the steady
state probability of the state Pi, for the SMP model is obtained using the following equation .
(4)
C. Illustrative Example
A two compressor load-sharing system is considered and its availability is determined using the two-stage
analytical approach as presented in the paper. Multi-level degradation states have been considered for each
compressor, along with perfect corrective repair. The time to failure and repair of the compressors are assumed
to follow Weibull and lognormal distribution. The data for failure rate and repair rate is based on the data
obtained from the literature [ Barringer.com] The approach is demonstrated in a stepwise manner as follows:
a) System Description
The system consists of two compressors connected in parallel sharing a load, even though each one of them is
capable of carrying the full load alone. If one compressor fails, the other compressor takes up the entire load and
its failure rate increases.
B) System Smp Model
The system is modeled by considering four degraded states for each compressor (i.e. good as new, partially
degraded, potentially degraded, and failed). Perfect repair is assumed for each component once it fails. Hence
the total number of possible states is given by: 42=16. The SMP model with these states is given by Fig. 1. Refer
Table 1 in Appendix for the description of each state in the model.
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Fig. 1. Semi Markov model of two compressor load-sharing arrangement with multiple degradation states.
c)
d)
Identification of Failure and Repair time Distributions and their Parameters

Two-Stage Analytical Technique for Availability Assesment
Stage 1.
I.
Developing Kernel matrix K (t)
The SMP model is characterized by its kernel matrix. Refer Fig. 2. for the kernel matrix of the model. Its
elements are evaluated using Equation (1).
ii.
Developing one-step transition probability matrix Z of EMC
The values of non-zero elements of this matrix are obtained when t . MATLAB software has been used to
evaluate the matrix elements.
iii.
Evaluating steady-state probabilities of the state transitions of EMC
The various state transition probabilities of the states of EMC are obtained by solving the following equation:
[v
1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16] = [v1 v2 v3 v4
5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16]*Z
The solution the above set of equations is obtained with the help of MATLAB. The obtained values are listed in
Table I.
Stage 2.
iv. Calculating the mean sojourn time (holding time) of the states of SMP model
The stage 2 of the two-stage analytical approach deals with the determination of sojourn time of the states which
are utilized to evaluate the steady state probabilities of the states of the system. The mean sojourn time, of each
state is evaluated using Equation (3)
The evaluated sojourn time for the states of the SMP model is given in Table I
v. Steady state probabilities of states of the SMP model
The steady state probability, Pi of any state i for the SMP model is finally evaluated by using the Equation (4).
For this evaluation, the values of vi for each state and the corresponding value for sojourn time i are obtained
from Table I.
312

The evaluated values of Pi are listed in Table I.
e) Availability Measure of the System
The steady state availability of the system is evaluated by summing up the steady state probabilities of the
working states of the SMP model, i.e.
A = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + P6 + P7 + P8 + P9 + P10 + P11 + P12+ P13 + P14 + P15
The value of steady state availability of the system using Semi-Markov process is found to be 0.99965 i.e.
99.96%.
f) Validation of Results By Markov Approach
The results obtained from the proposed two-stage approach for solving SMP are compared with the results
obtained by solving the same model with the conventional Markov approach.
The steps involved in obtaining the steady-state availability of the system using Markov approach can be
summarized as:
(g) Equivalent component parameter values for Markov process
Since the failure and repair are represented by exponential distribution in Markov analysis, equivalent failure
and repair rates need to be evaluated from Weibull parameter values for failure and log-normal parameter
values for repair.
This is done by using the following two equations:
where
- Equivalent Markov degradation parameter using gamma function (failure rate)
, - corresponding Semi-Markov Weibull cdf parameters for degradation
(ii)
where
- Equivalent Markov repair parameter (repair rate)
, - corresponding Semi-Markov log-normal cdf parameters for degradation
(b) Formulate rate equation for each state of the system.
Rate equations are the first order ordinary differential equations representing the rate of change of probability of
each state with time.
Solve the differential equations simultaneously
The steady state probability values of the system using Markov analysis are given in Table III.
The availability of the system is obtained by summing up the probabilities of the non-failed states of the system,
and is given by the equation:
A = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + P6 + P7 + P8 + P9 + P10 + P11 + P12 + P13 + P14 + P15
The value of the steady state availability of the system using Markov process is found to be 0.9976 i.e. 99.76%.
IV Results
A comparison of the values of steady-state probabilities of the various system states obtained by employing
Markov and semi-Markov approaches are given in Table III. The steady state availability of the system has been
estimated to be 0.99965 by the Semi-Markov Process, while the Markov process predicts it to be 0.9976.
The results of the proposed model for solving SMP analytically have been found to be in close agreement with
the Markov results. This validates the proposed analytical approach and also underlines its effectiveness in
dealing with mechanical systems whose failure rate is not constant but increases with 'aging'.
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V. Discussion
The inability of the Markov process to handle non-exponential distributions necessitated the use of semiMarkov models for mechanical systems. In mechanical systems, the failure rate increases with age such that the
failure is better represented by Weibull distribution. The proposed analytical approach requires lesser
computational time as compared to simulation based approaches. Although the approach is demonstrated for a
two component load sharing arrangement, it can also be extended to more complex systems. Since the closed
form solutions are obtained, results are more accurate than obtained with simulation methods. Further, results
are obtained in a single iteration unlike the large number of runs required in simulation. However, the proposed
approach does have some limitations. The approach is applicable only for steady-state solutions and cannot be
applied for transient analysis. At times, because of the non-exponential distributions, the integrals involved are
difficult to solve and therefore, the availability cannot be determined. As the number of degradation states
increases beyond four, the state model explodes into state space and becomes difficult to handle. Also, the
data required for modeling the systems is not easily available given the high cost of equipment required for
conditional monitoring and their limited availability.
VI. Conclusion
A Semi-Markov process model for a mechanical system incorporating multi-level degradation at the
component level was developed. Weibull and Lognormal distributions, whichare more appropriate for
mechanical systems were considered. The analytical closed form solutions for availability assessment of
mechanical system were presented. The results of the proposed model were compared with the results of a
Markov model. The results obtained from the proposed model were found to be in close agreement with the
Markov model. The suggested approach provides a realistic assessment of availability values of the repairable
mechanical system. The approach is useful for designers in designing a system with high availability. The
approach is also helpful for maintenance engineers in optimizing the system maintenance and replacement
policies in the context of availability. This work can be extended to perform the transient analysis of the
systems.
References
[1]
Barringer and Associates, Inc., 2015 [www.barringer.com] accessed on 20.08.2015
[2]
Fricks, R. M., Trivedi, K. S. (1997). Modeling failure dependencies in reliability analysis using
stochastic Petri nets. Paper read at the 11th European Simulation Multiconference, Istanbul, Turkey,
June 14, 1987.
[3]
Koutras, V. P., Platis, A. N. (2010). Semi-Markov performance modelling of a redundant system
with partial, full and failed rejuvenation. International Journal of Critical Computer Based Systems,
1:5985.
[4]
Kulkarni VG (2009) Modelling and analysis of stochastic systems.Chapman & Hall, London
[5]
Kumar, G, Jain, V and Gandhi, OP (2013) Availability analysis of repairable mechanical systems using
analytical Semi-Markov approach. Quality Engineering, 25(2): 97-107.
[6]
Welte, T. M. (2009). A rule-based approach for establishing states in a Markov process applied to
maintenance modelling. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers - Part O: Journal of
Risk and Reliability, 223(1):112.
[7]
Xie, M., Kong, H., Goh, T. N. (2000). Exponential approximation for maintained Weibull distributed
component. Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, 6(4):260268.
[8]
Xie, W., Hong, Y., Trivedi, K. (2005). Analysis of a two-level software rejuvenation policy. Reliability
Engineering & System Safety, 87:1322.
[9]
Zhang Z, Wu S, Li B (2011) A condition-based and opportunistic maintenance model for a two-unit
deteriorating system. In: IEEE International conference on quality, reliability, risk, maintenance and
safety engineering, Xi'an, 1719, June, 590595
314

Appendix
Fig. 2. Kernel matrix Z of the SMP model

Table I
Description of States, Mean Sojourn Times, Steady State Probabilities of the Statesof EMC and Steady
State Probabilities of the States of SMP Model
Table III
Comparison of Steady State Probabilities of the States Obtained From Markov and Semi-markov Model
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Go-Kart Chassis Analysis: Design Methodology

Integrating Revolutionary Safety Features
Aditya Natu
Abstract- This paper entails the unique design and implementation of the racing Go-Kart
Chassis, mainly focussing on the revolutionary safety features. The paper primarily explores the
new design philosophy by placing the engine behind the driver with firewall as added protection.
The details study and analysis for the static and dynamic performances as well as the ergonomic
feasibility has been performed on the chassis assembly.
Keywords Racing Go-kart, Chassis Design and Assembly, Solid Modelling, FEA, ANSYS
ntroduction The present paper entails to analyse and manufacture a racing go- kart mainly
focussing on the revolutionary safety features. Figure. 1, shows the assembled model of the
racing go- kart. The detail theoretical studies and the analysis for static and dynamic
performances as well as the ergonomic feasibility has been performed on the chassis assembly
Fig.1 Assembled Kart Model Isometric

Aditya Natu
Production and Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Delhi Technological University,
Dr. T. Moasunep Jamir
Mechanical Engineering Department, Assistant Professor, Delhi Technological University, Delhi-42
Email: sunepbokdi@gmail.com
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 9971931922, Email: nathu.aditya@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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II. Chassis
Definition and Purpose
Chassis of any vehicle is defined as the internal framework of a vehicle which supports and positions various
components of the vehicle.[2]
Chassis of a go-kart plays a significant role in the jacking of the kart while the kart is cornering. In the absence
of a differential in a kart, chassis frame plays following pivotal roles in the performance:
It allows for lifting of the rear inside wheel of the kart while cornering by the virtue of its flexibility and
relatively low torsional stiffness [6]. This can cause the kart to turn very smoothly even without a
differential
It acts as a spring to absorb various shocks and vibrations from the road to provide maximum comfort to
the driver
Design Objectives
The frame of the kart chassis was designed with following aims:
To have minimum wheelbase and track-width and ergonomic norms to improve cornering performance
To weigh less than 20 kg.
To be flexible enough to allow rear 'jacking' effect and absorb road shocks
To protect the driver in front and side crash events
To provide comfortable posture to a large range of driver statures
To be easy to fabricate
To have an open airflow over the engine compartment for cooling.

Keeping the above mentioned objectives in view, a tubular double rail chassis was used in the front part to
facilitate an open ergonomically suitable compartment.
Design Methodology
Fig. 2 shows the design workflow that was adopted for this project:
Fig.2 Design Methodology [1]

Conceptual design was initially agreed upon keeping all the initial design parameters in view.
Thereafter, virtual modelling was done on Solid Works 2014 for frame which was then analysed structurally by
ANSYS Workbench 12.0. Using this software, greatly reduced the chances of error which easily creep up in
FEA (Finite Element Analysis).
The model was further analysed in dynamic loading conditions in ANSYS for cornering performance etc. and
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Go-Kart Chassis Analysis: Design Methodology Integrating .....

ergonomic analysis was done in CATIA v5 R20. Changes were made in the design to satisfy all conditions
necessary. Multi-body modelling was done to accommodate all the auxiliary components on the frame.
Chassis Specifications
Material Selection: Various parameters were kept in view while deciding the frame material which included
availability, cost, machinability and tensile strength. Fig. 3 shows a plot of statistical data compiled for various
materials that were analysed for kart frame. AISI 1020 was selected to be the frame material for
Low cost
High weldability
High availability
Moderate Strength
Cross Section: The cross section for the members was chosen as circular tubular for its higher torsional
stiffness for a given area of cross section compared to square and other sections. The standard cross section
determined after market research was 25.4mm OD, 22mm ID.
Fig.3 Material Analysis for kart strength [1]

Material Properties of AISI 1020 steel are given in the table below:
Table 1: Material Properties
Final Chassis Layout: The three normal views of frame are shown in following figures:
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Fig. 4 Top View of Chassis
Fig. 5 Side View of Chassis
Fig. 6 Front View of Chassis

Fig. 7 Isometric View of Chassis
Final Geometrical Parameters: Major dimensions which associated with the frame have been tabulated in
Table 2.
Table 2: Frame Parameters [3]
Finite element analysis

FEA methodology: The finite element theory was employed for predicting the behaviour of chassis under the
methods proposed in the Fig. 8.
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Fig 8. FEA Methodology [1]

FEA is a method in which the model is discretized into small elements, properties of which are then evaluated
using general equations of motion and boundary conditions specified during a test. This involves solution of
the equation:
Fig 9. Beam mesh in ANSYS WB
Fig. 10. Loading Diagram of Static Bending Test
The non-structural elements such as driver and engine were modelled as remote mass [5] acting on their
respective mounting positions. Also, the analysis was done in ANSYS WB to get better validated results under
same loaded conditions
Grid Characteristics: The frame was meshed from beam elements for analysis.
In ANSYS WB, the model was generated automatically from beam elements with 6 degrees of freedom for
every element.
The members which were predicted to be the heaviest loaded were applied 'fine' mesh control to gain better
accuracy. The final mesh for ANSYS WB is shown in Fig. 9.
After setting the mesh, 5 static studies were performed on the model:
a)
Static Bending Test
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b)
c)
d)
Aditya Natu
Torsional Stiffness Test

Front Impact Test
Side Impact Test
These models have been discussed in detail in the upcoming section.

Loading Diagram Abbreviations:
Red Arrows- Driver Weight (700N)
Red Arrows- Engine Weight (250N)
Red Arrows- Moment on axle (1000Nm)
Red Arrows- Impact Forces
Blue Tags- Fixed Supports
Yellow Arrows- Gravity

Static Bending Test
In this test, various stresses developed in a fully loaded chassis were analysed.
Fig. 11. Deformation Plot in Static Bending Test

As can be seen from the chart, maximum deformation was 0.7 mm at driver seat during sagging which is
acceptable. The highest combined stress was encountered at the side bumpers and its value was 129.5 Mpa.
The yield stress of AISI 1020 is 295 MPa. So,
So, the minimum FOS evaluated is 2.28 which is safe against an industrial reference value of 1.5. So our design
is validated for static bending.
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Torsional Stiffness test
This test determines the resistance offered by the chassis frame against a twist which is normally developed
during cornering, or when the vehicle encounters a bump in the road.
Table 4: Loading Diagram
Fig. 12. Loading Diagram of Torsional Stiffness Test
Fig. 13. Deformation Plot in Torsional Stiffness Test
Directional Deformations at the ends of the axle are 10mm and 26mm.
Since this value lies within the standards adopted, it is acceptable.

Front Impact test
This test determines the effect of a crash on the chassis at speeds up to 70 km/h (determined to be the
maximum speed when brakes are applied at least for 0.5 seconds before crash).
The collision time in a chassis without a crumple zone is statically averaged to 150ms. But the chassis of
this go kart has an mild steel bumper and a thin deformable tube which can act as a crumple zone and
increase the collision time to 300ms.
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Fig. 14. Loading Diagram of Front Impact Test
Fig. 15. Maximum Deformation Plot in Front

Impact Test
The FOS of the front cross members amount to 2.2 which indicates that they will not fail during collision.
However the FOS in the cockpit has a minimum value of 5 which is safe enough.
Our model can be said to be validated against front impact test at a speed of up to 70 km/h against an industrial
reference value of 1.5.
Side Impact test
This test determines the effect of a crash on the chassis when another kart collides with it on the side members at
an angle of 45 degrees. The maximum speed difference between the karts in such a collision is taken to be 25
km/hr. The collision can be modelled as two component forces acting on the side members with a resultant
equal to total force applied which are calculated below.
Suppose the test chassis is at rest and another chassis collides into it at a relative speed of 25 km/h at 45 degrees.
We apply the momentum theory to this situation considering e=0.5.
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Fig. 17 Maximum Deformation Plot

in Side Impact Test
The FOS of the cockpit amounts to 1.3 which indicates that they will not fail during collision. However the FOS
in the cockpit has a minimum value of 3 which is safe for the driver. Our model can be said to be validated
against side impact test at a speed difference of up to 25 km/h against an industrial reference value of 1.5.
Fig. 16 Loading Diagram in Side Impact Test
III. Ergonomics Purpose

Ergonomics is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body and its cognitive abilities.
In this project the design of the go kart should be such that all its controls should be comfortably in the reach of
the driver's upper body.
Also the vision of the driver should be unobstructed by any part of the go kart as in a dynamic event, vision plays
a key role in the driver's and ultimately kart's performance.
Methodology
Ergonomic analysis for the kart was performed in CATIA v5 R20 using its Human Builder and Human Activity
Analysis workspaces. The test model or the manikin was first selected on the basis of the stature of team driver.
Details are given in Table 7.
Table 7: Manikin Properties
The manikin was then positioned into the kart using I-K behaviours and posture-editing.
The Fig. 18 shows the manikin model positioned in the kart which shows that the knees should be bended
outwards for maximum comfort. The red dot represents the CG of the driver.
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Fig. 18 Ergonomic Model Isometric

The Fig. 19 shows the peripheral vision contours from the driver's point of view in binocular vision mode. The
clear area in the middle represents good focus while the blurred region represents unfocussed vision range. In
the shown field of vision there is no blurred region. The solid red contour shows the blind spots of the driver
without moving.
Fig. 19 Field Of Vision

The Fig. 20 shows the upper limb reach that the driver has while bending his upper body and extending his arms.
This gives the possible locations of various control switches to be positioned in the kart.
Fig. 20 Reach Envelope
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Next an upper limb movement test was performed on the test model to evaluate the reaction performance of the
driver in the current posture setting. This test is known as RULA (Rapid Upper Limb Assessment)
The driver model was evaluated by RULA and an average score of 3 was given.
This score category shows that the driver does have a fine reflex action. This score may be attributed to correct
posture application in the model.
Conclusion
The present paper introduces a new design concepts for the design of go-kart chassis. The various in depth
analyses performed on the design iterates and ensures that it meets the industrial safety standards. Focuses has
been laid on the new safety features which are feasible to implement and also monumental in an ever changing
scientific landscape.
References
[1] Singh., A. Jain., P., K. and Gupta. A. Design analysis of the chassis for the go-kart, ISFT Conference,
18-22 January 2016.
[2] Wakeham., K., J. Introduction to Chassis Design, 1st ed., Memorial University of Newfoundland and
Labrador, 2009.
[3] National Kart Racing Championship Rulebook, Season 3, 2016.
[4] Stone., R. and Ball., J., K. Automotive Engineering Fundamentals, 1st ed., SAE International, 2004.
[5] Meriam., J., L. and Kraige., L., G. Engineering Mechanics Statics, 7th ed., Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 2012.
[6] Meriam., J., L. and Kraige., L., G, Engineering Mechanics Dynamics, 7th ed., vol. 2, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 2012.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Performance Analysis of Solar Air

Conditioning: A Review
Ashok Kumar Yadav, Vikram Pandey , Sachin Singh,
Suyash Rai, and Abhinav Verma
Abstract This paper represents a review of new solar based air conditioning techniques. These
techniques used solar energy to produce cold or hot air and do not pollute the environment.
Thermally driven cooling system is the key component of these systems. The use of solar
powered air conditioning systems for heating and cooling requirements in the buildings would be
more economical. Though various air conditioning systems run on solar power have been tested
extensively, there have been very less focus on the use of solar powered air conditioning systems.
Aim of this paper is to review the literature on emerging technologies for solar air conditioner and
provide knowledge which will be helpful to initiate the study in order to investigate the influence
of various parameters on the overall system performance
Keywords- solar air-conditioning; pcm; adsorption
ntroduction The demand for human comfort is increasing day by day. The International
Institute of Refrigeration in Paris has estimated that approximately 15% of all the electricity
produced in the whole world is employed for refrigeration and air-conditioning processes of
various kinds, and the energy consumption for air-conditioning systems has recently been
estimated to be 45% of the whole households and commercial buildings. Most of this demand is
being met by vapour compression based refrigeration system. Recently, though nominal, some
vapour absorption based refrigeration systems have come for industrial and office building use.
Solar energy can be used for air-conditioning in two ways electricity through solar photo-voltaic
cell and then using the same in conventional i.e. vapour compression cycle and the heat driven
sorption system. The improvement in solar photo-voltaic cell efficiency is very slow and so initial
cost is very high till now. Among the heat driven systems, vapour absorption systems are already
commercially available, but mostly having capacity of more than 30 TR. They have limitations
for smaller capacity.
Ashok Kumar Yadav
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology,
Ghaziabad, 201003, India, Email: ashokme015@gmail.com
Vikram Pandey, Sachin Singh, Suyash Rai, Abhinav Verma
B. Tech students, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology,
Ghaziabad, 201003, India
Email: vikrampandey310@gmail.com2, coolsachin2737@gmail.com3 , suyashrai600@gmail.com4,
abhinavverma1495@gmail.com5

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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2. Main Components In Solar Air- Conditioning

The main components in the solar assisted air conditioning system can be divided into five main
components namely:1. Solar collector
2. Hot water & chilled water storage
3. Chiller (cold production)
4. Cooling towers
5. Fan coils
3. Solar Air Conditioners
Grenier et al. [1] built a large cold store of volume 12 m3 powered by solar energy using a zeolite
13-water combination.The evaporator temperature achieved was as low as 2.5 8C, corresponding
to a solar COP of 0.086. Comparing these results reveals that the technology does not show any
size advantages and, therefore, could be adaptable to large, small and medium size refrigerators.
Sakoda and Suzuki [2] constructed and tested a laboratory scale closed adsorption cooling system
employing a silica gelwater combination. The successful operation of this unit demonstrated
clearly both the experimental and technical feasibility of solid adsorption refrigeration.
4. Solar Ice Makers
Critoph [3] built a laboratory scale activated carbonammonia refrigerator. The evaporator
temperature attained was up to _1 8C and about 3 kg of ice was manufactured. The peak collector
temperature for the simulated day tests was 115 8C, and the solar COP was 0.04. Although the
COP and ice production of this machine are less than those of an activated carbonmethanol pair
machine, activated carbonammonia system is less sensitive to small leakages, which makes it
more reliable for application in remote areas where maintenance is not readily available.
Wang et al. [4] proposed a solar-powered continuous solid adsorption refrigeration and heating
hybrid system. A solar water heater and an adsorption icemaker are joined in the same
machine.The machine used the working pair activated carbonmethanol and had 2 m2 of
evacuated tube collectors to warm 60 kg of water up to 90 8C. The daily ice production was about
10 kg when the insolation was about 22 MJ/m2.
5. The Process
Rastogi et al. [5] discussed about commercialization of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) for
heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) applications, has paved way for effective
utilization of ambient thermal fluctuations. They attempted to extend Multiple Criteria Decision
Making (MCDM) approach for ranking and selecting PCMs for domestic HVAC application. The
graded materials were ranked using Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal
Solution (TOPSIS). It was observed that the results obtained by simulation are in good agreement
with those obtained using MCDM approach. The candidates with the best ranks showed
significant improvement in ameliorating the temperature conditions. Thus it can be concluded
that integration of MCDM approach for PCMs selection would prove to an economical and swift
alternative technique for ranking and screening of materials. Through the proposed work, the
authors have attempted to screen and rank various commercial Phase Change Materials for
heating, ventilation and air-conditioning application. A Multiple Criteria Decision Making
approach was used for this purpose. Suitable materials were first shortlisted based on the phase
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Performance Analysis of Solar Air Conditioning: A Review
change temperature (within the range of 1725 0C).

Prasartkaew et al [6] Renewable energy based technologies can be introduced for building
cooling applications. Most studies on solar absorption cooling use fossil energy based auxiliary
heaters. The results demonstrate that the system operates at about 75% of nominal capacity at an
average overall system coefficient of performance of about 0.11. Performances of individual
components of the system were also evaluated. The experimental results compared with results
from other studies shows that the proposed system's performance in terms of chiller and overall
system coefficient of performance is superior. The results demonstrate that the system operated at
about 75% of nominal capacity and an average overall system coefficient of performance of about
0.11 was achieved. The results also show that, due to the limitation of heat absorption at the
evaporator of this (small size) chiller, the supplied excess heat was rejected at the cooling tower.
The biomass-gasifier boiler system, used as a booster/auxiliary heater, can improve the overall
system performance. Comparison of performance of solar cooling system with different auxiliary
heat sources shows that the proposed system outperforms the others, in terms of chiller and
overall system coefficient of performance.
Bach et al. [7] used is a solid adsorption system to describe a new solar based air conditioning
techniques. Suggested design procedure is simple and does not require a high technology. This
type of unit can be used widely in the regions with an abandoned solar resource.
Younes et al.[8] studied Lithium Bromide absorption machine thoroughly, showing the amount
of fuel used in last few years for air conditioning. Also by studying each main part of the machine
and different parameter; it was found that the length of the tubes required can be calculated to
ensure the transfer of heat. This study showed that the machine needs six years and eight months
to retain its costs with an annual payback of $120000.
Xia et al. [9] applied for a patent of a silica gelwater adsorption chiller driven by a low
temperature heat source that was used to cool a grain depot in the Jiangsu Province, China. This
chiller has two identical chambers and a second stage evaporator with methanol as working fluid.
Each chamber contains one adsorber, one condenser and one evaporator (the first stage
evaporator).
Li et al. [10]. The estimated thermal COP is about 0.4 under the following operating conditions:
condensing temperature 40 8C, evaporating temperature 10 8C, regenerating temperature 120 8C
and desorbing temperature 200 8C, using zeolite 13_water as the working pair.
Yadav et al. [11] discussed about Peltier effect with which one can cool a specific area without
using compressor which take a huge consumption of electricity.This system is driven by solar
energy using solar plates, battery, transformer peltier module and heat sink. The analysis showed
that for the prevalent conditions the compressor less AC is significantly more economical to own
and operate than the conventional AC. In spite of a slightly higher initial cost, the thermoelectric
AC proves to be more economical, mainly due to its significantly lower operating cost.
Wang [12] compared the COP of adsorptions systems with and without mass recovery and found
that the former could produce a COP from 10% to 100% higher than the latter. The
differencebetween the COPs was higher at lower generation temperatures.
in brief above work is reported in below table1
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6. Major Issues
The adsorption systems must have their size and cost reduced to become more commercially attractive. The
most promising alternatives to achieve these goals include the enhancement of the internal and external heat
transfer of the adsorber to increase the SCP, and the improvement of the heat management to increase the COP.
The main technologies to enhance the external heat transfer in the adsorber are related to the increase of the heat
exchange area, the use of coated adsorbers and the utilization of heat pipe technology. To improve the internal
heat transfer, the most suitable option is the employment of consolidated adsorbents.
7. Conclusions
The principal challenge for adsorption refrigerators powered by solar energy is to overcome several failed
attempts to commercialize them. Although investment costs for adsorption chillers using silica gel are still high,
the environmental benefits are impressive , when compared to conventional compressor chillers. The absence
of harmful or hazardous products such as CFCs, together with a substantial reduction of CO2 emissions due to
very low consumption of electricity, creates an environmentally safe technology. Low temperature waste heat
or solar energy can be converted into a chilling capacity as low as 5 8C with minor maintenance costs. Finally
solar air conditioning has proved to be a good alternative for vapour compression system.
Refresnces
[1]
Grenier Ph, Guilleminot JJ, Mester M, Meunier F, Pons M. Experimental results on a 12 m3 solar
powered cold store using the intermittent zeolite 13water cycle. In: Szokolay SV, editor. Solar World
Congress, vol. 1 (1). Pergamon Press; 1984. p. 353.
[2] Sakoda A, Suzuki M. Simultaneous transport of heat and adsorbate in closed type adsorption cooling
system using solar heat. J Sol Eng 1986;108:239.
[3]
Critoph RE. Laboratory testing of an ammonia carbon solar refrigerator. In: ISES, Solar World
Congress; 1993.
[4]
Wang RZ, Li M, Xu YX, Wu JY. An energy efficient hybrid system of solar powered water heater and
adsorption ice maker. Sol Energy 2000;68:18995.
[5]
Monisha Rastogi, Aditya Chauhan, Rahul Vaish , Anil Kishan, Selection and performance assessment of
Phase Change Materials for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning applications, 2014.
[6]
Boonrit Prasartkaew, S. Kumar , Experimental study on the performance of a solar-biomass hybrid airconditioning system, 2003.
[7]
Habib Ben Bacha, MounirElleuch, MounirBaccar, Aref Y. Maalej, Hamed Ben Dhia Air Conditioning
By Solar Energy" Journal of Electron Devices,Vol. 2, pp. 40-44, 2003.
[8] R. Youns, H. Zeidan, H. Harb, A. Ghaddar Optimal Design And Economical Study For Solar AirConditioning By Absorption Chillers International IIR conference on latest developments in
[9]
332
refrigerated storage, transportation and display of food products Amman- Jordan, 28-30 March 2005.
Xia ZZ, Wang RZ, Wu JY, Wang DC. New type of effective adsorption chiller adopting separate heat
pipe. China Patent 200410025398.0, 2004.
Performance Analysis of Solar Air Conditioning: A Review

[10]
Li CH, Wang RZ, Lu YZ. Investigation of a novel combined cycle of solar powered adsorptionejection
refrigeration system. Renew Energy 2002;26:61122.
[11] Yadav, A. K., Singh, S., Gupta, G., Solar Air-Conditioning: Design for a Compressor-Less System using
Peltier Effect, International Journal of Advance Research and Innovation, 2014 , vol. 2, no.2, pp. 429432
[12] Wang RZ. Performance improvement of adsorption cooling by heat and mass recovery operation. Int J
Refrig 2001;24:60211.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Different

Desiccant Cooling Cycles
Ranjeet Kumar Jha and Durgesh Sharma
Abstract Desiccant cooling systems have been considered as an efficient method of controlling moisture in
the air. These system consume less energy as compared with the Vapour Compression Systems. In vapor
compression refrigeration system a lot of energy is consumed to separate the moisture from air. In this work,
thermodynamic analysis is applied on three different desiccant cooling cycles to get optimal performance.
KeywordsDesiccant Cooling 1; Dunkle Cycle 2; Second Law Efficiency 3,Thermodynamic Analysis 4.
ntroduction The moisture presents in air increase the cooling load of refrigeration system due to latent
heat load of moisture. Desiccant cooling system is a environmentally friendly technology, which can be
used to condition the air without the use of traditional refrigerants Desiccant absorbs the moisture from the
process air and reduces the cooling load. It is becoming one of the most promising alternatives to conventional
cooling systems.
.The reversible COP depends on the operating parameters and the analysis is based on certain operating
conditions for the desiccant dehumidifier. Many researcher have studied first law and second law aspect of
Desiccant Cooling systems. Lavan et al. [1] presented a general second law analysis of ventilation and
recirculation cycle and introduced equivalent Carnot temperatures concept for evaluating reversible COP. Van
den Bulck et al. [2] and Shen and Worek [3] considered desiccant dehumidifier in their studies. The latter
considers the recirculation mode of the system operation and attempts to optimize the number of transfer units
and the regeneration temperature of a dehumidifier based on the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
Maclaine-Cross [4] considered a cycle with reversible components, which has infinite COP. Pons and Kodama
[5] evaluated the various terms of internal and external entropy generation in ventilation mode and expressed
relevant formulation with respect to Carnot COP of the system. In the second part of the study, Kodama et al. [6]
applied the formulation to an experimental unit and investigated the effects of certain operating parameters on
the various terms of entropy generation. Wexing et al.[7] proposed a new type of modified Cross-Cooled
Compact Dehumidifier(CCCD) and developed its mathematical model. The dehumidifier is constructed on the
basic structure of plate fin heat exchanger with silica gel elaborately glued on all the metal surfaces of the
process-flow channels
Ranjeet Kumar Jha

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad
ranjeetjha001@gmail.com
1
Durgesh Sharma
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad
durgeshrsharma@gmail.com
Corresponding Author; Tel :+91-9999974132, 9891430333
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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2.
First Law Analysis of the System
A schematic of the desiccant cooling system operating in ventilation mode is shown in Fig. 1. Air first enters
into Desiccant wheel (DW), in which it is dehumidified and heated by the heat of adsorption. The hot dry air is
then cooled sensibly in a Rotary Regenerator (RR). The process air is further cooled in an Evaporative Cooler
(EC1) before being routed to the room. An equal flow of air is withdrawn from the room for regeneration.
Regenerated air is first cooled in an Evaporative Cooler (EC2) and then preheated in the Rotary Regenerator by
the warmer air in the process line. External heat is supplied to the regenerated air in a heating unit before passing
through the Desiccant wheel , in which desiccant picks up moisture from the process air and transports to the hot
regenerated air. The air leaves the Desiccant wheel hot and dry.. An ideal desiccant will dehumidify the air
completely so that the specific humidity at the exit of Desiccant wheel will be zero.
w2 = 0
where w2 is specific humidity of the air at point 2
Processed air then pass through a Rotary Regenerator, it is a kind of counter flow heat exchanger. The
effectiveness of heat exchanger may expressed as
(1)
Where T2 , T3, and T6 are temperature at point 2, 3 and 6 as shown in the fig.
Fig.1. Desiccant Cooling System operating in ventilation mode.
Fig.2. Psychrometric chart for system in ventilation mode.

The effectiveness of desiccant wheel may be expressed as
(2)
Another effectiveness relation for the desiccant wheel may be defined based on the dehumidification
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Thermodynamic Analysis of Different Desiccant ......

performance of the wheel with respect to the regeneration heat input, which may be expressed as
(3)
An energy balance on adiabatic Rotary Regenerator is given by
(4)
The ideal operation for the Desiccant Wheel is based on the idea that the regeneration heat supplied to the
regeneration air in the heater must not be more than latent heat needed for the complete dehumidification of
ambient air in the Desiccant wheel. Then the regeneration heat may be calculated from.
(5)
where hfg is the latent heat of vaporization for water. The enthalpy change of regeneration air across the
Desiccant wheel must be equal to the heat input in the heater.
(6)
The cooling capacity of system can be obtained by equation.
(7)
The COP of a heat-driven cooling system is defined as the ratio of the cooling capacity to the heat input to the
system. Then the thermal COP of this system becomes
(8)
The cycle operation as described above can also be applied to an open desiccant cooling system operating in
recirculation mode and Dunkle modes. The schematics of these two modes are illustrated in Figure 3 and 5
and their psychrometric are shown in Figure 4 and 6 respectively. In recirculation mode, the room air is
recalculated to the process line, while the ambient air is drawn into the regeneration line. Note that opposite to
the ventilation mode, states 1 and 5 here represent the room and ambient states respectively.
Fig.3. Desiccant Cooling System operating under Recirculation mode.
Fig.4.Psychrometric chart system in Recirculation mode.
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Fig.5. Desiccant Cooling System operating in Dukle mode.
Fig.6.Psychrometric chart representation of system operation in Dunkle mode.
3. Second Law Analysis

The maximum COP of a heat-driven cooling system can be determined by assuming that the entire cycle is
totally reversible. The cooling system would be reversible if the heat from the heat source were transferred to a
Carnot heat engine, and the work output of this engine is supplied to a Carnot refrigerator to remove heat from
the cooled space. The expressions for the work output from the Carnot heat engine, the cooling load of the
Carnot refrigerator, and the Carnot COP of this reversible system may be calculated by equation 9
Fig 7 : Heat driven Cooling System

Now,
(9)
Where TL and TS are temperature of sink and source respectively . Heater is used as source and room space as a
sink / evaporator and surrounding space is considered as condenser. So this cycle is three temperature cycle.
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Thermodynamic Analysis of Different Desiccant ......

In case of desiccant cooling cycle in ventilation, dunkle and recirculation modes involve the mass transfer with
the ambient and the room. Water is added in the evaporative coolers and to the process air in the room. We
follow the approach given by the Lavan et al. [1], which is based on using equivalent Carnot Temperatures for
the evaporator, condenser, and heat source.
4.
Calculation of Equavalence Temperature:
Heat Source:-
From Fist Law of Thermodynamics
(10)
From Second Law of Thermodynamics
(11)
Evaporator:-
From First and Second Law of Thermodynamics
(12)
Condensing Unit:-
(13)
Where mw3 is the rate of moisture added to process air in the cooled room, and hw and sw are the enthalpy and
entropy of liquid water, respectively. It is clear that the reversible COP is functions of operating conditions.
The Second law efficiency is defined as it is the ratio of actual COP to the reversible COP.
(14)
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5. Experimental Setup:
To simulate three types of Desiccant Cooling system a simulation program has been developed in C. The
input parameter includes Initial conditions of air such as dry bulb temperature, Wet bulb, Relative humidity ,
specific humidity etc. The system will output different psychometric properties at different points in three
cycles.
6. Results And Discussion:
The calculated state properties of the system shown in Table .1.
Table 1 Calculated State Properties of the System In Ventilation
The actual COPs of ventilation, Dunkle and recirculation cycles are 0.35, 0.390 and 0.401 by performing the
Recirculation and Dunkle cycle in same by the same processes. The reversible COPs of these cycles are 3.12,4.7
and 5.24.
Performance data of the system at (Room T = 26.7 0C,RH = 50% ,Ambient T = 32.5 0C,RH = 32.9% )
Table 2 : Calculated Second law Efficiency
7. Conclusions:
The paper presents the thermodynamic analysis of three Desiccant Cooling Systems. A simulator was
developed to obtain different psychrometric properties for given input parameters . Performance of three
systems were measured in terms of second law efficiency. It was found that second law efficiency of
ventilation cycle is more than the Dunkle and Recirculation Cycle .
References
[1]
Lavan Z, Monnier JB, Worek WM. Second law analysis of desiccant cooling systems. ASME J Sol
Energy Eng 1982;104:22936.
[2]
Van Den Bulck E. The use of dehumidifiers in desiccant cooling and dehumidification systems. ASME
J Heat Transfer 1986;108:68492.
[3]
Shen CM, Worek WM. The second law analysis of a recirculation cycle desiccant cooling system:
cosorption of water vapor and carbon dioxide. Atmos Environ 1996;20:142935.
[4]
I.L. Maclaine-cross, High performance adiabatic desiccant open cooling cycles, ASME Journal of
Solar Energy Engineering 107 (1985) 102104.
[5]
M. Pons, A. Kodama, Entropic analysis of adsorption open cycles for air conditioning. Part 1: first and
second law analyses, International Journal of Energy Research 24 (2000) 251262.
[6]
A. Kodama, W. Jin, M. Goto, T. Hirose, M. Pons, Entropic analysis of adsorption open cycles for air
conditioning. Part 2: interpretation of experimental data, International Journal of Energy Research 24
(2000) 263278.
[7]
Weixing,Yi, Xiaoru, Xiugan, Study of a new modied cross- cooled compact solid desiccant
dehumidie, International Journal of Applied Thermal Engineering 28(2008) 2257-2266
340
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Evaluation of Static Fracture Toughness

(KIc) of Al2014-T6
Sanjay Kumar and Vikrant Tiwari
Abstract- This paper reports a methodology to obtain the static fracture toughness of Al2014. The three point
bend specimen is used to determine static fracture toughness. The notch is made in specimen in T-L direction
and its total length of notch depth is 10mm including uniform width of 7mm, V-notch of 1.5mm and fatigue
crack of 1.5mm Material Testing System (MTS) of capacity 250kN has been used to find load vs. crack mouth
opening diagram (CMOD). Here load is obtained from the diagram and it is used in standard formula to obtain
the fracture toughness in quassistatic condition for plane strain condition. The static fracture toughness(KIc) is
evaluated its value is 16.78Mpa m T-L [4].
Keywords- static fracture toughness; Al2014-T6; fatigue crack; MTS; CMOD.
ntroduction Before mid of 20th centuries society had faced lot of problem during design of mechanical
and structural components. A high factor of safety was considered by engineers and scientists during
design to prevent failures [1]. Before the invention of fracture mechanics the mechanical property (Yield
strength, tensile strength) was main consideration in structural design. The mechanics of fracture had been
developed mainly after failure of Liberty ships during World War II. The strength of structure is seriously
affected due to pre-existing cracks or crack like defects. Fracture mechanics yields information related to crack
growth under a certain loading condition and also predicts the limitation on maximum size of crack to avoid
catastrophic failure. Toughness is a general term defined as energy absorbed by material before fracture and it
is estimated by finding area under stress-strain curve up to rupture point. A fracture toughness measure the
resistance of material to crack extension [2]. Commonly used fracture toughness in design are of four types
GIc,KIc,JIc and CMOD. Different fracture toughness are used for different mechanical behaviour of materials and
geometries of materials. GIc is generally used for brittle materials, KIc is used for LEFM and JIc, CMOD are used
for EPBM [1]. Firstly the organisation American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has measured KIcin
1970.
2. Theory And Specimen
2.1 THEORY: Single Edge Notched Bend (SENB) specimen has been used in three point bend experiment
during quasi static test. The three point bend specimen is shown in the figure.
Sanjay Kumar
Department of Applied Mechanics, Research Scholar, IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas New Delhi-16
sanjaydce2008@gmail.com,
Vikrant Tiwari
Department of Applied Mechanics, Assistant Professor, IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas New Delhi-16,
tiwariv@am.iitd.ernet.in
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 9968558596,
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Figure (1): Three point bend specimen

The thickness of specimen(B) for plane strain condition is shown figure should satisfy following equation
Where Kk = guessed value of fracture toughness 19 Mpa m and Sys = Yield stress of material Sys =414 MPa,
[3] value of B obtained from above equation is 5.26mm,but thickness of specimen considerd
B=10mm>5.26mm so plain srtain condition is satisfied. Static Fracture Toughness, is evaluated by following
expression (1)
Here load F is obtained from load vs CMOD diagram.

2.2 Specimen
The material of specimen is Al2014 is cut from a plate of 10mm thickness. The dimensions of specimen are
L=100mm, S=80mm,a=10.4mm,W=20mm(figure(2)).The nocth in specimen was made in T-L direction as
mentioned in figure(3) and its total length was 10.4 mm along width. The notch contains constant width of
1.5mm up to 7mm length after that v-notch of length 1.5mm with included angle 300was made on horizontal
milling machine with use of uniform and inclined teeth cutter respectively. Finally pre-crack of length 1.9mm
was provided on MTS machine load having capacity 250kN and maximum frequency 50Hz with fatigue
loading. The mean load and amplitude load used for fatigue pre-crack are 1100N and 900N respectively and
frequency is 20Hz.The total number of cycles required to produce pre crack length of 1.9mm is 18178.
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Figure (2): Specimen before experiment
Evaluation of Static Fracture Toughness (KIc) of Al2014-T6
Figure (3):- T-L and L-T Direction
The spectroscopy of given material is done and elements composition are provided in table (1) and compared its
value with literature [4].
Figure (4): Specimen after experiment

Table (1): Chemical composition of Al2014-T6
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Figure(5):MTS machine with specimen

3. Experiment And Result
3.1 Experiment
A single edge notch (SEN) three point bend specimen was placed on MTS machine so three point bend
condition is obtained The clip gauge was attached on the specimen at mouth of notch so CMOD can be
measured in mm. The load was measured in load cell (figure (5)). The MTS machine was connected to computer
and load and CMOD data was stored and it was extracted in excel file. The testing was performed at
displacement rate of 0.01 mm/sec. Load vs CMOD curve was drawn and shown in figure(6)
Figure (6): Load vs CMOD for Al2014

3.2 Result
Load vs CMOD for Al2014 is dawn as shown in figure (6). A straight line was drawn tangent to elastic region of
curve. The slope of straight line drawn on the curve is 95% of elastic region curve. Load corresponding
intersection of two curve point 'Q'is considered as critical load .The load obtained is 3.1kN from load-CMOD
diagram. Here fracture toughness is evaluated corresponding to this load. The fracture toughness value is
obtained when substituted required dimensions of specimen and Y(a/W) along with load(F). The fracture
toughness value KIc= 16.78MPam is evaluated.According to literature value of fracture toughness for Al2014T6 has been reported[4] its value is 19 Mpam The reported value is higher than evaluated but it is comparable.
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Evaluation of Static Fracture Toughness (KIc) of Al2014-T6

4. Conclusion
The static fracture toughness(KIc) for Al2014-T6 in T-L direction is obtained and its value is KIc= 16.78MPa
m. The value reported in literatue is KIc= 19MPam
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Mr. Anil Kumar instructor MTS Lab for his contribution to this work. They are also
indebted to MTS lab IIT Delhi to get facilities to conduct this experiments.
References
[1]
Kumar, Prashant,(2004),Elments of Fracture Mechanics ,Tata McGraw Hill,New Delhi.H
[2]
Anderson, T.L.(2005).Fracture Mechanics:Fundamentals and Applications,CRC,Press
[3]
ASTM Standard E 399-90, Standard Test Method for Plain-Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic
Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards (1997) West Conshohocken, PA.
[4]
ASM Material data sheet;ASM Aerospace specification metal Inc. Aluminium 2014-T6.
[ 5 ] R a m e s h , K . ( 2 0 0 7 ) . E - b o o k o n E n g i n e e r i n g F r a c t u r e M e c h a n i c s , I I T, M a d r a s ,
URL:http//apm.iitm.ac.in/smlab/kramesh/book_4.htm.
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Thermoeconomic Comparative Analysis of

Constructal and Conventional Heat Exchangers
Manjunath K.
Abstract- Second law entropy generation and thermoeconomic analysis is carried out to find out the
performance of constructal heat exchanger compared to conventional or normal heat exchanger. In the
constructal heat exchanger, flow of the fluid stream is considered from the trunk to the branches that is the
diameter and the length of the constructs keep on reducing at each subsequent bifurcation level. Second law of
thermodynamic analysis is used as performance parameter to compare the constructal and the normal heat
exchangers on the basis of entropy generation numbers, NTU, effectiveness and thermoeconomic cost. From
the results, it can be concluded that constructal heat exchanger is having higher performance compared to
normal heat exchanger. This is because of the contructal law based dendritic design of heat exchanger is having
lower resistance to fluid flow and having global constraint of minimum volume structure.
Keywords- Constructal law; tree-shaped heat exchangers; entropy generation minimization; thermoeconomic;
heat transfer irreversibility; pressure drop irreversibility.
ntroduction Heat exchangers are one of important components used in almost all the equipments or
systems. Its design and operation in optimize manner is at most requirement to achieve energy
conservation and to reduce global warming. The heat exchange research is in the direction to achieve better
performance by finding new ways of thermal design, construction and operation. For this objective, the best
choice is to adopt constructal law and entropy generation minimization methods for heat exchanger analysis.
By constructal theory we can also identify the geometric configuration that maximizes performance subject to
several global constraints [1]. Maximum thermodynamic performance is achieved by minimization of the
entropy generated in the assemblies. Tree networks represent a new trend in the optimization and
miniaturization of heat transfer devices. Constructal theory is used to optimize the performance of thermo-fluid
flow systems by generating geometry and flow structure, and to explain natural self-organization and selfoptimization. Bejan [1] stated the constructal law as For a finite-size system to persist in time (to live), it must
evolve in such a way that it provides easier access to the imposed (global) currents that flow through it. The
optimal structure is constructed by optimizing volume shape at every length scale, in a hierarchical sequence
that begins with the smallest building block, and proceeds towards larger building blocks (which are called
'constructs') [2-5].
Bejan [6] described the constructal route to the conceptual design of a two-stream heat exchanger with maximal
heat transfer rate per unit volume and gave the advantages of the tree-like (vascularized) heat exchanger
structure over the use of parallel small-scale channels with fully developed laminar flow. Chen and Cheng [7]
proposed a fractal tree-like micro-channel net heat sink for the cooling of electronic chips. The micro-channel
net was designed to have a top and a bottom circulation pattern in a wafer. The study showed that this type of
heat sink had better heat transfer characteristics and required less pumping power than traditional parallel nets.
Zamfirescu and Bejan [8] investigated constructal tree-shaped two-phase flow for cooling a surface. They
Manjunath K.
e-mail manjukmys@gmail.com
Tel: +91 9818548059
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Manjunath K.
studied the optimal structure of the phase change with convective heat transfer. Bonjour et al. [9] investigated
the heat exchange process with counter flows in two coaxial pipes, and optimized the fin set between the two
pipe walls.
Da Silva et al. [10] described the conceptual design and performance of balanced two-stream counter flow heat
exchangers, in which each stream flows as a tree network through its allotted space. The two trees in counter
flow are like two palms pressed against each other. They developed the relationships between effectiveness and
the number of heat transfer units for several tree-counter flow configurations. Muzychka [11] studied
constructal design of force convection cooled microchannel heat sinks and heat exchangers. They investigated
the heat transfer performances of different shapes of micro-channels involving parallel plates, rectangles,
squares, ellipses, rounds, triangles and polygons. Raja et al. [12] studied the constructal optimization problem
of heat exchangers by using air and water as the heat exchange mediums, and performed numerical calculations
for the fluid flow and heat transfer problems.
Zimparov et al. [13] used the concepts of da Silva et al.[10] to analyze the performance of balanced two-stream
parallel flow constructal heat exchangers. Zimparov et al. [14, 15] optimized the performance of several classes
of simple flow systems consisting of T- and Y-shaped assemblies of ducts, channels and streams. Maximum
thermodynamic performance was achieved by minimization of the entropy generated in the assemblies. Raja et
al. [16] proposed the design and analysis of a multi-block heat exchanger by applying the concept of constructal
theory. The experimental result confirms the effectiveness enhancement when compared to that of the
conventional heat exchanger.
The hydrodynamic performance of the network, composed of a series of rough ducts, for both laminar and
turbulent flow regimes was studied by Miguel [17]. Transient response of internal fluid pressure is also
modelled and analyzed. Kim et al. [18] showed numerically how the geometric configuration of the tubular
flow structure controls the global performance of a cross-flow heat exchanger. Constructal analysis of treeshaped microchannels for flow boiling in a disc-shaped body has been carried out to achieve an energy efficient
design for chip cooling by Daguenet-Frick et al. [19]. They tried to determine the best architecture that
minimizes the thermal resistance for a given pressure drop under several constraints.
Flow boiling in a constructal tree-shaped minichannel network was numerically investigated using a onedimensional model, taking into consideration the minor losses at junctions by Zhang et al. [20]. The new
approach of constructal theory has been employed to design shell and tube heat exchangers by Azad and
Amidpour [21]. The results of design using constructal theory are heat exchangers with in-series sections which
are called constructal shell and tube heat exchangers. Kim et al. [22] developed analytically the constructal
design of steam generators with a large number of tubes. The main features of a steam generator are determined
based on the method of constructal design. Hajmohammadi et al. [23] studied the dual effect of size and spacing
of a finite number of heat sources theoretically solving the governing equations numerically. Constructal theory
was systematically applied to determine the optimal configuration of heat sources in the array. The results
showed that when the freedom to morph is increased, more global objectives are smoothly achieved. Heat
exchanger optimization procedure based on entropy generation and second law analysis have been reviewed by
Awad and Muzychka [24].
Lee et al. [25] analyzed systematically the effect that the freedom to morph the flow configurations has on the
performance of the comb-like tree network for the vascularization of smart materials with self-healing and selfcooling functionalities. The search for better flow architectures is achieved by endowing the flow network with
more degrees of freedom to morph the flow configuration: diameter and aspect ratios and system sizes. Lorente
et al. [26] explored the opportunity to maximize the production of power in a steam-turbine power plant by
properly configuring the hardware at the interface between the stream of hot gas produced by the furnace and
the steam that circulates through the power producing cycle. The interface consists of four heat exchangers,
superheaters and reheaters, in parallel flow and counter flow.
Manjunath [27] used entropy generation minimization method to analyze different configurations of
constructal heat exchangers designed by Bejan. Comparison of several tree-heat exchanger configurations such
as: trees covering uniformly a rectangular area, trees on a disk shaped area, and trees on a square-shaped area are
studied based on heat transfer and pressure drop entropy generation formulations by varying number of pairing
levels and initial length-to-diameter ratio for best performance. Hajmohammadi et al. [28] proposed a new
technique to enhance the heat transfer from a discretely heated pipe to a developing laminar fluid flow.
Applying this technique, the effective length of the thermal entrance region is enlarged and as a result, the
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Thermoeconomic Comparative Analysis of Constructa......

average heat transfer is invigorated. In order to maximize the heating performance, an optimal placement of the
insulated segments between the heated segments is calculated according to constructal design. Hajmohammadi
et al. [29] explored the bearing that a non-uniform distribution of heat flux used as a wall boundary condition
exerts on the heat transfer improvement in a round pipe. The main conclusion that was drawn from their work is
the emergence of a novel technique to enhance the heat transfer from a heated pipe under conditions of both
fully-developed and developing laminar fluid.
Bejan et al [30] determined the fundamental relation between global performance and flow configuration
(constructal design) in the case of steam power generation with superheater and reheater placed in parallel in the
same stream of hot gases of combustion. Errera et al. [31] analyzed the relationship between complex flow
architecture and global performance for assemblies of heat pumps coupled thermally with the ground through a
single U-shaped loop with circulating fluid. The relationship between flow architecture and global performance
(heat transfer density) serves as guide for the energy design of high-density urban settlements in the future.
Based on constructal theory, entropy generation minimization and second law efficiency equations are
formulated for tree-shaped counter flow imbalanced heat exchanger for fully developed laminar and turbulent
fluid flow by Manjunath and Kaushik [32]. Entropy generation number, rational efficiency and effectiveness
behaviour with respect to changes in number of pairing levels and different tube length-to-diameter ratios of
constructal heat exchanger are analyzed analytically. Comparison of a constructal heat exchanger and normal
heat exchanger is analyzed by using second law analysis by Manjunath and Kaushik [33]. Analysis is carried
out by considering the three irreversibilities due to heat transfer, pressure drop and production of the materials
and the construction of the heat exchanger. Manjunath and Kaushik [34] reviewed heat exchanger analysis
based on second law thermodynamics and constructal law. They also provided the basic thermal design
procedure of different heat exchangers based on second law and constructal theory in-depth.
In this analysis, the importance of constructal theory in the thermal design of heat exchangers is studied and
discussed. For this purpose we need to perform comparison between constructal heat exchanger (CHE) versus
normal heat exchanger (NHE) which is the existing as single dimensioned tubes in conventional form. To
compare these heat exchangers thermodynamically we need a technique which incorporates all important
performance parameters in a single closed form equation. Second law of thermodynamic offers this technique
which incorporates all the losses in terms of entropy generation rate or irreversibilities in a single formulation.
The performance parameter which is popular in second law of thermodynamics is Bejan's entropy generation
number. This is being a non dimensional number is a perfect parameter for the analysis of thermal systems like
heat exchangers which is able to provide real behavior along with first law analysis. Two cases of comparison is
carried out, one considering same heat exchanger surface area between CHE and NHE, another considering
same heat exchanger tube volume. The analysis is carried out by the variation of entropy generation
minimization numbers due to heat transfer and pressure drop. The behavior of entropy generation number and
effectiveness is analyzed by varying number of constructal pairing level.
2. Analysis
The assumptions made while carrying out the analysis are: 1. The flow is fully developed, 2. Every tube is
slender, and the flow is in the Poiseuille regime, the pressure drops are mainly due to friction along the straight
cross section of the heat exchanger, 3. Neglecting the local pressure drops associated in the joints of the tubes, 4.
One tube of hot stream tree is right next to its counterpart in the cold stream tree and has excellent thermal
contact, 5. The same type of fluid is flowing in both the streams. 6. The heat exchanger is a balanced one.
Here in our analysis, the sizes of tubes of the constructal heat exchangers decrease from higher dimensions to
lower. Each tree is made up of tubes of (n+1) sizes. Each tube has the length Li and internal diameter Di, where i
= 0,1, . . . ,n. Tube lengths halves after two consecutive construction steps. For the entire tree structure the
length-halving formula can be expressed approximately [2]
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Figure 1. Counter flow of tree shaped streams distributed over a square area [10]
Li +1
= 2 - 1/ 2
Li
(1)
As we considered pairing at every construction level, the tube numbers and flow rates are expressed as,
ni = 2- n- i
and
(2)
-i
mi = 2 mo
(3)
For n level of construction stages, at the end, the stream mass flow rate will be mn that is equal to
.
flows through the nth construct. The inner diameter of the tube is decremented as given by [2],
-n
2 mo
Di +1
= 2 - 1/ 3
Di
(4)
The stream-to-stream heat transfer rate of the exchanger is given as,
Assuming that the heat transfer rate is impeded primarily by the internal (convective) thermal resistances of the
two flows and not by the thermal diffusion through the material in which the tube pair is embedded [10].
Considering the same type of fluid flowing in both the tubes, the overall heat transfer coefficient is given as,
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The heat transfer coefficient is related to the Nusselt number as,
The NTU expression provided by da Silva et al. [10] considering stream-to-stream heat transfer and enthalpy
difference heat transfer is given as,
The entropy generated in the heat exchanger by considering irreversibilities due to heat transfer and pressure
drop is given by Bejan [35] as,
Defining the entropy generation number by dividing entropy generation by minimum heat capacity rate [35],
If we consider a balanced heat exchanger, the entropy generation numbers due to heat transfer and pressure drop
takes the form respectively as,
Where Pr is the reference pressure which is taken equal to the inlet pressure of the cold stream and the constant 2
is defined as,
In the analysis, it is assumed for simplicity that the value of is same for the whole heat exchanger and it
corresponds to the very first entry of hot and cold fluids streams temperatures. This assumption holds good
because, in our analysis we have considered balanced heat exchanger and the temperature difference between
the streams, T remains constant throughout as specified in [10].
The total entropy generation number is the sum total of all the entropy generation numbers,
Case 1: For same volume between CHE and NHE

Volume of the NHE is given as,
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The total duct volume of CHE is given as,

(15)
Where
The value of the tube length of the NHE for the specified value of number of pairing levels, n of the CHE can be
obtained by equating equations (14) and (15) for same volume case as,
Case 2: For same surface area between CHE and NHE

Surface areas of the heat exchanger tube of CHE and NHE are respectively given as,
Where
Now, the value of the tube length of the NHE for the specified value of number of pairing levels, n of the CHE
can be obtained by equating equations (18) and (20) for same surface area case as,
For the CHE, the stream-to-stream heat transfer rate is obtained by the summation of the local expression of
equation (5) for the whole configuration as [10],
(23)
(24)
Where T is the stream-to-stream temperature difference which remains the same throughout the balanced heat
exchanger.
For the NHE, the stream-to-stream heat transfer rate is given as,
(25)
Considering a suitable value for the Reynolds number, we are able to calculate the mass flow rate of fluid in
NHE as,
352
(26)
Where Ac,o is the cross sectional area based on the inside diameter of the NHE tube. Likewise, the mass flow rate
of fluid in CHE is calculated as,
(27)
(28)
For the CHE, the NTU expression is obtained by the summation of the local expression of equation (7) for the
whole configuration as provided in [10],
(29)
(30)
For NHE, the NTU expression is given as,
(31)
The effectiveness relationship for the balanced counter flow of the CHE and NHE are respectively given as,
(32)
(33)
The heat transfer entropy generation number for the CHE is obtained by the summation of the local expression
of equation (10) for the whole configuration as,
(34)
(35)
The heat transfer entropy generation number for the NHE is given as,
(36)
The mass velocity for the CHE is obtained as,
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(37)
(38)
Where Ac,n is the cross sectional area based on the inside diameter of the CHE tube. The mass velocity for the
NHE is obtained as,
(39)
The pressure drop entropy generation number for the CHE is obtained by the summation of the local expression
of equation (11) for the whole configuration as,
(40)
(41)
The pressure entropy generation number for the NHE is obtained as,
(42)
The thermo economic cost (total cost) of the heat exchanger is given as the sum of the capital cost and the
irreversibility penalty costs as provided in [34],
(43)
Where Ce,i is the cost of the equipment which is considered to be proportional to the surface area of the heat
exchanger which includes the material and production cost. Production cost of the heat exchanger includes the
secondary manufacturing processes like tube bending, welding, assembling, etc. The cost of insulation is
ignored. While is the operation maintenance factor, Cs is cost associated with the irreversibilities which is
taken as equal to the electricity cost and H is the number of operation hours in a year.
Rc is the capital recovery factor given as,
(44)
Where ie the effective rate of return, lc is is the technical life or life cycle in years.
The thermoeconomic cost (total cost) expressions for the CHE and NHE is obtained from procedures provided
from Equations (43) to (44) respectively as,
(45)
(46)
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Where the irreversibilities is expressed in terms of the product of the entropy generation rate and reference
temperature Tr is given as,
(47)
Input values considered for the analysis are: initial tube inside diameter (Do = 0.005 m), length-to-diameter ratio
(Lo/Do = 120) as specified in [37], temperature ratio (Thi/Tci = 1.5), inlet cold temperature (Tci = 300 K), inlet cold
pressure (Pci = 105 Pa), pressure ratio (Phi/Pci = 8), reference temperature (Tr = Tci), reference pressure (Pr = Pci),
Reynolds number (Re = 1500) for a fully developed laminar flow and (Re = 105) for a fully developed turbulent
flow, The two stream fluids in the heat exchanger are considered as air and its thermo physical properties are
referenced at average temperature from [39]. The results are obtained by using Engineering equation solver
[40] software. Comparison of CHE and NHE by the variation of number of constructal level is carried out.
Figure 2. NTU versus number of pairing levels

for the case of same volume.
Figure 3. Effectiveness versus number of

pairing levels for the case of same volume.
The figure 2 shows that NTU for CHE is more than NHE which implies that the effectiveness of CHE is more
than NHE and this also verified by the effectiveness results in figure 3. As the number of pairing level increases
NTU of CHE increases more rapidly than the NTU of NHE hence at higher value of n, effectiveness of CHE is
even more than that of NHE.
Figure 4. Entropy generation number due to

heat transfer versus number of pairing levels
for the case of same volume.
Figure 5. Entropy generation number due to pressure

drop versus number of pairing levels for the case of
same volume.
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Results from figure 4 indicates that the heat transfer entropy generation number for CHE is less than NHE for a
given value of number of pairing level n and its value keeps on decreasing for both CHE and NHE as value of n
increases. Higher value of heat transfer entropy generation number corresponds to condition of higher losses
due to heat transfer irreversiblities. Hence CHE is better than NHE. Also the pressure drop entropy generation
number for CHE is less than that of NHE indicating that pressure drop is more
Figure 6. Total entropy generation number

versus number of pairing levels for the case
of same volume.
Figure 7. Thermoeconomic cost (total cost)

of same volume.
Figure 6 shows that the total entropy generation number for CHE is less than NHE upto pairing level 7 because
upto pairing level 7 surface area for CHE is less than that of NHE to achieve same heat transfer rate hence the
exergy destruction reduces.
Figure 7 shows that thermoeconomic cost for CHE is less than NHE because of the less material required and
also due to less total irreversibility of CHE than NHE.
Case 2: For same surface area between CHE and NHE
Figure 7. Thermoeconomic cost (total cost)

of same volume.
Figure 8. NTU versus number of pairing levels

for the case of same surface area.
Same kind of results are obtained in the case 2 as in case 1 which are shown in the figures 8 and 9, i.e. the NTU
and effectiveness of CHE is more than NHE except that the difference between the value of NTU or
effectiveness for a given paring level is more in this case as compared to case 1.
356
Figure 9. Effectiveness versus number of

pairing levels for the case of same surface area.

heat transfer versus number of pairing levels
As shown in the figure 10, value of heat transfer entropy generation number for CHE is less than NHE for a
given value of pairing level signifying less loss due to heat transfer irreversibility. Both the cases shows that a
constructal heat exchanger is better than a normal heat exchanger. Also from the figure 11 that is between
pressure drop entropy generation number and pairing level it is clear that in this case too pressure drop is more in
case of NHE than CHE. This proves the fact that CHE is designed for minimizing the resistance to fluid flow.

pressure drop versus number of pairing levels
Figure 12. Total entropy generation number

of same surface area.
Figure 13. Thermoeconomic cost (total cost) versus number

of pairing levels for the case of same surface area.
357
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Manjunath K.
Figure 12 shows that total entropy generation number for CHE is always less than that of NHE and for no value
of pairing level n total irreversiblity of NHE is less than CHE. Figure 13 shows that thermo-economic cost for
CHE is less than NHE which proves that CHE is more economical than NHE.
4. Conclusions
The following are the conclusions which can be drawn from the analysis.
The sum of all irreversibilities that is the total entropy generation number is lower for the CHE as compared to
the NHE for a particular value of number of the pairing level and above. However, beyond the value of n=3 the
value of total entropy generation number increases significantly.
Total cost (thermoeconomic cost) of heat exchanger also has the same behavior of attaining a minimum value
for a particular value of pairing level number which provides an optimum thermoeconomic cost of the CHE for
a particular value of the initial length-to-diameter ratio considered.
Also the values of effectiveness and NTU is more for CHE than the NHE. A higher value of effectiveness shows
that the particular heat exchanger is more capable of transferring the heat for the same boundary conditions.
From the same surface area case analysis of CHE and NHE, the heat exchanger tubes volume requirement for
CHE will be lesser than NHE. This indicates the compactness of CHE under given volume constraint and is
applicable to both laminar and turbulent flow cases. This is one of achievements of CHE that it requires lesser
heat exchanger material for fabrication.
For the same heat exchanger tube volume between CHE and NHE, the heat exchanger surface area will be more
for CHE compared to NHE. This is one of the advantages of CHE which leads to increase in its performance.
From the overall results, we can find that there is an increase in the performance in the CHE compared to the
NHE based on second law analysis which leads to conservation of energy.
Nomenclature
As
surface area, m2
Ac
cross-sectional area, m2
CHE constructal heat exchanger
cp
specific heat, j/kg K
D
channel inner diameter, m
f
friction factor
G
mass velocity, kg/m2 s
h
heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K .
I
irreversibility, W
k
thermal conductivity, W/m K
L
channel length, m
.m
mass flow rate, kg/s
n
number of pairing levels
NHE
normal heat exchanger
NTU number of heat transfer units
Ns
entropy generation number
Nsh
heat transfer entropy generation number
Nsp
pressure drop entropy generation number
Nu
Nusselt number
P
pressure, Pa
P
pressure drop, Pa
.Q
heat transfer rate, W
R
gas constant, j/kg K
Re
Reynolds number
Sgen entropy generation rate, W/K
St
Stanton number
T
temperature, K
T
temperature difference, K
358

U
V
overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K

volume, m3
Greek symbols
effectiveness
viscosity, N s/m2
density, kg/m3
Subscripts
c
cold stream
h
hot stream
i
channel rank
in
inlet
n
for constructal heat exchanger
o
for normal heat exchanger
out
outlet
r
reference condition
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Zamfirescu C., Bejan A., Constructal tree-shaped two-phase flow for cooling a surface, Int. J. Heat and
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Bonjour J., Rocha L. A. O., Bejan A., Dendritic fins optimization for a coaxial two-stream heat
exchanger, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer 47, 111124, 2003.
[10] da Silva A. K., Lorente S., Bejan A., Constructal multi-scale tree-shaped heat exchanger, J. Appl.
Physics 96, 17091718, 2004.
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exchangers, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer 48, 31193127, 2005.
[12] Raja V. A. P., Basak T., Das S. K., Heat transfer and fluid flow in a constructal heat exchanger.
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Exchangers: Science, Engineering and Technology, Whistler, Canada: 147153, Sept. 1116, 2005.
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Heat and Mass Transfer 49, 45584566, 2006.
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Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer 49, 16191630, 2006.
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with constant channel wall temperature, Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer 49, 48394849, 2006.
[16] Raja V. A. P. Arun P., Basak T., Das S. K., Thermal performance of a multi-block heat exchanger
designed on the basis of Bejan's constructal theory. Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer 51, 35823594,
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[17] Miguel A. F., Dendritic structures for fluid flow: Laminar, turbulent and constructal design. J. of Fluids
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and Structure 26, 330335, 2010.

Kim Y., Lorente S., Bejan A., Constructal multi-tube configuration for natural and forced convection in
cross-flow, Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer 53, 51215128, 2010.
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Azad A.V., Amidpour M., Economic optimization of shell and tube heat exchanger based on constructal
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reheaters, Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer 67, 153158, 2013.
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RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Impact of Cutting Parameters on Tool Tip

Temperature in Turning Operation
Sagar Barvaliya and S. Jindal
Abstract- A large amount of heat is generated during machining process where deformation of material occurs.
The energy consumed in metal cutting during cutting operation is largely converted into heat. The studies of
temperature fields in machining are very important for the development of new technologies aiming to reduce
production costs and to increase the tool life. In the present work, optimization of cutting parameters (spindle
speed and feed rate) in dry turning of EN 8 steel to achieve low tool temperature. The experimental layout was
designed based on the Taguchi' L9 (23) orthogonal array technique and analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
performed to identify the effect of cutting parameters on tool temperature. The results indicated that cutting
speed followed by feed rate become the most influencing parameters on tool temperature. The minimum tool
temperature was obtained at spindle speed 150 rpm, feed of 0.05 mm/rev and constant depth of cut of 1 mm.
Finally, relationship between cutting parameters and tool temperature were developed by regression analysis.
Keywords- Tool temperature; Turning; Taguchi; ANOVA.
ntroduction Now a day's increasing the productivity and quality of the manufacturing parts are the main
challenge of modern machining industries. Some problems that the engineers come across are to find out
the optimum parameters for the desired product quality and to maximize the performance of
manufacturing using the available resources. Manufacturing industries are constantly focusing on lower cost
solutions with reduced lead time and better production rate in order to maintain their competitiveness and
efficiency. Special attention is also given to work piece batter surface quality, dimensional accuracy, high
production rate, less wear on the cutting tools and minimum use of cutting fluids.
During the dry machining process high temperature is generated and it adversely affects the quality of the
products produced and also reduces the tool life. Machining causes plastic deformation of the work material
and friction between tool-chip and tool-workpiece interfaces due to which a lot of energy supplied is converted
into heat. During the machining of low strength alloys, the heat generation is less but when ferrous and other
high strength alloys are machined, lot of heat is generated which increases when the cutting speed increase
subsequently. This heat generated, if not possible to dissipate successfully, may affect the surface quality,
reduce the tool life and hence overall performance of the machining. Thus, although high speed machining is
required in many cases for high production rate, the consequences of heat generation needs to be minimized.
Sagar Barvaliya
1Mechanical Department, M.Tech Scholar, College of Technology and Engineering, Maharana Pratap University
of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India,
Sagar.barvaliya77376@gmail.com,
S. Jindal
Mechanical Department, Professor, College of Technology and Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of
Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India,
sjindals@gmail.com, Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 7737688991
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
361
Barvaliya and Jindal
RAME-2016
Figure 1. Pie chart of heat dissipation in metal cutting.
The chip, work piece and tool help to remove the generated heat from the cutting zones. Heat is mostly
dissipated by the discarded chip, which carries away approximately 60%80% of the total heat generated. The
workpiece acts as a heat sink drawing 10%20% of the heat away, and the cutting tool draws away 10%20% of
the heat. The percentage contribution of heat dissipation in metal cutting is shown in Fig. 1.
There has been much research into the development of diffrent tequniqes for the measurement of temperature.
the tool-chip interface temperature experimentally investigated during turning of EN-31 steel with tungsten
carbide inserts using a tool-work thermocouple technique. The metal cutting parameters considered was cutting
speed, feed rate, tool nose radius and depth of cut. The results shown that increase in cutting speed, feed rate and
depth of cut increases the tool temperature while increasing nose radius reduced the tool temperature [1]. Das
[2] worked on the optimization method of cutting parameters in dry turning of AISI D2 Steel to achieve low
workpiece surface temperature and minimum tool wear. Lathiya and Viswakarma [3] discussed numerous
methods of temperature distribution such as experimental, numerical analysis and analytical. In addition,
temperature measurement techniques used in metal cutting were briefly reviewed. Chikalthankar [4]
investigated average chip-tool interface temperature considering the effect of cutting parameters such as
spindle speed, feed and depth of cut during turning of OHNS. Chinchanikar and Choudhury [5] investigated
average chip-tool interface temperature considering the effect of process parameters and the type of coating
namely, PVD-applied single-layer TiAlN and CVD-applied multi-layer TiCN/Al2O3/TiN during turning of
hardened steel. Nedic and Eric [6] did study on cutting temperature measured with artificial thermocouple and
metal machinability from aspect of cutting temperature. Pal and Gautam [7] worked on experimental
investigation of the temperature and the cutting forces during the turning of AISI 1045 steel using a tungsten
carbide tool. Mia and dhar [8] developed the predictive models of average tool-work interface temperature in
turning of AISI 1060 steel by coated carbide inserts. The Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Response
Surface Methodology (RSM) were employed to predict the tool temperature in respect of cutting speed, feed
rate and material hardness.
Gosai and Bhavsar [9] investigated cutting tool's average temperature by placing K-type thermocouple sensor
in cutting insert. Chu and Wallbank [10] in 1998 stated a relationship between the cutting parameters and
cutting temperature for specific range of cutting speed and feed rate. Abdil and Yashya [11] has recently
examined with comparative study of different to two cutting temperature measurement technique used
simultaneously (i.e. Thermocouple and Infrared based technique) and concluded that the cutting speed was the
parameter most affecting the tool-chip interface temperature whereas feed rate was not significant. This paper
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Impact of Cutting Parameters on Tool Tip Temperature.....

includes the study and experiment of appropriate temperature measurement techniques of cutting tool.
This study also includes placement of thermocouple sensor, the data acquisition and the methodology for
measuring cutting temperature during machining and mathematical model to optimize the cutting parameters.
Development of experimental setup also has been discussed over here with figures and diagrams.
3. Materials and Methods
As per the required objectives of the present work a lathe machine LTM 20 is used to perform the experiments
on tool temperature. The spindle speeds are selected at three levels of 150, 250 and 420 rpm and feed rates are
also selected at three levels at 0.05, 0.07 and 0.10 mm/rev which are available on the selected machine. EN 8
steel is the workpiece material for the study with a hardness of 35 2 HRC. The diameter of the rod is 25 mm
with a length of 200 mm. Carbide Inserts are used for the present work for which tool holder PCLNR 1616 H12
is taken, designation of carbide cutting inserts is CNMG 120408 which is shown in Fig 3
Figure 2. Cutting insert

3.1. Measurement of Tool Temperature:
Cutting temperature can be determined by two ways analytically (i.e. using mathematical models or equations
if available or can be developed) and experimentally. Analytical method is simple, quick and inexpensive but
less accurate and precise where as experimental method is more accurate, precise and reliable. In experimental
method, commonly used techniques are Tool work thermocouple, Radiation pyrometers, embedded
Figure 3. Tool holder with provision for inserting thermocouple

thermocouples, temperature sensitive paints and indirect calorimetric technique for measuring the temperature.
Of all these techniques, the embedded thermocouple technique is the most widely used technique for the
measurement of temperature. In this technique, fine deep holes are made in the cutting tool, generally only one
hole is made so as to maintain the strength of the tool and thermocouples are then placed in the holes to measure
363
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the temperature. In present study, embedded thermocouple technique was used and a hole was drilled in the
toolholder and shim to insert the thermocouple which was only 4 mm away from the cutting edge as shown in
Fig 3.
3.2. Temperature Indicator:
The tool temperature measured with thermocouple was indicated with the help of a multimeter, having an inbuilt temperature measurement function. MASTECH MS8217 was the multimeter used. This meter used is a
portable professional measuring instrument with a large LCD display.
Table 1. Technical specification of the multimeter
Figure 4. MASTECH multimeter with K type thermocouple

For the present work, K type thermocouple was used to measuring the tool temperature which is shown in
Figure 3.8 and technical specification of K type thermocouple are shown in Table 2. Figure 4 show the
connection of k type thermocople with multimeter.
Table 2. Technical specification of the thermocouple
Table 3 indicates the values of tool temperature taken for various values of spindle speed and feed rate for EN
8 Steel material. Depth of cut value was 1 mm which is constant. Three levels of spindle speed and feed are used
here. For spindle speed 150, 250 and 420 rpm are taken and for feed 0.05, 0.07 and 0.10 mm/rev are taken which
are shown in Table 3.
364

Table 3. Tool temperature values at different cutting parameters
4.1. Responses and Main Effect Plots:

The response table for S/N ratio and means are shown in Table 4 and table 5 respectively.
Table 4. Response Table for S/N ratio
Table 5. Response Table for Means
Figure 4. Main Effects Plot of S/N Ratio

The main effect plot for S/N ratio and Means are shown in Fig 5 and Fig 6 respectively. The main effects plot
indicates that tool temperature is significantly influenced by spindle speed and feed rate, which are shown in Fig
5 and Fig 6.
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Optimum condition for tool temperature is achieved at a spindle speed value of 150 rpm for a feed rate of 0.05
mm and constant depth of cut of 1mm. Further, the model satisfactorily explains the total variance in cutting
parameters and it is also reasonably a good fit (R-sq = 95.04%; R-sq (adj) = 90.07%). This is shown in Table 6.
4.2. Analysis Of Variance:
Table 6 shows variation of actual values of each input parameter with experimental results obtained. The value
of tool temperature was statistically analyzed using Minitab 17 software. The main effects plots of the means
for the output response parameter are obtained using Minitab 17 software.
Figure 5. Main effect plot for means

Table 6. Analysis of variance for tool temperature
Regression equation is formulated to predict the tool temperatures. This term is use for finding out the
correlation between the data.
TT = 86.61 + 0.0041 SS + 13.3 FR + 2.152 SS*FR
(1)
Where,
TT = Tool Temperature (C)
SS = Spindle Speed (rpm)
FR = Feed Rate (mm/rev)
The values of tool temperature can be obtained by putting different values of independent parameter in Eq.
(1). The regression equation can also be used for finding more values of tool temperature at different spindle
speed and feed rate values other than ones used in present work.
4.3.
Interaction Plot:
2.
The interaction plot generated for given experimental measurements show the change in tool
temperature for given parameters of spindle speed and feed rate in Fig 6.
366
Figure 6. Interaction plot for tool temperature
6. Conclusion
This paper focused on single k-type thermocouple sensor for measuring the cutting tool temperature during
turning operation on lathe machine with work piece material as EN 8 steel round bar and coated carbide insert as
cutting tool. This paper included the impact of different cutting parameters like spindle speed and feed rate on
cutting tool temperature. Effect of cutting parameters on tool temperature was discussed with the help of
developed mathematical equation. It has been conclude that cutting speed followed by feed rate become the
most influencing parameters on tool temperature. The best combination for spindle speed and feed rate as
recommended from the present research work would be 150 rpm and 0.05 mm/rev as lower tool temperature.
References
[1]
Abhang L. B. and Hameedullah M., Chip-Tool Interface Temperature Prediction Model for Turning
Process, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, vol. 2, pp. 382-393, 2010.
[2]
Chikalthankar S. B., Kakade R. B. and Nandedkar V. M., Investigation and Optimization of Tool Tip
Temperature in Turning of OHNS, International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, vol.
3, No. 10, pp. 1039-1044, October- 2014.
[3]
Chinchanikar S. and Choudhury S. K., Evaluation of Chip-Tool Interface Temperature: Effect of Tool
Coating and Cutting Parameters during Turning Hardened AISI4340 Steel, 3rd International
Conference on Materials Processing and Characterisation, Procedia Materials Science, vol. 6, pp.
996-1005, 2014.
[4]
Das S. R., Nayak R. P. and Dhupal D., Optimization of cutting parameters on tool wear and workpiece
surface temperature in turning of AISI D2 steel, International Journal of Lean Thinking, vol. 3, No. 2,
pp. 140-156, December 2012.
[5]
Ghodam S. D., Temperature Measurement Of a Cutting tool In Turning Process by using tool work
Thermocouple, International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, vol. 3, No. 4, pp.
831-835, April- 2014.
[6]
Gosai M. and Bhavsar S. N., Experimental Study on Temperature Measurement in Turning Operation
of Hardened Steel (EN36), 3rd International Conference on Innovations in Automation and
Mechatronics Engineering, Procedia Technology, vol. 23, pp. 311-318, 2016.
[7]
Lathiya D. K. and Viswakarma A., Temperature rise distribution due to the combined effects of shear
plane heat source and the toolchip interface frictional heat source, International Journal of Advanced
Engineering Technology, vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 63-66, July-Sept, 2012.
[8]
Mia M. and Dhar N. R., Response Surface and Neural Network based Predictive Models of Cutting
Temperature in Hard Turning, Journal of Advanced Research, vol. 16, pp. 30038-30046, May 2016.
367
RAME-2016
[9]
Nedic B. P. and Eric M. D., Cutting Temperature Measurement and Material Machinability, Thermal
Science, vol. 18, No. 1, pp. S259-S268, 2014.
[10]
Pal P. and Gautam D., Experimental Analysis of Cutting Forces and Temperature in Orthogonal
Machining of AISI 1045 Steel, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced
Engineering, vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 551-557, January 2015.
368
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Oct. 14 & 15.
A Review on Zeolite - Water Adsorption

Refrigeration System
Navendu Srivastava, Rashi Srivastava, Ravi Shekhar Singh
Abstract This paper aims to provide the current state of the zeolite water adsorption refrigeration systems. A
comprehensive literature review has been conducted and it was concluded that this technology, although
attractive, has limitations regarding its performance that seem difficult to overcome. Therefore, new
approaches were identied to increase the efficiency and sustainability of basic adsorption cycles. Present
review shows that there are adsorption cycles that can used not only to serve the refrigeration, but also to meet
the demand for economy, energy conservation and environmental protection.
Key Words: zeolite - water adsorption; working pairs; solar power adsorption refrigeration
ntroduction In recent decades, increasing cooling demand in the industrial and residential sectors
aggravates energy consumption leading to a corresponding deterioration of environment from higher
fossil fuel utilization. Cooling by the conventional vapor compression chillers consumes much electricity.
There are many villages where electricity is presently unavailable or far from sufficient. Such areas also need
refrigeration machine in order to preserve food and vaccines. To overcome this problem, compression system
powered by electricity is replaced with a thermal compressor driven by low grade thermal energy like solar
energy, geothermal energy etc. The main attraction to the solar adsorption refrigeration is that its working fluids
satisfy the Montreal protocol on ozone layer depletion and the Kyoto protocol on global warming. Choosing the
most appropriate adsorbent-adsorbate pair is one of the important factors determining the efficiency of the
adsorption refrigerator. Since the desirable lowest adsorption temperature for the adsorption refrigerator is
room temperature, the boiling point should be preferentially higher than 20C.
However, the vast application of this green technology is bottle necked by low coefficient of performance
(COP) and relatively larger foot-print. The existing adsorption chillers operate well below the theoretical
Carnot limit. Meunier et al. [1]
2.1 The Process
2.1.1. Solar Power Adsorption Refrigeration System
In solar power adsorption refrigerator, cooling is achieved by using adsorption desorption principle. In this
system water is used as working fluid and synthesized highly porous silicon compound (Zeolite 4A) is used as
Navendu Srivastava, Rashi Srivastava and Ravi Shekhar Singh
B. Tech Students, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology,
Email: navendusrivastava0894@gmail.com, rashi.sri20@gmail.com, ravishekharsingh43@gmail.com
Ashok Kumar Yadav
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology,
Email: ashokme015@gmail.com
Corresponding Author; Tel: 7838204492, 9540767025
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
369
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Srivastava et al.
adsorbent. When cool (at night) zeolite acts like a sponge for soaking water vapour and when heated during the
sunning day the water vapour is desorbed. The system operates under a partial vacuum, the water vapour moves
with high efficiency under low pressure. At the desorption temperature of water, water vapour begins to desorb
from the Zeolite. Thus the receiver act as a boiler and the water vapour leaves through the perforated holes on
the duct to the condenser. This water vapour is condensed as heat is given off by the heat exchanger. The
resulting water runs into a sealed storage tank. The liquid water in the storage tank (an evaporator) adsorbs heat
from the space to be cooled and is converted into water vapour. Since the system is sealed under very low
pressure, the remaining water in the storage tank freeze's into ice. This ice will melt slowly during the next day
thus providing sustained cooling at reasonable constant temperature. Omisanya et al. [2] discussed the design
and production of a solar powered zeolite-water adsorption refrigerator using concentrating parabolic collector
(CPC) was done. An array of two CPCs was designed, and performance tested using commercial pelletized
zeolite 4A as adsorbent and water as refrigerant. The experimental results were presented in terms of values of
system temperature and cooling performance coefficient. It was found that hourly instantaneous COP ranges
from 0.2 to 2.5 while the hourly insolation ranges from 34W/m2 to 345W/m2. Evaporator temperature of 11C
and maximum adsorber temperature of 110C was recorded. The minimum daily hourly mean COP of 0.838
with the corresponding maximum COP value of 1.48 was achieved. Meteorological condition was also
recorded with an average total daily-hourly isolation of 170W/m2. Fernandes et al. [3] reported that the paper
aims to provide the current state of the art of solar adsorption refrigeration systems operating with the singlebed intermittent cycle (also known as basic cycle). Since, there were the limitations regarding such
technologies, therefore, new approaches were identified to increase the efficiency and sustainability of basic
adsorption cycles, like the development of hybrid or thermal energy storage adsorption systems. It showed that
there were simple adsorption cycles which could be attractive alternatives not only to serve the needs for airconditioning, refrigeration, ice making, thermal energy storage or hybrid heating and cooling purposes, but also
to meet the demands for energy conservation and environmental protection. Miguel Ramos et al. [4] shows
some of the experimental evaluations of a prototype solar refrigerator, based on an intermittent
thermodynamic cycle of adsorption, using water as refrigerant and the mineral zeolite as adsorber. No
condenser was applied in this system, because the solar regeneration was made in the ambient air for the
regeneration, a SK14 solar cooker was considered. The cold chamber, with a capacity of 44 liters, was aimed for
food and vaccine conservation. The evaluation of the EG Solar prototype refrigerator showed that the
intermittent water zeolite adsorption cycle is appropriate for a refrigerator for food conservation in rural areas
where no electricity is available. Parash Goyal et al. [5] discussed on the fundamental knowledge of the
adsorption systems and presented a comprehensive literature review of the past efforts in the field of solar
energy utilization. Adsorption refrigeration technology provides noiseless, non-corrosive and environment
friendly operation by the utilization of low grade heat sources, especially solar energy. A plethora of adsorption
cooling systems had been developed but still these cooling systems were not ready to compete with the
traditional vapor compression cooling systems. A survey showed the limitations of adsorption system
regarding their technical and economic aspects which were difficult to overcome. Yadav et al. [6] discussed
about Peltier effect with which one can cool a specific area without using compressor which take a huge
consumption of electricity.This system is driven by solar energy using solar plates, battery, transformer peltier
module and heat sink. The analysis showed that for the prevalent conditions the compressor less AC is
significantly more economical to own and operate than the conventional AC. In spite of a slightly higher initial
cost, the thermoelectric AC proves to be more economical, mainly due to its significantly lower operating cost.
2.1.2. Experimental Setup
The solar powered adsorption refrigerator was designed to achieve cooling by operating on adsorption desorption principle. This system has no moving parts. Water is used as working fluid and synthesized highly
porous silicon compound (Zeolite 4A) is used as adsorbent. The system consists of the following components
as shown in figure 2-solar compound parabolic concentrating collectors (CPC), the condenser, the flood
evaporator, airtight cap (valve) and control valve. It is based on the fact that when cool (at night) the Zeolite acts
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like a sponge soaking up or adsorbing the water vapour and when heated during the sunning day the water
vapour is desorbed or released.
Figure 1: Adsorption Refrigerator Design Flow Diagram

The system operates under a partial vacuum, the water vapour moves with high efficiency under low pressure.
At the desorption temperature of water, water vapour begins to desorb from the Zeolite. Thus the receiver act as
a boiler and the water vapour leaves through the perforated holes on the duct to the condenser. This water vapour
is condensed into water droplet as heat is given off by the heat exchanger; as depicted in the flow diagram
(Figure 1). The resulting water runs into a sealed storage tank which is situated inside the refrigerator
compartment. During the night, Zeolite is cooled close to ambient temperature and start adsorbing water
vapour. The liquid water in the storage tank adsorbs heat from the space to be cooled and is converted into water
vapour. Since the system is sealed under very low pressure the remaining water in the storage tank freeze's into
ice. This ice will melt slowly during the next day thus providing sustained cooling at reasonable constant
temperature.
2.2 Coefficient of Performance
The coefficient of performance is defined as the ratio of the total refrigeration effect produced in the system to
the total energy required for this effect.
C.O.P. = Refrigeration Effect
Total Energy Input
2.3 Selection of the Working Pair
There are various types of adsorbentadsorbate working pairs that can be used in adsorption refrigeration
systems. Since the performance of the system depends upon the choice of working pair, therefore, working pair
should be selected very carefully. The selection of the working pair depends on the temperature of the heat
source, the desired characteristics of the refrigeration system, the properties of the working pair constituents
and the affinity between them (which depend on the chemical, physical and thermodynamic properties of the
substances), and even on their cost, availability and environmental impact.
2.3.1. Choice of Adsorbate
The adsorbate, or refrigerant, must fulfill the following requirements
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2.3.1. Choice of Adsorbate

The adsorbate, or refrigerant, must fulfill the following requirements
Evaporation temperature below 0C (for refrigeration purposes; it can be higher in the case of airconditioning applications);
Small molecular size so as to facilitate the adsorption effect;
High latent heat of vaporization and low specific volume (when in liquid state);
High thermal conductivity;
Low viscosity;
Thermally stable with the adsorbent in the operating temperature range;
Chemically stable in the operating temperature range;
Non-toxic, non-corrosive and non-flammable;
Low saturation pressures (slightly greater than atmospheric pressure) at normal operating
temperature;
Absence of ecological issues, unlike common refrigerants.

The most commonly used refrigerants are ammonia, methanol and water. Water and methanol operate at subatmospheric saturation pressures at the operating temperatures needed, and any infiltration of ambient air
immediately results in system malfunction. In the case of ammonia, small leakages can be tolerated for some
time, but its saturation pressure of 13bar at a condensing temperature of 35C is highly demanding. Ammonia is
toxic and corrosive, while water and methanol are not, but methanol is flammable. Water is the cheapest and
most thermally stable adsorbate but it can not be used for cooling purposes below 0C.
2.3.2. Choice of Adsorbent
The most important features for choosing a suitable adsorbent are:
Ability to adsorb a large amount of adsorbate when cooled to ambient temperature, to yield a high
cooling effect;
Desorption of most of the adsorbate when heated by the available heat source;
Low specific heat;
Good thermal conductivity, to shorten the cycle time;
Non deterioration and adsorption capacity losses over time or with usage;
Non-toxic and non-corrosive;
Chemically and physically compatible with the chosen refrigerant;
Low cost and wide availability.

The most important point is that the adsorbent must be porous enough to adsorb large refrigerant quantities, but
this result in low thermal conductivity, which limits the performance of the refrigeration system. Therefore,
there must be a compromise between the high porosity required for rapid vapor diffusion and the high density
required for good thermal conductivity. The most commonly used adsorbents are activated carbon, zeolite and
silica-gel. Activated carbon provides high adsorption and desorption capacities.
2.3.3. Working Pairs
Adsorbentadsorbate working pairs their characteristics, performances, advantages and disadvantages. The
most commonly used working pairs are: zeolitewater, silica-gel water, activated carbonmethanol and
activated carbonammonia. Silica-gelwater is ideal for solar energy applications due to its low regeneration
temperature, requiring low grade heat sources, commonly below 85C. Moreover, water has the advantage of
having a greater latent heat than other conventional refrigerants.
Activated carbon-Methanol Pair
Activated carbonmethanol is one of the most common working pairs in adsorption refrigeration systems. It
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also operates at low regeneration temperatures (care must be taken since regeneration temperatures above
120C promote the decomposition of methanol), while its adsorption-evaporation temperature lift is limited to
40C. This pair is also characterized by its large cyclic adsorption capacity, low adsorption heat, low freezing
point and high evaporation latent heat of methanol. However, activated carbon has a low thermal conductivity,
acting like a thermal insulator and causing decrease in the system's COP and like the silica-gelwater pair,
activated carbonmethanol also operates at vacuum conditions. Besides, methanol must be used with caution
due to its high toxicity and flammability. One of the first records of application of the activated carbon
methanol pair in adsorption refrigeration systems occurred in France, by the early1980s,when Delgado et al.
[7]. In the same decade, Pons and Guilleminot [8] developed a solar ice-maker prototype. Mhiri and ElGolli [9]
described the study of a solar adsorption refrigerator working with the activated carbonmethanol pair, in order
to build an industrial system.
Activated CarbonAmmonia Pair
In the late 1980s, Critoph [10] developed a simple low cost solar refrigerator operating at high pressure with the
activated carbon ammonia pair, which was recommended by the United Nations for vaccine storage in poor
regions. A coil shaped evaporator immersed in water was used, and its temperature reached -1C during the
experimental tests, producing 34 kg of ice per day, with a net solar COP of 0.04. Already in this century,
Oliveira [49] designed and tested an adsorption refrigerator comprising tube and shell heat exchangers as
reactor, which could be powered, for example, by solar energy. The system produced 1.2 and1.6 kg of ice per kg
of adsorbent daily, when the regeneration temperature was 75C and 85C, respectively. The solar COP was
0.08 in both cases. H. Ambarita & H. Kawai [11] discussed about solar-powered adsorption refrigeration
cycle with generator filled by different adsorbents has been tested by exposing to solar radiation. Four different
experiments of solar-powered adsorption cycle were carried out, they were with, generator filled by 100%
activated alumina (named as 100AA), by a mixed of 75% activated alumina and 25% activated carbon (75AA),
by a mixed of 25% activated alumina and 75% activated carbon (25AA), and filled by 100% activated carbon
(100AC). Each case was tested for three days. The results showed that the average COP of 100AA, 75AA,
25AA, and 100AC was 0.054, 0.056, 0.06, and 0.074 respectively. The main conclusion drawn was that the pair
of activated carbon and methanol is better than activated alumina.
Zeolite-Water Pair
The application of this working pair in refrigeration systems emerged in the late 1970s, mainly through the
pioneering work of Tchernev, who developed a 100 dm3 solar refrigerator with a 1m2 solar collectors [11, 12].
More recently, Lietal. [13] presented the simulation results of a solar refrigerator, in which the zeolite is placed
inside the evacuated tubes of the solar collector. The adsorbent can reach 200C and the overall system
performance is relatively high compared to the previous solar adsorption refrigerators, reaching theoretical
solar COP values higher than 0.25 Wei-Dong et al. [14] a modified adsorption cooling module with a working
pair of 13X zeolite-water used for engineering truck air-conditioning driven by engine waste heat is presented
in this paper. The cycle operating characteristics of the module at different cooling powers were analyzed and
discussed and it was found that the performance of the cooling module was having a strong coupling with
exterior ambient parameters such as the heat source (Ths), ambient temperature (Ta), air velocity (v) and air
relative humidity (). Results indicated that the demonstrated cooling module had a good performance, and the
minimum evaporating temperatures corresponding to the cooling powers of 2.0W and 10.5W are 0.7C
and16.2C, respectively, under the conditions of Ths at 325C, Ta at 18C, at 70%, and natural convection. Kyaw
Thu et al. [15] discussed, an environment-friendly adsorption chiller using Zeolite FAM Z01water pair as
opposed to the conventional silica gel and water pair was used. Zeolite was thinly coated onto the surfaces of
fin-tube heat exchanger for faster rates of heat and mass transfer. The performance of zeolite-based chiller was
evaluated in terms of total heat input, cooling capacity, and coefficient of performance (COP) with respect to
heat source temperature and adsorption/desorption cycle time where an optimal operational zone can be
determined: (i) hot water inlet temperatures range from 65C to 85C, (ii) adsorption/desorption cycle times of
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200300 s at optimum cooling and COP. D. Baker et al.[16] In this Experimental investigation of a natural
zeolitewater adsorption cooling unit, a thermally driven adsorption cooling unit using natural zeolitewater as
the adsorbentrefrigerant pair has been built and its performance investigated at various evaporator
temperatures. Under the experimental conditions of 45C adsorption, 150C desorption, 30C condenser and
22.5C, 15C and 10C evaporator temperatures, the COP of the adsorption cooling unit is approximately
0.25.and the maximum average volumetric cooling power density (SCPv) and mass specific cooling power
density per kg adsorbent (SCP) of the cooling unit are 5.2 kW/m3 and 7 W/kg, respectively. R. Georgiev et al.
reported in the study, an adsorption cooling module. The module was designed to operate on ecological
materials: zeolite and water. The adsorption refrigeration module was thermally powered by a solar collector
system and study of the dynamics of temperature parameters defines the cooling and condensation processes in
the adsorption refrigeration module. Its potentials for cooling (air conditioning) were investigated. In the zone
of the evaporator, refrigerant temperatures in the range of 15C were obtained for 6.5 hours. During cooling
(adsorption) temperature of the zeolite rose by 8.5C. For desorption of water vapour (refrigerant) heat from
thermal solar systems 78-80 was used. P. P. Chachad & S. Bhadane [17] in their paper showed the usage of
Zeolite 4A for application in adsorption refrigeration frameworks. The refrigeration framework model
comprises of two steel chambers, one containing Zeolite and the other containing refined water at a weight
relating to the room temperature, three transports funnels having one valve each. The most reduced evaporator
temperature obtained was 9.8C with a C.O.P of 0.4.
Silica-Gel Water Pair
In 1986, a refrigeration system with a 0.25m2 flat plate solar collector containing silica-gel was developed in
Japan [18]. To improve the collector heat transfer, it was divided into several blocks with square fins, leading the
temperature of the adsorption bed to a maximum of 80C. A solar COP of 0.2 was attained. At the beginning of
the current century, in Switzerland, Mayor and Dind [19] built a portable solar adsorption refrigerator prototype. The collector has a surface area of 1m2, containing the silica-gel inside its tubes. The cold box is thermally
insulated by vacuum panels, and the system contains a special valve that replaces the manual valves from the
previous prototypes. This refrigerator system has the capacity to cool down 30 K a mass of 2.5 to 3.7 kg of water
in a desert climate.
3. Summary of Review
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4. Conclusion
This paper presents an extensive review of the state of the art of solar refrigeration systems operating with the
basic adsorption cycle. The operation principle, covering its main components, thermodynamic aspects and
performance assessment is explained in this paper. It also consists of the most commonly used
adsorbateadsorbent working pairs, presenting some specific requirements, advantages and disadvantages in
their selection. Combining the adsorption cycle with other refrigeration cycles also improves the overall
performance of the system. It also includes the experimental study on adsorption characteristics and
performance of solar-powered adsorption refrigeration cycle with generator filled by activated alumina,
activated carbon, and a mixed of activated alumina and activated carbon have been carried out. The conclusion
found in this experiment is even though the adsorption capacity of activated alumina is higher than activated
carbon, but for solar radiation as a heat source the pair of activated carbon is better. This is because the isobaricdesorption pressure of activated alumina is higher than activated alumina. The mixed adsorbent of activated
alumina and activated carbon does not show a better COP than the pure activated carbon.
References
[1]
Meunier F. Solid sorption heat powered cycles for cooling and heat pumping applications. Appl Therm
Eng 1998; 18:71529.
[2]
N.O. Omisanya, C.O. Folayan, S.Y. Aku, S.S. Adefila, Pelegia Research Library(2012), Performance
of a Zeolite-Water adsorption refrigerator.
[3]
M.S. Fernandes, G. J. V. N. Brites, J. J. Costa, A.R. Gaspar, V.A.F. Costa, Review and future trends of
solar adsorption refrigeration systems, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 39 (2014)
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Miguel Ramos, Rafael L. Espinoza, Manfred J. Horn, Evaluation of a zeolite-water solar adsorption
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technology An overview of theory and its solar energy applications, Renewable and Sustainable
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A. K. Yadav, S. Singh, G. Gupta, Solar Air-Conditioning: Design for a Compressor-Less System using
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Delgado R, Choisier, Grenier Ph, Ismail, Meunier F, Pons M. Etudedu cycle intermittent char bona
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solaire.In: Proceedings of the Meeting of CommissionsE1E2, International Institute of
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M. Pons, J.J. Guilleminot, Design of an experimental solar-powered, solid adsorption ice maker,
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Mhiri F, ElGolliS. Etuded'un refrigerateur solaire adsorption solideavecle couple charbona ctif
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Critoph R, Z hong Y. Review of trends in solid sorption refrigeration and heat pumping technology.
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H. Ambarita, Adsorption capacity of activated carbon and activated alumina san adsorbent with
several refrigerants pairs in adsorption cycle (in Bahasa), in: Proceeding of the Annual seminar of
Indonesia Mechanical Engineers (SNTTMXIII), Jakarta, 2014, pp.300306.
[12]
D.I. Tchernev, Solar energy application of natural zeolite. in: L.B. Sand, F.A. Mumpton (Eds.), Natural
Zeolite: Occurrence, Properties and Use. Pergamon Press, London, 1978, pp. 479e485.
[13]
Leite APF, Grilo MB, Andrade RRD, Belo FA, Meunier F. Experimental thermodynamic cycles and
performance analysis of a solar-powered adsorptive icemaker in hot humid climate. Renew Energy
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Wei-Dong Wu, Hua Zhang, Chuan-li Men, Performance of a modified zeolite 13X-water adsorptive
cooling module powered by exhaust waste heat, School of Energy and Power Engineering, University
of Shanghai for Science and Technology, International Journal of Thermal Sciences 50 (2011)
2042e2049
Ang Li, Azhar Bin Ismail, Kyaw Thu, Kim Choon Ng, Wai Soong Loh Performance evaluation of a
zeolitewater adsorption chiller with entropy analysis of thermodynamic insight , Applied Energy 130
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Solmus, Kaftanoglu B, Yamal C, Baker D. Experimental investigation of a natural zeolitewater
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Mayor J, Dind P. (Laboratoired' Energtique Solaireetde Physique du btiment, HES-SO/EIVD).
Construction ettestd'un refrigerates ursolaire adsorption transportable. Final report. Switzerland:
Office fdraldel' nergie OFEN; December 2002 [in French].
RAME-2016
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Application of Additives to Improve the

Performance of Biodiesel Fueled
C.I. Engine: A Review
Siddharth Srivastava, Pragya Sharma,
Gaurav Kumar Kanaujia and
Ashok Kumar Yadav
Abstract: The declining reserves of fossil fuels and the growing environmental concernshave made renewable
energy an exceptionally attractive alternative energy source for the future. it has become apparent that biodiesel
is destined to make a substantial contribution to the future energy demands of the domestic and industrial
economies. There are different potential feed stocks for biodiesel production. The use of non-edible plant oils is
very significant because of the tremendous demand for edible oils as food source. This paper presents a detail
review of the effect of n-butanol (normal butanol), Ethanol and Die Ethyl Ether (DEE) as oxygenated additive
in conventional diesel /biodiesel blends on the engine performance and emission of a C.I. engine.
Key Words: Additive; Engine performance and emission; Biodiesel
ntroduction: The increased energy demand along with environmental considerations drive more research
to be done on finding new, renewable and clean energy sources. Biodiesel derived from renewable source
is the most popular energy source for IC engines. There can be various ways through which biodiesel can
be obtained including cooking oil, palm oil, plants such as Jatropha cucas etc.
Malaysia is one of the leading producers of palm oil in the world[1]. However, because of edible nature ofpalm
oil, Jatropha has drawn immense attention and it has been reported as one of the best contestants of cheap
biodiesel source in near future [2]. The exhaust emissions from a diesel power generator operating with cooking
oil biodiesel blends have been studied.
Siddharth Srivastava, Pragya Sharma

B Tech students, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad,
201003, India
Email: rohitsid.srivastava@gmail.com, pragyapantnagar@gmail.com
Gaurav Kumar Kanaujia, Ashok Kumar Yadav
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad,
201003, India
Email: gkkanaujia@gmail.com, ashokme015@gmail.com
Corresponding author; Tel: +91 8471012462.
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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The major problem associated with the use of biodiesel are lower engine power, higher brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) due to their lower calorific value, higher densities and viscosities. Auto-ignition
temperature was also increased while using biodiesel. To overcome these difficulties oxygenated additives
such as n-butanol, n-ethanol and diethyl ether are usually addedin biodiesel in small quantity [3].
N-butanol is a strong alcohol competitor of ethanol as additive to be used in dieselengine which is also a
biomass-based renewable fuel. N-butanol has higher heating value, higher cetane number and higher
miscibility than ethanol which make it superior to be used an additive [4]. Yao et. al investigated the influence of
n-butanol-diesel blend on the performance and emission of a heavy duty diesel engine with multi injection and
various EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) ratios. They reported that soot and CO emission can be reduced to
certain extent without severe impact on BSFC [5].
Ethanol is widely used in gasoline engines for many decades. However, it is not suitable for diesel-fueled
engine as its calorific value and cetane number are lowand it is not miscible with diesel. Diethyl ether is
another biomass based oxygenated additive derived from ethanol which is produced itself from biomass.
2. Palm Biodiesel With Additives (Engine Performance Characteristics)
2.1 Engine Brake Power
The general trend of brake power of diesel fuel and blends was increasing as the speed was increased up to 2000
rpm. After that brake power decreased which can be attributed to the higher frictional force due to higher speed.
D80P15DE5 gave the highest brake power while the DP20 gave the lowest. S. Srivastava et al. to its lower
calorific value and lower combustion efficiency due to higher density and viscosity. D80P15E5, D80P15B5
and D80P15DE5 gave about 3.38%, 6% and 6.25% increment of brake power than DP20 respectively at 2000
rpm. However, in spite of lower calorific value, these blends showed higher brake power than DP20 which
ensureshigher combustion efficiency. This higher combustion efficiency is the result of their decreased density
and viscosity which improved atomization.
2.2 Break Specific Fuel Consumption:
As the comparison of BSFC is effected at the same speed and constant full load, which means at a certain engine
power, the values of BSFC are then obviously directly proportional to the fuel mass flow rate [7,8]. It can be
observed D80P15B5 and D80P15DE5 has shown lower BSFC corresponding to DP20 as well as diesel.
Though they have got lower calorific values, this kind of result can be attributed to good atomization and
combustion quality. Combining the facts, lower BSFC with lower calorific value, the brake thermal efficiency
(BTE) of D80P15DE5 and D80P15B5 are higher than DP20 and diesel fuel. As BTE is simply the inverse of the
multiplication of BSFC and calorific value, consequently they showed this kind of higher BTE. For D80P15E5,
though its calorific value was the lowest among the blends, it showed lower BTE for its higher BSFC which
depicts its lower combustion efficiency than D80P15DE5 and D80P15B5.
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2.3 Exhaust Emission Characteristics:

(a) Hydrocarbon (HC) Emission
The unburnt hydrocarbon originates from various sources in the cylinder during combustion. It can be observed
that, oxygenated compounds available in the biodiesel made the HC emission lower in the case of DP20. In
spite of higher oxygen content of ethanol, n-butanol and diethyl ether (34%. 21.6% and 21.6% respectively),
blends showed higher amounts of HC emission. This behaviour can be the effect of addition of additives like
ethanol, n-butanol and diethyl ether which make it easier to evaporate the fuel and slipped into the cylinder
especially at low speed during expansion stroke [9].
Another reason can be mentioned here is the increase of lean outer flame zone. This actually means the
envelope of the spray boundary where the fuel is already beyond the flammability limit because of over mixing
[10]. However, the comparative emission ofHC among the blends with additives can be explained easily with
the oxygen content of the additives mentioned earlier.
(b) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emission
CO emission of DP20 is much lower than diesel fuel which can be attributed to the higher fuel bound oxygen.
D80P15E5, D80P15B5 and D80P15DE5 showed even lower CO emission than DP20 because of their superior
level of oxygen content as stated in the previous section. Extra fuel bound oxygen in the blends ensures the
oxidation of CO even on locally fuel rich zones which helps to reduce CO emission [11]. However, different
level of CO emission among the blends with additives can be explained by the physical and chemical properties
of the additives.
Nitrogen Oxide (NO) Emission
As the speed decreased, NO emission of all the blends increased. It can be attributed to the higher available time
span of combustion as the speed becomes lower. DP20 showed higher NO all through the engine test as because
it contains higher level of oxygen [12-14]. However, though ethanol and n-butanolhave got higher oxygen
content, D80P15E5 and D80P15B5 showed lower NO which can be explained by their lower calorific value
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and higher heat of evaporation which resulted in lower in-cylinder temperature. In the case of D80P15DE5,
lower NO can be attributed to reduced part of premixed combustion where NO is mainly formed. Nonetheless,
among the blends with additives, D80P15E5 showed the highest amount of NO which is for nothing but the
comparatively higher oxygen content of ethanol.
3. Jatropha Biodiesel With Additive (Engine performance Characteristics)

3.1 Break Specific Fuel Consumption
BSFC implies the ratio of fuel consumption rate to break power output. J20 and its modified blends with nbutanol showed reasonably higher BSFC than diesel on average. J20 showed on average 5.4% increment of
BSFC than diesel. J15B5, J10B10 showed better than J20. They showed 2.3% and 3.9% decrement of BSFC
than J20. J15D5 and J10D10 showed even better resultsthan n-butanol blends. They showed 5.5% and 6.8%
decrement of BSFC than J20 respectively. Reason behind for the higher BSFC of the jatropha biodiesel blend
and its modified blends than diesel is the lower energy content of the blends than diesel. Per unit mass heating
values of the blends were lower, therefore, consumption had to be higher to attain the constant torque. However,
DEE blends showed lower BSFC than even diesel at lower speeds which actually indicates better combustion
efficiency of the blends due to their high oxygen content, lower viscosity and density comparative to n-butanol
[15]. As the viscosity and density of J20 was higher than its modified blends, adhesion of fuel in the cylinder
wall due to higher spray penetration might happen for improper atomization. Therefore, these results surely
indicate improvement of atomization of the modified blends.
3.2 Brake Thermal Efficiency
Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) measures the efficiency of the conversion of chemical energy into useful work
in an engine. Dividing the useful work by the heating value of the fuel is the way to calculate BTE. It can be seen
that, J20 exhibited lowest BTE among the fuels on average (25.4%). On the other hand, modified blends of
jatropha biodiesel J15B5 and J10B10, improved BTE than J20 on average 2.8% and 5.3% respectively.
Similarly, J15D5 and J10D10 improved the BTE on average 6.6% and 8.8% than J20. Reasons for the
improvement of BTEs of the modified blends are totally analogous to the reasons of improving the BSECs.
3.3
Exhaust Emission Characteristics
(a)
Hydrocarbon (HC) Emission
There are number of reasons for the HC emission during combustion. Fuel trapping in the crevice volumes of
the combustion chamber is one of the major reasons of HC emission. Locally over-lean or over-rich mixture,
incomplete fuel evaporation and liquid wall films for excessive spray impingement are also have been
mentioned as significant factors [8]. J20 gave significantly lower HC than diesel fuel all over the engine speed
range. It gave about 28% decreased emission than diesel on average. Such decrement can be attributed to the
higher oxygen content of biodiesel which influenced the amount of hydrocarbon oxidation. On the contrary,
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J15B5 and J10B10 showed 28.4% and 48% increment of HC emission than J20 on average while J15D5 and
J10D10 showed 32% and 52% increment. HC emission was supposed to be reduced due to even higher oxygen
content of n-butanol and DEE.
(b) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emission
CO can be formed through an overly lean mixture or an overly rich mixture. Flame cannot propagate through
mixture in overly lean mixtures, consequently fuel pyrolysis with partial oxidation causes CO. On the contrary,
for the overly rich mixture, the fuel cannot mix with sufficient amount of air. Even if they mix, however, they do
not have enough time to oxidize [16].
However, generally CO forms at rich airfuel mixture areas because of unavailability of oxygen to completely
oxidize all CO content in the fuel. It can be seen that, for all the fuels, up to 2000 rpm emission reduced and
afterwards increased. Initially, increment of speed increased the in-cylinder temperature which favored the CO
oxidation, however, later on higher speed than 2000 rpm may be reduced the time available for oxidation
mechanism [17].
J20 produced quite a reduced emission compared to diesel all over the speed range. About 27.5% decrement on
average was noticed for J20 than diesel. It canbe attributed to higher oxygen content of biodiesel which assisted
to achieve more complete combustion. However, modified blends reduced the emission even better. J15B5,
J10B10, J15D5 and J10D10 reduced the CO emission than J20 about 23%, 30.7%, 11% and 20.6% respectively
because of more oxygen content [18]. Therefore, lower density and viscosity of the modified blends increased
the atomization efficiency and on top of that higher oxygen content really assisted complete oxidation of the
fuels, hence reduced CO emission.
Nitrogen Oxide (NO) Emission
NO formation generally depends on oxygen concentration, air surplus coefficient, in cylinder temperature and
residence time [17]. In this investigation, J20 produced 8.2% higher NO emission on average than diesel.
Higher NO for J20 can be attributed to higher fuel bound oxygen. Higher oxygen content of biodiesel delivers
higher local peak temperature which results in higher NO formation.
Another reason which can be mentioned is the higher cetane number of jatropha biodiesel. Due to higher cetane
number, combustion advances, combustion duration reduces and premixed part of the combustion increases
where NO is formed mostly. However, 5% blend of n-butanol showed even higher NO emission (5.05%) than
J20.
Higher oxygen content of the modified blend was the most probable cause for such higher emission of NO.
Nevertheless, increased portion of n-butanol (J10B10) reduced NO emission than J20 about 8.83% on average
primarily due to higher latent heat of evaporation of n-butanol [19]. It is evident that, on the case of 5% blend the
effect of higher oxygen content was dominant while for 10% blend, amount of n-butanol was good enough to
create lower in-cylindertemperature which has been shown by other researcher for other fuels [20]. For higher
latent heat of evaporation, in cylinder temperature and the premixed peak of the combustion was reduced
(validated by comparative lower in-cylinder pressures). On top of that, for 10% n-butanol blend, the SOC was
quite retarded and combustion occurred on a comparatively lower temperature environment. Consequently,
NO emission of J10B10 reduced. Similarly, J15D5 produced slight increased and J10D10 produced about 12%
decreased NO emission than J20. Explanation of the consequence is just analogous to the n-butanol case.
4. Conclusion:
An inclusive investigation was performed to evaluate and compare the engine performance and
exhaust emission characteristics of different vegetable oil and their blends with different percentage of
ethanol, n-butanol and DEE.
=
Among the additives diethyl ether showed highest improvement through its less density and viscosity
profile with quite a high calorific value.
=
N-butanol showed quite similar development to diethyl ether but ethanol showed less development
because of its lower calorific value.
=
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=
Srivastava et al.
CO emission decreased for higher oxygen content and NO decreased for lower calorific value and
higher latent heat of evaporation of the additives.
References
[1]
Ong HC, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Norhasyima RS. Comparison of palm oil, Jatropha curcas and
Calophylluminophyllum for biodiesel: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011; 15:350115.
[2]
Mofijur M, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Hazrat MA, Liaquat AM, Shahabuddin M, et al. Prospects of
biodiesel from Jatropha in Malaysia. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012; 16:500720.
[3]
Rakopoulos DC. Combustion and emissions of cottonseed oil and its bio-diesel in blends with either nbutanol or diethyl ether in HSDI diesel engine. Fuel 2013; 105:60313.
[4]
Hansen AC, Kyritsis DC. Characteristics of biofuels and renewable fuel standards. Biomass to
biofuels: strategies for global industries; 2010. p. 126.
[5]
Altun Se, ner C, Yasar F, Adin H. Effect of n-butanol blending with a blend of diesel and biodiesel on
performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine. IndEngChem Res 2011; 50:942530.
[6]
Agarwal AK, Das L. Biodiesel development and characterization for use as a fuel in compression
ignition engines. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2001; 123:4407.
[7]
Rakopoulos C, Antonopoulos K, Rakopoulos D. Experimental heat release analysis and emissions
of a HSDI diesel engine fueled with ethanoldiesel fuel blends. Energy 2007; 32:1791808.
[8]
Heywood JB. Internal combustion engine fundamentals. Singapore: McGraw Hill; 1988.
[9]
Qi DH, Chen H, Geng LM, Bian YZ. Effect of diethyl ether and ethanol additives on the combustion
and emission characteristics of biodiesel-diesel blended fuel engine. Renew Energy 2011; 36:12528.
[10]
Rakopoulos D. Combustion and emissions of cottonseed oil and its bio-diesel in blends with either
butanol or diethyl ether in HSDI diesel engine. Fuel. 2013; 105:603-613

[11]
Xiao Z, Ladommatos N, Zhao H. The effect of aromatic hydrocarbons and oxygenates on diesel engine
emissions. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Pt. D J. Automobile Eng. 2000; 214:307-32
[12]
M.I. Arbab, H.H. Masjuki, M. Varman, M.A. Kalam, S. Imtenan, H. Sajjad. Fuel properties, engine
performance and emission characteristic of common biodiesels as a renewable and sustainable source
of fuel. Renew Sust Energy Rev. 22 (2013) 133-47.
[13]
I.M. Rizwanul Fattah, H.H. Masjuki, A.M. Liaquat, R. Ramli, M.A. Kalam, V.N. Riazuddin. Impact of
various biodiesel fuels obtained from edible and nonedible oils on engine exhaust gas and noise
emissions. Renew Sust Energy Rev. 18 (2013) 552-67.
[14]
M.I. Arbab, H.H. Masjuki, M. Varman, M.A. Kalam, S. Imtenan, H. Sajjad.Experimental investigation
of optimum blend ratio of jatropha, palm and coconut based biodiesel to improve fuel properties,
engine performance and emission characteristics, SAE Technical Paper 2013-01-2675, 2013,
doi:10.4271/201301-2675.
[15]
Imtenan S, Masjuki HH, Varman M, Kalam MA, Arbab MI, Sajjad H, et al. Impact of oxygenated
additives to palm and jatropha biodiesel blends in the context of performance and emissions
characteristics of a light-duty diesel engine. Energy Convers Manage 2014; 83:14958.
[16]
Turns SR. An introduction to combustion: concepts and applications. 2nd ed. Singapore: McGrawHill; 2000.
[17]
Imtenan S, Varman M, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Sajjad H, Arbab MI, et al. Impact of low temperature
combustion attaining strategies on diesel engine emissions for diesel and biodiesels: a review. Energy
Convers Manage 2014; 80:32956.
[18]
Lebedevas S, Lebedeva G, Sendzikiene E, Makareviciene V. Investigation of the performance and
emission characteristics of biodiesel fuel containing butanol under the conditions of diesel engine
operation. Energy Fuels 2010; 24:45039.
[19]
Qi DH, Chen H, Geng LM, Bian YZ. Effect of diethyl ether and ethanol additives on the combustion
and emission characteristics of biodiesel-diesel blended fuel engine. Renew Energy 2011; 36:12528.
[20]
Altun Se, ner C, Yasar F, Adin H. Effect of n-butanol blending with a blend of diesel and biodiesel on
performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine. IndEngChem Res 2011; 50:942530.
382
Modeling and Analysis of Machining Parameters

on Surface Roughness and Cutting Force in
Finish Dry Hard Turning (FDHT) of AISI D2
Tool Steel by RSM Approach
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Vaibhav Chandra, Umesh Khandey,

Sudarshan Ghosh and P.V. Rao
Abstract- AISI D2 tool steel material is considered as difficult material to be machined. It exhibits various
properties such as high wear resistance, high hardness, high strength and rapid strain hardening etc. In the
present work, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) has been used to investigate the effect of four major
influencing machining parameters on surface roughness and cutting forces. The parameters namely cutting
speed, feed rate, depth of cut and rake angle have been considered for dry machining of AISI D2 tool steel. The
second-order polynomial model has been constructed for cutting force and surface roughness. The adequacy of
model has been checked though analysis of variance (ANOVA) and found to be best fitted for prediction of
surface roughness and cutting forces. The Coefficient of Determination (R2) for surface roughness and cutting
force has been found to be 90.19% and 98.33% respectively.
Keywords- AISI D2 Steel; FDHT; RSM; Cutting Force; Surface Rouhness.
ntroduction Now a days coated cutting inserts are widely accepted by the metal cutting industries to
machine the materials which are difficult to cut. They used to decrease the tool wear due to their
significance properties, like high temperature oxidation resistance, great tribological properties, high
wear strength, etc. To perform the hard turning correct combination of cutting tool material, feed rate, depth of
cut, cutting speed, insert geometry is required, so that better results can be achieved in single cut of turning
rather than in multiple cut of finishing operations. Hard turning is performed on those engineering materials
whose hardness is more than 45 HRC level. It is the most appropriate alternative of grinding operation or any
other conventional surface finishing operation in terms of surface quality[1]. Therefore it serves as a grinding
replacement process. The typical material which is hard turned are steel alloys, bearing steels, die steels, case
hardened steels, etc. While performing the hard machining the various factors are need to be consider in terms
Vaibhav Chandra
Department of Tool Engineering, Assistant Professor, Delhi Institute of Tool Engineering , Okhla New Delhi New
Delhi, vcdite007@gmail.com ,
Umesh Khandey
Department of Mechanical Engineering , Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas New Delhi,
umesh.khandey@gmail.com
Sudarshan Ghosh and P.V. Rao
Department of Mechanical Engineering , Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas New Delhi,
ghoshs@mech.iitd.ac.in, pvrao@mech.iitd.ernet.in Vaibhav Chandra; Tel: +91 9268253421
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
383
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Chandra et al.
of machine for ideal machining. These factors are machine rigidity, work holding rigidity, good vibration
damping characteristics, rigid tool location, rigid cutting tools and advanced insert materials. Hard turning not
only eliminate the requirement of grinding but also increase the rate of production by reducing the cycle time of
finishing operation. It also reduces the cost of turning operation as well as setup time of machining. The large
varieties of tool steel materials are classified by their applications, by their composition or by specific
characteristic properties and others by the manner of heat treatment. The American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI) has published and classified the Tool steels into the various categories with identifying letter or symbols
such as Water-Hardening tool steels (W), Shock-Resisting tool steels (S), High-Carbon, High Chromium (D) or
AISI D2, Hot work Tool steels (H), Mould Tool Steels (P), etc. AISI D2 have a great application in the field of
tooling industries, such as in making forging dies, dies of pressure die casting, and cutting dies apart for these
they are also frequently used in the manufacturing of Jigs and fixtures, reamers, broaches, knives, Gauges,
measuring tools, guide rails, bushes, sleeves, knurling tools etc. The main composition of AISI D2 is given in
table 1. Similarly the mechanical and thermal properties of AISI D2 are given in table 2. Now a days lots of
options are available for the metal cutting industries to choose the cutting inserts. But selection of appropriate
cutting insert is great a challenge. There are various factors on which selection is depend such as work piece
hardness, cutting temperature, tool life, process parameters, etc.
Table 1 Chemical composition of AISI D2 stee work piece in percentage by weight.[2]
The EDAX testing has been done on our selected work piece which confirm the chemical composition as per
literature as shown in figure 1.
Fig 1: Result of EDAX analysis of AISI D2 material
384
Modeling and Analysis of Machining Parameters ......

Table 2 Thermal and mechanical properties of AISI D2 steel.[3]
Steel alloy are generally very hard for most the applications used, ranging between 45 to 65HRC. Such material
comes up with lots of machining difficulties such as mechanical shock, generation of high temperature at the
primary shear zone, high tool wear rate, dimensional distortion, precision requirement, etc. To overcome such
issues inserts manufactures have done drastically changes in the inserts to perform the hard turning. Now a days
PVD, CVD coated carbide, cermet, ceramic, cubic boron nitride (cBN), and polycrystalline diamond (PCD)
inserts all play a key role. These advanced material inserts have special geometries and hard coatings of
different materials withstand mechanical shock and heat while resisting abrasive wear, etc. These advanced
cutting tools are able to achieve good surface quality and economic efficiency comparable to that of grinding
operation. And also the possibility of excellent tool life, optimal process reliability. The current work
investigate the effects of finish dry hard turning(FDHT) on cutting forces(Fy) and surface roughness (Ra) with
using of TiAlN coated carbide inserts of different geometry.
Now a days it is necessary to optimize the input parameters during cutting, such as feed rate, cutting speed and
depth of cut. Optimization is an important tool extensively used in machining process in order to get the suitable
range of parameters so that desired product quality can be achieved. Sahoo, et al.[4] done the comparative study
on volume of chips, tool life, surface roughness, flank wear. To machined the AISI D2 material they selected
multilayered TiN coated and uncoated carbide cutting inserts under dry condition. They observed that tool life
is increases 30 times with multilayer TiN coated carbide insert and also lower surface roughness value. Sharma
et al [5]. performed the study on AISI D2 using vegetable oil by using Tungsten carbide insert
(CNMG12408).They compared the results with dry machining and near dry machining. According to the
results near dry machining shows good results in terms of cutting temperature at work tool interface and
roughness value. Dipti kanta das et al.[6] have perfomed dry turning on EN 24 steel. The model for predicting
the surface roughness has been develpoed. They have identified feed rate as a most dominant parameter for
surface roughness and concluded the adequecy of surface roughness model by correlation coefficient (R2 =
0.993). Sahoo and Sahoo[7] have developed mathematical modeling in hard turning of AISI 4340 steel using
multilayer coated carbide insert. They have used RSM and Grey-based Taguchi approach for the optimization
and mathematical modeling for the output characterstics. They have been found that the economical feasibility
of their study and developed model fitted well for prediction and optimization. The dry turning of AISI 1040
mild steel has been performed by Noordin et al.[8]. They have studied the performance of coated carbide tools
using response surface methodology and foud well for the judgment of performance of tool. Anderson Paulo, et
al[9] implement the optimization theory based on the multi objective hybrid approach combining response
surface methodology (RSM) with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using AISI 52100 hardened steel. To
turned the material they uses wiper mixed ceramic tools. Suresh et al.[10] investigated experimentally and
optimized the machining conditions in turning of mild steel work piece using TiN-coated tungsten carbide.
They adopted the Genetic Algorithms (GA) and RSM methodology to develop the prediction model of surface
roughness.
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3.1 Workpiece material.
In the present study rod of AISI D2 having the size of diameter 95 mm and length of 300mm were used. As per
the method of heat treatment the specimen is inserted into a salt bath furnace at 10001040 C, then quenched in
oil, and finally tempered at low temperature (220C) for around 45 minutes to achieve the required hardness
value of 551 HRC.
3.2 Machine Tool
The experimental investigation was made up of the CNC T-6 (Leadwell, Taiwan) lathe machine of 15 HP
spindle power with maximum speed of 4500 rpm. It is installed at Central Workshop of Mechanical
Engineering Department, IIT, Delhi, India
3.3 Cutting Tool
In the current work 5 levels were selected of rake angle. For CNMG inserts -6 degree default rake angle tool
holder were used. And for VNMG insert -10 degree rake angle tool holder was used. The complete details of
cutting inserts and effective rake angles are given in table 3.
Table 3 Details of Cutting Inserts
3.4 Design of Experiments.

In this study cutting speed, feed rate, rake angle and Depth of cut are the input variables and cutting forces and
surface finish are the output responses. In the present research paper four factors will be considered and each
factor consists of five levels as shown in the Table 4.
Table 4: Selected factors and levels
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.2
The design of experiments has a major effect on the number of experiments needed. Therefore it is essential to
have a proper design of experiments. In order to reduce the number of experiments and resources such as time,
material and money. The central composite design(CCD) technique is used. It reduced the number of
experiments from 625 to 31 only. Experiment lay out along with the output response is shown in table 5.
386

Table 5: Experiment lay out and output response
4. Methodology
The regression based models were developed by RSM to state the relationship between the input responses and
output responses. The response surface graphs are generated with help of Design Expert software (trial
version). These graph are helpul to findout the value of process parameters as per the desired output quality. The
response surface graph of the output responses with respect to input parameters are shown in figure. 2-13 The
RSM based second order models have been found good for the optimization of variables for the responses.The
statistical tool ANOVA is applied to check the model adequacy for the surface roughness and cutting force. Also
the amount of contribution of each input process parameter for responses has been obtained.The surface
roughness and cutting force both are desired to be minimum for the better quality of turned product. Fig. 2-7
were used to search the optimum value of process parameters for the minimum value of surface roughness. the
parameters level have been identified are cutting speed 105 m/min, feed rate 0.08 mm/rev. rake angle 7 degree
and depth of cut 0.4 mm. The statistic model in terms of coded value of factors for surface roughness is
developed and found suitable for prediction. The equation model is as follows:
Surface Rouhness(Ra)= 5.99 - 0.0146 v 17.39 f 10.21 t- 0.0400 + 0.00003 v*v -3.1 f*f + 4.097t*t +
0.002192 * + 0.0627 v*f + 0.00874 v*t + 0.000693 v* + 16.89 f*t 0.532 f* + 0.0351 t*
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Fig.2. Surface plot of surface roughness

vs Cutting Speed and Feed Rate.
Chandra et al.

vs Cutting Speed and DOC
Fig.4. Surface plot of surface roughness vs

Cutting Speed and Rake Angle.

vs Feed Rake and DOC

vs Rake Angle and Feed Rate
Fig.7. Surface plot of surface roughness vs

Rake Angle and DOC
388

Similarly cutting force is the second output response which also desired to be minimum for good quality of
turning.The surface plots of cutting force are depicted in Fig. 8-13. From surface plots of cutting force, the level
of parameters have been identified for minimum value of cutting force are cutting speed 125 m/min, feed rate
0.08 mm/rev. and depth of cut 0.6 mm and rake angle 7 degree. The statistic model in terms of coded value of
factors for surface roughness is developed and found suitable for prediction. The equation model is as follows:
Cuting Force(Fy) = -178 - 0.09v + 1494f + 505t + 3.43 + 0.00502v*v 5002f *f - 193.2 t*t - 0.2174 * 2.17v*f - 1.170 v*t - 0.0282v* + 1986f*t + 13.9 f* - 4.10t*
Fig.8. Surface plot of Cutting Force vs

Cutting Speed and Feed Rate.
Fig 9. Surface plot of Cutting Force vs

Cutting Speed and DOC.
Fig 10. Surface plot of Cutting Force

vs Rake Angle and Feed Rate.

Cutting Speed and Rake Angle.

DOC and Feed Rate.
Fig.13. Surface plot of Cutting Force

vs Rake Angle and DOC.
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The adequacy of established model for cutting force and surface roughness and cutting force has been checked
at 95% confidence interval level using ANOVA respectively . The settled models were found good and suitable
for prediction of the responses. The ANOVA table for the surface roughness and cutting force has been shown in
table.5 and table.6 respectively. The R-square for surface roughness and cutting force are 0.8485 and 0.9019
respectively. The R-square value is a measure of variability in the observed response. The values of coefficient
of determination R-square are nearly equal to 1, which confirmed that the developed models are acceptable.
Table 5. ANOVA of Surface Roughness
Table 6. ANOVA of Cutting Force(Fy)
390
5. Result & Conclusion

RSM was used to find the optimal level of variables for cutting force and surface roughness. In ANOVA, it has
been discovered that the depth of cut has major physical as well as statistical influence on the surface roughness
(10.51 %) right after the rake angle (9.49 %). It is because the workpiece and tool contact area is increased
which direct effects the output response. Also the higher effect of interaction of cutting velocity and depth of
cut has been found (9.49 %). Also the cutting force was influences by depth of cut (23.5%) then feed (4.2%).
The highest interaction effect of feed and depth of cut on cutting force has been found (15.75%). Following
points has been drawn on the bases of executed experiments and statistical results:
a) The optimal sets of cutting variables for better surface finish and minimum cutting force are
determined.
b) Central composit design can be employed to develop mathematical models for predicting s u r f a c e
roughness and cutting force.
c) The RSM is found good for the searching of optimum value of parameteters, which has been
confirmed through confirmatory experiment.
References
[1]
G. Bartarya and S. K. Choudhury, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture State of the
art in hard turning, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf., vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 114, 2012.
[2]
S. Prabhu and B. K. Vinayagam, Fractal Dimensional Surface Analysis of AISI D2 Tool Steel Material
with Nanofluids in Grinding Process Using Atomic Force Microscopy, J. brazallian socity Mech. Sci.
Eng., vol. 4, no. January, pp. 459466, 2011.
[3]
T. Linhu, H. Jianlong, and Liming Xie, Finite element modeling and simulation in dry hard orthogonal
cutting AISI D2 tool steel with CBN cutting tool, Int. jounal Adv. Manuf. Technol., vol. 53, pp.
11671181, 2011.
[4]
A. Kumar and B. Sahoo, A comparative study on performance of multilayer coated and uncoated
carbide inserts when turning AISI D2 steel under dry environment, Measurement, vol. 46, no. 8, pp.
26952704, 2013.
[5]
J. Sharma and B. Singh, Investigation of effects of dry and near dry machining on AISI D2 steel using
vegetable oil, J. Clean. Prod., vol. 66, pp. 619623, 2014.
[6]
D. K. Das, A. K. Sahoo, R. Das, and B. C. Routara, Investigations on hard turning using coated carbide
insert : Grey based Taguchi and regression methodology, in Procedia Materials Science, 2014, vol. 6,
391
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[7]
[8]
.[9]
[10]
392
Chandra et al.
no. Icmpc, pp. 13511358.

A. Kumar and B. Sahoo, Performance studies of multilayer hard surface coatings ( TiN / TiCN / Al 2 O
3 / TiN ) of indexable carbide inserts in hard machining : Part-II ( RSM , grey relational and techno
economical approach ), Measurement, vol. 46, no. 8, pp. 28682884, 2013.
M. Y. Noordin, V. C. Venkatesh, S. Sharif, S. Elting, and A. Abdullah, Application of response surface
methodology in describing the performance of coated carbide tools when turning AISI 1045 steel, J.
Mater. pocessing Technol., vol. 145, pp. 4658, 2004
A. P. De Paiva, J. H. F. Gomes, R. S. Peruchi, R. C. Leme, and P. P. Balestrassi, Computers & Industrial
Engineering A multivariate robust parameter optimization approach based on Principal Component
Analysis with combined arrays q, Comput. Ind. Eng., vol. 74, pp. 186198, 2014.
P. V. S. Suresh, P. V. Rao, and S. G. Deshmukh, A genetic algorithmic approach for optimization of
surface roughness prediction model, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf., vol. 42, pp. 675680, 2002.
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Application of Advanced Manufacturing

Technologies In Indian SMEs:
Opportunities and Challenges
Dimple Bhandari, Rajesh K. Singh
and S.K Garg
Abstract: Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have played a very important role in an Indian economy.
However, there are many factors inhibiting the adoption of new technologies especially related to advanced
manufacturing technologies in the competitive and challenging world today. It is important to identify the
challenges; SMEs face with regard to adopting new manufacturing technology. In order to survive in a long run,
this study identifies challenges faced by SMEs in India and approach to overcome challenges by using these
advanced manufacturing technologies. Findings have been further validated with the help of a case study.
Keywords: Small and medium enterprises (SMEs), Challenges, Advanced Manufacturing technologies
(AMTs), India
Introduction Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) are regarded as the backbone of economic growth in all
countries because they account for 80 percent of global economic growth [15].According to singh et al., [33]
domestic market under protective environment as available for small and medium enterprises in the era prior to
economic reforms. According to Lange et al., [18] SMEs plays an important role in creating employment and
income. An important issue with respect to the strategic development and growth of SMEs is the enabling role
that can be played by advanced manufacturing technologies (AMTs) such as CAD/CAM, EDI, and MRP II
[10]. For the economic stability of any nation, survival and success of SMEs is crucial. SMEs play an important
role in export and employment generation in developing countries [1]. According to Sharma and Bhagwat [31]
a prerequisite for successful operations of small and medium enterprises are- availability of right kind of
information at right time. According to Singh [34], after liberalisation and globalisation of economy in India,
SMEs are under intense pressure since the markets are now facing competition from countries like China,
Taiwan, and Korea which have emerged as low cost manufacturing destinations, a distinction earlier enjoyed
for long by Indian SMEs. According to (Singh et al., [32] in manufacturing sector, SMEs act as specialist
suppliers of components, parts and sub-assemblies to larger companies because these items can be produced at
a cheaper price compared to the price large companies must pay for in-house production of the same
Dimple Bhandari
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Research Scholar, DTU , Delhi, India-110042
E-mail- bhandari.dimple04@gmail.com
Rajesh K. Singh
Department of Operations Management, Management Development Institute (MDI)
Gurugram, India-122007
E-mail - rksdce@yahoo.com
S.K Garg
Department of Mechanical Engineering, DTU, Delhi-110042
E-mail-s.kgarg@dce.ac.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
393
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Bhandari et al.
components. However, poor quality of input products can adversely affect the competitiveness of these larger
organizations.
According to Forsman [8] Current literature suggests that SMEs may differ from larger companies by a number
of key characteristics, e.g. resource and knowledge limitations, lack of money, reliance on a small number of
customers and need for multi-skilled employees. According to Rahman [28] SMEs are defined by a number of
factors and criteria, such as location, size, age, structure, organization, number of employees, sales volume,
worth of assets, ownership through innovation and technology.
Objective of this Study
The purpose of this study to find the problems and challenges faced by SMEs in adopting advanced
manufacturing technologies and the strategies to decrease barriers to AMTs adoption and to validate it with the
help of a case study. The next section reviews the literature for the identification of challenges faced by SMEs,
followed by a case study on an Indian SME and finally the conclusion of the study.
In present scenario quality is one of the most important drivers for global competition. Customer and
intensifying global competition increases demand for better quality. To meet the challenge of this global
competition, many businesses have invested substantial resources in adopting advanced manufacturing
technologies [7] . New manufacturing strategy often involves the adoption of new technologies and changes in
the organisational structures and practices, such as just-in-time (JIT) and total quality management (TQM) that
may result in radical changes in the way business is conducted [43].
Why SMEs need AMTs?
According to Zammuto and O'Connor, [44] AMTs refer to a group of technologies that include computer-aided
design (CAD) and engineering systems, materials resource planning systems, robotics, computer controlled
machines, flexible manufacturing systems, automated materials handling systems and computer-integrated
manufacturing systems. Introduction of new products can occur more frequently through use of computeraided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM), since the design lead times may be shortened. Flexible
manufacturing systems (FMS) and automated materials handling systems reduce set-up times and other
interruptions so that products flow more smoothly and faster through the plant [14].
A number of manufacturing SMEs have scanned the technological environment in order to lower their
operating costs, increase productivity and quality, and respond to the increased requirements of their customers,
a number of SMEs have made sizable investments in adopting advanced manufacturing technologies such as
computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) and flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) [20].
SMEs have also invested in implementing advanced computer-integrated manufacturing applications such as
MRP II and ERP to plan, command, and control manufacturing resources and operations, and link them with
other organizational systems [22]. Taken together, these technologies and applications constitute AMTs that are
assimilated and integrated to a varying degree in the SME's operational and managerial environment [30,21].
Increased requirements for competitiveness, innovation, quality, flexibility, and information processing
capability has led many small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to make sizable investments in adopting
advanced manufacturing technologies (AMTs) such as robotics and computer-aided manufacturing [20].
Challenges faced by SMEs
According to Ongori and Migiro [26], the social goal of equitable income is served by SMEs. However a
multiple challenges are faced by these categories of enterprises. There are a number of solutions suggested to
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Application of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies.......

minimize the challenges along with adoption of manufacturing technologies to boost efficiency and
competitiveness. Reliable and continuously improving business and manufacturing processes capacity of the
firm are maintained to meet challenges appear to be a key condition for ensuring its competitiveness in the long
run [19]. Major challenges for SMEs are human resource development [12] ,up gradation of technology[16],
new product development [36]and finally managing its supply chain through collaboration and partnerships
with customers, suppliers, distributors, competitors, and other organizations such as consulting firms and
research centres [37,2]. According to Vos [42], managers of SMEs have poor skills in reflecting upon their
companies strategically. Constraints may have been by their due to the scarcity of resources, flat organizational
structure, lack of technical expertise, paucity of innovation, occurrence of knowledge loss, etc [9].
In addition, challenges facing SMEs are lack of managerial skills, finance, market information and commercial
intelligence gathering have been identified [27,11]. SMEs are also faced with problems of small markets,
inadequate regional integration, poor infrastructure, bad governance, legal and administrative hindrances and
failure to access credit [25]. In spite of support from government and private initiative, many SMEs face
problems are experienced by SMEs during economic downturns along with economic progress [17].
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework has been developed to facilitate the process of AMTs adoption. As shown in figure 1
this framework is divided into four elements. These elements are the forces for AMTs adoption; barriers to
AMTs adoption, AMTs tools and outcome of AMTs adoption. The driving forces include the globalization,
change in technology, competition, market advantages .These forces insist managers to adopt AMT tools in
their business processes. However, SMEs have failed to adopt AMTs in their business processes because of
restraining forces Ongori and Migiro[26].These restraining forces are the barriers including lack of adequate
infrastructure, lack of resources, lack of technological advancement, lack of security, lack of effective training
to employees, lack of managerial skills. SMEs managers need to put in place strategies to minimise these
challenges. The government should develop policies in encouraging AMTs adoption in SMEs. In addition, the
non-governmental organizations will encourage SMEs in terms of financing than to buy AMT tools and
developing their manpower. The barrier stops them from rising further and putting them in a difficult position to
face the new challenges that are emerging from globalization[26].
FIGURE 1: Framework for AMTs adoption

Source : Ongori And Migiro (2010)
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Drivers to AMTs Adoption

To survive and compete with large companies SMEs has compelled to adopt AMTs in their business process and
also due to impact of globalization [31]. A study conducted by Sharma and Bhagwat [31] indicates that the
bloodline of any business operating unit disregarding of its size is the flow of information in an organization.
Extant researchers have found that the driving forces for AMTs adoption by SMEs include competition,
organization's AMTs readiness, customer/supplier dependency, external pressure to adopt, need to improve
customer services and increase in sales [40,41]
According to Cragg and King [5], lack of information system knowledge is one of the strongest restrain
factors for small and medium enterprises. Most SMEs employees do not have the required knowledge on
information technologies; it becomes inconvenient for them to adopt AMTs in their business. Besides,
adoption of AMTs theoretically unsuccessful to benefit SMEs due to several challenges from the external
business environment.
Strategies to Decrease Barriers to AMTs Adoption
The government interventions therefore tend to framework AMTs policy which is crucial in building
infrastructure, investing in research and development, facilitating technological transfers, creating science
parks and creating a legal framework [39]. In addition, there are AMTs policies which provide tax incentives for
investing in AMTs, subsidising AMTs training for SMEs, thus creating incentives for e-procurement and other
online activities. Lastly, there should be an SMEs policy, for instance, in providing SMEs financing and
business consulting services, simplifying registration procedures, providing tax breaks and in creating
incubation centres [6,23]. The government should boost SMEs in AMTs adoption process by increasing
affordability of AMTs through grants, credits, leasing options and tax incentives [39,6]
FIGURE 2: Strategies to decrease barriers to AMTs adoption

Source : Ongori and Migiro[26]
396

Benefits to AMTs adoption
The adoption of AMTs is important for the well organized administration of SMEs, and in the delivery of quick
services. For use in the organization for decision making AMT tools enable information to be electronically
stored, accessed, delivered and retrieved[29,3]. To lead organizational successfulness AMTs enable SMEs to
have access to robust/tough business information[13]. In addition, strengthening accountability systems of
business enterprises, AMTs play an important role. For instance, the performance of employees in SMEs can be
tracked and budget processes can be transparently executed [4]. AMTs adoption in SMEs to a certain degree can
decrease greatly the operational costs by decreasing material, procurement and transaction costs, resulting in
lower prices for intermediate and finished goods, and they can also use more and better information to improve
the value of their output [24].
CASE STUDY: To illustrate the framework considered in this study, a case study in Indian context has
been considered.
Profile of Organisation (ABC ltd)ABC was established in the year 1969.It is located in Faridabad (Haryana),India. It is major supplier to most
leading OEM's worldwide. They have Strategic and technical alliance with major international players in the
industry. It is a largest integrated manufacturer of Fluid transmission products (FTPs).It supplies to all
domestic automotive players-Mahindra &Mahindra, Tata Motors, Kirloskar, Fiat. It also supplies to most of the
multinational- Maruti, Johndere, New Holland, Ford Fiat and General Motors. It is the manufacturers of Rubber
Hoses and Assemblies, Metal tube Assemblies.
Challenges faced by ABC Ltd.
Based on interaction with top management, major challenges for this organisation are identified. They are as
follows:
Inadequate resources as well as other technologies
Lack of adequate technical infrastructure
Lack of specialised and effective training
Information gap between marketing and production functions as well as lack of funds for
implementing expensive software such as ERP system
Lack of effective market research
Insufficient awareness of latest technologies.
Legal and administrative hindrances
Difficulties in accessing loans and other forms of financial assistance
Lack of trained and skilled manpower
Lack of security
High cost of internet connectivity

Strategies adopted by ABC Ltd.
Major strategies adopted by ABC ltd are:
To increase infrastructure through launching share in the market.
To increase technical knowledge, it will tie up with parallel industry or hire a consultant.
Provide training to their employees by experienced employee to the same or hired expert from outside
Use websites, email, and telephone for filling information gap between different departments,
customers & suppliers.
To appoint manpower for market research through survey of the customer asking their performance.
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To arrange motivational lectures through experts who have latest knowledge about technologies.
To appoint a legal advisor to the administrative issues
TABLE 1: Status of technologies implementation in ABC ltd
Major technologies used and their status with observed benefits are given in table no.1
398

Conclusion
This Study found that Adoption of Advanced Manufacturing Technology is an important to survive in globally
competitive market. SMEs play an important and crucial role in the economic growth of the country. SMEs are
facing many challenges which hinder SMEs to adopting advanced technologies in their business process. These
challenges are lack of adequate technical infrastructure, lack of specialised and effective training, insufficient
awareness of these technologies, lack of technological skill and global competition, managerial skills, legal and
administrative hindrances, lack of security and trust. Most SMEs owners/managers do not understand the
benefits of AMTs adoption. The strategies adopted to decrease these barriers are: To increase infrastructure
through launching share in the market. Provide training to their employees by experienced employee to the
same or hired expert from outside. To appoint manpower for market research through survey of the customer
asking their performance etc. Therefore Adoption of AMTs by SMEs will make them more successful to
survive in this competitive scenario.. Findings of the study helps to understand benefit to industry by increasing
efficiency of employees, increasing productivity of the industry, increasing quality of the product, increasing
customer satisfaction, reduce fatigue of the employees and reduce production cost and time. This study will
help to understand the advantage of the application of advanced technologies with respect to traditional
technologies
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Combustion Characteristics of Jatropha

Biodiesel In A Single Cylinder Diesel Engine
Hang Muk Cho and Bhupendra Singh Chauhan
Abstract- In order to meet the growing global energy requirement, exhaustive research is carried to develop
and use variety of renewable fuels. Biodiesel either in neat form or as a mixture with diesel fuel is widely
investigated to solve the twin problem of depletion of fossil fuels and environmental degradation. This study
targets at making a comparison of the methyl esters of non edible oils in a diesel engine against diesel fuel. The
present work aims at developing a dual fuel engine test rig work on dual fuel mode. The combustion parameters
of the fuels were evaluated in terms of cylinder pressure, rate of pressure rise, and heat release rates. Both
varieties of the oil, after transesterification, exhibit the major properties within acceptable limits of biodiesel
standards set by many countries. For Jatropha methyl ester (JME), the shortest ignition delay is observed. JME
performed poorer than diesel.
Keywords: Biodiesel; combustion; heat release rate; etc.
ntroduction Diesel Engines have proved its utility in transportation, agriculture and power sector of
India. These engines also help in developing decentralized systems energy for rural electrification.
However, the concerns about long term availability of petroleum diesel and stringent environmental
norms have mandated that renewable alternative to diesel fuel should be expedite explored to overcome these
problems [1-5].
The above positive mindset has changed the energy use pattern all over the world. Developed countries have
increased their productivity while maintaining the same energy consumption levels. The world is moving
towards a sustainable energy era with major emphasis on energy efficiency and use of renewable energy
sources. The renewable sources of energy are very important and relevant to today's world. They cause lesser
emissions and are available locally. Their use can, to a large extent, reduce chemical, radioactive, and thermal
pollution. They stand out as a viable source of clean and limitless energy [6-10].
2. Biodiesel Methodology
Fats and oils are primarily water-insoluble, hydrophobic substances in the plant and animal kingdom that are
made up of one mole of glycerol and three moles of fatty acids and are commonly referred to as triglycerides.
Fatty acids vary in carbon chain length and in the number of unsaturated bonds (double bonds). The fatty acids
found in vegetable oils are summarized in Table 1. Considerable research has been done on vegetable oils as
diesel fuel. Some methods applicable to vegetable oils are not applicable to animal fats because of natural
property differences. Petroleum based diesel fuels have different chemical structure than vegetable oil. The
Hang Muk Cho
Department of Mechanical and Automotive engineering, Kongju National University, Korea
Bhupendra Singh Chauhan
Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Delhi Technical Campus, Noida (UP) India.
Corresponding author: haengmukcho@hanmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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former contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms which are arranged in normal (straight chain) or branched
chain structures as well as aromatic configurations. The normal structure is preferred for better ignition quality.
Diesel fuel can contain both saturated and straight or un-branched chain unsaturated hydrocarbons, but the later
are not present in large amounts to make oxidation a problem [2]. Structurally, a triglyceride is a reaction
product of one molecule of glycerol with three fatty acid molecules to yield three molecules of water and one
molecule of triglyceride as shown in figure 1. The triglyceride is converted stepwise to di-glycerides, mono
glycerides and finally glycerol. A mole of ester is liberated at each step. The reactions are reversible, although
the equilibrium lies towards the production of fatty acid esters and glycerol in figure 2 [11-13].
Fig.1 Chemical Structure of Vegetable Oils
Fig. 2.Transesterification Process
3. Development of an Experimental Test Rig

It is a single cylinder, naturally aspirated, four stroke, vertical, air-cooled engine. It has a provision of loading
electrically since it is coupled with single phase alternator through flexible coupling. The engine can be hand
started using decompression lever and is provided with centrifugal speed governor. The cylinder is made of cast
iron and fitted with a hardened high-phosphorus cast iron liner. The lubrication system used in this engine is of
wet sump type, and oil is delivered to the crankshaft and the big end by means of a pump mounted on the front
cover of the engine and driven from the crankshaft.
The engine was started at no load by pressing the exhaust valve with decompression lever and it was released
suddenly when the engine was hand cranked at sufficient speed. After feed control was adjusted so that engine
attains rated speed and was allowed to run (about 30 minutes) till the steady state condition was reached. With
the fuel measuring unit and stop watch, the time elapsed for the consumption of 10, 20 and 30cc of fuel was
measured and average of them was taken. Fuel Consumption, RPM, exhaust temperature, smoke density, CO,
NOx, HC , CO2 and power output were also measured. Fuel leakages from the injector were measured with small
measuring cylinder. The engine was loaded gradually keeping the speed with in the permissible range and the
observations of different parameters were evaluated. Short term performance tests were carried out on the
engine with diesel to generate the base line data and subsequently neat biodiesel was used to evaluate its
suitability as a fuel.
The preliminary run on the engine was conducted at rated speed of 1500 rpm to ensure that the engine is made
trouble free for its exhaustive test run. This was done in accordance with IS: 10,000 Part V. During the
preliminary run, attention was paid to vibration and quietness of the engine, and the oil pressure was checked
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Combustion Characteristics of Jatropha Biodiesel......

from time to time. It was ensured that the temperature of the engine lubricating oil should be reached within 5C
of the room temperature before starting the next cycle. Oil and fuel leaks were monitored and rectified wherever
necessary. The complete record of such problems and running time of components changed was maintained.
After completion of the rating test, subsequent performance and emission tests on the engine was carried in
accordance with IS: 10,000 (Part VIII) and observations were recorded at the various loads starting from no
load to full load conditions: No load, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%.The engine was run initially on neat diesel
for generation of baseline data. Thereafter, the engine was run on different biodiesel based fuels. Various
performance and emission characteristics were recorded only when stabilized working conditions were
achieved. The performance and emission data were duly corrected according to the procedure specified in IS:
10000 (Part IV)-1980 for all the test fuels. Before turning the engine off, the biodiesel was replaced with diesel
and it was run on diesel till all biodiesel in fuel filter and pipe line is consumed.
3.1 Physico-Chemical Characterization
The different physico-chemical properties of Diesel, Jatropha biodiesel are summarized in Table 1. The oil
samples were subjected to several property tests in accordance with ASTM D-6751.
A representative graph of tri-glycerides (TG)/di-glycerides (DG)/mono-glycerides (MG) and Glycerine in
Biodiesel sample is shown in the following Figure 3.
Table 1: Physico-Chemical Properties of Diesel and Jatropha biodiesel Oil
4.1 Gas Liquid Chromatography
Fig. 3: Graph Showing Triglyceride, Di-glyceride, Mono-glyceride and Glycerin in a Biodiesel Sample
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The values of different fatty acids present in Jatropha methyl ester (JME) are given in the following Table 2. The
results suggest that unsaturated fatty acid is more than saturated fatty acid in all biodiesel samples.
Table 2: Fatty acid composition in Jatropha biodiesel
1. Combustion characteristics
The analysis of combustion characteristic of diesel, biodiesel of Jatropha were carried out. It is clear from
Figure 4 that ignition of fuel starts earlier for biodiesel based fuels in comparison to diesel fuel. Maximum
cylinder gas pressure was found to be lower for biodiesel based fuels. In diesel engine, cylinder pressure
depends on the burnt fuel fraction during the premixed burning phase, i.e., initial stage of combustion. Cylinder
pressure characterizes the ability of the fuel to mix well with air and burn. High peak pressure and maximum
rate of pressure rise correspond to large amount of fuel burnt in premixed combustion stage. The value of
maximum cylinder pressure was found lowest for KME100 fuel. It may be due to higher cetane index of this
fuel in comparison to Jatropha and diesel fuels resulting in shorter ignition delay and more fuel burnt in
diffusion stage.
The ignition delay in a diesel engine is defined as the time between the start of fuel injection and the inset of
combustion. Rapid premixed burning followed by diffusion combustion is typical for naturally aspirated diesel
engines. After the ignition delay period, the premixed fuel air mixture burns rapidly releasing heat at a very
rapid rate, after which diffusion combustion takes place, where the burning rate is controlled by the availability
of combustible fuel-air mixture. The ignition quality of a fuel is usually characterized by its cetane number or
cetane index. Higher cetane number generally means shorter ignition delay. In the entire set of test it was found
that biodiesel have higher cetane number than conventional diesel fuel. Shorter ignition delay causes lower
peak heat release rate to lower accumulation of the fuel. Therefore premixed combustion heat release is higher
for diesel, which is responsible for higher peak pressure and higher rate of pressure rise in comparison to
different biodiesel and diesel.
Fig. 4: Variation of Heat Release Rate with Change in Crank Angle
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Combustion Characteristics of Jatropha Biodiesel......

The ignition delay depends on fuel viscosity with result in poor atomization, slower mixing, increased mixing
and reduced cone angle. Higher engine speed leads to faster mixing between fuel and air and shorter ignition
occur. The reaction time for each engine cycle was shorter so the residence time of the gas temperature within
the cylinder decreases, this leads to lower NOx under full speed.
Conclusions
The present work aims at developing a dual fuel engine test rig work on dual fuel mode. The combustion
parameters of the fuels were evaluated in terms of cylinder pressure, rate of pressure rise, and heat release rates.
Both varieties of the oil, after transesterification, exhibit the major properties within acceptable limits of
biodiesel standards set by many countries. For Jatropha methyl ester (JME) the shortest ignition delay is
observed with JME. JME performed poorer than diesel.
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Rai AK, Chauhan, BS, Cho HM, Kumar N. A study on the performance and emission characteristics of
a diesel engine fuel led with linseed oil and diesel blends. In: Proceedings of international mechanical
engineering congress and exposition,.ASME;2013.doi:10.1115/IMECE2013-6593.
[11]
Sharma AK, Das LM, Naik SN, Chauhan BS, Cho HM. Emission analysis of a medium cap a city
diesel engine using mahu a bio diesel. J Energy Eng2013;22 (2):13647.
[12]
Rai AK, Chauhan BS, Kumar N, Cho HM, Pandey A. Physico-chemical analysis of linseed oil and its
blends as a potential fuel for diesel engine. Adv Mater Res 2013;724725:4058.
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Misra C, Kumar N, Chauhan BS, Lim HC. Some experimental investigation on use of methanol and
diesel blend inasing lecylinder diesel engine. Int Jre new Energy Technol Res
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Production, Utilization and Performance of

Diesel-Biodiesel-Ethanol Blends in IC Engines
Neeraj Budhraja and Amit Pal
Abstract- Biodiesel is considered as a promising alternating fuel for CI engines. In the present work,
production (using hydrodynamic cavitation), utilization and performance characteristics of biodiesel blends
produced from waste cooking were compared. In the first session of research, the production of biodiesel from
waste cooking oil and various fuel properties were measured. In the second session, performance of single
cylinder Kirloskar diesel engine has been studied at a constant engine speed of 1500rpm. During engine
performance tests, the biodiesel blends showed similar brake power and while marginally higher BSFC and
BSEC than the diesel fuel at higher loads were noticed. Engine emissions showed higher nitrogen oxide
emissions, but decreased amount of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon for biodiesel blends compared to the
neat diesel fuel. From the results, it is clear that the waste cooking oil-based biodiesel blends can be used in a CI
engine without any modifications.
Keywords: Biodiesel; Waste Cooking Oil; Hydrodynamic Cavitation; IC Engine.
ntroduction Ever increasing demand of energy for development, transportation, luxurious lifestyle and
technology boost is having a negative effect on the sustainability of the existing fossil fuels (oil)
reservoirs. The world's total oil reserves is estimated to be 1697.6 thousand million barrels (at the end of
2015) which is consumed at the rate of 95008 thousand barrels per day whereas India shares only 5.7 thousand
million barrels and consumption rate is 876 thousand barrels per day [1, 2]. To compensate the decreasing
reserves and increasing demand of crude oil we need to find an alternative to fulfil our energy requirements and
thus biodiesel can be used as a good substitute for diesel. It is difficult for the currently running CI engines to use
pure biodiesel as fuel due to the huge cost required for replacements and modifications [3]. Thus, dieselbiodiesel-ethanol blends can be used with little or no modifications in existing CI engines to avoid the expense
upto an extent. Various oil seeds (like sunflower, peanut, soybean, rapeseed, palm, olive, cottonseed, linseed,
jatropha, coconut, pongamia, rubberseed, jojoba etc.) can be used to extract oil and then processed to biodiesel,
again extraction is a money consuming processes [4]. Thus, an attempt can be done to produce biodiesel from
Neeraj Budhraja
New Delhi-110042, India
Email: neeraj_budhraja@yahoo.com
Amit Pal
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi 110042, India
Email: amitpal@dce.ac.in, Corresponding author, Tel: +91 7503223311
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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waste cooking oils from restaurants, hotels and canteens which can reduce a little of the production cost. But
due to presence of fatty acids in waste cooking oil, it cannot be directly used for blending and thus need filtration
and transesterification [5, 6].
The basic reaction carried out in the biodiesel production is transesterification. In this reaction,
different catalysts can be used to enhance the transesterification reaction which is namely alkali catalyst, acid
catalyst and lipase catalyst [7]. Different technique has been developed so far for biodiesel production like
mechanical stirring, hydrodynamic cavitation, ultrasonic cavitation [8] and supercritical methanol [9]. Among
all, hydrodynamic cavitation is a potential method for biodiesel production at industrial scale due to its easy
scale-up property.
The cavitating conditions identical to acoustic cavitation could be generated in hydrodynamic
cavitation, which even had a better effect on mixing immiscible liquids [10]. Furthermore, scale-up of
hydrodynamic cavitation to meet industrial-scale operations had better opportunities than the ultrasonic reactor
by reason of its easier generating and less sensitivity to the geometric details of the reactor. Hydrodynamic
cavitation is a cheaper alternative and requires approximately a half of the energy that is consumed by the
conventional mechanical stirring method. In hydrodynamic cavitation method, mixing of two phases of
reaction is carried out by cavitation conditions. The cavitation condition is produced by pressure variation,
which in turn obtained by using the geometry of system to create velocity variation. Cavitation is generated by
the flow of liquid under controlled conditions through simple geometries such as venturi tubes and orifice
plates. When the pressure at the throat falls below the vapour pressure of liquid, the liquid flashes, generating a
large number of cavities which subsequently oscillate. This phenomenon gives rise to pressure and temperature
pulses. These pulses cause the better mixing of immiscible liquids and enhanced transesterification process
[11].
The oxygen content in the fuel facilitates a complete combustion of the fuel even in fuel rich zones
during combustion in engine cylinder and thus reducing carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC)
emissions. The higher cetane number of biodiesel reduces the combustion delays and thus the probability of
fuel rich zone formation. This led to reduction in HC and CO emissions [1215]. Biodiesel molecule oxygen
content, generates lower stoichiometric requirement of air in case of biodiesel combustion [16, 17], which
reduces the probability of fuel rich regions and the absence of aromatics in biodiesel fuel, those being
considered soot precursors [18], results in reduction of particulate matter (PM) emissions. Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx) formation in engine exhaust is a direct function of combustion temperature. Lower temperature exists in
combustion chamber with biodiesel due to overall leaner combustion and its lower LHV. However the higher
NOx values, with respect to petroleum diesel fuel case, suggest that local oxygen availability has dominant
effect [18]. Carbon deposits on cylinder head, piston top and injector tip for biodiesel fuelled engines were 40%
less compared to diesel fuelled engines. Carbonization of biodiesel injector after 512 h of operation was far less
than the diesel injector after 200 h of engine operation [19].
It is evident from above literature survey that majority of work has been done on edible oils and nonedible oils whereas only limited work has been done on waste cooking oil. The present work deals with the
production and performance of biodiesel from the waste cooking oil which is available in abundance.
2. Abbreviations Used
D70B20E10
blend of 70% diesel, 20% biodiesel and 10% ethanol
D75B15E10
D85B10E5
D90B5E5
CO
carbon monoxide
HC
hydrocarbon
Nox
nitrogen oxides
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Production, Utilization and Performance of Diesel.....

% vol. percentage by volume
ppm
parts per million
BP
brake power
BSEC brake specific energy consumption
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption
MJ/kWh
Mega-Joule per kilo-Watt-hour
rpm
rotations per minute
3. Materials and Methods
3.1 Materials
The waste cooking oil was collected from canteen of Delhi Technological University. The oil was properly
filtered to separate any kind of suspended impurities present in it. Anhydrous methanol (99.8% min.) and
potassium hydroxide (85% min.) were purchased from chemical store.
3.2 Biodiesel production method
For this production process, a 3kg sample of filtered waste cooking oil was taken in a beaker and heated to about
120C in order to remove any water content present in it to avoid soap formation. Then, 500g of anhydrous
methanol (CH3OH) at a molar ratio of 1:6 (1 Methanol and 6 Oil) was mixed in the filtered waste cooking oil
sample. 30g of Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) was then added to the mixture of waste cooking oil and methanol
using Magnetic stirring process. The mixture was stirred until all of the KOH get dissolved into the mixture.
The orifice plate (diameter 2.2cm) with single hole (diameter 0.6mm) at its centre was fixed to the
Hydrodynamic Cavitation reactor as shown in the fig. 1 and the mixture was then poured into the reactor
through the inlet. After intervals of 30, 40, 50 and 60mins samples of 100g were taken in beaker. Similar process
was repeated for the other two plates having 3 and 5 holes respectively.
The samples collected were then allowed for gravity settlement for about 24 hrs so that the heavier Glycerine
gets settled down at the bottom of the beakers. This layer of Glycerine was then removed with the help of
separating funnels. The remaining solution was then washed with warm water by mixing the two and then
leaving the mixture for settlement for about 3-4 hrs. The separated water was then removed using separating
funnel and the remaining solution was tested for the yield of Biodiesel.
Figure 1: Hydrodynamic cavitation reactor
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Table 1: Fuel blends properties
Figure 2: IC engine test setup

3.3 Blend Preparation
Blends of biodiesel and methanol with diesel fuel are prepared in the International Combustion Engines
Laboratory of Delhi Technological University, (formerly Delhi College of engineering). Blends are prepared on
the volume percentage base of biodiesel, ethanol and diesel. Blends prepared are as-D70B20E10, D75B15E10,
D85B10E5 and D90B5E5 respectively. E represents the volume percentage of ethanol, B represents the volume
percentage of biodiesel and D represents the volume percentage of diesel. Fuel properties for different blends
are shown in the Table 1.
3.4 Experimental setup
The setup consists of a Kirloskar, single cylinder, four stroke, 3.5 kW, 1500 rpm with stroke 110mm and bore
87.5 diesel engine connected to eddy current type dynamometer for loading as shown in the fig. 2. The
Compression ratio is adjusted at 17.5 for whole experiment. A set of reading was obtained first by running the
engine with neat diesel and varying the load from idle to rated load of 3.5 kW. The engine performance
characteristics were recorded by using the software Engine Soft and instrumentation provided by the National
Instruments. The emissions were recorded for each load by using Gas Analyzer AVL DiGas 444 and the opacity
was recorded by smoke opacity meter (AVL 437c). Then, the engine was run on blends of ethanol-biodieseldiesel and the parameters were recorded as above. The calorific value and density values of the fuels were
412

entered accordingly in the Engine Soft. Similar sets of readings were recorded for different blends with varying
the load.
4.1 Percentage yield with time
For a plate, the percentage yield of biodiesel from waste cooking oil-methanol mixture increases with time. The
percentage yield for the plate with more holes is higher than the plate with lesser holes. For a molar ratio of 1:6
(1 Methanol and 6 Oil), the highest percentage yield obtained is about 98.27% (for plate 3) as shown in fig. 3.
KOH %age = 1% of Oil Molar ratio (Alcohol/Oil) = 1:6
Figure 3: Percentage yield v/s time
Figure 4: CO (% vol.) VS Load (kg)
4.3
Hydrocarbon emissions
The variation of HC emissions v/s Load for the engine is shown in the fig. 5. The HC emissions decreased with
increase in blending ratio whereas the emissions increased with increasing load. It was noted that CO emissions
of diesel fuel are higher than ethanol-biodiesel blends. This reduction in the emissions of HC with increasing
the blends and load in the test fuel could be due to the combined effects of higher in-cylinder temperature,
higher cetane rating and reduced ignition delay (Selvam and Vadivel, 2012).
Figure 5: HC (ppm) Vs Load (kg)
Figure 6: NOx (ppm) Vs Load (kg)
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4.3
Nitrogen oxide emissions
A comparison of NOx emissions between ethanol-biodiesel blends and neat diesel v/s Load for the engine is
shown in the fig. 6. It was found that NOx emissions increased with the increased blending and load. The NOx
emissions of ethanol-biodiesel blends are higher than neat diesel. The trend is due to the higher oxygen content
in ethanol-biodiesel blends is responsible for NOx formation because it increases the local temperature which
results in oxidization of excess hydrocarbon.
.5 Smoke Opacity V/S Load
The variation of opacity vs. Load for the engine is shown in Figure 7. The opacity value for neat diesel is slightly
higher as compared to all type of blends for lower loads but as the load raised beyond 3.5kg, the opacity value
for ethanol-biodiesel blends become higher than neat diesel.
Figure 7: Smoke opacity (% vol.) Vs Load (kg)
Figure 8: Brake power (kW) Vs Load (kg)
4.6 Brake power

Figure 8 shows the variation of brake power v/s load for the engine. The power output increases with increasing
load. There is nearly no variation observed in the power output of ethanol-biodiesel blends and neat diesel with
engine load. Only D90B5E5 shows a slight decrease after a load value of 5.5kg. The highest brake power is
obtained for D75B15E10 at 15.18kg load.
Figure 9: BSEC (kJ/kWh) Vs Load (kg)
414
Figure 10: BSFC (kg/kWh) Vs Load (kg)

4.7 Brake specific energy consumption
The variation of brake specific energy consumption v/s load is shown in Figure 9. As shown in the figure, the
BSEC initially has high value but it decreases with an increase in the load value. The BSEC for ethanolbiodiesel blends is higher than neat diesel for all load values.
4.6 Brake specific fuel consumption
Figure 10 shows the test results of the brake specific fuel consumptions (BSFCs) with load for the engine, when
the engine fulled by different ethanol-biodiesel blends and neat diesel. From the results, it can be seen that the
fuel consumption decreases with increase in the load. The more ethanol blends have more fuel consumption
compared with neat diesel.
5. Conclusions
In the present research work, biodiesel is produced from waste cooking oil using Hydrodynamic cavitation and
magnetic stirring. It was found that as we increase the amount of biodiesel in the blends, the density, specific
gravity and kinematic viscosity of the blends increases and calorific value decreases. Hence, Hydrodynamic
cavitation is found to be very feasible process for biodiesel production. For all the blends, there is almost linear
increase in the BP with load. BSEC is least for D85B10E5, which is 0.65kJ/kWh at lower loads of 2.5kg and for
neat diesel, BSEC is 0.15kJ/kWh at higher loads of 15.25kg. Among all the blends, D75B15E10 shows
minimum emissions of carbon monoxide (0.08 %vol.) and hydrocarbon (8ppm) whereas a little higher
emissions of NOx(142ppm) at lower load of 3.8kg. Hence, from the results it is implied that ethanol-biodieseldiesel blends show lesser emissions and better fuel characteristics than the neat diesel and therefore, they can be
a good substitute for the neat diesel fuel.
References
[1]
B P S t a t i s t i c a l R e v i e w o f Wo r l d E n e r g y J u n e 2 0 1 6 , R e t r i e v e d f r o m
http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review-2016/bp-statisticalreview-of-world-energy-2016-full-report.pdf, accessed on 7th September 2016.
[2]
Hirsch, Robert L.; Bezdek, Roger; Wendling, Robert (February 2005). "Peaking Of World Oil
Production: Impacts, Mitigation & Risk Management". Science Applications International
Corporation/U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory.
[3]
CH.S. Naga Prasad, Experimental investigation on performance and emission characteristics of
diesel engine using bio-diesel as an alternate fuel, Research and Development Cell Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University Kukatpally, Hyderabad, India, January 2010,
[4]
S.P. Singh, Dipti Singh, Biodiesel production through the use of different sources and
characterization of oils and their esters as the substitute of diesel: A review, Volume 14, Issue 1,
January 2010, Pages 200-216.
[5]
Amit Pal and Suresndra S. Kacchwala, Waste cooking oil: a promising feedstock production through
ultrasound and hydrodynamic cavitation, Journal of Scientifc& Industrial Research, Vol. 72, June
2013, pp. 291-306.
[6]
Muhammad Dani Supardan, Satriana, and Mahlinda, "Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil
using hydrodinamic cavitation, Makara, Teknologi, vol. 16, no. 2, November 2012: 157-162.
[7]
Miguel V, Trubiano G, Perez G, Borio DO, Errazu AF. Kinetic analysis of enzymatic esterification of
fatty acids and ethanol. Stud Surf SciCatal 2001; 133:61924.
[8]
JianbingJi, Jianli Wang, Yongchao Li, Yunliang Yu, Zhichao Xu. Preparation of biodiesel with the help
of ultrasonic and hydrodynamic cavitation. Ultrasonics 44 (2006) 411414 Biodiesel Production of
Waste Cooking Oil through Ultrasound Cavitation 305
[9]
Demirbas A. Biodiesel from vegetable oils via transesterification in supercritical methanol. Energy
415
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[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
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ConvMgmt 2002; 43:234956.

J. Ji, W. Jianli, L. Yongchao, Y. Yunliang, X. Zhichao. Ultrason. 44 (2006) e411. C. Stavarache, M.
Vinatoru, R. N
A. Pal, A. Verma, S.S. Kachhwaha, S. Maji, Ren. Energy 35 (2010) 619.
A.C. Pinto, L.L.N. Guarieriro, J.C. Rezende, N.M. Ribereiro, E.A. Torres, E.A. Lopes, et al, J. Braz.
Chem. Soc. 16 (6B) (2005) 13131330.
K.F. Hansen, M.G. Jensen, Chemical and biochemical characteristics of exhaust emissions from a DI
diesel engine fuelled with rapeseed oil methyl esters (RME), SAE paper (1997) 971689.
O. Armas, J. Rodriguez, M.D. Cardenas, A.F. Agudelo, Efecto del biodiesel procedente de
aceitesvegetalesusadossobrelasemisiones y prestaciones de un motor diesel, Anales del 16 Congreso
National de IngenieriaMecanica, Leon, Spain, 2004.
X. Shi, Y. Yu, H. He, S. Shuai, J. Wang, R. Li, Fuel 84 (2005) 15431549.
Su Han Park, Hyun Kyu Suh, and Chang Sik Lee, Effect of Cavitating Flow on the Flow and Fuel
Atomization Characteristics of Biodiesel and Diesel Fuels , Energy & Fuels 2008, 22, 605613.
M. Lapuerta, O. Armas, R. Ballesteros, Diesel particulate emissions from biofuels derived from
Spanish vegetable oils, SAE paper (2002) 2002-01-1657.
C.D. Rakopoulos, A.M. Dimartos, E.G. Giakoumis, D.C. Rakopoulos, Appl. Energy 88 (2011)
39053916.
A.K. Agarwal, J. Bijwe, L.M. Das, J. Eng. Gas Turbine Power (ASME J.) 125 (3) (2003) 820826.
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Kusum : A Potential Non Edible Feed Stock for

Biodiesel Production in India
Naveen Kumar Garg and Amit Pal
Abstract - In present study, the biodiesel is produced from the oil extracted from the seeds of kusum plant. The
process includes two step esterification processes which involve addition of acidic (H2SO4) and alkaline
catalysts. While working with the molar ratio of 9:1, maximum yield of 91.25% was obtained with 60 minutes
reaction time and with 1wt. % catalyst. It is found that the density of kusum biodiesel is slightly less than neat
kusum oil and around 5.5% higher than petrodiesel Which is compatible with ISO 12185 standard. The
viscosity of the produced biodiesel sample was compatible with the ASTM D6751. The heating value shown by
the kusum biodiesel sample was very much comparable with petrodiesel.
Keywords:Biodiesel, Kusum, Jatropha
ntroduction In any developing country like India the dependency on edible vegetable is great due to their
common use in peasants' day to day life. To find any alternative to petro diesel, people look forward
towards non edible oil. Non edible oil feed stocks such as Jatropha, Thumba, Karanja, Neem, Pongmia and
Mahua are being under research by the researchers since last decade. These researches are attempts to find
either partial or complete substitutes to petrodiesel in compression ignition engines. Stearic, palmitic, oleic,
linoleic and linolenic acids are different types of fatty acids usually present in these non edible vegetable oils.
These vegetations can be grown even on a small farm or on big farms. The biodiesel produced from these non
edible oils can be used to run these oils can be used run tractors, pumps and small engines for power
generation/irrigation. Suitability of vegetable oils as fuels for CI engines depends on their physio-chemical and
combustion characteristics as well as the type of engine used and operating conditions. [1]
Popularly available potential of tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs) in India are given in Table 1.
Naveen Kumar Garg

Department of Automobile Engineering, Lecturer, GB Pant Institute of Technology,
New Delhi- 110020 India,
gargnk_34@rediffmail.com,
Amit Pal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Associate Professor, Delhi Technological University
Bawana, New Delhi- 110042 India
amitpal@dce.ac.in, Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 9868182829
ENGINEERING,
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Table 1: Available Potential of Tree-Borne Oil seeds (TBO's) in India [2]
* Other : Maroti (Hydnocarpus wightiana), Palash (Butea monosperma), Pisa (Actinodaphne angustifolia),
Ratanjyot (Jatropha curcas), Thumba (Citrullus colocynthis), Teak (Tectona grandis).
Identity of Kusum
Table 2 gives identity of kusum plant at a glance. Fig. 1shows a mature Kusum tree and its different parts.
Table 2: Identification of Kusum Plant
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Kusum : A Potential Non Edible Feed Stock for ..............
A) Kusum leaf with three pairs of leaflets. B) An inflorescence racem
C) A male flower with anthers D) A hermaphrodite flower with fertilized ovule
E) Bunch of immature Kusum fruits. F) A mature seed with brown testa and cotyledon kernel
Figure 1: Mature kusum tree and different parts of a Kusum Plant
The oil content in kusum seeds is found to be 51-62% but the yields are 25-27% in village ghanis and about 3336% oil in expellers. It contains only 3.6 to 3.9% of glycerin while normal vegetable oil contains 910%glycerine. FFA (free fatty acid) present in oil is 5-11%. Iodine value is 215-220 and total fatty acid content
is 91.6%. The FFA content of Kusum oil is presented in Table 3
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Table 2: FFA content of Kusum oil [3]
The main objective of present study was to reduce the dependency on non edible oils like Jatropha and to
promote the concept of Local Produce- Local Use in India.
Materials
The kusum oil, Sulphuric acid, methanol and KOH used for this study was procured from Delhi Technological
University Laboratory and commercially available diesel was purchased from nearby IOC petrol Pump.
Properties of Kusum Oil
The physical and chemical properties of Kusum oil and its blends with petrodiesel were tested according to
ASTM methods at the testing laboratory of Delhi Technological University, Delhi. The Table 4 shows the
various procedures followed and Instrument used for the purpose.
TABLE-4: ASTM Methods and Instruments used to Measure Various Properties
Production of Kusum Biodiesel

1 kg of kusum oil (FFA>2%<7%) was taken in an open, stainless steel container. The moisture content of the oil
was removed by heating this oil up to 110C with the help of an electric hot plate. After cooling down the same
oil to a temperature of 50C the beaker is placed over the magnetic stirrer and a solution comprising 220gm of
methanol (molar ratio of 6:1) and 10g (1%) sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is added to it. In order to get the
homogeneous mixing it must be added only with the oil in stirring state. It was continuously stirred for an hour
under controlled temperature conditions (50C-55C) at 350 RPM. This mixture was allowed for gravity
separation in a separating funnel for a period of an hour. After gravity separation, top layer consisting of acid
esterified oil and bottom layer, called as pretreatment oil, were seperated as shown in fig.2. The bottom residue
was taken out from acid esterified oil in a different beaker and further processed for biodiesel production. [5]
420
Kusum : A Potential Non Edible Feed Stock for ..............
Figure 2 : Preteatment oil after first stage of process (Acid Esterification)
Figure 3: Oil after second stage of process (Alkali Esterification)
The pretreatment oil obtained from acid transesterification (first stage) was heated to remove moisture content
before starting the reaction. The beaker is placed over the magnetic stirrer and a solution comprising the alkali
methanol solution is added to preheated pretreatment oil. In order to get the homogeneous mixing it must be
added only with the pretreatment oil in stirring state. It was continuously stirred for an hour under controlled
temperature conditions (50C-55C) at 350 RPM. This mixture was allowed for gravity separation in a
separating funnel for a period of an hour. After gravity separation, top layer consisting of raw biodiesel and at
bottom the glycerol were seperated, as shown in fig.3. The bottom layer of glycerol was taken out and the raw
biodiesel is further processed for water washing and purification. The raw biodiesel was washed with warm
distilled water to remove the unreacted alcohol, catalyst and traces of glycerol in the biodiesel. Further the water
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Table 5: Comparison of Physico-Chemical Properties of Kusum Oil, Jatropha Oil, Petrodiesel,

and Kusum Biodiesel
washed fuel was heated to 110C in an open container until there was no more steam in the fuel.
Conclusion
Biodiesel production from kusum oil with a high content of FFA has been investigated. In alkali base catalyzed
transe-sterification process, the presence of high concentration of FFA reduced the yield of methyl esters of
fatty acids significantly. A two-stage transesterification process was selected to improve the methyl ester yield.
The first stage was acid pretreatment process, which could reduced the FFA level of kusum oil to less than 1%.
The second stage, alkali base cat-alyzed transesterification process gave 91.25% methyl ester yield.
References
[1]
Crookes RJ. Kiannejad F. Nazha MAA. Systematic assessment of combustion characteristics of biofuels and emulsions with water use as diesel engine fuels, Energy Conversion and Management 1997:
38 (1517): 178595
[2]
Directorate of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad A statistical compendium 2005 :606.
[3]
Graboski MS, McCormick L. Combustion of fat and vegetable oil derived fuels in diesel engines.
Prog Energy Combust Sci 1998;24: 12564.
[4]
Acharya SK, Mohanty MK, Swain RK Kusum oil as a fuel for small horse power diesel engine, Intl.
Jr of Engg & Tech, 2009:3
[5]
Gandhi M, Ramu N, BBakkiya Raj S, Methyl Ester Production from Schleichera Oleosa IJPSR, vol
2(5),: 1244-1250
[6]
Pramanik, K., Properties and use of Jatropha curcas oil and diesel fuel blends in compression ignition
engine. Renewable Energy 2003, 28, 239 248.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Review of Formula One Aerodynamic

Devices
Salman Javed, Farhan Javed, Taha Bilal,
Samsher Gautam and Tarun Mehra
Abstract- In the sport of Formula one racing where a fraction of a second makes the difference between
winning and losing, the field of aerodynamics is of crucial importance. Aerodynamics has improved Formula
one car's ability to attain higher speeds on a stretch of road and corners. The application of aerodynamics
through the use of various devices is still being researched to improve Formula one car's ability. This paper
investigates various Formula one aerodynamic performance enhancing devices. The devices are analyzed
through studies based on the use of wind tunnels and computational fluid dynamics. The various factors
affecting the performance of devices have been discussed. Where applicable, the use of the research in Formula
one has been presented. The review indicates that devices such as the front wing, rear wing, diffuser, gurney
flap, and bargeboard have improved various aspects of a Formula one car.
Keywords- Aerodynamics; Performance enhancement; Aerodynamic Devices; Formula one.
Introduction Research and development in the field of Formula one aerodynamics have expanded vastly in the
past 30 years. The teams competing spend millions of dollars to reduce a fraction of a second from lap times.
Teams focus on various sections of a Formula one car: engine, transmission, steering, and aerodynamics.
Formula one car designers were initially dependent on the engine horsepower for attaining the highest possible
speed. However, advances have shifted their focus to using aerodynamics to achieve theirgoal.
Formula one aerodynamicist seeks to produce maximum downforce and tries to reduce drag at the same time.
The downforce generated helps to improve the grip, stability, cornering ability, straight line and braking ability
of the car. Complex flow is associated with individual components. Therefore, proper understanding of the
flow dynamics associated with each aerodynamic component is essential for a clear insight into the overall
flow field and eventually a better Formula one vehicle design.
The aerodynamics of a Formula one car is dependent on several devices such as the front wing, rear wing,
diffusers, gurney flaps, and bargeboards. Formula one teams use three key techniques for studying the
aerodynamics of the race car. The techniques are as follows: Wind tunnel testing, computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) and track testing. CFD helps in effective simulation and analysis of the car without the need to carry out
extensive wind tunnel testing. Wind tunnel testing helps to simulate race like conditions while testing. Track
testing, on the other hand, provides the teams with the ability to test their Formula one car in an actual race like
condition. The study of various devices will be discussed through the use of wind tunnel (experimental) and
CFD (computational).
Salman Javed, Farhan Javed, Taha Bilal, SamsherGautam, TarunMehra

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Shahbad
Daulatpur, Delhi- 110042, India,
salmanjaved@dtu.ac.in, farhanjaved@dtu.ac.in, taha.bilal@yahoo.com, samsher@dce.ac.in
tarunmehra2004@hotmail.com

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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The study of these various components forms the basis behind the aerodynamics of a Formula one car and is
discussed. The importance of this study lies in the fact that Formula one team invest up to 20% of their budget on
understanding aerodynamics. The current study surfaced because of lack of information regarding Formula one
car aerodynamics. This is most probably due to sensitive nature of this information in extremely competitive
and lucrative businesses of Formula one. Hence, the paper aims to provide an understanding of various devices
used in Formula one by citing works which have studied them in other scenarios.
2. Frontwing
2.1.
Introduction
A wing is a three-dimensional (3D) lifting surface of finite span composed of one or more two- dimensional
(2D) airfoil sections of theoretical infinite span [1]. The front wing generates 25%-30% of the total downforce
of the Formula one [2, 3, 4]. The front wings are profiled to force the car into the track as much as possible,
providing high levels of grip, traction and helping the tires to stay in contact with the track surface. However,
since the front wing is the first part of the Formula one car to meet the air mass, the wake generated by the front
wing disturbs the smooth flow of air. Such turbulent ow impacts the eciency of the rearwing.
2.2.
ExperimentalStudies
Ground effect phenomenon is responsible for the high performance of the front wing. This phenomenon results
in an increase in downforce generated by the front wings. Ranzenbach and Barlow [5, 6, 7] performed wind
tunnel tests and CFD analysis to understand the performance of wing in ground effect. The single element
experiments dealt with NACA 0015 [5] and NACA 4412 [6, 7] airfoil. The 2D analysis defined the flow field
phenomena and suggested the possibility of a force reduction phenomenon during a race. The work was
extended by investigation on double element NACA 632-215 Mod B in conjugation with 30% slotted flap [8].
Experimental results of an airfoil having angle of attack (AOA) 0 showed fairly good agreement with
computational analysis at ground clearances greater than 0.1 chord lengths. This study has led to a greater
understanding of multi-element front wing which is used in Formula one. The merging of the airfoil and ground
boundary layers takes place at high ground clearances, increasing the possibility of force reduction
phenomenon and hence affecting the performance of a Formula one car.
To get a better understanding of wings, studies have evolved from 2D to 3D. As the Formula one car operates at
a wide range of speeds during a race, the effect of Reynolds number as a performance
parameter needs to be analyzed. The study carried out by Jasinski and Selig [9] showed that there were small
variations in the lift and drag coefficients in the operating range. In addition, the flap deflection test showed
significant improvements from the standard case showing the effectiveness of such movable elements in front
wings. However recent regulations have strictly limited the use of such movable elements in modern Formula
one racing.
Knowles et al. [10] performed an experimental study to understand the performance of a single element wing
with moving ground. A single element GA (W)-1 wing was placed at increasing heights from the ground
beginning with 0.12c. The force and pressure distributions at different AOA were presented as results. Poor
agreement was obtained between the experimental and computational data because of variation in freestream
velocity used for the experimental and computational studies. Zerihan and Zhang [11] have also carried
research on wings operating in ground effect. They employed laser doppler anemometry (LDA) and particle
image velocimetry (PIV) techniques to comprehend the functioning of wings making use of the ground effect.
Results were presented as force and pressure measurement.
Muralidharan et al. [12] experimented with a front wing using a Selig 1223 design. The experimental value of
the lift coefficient and drag coefficient came out to be 1.89 and 0.9256 respectively. These results were within
the acceptable limits. Pertaining to the safety rules of competition, the tip of the wing was shredded to
appropriate dimensions. Results showed that shredding off the tail tip results in drastic reduction in the
coefficient of lift. The applicability of this rule extends to Formula one competition, where the wings and
various aerodynamic components need to have a minimum thickness to prevent severe consequences in case of
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an accident. Often accidents take place on the Formula one circuit resulting in loss of downforce because of
damaged components. A better understanding needs to be established on the performance loss in case of ontrack accident. Wang et al.[13] studied the effects of loss of the front wing on the performance of the race car.
When one of these wings is destroyed, the vertical force distribution on the race car may change dramatically. If
the front wing is broken, the air can no longer be diverted and therefore it does not flow properly over the
racecar.
2.3.
Computational Studies
Advancement in the computational field has permitted researchers to use CFD analysis as part of their study.
Katz performed the earliest computational analysis of inverted wings in ground effect. The analysis was
performed on a completed model of race car using panel method [14]. Similarly, panel methods program was
employed to study the aerodynamics of front wing [15, 16, 17].
Since then CFD practices have evolved to incorporate Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) approach
for computational studies. These equations are based on the fundamental concepts of conservation of mass,
momentum and energy. Zerihan and Zhang used RANS approach on 2D single element airfoil [18]. The ability
of the structured grid to capture the flow features was established. The one equation Spallart-Allmaras model
[19] and two equation k- shear stress transport (SST) model [20] were used to model the turbulence.
Experimental work was performed to obtain velocity and surface pressure data for a wing span in ground effect.
Comparison between the results of CFD and experimental work showed that the two equation model did not
predict the boundary layer correctly. However, the one equation predicted the boundary layer correctly. The
development of various turbulence models such as LES has permitted CFD engineers to accurately represent
the flow around a Formula one car.
With increasing the computing power available and improvement in CFD techniques, complete flow analysis
of a Formula one car can be done. Katz and Dykstra utilized RANS approach to analyze the flow around an
entire open wheel race car. For a fixed distance from the ground, pressure distributions are presented for various
regions along the chord of the airfoil such as the airfoil center and trailing edge of the front wing. One of the
applications of CFD in the Formula one racing industry is the measurement of surface pressure which is not
commonly obtained in race car wind tunnels because of limited development time available. The study
reinforces the observation that raised front section of the Formula one car enables greater mass flow rate
underneath the car producing greater downforce. Recent regulation changes in the Formula one industry have
however resulted in decreasing the minimum ground clearance to reduce the time differences between
competitors.
Formula one race tracks undergo detailed analysis by teams to decide the settings required to achieve sufficient
downforce. The aero dynamicists change various settings such as the AOA of front wings to achieve higher
downforce levels. Kieffer et al. [21] performed analysis on Formula Mazda race car involved varying the AOA
of front wing from -4 to 16. In order to observe the effect of front wing in free air the front wing was also
analyzed at 0 and 4 angle of attack. The results obtained showed that for the design of front wing ground effect
plays an important role and that lower surface contributes much more to the downforce than the upper surface.
A numerical study of a GA(W)-1 aerofoil in ground effect was carried out by Lawson et al. [22]. A fully
structured grid consisting of 48,500 grid points was solved using RANS equation. Spallart-Allmaras model was
used to simulate the turbulence [19]. Both, the computational and experimental cases considered a moving
ground. The experimentally measured surface pressure, PIV images were compared to the computational data.
The disagreement between the experimental and computational studies is partially due to the difference in free
stream velocity.
Chandra et al. [23] conducted an analytical study on air flow effects and resulting dynamics on the PACE
Formula 1 race car. The simulation made use of efficient meshing methods and realistic loading to understand
the downforce on the front and rear wing portions of the car, as well as the drag created by all exterior surfaces.
Optimization of wing orientations (AOA) and geometry modifications on outer surfaces of the car was
performed to enhance down force and lessen drag for maximum stability and control during operation.
A summary of various studies on wings has been mentioned in Table 1. As a result of limitations in the size of the
article, some of the studies have been discussed.
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2.4.
Tipvortices
Front wing used in Formula one cars is often equipped with end plates [11]. The end plates serve to reduce the
size of vortices formed. Vortex formation takes place when air begins to roll out from inner surface to the outer
Table 1. Summary of studies on wings
surface of the end plate. Diasinos and Gatto [25] discovered that this vortex rotated in an anti-clockwise
direction and the vortex strength increased with the increase in AOA of the front wing. Together with this
characteristic, increasing the AOA of the wing also produces more signicant cross ow across the wheel.
Zhang and Zerihan [24] followed up this work with an experimental analysis carried out using LDA in order to
determine the effect of varying ground clearance and AOA. Results showed that as the wing proximity to
ground increases the region of separation and the size of wake also increases.
The rate of change of downforce with ride height is dependent on the vortices formed. The rate of change of
downforce can be controlled to reduce dependency on ride height sensitivity. Vortex breakdown has been found
to be the cause of this change in downforce. This behavior of the vortices has been described by Zhang and
Zerihan [24, 26].
3. Rearwing
3.1.
Introduction
About a third of the car's total downforce can come from the rear wing assembly [27]. The rear wing is
considered to be as effective as the front wing [28] and is one of the most modified aerodynamic devices. They
are responsible for creating the most drag. Hence all the Formula one teams tailor the rear wing to suit a
particular track configuration.
The rear wing of a car is made of multiple elements and this is done to prevent flow separation and obtain higher
downforce. A resultant force is generated due to the directional change that takes places as the air moves past the
wing. This resultant force has the drag and downforce component. In this manner, the rear wing generates the
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downforce. The downforce generated depends on the AOA. A steep AOA produces greater downforce [29].
3.2.
Experimentalstudies
The front wing of a Formula one race car experiences ground effect. A similar effect is experienced by rear
wings in operations. The effect of proximity of ground on the operational performance of the wing was first
discovered in 1921 by Zahm and Bear [30]. The results showed an increase in lift with an increase in angle of
incidence up to 12. Further study on ground effect was done by Dominy [31], who described it as the constraint
of flow over the suction surface due to which there is an increase in suction.
In a detailed study for designing and developing a high downforce aerodynamic package, Wordley and
Saunders [32] used a numerical method to develop a multi-element aerofoil. They assumed the target lift
coefficient to be 3.5 for the rear wing. For such high lift coefficients, Mcbeath [33] suggested that multielement airfoil must be used. Thus based on this study Wordley and Saunders [32] used a 5 element rear wing
along with gurney flaps having 4% rear chord. The CFD results for rear wing showed that coefficient of lift
reached 3.5 at an angle of attack 31. A closed return open jet wind tunnel was also used to test the rear wing.
Coiro et al. [34] experimented with the aerodynamics of multi- element airfoil in rear wing. Their study
incorporated numerical as well as experimental methods. Berchak and Camosy[35] experimented with two
models. Firstly, an isolated full-scale rear wing, secondly, a 40% scale model of an Indy-style race car. Results
from these two models were compared and it was discovered that aerodynamic performance of the rear wing is
improved by the presence of the race car body. This implies that some degree of interference takes place
between rear wing and body. This result is also verified by Katz [14] and Coiro et al. [34]. The interaction
between the various components makes the analysis of Formula one carsdifficult.
Zhang and Zerihan [36] experimented on a cambered double element wing in a closed jet type wind tunnel.
They showed that at large heights from the ground (as in the case of rear wings) the downforce increases
exponentially with a reduction in height. The force, pressure and flow visualization were done at a constant
pressure of 52.6 bar. LDA and PIV tests were performed at a constant speed of 30m/s. Diasinos and Gatto [25]
also carried out an investigation using LDA. Surface pressure distribution was obtained for a similar dry model
with the help of pressure taps. 25 pressure taps on the suction surface and 23 pressure taps on the pressure
surface were placed. A direct comparison of the pressure measurement was done by Wordley and Saunders [32]
and Zerihan and Zhang [11]. Wordley and Saunders [32] employed 180 pressure taps for better precision of
results. Results from their experiment show that the suction on the main element increases significantly as the
height isreduced.
3.3. CFDanalysis
Analytical study of airflow effects over the rear wing is done with the help of computational fluid dynamics.
CFD has helped study the formation of vortices and effects of varying angle of attack on the performance of the
rear wing. Chandra et al. [23] have carried out CFD simulations on the rear wing. Simulations were performed
at three different speeds and for five different angles of attack. It is apparent that both the lift and drag are not
greatly affected by the change in angle. According to the results, the variation in downforce produced by rear
wing with increasing angle of attack is governed by the equation:
Downforce = 4.1x+664.7 (1)Where, x is the angle of attack.
This small variation serves a purpose in the drag reduction system (DRS) implemented in modern Formula one
car. Changing the AOA of the rear wing provides just enough downforce reduction to overtake other cars. The
DRS system permits variation in the AOA for the rear wings and has important because as per Formula one
technical regulation, the rear wing is the only moveable bodywork allowed.
The performance of the rear wing can indeed be improved by optimizing the AOA. However the downforce
generated is also dependent on a large number of other factors. Zhigang et al. [37] implemented the design
of experiments (DOE) technique in conjugation with CFD analysis. The results obtained by varying five
parameters were compared with the original design and the process yielded an improved design having 6 %
increase in downforce and 5% decrease in drag. The incorporation of new techniques such as DOE in CFD will
pave the way forward for improved efficiency in the analysis, permitting the designer to simulate various
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combinations of parameters.
4. Diffuser
4.1.
Introduction
A diffuser is basically an underbody channel which accelerates the flow of air under the car, creating a region of
low pressure, thus increasing downforce. Strong vortices are generated inside these channels which stabilize
the underbody flow. The diffuser-wing combination results in higher air mass flow rate through the diffuser,
thus enhancing the downforce so produced. It is the preferred aerodynamic device because of its high
efficiency.
4.2.
Experimental studies
The working principle of a diffuser has been compared to that of venturi. Like a venturi, air is initially
accelerated by the gradual reduction in cross- sectional area followed by deceleration back to initial speed
because of the gradual increase in cross- sectional area [38, 39, 33].
The working principle of a diffuser's function in ground effect has been studied by Sovran [40]. Their research
work was performed on a symmetrical two- dimensional, plane wall, single expansion diffuser. Studies have
also shown that placement of flat plates or turning vanes improve diffuser performance. These fences also
prevent air from upper body surfaces to move into the diffuser. Katz [39] states that when the ratio of height is to
length (h/L) is close to 0.5 the downforce produced for a 10 diffuser is maximum. This downforce comes at the
expense of small addition of drag. Initial studies by Frost [41] provided insight into bluff bodies equipped with
a rear diffuser in ground effect with ramp angle varying up to20.
Cooper et al. [42] found that downforce increases with a decrease in ride height up to critical ride height.
However below this critical ride height, downforce decreased rapidly. Once the underfloor gets too low, the
flow underneath can be blocked and not enough air flows through the diffuser, hence the downforce decreases.
The lower the underbody of the Formula one car is to the ground, the stronger the ground effect, and this
increases downforce. FederationInternationale de l'Automobile (FIA) regulations limits the minimum ground
clearance which the vehicle has to maintain, reducing the maximum downforce which could have been
achieved. Reducing the ride height also alters the evolution of vortex so as to promote breakdown prior to exit
from diffuser.
The location of the diffuser entrance has a direct impact on the position of low pressure region in the vehicle
undertray. Work presented by Katz [39] shows the presence of low pressure peak at the entrance to the diffuser.
To bring about a change in location of the center of pressure, the diffuser entrance has to be shifted. A shift in the
diffuser entrance is found to change the low pressure concentration and hence the balance of the car. The
balance of the race car influences the understeer and oversteer, hence affecting the overall performance of the
race car [33, 38, 39]. Formula one teams face difficulty in exploiting the location of the diffuser to their
advantage because of strict guidelines.
The diffuser angle in reference to the ground level affects the downforce that is generated [33, 38, 39, 43, 44].
To attain maximum downforce, it is required to have the highest angle in such a manner that flow separation
does not take place. If separation occurs, then the downforce generated is reduced and the drag produced
increases to large value [33]. 2D simulatin of diffusers at varying angles show that maximum downforce is
produced when the angle is 5[33].
George [45] observed a pair of trailing vortices on the leeward side of the body. These vortices were similar to
those found over an inclined body of revolution and over slender delta wings. It is also known that such vortex
flows can suppress bubble- type separation. The study also showed that these vortices enhance the force.
Ruhrmann and Zhang [43] found that the flow involved three-dimensional flow separation and vortex
formation. Their study showed that vortex breakdown resulted in force reduction in low angled diffusers. The
high angle diffusers demonstrated results similar to that found by Senior and Zhang [46]. Zhang et al. [47] used
LDA to understand the vortices inside the turbulent wake. Large turbulence generating vortices were present in
the study conducted by Peddie and Gonzalezn [48]. The placement of large vortex generators aid in increasing
the downforce produced and decreasing the pressure. Such vortex generators function by development of
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vortices which travel along the length of the vehicle [49, 50].
Diffusers without end plates tend to increase the vortex formation due to air rolling around the side of vehicle.
This is supported by investigation carried out by Frost [41]. Mahon et al. [51] aimed to understand edge vortices
generated by bluff body equipped with diffuser. Varieties of techniques were used as part of this study:
primarily, PIV and oil flow visualization. Swirling motion which is produced under the model
was studied. It was observed that flow separation takes place from the diffuser sides leading to the creation of
two edge vortices. Furthermore, it was observed that the diffuser flow field is affected by varying the ride
height. A force enhancement and reduction region is formed on reducing the ride height. To study the effect of
reducing ride height on edge vortex, port edge PIV was performed. Results of the study indicate a decrease in
concentration and breakdown of the edge vortex. This phenomenon is due to the development of more negative
static pressure at inlet of the diffuser. As a result, adverse stream wise pressure gradients develop within the
diffuser and this causes expansion of vortexcore.
A summary of various studies on diffusers has been mentioned in Table 2. As a result of the limitations in the
size of the article, some of the studies have been discussed
4.3.
Computational analysis
Cooper et al. [42] performed simulation to study diffuser flow in ground effect. The 3D model prepared for
simulation was a half model. The diffuser angles were: 9.17 and 13.5 and the diffuser had no side plates.
RANS simulation was performed with k- turbulence model to yield successful results for 9.17 diffuser.
Simulation for the 13.5 diffuser was not so successful. Peddie and Gonzalez [48] also employed RANS
equation for carrying out simulations. ANSYS Fluent was used in conjugation with GAMBIT software. Their
study involved 2D and 3D models of diffuser. The results of the 2D study were comparable to that obtained by
Sovran and Klomp [52]. Das et al. [53] carried out CFD simulation on ANSYS Fluent using k- model. Their
study involved integration of a diffuser with Ahmed body. The slant angles varied from 0 to 22 with 18 ramp
angle giving the best performance. Thomas et al. [54], on the other hand chose Spallart-Allmaras as the viscous
model for carrying out simulations. Flay and Hammond [55] solved the RANS equations, using SST turbulence
model. Downforce improvements by 35% were observed when exhaust gases were vented into the two diffuser
tunnels underneath the car. This type of exhaust blown diffuser was popularly used in Formula one because of
significant downforce improvements until they were banned by the FIA.
Table 2. Summary of studies on diffusers
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5.
Gurneyflaps
5.1.
Introduction
Gurney Flap is one of the most well-known devices in field of Formula one Aerodynamics. This device is a
small tab positioned at right angles to the pressure surface of the aerofoil. When it is set as a trailing edge device,
with size in the range of 1%-5% of the wing chord, the performance improvement is significant [56]. Gurney
flaps generate vortices by separation of flow near the trailing edge. This phenomenon increases the maximum
lift coefficient of the airfoil along with a shift in the zerolift angle of attack. The increase in lift is due to
alteration of the Kutta condition at the trailing edge of gurney flap results in increase in lift [57]. This hypothesis
has been verified through various studies [58, 59, 60] .
Some of the parameters which affect the performance of the gurney flaps are length, location, shape and size. A
linear increase in lift coefficient is seen with an increase in AOA for a fixed gurney flap [56]. Ross et al. [61]
experimented with gurney flap for a two element airfoil. The study involved varying the length and the location
of the gurney flap with respect to the trailing edge. When a 0.5% chord gurney flap was placed 0.5% chord from
the main trailing edge, up to 40% increase in the lift to drag ratio was observed. Usage of gurney flap leads to
30% increase in the maximum lift coefficient [62]. The investigation revealed that lift produced is a function of
flap size primarily. The chord wise location affects the amount of lift but to lesser extent. Similar results in
order of 40% were observed with 5% chord gurney flap [63]. An increase in the lift coefficient was observed
when a 2% chord gurney flap was added. Studies made into serrated gurney flap have reported significant
increase in lift to drag ratio [64,65].
One of the drawbacks of gurney flaps is the increase in drag coefficient for certain cases [66]. At moderate and
low values of lift coefficient, large gurney flaps resulted in an increase in drag coefficient [63]. Giguere et al.
[67] observed that the increase in drag was little because the gurney flap lies within the airfoil's boundary layer.
Through several studies, it has been found that the gurney flap's height shouldbe smaller than boundary layer
thickness on the pressure side of the airfoil [62, 68, 69, 70].
5.2.
Computational and Experimental studies
Numerical simulation of gurney flaps is carried out using RANS model. 2D incompressible RANS code was
utilized to study the effect of gurney flaps [61, 71, 72]. Results of most of the studies were similar to
experimental investigations. Myose et al. [73] conducted a study to investigate the effect of gurney flaps on 3D
wings. The study involved changing the span wise location from outboard to inboard. The increase in lift and
drag obtained was found to be proportional to the span wise length. The stall angle reduced and angle of attack
required for zero lift became morenegative.
Jeffrey et al. [74] investigated the effect of gurney flaps on single-element airfoils by means of LDA. The data
obtained indicates the presence of Von Karman vortex sheet in the wake. As a result of this effect, the suction on
the downstream face of the gurney flap improves and the decelerated flow on the upstream face leads to an
increase in pressure at the trailing edge on this surface. A pressure difference develops at the trailing edge of the
airfoil and this induces an increase in circulation around the wing.
The field of racing often involves the use of multi-element wing to achieve high performance. The slots
between the elements help keep flow stay attached, allowing more aggressive AOA and design than a singleelement wing. As a result more downforce is produced in multi-element wings. Multi- element wing usually
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consist of a main element and flaps on which the gurney flaps are attached. The overall effect is comparable
when gurney flap is used in a double-element or single-element configuration [75]. It is also seen that the
boundary layer at the trailing edge of double-element wing is thinner resulting in a greater increase in trailing
edge pressure and zero lift drag.
Formula one engineer's exploit ground effect to generate larger downforces. Limited study has been made
regarding the influence of ground effect on performance of gurney flap. Some understanding has been achieved
regarding gurney flap fluid dynamics in ground effect through studies by Katz and Dykstra [76] and Zerihan
and Zhang [77]. Zerihan and Zhang [77] analyzed the performance of a gurney flap attached to a single element,
high-lift wing in ground effect. There is a gain in downforce when the gurney flap is used in conjugation with
wing when compared to the clean wing. Maximum downforce is achieved when the wing is placed at an optimal
height from the ground. When this height further decreases, flow separation takes place, hence reducing gurney
flap performance.
6. Bargeboards
6.1.Introduction
Bargeboard is one of the most popular aerodynamic devices present in Formula one car. It is essentially a piece
of the body which helps in reducing aerodynamic drag on the car and directs the airflow into the radiator
intakes. Situated longitudinally between the front wheels and the sidepods, these curved vertical plates often
have a trapezoidal profile and curve outwards towards the rear of the Formula one car. In modern Formula one
cars, they are located behind the suspension control arms. As the clean air passes over the front wing it flows
around the suspension control arms and starts to become turbulent. As this turbulent air comes in contact with
bargeboard it re-attaches to the smooth flow and gets directed to rear wing resulting in downforce generation.
Bargeboards also serve as vortex generators. The bottom edge sheds vortices which help to delay flow
separation and permits the use of more aggressive diffuser profile. The top edge also sheds large vortex
downstream which aid in sealing the low pressure underbody flow from an ambient stream.
6.2.Computational and Experimental studies
Devaiah and Umesh [29] observed significant increase in downforce by use of various aerodynamics devices
such as bargeboard, nose wing, front wing modifications, roof spoiler, rear wheel scallops and the rear wing.
The increase in drag force was not so significant at slow speeds. However, as the speed increased to actual track
speed, drag force increased significantly. Mafi [78] also carried CFD simulations in ANSYS Fluent to
understand the aerodynamic features of Formula one car. The CFD study revealed that barge boards do not
produce much turbulence. Siitonen [79] carried out actual testing to understand the effect of various designs1
on cooling of the radiator. Compared to the base model, bargeboard increased the cooling power and made the
air inside the cooling ducts more stable. Tests showed that placement and angle of bargeboard was crucial to get
optimum coolingpower.
Bargeboards have evolved from simple triangular shaped component to recently developed saw tooth profile
components which increase the underbody efficiency and decreases turbulence. The next step forward with this
component will be the use of serrated bargeboards which permit greater amount of air to bleed in order to reduce
drag and increase the speed of the flow to counter the decreased volume flow rate as perregulations.
Bargeboards have led to the creation of turning vanes. Turning vanes are located at various positions around the
car mainly around the nose cone and sidepods. Turning vanes help to direct the air smoothly around
the car to the sidepods and diffuser. Like bargeboards, they also control wake formation from the front wheels.
To provide better air flow to the bargeboard, suspension arms are also modified besides using turning vanes.
Regulations state that such suspension arms must not produce downforce. Siitonen [79] found that air flow
with airfoil shaped suspension arms was much better. Modified suspension arms help to keep the flow laminar.
They found that the thickness of the arm, leading and trailing edge had to be properly manufactured to avoid
flow separation.
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7. Summary
In this paper, we review the progress made over the past 4 decades on the aerodynamics of Formula one race
cars. We have focused on the influence of various devices on the aerodynamics of Formula one car.
Highly complex flow characteristics are linked with aerodynamics devices of Formula one race cars. The
phenomenon of separation and breakdown are critical to the aerodynamics. Wind tunnel continues to be the
primary research method because of its ability to simulate conditions as close as possible to actual track.
However, CFD has helped ease the job of aerodynamicists. Advancement in CFD is an area of great growth.
This in turn has resulted in regulations governing the time and money which can be spent on CFD research. We
have focused our effort on main aerodynamic components: front wing, rear wings, gurney flaps, diffusers,
andbargeboards.
Many new inventions are being made in the field of Formula one aerodynamics. Studies can be made by
researchers on these new inventions to provide a clearer view of the functions of such aerodynamic devices.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Potential Research Study of Utilizing WaterDiesel Emulsion In Diesel Engine

An Overview
K R Patel and Dhruv Anand
Abstract - The need for more efficient energy usage and a less polluted environment are the prominent research
areas that are currently being investigated by many researchers worldwide. Water-in-diesel emulsion fuel
(W/D) is one of the promising alternative fuel that could fulfills such requests in that it can improve the
combustion efficiency of a diesel engine and reduce harmful exhaust gases, especially nitrogen oxides (NOx)
and particulate matter (PM). There have been many W/D emulsion fuel studies, especially regarding
performance, emissions and micro-explosion phenomena. This review paper gathers and discusses the recent
advances in emulsion fuel studies in respect of the impact of W/D emulsion fuel on the performance and
emission of diesel engines, micro-explosion phenomena especially the factors that affecting micro-explosion
process, and proposed potential research area in W/D emulsion fuel study. It is agreed by most of the studies that
W/D does result in an improvement in engine performance measurements when the total amount of diesel fuel
in the emulsion is compared with that of the neat diesel fuel. NOx and PM exhaust gas emissions are greatly
reduced by using the W/D emulsion fuel. Unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) exhaust
emissions are found to be increased by using the W/D emulsion fuel. The factors that affect these measurements
consist of the type of diesel engine and engine operating conditions, size of the dispersed water particle, droplet
size of the emulsion, water-content in the emulsion, type and percentage of surfactant, ambient temperature,
ambient pressure. The advantages of an emulsion fuel are reductions in the emissions of nitrogen oxides and
particulate matters, which are both health hazardous, and reduction in fuel consumption due to better burning
efficiency.
Key words -Water- diesel emulsion , diesel engine, emission
ntroduction The emulsion fuel is defined as an emulsion of water in standard diesel fuel with specific
additives, surfactants, to stabilize the system. There is a growing interest in the use of diesel emulsions and
environmental aspects are the main driving force. As is discussed in some detail below the of water has a
significant effect on several emission constituents: exhaust gases such as nitrogen oxides(NOx) and carbon
monoxide (CO), as well as black smoke and particulate matter[1]. Operational advantages of diesel engines are
clear, the general public has considerable concerns regarding the pollution caused by diesel engines in the form
of obnoxious odor, gas pollutants and particulate matter to atmosphere. Diesel particulate emissions are small,
often less than 2.5 lm in size, and consist of a complex mixture of engine's oils, sulfates and inorganic materials.
These particles have been identified as toxic air contaminants and declared by health experts as ''likely human
carcinogen'' contributing to a variety of lung related illnesses including asthma, emphysema and bronchitis .
Due to the severe environmental issues that the world is facing recently, new emission regulations are
K R Patel, Dhruv Anand

Vishwakarma government Engineering College, Mechanical Engineering Department
e mail: kintupatel@rediffmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Patel and Anand
constantly being introduced in order to mitigate this problem. The Kyoto Protocol, which was established in
1997, was the first step to set binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce their emissions. In
addition to environmental disputes, the issue of critical fossil fuel reserves is another concern. Some studies
estimate that the worldwide fossil fuel reserves will last less than four decades . Accordingly, these two serious
issues have generated research interest worldwide in order to curb and find a solution to these problems.
Currently, the more efficient utilization of energy and less polluting emissions are the prominent research areas
that are progressively being studied [4] The W/O emulsion fuel is the most suitable and widely used as the
alternative fuel for fueling compression ignition engines by researchers and experts. In addition, the type of oil
stated earlier refers to the diesel fuel. The water-in-diesel emulsion fuel type is preferable to be the alternative
fuel compared to the water-in-gasoline emulsion fuel. This is due to the difference in boiling point between
water and diesel fuel being much higher than the one between water and gasoline, which is particularly suitable
for the concept [4]. This review will present the current status of water-in-diesel emulsions and also comment
on the development in some related areas [1].
2. Water In Diesel Emulsion
Considering the enormous volume of diesel fuel that is being consumed today, a replacement of just a fraction
of regular diesel by water-in-diesel emulsion would mean that a new and very large application for surfactants
had been created. The stability requirements on such emulsions are obvious: they need to stay stable for a
specific time and over a wide temperature span. The surfactants used, i.e., the emulsifiers, must burn readily
without soot formation and should not contain sulphur and nitrogen. Thus, they should contain only carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen and they should preferably not have aromatic rings in their structure. Non ionic
surfactants based on aliphatic hydrocarbon tails, such as alcohol ethoxylates, fatty acid ethoxylates and sugar
esters of fatty acids, are typical emulsifiers[1]. The stability of the emulsion produced is very important in order
to ensure this alternative fuel can run accordingly in the engine. If the emulsion is destabilized during the engine
running time, the probability of the engine failure to operate is high. Plus, it may damage the parts inside the
engine. Normally, water-in-diesel emulsion fuel can maintain its stability for up to 3 months but it will depend
on various factors, such as the type and percentage of surfactant, the temperature, viscosity, specific gravity and
water content [4].
The current emulsification technique application to internal combustion engines or industrial furnaces is
limited to a two-phase water-in-oil emulsion, (briefly termed W/O emulsion). No literature on the use of threephase emulsions as an alternative fuel for combustion equipment such as diesel engines has been found . The
three-phase emulsions may be conveniently divided into two types, i.e. oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) and waterin-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions. The former type, O/W/O emulsions are especially applicable for fuel
purposes. A schematic diagram of the W/O and O/W/O emulsion structures is shown in . An inner and outer
phases separated by a dispersed phase is widely used in cosmetic, pharmaceutical, physical, chemical and
engineering applications. For example, chemical components could be diffused from the inner phase through a
dispersed phase into an outer phase due to the osmotic pressure difference produced from the variation in the
solvent concentrations between the inner and outer phase solutions. In extracting or releasing certain chemical
components, chemical agent could also be permeated from the outer phase through the dispersed phase into the
inner phase .
Fig. 1. Illustration of physical structures of two-phase and three-phase emulsion [2].
438
Potential Research Study of Utilizing Water- Diesel.....

Three-phase emulsions, such as the O/W/O type, have been applied in cosmetics, food or pharmaceutical
manufacturing. However, those emulsions have not been used as fuel for internal combustion engines or
boilers. O/W/O three-phase emulsions were used as alternative fuel for a diesel engine in the experimental
study [3].
There are three commonly used techniques for preparing three-phase emulsions; (1) phase inversion, (2)
mechanical agitation, and (3) two-stage emulsification. The two-stage emulsification is the most frequently
used method. A hydrophilic surfactant is added into the water in the first O/W/O emulsion preparation stage. Oil
is then added into the water/surfactant mixture. A homogenizing machine was used to stir the mixture in order to
form a two-phase oil-in-water emulsion (denoted as O/W) type. The O/W emulsion is then added into an oil and
lipophilic surfactant mixture, which is being stirred by a homogenizing machine so that an O/W/O three-phase
emulsion is produced.[3]
The destabilization process of W/D emulsion fuel will occur after it goes through several phenomena:
creaming, aggregation, and coalescence[4]. The creaming process is where the result of the different densities
of two phases can be observed. The internal phase either precipitates at the bottom or rises to the surface of the
external. For the case of the W/D emulsion fuel, the internal phase, which is the water, will sink to the bottom.
shows the sequence of the creaming phenomena. The aggregation process is where the droplets in the internal
phase attract each other. This is due to differences in the polarity of the two phases. As for the coalescence
process, it is the final stage of the aggregation process . In a specific view, the W/D emulsion fuel starts to
destabilize when the repulsive force of the dispersed droplets become weaker; the dispersed droplets, which are
located in the internal phase tend to gather towards each other. Thus, they will form bigger droplets, in which the
newly formed droplets are separated by a thin film. This process is called the flocculation process. The thin film
thickness will reduce due to the attraction of the Vander Waals forces. Then, if the thin film thickness is reduced
to a critical value, it will break leading to newly formed droplets to move to each other forming a larger droplet
(i.e., Coalescence process)[4].
Fig. 2. Sequence of creaming process .

The sequence of the coalescence process is presented in Fig. . Consequently, those droplets (water droplets) will
settle at the bottom due to the difference in density. This phenomenon is called the sedimentation process. All of
these processes will continually destabilize the emulsion until the water and the diesel fuel are fully separated
[4].
Fig. 3. Sequence of coalescence process [5].
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Patel and Anand
The viscosity of the fuel is one of the major properties affecting fuel atomization and evaporation, subsequently
on the combustion, so a knowledge of the viscosity of the fuel is important. shows the viscosity of the emulsion
fuel and pure diesel under different operating temperatures. It can be seen that the viscosity of the emulsion fuel
is higher than that of pure diesel. At the same time, the viscosity of the emulsion fuel drops very fast with the
increase of temperature [8].
Fig. 4. Kinematic viscosity of the fuels under different operating temperature [8].
3. Engine Performance
The engine performance analysis has included the following features: torque, brake power, brake specific fuel
consumption, and brake thermal efficiency and finally the temperature of the outlet exhaust gas [9].
Different operational conditions were studied. And the characteristic behaviour of the engine performance
under various emulsions were recorded and analysed. The torque with a function of engine speed is plotted in
Fig. 4. From Fig. 4 it can be seen that at low revolution per minute (rpm), torque increases as engine speed
increase until it reaches a maximum value around 1400 rpm. Afterwards, as engine speed increases above 1400
rpm, the torque starts to decrease. This is due to engine being unable to ingest a full charge of air at high speeds.
Also Fig. 4 illustrates that as the percentage of water increases in the emulsion sample, the torque produced
increases. This may be attributed to the additional force on top of the piston provided by the pressure exerted by
the vapour from the emulsified liquid. When the charge is fired in the cylinder, the water would turn to high
pressure vapour. In addition, due to the higher viscosity of the emulsified fuel than that of the base fuel (pure
diesel), and the presence of water promote a finer cloud which promotes atomization of the emulsified mixture
during injection. This improves engine efficiency significantly [10].
Fig. 5. Engine torque versus engine speed

using water diesel emulsion [10].
440
Fig.6 Brake specific fuel consumption

versus engine speed [10].

Fig. 6 shows the variation of brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with engine speed considering the
emulsion (diesel+water) as total fuel. It shows that BSFC decreases as engine speed increases (at low speed),
and then it would reach a minimum and then increases at higher speeds. It is that as the water percentage in the
emulsion increases, the BSFC increases, this is because as the percentage of water in the emulsion increases, a
larger amount of diesel is displaced by an equal amount of water. This means that less diesel fuel is actually
contained within each volume of the emulsion. As the percentage of water in the emulsion increases, BSFC of
diesel decreases (i.e. diesel calorific value decrease). The minimum value occurs at a water percentage 30% by
volume. The reduction in BSFC with water emulsified diesel may be attributed to formation of a finer spray due
to rapid evaporation in the water, longer ignition delay results in more fuel burning in premixed combustion and
suppression of thermal dissociation due to lower cylinder average temperature[10].
Fig - 7. Variation of Ignition delay with brake power [9].

The Emulsified fuels have clear effect on combustion process. Fig. 7 shows variation of Ignition delay with
brake power. This is evident where the increase in water concentration in the emulsion produces a significant
increase in the ignition delay [9].
4. Exhaust Emission
Most studies reported that the formation of NOx is greatly reduced when using the W/D emulsion fuel . Some
studies found that the formation of NOx can be reduced by up to 50% . Fig. 8 shows NOx and HC emissions of
the engine fueled by emulsion fuel and pure diesel at full load . Park et al. stated that 20% of water in the
emulsion reduces the formation of NOx by 20%. Others reported that NOx is decreased by 30% by using 25% of
water in emulsion fuel . In addition, one study revealed that the reduction of NOx has a strong relation with the
increase in the water percentage . Many researchers agree that the reduction of NOx when using emulsion fuel is
because of the lower peak temperature of the flame during the combustion . The reduction of the temperature is
due to the high latent heat from the evaporation of water in the emulsion that absorbs the heat during the
combustion [4].
Fig. 8 NOx and HC emissions of the engine fueled by emulsion fuel and pure diesel at full load [8].
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Patel and Anand
Soot and PM is one of the major indicators of the combustion efficiency. Fig. 9 shows Particular matters
reduction by use of emulsion fuel. The less formation of these emissions the more efficient the combustion of
the tested fuel. From the various experimental results reported, the majority of the studies found that soot and
PM are reduced by using the W/D emulsion fuel [7].
Fig. 9 Particular matters reduction effect analysis [10].

5. Conclusion
From the reviews that were made, it can be concluded that:
1. Alternative fuels cover a broad range of fuels, some of which, including water-in-diesel emulsions are readily
available, while other types require further investigations, are produced in very limited amounts or require
specially designed, i.e., dedicated, engines. Even if the water-in-diesel emulsion fuel has only a limited effect
on the reduction of fossil CO2, it is still beneficial from an environmental point of view because it brings about
a reduction in the levels of both NOx and particulate matters (PM).
2.Thermal efficiency is increased by using the W/D emulsion fuel compared to neat diesel fuel. The majority of
the studies agreed that the improvement of the combustion efficiency is due to the increase of ignition delay
and the micro-explosion phenomena.
3. The engine torque, power and brake thermal efficiency increase as the water percentage by volume in the
emulsion increases.
4. The CO emission was found to be higher for all the emulsions, overall by about 29% to 51% than that of diesel
at full load.
5. Engine durability studies are required, as there may be a chance of clogging of the injector for long term
engine operation.
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Solving the Vendor Selection Problem

Using Fuzzy Topsis
Pravin Kumar and Rajesh Kumar Singh
Abstract- The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the vendor under fuzzy environment. Some of the
information and data available about the vendors may be vague and imprecise in nature. To deal with the
impreciseness in information available fuzzy TOPSIS for vendor evaluation has been used. Linear
Programming has been used along with Fuzzy TOPSIS to maximize the total value of purchase in quota
allocation process. The important criteria for vendor evaluation have been indentified and Fuzzy TOPSIS
technique has been used for vendor evaluation. Finding demonstrates that Fuzzy TOPSIS methodology may be
suitable for the vendor in the environment of uncertainty. This paper explores important criteria for vendor
evaluation and application of Fuzzy TOPSIS in vendor evaluation process.
Keywords- Vendor Selection, Fuzzy TOPSIS, Multi criteria Decision Making.
ntroduction In the recent years, supply chain management (SCM) has gained immense importance, since
enterprises are now competing on supply chain rather than manufacturing or service operations. Supply
chain management involves the flows of material, information and money in a network consisting of
customers, suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors. A well managed supply chain leads to cost reduction,
lead time reduction, on-time delivery and lower inventories. In supply a chain good coordination between
supplier and manufacturer is necessary.
Mostly the cost of raw materials and component parts constitutes the main cost of a product. In some cases it can
account for up to 70% (Ghodsypour & O'Brien, 1998). Goffin et al. [1] have stated that supplier management is
one of the key issues in supply chain management because the cost of raw materials and component parts
constitutes the main cost of a product and most of the firms have to spend considerable amount of their sales
revenues on purchasing. Therefore it becomes important to have efficient and reliable vendors which lead to
cost reduction and maximize the profit. Ghodsypour and O'Brien [2] have stated, selecting a good supplier
significantly reduce the purchasing cost and improve corporate competitiveness.
Global competitive environment continues to force many companies to make strategic changes in managing
their business. Most of manufacturers have been downsizing, concentrating on their core competencies,
moving away from vertical integration, and outsourcing more extensively [1]. In today's competitive operating
environment, it is impossible to successfully produce low-cost, high-quality products without full cooperation
of vendors [3]. Selection of appropriate vendor is one of the fundamental strategies for enhancing the quality of
output in an organization, which has direct influence on the company [4].
Pravin Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi,
e-Mail: pravin.papers@gmail.com
Rajesh Kumar Singh
Operations Management, Management Development Institute, Gurgaon, Haryana,
e-Mail: rksdce@yahoo.com
Tel: +91 98182273764
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Thus vendor selection and evaluation is important part of organizations strategic decisions. But vendor
selection is a complex and time-consuming process. Some time the information and data available may not
have the accuracy required it may be imprecise in nature. So, to deal with such kind of imprecise data Zadeh
developed fuzzy set theory, this can be used to deal the imprecise situations.
According to Fuzzy TOPSIS principle is that the chosen alternative should have the shortest distance from the
positive ideal solution and the farthest distance from negative ideal solution. Fuzzy Positive ideal solution
(FPIS) is a solution that maximizes the benefit criteria and minimizes cost criteria, whereas the Fuzzy negative
ideal solution (FPIN) maximizes the cost criteria and minimizes the benefit criteria.
In rest of the sections we have discussed Vendor selection methodology, numerical illustration, discussion and
conclusion.
2.1
Vendor Selection Criteria
Vendor selection decisions are an important component of supply chain management for many firms
[5]. The analysis of criteria for vendor evaluation has been the focus of many academicians and purchasing
practitioners since the 1960s [6].
In his study, Dickson [7] interviewed 273 purchasing agents and managers selected from membership
list of National Association of Purchasing Managers, and indentified 23 vendor evaluation criteria and their
importance rating. He concluded that critical factors for supplier selections are quality, on time delivery,
supplier performance history and warranties and claims got high ranking. Weber et al. [6] reviewed 74 articles
for vendor selection and observed that net price, delivery, quality; production facilities, technical capabilities,
reputation, financial position and performance history are mostly used criteria. They concluded that quality is
most important factor followed by delivery and cost. Wilson [8] found that quality and services are becoming
more important compared to price. This shifting is due to JIT and SCM philosophy.
Choi and Hartley [9] explored supplier selection criteria for auto industry. They used the criteria used
by Dickson [7] and Weber et al. [6], including some other criteria suggested by researchers. They used 26
criteria and grouped them in to 8 main factors. The eight factors are, Finance (financial condition, profitability
of supplier, financial record disclosures and performance awards), Consistency (conformance quality,
consistent delivery, quality philosophy and prompt response), Relationship (long term relationship, relation
closeness, communication openness and reputation), Flexibility (product volume changes, short setup time,
short delivery lead time and conflict resolutions), Technological capability (design capability and technical
capability), Services (after sale support and sale representative competences), Reliability (incremental
improvement and product reliability) and Price (low initial price). They found that cooperation and long term
relationship was most important for vendor selection.
Barbaresoglu and Yazagac [10] used performance, manfacturing capability and quality system for vendor
selection. They found that performance assessment is ranked highest followed by quality and capability
assessment.
Mandal and Deshmukh [11] used quality, delivery, production facility and capacity, price, financial position,
technical capability, management and organization, transport and communication connivances, after sale
service and attitude and willingness to support as a important criteria in Indian industry perspective. They
concluded that price, delivery and after-sales service are the top-level criteria. Quality, attitude and willingness
to do business are the second-level criteria. The remaining criteria are in the lower levels. Shlrouyehzad et al.
[4] considered service quality, price, delivery and rate of rejected parts as a vendor selection criteria and found
that vendor who have best service quality are not necessarily efficient.
Ho et al. [12] reviewed papers published between 2000 to 2008 on multi-criteria decision making
approaches for vendor selection and evaluation. They found that price or cost is not most widely adopted
criterion. They observed quality as the most popular criterion used for evaluating the performance of vendor,
followed by delivery, price or cost, manufacturing capability, service, management, technology, research and
development, finance, flexibility, reputation, relationship, risk, and safety and environment.
There are a number of criteria used for vendor selection, some of important criteria can be explained as:
Cost: The purchasing price is significant to decrease cost and to promote the competitiveness of products for
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enterprise. Therefore the purchasing price is an important consideration to the purchasing organization [13]. Ho
et al. [12] found that cost is third most important criteria used for vendor evaluation.
Quality: Quality is a critical concern for most enterprises. The need for high quality vendors has always been an
important issue for enterprises. The factors assessing quality mainly include systems, equipment for
manufacturing, products, process capability etc. Ho et al. [12] ranked quality a number one criteria reviewing
paper published between 2000- 2008.
Delivery: Along with quality, another factor that is considered a basic prerequisite for vendor selection is
punctual delivery. In the selection process, delivery performance has an important criterion [14]. Since
Dickson's [7] study conforming to quality specifications and meeting delivery deadlines remain the most
important supplier selection criteria. In a fundamental sense, these form the threshold criteria that buying firms
apply to all suppliers before they can be considered as strategic partners in the buyer-supplier relationship [9].
According to Choi and Hartley [9] they have emerged as order qualifiers to the extent that if suppliers cannot
demonstrate acceptable performance in these two areas, they will be dropped as potential candidates during the
screening phase itself. Ho et al. [12] found delivery as the second most important criteria for vendor evaluation.
Flexibility: Flexibility is one of the important objectives in operation strategy model [15] and is often seen as a
reaction to environmental uncertainty [16]. Flexibility is described as the ability of a manufacturing system to
cope with environmental uncertainties [17]. There are many ways to characterize supply chain flexibility, for
example, manufacturing flexibility and marketing flexibility [18]. In general, flexibility reflects an
organization's ability to effectively adapt or respond to changes that add value in the customer's eyes[19].
Financial Capability: A solid financial position helps ensure that performance standards and availability of
product and services [20]. A vendor on financially unstable footing will have much more difficulty contributing
to the partnership venture, as it must focus its efforts on improving its financial soundness. Hence, both
suppliers and buyers are becoming more mindful of the financial position of their potential partners in their
decision making [21].
Reputation: Reputation is defined as the perception of quality over time. There is definitely a notion of quality,
but it may be real today or may be perceived based on past quality or past experience. A positive reputation can
lead to trust and confidence development. Wilson [8] argues that reputation for performance become a
measure of trust when partner is untested. Similarly, Michel et al. [22] suggest that reputation is an element of
trust because it affects cognitive perception of quality.
2.2
Vendor Selection Methods
There a number of methods used for vendor selection. Boer et al. [23] presented a review of decision methods
reported in the literature for supporting the vendor selection process. They showed that several suitable
Operations Research methods such as data envelopment analysis, total cost of ownership approaches, linear
programming, linear weighting models, statistical methods and artificial intelligence.
Masella and Rangone [24] proposed the use of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to deal with
imprecision in supplier choice. Tahriri et al.[25] applied AHP approach for supplier selection and evaluation in
steel manufacturing company. Handfield et al. [26] proposed an AHP model that included relevant
environmental criteria in supplier selection decision.
Sarkis and Talluri [27] proposed the use of the Analytical Network Process (ANP), a more
sophisticated version of AHP, for supplier selection. Mandal and Deshmukh [11] applied Interpretive Structural
Modeling(ISM) technique for the supplier selection. It's main goal to indentify and summarize the relationship
among items and to form structural model of problem. Min[28] used multi attribute utility approach for
international supplier selection.
Karpak et al. [29] used goal programming to minimize costs and maximize quality and delivery
reliability when selecting suppliers and allocating orders among them. Weber and Desai [30] propose Data
Envelopment Analysis (DEA) for evaluation of vendors that were already selected. Rosenthal et al.[31]
developed a Mixed Integer Linear Program (MILP) that would find the purchasing strategy for the buyer to
minimize the total purchase cost, and the computational results was also presented on a personal computer with
standard optimization software.
Ghodsypour and O'Brien [32] used an integrated AHP and LP model for the vendor selection and order
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allocation problem. Degraeve and Roodhooft [33] develop a mathematical programming model that
minimises the total cost of ownership of the supplier choice and inventory management policy using activitybased costing information. Degraeve et al. [34] extend this methodology to the service sector in developing an
airline selection model for the procurement of business travel.
Tempelmeier [35] formulated MILP model for supplier selection and purchase order sizing for a single
item under dynamic demand conditions. Dahel [36] presented a multi-objective mixed integer programming
approach to simultaneously determine the number of vendors to employ and the order quantities to allocate to
these vendors in a multiple-product, multiple-supplier competitive sourcing environment.
Statistical models deal with the stochastic uncertainty related to the vendor choice. Tracey and Tan [37]
employed confirmatory factor analysis and path analysis to examine empirically the relationships among
supplier selection criteria, supplier involvement on design teams and in continuous improvement programs,
customer satisfaction, and overall firm performance.
Choy and Lee [38] presented an intelligent generic supplier management tool using the Case Based
Reasoning (CBR) technique for outsourcing to suppliers and automating the decision making process when
selecting them.
Wu et al. [39] presented a so-called augmented imprecise DEA for supplier selection. A web-based
system was developed to allow potential buyers for supplier evaluation and selection.
Ng [40] developed a weighted linear programming model for the supplier selection problem, with an
objective of maximizing the supplier score. Similar to AHP, it involves the decision makers in determining the
relative importance weightings of criteria.
Golmohammadi et al. [3] applied neural network model. The managers' judgments about suppliers
were simulated by using a pair-wise comparisons matrix for output estimation in the Neural Network (NN).
Genetic algorithm (GA) was applied for the initial weights and architecture of the network. Finally supplier is
selected.
Singh et al. [41] used fuzzy statistical approach for vendor selection in supply chain. In which
integration of standard score (z value) and linear programming is purposed in integrated form to select the best
vendors and placed optimum order quantity among them using fuzzy mathematical approach.
Kumar et al. [42] used fuzzy ELECTRE for green evaluation of the suppliers giving weights to the
green practices and the environmental management and control.
3. Rsearch Methodology
Vendor selection is multi-criteria decision making problem in which all the information available may not be
precise. To deal with impreciseness, fuzzy logic is used extensively. Fuzzy TOPSIS method used for vendors'
evaluation and LP is used for quota allocation. The ranking of vendors are incorporated in quota allocation
problem.
3.1 Fuzzy Logic
Fuzzy logic is a form of multi-valued logic derived from fuzzy set theory to deal with reasoning that is
approximate rather than precise. Most real world decision problems take place in a complex environment
conflicting systems of logic, uncertain and imprecise knowledge, and possibly vague preferences have to be
considered. To face such complexity, the use of specific tools, techniques, and concepts which allow the
available information to be represented with the appropriate granularity is believed as crucial. Particularly,
fuzzy set theory can ideally cope with this kind of problems.
Fuzzy Numbers: Fuzzy numbers are the special classes of fuzzy quantities. A fuzzy number M represents a
generalization of a real number. A fuzzy number M is a convex normalized fuzzy set. A fuzzy number is
characterized by a given interval of real numbers, each with a grade of membership between 0 and 1 [43]. A
Triangular Fuzzy Number (TFN)
M= (l, m, u) is shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 3.1: A Triangular fuzzy number, M

Triangular fuzzy numbers are defined by three real numbers, expressed as (l, m, u). The parameters l, m, and u,
respectively, indicate the smallest possible value, the most promising value, and the largest possible value that
describe a fuzzy event. Their membership functions are described as;Triangular fuzzy numbers are defined by
three real numbers, expressed as (l, m, u). The parameters l, m, and u, respectively, indicate the smallest possible
value, the most promising value, and the largest possible value that describe a fuzzy event. Their membership
functions are described as;
(1)
In applications it is convenient to work with TFNs because of their computational simplicity, and they are useful
in promoting representation and information processing in a fuzzy environment.
Mathematical Operations on TFNs: Although we are familiar with algebraic operations with crisp numbers,
when we want to use fuzzy sets in applications, we have to deal with fuzzy numbers. We can define various
operations on TFNs. But in this section, important operations used in this study are illustrated. If we define, two
TFNs A and B by the triplets A= (la, ma, ua) and B= (lb, mb, ub). Then
Addition:
A+B= (la+ lb, ma+ mb, ua+ ub)
(2)
Subtraction:
A-B= (lalb, ma - mb, ua - ub)
(3)
Multiplication:
A.B = (la, ma, ua).(lb, mb, ub)
= (lalb, mamb, uaub)
(4)
Division:
(5)
Inverse:
(la, ma, ua)-1=(1/ua, 1/ma, 1/la)
(6)
Distance B/W Two triangular Fuzzy numbers: Distance between two triangular fuzzy numbers A (la, ma, ua ) and
B (l b,mb ,ub) can be calculated as follows:
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Distance between two fuzzy numbers is crisp in nature

3.2
TOPSIS
The TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) method was firstly proposed by
Hwang and Yoon [44]. It is very effective in multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM). The basic concept of this
method is that the chosen alternative should have the shortest distance from the positive ideal solution and the
farthest distance from negative ideal solution. Positive ideal solution is a solution that maximizes the benefit
criteria and minimizes cost criteria, whereas the negative ideal solution maximizes the cost criteria and
minimizes the benefit criteria.
The TOPSIS method assumes that each criterion has a tendency of monotonically increasing or decreasing
utility. Therefore, it is easy to define the ideal and negative ideal solutions. The Euclidean distance approach
was proposed to evaluate the relative closeness of the alternatives to the ideal solution. Thus, the preference
order of the alternatives can be derived by a series of comparison of these relative distances.
Fuzzy TOPSIS: In the classical TOPSIS method, the weights of the criteria and the ratings of alternatives are
known precisely and crisp values are used in the evaluation process. However, under many conditions crisp data
are inadequate to model real-life decision problems. Therefore, the fuzzy TOPSIS method is proposed where
the weights of criteria and ratings of alternatives are evaluated by linguistic variables represented by fuzzy
numbers to deal with the deficiency in the traditional TOPSIS.
The TOPSIS method is a linear weighting technique, which was first proposed, in its crisp version by Chen and
Hwang [45], with reference to Hwang and Yoon [44]). Since then, this method has been widely adopted to solve
MCDM problems in many different fields, ranging from robot design [46] to materials selection [47], from the
evaluation of performance of competitive companies [48], to the assessment of service quality in airline
industry [49].
There are many applications of fuzzy TOPSIS in the literature. For instance,Yong [50] used fuzzy TOPSIS
method for plant location selection. Wang and Elhag [51] proposed a fuzzy TOPSIS method based on alpha
level sets and presented a nonlinear programming solution procedure for bridge risk assessment. Wang and
Chang [52] developed an evaluation approach based on the fuzzy TOPSIS to help the Air Force Academy in
Taiwan to choose initial training aircraft. Wang and Lee [53] generalized TOPSIS to fuzzy multiple-criteria
group decision-making in a fuzzy environment. They proposed two operators Up and Low that are employed to
find ideal and negative ideal solutions.
Semih et.al [54] used a combined model of fuzzy AHP and fuzzy TOPSIS model for selecting shopping centre
site in Istanbul. Sun and Lin [55] used fuzzy TOPSIS method for evaluating the competitive advantage
shopping websites and selecting the best alternate based on 12 different criteria.
In this paper, the extension of TOPSIS method is considered which was proposed by Chen [56] and Chen and
Hwang [57] the algorithm of this method can be described as follows:
Step 1: First of all a team of decision-makers team has been formed having 'k' decision makers are asked to rate
the vendors against the criteria on linguistic scale. The linguistic rating is converted in to numerical scale using
Table 1
Table 1: Linguistic variable for importance of weight of each criterion
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Step 2: Then evaluation criteria are determined.
Step 3: After that, appropriate linguistic variables are chosen for evaluating criteria and alternatives.
Step 4: Then the weight of criteria and performance rating of each vendors (as in decision making unit, DMU)
are averaged as shown below
(8)
(9)
Where wj is fuzzy weight of criteria j wij is the fuzzy rating of vendor 'i' with respect to criteria 'j' wj and xij are
average fuzzy weight of criteria and performance rating of ith vendors against jth criteria respectively.
1.
Step 5: Construct the fuzzy decision matrix with m alternatives, n criteria and k decision makers
Where D represent fuzzy decision matrix with alternative Ai and criteria Cj , xij (triangular fuzzy no.)
represents judgment given by 'k' no. of experts.
i=1, 2..m,
j=1, 2n
Step 6: Normalize the decision matrix
The aim of normalization is twofold: on the one hand, normalization is necessary to compare heterogeneous
criteria, on the other, normalization ensures that triangular fuzzy numbers all range within the interval [0, 1].In
the normalization process, different equations have to be applied to benefit criteria and to cost criteria. The
following formulae are used respectively:
(10)
(11)
Where B represents benefit criteria and C represents cost criteria

The normalization of fuzzy decision matrix is denoted by R shown as the following formula
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R=
[rij] m*n
,
i = 1; 2; . . . ; m; j = 1; 2; . . . ; n
Where rij element of normalized decision matrix, i represents the alternative and j represents the criteria.
~
Step 7: Considering the weight for each criterion, the weighted normalized decision matrix is computed by
multiplying the importance weights of evaluation criteria and the values in the normalized fuzzy decision
matrix. The weighted normalized decision matrix V is defined as:
i= 1,2......m; j= 1,2.......n
(12)
(13)
In this matrix, each element vij is a fuzzy normalized number which ranges within the interval [0, 1].
Step 8: This step is aimed at determining the fuzzy positive ideal solution A+ and the fuzzy negative ideal
~
solution A-.We know that after normalization each element V ij of fuzzy weight normalized matrix is in the
rang [0,1]. Then we can define fuzzy positive ideal solution A+ and the fuzzy negative ideal solution A- by
following formula:A+ = (v1+; v2+........vn+)
where j= 1,.,n, is the no. of criteria (13)
A- = (v1- ;v2-...........vn-)
(14)
+
Where vj = max of vij for B and min of for vj+=min of vij for C
vij =min of vij for B and vj max of vij for C
Step 9: In this step, the n-dimensional separation distances of each alternative i =1,. . . m to the fuzzy positive
ideal solution A+ and to the fuzzy negative ideal solution A - are computed.
(15)
(16)
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(17)
Ci is closeness index
7. Numerical Illustration
In order to demonstrate the use of fuzzy TOPSIS methodology in vendors' selection an industrial case has been
discussed in this paper. Two wheelers manufacturing company ABC located in India is considered as case
company. The company is leader in supplying auto component to various auto manufacturing companies. Its
present employee strength is 850 (approx). It makes production for both domestic as well as international
market.
The company needs to select vendor for disk brakes for a model of a vehicle. There are a large number of
vendors who supplies disk brakes, so company wants to evaluate best suited vendors for its operation. Company
management believes that consideration of some key criteria in vendor evaluation will increase its efficiency
and reduce the cost. But due to limited capacity of the single vendor can't fulfill all the demand of company.
After preliminary screening five vendors are selected for further analysis .Now Company has to evaluate these
five shortlisted vendors. For confidentiality we will name those companies as A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5.
A panel of experts as decision-makers is formed. These experts were concerned with purchasing activities.The
panel of expert was instructed about the fundamentals of approximate reasoning, fuzzy logic, and the TOPSIS
methodology to be adopted. Specifically, the panel acknowledge about the efficacy of the results provided by
TOPSIS in terms of relative distances from positive and negative ideal solutions. The project team agreed that
the selection criteria to be used were those illustrated in the The vendor selection criteria paragraph. First of
all, linguistic scales were set to assess both the relative importance of criteria and the performance of each
candidate for each criterion. The scales and related fuzzy triangular numbers are shown in Table 1 and 2
respectively.
Table 2: Fuzzy rating of vendors
The three Decision Makers (DM) were then separately asked to judge the importance of each selection
criterion. Weights given by each DM, together with pooled fuzzy values are summarized in Table 3 and Table 4
The same panel was separately asked to express verbal opinions about candidate performance against each
selection criterion. The results are shown in Table 6. The aggregate weight of criteria rating is calculated.
Step 1: In the first step, a panel of three experts from the case company was selected considering long
experience and important role in management of company. They are denoted here D1, D2 and D3 respectively.
Step 2: The important criteria used for vendor evaluation are indentified based on literature. The six important
criteria used are
=
Cost
=
Quality
=
Delivery
=
Flexibility
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Financial capability
Reputation
They are denoted by C1, C2, C3, C4, C4, C5 and C6 respectively.
Step 3: Three decision makers asked to weight the criteria according to the provided linguistic variable as per
Table 1.
Step 4: The weight of criteria and performance rating of each vendors are aggregated using equations 8 and 9
respectively. The result is shown in Table 4 and Table 5 respectively
=
=
Table 3: Fuzzy weight importance given by three decision makers
Step 5: Normalizing the fuzzy decision matrix according to equation (10) and (11) for benefit and cost functions
in criteria, the normalized decision matrix is given in Table 6.
Step 6: Incorporating the different weight of each criterion, the weighted normalized decision matrix is
computed by multiplying the importance vendor rating of evaluation criteria and the values in the normalized
fuzzy decision matrix respectively. This is shown in Table 7.
Table 4: Aggregated fuzzy weights for criteria
Table 5: Aggregated rating of vendors (fuzzy decision matrix)
Table 6: Normalized decision matrix
Table 7: Weighted normalized fuzzy decision matrix
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Step 7: This step is aimed at determining the fuzzy positive ideal solution A+ and the fuzzy negative ideal
solution A-. The value of normalized fuzzy decision matrix is in the range within the interval [0, 1].which is 1 for
positive ideal situation and 0 for negative ideal situation. This is
A+= [(1, 1, 1)] for B, [(0, 0, 0)] for C
A- = [(0, 0, 0)] for B, [(1, 1, 1)] for C
Where B is benefit and C is cost criteria
Step 8: In this step, the n-dimensional separation distances of each alternative i =1, . . . , m to the fuzzy Positive
Ideal Solution di+ and to the fuzzy Negative Ideal Solution di- are computed according to equation (15) and (16),
shown in Table 8.
Step 9: In this step each alternatives closeness index is calculated by following formula
The optimal alternative have value closeness index closer to 1. According to the closeness coefficient, the
ranking of the alternatives can be determined as shown in Table 8.
Table 8: Closeness coefficient and ranking
Now vendors are rated according to value of closeness coefficient. In table 5.10 vendor A2 has value of
closeness coefficient much nearer to 1, so it is ranked first while the value of closeness coefficient for A1 is
farthest from 1, so it is ranked last. In this way all other vendors also ranked according to value of their closeness
coefficients.
Now from Table10 we can see that vendor A2 is ranked 1st while vendor A1 is ranked 5th. As per fuzzy TOPSIS
methodology the vendor having value of closeness coefficient nearest to 1 is ranked 1 while vendor having
closeness coefficient farthest from 1 is ranked as fifth. In table 10 value of closeness coefficient of A2 is 0.442,
which is highest, so vendor is ranked 1st while A1 have value 0.387 which is lowest, so it ranked last. In this way
all other vendors also ranked according to their closeness coefficient.
9. Conclusion:
Vendor selection is a fuzzy multi criteria decision making problem. To make decision in uncertain condition use
of Fuzzy TOPSIS methodology has been demonstrated to evaluate and rank the vendors. In a decision making
process, the use of linguistic variables in decision problems is highly beneficial when performance values
cannot be expressed in crisp terms.
In this paper, some of the important criteria for vendor evaluation are indentified namely, cost, quality, delivery,
flexibility, financial capability and reputation. Fuzzy weights for criteria and performance rating of alternative
is done on the basis of linguistic variable as done in fuzzy problems. Then fuzzy TOPSIS methodology has been
applied to select best alternative and rank the various alternatives. Fuzzy TOPSIS method is very flexible. The
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closeness coefficients not only rank the alternatives but also give the assessment status of all the possible
suppliers. Significantly, the proposed method provides objective information for supplier selection and
evaluation in a supply chain system.
The systematic framework for supplier selection in a fuzzy environment presented in this work can be easily
extended to the analysis of other management decision problems. However, improving the approach for solving
supplier selection problems more efficiently and developing a group decision support system in a fuzzy
environment can be considered as a topic for future research.
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[1]
Goffin, K., Szwejczewski, M. and New, C. (1997), Managing suppliers: when fewer can mean more,
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[2]
Ghodsypour, S.H. and O'Brien, C. (2001), The total cost of logistics in supplier selection, under
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[3]
Golmohammadi, D., Creese, C.R., Valian, H. and Kolassa, J. (2009), Supplier selection based on
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Shlrouyehzad, H., Hossieinzadeh, F. and Dabestani, R. (2009), A date envelopment analysis approach
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Sustainable Manufacturing System:

Literature Review
Prashant Kumar Singh and Saurabh Agrawal
Abstract- This paper review the papers publish in various journals and conferences on the topic sustainable
manufacturing system between the years January 2000 to December 2015. The literature review of these
papers serves the various goals. First it focuses on the work that has been done on the sustainable manufacturing
system during these recent years or the advancement that has been done in this field. Secondly it will helpful to
the researcher who wishes to work further on this topic or wishes to know the types of problems has arisen and
the how these problems has been resolved in the area of sustainable manufacturing system. Thirdly, this article
has focus in the areas sustainability related to health, energy, ecosystem, waste, recycle and sustainable
development. This analysis through this article will help the researcher to find the existing gap on this issue and
outline the future direction for the researchers through this review analysis. Total 150 papers published were
selected, categorised and analyse and gap in the work been identified to suggest for future analysis. The
research will be helpful for researchers, academicians and practitioners for better understanding in the field of
sustainable manufacturing system
Keywords- Sustainability; life cycle assessment; sustainable manufacturing.
ntroduction It is the time when sustainable manufacturing issues are under the attention of many
researchers, academicians and industrialist and several researches has been published to tackle the
problems related to sustainability .
According to WECD(1978)[1] defines sustainability as Development that meets the needs of the present
without Compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. U.S. Department of
Commerce defines Sustainable Manufacturing as the creation of manufactured products that use processes
that minimise negative environmental impacts, conserve energy and natural resources, are safe for employees,
communities, and consumers and are economically sound. From the above definition it is possible to
understand the meaning of sustainability and the importance of sustainable manufacturing to achieve the
sustainable manufacturing goals ie . social, economic and environmental sustainability. Sustainability for any
manufacturing is an important part as it lead to manufacturing of sustainable products, minimise the use of
resources, energy, reduce waste and reduce the health concerning issue.
With the growing competition in manufacturing the concern of sustainable manufacturing has become the
more important criteria which attempt many researcher and industrialist to focus upon sustainable
manufacturing.
This paper focus over the issues and question that have arisen during these years through review analysis.
Prashant Kumar Singh
Department of Mechanical, Production & Industrial Engineering, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi-110042
mr.prashant906@gmail.com,
1
Saurabh Agrawal
Department of Mechanical, Production & Industrial Engineering, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi-110042
agrawals.iit@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Singh and Agrawal
That will help researcher to analysis the research gap and identified the suggestion for future analysis.
Research Methodology
The valid approach for reviewing and framing a research area is thoroughly review the literature review
(Easterby-Smith).[2]. The basic conceptual components of research area are basically identified through
literature review(Meredith) [3] that also guides toward the theory development.
The papers review in this article has been selected form the journals and conference conducted. The papers are
reviewed in this article has been selected as follow. First the papers to be reviewed were selected from January
2000 to December 2015. Basic scholarly search engine 'google scholars' and 'Scopus' were used. First the
keywords 'sustainability', 'life cycle assessment' and 'sustainable manufacturing' were used to search the papers.
About 150 papers published from various journals and conferences were reviewed.
Further the literature review was restricted to the topics listed below.
(1) Sustainable manufacturing.
(2) Life cycle assessment
Finally, 64 papers were identified for review. A classification scheme was developed on the base of content of
surveyed papers. The main classification criterion was the area of application. Based on the area of application
they have been classified as
(1) Energy
(2) Manufacturing
(3) Recycling of waste and reuse.
(4) Sustainable development
3. Application Areas
A wide range of topics are covered for sustainable manufacturing , so it is difficult to provide the detail review
of all the papers. Therefor short summery of all the papers under each category is summarised in this paper.
3.1 Energy.
Energy is the critical element for any sustainable manufacturing. The issue of energy waste and conservation
has been addressed in one or the other ways. The papers reviewed under this category mainly focus on the
energy policies, conservation of energy, optimisation and effective use of resources.
Various categories under this topic are as given below.
(1) Energy diversification.
(2) Renewable energy policies.
(3) Energy management systems.
(4) Optimal energy mixture.
Various types of energy source are also covered in this paper such as biofuel, wind, solar, fossil, and hybrid
systems. Also the energy issued raised at nation level has been investigated using simulated tools(Aslani
2014[4], Barisa 2015[5], Franco 2015[6], Jager 2009[7], Qudrat-Ullah 2013[8], Robalino-Lopez 2014[9]).
Traditional method Life Cycle Assessment(LCA)( Davis 2009, Miller 2012)[40] has been discussed.
3.2
Manufacturing.
The US Department of Commerce defines sustainable manufacturing as "the creation of manufactured
products that use processes that minimize negative environmental impacts, conserve energy and natural
resources, are safe for employees, communities, and consumers and are economically sound." (Department of
Commerce, 2015) [10]. Issue in achieving sustainable manufacturing goals has been achieved by simulation
modelling. Limitation of Life cycle assessment (LCA) has also help in achieving the sustainable manufacturing
goals (Andersson 2012[11], Harun 2011[12], Johansson 2009[13], Lee 2012[14], Lindskog 2011[15], Mani
2013[16], Paju 2010[17], Sproedt 2015[18], Stasinopoulos 2012[19]). Optimisation and reducing waste of
energy, reducing green house emission during manufacturing and reducing material waste has been
460
Sustainable Manufacturing System: Literature Review

investigated using simulation models (van Beukering 2001[20], Lindskog 2011[15], Solding 2006[21],
Sproedt 2015[18]) .Social needs during manufacturing has been achieved using other dimension(Ajimotokan
2011[22], Lee 2012[14]).
Rather than individual sustainable manufacturing government is also focussing on sustainable manufacturing
(Dong 2012)[23]. Beside other categories this category contain the maximum number of papers as this is the
main concern of researcher and industrialist.
3.3 Recycling of waste and reuse.
Recycling of waste and reuse is important concern of any manufacturing industry. Sustainability of
manufacturing system can be effectively achieved through recycling of waste and reuse of the products.
However, these activities require a lot of effort for recycling and reuse since it involve the public acceptance,
government involvement, subsidy policies and many others. Various simulation models have been develop to
tackle various type of waste as given in table below:
3.4
Sustainable Development.
With the development of industries , their activities are planned for sustainability. The interrelated issue with
the three dimension of sustainability (social, economic and environmental) has been investigated in this paper.
This paper addressed sustainable development national level (Bockermann 2005[30], Moffatt 2001[31]).
groups of firms (Liu 2012[32], Romero 2014[33], Xu 2014[34]) or individual level (Duran-Encalada 2012[35],
Nikolaou 2015[36], Okada 2011[37]). Economic, environmental and other factor such as employment levels
are greatly influenced by corporate behaviour and policies (Bockermann 2005[30], Duran-Encalada 2012[35],
Liu 2012[37], Nikolaou 2015[36], Okada 2011[37].
Analysis.
The number of publication on sustainability has been increasing. The number of publication and trend in
increase has been shown in the fig below.
Figure1. Total publication.

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Figure2.number of publication category wise.

The papers published in various categories are distributed in terms of percentage. Energy constitute about 16%
of the total, whereas manufacturing constitute the maximum percentage of papers published ie 50%. On the
other hand sustainable development cover only 9% and recycle and reuse 7%.
Figure3. Percentage distribution category wise.

Figure3. Percentage distribution category wise.
462
5. Discussion and Conclusion

This literature review covers a brief literature of many areas of application and the question that has risen so far.
The effective way of addressing the various aspects could be made possible through simulating modelling.
Many countries are working on the aspect of sustainable manufacturing. Since it is concern with social,
economic and environmental sustainability, so this literature review deepens and widens the research for the
research scholars and the industrialist who are looking forward for sustainable manufacturing system.
As the distribution of papers surveyed investigate that the sustainable manufacturing is the main topic of
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concern than the other areas of sustainability. There are many papers that address more than one category
particularly in the application area. However each paper was assigned each category based on the weighted
more in the paper.
This literature review not only presents the present scenario but also frame guideline for future research.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Design of Gear Train for Speed Magnification

using the Cumulative Effect of Compounded
Sun-Planet Gear Train
Sameen Mustafa and Ateeb Ahmad Khan
Abstract- Designing a system in order to get high velocity ratios in gear trains has been a complex process since
long time for design engineers. In this paper, this problem is solved and the authors are presenting the design of a
gear train to get high velocity ratio which is further increased by compounding the developed design. The high
velocity ratio is achieved by applying the concept of Sun-Planet gearing system. Authors have obtained a
cumulative effect of speed of two gears on a single pinion, the driving gears being large and the pinion being
small. The placement of two diametrically opposite gears for driving a single pinion generates a couple which
doubles the velocity ratio transmitted to the pinion. Hence the resultant velocity ratio (ratio of output shaft speed
to input shaft speed) increases as compared to a simple pair of two meshinggears.
Keywords- Velocity Ratio; gear train; gear; pinion; Sun-Planet gearing system.
ntroduction The Sun-Planet gearing system (Fig.1) consists of an array of gears arranged in such a way
that the sun gear (driver) transmits equal motion (speed) to the planet gears (driven). This system increases
the speed of the planet gears in equal proportions, but obtaining high velocity ratio in this case is difficult.
In this research work, authors have reversed the role of the sun and the planets in the gearing system used.
Authors have used two planet gears of large pitch diameter to drive the sun gear of small diameter (layout shown
in Fig.2); such that the velocity ratio imparted to the sun is twice that of a single pair of gear and pinion.
Considerable amount of research work has been carried out to obtain good velocity ratios in gear trains. Jose M.
del Castillo [2] presented two procedures for finding efficiency of a PGT. They presented that the analytical
expression for the efficiency could be expressed in terms of the output speed ratio and the virtual gear teeth
ratio. They concluded that by knowing the output speed ratio one can determine efficiency of the PGT.
G Mantriota [1] carried out a kinetic study on a PS-CVT system to obtain output power larger than that
circulating in the CVT. They proposed a solution to allow an input power in the CVT less than that of the output
power of the PS-CVT. It was concluded that it is possible to improve the 1efficiency of the high transmission
ratios compared with the simple CVT. Thus they provided a solution for applications having an elevated
transmission ratio.
Sameen Mustafa
1
Department of Mechanical Engg., Faculty of Engg & Tech., Aligarh Muslim University,
Student, C-10 Medical Colony AMU,
sameenmustafa4@gmail.com,
Ateeb Ahmad Khan
Department of Mechanical Engg., Faculty of Engg & Tech., Aligarh Muslim University,
Asst. Professor, A-14 Medical Colony AMU ,
khanateebahmad@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
467
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Mustafa and Khan
D. Mundo [3] investigated the mechanical configuration of a typical planetary drive. They determined the gear
ratio law for four possible configurations of a planetary drive considering a single degree of freedom
mechanism. They presented a planetary gear train with non circular gears as a mechanism for riding bicycles. It
was concluded that the device can improve the cyclist's performance for a low speed way of pedalling.
D C. Talbot et. al [4] presented a database of mechanical and spin power losses in a planetary gear set and
lubricant. They showed that changing the number of planets of a planetary gear set is not a feasible way of
changing the gear set efficiency. It was also proved that gear sets having smoother tooth surfaces provided
reduced mechanical powerloss.
Tianli Xie et. al [5] presented a methodology for design of seven speed PGTs, which was used to the serial
design of PGT products which could spread over a wide range starting from passenger vehicles to the
militaryvehicles.
Fuchun Yang et. al [6] studied a method based on hypergraph and matrix operations for estimation of velocity,
torque and power flow analyses of MFPGT systems. They proved that these methods were feasible and efficient
for those analyses. They also showed that partial shafts might bear self locking when the efficiency of the
system is positive and that the characteristic parameters of SPGTs could affect the efficiency of the
gearingsystem.
2. Experimental Setup and Working
The experimental setup consists of a total of two spur gear trains (having three gears each) arranged in parallel
(Fig. 3). The setup comprises of the following:
Figure 2: Layout showing the concept used

in this work.
Figure 1: A typical Sun-Planet gear
Figure 3: Schematic diagram showing the design of the compounded gearing system.
468
Design of Gear Train for Speed Magnification....
train comprising of a gearof32 pitch diameter and two pinions of 4 diameters represented by G1 and
G2 respectively.
2nd train comprising of two pinions of 28 pitch diameters and a gear of 8 diameter represented by G3
and G4 respectively.
Velocity Ratio achieved in the 1st gear train is 8:1 such that each of the planet gears rotate with eight times the
speed of the sun. The pinions from the 1st gear train transmit the same speed to the gears of the 2nd train; each
planet gear in this train imparts the VR of 3.5:1 to the pinion, as a result of which a cumulative VR of 7:1 (3.5*2)
is obtained. Thus at the end of the gearing system a high speed is provided to the countershaft which 56 times
greater than the speed of the input shaft.
3. Formula and Symbols Used
d1= pitch diameter of gear
d2= pitch diameter of pinion
N1= speed of gear in rpm
N2= speed of pinion in rpm
VR= velocity ratio
4.
Results and Discussions
Experimental tests were performed at an input speed of 2rpm. The velocity ratios obtained for each pair of
meshing gear is shown in Table 1. The two planet gears (G2) rotate with a speed of 16rpm which is transmitted
by means of shafts to the two G4 gears. These gears now drive the sun gear (G3) at a speed of 112rpm. It can be
seen from the results obtained that the output speed has been magnified considerably in two steps only. Fig.4
shows that unlike the traditional processes of procuring good velocity ratios in gear trains, our
experimental procedure increases the output speed exponentially. Hence the complexity in compounding gear
trains to achieve the same velocity ratio can be wiped out using this configuration of gears. It can be observed
from Fig.5 that the velocity ratios obtained by the compounded sun-planet gearing system are excellent as
compared to that of a normal gear train.
Table 1: table showing gears and their VRs
Table 2: Comparison between normal gear

train and designed gear train
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Figure 4: Speed vs. Gear Used
Mustafa and Khan
Figure 5: Compounded VR vs. Normal VR
5. Conclusion
The developed design of the gearing system presented in this paper to achieve high velocity ratio is an
efficacious design whose effect is magnified substantially by compounding. This research shows that with the
two step compounding, authors have acheived a velocity ratio of as high as 56:1. The compounding stages can
further be increased to get even higher velocity ratio, if required.
Future aspect: With this developed design of compounded sun-planet gearing system the posibilities of
obtaining high speeds are endless if the judicious compounding of the sun-planet gearing system is maintained.
Velocity ratio of about 1600:1 is achievable in only two steps of compounding the designed gear train. Thus
even if the input speed is 1rpm, the output speed will be sufficient to drive alternators and generators, pump
water to greater heights and drive flour mills and other useful equipments in urban areas. Hence the scope of this
design is vast and its applications are numerous.
References
[1]
G Mantriota, Power split continuously variable transmission systems with high efficiency, Proc Instn
Mech Engrs, 2000, Vol. 215 Part D.
[2]
Jose M. del Castillo, The analytical expression of the efficiency of planetary gear trains, Mechanism and
Machine Theory, 2001, vol. 36, pp. 197-214.
[3]
D. Mundo, Geometric design of a planetary gear train with non-circular gears, Mechanism and
Machine Theory, 2005, vol. 41, pp. 456-472.
[4]
D C. Talbot, A Kahraman, A Singh, An Experimental Investigation of the Efficiency of Planetary Gear
Sets, Journal of Mechanical Design, 2012, vol. 134, DOI:10.1115/1.4005599.
[5]
Tianli Xie, J Hu, Z Peng and C Liu, Synthesis of seven-speed planetary gear trains for heavy-duty
commercial vehicles, Mechanism and Machine Theory, 2014, vol. 90, pp. 230-239.
[6]
Fuchun Yang, J Feng and H Zhang, Power flow and efficiency analysis of multi-flow planetary gear
trains, Mechanism and Machine Theory, 2015, vol. 92, pp.86-89.
470
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Development of Polynomials for the

Thermodynamic Properties of
Refrigerant R-134a.
Aseem Dubey
Abstract- The polynomials have been developed to evaluate the thermodynamic properties of Refrigerant R134a. They are more accurate, simple and computationally faster. The accuracy of the calculated results
obtained are within the admissibility with deviation between 0.01% to 0.6% and found to be much closer as
compared with source data (experimental) for a given temperature range of temperature ( i.e. 40o C to 50o C),
reported in publications. This level of accuracy of the properties, evaluated from the developed equations may
be used in various applications, such as dynamic simulations of performance of refrigeration systems, capillary
tube design etc.
Keywords: Thermodynamic Properties, Polynomials, Refrigerant R-134a
ntroduction The use of refrigerant R-134a in refrigerating equipment fully abides by the rules of the
Montreal Protocol, which puts the restriction on the use of ozone distorting chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs).
There are a number of possible substitute fluids that contain one or more hydrogen atoms and as a result,
have shorter atmospheric lifetimes than the CFCs. In particular, R-134a is found to be as a replacement of
refrigerant R-12 due to low ozone depletion potential.
With the development of new refrigerants there is a need to develop correlations in the form of curve - fits
polynomials for new refrigerants. A difficulty in this is that the measurement of thermodynamic properties of
these refrigerants proposed by various researchers is far from complete agreement. Experimental values are
proposed [1, 2, 3] which differs from each other. Measurements and formulation of thermodynamic properties
[4] has also being carried out by many researchers. Cleland [5] has developed polynomial curve - fits for R134a. Hou et al. [6] carried out experimental study of density and viscosity of compressed R-134a. Shankland et
al. has researched the Thermal conductivity and viscosity of new stratospherically safe Refrigerant R-134a.
In order to use the thermodynamic properties of R134a for various applications such as, dynamic simulations of
performance of refrigeration systems, capillary tube design etc. polynomials have been developed. The
proposed polynomials are simpler and computationally fast to evaluate thermodynamic properties of
Refrigerant R-134a in liquid and vapor phase, with a reasonable accuracy 0.6%, which is helpful to carry out
many research activities related to dynamic simulation of refrigeration system. The properties thus obtained
have been compared with experimental values [4, 6, 7] and standard values published by SRF Ltd. for a
temperature range 40oC to 50oC which is normally encountered in practice for practical applications. The main
requirements of these polynomials are to calculate;
Aseem Dubey
Krishna Institute of Engineering and Technology, Ghaziabad, UP, India
Email ID- aseemdubey009@gmail.com
Mobile- +918585909217
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
471
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a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
I.
j.
Aseem Dubey
Vapor pressure from saturation temperature.

Liquid density from saturation temperature.
Vapor density from saturation temperature.
Liquid enthalpy from saturation temperature.
Vapor enthalpy from saturation temperature.
Liquid entropy from saturation temperature.
Vapor entropy from saturation temperature.
Liquid viscosity from saturation temperature.
Vapor viscosity from saturation temperature.
Specific heat of vapor at constant pressure against temperature.
2. Statistical Analysis
The polynomial equations can be fitted between various pairs of variables to study the thermodynamic
properties with the help of experimental data and using the method of least squares. In general the equation of
the curve can be represented by a polynomial equation of order 'p' between the variables E an T as follows:
E = a + bT + CT 2 + - - nT p (1)
Where a, b n are constants
To determine the value of these constants the equation is to be differentiated partially w.rt. a, b , n so as to
minimize the sum of the squares due to error. This yields the following equations:
E
=
Na + bT + cT2 + dT3
E
=
aT + bT2 + cT3 + dT4
T2E
=
aT2 + bT3 + cT4 + dT5
3
TE
=
aT3 + bT4 + cT5 + dT6
Where
N = Number of paired observations
3. Properties Correlations
With the help of mathematical analysis a computer program in MAT-Lab has been developed to obtain the
correlation of following thermodynamic properties.
3.1 Vapor Pressure
The pressure of vapor is dependent on saturation temperature. The polynomial curve - fits are as
follows;
P = a1 + a2 Tsat + a3 T2sat + a4 T3sat
(2)
o
The temperature range of the applicability of this polynomial is 40oC Tsat 60 C. Across this range the
difference occurs from 0.002% to 0.6% as compared with source data.
3.2 Liquid Density

The polynomial curve - fits to calculate liquid density at a given temperature (Tf) is expressed as;
2
3
(3)
f = b1 + b2 Tf + b3 Tf + b4 Tf
The temperature range of the applicability of this curve - fits is 40o C Tf 60o C. Across the full range of
applicability the largest difference of liquid density occurs 0.60% at 30o C. However, this difference is narrowed
down to 0.002% for other temperature as compared with source data.
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Development of Polynomials for the Thermodynamic.....

3.3 Vapor Density
The saturated vapor densities of refrigerant are fits in the following form
lng = c1 + c2 Tsat + c3 Tsat2 + c4 Tsat3 (4)
The temperature range of the applicability of this curve fits is 40o C Tsat 50o C. Across the full range of
applicability the largest difference occurs from 0.01% to 0.35% for other temperature as compared with source
data.
3.4 Liquid Enthalpy
The enthalpy of liquid refrigerant is virtually independent of the pressure over it. The curve - fit Polynomial for
liquid enthalpy at a given temperature (Tf) and using ASHRAE Reference condition is given as follows:
hf = d1 + d2 Tf + d3 Tf2
(5)
The temperature range of the applicability of this curve - fits is 40o C Tf 60o C. Across the full range of
applicability the highest difference occur 0.52% at 30o C. For other temperature range the largest difference
occurs upto 0.01% as compared with source data.
3.5 Vapor Enthalpy
A second order polynomial is an adequate predictor for calculating saturated vapor enthalpy from saturation
temperature. Using ASHRAE reference conditions the vapor enthalpy is expressed in the following form;
hg = e1 + e2 Tsat + e3 Tsat2
(6)
The temperature range of the applicability of this polynomial is 40o C Tsat 60o C. The largest difference
occurs from 0.25% at 30o C. For other temperature range this difference occurs upto 0.01% as compared with
source data.
3.6 Liquid Entropy
The polynomial curve fit to calculate the liquid entropy at a given temperature (Tf) is expressed as follow:
sf = f1 + f2 Tf + f3 Tf2
(7)
The temperature range of the applicability of this polynomial is 40o C Tf 60o C. The largest difference
occurs 0.01% for full range of temperature as compared with source data.
3.7 Vapor Entropy
The polynomial curve fits to calculate vapour density against saturation temperature is expressed as:
sg = g1 + g2 Tsat + g3 Tsat2
(8)
The temperature range of the applicability of this polynomial is 40o C Tsat 60o C. The largest difference for
this temperature range occurs to be 0.55% as compared with experimental data.
3.8 Liquid Viscosity
The third order curve fill for liquid viscosity against temperature (Tf) is expressed as;
2
3
(9)
f= h1 + h2Tf + h3Tf + h4Tf
The temperature range of the applicability of this polynomial is 40o C Tf 50o C. The largest difference
occurs is 0.60% at 50o C. For other temperature range the difference occurs upto 0.15% as compared with
experimental data.
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3.9 Vapour Viscosity

The third order polynomial curve fits for vapor viscosity against temperature (Tsat) is expressed as;
2
3
(10)
g= j1 + j2 Tsat + j3 Tsat + j4 Tsat
The temperature range of the applicability of this polynomial is 40o C Tsat 50o C. For full range of
temperature the difference occurs is less then 0.6% as compared with experimental data.
3.10 Specific Heat of Vapor
The curve fits polynomial for specific heat of vapor at constant pressure against temperature in expressed as
Cp = k1 + k2 Tsat + k3 Tsat2 + k4 T3sat (3.11)
The temperature range of the applicability of this polynomial is lies between 40o C Tsat 50o C. The largest
difference occurs is 0.6% at 50o C. For other temperature the largest difference occurs 0.3% as compared with
source data.
Table 1 gives the values of different constants of curve fit polynomials evaluated.
Table 1. Coefficients for the Equations
Viscosity of liquid refrigerant is a controlling factor for applications due to its large numerical values compared
with viscosity of vapor. As the temperature lower down, the magnitude of the viscosity of liquid refrigerant
increases of that vapor decreases. Using the property correlation developed the variation of viscosity of
474
Development of Polynomials for the Thermodynamic.....

refrigerant R134a in liquid and vapor phase with respect to temperature has been plotted in the form of graph
and shown in Figure 1.
4. Conclusion
The curve - fit equations reduce the computational time required for evaluation of thermodynamic properties of
refrigerant R-134a. They are sufficiently accurate across the temperature a range specified and gives
satisfactory performance. These proposed equations are in the simplest form known to the authors so far and a
percentage error is within a reasonable range (0.6 %) and occurs occasionally. The errors may be due to due to
the available thermodynamic data for R-134a are sparse and probably not as precise as for other refrigerants.
These polynomial curve fits can be used well for dynamic simulation of refrigeration system to achieve a
satisfactory performance for a temperature range 40o C to 50o C (233K 323K).
Nomenclature
Cp = Specific heat of vapor (KJ/kgK)
hf =
Enthalpy of saturated liquid KJ/Kg)
h = Enthalpy of saturated vapor (KJ/Kg)
P = Pressure (Bar)
sf = Entropy of saturated liquid (KJ/Kg K)
sg = Entropy of saturated vapor (KJ/Kg K)
T = Temperature (oC)
=
Saturated liquid density (Kg/m3)
f
=
Saturated vapor density (Kg/m3)
g
=
Dynamic viscosity of liquid (centi. poise)
f
=
Dynamic viscosity of vapor (centi. poise )
g
Subscript
f
= Liquid state
g
= Gaseous or vapor state
Sat = Saturation
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References
[1]
A.C. Cleland, Computer sub-routines for rapid evaluation of refrigerant thermodynamic properties,
Int. J. Refrigeration, 1986, Vol. 9, pp. 346-351.
[2]
J.W. Magee, and J.B. Howley, Vapor pressure measurements on 1, 1, 1, 2 tetrafluoromethane (R134a) from 180 to 350 K, Int. J. Refrigeration, 1992, Vol. 15, pp. 386-392.
[3]
M.L. Huber, and J.F. Ely, An equation of state formulation of thermodynamic properties of R-134a,
Int. J. Refrigeration, 1992, Vol.15, pp. 393-400.
[4]
M.O. Mc Linden J.S. Gallaghar, L. A. Weber, G. Morrision, D. Ward, A. R. H. Goodwin, M. R.
MoldoverJ. W. Schmidt, H. B. Chae, T. J. Bruno, J. F. Ely, and M. L. Huber, Measurement and
formulation of the thermodynamic properties of refrigerant R-134a and R-123, ASHRAE Trans, Vol.
92, pp. 263-283, 1989.
[5]
A.C. Cleland, Polynomial curve fits for refrigerant thermodynamic properties: extension to include
R-134a, Int. J. Refrigeration, 1994, Vol. 17, pp. 245-249.
[6]
H. Hou, J.C. Holte, B. E. Gammon, and K. N. Marsh, Experimental densities for compressed R134a, Int. J. Refrigeration., 1992, Vol. 15 (6), pp. 365-371.
[7]
Shankland, R. S. Basu, and D. P. Wilson , Thermal conductivity and viscosity of new
stratospherically safe Refrigerant - 1, 1, 1, 2-Tetrafluoroethane (R-134A), CFCs: Time of Trans.
Altanta, Georgia: ASHRAE, pp. 117-122, 1989.
476
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Comparison of Cooling Duty and Pressure

Drop of Green Secondary Refrigerant
(Ice Slurry) with Chilled Water
in a Plate Heat Exchanger
Rajinder Singh and Surendra Singh Kachhwaha
Abstract The present study reports the experimental comparison of cooling duty and pressure drop of ice
slurry with chilled water. Experiments were performed on plate heat exchanger (PHE) using chilled water and
ice slurry as secondary fluids. Propylene Glycol (PG) and Mono Ethylene Glycol (MEG) are used as
depressants (10%, 20%, 30% and 40% concentration) in ice slurry formation. The results show that by using ice
slurry in place of chilled water in plate heat exchanger, cooling duty found to be higher and pressure drop is
slightly higher in case of ice slurry. Cooling duty of ice slurry increases with increase in antifreeze
concentrations 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. By using ice slurry in plate heat exchanger cooling duty was found to
increased by 50% at 0.3m3/h and increased by 37 % at 3.0 m3/h of 10% ice crystal PG ice slurry and pressure
drop increased by 10% at 0.3m3/h and increased by 7 % at 3.0 m3/h.
Key words: Ice slurry, depressants, scraped surface ice slurry generator, plate heat exchanger.
ntroduction Ice slurry has a great potential for the future due to industrial applications, ranging from
commercial refrigeration and comfort cooling to industrial production processes and medicine. An
important application of ice slurry system is in the milk production where high peak loads are to be
adjusted. Ice slurry is a phase-changing secondary fluid consisting of both a liquid state and a solidstate
fraction (composed of fine ice particles). The main purpose of using ice slurry is to take advantage of the stored
cooling energy (in terms of latent heat) in the ice particles (0.1 to 1 mm size) during melting. Ethanol, ethylene
glycol, Sodium chloride, and propylene glycol are the four most commonly used freezing point depressants by
the refrigeration industry [1, 2]. The operating temperature [3] for ice slurry can be chosen between 0 to -350C
depending on the type of additive and additive concentration.
Numerous experimental studies using PHEs have been performed in the recent past, to understand the flow
behavior and heat transfer characteristics of ice slurry. Ma and Zhang [4] investigated pressure drop and heat
transfer characteristics of 0-17.5 vol% tetrabutylammoniumbromide (TBAB) clathrate hydrate slurry (CHS) as
a secondary refrigerant flowing through a PHE. It was observed that the pressure drop of TBAB CHS was about
3.0-50.0 kPa which was about 1.2-2 times that of the chilled water at the flow rate of 2.5-13.0 L/min. Further,
Rajinder Singh,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pusa Institute of Technology, Pusa, New Delhi-110012, India
rajindersingh1102@gmail.com
Surendra Singh Kachhwaha
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University, Raisan,
Gandhinagar- 382007, Gujarat, India
sskachhwaha@rediffmail.com
Mob: +91- 9868246628
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
477
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Singh and Kachhwaha
the pressure drop increased with volume fraction. Heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of an
absorbent salt solution in a PHE serving as a solution sub-cooler in the high loop of triple-effect absorption
refrigeration cycle was investigated by Warnakulasuriya and Worck et al. [5]. The main objectives of this
research were to establish the empirical correlations to predict the heat transfer and pressure drop and to analyze
and optimize the operating parameters used in the design of absorption systems.
A standard PHE with ice slurry of different ice concentrations was tested by Norgaard et al. [6]. The results
show increased heat transfer and pressure drop with increasing ice concentration. A map of operation was
developed in order to enable the designer to avoid fouling and flow pulsation. Bellas et al. [7] reported the
results of experimental investigations into the melting heat transfer and pressure drop of 5% propylene/water
ice slurry (ice fraction 0 to 20% by wt.) flowing in a commercial PHE. The heat transfer capacity of the heat
exchanger was increased by more than 30 % with melting ice slurry flow as compared to chilled water flow. In a
practical application, for a given thermal load this would lead to 60% reduction in flow rate and pressure drop
compared to conventional chilled water cooling systems.
PHEs are widely used in different industrial applications [8] like dairy and food processing plants, chemical
industries, power plants, pollution control systems, heat recovery systems, heating and air-conditioning, and
ice slurry refrigeration systems. The advantages of PHEs includes compactness, high effectiveness, easy
cleaning, cost competitiveness, better heat transfer characteristics, lower fouling flexibility, wide range of
temperature limit etc. The PHE manufacturers have developed exclusive design methods. Despite the large
number of applications of PHEs, rigorous design methods are not easily available, unlike shell/tube or tubular
exchangers. The available methods often have configuration limitations or depend on simplified forms of the
heat transfer model of the PHEs. According to Jarzebski and Wardas-Koziel [9], designers find it difficult to
determine operating conditions and unit dimensions for PHEs due to the large number of possible
configurations and the complexities associated with performance and cost optimization. The traditional design
method, either -NTU or logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) method, consists of huge testing of
different geometries because pressure drops are regarded as constraints [10, 11]. This is not only very timeconsuming, but cannot guarantee optimal design with full utilization of allowable pressure drops.
The traditional -NTU design method was used by Jackson and Troupe [12], Kandlikar and Shah [13] and
Zaleski and Klepacka [14] for the selection of the PHE configuration or pass arrangement for multi-pass
applications. Focke [15] presented a method for selecting the optimal plate pattern of the PHE for minimizing
the heat transfer area. Shah and Focke [16] developed a detailed step-by-step design procedure for rating and
sizing a PHE and Thonon and Mercier [17] presented the ''temperature-enthalpy diagram'' method for the
design of PHEs. A screening method has been presented by Gut and Pinto [18] for selecting optimal
configurations for plate heat exchangers based on the minimization of the heat transfer area, subject to
constraints on the number of channels, pressure drops, flow velocities and thermal effectiveness, as well as the
exchanger thermal and hydraulic models. Zhu and Zhang [19] discussed the integrated optimal design of the
materials, placement, size and flow-rate of a PHE.
Despite several advantages and wide applications, the simplified yet accurate design methods for PHEs using
ice slurry as secondary fluid have not been developed in a similar significant way. In this regard, Wang and
Sunden [20] proposed an optimal design method for PHEs considering with and without pressure drop
specifications. The optimization is based on a thermal-hydraulic model, which represents the relationship
between heat transfer, pressure drop and exchanger area. Compared to the other existing design methods in the
literature, the proposed method require relatively less number of trial iterations. Instead, all heat exchanger
parameters, including plate size, number of passes, path, fluid velocity, etc., are determined in a straightforward
way. Moreover, the suggested method can guarantee that the optimized values of allowable pressure drops can
be fully utilized simultaneously by the two streams. At present, experimental validation of thermo-hydraulic
model proposed by Wang and Sunden [20] is not available in the literature. Therefore, the novelty of the present
work is to explore the possibility of application of thermo-hydraulic modeling for design of PHEs.
Ice slurries can be used both as a secondary refrigerant and for cold storage in place of chilled water or ice.
Despite the fact that ice slurry has now a days gaining wide acceptance, a little engineering information is
478
Comparison of Cooling Duty and Pressure Drop .....

available on fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics of ice slurry in PHE applications. The objectives of the
present study are to validate thermo-hydraulic modeling [20] for PHE applications by collecting heat transfer
and pressure drop data using chilled water and ice slurry as secondary fluids and experimental comparison of
cooling duty and pressure drop of ice slurry with chilled water.
2. Description of Experimental Setup
Fig.1. Schematic diagram of the experimental facility (1 = Ice Slurry Generator, 2 = Pump, 3 = Insulation, 4 =
Ice Slurry Storage Tank, 5 = Drainage, 6 = Pump, 7 = Thermocouple, 8 = Agitator, 9 = Condensing Unit, 10 =
Data Acquisition System, 11 = Rotameter, 12 = Plate Heat Exchanger, 13 = Pump, 14 = Mass Flow Meter, 15 =
Water inlet, 16 = Water outlet, 17 = Sampling Point, 18 = Mass Flow Meter, 19 = Thermocouple, 20 = Pressure
Transducer, V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6 = Valves).
Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental facility, consisting mainly of two independent circuits:
ice slurry formation circuit and ice flow circuit.
2.1 The Ice Slurry Formation Circuit
The ice slurry formation circuit consists of a 74 liter capacity scraped surface ice slurry generating system
(Fig.1). The major components of this system are: ice slurry generator with spring loaded scraper, condensing
unit, pumps and a storage tank with a mixer. A spring loaded scraper was installed to produce agitation inside the
inner tank of ice slurry generator. The functions of scraper are to enhance the heat transfer between the slurry
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Singh and Kachhwaha
and the refrigerant, accelerate the nucleation, scrape the crystals adhering to the inner tank wall and ensuring the
homogeneity of the generated slurry. This system produces fine ice crystals with diameters in the range between
150 and 200 m.
2.2 Ice Slurry Flow Circuit
The ice flow circuit was designed, fabricated and assembled to enable pressure drop and heat transfer data
measurements of ice slurry mixtures and water in pipes, bends and heat exchangers. A standard PHE
(manufactured by Alfa Laval) normally used in traditional secondary loop systems was tested both
thermodynamically and hydraulically with chilled water and ice slurry for wide range of flow. The heat
exchanger has 24 plates with 11 channels on each side, see Fig. 2. Each plate is 480 mm in height and 150 mm
width. The hydraulic diameter is 4 mm and the total heat transfer area is 0.6765 m2. The cold fluid was forced to
flow through the one set of 11 channels side, while the hot water prepared in a thermally insulated water tank,
was used as the cold load and flowed counter-current on the other side. The entire pipe work and the storage tank
are well insulated.
A = 0.480 m
B = 0.410 m
C = 0.150 m
D = 0.075 m
E = 2.4 mm
F = 0.4 mm
Fig.2. Dimensions of plate heat exchanger
Table 1. Geometrical parameters of plate heat exchanger
480

2.3 Instrumentation
The temperatures for both flowing fluids were measured at the inlet and the outlet of the heat exchanger using
resistance temperature detectors. One thermocouple was used to monitor the temperature of the mixture in the
storage tank. Pressure drop across the heat exchanger streams was measured using pre-calibrated differential
pressure transducers which were directly inserted into the fluid. Pressure sensors were located at the inlet and
outlet of PHE to record the variation of the inlet and outlet pressures of the tested fluids and the pressure drop
was then inferred. Mass flow meters connected at the upstream sides of respective fluids were used to measure
the flow rates. All the temperature, pressure and flow rate sensors were connected to a PC based data acquisition
system where data were automatically recorded in every thirty seconds for further analysis.
The various instrumentation used for measurements are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Specifications of measuring instruments
3. Experimental Procedure and Data Collection

The plate heat exchanger was tested for water to water flow, and ice slurry to water flow. The hot
(primary) fluid in the heat exchanger was water, obtained directly from a storage tank provided
with an emersion heater. Chilled water and ice slurry was used as secondary fluid. The secondary
fluid flow rate was measured upstream of the heat exchanger using a mass flowmeter while the
main hot water flow rate was measured using a mass flowmeter just before the inlet to the heat
exchanger. Experimental runs were performed using chilled water (approximately 4 C) at flow
3
3
rates starting from 0.3 m /h to 3.0 m /h. The hot water, at approximately 17.4C, was then allowed
to flow through the heat exchanger and the flow rate was adjusted to obtain a 0.7 m3/h of primary
fluid flow. The pressure drop and heat transfer results from these runs would form the bases for
validating and comparing the ice slurry results. Propylene Glycol (PG) and Mono Ethylene
Glycol (MEG) are used as depressants (10%, 20%, 30% and 40% by weight) for formation of ice
slurry. Once the percentage of ice in the storage tank reached the desired value, the slurry
generation system was shut down and the mixer inside the tank was operated. This allowed proper
mixing of the ice/liquid solution, producing a homogeneous mixture throughout the tests. The
secondary fluid (ice slurry) was circulated through the heat exchanger by ice slurry circulation
pump initially at a flow rate of 0.3 m3/h adjusted using valve 3 (Figure 1). Simultaneously the data
of temperatures and pressures across the PHE are collected at different flow rates up to the
3
maximum flow rate of 3.0 m /h.
The ice fraction was measured during each test. The flowing mixture was sampled near the inlet
(17) of the heat exchanger (Fig. 1). The ice crystals were separated from the mixture in separate
container and the ice fraction was determined from the corresponding weight of the ice crystals
collected separately. The ice fraction was kept 10% by weight for all the runs. In data reduction,
calculation of fluid properties was based on the average fluid temperature across each circuit of
the heat exchanger. The heat exchanger was insulated using polyurethane insulating foam and
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heat transfer across the walls to the ambient was neglected. Heat balance between the hot and chilled water sides
revealed less than 5% difference between the two values for the range of flows tested.
Experimental results of pressure drop and heat transfer for chilled water vs hot water and ice slurry vs hot water
flowing in a plate heat exchanger is described below:
4.1. Pressure Drop
Comparison of predicted pressure drop using T-H modeling with experimental data using PG and MEG as
antifreezes (10%, 20%, 30% and 40% concentration) is shown in Fig. 3 and 4 respectively. It can be seen that
predicted ice slurry pressure drop matches reasonably well with the experimental data. For comparison
purposes, pressure drop results for water to water are also presented. The ice slurry pressure drop increases with
flow rate and antifreeze concentration.
(a) Variation of pressure drop with flow rate
(b) Pressure drop versus Reynolds number
Fig. 3. Comparison of predicted pressure drop with experimental data using PG as antifreeze with
10%, 20%, 30% and 40% concentration
(a) Variation of pressure drop with flow rate
(b)Variation of pressure drop with Reynolds Number
Fig. 4. Comparison of predicted pressure drop with experimental data using MEG
as antifreeze with 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% concentration
482

The effect of antifreeze concentration is significant on pressure drop at lower flow rates. As shown in the
figure 3(a) and 4(a), pressure drop of ice slurry (10-40% concentration) is between 5.0 - 48.0 kPa at the flow rate
within 0.25-3 m3/h which is about 1.1 to 3 times of that of chilled water since the apparent viscosity of ice slurry
is much larger than that of water. In addition, the larger pressure drop could also be attributed to quite small and
corrugated flow passage of PHE, which enlarged the constraint effect of the wall on the particles, consequently,
inducing additional flow resistance. Effect of antifreeze concentration on pressure drop reduces with increase
in flow rate.
Fig. 3(b) and 4 (b) presents the pressure drop results plotted against the Reynolds number as opposed to flow
rate. It can be seen that for the same flow rate, the Reynolds number is much lower for the PG and MEG water
mixtures compared to pure water. The Reynolds number reduces even further as the freezing concentration is
increased. The reduction of the Reynolds number is mainly due to the increase of the viscosity of the ice slurry.
As shown in Figure 8, overall T-H modeling predictions for pressure drop in ice slurries are within + 15% limit.
4.2 Cooling Duty
Comparison of predicted cooling duty using T-H modeling with experimental data using PG and MEG as
antifreezes (10%, 20%, 30% and 40% concentration) is shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that predicted ice slurry
cooling duty matches reasonably well with the experimental data. For comparison purposes, cooling duty
results for water to water are also presented. It can be seen that ice slurry cooling duty is around 25-100% higher
than that of chilled water for the selected flow rate. The ice slurry cooling duty increases with flow rate and
antifreeze concentration.
(a) Ice slurry using PG as antifreeze
(a) Ice slurry using PG as antifreeze
Fig. 5. Variation of cooling duty with flow rate

The term uncertainty analysis refers to the process of estimating how great an effect the uncertainties in the
individual measurements have on the calculated result [22]. In the present study, the overall uncertainty is
associated with the measurement of the overall heat transfer coefficient and cooling duty for ice slurry and
chilled water. The functional dependence of these parameters depends on measured value of inlet and outlet
temperatures, mass flow rate and pressure drop. The maximum overall uncertainty in measurement of overall
heat transfer coefficient and cooling duty is +10.3% and +10.1% respectively. The uncertainty in the
measurement of the temperature, flow rate and pressure drop are +0.35%, +1.69% and +0.27% respectively.
5. Conclusions
Experimental studies using chilled water and ice slurry as secondary fluids have been performed to validate
thermo-hydraulic modeling for prediction of pressure drop and cooling duty in a plate heat exchanger. The
results can be summarized as follows:
By using ice slurry in place of chilled water in plate heat exchanger, cooling duty found to be higher and
pressure drop is slightly higher in case of ice slurry. Cooling duty of ice slurry increases with increase in
antifreeze concentrations 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. By using ice slurry in plate heat exchanger cooling duty
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was found to increased by 50% at 0.3m3/h and increased by 37 % at 3.0 m3/h of 10% ice crystal PG ice slurry
and pressure drop increased by 10% at 0.3m3/h and increased by 7 % at 3.0 m3/h.
References
[1]
ke Melinder, 2007 Thermophysical Properties of Aqueous Solutions Used as Secondary Working
Fluids, Doctoral Thesis, Division of Applied Thermodynamics and Refrigeration Dept. of Energy
Technology School of Industrial Engineering and Management Royal Institute of Technology, KTH
Stockholm, Sweden.
[2]
Cecilia Hagg, 2005 Ice Slurry as Secondary Fluid in Refrigeration Systems Fundamentals and
Applications in Supermarkets, Licentiate Thesis, Stockholm, School of Industrial Engineering and
Management Department of Energy Technology Division of Applied Thermodynamics and
Refrigeration.
[3]
Kauffeld M, Wang M.J, Goldstein V, Kasza K.E, 2010 Ice Slurry Applications, International Journal
of Refrigeration, 33, pp.1491-1505.
[4]
Ma Z.W, Zhang P, 2011 Pressure drop and heat transfer characteristics of clathrate hydrate slurry in a
plate heat exchanger, International Journal of Refrigeration, 34, pp.796-806.
[5]
Warnakulasuriya F.S.K, Worek W.M, 2008 Heat transfer and pressure drop properties of high viscous
solutions in plate heat exchangers, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 51, pp.52-67.
[6]
Nrgaard E, Srensena T.A, Hansena T.M, Kauffeld M, 2005 Performance of components of ice
slurry systems: pumps, plate heat exchangers, and fittings, International Journal of Refrigeration, 28,
pp.83-91.
[7]
Bellas J, Chaer I, Tassou S.A, 2002 Heat transfer and pressure drop of ice slurries in plate heat
exchangers, Applied Thermal Engineering, 22, pp.721-732.
[8]
Sarit K.Das, Process, 2006 Heat Transfer, Narosa Publishing House Pvt.Ltd. (Chapter 7).
[9]
Jarzebski A.B, Wardas-Koziel E, 1985 Dimensioning of plate heat-exchangers to give minimum
annual operating costs, Chem. Eng. Res. Des, 63 (4), pp.211218.
[10]
Shah R.K, Focke W.W, 1988 Plate heat exchangers and their design theory, in: Shah R.K, Subbarao
E.C, Mashelkar R.A (Eds.), Heat Transfer Equipment Design, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation,
Washington, pp.227254.
[11]
Cooper A, Usher J.D, 1983 Plate heat exchangers, in: Heat Exchanger Design Handbook,
Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, (Chapter 3.7)
[12]
Jackson B.W, Troupe R.A, 1966 Plate heat exchanger design by e-NTU Method, Chem. Eng. Progr.
Symp. Ser., 62 (64) pp.185-190.
[13]
Kandlikar S.G, Shah R.K, 1989 Multipass plate heat exchangers-effectiveness-NTU results and
guidelines for selecting pass arrangements, J. Heat Transfer 111, pp.300-313.
[14]
Zaleski T, Klepacka K, 1992 Plate heat-exchangers-method of calculation, charts and guidelines for
selecting plate heat-exchangers configurations, Chem. Eng. Process, 31 (1) pp.45-56.
[15]
Focke W.W, 1986 Selecting optimum plate heat-exchanger surface patterns, J. Heat Transfer, 108
(1) pp.153-160.
[16]
Shah R.K, Focke W.W, 1988 Plate heat exchangers and their design theory, in: Shah R.K, Subbarao
E.C, Mashelkar R.A (Eds.), Heat Transfer Equipment Design, Hemisphere, New York, pp.227-254.
[17]
Thonon B, Mercier P, 1996 Les _Echangeurs _a Plaques: Dix Ans de Recherche au GRETh: Partie 2.
Dimensionnement et Mauvaise Distribuition, Revue Generale, Thermique 35 pp.561568.
[18]
Jorge A.W. Gut, Jose M. Pinto, 2004 Optimal configuration design for plate heat exchangers,
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 47, pp.4833-4848.
[19]
Jialing Zhu, Wei Zhang, 2004 Optimization design of plate heat exchangers (PHE) for geothermal
district heating systems, Geothermics, 33, pp.337-347.
[20]
Lieke Wang, Bengt Sunden, 2003 Optimal design of plate heat exchangers with and without pressure
drop specifications, Applied Thermal Engineering, 23, pp.295-311.
21]
Michael Kauffeld, Masahiro Kawaji, Peter W. Egolf, 2005 Handbook on Ice Slurries-Fundamentals
and Engineering, International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR).
[22]
Moffat, R.J., Using uncertainty analysis in the planning of an experiment, Trans. ASME, J. Fluids
Eng. 107, pp173-178.
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Experimental Investigation of the Performance

Characteristics of a Spark Ignition Engine
by Varying the Compression Ratio
P. Goyal, S.K. Sharma and Amit Pal
Abstract - The Spark Ignition Engine has been extensively used in various sectors viz. Automobileindustries,
etc. In today's scenario, there is a huge need to improve the performance characteristics of the spark ignition
engine. Compression ratio is a major factor which plays an important role in the spark ignition engine and it has
a greater influence also on the performance characteristics of an internal combustion engine. The present
research paper shows an experimental investigation of the effect of compression ratio on the performance
characteristics which are brake power, brake thermal efficiency, brake mean effective pressure and specific fuel
consumption of the spark ignition engine. Different compression ratios with different engine speeds were used
in the present study. This work shows that there is a remarkable decrement in the specific fuel consumption with
an increased compression ratio and improved brake power, brake thermal efficiency and brake mean effective
pressure.
Keywords-Spark Ignition engine; compression ratio; engine speed; brake power; specific fuel consumption.
ntroduction Improving efficiency of an Internal Combustion Engine is a major concern in today's fast
growing automobiles sector. Higher compression ratio is one of the very useful and important aspects to
improve the fuel consumption and power output in gasoline engines as combustion efficiency increases
with the compressed air and fuel mixture [1].Most of the energy produced by these engines lost in the form of
heat. There is a number of other losses also associated with the engine like friction losses and losses of the
exhaust and some other parameters which also affects the thermal efficiency of the engine [2,3,4].
Compression Ratio (CR) is the ratio of the total volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at bottom
dead centre to the total volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at top dead centre [5]. Lots of
research has been devoted to the effect of the higher compression ratio of a spark ignition engine.
The main challenge is that the conventional gasoline engines operate at an optimal compression ratio, which is
set low enough to prevent premature ignition of the fuel, or knock, at high power levels under fast acceleration,
high speeds or heavy loads. But, most of the time, gasoline engines operate at relatively low power levels under
P. Goyal
Amity Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, India
priyankagoel03@gmail.com
S.K. Sharma
Quality Assurance Enhancement Department, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, India
Sks15nov@gmail.com
Amit Pal
amitpal@dce.ac.in

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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slow acceleration, lower speed, or light loads.

VCR Engine
A variable compression ratio (VCR) engine is able to operate at different compression ratios, depending on the
particular vehicle performance needs. The VCR engine is optimized for the full range of driving conditions,
such as, acceleration, speed and load. At low power levels, the VCR engine operates at high compression to
capture the benefits of fuel efficiency, while at high power levels, it operates at low compression levels to
prevent knock. To further improve the fuel economy, the VCR engine is small, with about one-third the
displacement volume of a conventional gasoline engine [6].
VCR Concepts
Conventionally, every mechanical element in the power conversion system has been considered a way to
achieve a variable compression ratio. Many designs presented solved by various researchers which modifies
the compression ratio by the following methods [7]:
Moving the cylinder head;
Variation of combustion chamber volume;
Variation of piston deck height;
Modification of connecting rod geometry;
Moving the crankshaft axis;

In many cases, the deviation from conventional production engine structure or layout represents asignificant
commercial barrier to widespread adoption of the technology.
Applications of VCR Engines
The concept of a variable compression ratio promises improved engine performance, efficiency and reduced
emissions also [6,7].
Higher compression ratio gives faster laminar flame speed. Therefore, theignition delay period is shorter.
As a result, at low loads, the greater the compression ratio, the shorter is the combustion time. Time loss is
subsequently reduced. Therefore, it seems reasonable that fuel consumption rate is lower with high
compression ratios at part load.
The VCR can make a significant contribution to thermodynamic efficiency. A VCR engine can
continuously vary the compression ratio by changing the combustion chamber volume. In a VCR engine,
thermodynamic benefits appear throughout the engine map.
The optimum compression ratio is determined as a function of one or more vehicle operating parameters
such as inlet air temperature, engine coolant temperature, exhaust gas temperature, engine knock, fuel
type, octane rating of fuel etc. In a VCR engine, the operating temperature is more or less maintained at
optimum, where combustion efficiency is high.
This paper specifically discusses the effect of a variable compression ratio on the performance characteristics of
a spark ignition engine. One researcher conducted a research on the effect of the higher compression ratio in
two-stroke engines and showed that the actual fuel consumption was improved by 1-3% for each unit increment
in the compression ratio [8]. Power output also improves, but the maximum compression ratio is limited
because of the knock and the thermal loads. It was also noticed that the rate of improvement was lesser
compared with the theoretical values. But these redundancies were due to the mechanical, cooling losses and
mainly due to the thermal losses which were explained above. Similarly, experiments performed on four-stroke
a petrol engine which also shows the remarkable increment in the mechanical efficiency and thermal efficiency
of a spark-ignition engine [9,10].
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Experimental Investigation of the Performance Characteristics.....

2. Experimental Set-Up
The schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The performance characteristics like brake
power, brake thermal efficiency, brake mean effective pressure and specific fuel consumption have been
measured with varying compression ratio of 5 to 9 at different engine speed of 1300 to 1600 RPM with the each
increment of 100rpm of a spark ignition engine. The specifications of the test engine are shown in Table 1.
Fig 1. A systematic layout of test setup

Table 1. Specification of the Experimental Set up

The following graphs were obtained by the experimental analysis for brake power, brake thermal efficiency,
brake mean effective pressure and specific fuel consumption by varying the compression ratio at different
engine speed.
Fig 2. Variation of brake power with

compression ratio at different engine speed.
Fig 3. Variation of brake mean effective

pressure with compression ratio at
different engine speed.
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Brake Power (kW):In the comparative analysis of brake power with compression ratio of different engine
speed as shown in Fig 2. It is observed that brake power increases with the compression ratio. This is mainly due
to the increase in brake torque at high compression ratios. Engine torque is directly related to brake power
which is a theoretical fact. Therefore, as the engine gives more push on the piston, and then more torque is
generated.
Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bar):In the comparative analysis of brake power with compression ratio of
different engine speed as shown in Fig. 3. It is observed that brake mean effective pressure increases with the
compression ratio. But the lowest increase in the pressure occurs at the 1400 RPM and it is more or less constant
from the compression ratio 6 to 9 at engine speed of 1400 RPM. The highest increment in the pressure occurs at
a compression ratio of 9.
Brake Thermal Efficiency (%):In the comparative analysis of brake thermal efficiency with compression
ratio of different engine speed as shown in Fig. 4. The graph clearly shows that the brake thermal efficiency is
maximum at a higher compression ratio. Better mixing and evaporation of the fuel occurs with the greater
compression of the available fuel and air. As the compression ratio increases, combustion efficiency also
increases, which results in the remarkable increment in the energy also.
Fig 4. Variation of brake thermal efficiency

with compression ratio at different engine speed.
Fig 5. Variation of specific fuel consumption

with compression ratio at different engine speed.
Specific Fuel Consumption (g/kWh): In the comparative analysis of specific fuel consumption with
compression ratio at different engine speed as shown in Fig. 5. It is shown that the less fuel is required at higher
compression ratios as the fuel mixture is effectively compressed which causes the higher thermal efficiency.
Resultin the reduced fuel consumption at higher compression ratio.
4. Conclusion
As from the above result, we can conclude that the increase in the compression ratio improves the overall
efficiency of an engine. It also improves the fuel consumption with the each unit of increment in the
compression ratio. Brake thermal efficiency shows the increment of 3-6% for each unit increase of
compression ratio. Brake power, brake mean effective pressure also shows a remarkable increment for the
higher compression ratio. There is a considerably higher difference in the theoretical and experimental results
which is primarily because of the thermal, mechanical and frictional losses. To further enhance the efficiency of
an engine alternative fuels are the best option with the higher compression ratio and can be incorporated with
the number of different design parameters.
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Experimental Investigation of the Performance Characteristics.....

References
[1]
Andreas, B., Torque Modeling and Control of a Variable Compression Engine, Dept. of Electrical
Engineering at Linkopings University, Sweden. 2003. (Master's Thesis)
[2]
David Gerard, Magali Besson, Marc Thomine HCCI combustion in a diesel VCR engine SAE 200801-1187 April 14th 2008.(Article)
[3]
F.H Palmer, Vehicle performances of gasoline containing oxygenates, International conference on
petroleum based fuels and automotive applications, London, UK; pp. 3346, 1986.(Conference
Paper)
[4]
Maurillio, Marco Lucio, Sergio Gradella Villalva Variable compression ratio engines SAE 2009-360245 October 10th 2009. (Article)
[5]
Heywood J. B., Internal combustion Engines Fundamentals. McGraw Hill Book Company, pp.450458, 1988. (Book)
[6]
R G Sykes,Tickford, Engines Expo 2000 paper, Methods to reduce the fuel consumption of gasoline
engines. (Conference)
[7
]J R Clarke, R J Tabaczynski, US Patent 6135086,2000-10-24, Internal combustion engine
withadjustable compression ratio and knock control. (Patent)
[8]
Yuh, M. and Tohru, G., 2010, The Effect of Higher Compression Ratio in Two-Stroke Engines,
Yamaha MotorCo, Ltd. pp 355-362. (Article)
[9]
Rychter T.J., Teodorczyk ., Stone C.R., Leonard HJ., Ladommatos N. and Charlton S.J. A
theoretical study of a variable compression ratio turbocharged diesel engine.Vol.206, Part A: Journal
of Power and Energy, 1992, pp.227-238. (Article)
[10]
C.L. Song, W.M. Zhang, Y.Q.Pei, G.L.Fan, G.P.Xu, Comparative effect of MTBE and ethanol
addition into gasoline on exhaust emission, Atmospheric environment, pp. 403-410,2006.(Article)
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Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing Performance :

An Experimental and CFD Approach
Paras Kumar and Ashish Gupta
Abstract- In the present work, Hydrodynamic journal bearing (HJB) performance is experimentally evaluated
and compared using CFD approach. HJB test rig is used to monitor the circumferential pressure distribution
for SAE 10 W-30 oil. Ten pressure sensors are mounted circumferentially to measure and record the pressure
distribution at 800 N load and 1000 rpm journal rotational speed. The experimental bearing performance
parameters are compared with the CFD result and a close agreement is observed. The developed CFD model
can be used with high accuracy to test the other lubricating oils for different geometric, loading and operating
conditions.
Keywords- Hydrodynamic journal bearing; Pressure distribution, CFD , Minimum fluid film pressure,
Eccentricity ratio.
ntroduction The wide application of Hydrodynamic journal bearing is found in high speed machineries.
The performance of these bearing mainly depends upon type of the lubricant, operating and loading
conditions, environmantal condition etc.
Numerous studies on operating conditions of Hydrodynamic journal bearing have been reported in literature.
The work on optimized gap shapes for sliding contact bearing optimization process was elaborated for the
calculation of the optimal lubricant film shape between lubricated sliding surface pairs [1]. A theoretical and
experimental study of thermal effects in a plain circular steadily loaded journal bearing was carried by Ma and
Taylor [2]. The energy dissipation of displacement machines was mainly influenced by the design of individual
lubricating gaps between parts, having relative motion to each other [3]. In comparing the global performance
characteristics, theory and experiment exhibited an excellent agreement over a wide range of loads and
rotational speeds. Gethin worked on the thermal behaviour of various types of high speed journal bearings and
found good agreement between theoretical and the experimental results [4]. Variable specific heat on maximum
pressure, maximum temperature, bearing load, frictional loss and side leakage in high-speed journal bearing
operation were examined [5]. Film pressure, load-carrying capacity attitude angle, end leakage flow rate,
frictional coefficient and misalignment moment were calculated for different values of misalignment degree
and eccentricity ratio. It was found that there are obvious changes in film pressure distribution, the highest film
pressure, film thickness distribution, the least film thickness and the misalignment moment when misalignment
takes place. The distributions of pressure, temperature and oil flow velocity of a journal bearing with a twocomponent surface layer were investigated by Sep. [6].
In the present work, the performance of a Hydrodynamic journal bearing (HJB) is investigated experimantally
using SAE 10 W-30 oil. A CFD model has been developed and validated through the experimantal result. This
CFD model can be further used for different bearing geometric and operating condition using different
lubricating oil.
Paras Kumar, Ashish Gupta
Mechanical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological Univeristy, 110042,
paraskum007@rediffmail.com,
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 9560063121, Fax: +91-11- 27871023
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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2. Theory of Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing

Figure-1 depicts the operating principle of a Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing. When the journal is at rest, it
touches the bush at the lower most position and there is no oil film between the bush and the journal as shown in
Fig.-1(a). Now when the journal starts rotating, then at low speed condition, with the load P acting, it has a
tendency to shift to its sides as shown in the Fig-1 (b).
Fig - 1 Operation of journal bearing

At this equilibrium position, the frictional force will balance the component of bearing load. Normally at this
condition either a metal to metal contact or an almost negligible oil film thickness will prevail. At the higher
speed, the equilibrium position shifts and a continuous oil film will be created as indicated in the Fig-1 (c). This
continuous fluid film has a converging zone, which is shown in the magnified view. It has been established that
due to presence of the converging zone or wedge, the fluid film has sufficient pressure to support the heavy load.
Fig- 2 Pressure distribution [7]

Hence, to build-up a positive pressure in a continuous fluid film, to support a load, a converging zone is
necessary. Moreover, simultaneous presence of the converging and diverging zones ensures a fluid film
continuity and flow of fluid. The Pressure distribution in Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing is shown in Fig-2.
The action of the rotating journal is to pump the lubricant around the bearing. The lubricant is pumped into a
wedge shaped space. A minimum film thickness occurs, not at the bottom but slightly at the displaced position.
This is explained by the fact that the film pressures in the converging half reaches a maximum somewhere to the
left of the bearing center. The wedge shaped fluid film applies a perpendicular force to the bearing, whose one
component is vertical which supports the load [8].
Hydrodynamic journal bearing Test Rig (TR-660) , as shown in Fig. -3, is used to monitor presure along
circumferential direction [9]. The lubricant is supplied to the bearing at an inlet port on the vertical centre line of
the bearing.
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Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing Performance : .....

In the cavitated region of the bearing clearance, the oil exited the bearing in an axial direction and is collected at
drain positions before being returned to the oil supply tank. Ten pressure sensors are mounted on the face of
bearing to measure pressure distribution of the oil along the bearing circumference. Also loading arm is pivoted
to get 1:5 loading ratio, exerts pressure on bearing through a roller when dead weights are placed on pan in the
longer end. A counter weight is fixed on short end of lever to balance lever. This tester mainly consists of a
rotating journal held in a special bearings in horizontal condition, it is rotated by AC motor and speed controlled
by variable frequency drive.
Fig-3 Hydrodynamic Journal bearing Test rig

A bearing with l/d ratio=1 and c/r ratio=0.00135 is inserted over the journal and helds at the position by a
loading lever. Bearing pressure is displayed at the different indexing angles on the PC.
4. Results and Dscusson
The bearing pressure is measured using SAE 10W-30 lubrication oil. The viscosity of this grade of oil is 10.1
cSt and 63.2 cSt at 1000C and 400C respectively. The viscosity index is 146. The applied load on the bearing is
800 N at the journal rotational speed of 1000 rpm. The experimentaly measured presure sensor reading is
shown in Fig. 4. The same reading is plotted in cartesian co-ordinate between angle of rotation and pressure as
shown in Fg.-5. The maximium pressure (pmax) is 0.964 MPa at an angle of 2130. The average pressure (p) is
calculated as
p=W/(2rl)
(1)
where W -load , r - radius of journal , and l length of bearing.
Using the value of p/pmax, sommerfeld number, coefficient of friction, minimium fluid film thickness variable,
and eccentricity ratio are calulated as shown in Table-1 using Raimondi and Boyd charts.
Fig- 4 Pressure sensor reading
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Fig- 5 Bearing pressure plot
The experimantal results are validated using CFD model. To validate the results, a 3-dimensional bearing
model has been generated in ANSYS WORKBENCH with same bearing geometric parameters as used in the
experimental work. This 3- dimensional model is meshed as shown in Fig.-6. The number of nodes and
elements are 10196 and 4096 respectively.
Fig- 6 Bearing CFD model

In the CFD analysis, the bearing surface is kept stationary with no slip condition, while the journal surface is
defined as moving rotational surface. The centre of rotation of journal is kept at the origin and bearing centre is
fixed according to the eccentric ratio. The fluid flow is assumed as viscous laminar.
Table-1
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Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing Performance : .....

The CFD analysis is performed for 10W-30 mineral oil at 800 N load and 1000 rpm journal rotational speed.
The circumferential pressure distribution is shown in Fig.-7
Fig- 7 Bearing Pressure distribution

The CFD result shows that the region of maximum pressure lies at the base of the bearing. This pressurized fluid
lifts the journal and provides the rotation of journal without metal to metal contact. The cavitation occurs at the
top most region of bearing. The maximum fluid film pressure is 0.96 MPa. Based on the ratio (p/pmax) the other
bearing performance parameters are computed as shown in Table-1. The CFD results are very close to the
experimental results. The percentage error between experimental and CFD results are very less. Thus this CFD
model can be accurately used to analysis the Hydrodynamic bearing performance for different geometric and
operating parameters.
5. Conclusion
The Hydrodynamic bearing performance parameters have been analysed for SAE 10 W-30 lubrication oil. The
ratio (p/pmax) is used to compute sommerfeld number, coefficient of friction, minimium fluid film thickness
variable, and eccentricity ratio. The experimantal results are compared with the CFD results and a close
agrrement is observed. The developed CFD model can be further utilized for different geometric, operating and
loading conditions.
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495
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Characteristic Behavior Effect of Al 6061 By

Tic in Metal Matrix Composites (MMCS)
Dr. S.K. Dhakad, Dr. Pankaj Agarwal and Utkarsh Pandey
Abstract - The present research work is primarily aimed to study and investigate the characterization behavior
of Al 6061 in the metal matrix composites (MMCs). Present investigation focus the mechanical properties of
aluminium alloy due to their low density, excellent wear resistance, high specific strength and high specific
modulus. Particle reinforced metal matrix composites are likely to find high volumes of commercial
applications due to their isotropic properties, ease of fabrication and improved properties .The metal matrix
composites derive good demand for their use in automobile and aerospace applications and also in the field of
automotive components are exposed to a wide virety of corroding environment.
Keywords- Metal Matrix Composites; Mechanical Properties ; Corrosion Behavior
Introduction The metal matrix composites (MMCs) have become the focus of intensive research and
development due to their high specific modulus and strength, thermal stability and excellent wear resistance.
Steel based alloys are by far the most widely used as metallic materials in MMCs because of their low cost and
good mechanical properties. Similarly, TiC to be used as a reinforcing material in MMCs is attractive because
of its low density, high melting point, extreme hardness and high resistance to oxidation and wear [15]. The
composites have different mechanical properties with different matrixes under different conditions [67]. W.
Hu et al [8] reported the TiC reinforced quenchedMn13 steel composite via combustion synthesis during
casting which has a hardness of 55 HRC with 40wt.% TiC. F. Akhtar et al [9] fabricated the TiC-465 stainless
steel/465 stainless steel layer composites with 50, 60, 70 wt.% TiC and the hardness and TRS are 85.2, 87, 88.2
HRA and 1332, 1103, 782 MPa, respectively. F. Akhtar [10] reported TiB2 and TiC (30, 55, 70 wt.%) reinforced
465 stainless steel matrix composites, whose hardness are about 75, 88, 92 HRA. B.H. Li et al [11] prepared insitu TiC particles (N50 wt.%) reinforced Fe-based composites by using ferrotitanium and carbon black
powders with the combination of in-situ synthesis and spark plasma sintering and the composite has a
maximum hardness of 83.2 HRA. B.H. Li et al [12].Magnesium(Mg) alloys have attracted mostly due to their
light weight, high specific strengths, damping capacity and superior machinability [1318].
2. Propertes of Al6061TiC
The Situ metal matrix composites have drawn the attention of many researchers due to their low density,
excellent wear resistance, high specific strength and high specific modulus [19-21]. Particle reinforced metal
matrix composites are likely to find high volumes of commercial applications due to their isotropic properties,
Dr. S.K. Dhakad, Dr. Pankaj Agarwal
Mechanical Engineering Department ; S.A.T.I. (Engineering College) ,Vidisha (M.P.), India
sk27_dhakad@yahoo.com, dr_agrwal@rediffmail.com
Utkrash Pandey
M. Tech. Student ,S.A.T.I.(Engineering College) , Vidisha (M.P.), India
Corresponding Author; Tel: 09827231814
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
497
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Dhakad et al.
ease of fabrication and improved properties [19-23]. The metal matrix composites derive good demand for their
use in automobile and aerospace applications [24-28]. Ozdemir et al. [27] reported that forging improves the
distribution of the re-in forcing particles in a Al-Si alloy leading to enhanced mechanical properties. In another
study [28], a significant change was reported in the tensile strength of a cold-rolled SiC/Al composite after 30
%, 50 % and 70 % reduction in thickness. In their independent studies on AA2814/ 20 vol % Al2O3 ex-situ
composites, Cavaliere et al. [29] and Ceschini et al. [30] had shown that forging leads to decohesion of the
Al2O3 particles from the matrix, fatigue and fracture performance [31-33]. If the mechanical properties of
inexpensive cast MMCs are to rival those of homogeneous powder-route material, clustering must be
eliminated [34-37]. The aim of this work is to establish the effect of a grain refining reinforcing phase on
composite microstructure and mechanical properties [38].
3. Friction Behavior
Friction deposition is one of the promising new techniques for additive manufacturing. In this work, an
aluminum matrix composite reinforced with titanium particles was successfully fiction deposited. The multilayer composite friction deposits showed well-bonded layers, very fine grain size, and uniformly distributed
titanium particles. While there in forcement /matrix interfaces showed no reaction products, the layer interfaces
showed thin inter metallic bands. These brittle inter metallic bands were found to strongly affect the ductility of
the multi-layer composite friction deposits in the build direction. However, the composite friction deposits
performed satisfactorily in compression tests as well as ins ingle-layer tensile tests [39-46].
4. Fabricaton & Corrosion Behavior
The corrosion behaviour of unreinforced Al 6061 matrix alloy and its composites reinforced with TiC (2, 4
and 6 Wt %) were studied in chloride medium. The increased corrosion resistance in composites is believed to
be due to reinforcement particulates modifying the microstructure of matrix and also acting as physical barrier
to the initiation and development of pitting corrosion. The XRD and EDX analysis of all the composites
confirm the positive inclusion of the reinforcement particulates in the matrix alloy and also the presence of inter
metallic phases. SEM pictures reveal severe deterioration of the surface of both matrix alloy and its composites
of all the reinforcements [ 47] Aluminium and its alloys with copper, zinc, manganese, silicon, or magnesium
are the most popular non-ferrous matrix materials for the fabrication of metal matrix composites (MMCs).,
chassis, as well as advanced automotive components are exposed to a wide variety of corroding environment
[48].Alloys of Al reinforced with ceramic oxides, carbides, nitrides and mineral silicate particulates possess
attractive characteristics such as high specific modulus, high specific strength, low thermal expansion
coefficient, light weight and low cost and superior corrosion resistance [49]. Al-TiC composites are highly
expensive, because of tedious production process [50]. Studies on aluminium alloys reinforced with SiC [51],
Si3N4 [52], Al2O3 [53], TiC [54] and ZrB2 [55] report lower corrosion resistance for the composites compared
to matrix alloys, owing to galvanic corrosion. On the other hand, Al composites reinforced with garnet [56],
albite [57], quartz [58] and glass fibre [59] exhibited higher corrosion resistance compared to their matrix
alloys. Recent studies on the corrosion resistance of TiB2 particulate reinforced A356 alloy show a marked
decrease with increase in TiB2 content [60,61]. The corrosion resistance of Al-Mg and Al-Cu composites is
found to be higher than that of composites reinforced with mica particles [62]. The conflicting results can
possibly be explained by differences in fabrication methods and composition which yield dramatically different
electrochemical behavior [63]. Aluminum was melted by an induction furnace and then a mixture of salts
powder was added to it. Specimens of aluminum matrix composites containing various percentages of TiCs
were prepared [78, 79].
5. Wear Characteristc of Aa 6061 Matrix
Metal matrix composite (MMC) focuses primarily on improved specific strength, high temperature and wear
resistance application. Aluminum matrix reinforced with titanium carbide (AlTiCp) has good potential. The
498
Characteristic Behavior Effect of Al 6061 By.....

main challenge is to produce this composite in a cost effective way to meet the above requirements and
analyses reveal the improved specific strength as well as wear resistance [64]. Metal Matrix Composite:
Researchers in aerospace, marine and defence applications require a material which offers good specific
strength and wear resistance. Composite plays a vital role in modern material science, particularly in all types of
transportation, military and structural applications [65]. Aluminum matrix composite: Aluminum and its
alloys play an important role in the production of MMC. AMC materials have greater advantages in a wide
number of specific fields due to their high specific strength, stiffness, wear resistance and dimensional
stability[66]. In this present method suitable modifications were carried out on conventional stir casting method
to take care of the reaction of molten aluminum with atmosphere, segregation of reinforcing particles and
wettability. Controlled bottom pouring arrangement helps to regulate the molten metal flow. Earlier [67],
Magnesium alloySiCp reinforced infiltrated composite was produced by infiltration process. But, when
compared to the present method, particle infiltration is relatively a difficult process. Wear performance of TiC
as reinforcement of a magnesium alloy composite is recently reported. [68]. Reinforcement: In particulate
reinforced MMC, reinforcement is added to the matrix of the bulk material to increase its stiffness and strength
[6577].
6. Surface Roughness Behavor Al6061-Tic In-stu Metal Matrx
Al6061- TiC composite with 4 wt% TiC was produced by the reaction of halide salt K2TiF6 and C with the
molten aluminum. SEM and EDX tests were performed to know the presence of the TiC reinforcement [80-84]
stated that in-situ composites are having advantages like they are more homogeneous in their microstructure
and thermodynamically more stable and they are also have strong interfacial bonding between the
reinforcements and the matrix. Sai et al. [85] reported that the hardness of the base material is increased with the
increase in TiC wt%. Birol [86] made in-situ Al-TiC composite and investigated that TiC reinforcement
particles are created in a large number by the increase in melt temperatures by the addition of halide salt and
graphite powder. Yucel Birol [87] reported that salts generated while the formation of Al3Ti particles will clean
the surface oxides of the aluminium powders, and Al3Ti particles are gradually replaced by a fine dispersion of
TiC particles as soon and as long as solute Ti is made available via the solutionizing of Al3Ti particles over a
range of temperatures starting at 8000C. Keshavamurthy et al. [88] fabricated Al2024-TiB2 in-situ composite
by liquid metallurgy route using Al-Titanium and Al-Boron master alloys. Sai et al [89] investigated that the
increase in cutting speed increases the flank wear during turning of Al6061-TiC MMC. Shouvik Ghosh et al.
[90] carried out optimization study on wear behaviour of Al-7.5%SiC metal matrix composite by using L-27
orthogonal array. Anandakrishnan et al. [91] did machining investigations on in-situ Al6061-TiB2 composites,
and reported that the uniformly distributed fine TiB2 particles will improve the machinability. Senthil et al. [92]
did turning investigation on Al-Cu/ TiB2 and found that build-up-edge formation is more in the Al-Cu/ TiB2
than that of the base alloy. Sai et al. [93] reported that the values of cutting force and surface roughness are
increased by using uncoated tungsten carbide insert than that of PCD insert while machining Al6061-TiC
MMC. Pradeep et al. [94]. Surface roughness and flank wear Al6061-TiC composite with 2%TiC and 4%TiC
were produced by the reaction of K2TiF6 and C with the molten aluminium.. The cutting force and surface
roughness were less at higher cutting speeds. By the increase in cutting speed which increases the flank wear.
The increase in feed rate and depth of cut increases cutting force, surface roughness and flank wear [95].
7. Synthesis and Tribologcal Characterization of AlTiC Compostes
The AlTiC composites containing three different volume fractions 0.07, 0.12 and 0.18 of TiC have been
fabricated by in melt reaction method. Friction and wear characteristics of AlTiC composites have been
investigated under dry sliding and compared with those observed in pure aluminium [96]. Aluminium alloys
reinforced with ceramic particles such as SiC [97], TiC[98101], B4C [102], TiB2 [103,104], and Al2O3
[105,106], graphite [107] are currently being developed for various high performance applications. Ceramic
particles-reinforced aluminium MMCs fabricated by in situ processes are also being extensively studied due to
their potentially low fabrication cost. TiC particulate reinforced MMCs are very interesting because TiC is
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Dhakad et al.
thermodynamically stable and enhances the hardness and lightness of the composite. Sahoo and Kozack [98]
have synthesized TiC particles in aluminium melts by injecting CH4 gas into AlTi alloy melt and Nakata et al.
[101] have formed TiC particles by using a reaction between SiC particles and AlTi alloy melts. However, the
process of using a carbonaceous gas has some practical difficulties, such as a requirement of complicated
apparatus and a problem of controlling the volume fraction of TiC particles in the composite. Choh [108-110].
8. Formng Behavour of Al- TiC In-Stu Compostes
The forming behaviour of in-situ Al-TiC composites was investigated by comparingmicrostructure and
mechanical properties of as-cast, forged and rolled specimens. Themicrostructures of forged and rolled
specimens reveal uniform distribution of the TiC particles,which are responsible for the enhancement of the
tensile strength of the composite. The formed samples were found to be crack free. This feature is very likely to
be due to good interface bonding of uniformly dispersed sub-micron size TiC particles with the Al matrix [111115].
9. Conclusion
Review study concluded that wear rate decrease linearly with increase volume fraction of TiC and average
coefficient of friction also decrease linearly with increase normal load and volume friction of TiC.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Design & Development of a Fixture to Study

Biaxial Behavior of Engineering Materials
in Tension
Vijay Gautam, Rakesh Singla and Sunil Kumar
Abstract- The focus of this paper is to emphasize the need of the biaxial test that have been with primary focus
on sheet metal forming. Biaxial testing of metal is becoming dominant in sheet metal for establishing the
mechanical properties of the sheet material. The primary reason for using the biaxial tensile test, as opposed to
uniaxial test, is that metal in sheet form is highly anisotropic. The reason behind such a large variation in
properties is the use of forming process in manufacturing of the sheets. The uniaxial tensile test only determines
the properties in one direction and that data is not sufficient for multi-directional forming processes such as
deep drawing. Due to multi-directional loading the component fails at loads much less than that determined by
uniaxial test. This is the main reason to develop a fixture for biaxial testing. The device can also be used for
uniaxial testing by removing some linkages. This paper includes the design and analysis of the biaxial tensile
test fixture. A brief description of the rapid prototyping of the fixture is also presented.
Keywords- Uniaxial Tension Test; Biaxial Tension Test; Fixture; Anisotropy; Rapid Prototyping.
ntroducton There is a continuous effort in the automotive industries to improve the capabilities of
forming simulations in order to minimize the production costs of car components. This effort requires
improvements to the currently used continuum models, especially after the reports on unpredicted
damage-driven failures of the new advanced high strength steels like Tranformation induced plasticity (TRIP)
and dual-phase steels (DP) [1-2]. In the biaxial strain path, for example, it is observed for these metals that the
experimentally obtained fracture limit curve approaches the forming limit curve [3-4]. This type of damageinfluenced fracture sensitivity is not captured in the currently used models. Furthermore, it has long been
known that the formability limits of sheet metals are heavily dependent on the exact strain path that they follow,
as shown in fig. 1 [5].
Fig. 1 Forming limit diagram [5]

Vijay Gautam, Rakesh Singla, Sunil Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Assistant Professor, DTU New Delhi 110042,
vijay.dce@gmail.com, rakeshsingla19@gmail.com and sunil007mae@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
505
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Complex forming paths are frequently used in the industry to improve the formability of the sheets. However,
most forming simulations used in the industry are not equipped with suitable tools to accurately predict the
strain path dependency of the sheet to be formed. Improving the predictive capabilities of these models require
a better understanding the mechanical behavior of such metals [6]. Consecutively, techniques such as the out-of
plane bulge and punch tests and in-plane cruciform tests are commonly used in the industry to investigate these
effects[7-8]. However, both bulge tests and punch tests have significant limitations. For the punch test there are
always bending and friction effects, which makes it a challenge to accurately predict the exact stresses and
strains involved in the deformation process. For the bulge test there is no friction effect, bending however is still
to be taken into account together. In addition, high pressures are needed if sheet metals are to be tested to
fracture, which prevents miniaturization and severely complicate to the use of sensitive online microscopic
diagnostics. It is also noted that in general out-of-plane deformation tests are more complicated to monitor with
online full field measurements than in-plane tests. But most importantly, both punch and bulge test cannot be
used to investigate complex strain paths[9].
Bhatnagar et al. [10] developed a new biaxial tensile testing fixture for loading an in-plane reinforced composite
laminate in two principal directions. With advances in theoretical understanding, numerical capability, it is
now possible to create fixtures that can allow us to predict the strength of materials under multiaxial loads.
Experimental data however, still causes problem in comparison of theoretical data. Theoretical data is used for
homogenized techniques that can be re-evaluated and compared repeatedly, thereby not allowing further study
or understanding.
The present paper deals with the complete design of an innovative light weight fixture to be used in an 50kN
UTM (table top: make Tenius Olsen) to conduct equibiaxial tension tests. Due to simple geometry of the fixture
assembly, there is no pressure involved in this procedure. Hence, there is no danger of explosions or
uncontrolled fracture and necking propagation which occurs in other tests like Bulge Test. As the forces
involved are tensile in nature, the results are more accurate and simple to calculate. The specimen is not in
contact with any moving parts, hence there are no friction problems. The specimen of cruciform shape as per the
standard undergoes strain purely due to pulling action of the fixture in two principal directions. There is no slip
between specimen and jaws that hold it in place relative to the fixture assembly. The fixture distributes equal
stress in both principal directions; however, the ratio of stress in the direction cannot be changed. Only equal
stress in each direction can be carried out. Due consideration has been given to factor of safety to avoid the
failure of fixture.
2. Specmen Desgn for Baxal Test
The cruciform type [11] specimen design, as shown in Fig. 2, is selected for biaxial loading because it is simply
gripped in the fixtures loading arms and hence eliminating the problems of friction and bending which are the
main drawbacks of the Bulge test and punch draw tests. The another advantage of having cruciform type
specimen is that stain can be easily measured in both the principal directions of loading which is not possible in
punch tests. The extra fillet cut of 5mm are made at the corners of the specimen which reduces the stress
concentration and help in transferring the load applied on the central part of the specimen, avoiding the failure
of the arm under uniaxial loading.
Fig. 2 Cruciform shaped specimen for biaxial tensile testing [11]
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Design & Development of a Fixture to Study Biaxial.....

3. Desgn of Baxal Tensle Testng Fxture
The computer aided designed model of the fixture is shown in Fig. 3. The details of the variuos parts are given
below:
The base (1) is a solid cylinder with three mountings on top to assemble the rod and the test plate holding jigs.
The entire piece is made of high strength steel alloy. The upper frame (2) is the primary component that
distributes force in the fixture. Two arms at 30 angle to the vertical, and 60 angle between them. It is done so
that the component of force in the horizontal direction on one arm is half of that applied in the vertical. Rod (3)
are the members that connect the roller to the base. They also mount the slider. As there is no force being applied
on the base, the vertical force on the upper frame gets distributed in both arms equally, and thus, a net equal force
is obtained in the horizontal as well. Slots are cut into the arms to provide mounting for rollers . As the upper
frame moves upwards, the rods rotate about their respective hinges such that the horizontal displacement is half
of the vertical displacement. There is only a small section of the upper frame where this can happen. However,
since the motion in the fixture will be very less due to the nature of the test plates, the motion will be sufficient
for our purposes.
Rollers (4) are the components that are mounted in the slots of the Upper Frame. They rotate in the slot to
minimize sliding and prevent friction. They translate their motion. Sliders (5) are the components that mount
the hinges. They have a cylindrical slot for the rod. They can slide about the rod. This gives leeway when setting
Fig. 3 A CAD model of the fixture showing different parts

up the fixture for an experiment. Hinges (6) are mounted in the Sliders using a pin. They swivel about the slider
to help in setting up the experiment.
4. Fnte Element Analyss
This fixture mechanism consists large number of components. Simulating such a system not only requires
capturing the correct physical behavior but also using efficient techniques of analysis. Different levels of
abstraction modeling are appropriate for separate stages of the design process. Kinematics and initial sizing can
be studied using a partially rigid model, while final designs may be analyzed with completely meshed flexible
geometry. Softwares used for CAE are Ansys Workbench 15.0 and Abaqus 6.11.
FEA consists mainly three stages which are described below briefly: Pre processing, Processing (Analysis) and
Post processing .
The most important part of the analysis is to select a proper shape and number of element used to mesh the
component. In the analysis of the fixture the shape of the element selected is Tetrahedon. Tetrahedron elements
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are used everywhere in the model for meshing. Each part of the assembly is meshed with fully integrated
continuum 4-node C3D4 three- dimensional (3D) linear tetrahedron elements.
4.1 Loading and boundary conditions
The constrained in proper direction and of right type should be selected before applying the load. We have to
tell the FEA package where we want to apply loads and where we want to constraint the part or assembly. We are
assuming the factor of safety 2 for loading. we will operate the fixture at 50kN load so we are considering here
100 kN load. This tensile load is applied at top of the upper frame part. The bottom of the Base part is kept fixed.
All the part or links of the fixture need to be constrained with the help different type of joints like cylindrical,
spherical etc.
4.2 Linear Equation Solver Method
DIRECT SPARSE is the algorithm method used by the solver of Abaqus software by default to solve the linear
equations. This solver extracts the solutions by solving multiple linear equations simultaneously with the help
of matrices. Master stiffness equation is
Ku = f
Where K is the master stiffness matrix, f the vector of node forces and u the vector or node displacements. The
equation is solved for deformations. Using the deflection values, stress, strain, and reactions are calculated. All
the results can be used to plot graphic plots and charts.
For all the fixture components High Strength Steel is employed. Mechanical properties values of high strength
steel is assigned, such as Young's modulus of 200 GPa, Poisson's ratio of 0.3, Yield tensile strength of 250MPa
and Ultimate tensile strength of 460MPa.
The specimen material selected for simulation is aluminium1050. After the successful development and trial of
the fixture we can test different materials including composites. Aluminium alloy AA1050 with mechanical
properties as given below: Young's modulus=70 GPa, Poisson's ratio=0.33, Yield tensile strength=33MPa,
Ultimate tensile strength=69MPa and these properties were determined experimentally in uniaxial tension test.
4.3 Kinematic simulation of fixture
The kinematic simulation of the fixture is by using MBD Module (rigid dynamic) in the ANSYS workbench
15.0. All the links were defined with respect to each other with the help of connectors. The displacement of right
and left hinges was 2.57mm each when we provided a total displacement of 5mm to the upper frame. So the
velocities in both the directions is same (97%) and error is just 2.8% which is quite tolerable in such
experiments.
5. Rapd Prototypng of the Fxture
Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing (RP&M) technologies have emerged for quickly creating 3D products
directly from computer-aided design systems. These technologies significantly improve the present
prototyping practices in industries as well as for academic purposes. 3D printing is an additive manufacturing
(AM), refers to various processes used to synthesize a three-dimensional object. In additive manufacturing
processing, successive layers of material are formed under computer control to create the object. These objects
can be of almost any shape or geometry and are produced from digital model data 3D model or another
electronic data source.
5.1 The Basic Process of RP&M
A part is first modelled by a geometric modeler such as a solidworks modelling software. The part is then
mathematically sectioned (sliced) into a series of parallel cross-section pieces. For each piece, the curing or
binding paths are generated. These curing or binding paths are directly used to instruct the machine for
producing the part by solidifying or binding a line of material. After a layer is built, a new layer is built on the
previous one is the same way. Thus, the model is built layer by layer from the bottom to top. In summary, the
508

rapid prototyping activities consist of two parts: data preparation and model production.
6. Results and Dscussons
The fixture is the master component and should be rigid while testing the specimens in equibiaxial tension,
therefore the elastic deflection and the stress experienced by the components are designed to be the minimum.
The stress contours in the fixture are shown in Fig. 4. The maximum values of stresses in the fixture components
is 11 MPa & 6 MPa (shown in Fig.4) which are very well below the yielding stress of structural steel (250 MPa)
selected in the design.
Fig. 4 Stress contours of the fixture after simulation

The stress contours of the specimen under equibiaxial tenson is shown in Fig. 5. In the specimen, the maximum
equivalent Von-Mises stress value is 50 MPa (as shown in Fig. 5) which is above the yielding limit of
Aluminium (33 MPa), depicting that the specimen has been yielded and is about to reach its UTS value or the
state of instability. So All the deforming load is successfully transmitted to the testing specimen only and
necking seems to occur at the region near the fillets of the specimen.
Fig. 7 Equivalent stress contours of the specimen under equibiaxial tension

From the results it is evident that there is no plastic strain in the components of biaxial fixture. All the load is
transferred to the cruciform testing specimen and it undergone all the elastic as well as plastic deformation
depending on the loading conditions. As we can see from the stress & strain contours the middle region is under
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biaxial stresses. And area shown in red color is most prominent to fracture.
The maximum deformation causing elastic and plastic strain and stress in each part of the fixture as well as the
specimen is given in table 1. The upper frame of the fixture which is connected to the moving head of the UTM
experiences the maximum stress values and hence, the elastic deformation is maximum. The test specimen
under equibiaxial load has been elongated by 3.063mm in both the primary directions resulting in necking at the
center of the specimen.
Table 1 Simulation results
7. Conclusions
On the basis of the finite element simulations of the fixture designed for equibiaxial tension only, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1.
The design of the fixture is quite rigid and robust. The maximum values of Von-Mises stress in the fixture
components are well below the yielding stress of structural steel selected in the design.
2.
In the cruciform shaped specimen, the maximum equivalent Von-Mises stress value is 50 MPa which is
well above the yielding limit of AA1050 aluminium alloy, depicting that the specimen has been yielded
and is about to reach its UTS value or the state of instability. So All the deforming load is successfully
transmitted to the testing specimen only and necking seems to occur at the region near the fillets of the
specimen.
References
1.
Munera, D., Very and Ultra High Strength Steels Based Tailored Welded Blanks: A Step Further Towards
Crashworthiness Improvement. SAE 2006 World Congress & Exhibition, 2006. 2006-01-1213.
2.
Xu, W., et al., Tensile and fatigue properties of fiber laser welded high strength low alloy and DP980
dual-phase steel joints. Materials & Design, 2013. 43: p. 373-383.
3.
Nakazima, K. and T. Kikuma, Forming limits under biaxial stretching of sheet metals. Testu-to Hagane,
1967. 53: p. 455-458.
4.
Keeler, S.P., Determination of forming limits in automotive stampings. 1965, SAE Technical Paper.
5.
Holmberg, S., B. Enquist, and P. Thilderkvist, Evaluation of sheet metal formability by tensile tests.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2004. 145(1): p. 72-83.
6.
Kuwabara, T., A. Van Bael, and E. Iizuka, Measurement and analysis of yield locus and work hardening
characteristics of steel sheets wtih different r-values. Acta Materialia, 2002. 50(14): p. 3717-3729.
7.
Ranta-Eskola, A.J., Use of the hydraulic bulge test in biaxial tensile testing. International Journal of
Mechanical Sciences, 1979. 21(8): p. 457-465.
8.
Sowerby, R. and J.L. Duncan, Failure in sheet metal in biaxial tension. International Journal of
Mechanical Sciences, 1971. 13(3): p. 217-229.
9.
Zang, S.L., et al., Prediction of anisotropy and hardening for metallic sheets in tension, simple shear and
510
10.
11.
biaxial tension. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 2011. 53(5): p. 338-347.

Bhatnagar, N., et al., Development of a biaxial tensile test fixture for reinforced thermoplastic
composites. Polymer Testing, 2007. 26(2): p. 154-161.
Geiger, M., W. Huntter, and M. Merklein, Specimen for a novel concept of the biaxial tension test.
511
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Experimental Studies and Fe-Simulations on

Spring Back In U-bending of Deep Draw
Quality Steel Sheet
Abstract Bending is the most common process for sheet metal forming in which sheet metal is plastically
deformed by bending moment to form the required shape and is widely used in automobile and aerospace
industries. The bending of sheet metal is often associated with springback problem causing geometrical
changes in the bent part.In this research, the effects of anisotropy and punch profile radius on springback in Ubending of extra deep draw quality steel sheet of 0.8mm thickness are studied. The tensile specimens of the
sheet are tested as per ASTM-E8M standard to determine the various tensile properties. The bending
experiments are carried out on a selected material on a U-bending set up with three punch corner radii, designed
for a 50kN UTM. In order to determine the effect of anisotropy, the bend specimens are tested at 0, 45 and 90
to the rolling direction in plane strain condition. FE Simulations were performed using ABAQUS with the
material model as anisotropic to assess the effect of anisotropy on springback. The experimental results are in
close agreement withsimulation results.
Keywords: Sheet metal forming, Springback, anisotropy, FE-simulations, U-bending, plane strain condition.
ntroduction Bending is one of the most common processes for sheet metal forming, which is used not
only to form parts in different profiles, but also improves stiffness of apiece by increasing its moment of
inertia. Bending consists of uniformly straining flat sheets or strips of metal around a linear axis. During
the bending process, material's stress- strain curve traverses through the thickness of the sheet, leaving an
elastic core in the center of the bent sheet. On releasing of the bending force, the elastic core of the material has a
tendency to partially return to its original shape by dissipating elastic energy causing springback in the
part.Springback is influenced by the tensile strength, yield strength, blank geometry and tooling
design[1].There are different methods to compensate springback and attracted the many researchers to design
the components without springback [2-6]. If a desired size is to be achieved,if the deformation is extended by
anamount equal to the springback, the method is known as overbending [7].M. Bakhshi-Jooybari et al[8]
examined the effect of punch tip radius and sheet thickness on CK67 steel in both V and U die bending.
Ramezani et al[9]examined the effect of friction model on stress distribution of sheet material in V-die bending.
Gomes et al[10] simulated material models based on various anisotropic models and compared their results with
the experimental outcome to show the variation of spring-back with the orientation of anisotropic sheet in U-die
bending process. Eggertsen et al[11]studied the importance of the choice of yield criterion on springback in Udie bending. Li et al [12] also showed that the accuracy of spring-back simulation is directly affected by the
material-hardening model.
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042.
vijay.dce@gmail.com rajawat.jitendrasingh08@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
513
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Gautam and Rajawat
In this paper, experimental and numerical studies of the effects of significant parameters including sheet
anisotropy and punch corner radius on spring-back in U-die bending processes of deep drawn quality (DDQ)
steel sheet have been conducted. The results of the experiments were also compared with those of the finite
element simulations and are found to agree closely.
Experimental Procedure
Material characterization
The material was analyzed by a spectrometer in M/S Spectro Lab, Delhi, to determine the various
compositions. Tensile specimens of EDD qualitysteel sheet were laser cut in the direction 0, 45 and 90 to the
rolling direction, as per the ASTM E8M standard. To determine the mechanical properties, tensile specimens
were tested on 50kN UTM with a computer control unit installed [Fig.1]. To determine the plastic strain ratio, r,
the tensile specimens were elongated for 20 % of its gauge length using 50kN UTM provided with an standard
extensometer of 50 mm gauge length. The calculated material parameters are summarized in table
Fig. 1. 50kN-UTM-table top in Metal Forming Lab. at Delhi Technological University (DTU), Delhi
Fig.2. Engineering StressEngineering strain curve for steel showing variation in 0, 45 and 90 to
rolling direction.
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Experimental Studies and Fe-Simulations on Spring.....

Table 1: Mechanical Properties of the sheet material
1.Engineering stress engineering strain plot of EDDQ steel sheet in 0, 45 and 90 with respect to rolling
direction is shown in Fig. 2.Bending specimens in rectangular geometry (25150mm) were cut from the 0.8mm
thick sheets in direction 0, 45 and 90 to the rolling direction for U- bending experiments.
Sheet Anisotropy
The plastic properties of rolled sheets differ from the through thickness direction, normal anisotropy, and vary
with orientation in the plane of the sheet, planar anisotropy. At a given angle, to the rolling direction, the sheet
anisotropy is defined by the plastic strain ratio, r-value [8], which is
where w and t are the width and thickness strains of a uniaxial tension specimen cut at an angle, , to the
rolling direction, respectively. It should be noted that for thin sheets it is difficult to measure the thickness strain.
It is concluded from the constancy of volume that
Here l0 is initial gauge length,_l is final gauge length, w0 is initial width and w is final width of the tensile
specimen. Normal anisotropy R is the average plastic strain ratio in direction 0, 45 and 90 to rolling, and is
calculated using the formula given below [8]:
For the simulation of anisotropic sheets using ABAQUS, it is necessary to introduce the yield stress ratios, Rvalues as-
Where 11. 22, 33, and 13 are the yield stresses of rolling, thickness, transverse and diagonal direction.
_
= 11, is the yield stress in rolling direction of sheet. It is difficult to calculate the yield stress in thickness
orientation 22, hence to calculate the above yield stress ratio following expressions are used [9],
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Experimental setup
The experimental set up consists of a die and punch set with varying punch corner radii of 7.5mm, 10mm and
12.5mm to investigate the effect of punch profile radius on the springback of EDD steel. A clearance of 40% of
sheet thickness was adopted between the punch and the die to nullify the effect of shear stress on the specimen.
Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of U- die and punch sets. The die and punch sets, made of D2-steel, hardened and
tempered, were cut through wire-electric discharge machine. To install the U-die and punch set, the extended
portion of punch and die i.e. shank is gripped in the 50kN machine wedge grips [Fig.3]. The tests were
performed at a constant velocity of the cross head of 20mm/min. After placing the bending specimen on the die,
the punch speed was controlled with the cross head. The bending process was divided into two stages; in the first
stage, called loading, the punch moved down until it reached to a specific value, 50.8 mm which is the die depth.
In the second stage i.e. unloading, the punch is moved up to the original position. Experiments were repeated for
various punch profile radii and sheet orientations in U-die bending. The punch force and displacement data was
acquired using HORIZON-2012 software provided by M/STinius Olsen along with the computer controlled
50kN UTM-Table top as shown in Fig. 3.
Each experiment is repeated three times to take care of any scattering in result. Thus a total of 27 numbers of
experiments were performed. The effects of punch corner radii and anisotropy on spring-back were studied. A
vision inspection system as shown in Fig. 4, with probe based technique was used to measure the bend angles of
various samples with an accuracy of 5micron.
Fig. 3. Arrangement of the experimental set-up for U-bending.
516
Fig. 4.Vision inspection system for springback measurement at DTU.

Finite Element Simulation
The bending and spring-back simulation was done using the Finite element software, ABAQUS 6.10. Material
properties obtained from the tensile tests, were introduced in the material model based on Hill's anisotropy yield
criterion. The elastic constants i.e. young's modulus of elasticity (E) and poison's ratio () used in the model are
210GPa and 0.3 respectively. The plastic data of the steel obeying power law of hardening was directly taken from
data acquisition system of UTM ranging from yield true stress true strain to ultimate true stress true strain with an
initial plastic strain of zero value.
Bending Simulation
The model of die, punch, and blank were created in ABAQUS. The punch and die were created as analytical rigid
bodies, and the blank was as 2D deformable. In the model, the sheet is represented by a deformable mesh. CPE4R
elements are used to mesh the sheet. CPE4R is a 4- node bilinear plane strain quadrilateral, reduced integration,
hourglass control element. Plane strain condition in bending is due to the fact that the width of the work piece (25mm)
is considered to be much larger than the thickness (0.8mm). The coefficient of friction at the interface of tools and
blank was taken as 0.125. Fig. 5, shows the plastic deformation of blank in second stage of bending in simulation.Fig.
6, 7 and 8shows the overlay plot of bended blank with springback and without springback, for few cases, showing the
springback in simulation
Fig.5. Bending simulation of specimen in 2D

showing second stage of bending.
Fig.6. Overlay plot of springback in EDDQ steel

sheet at 0 rolling direction for punch corner radius
7.5mm considering anisotropy
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Fig.7. overlay plot of springback in EDDQ

steel sheet at 45 rolling direction for punch
corner radius 10mm considering anisotropy
Fig.8. overlay plot of springback in EDDQ

steel sheet at 90 rolling direction for punch
corner radius 12.5mm considering anisotropy
Table 2: Springback results for 0.8 mm thick sheet.
Fig.9. specimen after the bending experiment

Results and Discussion
The specimens after bending experiments are shown in Fig. 9. The EDD sheet metal is highly anisotropic and
the experimental results obtained by U bending operation [Table 2] clearly shows the effect of direction 0, 45
and 90 to rolling on springback. The springback obtained in all the three cases i.e. experimental, simulation
with anisotropy and simulation without anisotropy is maximum in 45 to the rolling direction, [Table 2]
suggesting that rolling direction must be known prior to design of tooling for the bending operation. It is a well
established fact that as the punch corner radius increases, springback in bending increases irrespective to the
orientation of the sheet metal. Simulation with anisotropy incorporated in material model shows higher
springback values than the simulation without anisotropy in the bent specimen.
518

The relationship between the punch force and punch travel is shown in Fig.10, which consists of four stages of
bending. In the first stage the specimen is bent elastically during which the punch movement is approx. 5mm.As
the punch travels further it forces the specimen to undergo second stage of bending i.e. plastic bending, during
which the punch force increases gradually to a maximum of 330N at a punch travel of approx.14-15mm and
then decreases gradually to a minimum due to slip of the specimen. Once the specimen is bent it slides down
inside the die under minimum constant punch force in third stage till it reaches to the bottom of the die. The last
stage is the bottoming of the punch during which the blank conforms to the shape of the die completely. The
same pattern of force Vs punch displacement is supported by the FE simulations.
Fig.10.Force-displacement diagram
It is shown in Fig. 11(a),(b) and (c) that as the punch profile radius increases, spring back increases. The similar
results are observed with all the specimens oriented along the RD, inclined to RD and transverse to RD. This
could be attributed to the extent of deformation in the respective profile radius.
(a) Orientation 0 to rolling direction
(b)Orientation 45 to rolling direction
Orientation 90 to rolling direction
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Fig.11. (a), (b) and (c) shows effect of punch corner radii and compare the experimental springback results,
simulation with and without anisotropy springback results at different orientations to rolling direction.
Conclusions
With reference to the above studies and results following conclusions are drawn:
1.
EDDQ steel sheet is found to be highly anisotropic with high strain hardening coefficient of 0.29
depicting good workability in cold forming.
2.
With increase in punch corner radii Springback increases in U-bending operation.
3.
FE simulations of bending experiments with and without anisotropy shows close agreement to the
experimental results, establishing that with incorporation of anisotropy in material model shifts the
simulation results close to the experimental values.
4.
The bending force is a function of punch travel and depends on strength of material, anisotropy, geometry
of specimen and punch corner radii. Punch force increases from zero to maximum and decreases to
nearly zero during sliding of the bent specimen to the bottom of the die and again increases sharply to a
peak value during conforming to the shape of the die.
References
1.
Burchitz, I.A., Improvement of springback prediction in sheet metal forming. 2008: University of
Twente.
2.
Lingbeek, R., et al., Iterative springback compensation of numisheet benchmark# 1. 2005, American
Institute of Physics. New York.
3.
Albut, A. and G. Brabie, The influence of the rolling direction of the joined steel sheets on the springback
intensity in the case of -shape parts made from tailor welded strips. Archives of Civil and Mechanical
Engineering, 2006. 6(3): p. 5-12.
4.
Raju, D.V. and D. Ravi Kumar. Finite element analysis of effect of planar anisotropy on springback in
plane strain bendingin International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and
Information in Engineering Conference. 2003. Chicago, Illinois, USA: ASME.
5.
Lee, M.-G., et al., Spring-back evaluation of automotive sheets based on isotropickinematic hardening
laws and non-quadratic anisotropic yield functions, part III: applications. International Journal of
Plasticity, 2005. 21(5): p. 915-953.
6.
Wagoner, R.H., H. Lim, and M.-G. Lee, Advanced Issues in springback. International Journal of
Plasticity, 2013. 45(0): p. 3-20.
7.
Hosford, W.F., Cadell, R. M., Metal forming- Mechanics and Metallurgy. Book. 2007: Cambridge
University Press.
8.
Bakhshi-Jooybari, M., et al., The study of spring-back of CK67 steel sheet in V-die and U-die bending
processes. Materials & Design, 2009. 30(7): p. 2410-2419.
9.
Ramezani, M., Z.M. Ripin, and R. Ahmad, Modelling of kinetic friction in V-bending of ultra-highstrength steel sheets. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2010. 46(1-4):
p. 101-110.
10. Gomes, C., O. Onipede, and M. Lovell, Investigation of springback in high strength anisotropic steels.
11. Eggertsen, P.-A. and K. Mattiasson, On the modelling of the bendingunbending behaviour for accurate
springback predictions. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 2009. 51(7): p. 547-563.
12. Wagoner, R. and M. Li, Simulation of springback: through-thickness integration. International Journal
of Plasticity, 2007. 23(3): p. 345-360.
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Energy Analysis and Parametric Study of

Flat Pate Collector Area of a Solar Driven
Water-Lithium Bromide Half Effect V Apour
Absorption Refrigeration System for a
Given Cooling Load
Abstract : In the modern times,Solar Cooling systems are becoming popular to reduce the carbon footprint of
air conditioning. The need and importance of solar based cooling system can play a very prominent role in
attenuating energy crisis by the use of solar energy. This paper presents the thermodynamic analysis and
calculation of flat plate collector area of vapour absorption half effect cooling system using sun as source of
energy.The cooling load is assumed to be 25 kW. The evaporator temperature is maintained constant at 7C and
condenser temperature is varied from 30C and 46C and generators temperatures are varied from 65 to 85 C.
For a given condenser temperature (say 38C) there is an optimum generator temperature for which the total
area flat plate collector is minimum. This optimum generator temperature comes out to be 80C. This generator
temperature gives the maximum COP which is obtained as 0.4158. For these values the Area of flat plate
collector on High Pressure side (Ah) is 130 m2.Area of flat plate collector on Low Pressure side (Al) is 154 m2.
Total Area of flat plate collector (A) is 284 m2.
Keywords-Half Effect, Energy Analysis, Vapour Absorption Refrigeration, Water-Lithium bromide, Flat plate
Collector. Solar Driven.
ntroduction At present, the conventional resources of energy are being reduced every day, led to the
researchers to identify the systems which use renewable sources of energy. The depletion of conventional
sources of energy not only increasing the cost of energy production but also polluting the environment in a
severe manner.The refrigeration and air conditioning systems have a major demand of the total energy
consumption of the world. The harmful emissions of fossil fuels and chlorine based refrigerants used are
responsible for the global warming and the ozone layer depletion. All these problems have led the scientists to
develop a refrigeration system which uses renewable sources of energy. The energy of the sun may be harnessed
Abhishek Verma
P.G. Student, Mechanical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road Delhi-110042
e-mail- abhishek.ret@gmail.com
Akhilesh Arora
Mechanical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road Delhi-110042
e-mail- akhilesharora@dce.ac.in
R.S. Mishra
Mechanical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road Delhi-110042
e-mail- rsmishra1651956@yahoo.co.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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to produce the refrigerating effect which reduces the dependency on high-grade energy and do not pollute the
environment.
The primitive characteristic of the half-effect absorption cycle is the running capableness at lower temperatures
compared to others. The name half-effect rising from the COP, which is almost half that of the single-effect
cycle. It must be eminent that COP of the half-effect vapour absorption system is comparatively less as it
discard more heat than the absorption cycle working on single-effect, it is approx..50%. However, it can be
work with the relatively low temperature heat origin.[1].
Gomri [2] simulated the operation of a half-effect absorption refrigeration system of 10 kW. The energy from
the sun is utilized to run the flat plate collector, which are used as the source of heat generation for the vapour
absorption refrigeration system. The system has two units, one unit is for the generation of heat which would be
utilized to run the second unit i.e. the absorption cooling unit.
Adhikari et al. [3] examined and evaluated the practicability of a vapour absorption refrigeration unit work on
solar Energy. The system was designed with the postulate of vapour absorption refrigeration cycle with Lithium
Bromide as an absorbing medium and water as a refrigerant.5 kW cooling load for the office building is
considered. The designed absorption refrigeration system has COP equitable to 0.77. It proved that the best
performance in terms of COP would be succeeded when operated at low generator temperature and the low
generator heat. Solar collector area to conduct system is 8 m2. On the increase of mass flow rate of the
refrigerant, the overall cooling effect increases, but the COP decreases. The absorption cooling system is an
alternative to the conventional vapour compression system.
Arora et al. [4] carried out the analysis of exergy and energy of half effect lithium bromide water vapor
absorption refrigeration system. The optimum intermediate pressure is evaluated to maximize the exergetic
efficiency and COP under different conditions. The optimum pressure for both maximum COP and exergy is
same. The calculation of optimum pressure involves the effect of high and low pressure temperatures of
generator, evaporator, difference of high and low pressure of generator and evaporator, effectiveness of heat
exchangers carrying strong and weak solution of Lithium bromide and water. The maximum COP obtained in
the range of 0.415 to 0.438,and the value of maximum efficiency is varied from 6.96 to 13.74%.
This paper presents the thermodynamic analysis and calculation of flat plate collector area of vapour absorption
half effect cooling system using sun as source of energy.
2. Thermodynamic Analysis of Half Effect System
The half-effect water-lithium (H2O-LiBr2) bromide vapour absorption refrigeration system, consists of an
condenser, evaporator, LP & HP generators, LP & HP absorbers, LP and HP solution heat exchangers, , solution
pumps and solution and refrigerant throttle valves. The condenser and HP generator work at same pressure
which is the maximum pressure of the system. The LP generator and HP absorber work at the same intermediate
pressure whereas the evaporator and the LP absorber work at same lowermost pressure of the system.
The refrigerant (i.e., water) is circulated through the condenser, evaporator, LP absorber, LP generator, HP
absorber, HP generator. When the water vapour has condensed in the condenser, it revert to the evaporator
through an expansion valve.
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Energy Analysis and Parametric Study of Flat Pate.....
Figure 1 -Block diagram of Half Effect Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
However, the absorbent that is the lithium bromide aqueous solution is circulated within two distinct stages i.e.
the LP stage between the LP generator and the LP absorber, and the HP stage between the HP generator and the
HP absorber. Compared to a single-stage vapour absorption refrigeration system, there are two additional
components namely LP generator and HP absorber, in a half effect system. These are utilized to concentrate the
lithium bromide aqueous solution in the LP stage cycle.
Table 1: p-t-x data for Half effect vapour absorption system
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2.1 Assumptions :
In direction to simulate these absorption refrigeration systems, several assumptions are made, comprehend the
succeeding. [5]:
The analysis of the system is prevailed under steady state conditions.
The refrigerant (i.e., water) at the exit of the condenser is assumed to be the saturated liquid.
The refrigerant (i.e., water) at the exit of the evaporator is assumed to be the saturated vapour.
The Lithium bromide solution at the exit of the absorber is a strong solution and it is at the absorber
temperature.
The exit temperatures from the generator and the absorber from corresponding to equilibrium
conditions of the separation and mixing particularly.
The pressure losses in the pipelines and all the heat exchangers are assumed to be negligible.
Heat exchange between the surroundings and the system, other than in that is prescribed by heat
transfer at the absorber, generator, condenser, evaporator, do not appear.
The reference state for the system is assumed water at an environment temperature To25C and 1
atmospheric pressure (Po).
The system exhibit chilled water.
The half effect system rejects heat to cooling water at the absorber and the condenser.
2.2 Mass Conservation:
The mass conservation law applied for each component is written as:
(1)
This law applied for each component of the cycle is written as:
.m1 = m2 = m3
(2)
m4 = m5 = m6
(3)
m7 = m8 = m9
(4)
m10 = m11 = m12
(5)
m13 = m14 = m15 = m16 = m17 (6)
.
m3 = m4 + m17
(7)
.
m9 = m10 + m13
(8)
2.3 Conservation of concentration:
The law justifying the concentration conservation for each component is written as:
(9)
Where m is the mass flow rate in the system and X the is mass concentration of lithium bromide in the solution.
The law is applied for each component of the cycle is written as:
m3X3 = m4X4
(10)
m9X9 = m10X10
(11)
X1 = X2 = X3,
(12)
X4 = X5 = X6,
(13)
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X7 = X8 = X9,
(14)
X10 = X11 = X12,
(15)
X13 = X14 = X15 = X16 = X17 = 0.
(16)
3. Calculation For The Half-Effect System (HVARS):
The computer program is coded in Engineering Equation Solver (EES) for the thermodynamic analysis of
HVARS.
In the analysis of this cycle the following assumption is considered
1. The pumping is isentropic
2. Across Solution expansion valve entropy change is neglected and temperature is also constant.
3.1 Input Parameters:
The following are the input parameters to half effect system:
Condenser Temperature
TC = 38oC
Evaporator Temperature
TE = 7oC
High Pressure side Generator Temperature Tgh = 80oC
Low Pressure side Generator Temperature
Refrigeration Capacity
Qe = 25 kW
Intermediate Pressure
Pi = 4.953 kPa
Effectiveness of high pressure side solution heat exchanger EHXh = 0.7
Effectiveness of low pressure side solution heat exchanger EHXl = 0.7
Tgl = 80oC
Tah = 38oC
Tah = 38oC
4. Calculation of Flat Plate Collector Area:

The area of the flat collector is calculated on the basis of the requirement of heat in the two generators. The heat
required in the two generators is calculated by the computer based EES program with input parameters given
above.
4.1 Flat Plate Collector Specifications:
Dimensions = 2.005mm x 1.505mm
Gross Area (AF) = 3 m2
Efficiency (K) = 0.85
Cost = Rs. 6000
The Energy absorbed by the flat plate collector is given as [8] :
Q = K x S xA
(17)
Where,
K = efficiency of collector plate (K = 0.85)
S = average solar heat falling on earth's surface = 6 kwhr/ m2/day = 250 W/m2
A=Area of Flat Plate collector .
4.2 Calculation Of Area Of Flat Plate Collector For High Pressure Generator :
Heat required in the high pressure generator of the system,
Qgh = 27.48 kW = 27480 W
by
= 27480 / (250 K)= 27480 / (250 0.85)
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= 129.32 m2(i.e.,130 m2)
Area of Flat Plate collector used in high pressure side (Ah) = 130 m2
4.3 Calculation Of Area Of Flat Plate Collector For Low Pressure Generator :
Heat required in the low pressure generator of the system,
Qgl = 32.65 kW (i.e, 32650 W)
by
= 32650 / (250 K)= 32650 / (250 .85)
= 153.6 m2(i.e.,154 m2)
Area of Flat Plate collector used in Low pressure side (Al)= 154 m2
4.4 Total Area Of Flat Plate Collector (A) :
A = Ah + Al
A = 130 + 145
A = 284 m2
4.5 Number Of Flat Plate Collectors Required :
Number of Flat Plate Collectors required in High Pressure Side (N1)
N1 = Ah/ AF = 130/3 = 43.33
N1 = 44 Plates
Number of Flat Plate Collectors required in Low Pressure Side (N2)
N2 = Al/ AF = 154/3 = 51.33
N2 = 52 Plates
5. Results :
The variation of various parameter with respect to generator temperature (TG in C) at different temperature of
condenser (TC ) is shown as :
5.1 COP:
The variation of COP with generator temperature is shown in Figure 2. The high values of COP are hold at high
generator temperature and low condenser temperature. For a assumed condenser and evaporator temperature,
there is a minimum temperature of generator, which address to the maximum COP. It should be noticed that the
COP initially show the significant increase with an increase of generator temperature, and then the slope of the
COP curves gets almost flat. In other words, increasing the generator temperature higher than a fixed value does
not contribute to much improvement for the COP.
Figure 2 -Coefficient of performance (COP) versus

generator temperature (TG in C) and condenser
temperature (TC) at (TE = 7C)
526
Figure 3 Area of flat plate collector on High Pressure

side (Ah in m2) versus generator temperature (TG in C)

5.3 Area of flat plate collector on Low Pressure side (Al) :
The variation of Area of flat plate collector on low pressure side is shown in Figure 4. The Al of the absorption
cooling system drops keenly to a minimum value with an increase in temperature of generator and then further it
approximately remains constant. In the present study, where the evaporator temperature is maintained fixed at
7C and condenser temperature is 38C, generators temperature is 80C the value of Al is 154 m2.
Figure 4 Area of flat plate collector on Low Pressure side

(Al in m2) versus generator temperature (TG in C)
Figure 5 Total Area of flat plate collector (A in m2 )

versus generator temperature (TG in C) and
condenser temperature (TC) at (TE = 7C)
5.4 Total Area of flat plate collector (A) :

The variation of Total Area of flat plate collector is shown in Figure 5. The A of the absorption cooling system
drops keenly to a minimum value with an increase in temperature of generator and then further it approximately
remains constant. In the present study, where the evaporator temperature is maintained fixed at 7C and
condenser temperature is 38C, generators temperature is 80C the value of A is 284 m2.
6. Conclusions:
The main results obtained are concluded below:
Higher temperature of evaporator and generator, results in higher COP of the system due to the fact that as
generator temperature increases, the heat transfer to the solution available in the generator increases, which
results in the increase of mass flow rate and so does the COP.
For the given temperature of condenser there is an optimum temperature of generator for which the total
area flat plate collector is minimum. This optimum generator temperature comes out to be 80C. This
generator temperature gives the maximum COP.
There exists a specific generator temperature below which a half effect system ceases to work. In the
present work, this value is found to be 67.51C, corresponding to an intermediate pressure of 4.953 kPa (for
TC = Tal =Tah = 38C, TE = 7C and Tgh = Tgl = 80C).
For these values the Area of flat plate collector on High Pressure side (Ah) is 130 m2.Area of flat plate
collector on Low Pressure side (Al) is 154 m2. Total Area of flat plate collector (A) is 284 m2.
References :
[1]
Abdulateef, J.M., 2008, Review on solar-driven ejector refrigeration technologies. Renew
SustainEnergy Rev.
[2]
RabahGOMRI , (2010). Solar Energy to Drive Half-Effect Absorption Cooling System, Int. J. of
Thermal & Environmental Engineering, Volume 1, No. 1 , 1-8.
[3]
Jhalak Raj Adhikari, BivekBaral, Ram Lama, BadriAryal, and Roshan Khadka , 2012, Design and
analysis of solar absorption air cooling system for an office building Design and analysis of solar
absorption air cooling system for an office building, Rentech Symposium Compendium, Volume 2,
December.
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[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
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Akhilesh Arora, Manoj Dixit, and S.C. Kaushik, 2016, Computation Of Optimum Parameters Of A
Half Effect Water-Lithium Bromide Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System, Journal of Thermal
Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 683-692, April.
Saeed. Sedigh , Hamid. Saffari, 2011, Thermodynamic Analysis Of Single Effect And Half Effect
Absorption Refrigeration Systems, International Journal of Energy & Technology Vol. 3 pg 1-9.
Absorption Chillers and Heat Pumps, Second Edition, By Keith E. Herold, ReinhardRadermacher,
Sanford A. Klein, 1994.
Jianzhao Wang, Danxing Zheng ,2009, Performance of one and a half-effect absorption cooling cycle
of H2O/LiBr system, Energy Conversion and Management Vol. 50, pg 30873095.
V.K.Bajpai, 2012, Design of Solar Powered Vapour AbsorptionSystem Proceedings of the World
Congress on Engineering 2012 Vol IIIWCE 2012, July 4 6, London, U.K.
Refrigeration And Air Conditioning, Third Edition, published by Tata McGraw-Hill Education private
Limited, 2012 By C.P. Arora.
Z.F. Li, K. Sumathy, 2000, Technology development in the solarabsorption air-conditioning systems,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 4 pg 267293.
V Mittal, K S Kasana and N S Thakur, 2006, Modelling and simulation of a solar absorption
coolingsystem for India, Journal of Energy in Southern Africa Vol 17 No 3 August.
K. Sumathy , Z. C. Huang And Z. F. Li , 2002, Solar Absorption Cooling With Low Grade Heat Source
A Strategy Of Development In South China, Solar Energy Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 155165.
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Key Technologies of using Hydrogen as a

IC Engine Fuel in Indian Scenario
Abstract- Hydrogen fuels are most promising and clean fuel in future most effective environment friendly fuel,
and its benefits are remarkable for cleaning the environment. This article is based on hydrogen benefits and
technique of storage, sustainability in future scope. Increasing the price of conventional fuel, rate of increasing
the Green House Gasses and energy security concerns so moving towards to the alternative fuels. Key
Technologies of using Hydrogen as a IC Engine Fuel in Indian perspective are discussed in this paper.
Keywords- Hydrogen; Fuel Cell; Gasification; Hythane
ntroduction As using the conventional fuels since the eighteen century, the fuels are about to end and the
level of emission is tremendously increased. We have started move towards to direction of non
conventional fuels, hydrogen comes for more promising fuel which is more efficient, reliable also
odourless, colourless fuel. Hydrogen has been introduced to engine as a fuel since 1920s(1) . The energy
content in terms of mass 120.7 MJ/kg. Particularly GHGs is coming from automobile and commercial
industries which play the major role for increasing emission,petroleum fuels, hydrogen is clean (pollution free),
renewable and environmentally friendly. When it burns, it releases only water vapour into the environment.
There are no spilling or pooling concerns because it dissipates quickly into the atmosphere [2] Hydrogen is an
ideal fuel and versatile energy carrier, and its advantages are summarized as below [3]:
(a) Easy to produce.
(b) Convenient fuel for transportation.
(c)Versatile, converts easily to other energy forms at the user end.
(d) High utilization efficiency.
(e) Environmentally compatible (zero- or low-emission).
The Hydrogen energy is the only renewable energy which can provide clean commercial energies, the
electricity and the fuel for transport which is to obtained from the chloral alkali industries, petroleum
refineries& fertilizer plants,Production of hydrogen is still limited [4]. Hydrogen from coal gasification may be
equally undesirable because of its high emissions when carbon sequestration is not used, Hydrogen from
nuclear power has much lower emissions than electrolysis, Gasification has been shown to exhibit an economy
of scale and is a suitable conversion technology for large demand centers [5].
However, several barriers have to be overcome before hydrogen electric vehicles can be put into large-scale
practical utilization. One of the most severe challenges is the lack of a safe and efficient onboard storage

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Main Bawana Road, Delhi, India
(guru.singh1111@gmail.com, amitpal@dce.ac.in)
Corresponding Author; Gurpreet Singh, Tel: +91 8802774224,
E Mail : guru.singh1111@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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technology, which may dramatically influence the vehicle's cost, range, performance, and fuel economy, as
well as shape the scale, investment requirements, energy use, and potential emissions of a hydrogen-refueling
infrastructure. That is to say, the development of onboard storage technology will directly determine the
schedule of hydrogen-powered vehicles into the market[6].
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Industrial benefits
2.1.1. Efficient way by using internal combustion engine (ICE)
Hydrogen fuelled have two ways of running in vehicle .One that have an internal combustion engine with a
hydrogen fuel tank. Other is that runs on hydrogen fuel cells .With the concern of the foreseen reduction in fossil
fuel resources and stringent environmental constraints, the demand of improving internal combustion (IC)
engine efficiency and emissions has become more and more pressing. Hydrogen has been proved to be a
promising renewable energy that can be used on IC engines[7] . for an S.I. engine can be classified into four
categories such as Carburetion, Inlet Manifold Injection, Inlet Port Injection and Direct Cylinder Injection.
These conventional methods of 'FIT' could also be applied to engine operation with a non-conventional
alternative fuel, such as hydrogen.[8] Due to the high autoignition temperature of hydrogen (approximately 858
K)[7].Hydrogen possesses many unique combustion properties that benefit the engine efficiency and emissions
performance. The diffusion coefficient of hydrogen (0.61 cm2/s) is about four times as large as that of gasoline
(0.16 cm2/s), which improves the mixing process of fuel and air, and also helps in improving the homogeneity
of the combustible mixture. The adiabatic flame speed of hydrogen (237 cm/s) is five times as large as that of
gasoline (42 cm/s) which may contribute to improving the engine operating stability. Meanwhile, the high
adiabatic flame speed of hydrogen indicates that the combustion of hydrogen engines is much closer to ideal
constant volume combustion, which is beneficial for higher thermal efficiency [9]. The combustion of
hydrogen with air however can also pro-duce oxides of nitrogen NOx & it's the only pollutant of concern from
the hydrogen engine has been restricted under 100ppm by lean operation strategy[10].
Hydrogen applications, besides industrial application, cover power generation, transport applications and heat.
However, when compared to other alternatives, use of hydrogen in transport sector appears to be more
beneficial as it is possible to store hydrogen on-board.
In view of its unique properties, large-scale use of hydrogen in transport sector can help India in achieving
energy security through reduction in import of fossil fuels and also reduction in the urban air pollution.
Therefore, it is necessary to develop hydrogen energy technologies for large-scale use especially for the
transport sector[11]. In contrast, hydrogen tends to dissociate on metal surfaces, diffusing into the metal as a
single atom. As hydrogen diffuses into the metal, it interacts with the microstructure affecting properties such as
ductility, fracture resistance, and fatigue crack growth; these interactions are generically referred to as
hydrogen embrittlement[12]. Hydrogen in materials can evolve from many sources, including corrosion,
electrochemical environments and ambient moisture, as well as direct exposure to environments containing
gaseous or liquid hydrogen, such as storage and distribution of hydrogen fuels[13].
2.1.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Hybrid renewable energy concept in taking new energy source for participating in reduction the emission
.Using the Photovoltaic fuel cell hybrid system ,an alkaline Electrolyser produces hydrogen which is stored in a
LaNi5 type Metal Hydride. The hydrogen stored is utilized by fuel cell to generate DC power. Fuel Cell inverter
then converts DC power into AC power.
This hydrogen power generation system is integrated with the PV system to form the hybrid PV-FC system[14].
Its clean , high Efficiency, silent and vibration free and reliable benefits makes the good source of fuel.
530
Key Technologies of using Hydrogen as a IC......
Fig.1: Hydrogen Generation System

2.1.3 Hythane
In this context, introduced simulated the Hydrogen and methane ,Gaseous biofuels have superior energy
balances, offer greater greenhouse gas emission reductions and produce lower pollutant emissions than liquid
biofuels[15]. In 2008 india adopts Hythane as natural gas regulations planned for augest 2009[16]. This is low
cost technology which is proven over twenty-five year, cheapest way to meet new emission standard.
3. Biohydrogen Production using Gasification
India has the highest number of biomass gasification units of any nation nearly all of these are used for
electricity production in rural areas. Other common feedstocks used in Indian gasification units include rice
straw, rice husk, cotton stalk, and mustard husk[17]. One benefit of gasification is it offers higher daily
production capacity than other biomass to hydrogen pathways like anaerobic digestion, biophotolysis, and
fermentation and therefore could potentially be used to meet large-scale energy demand [18]. The National
Academy of Science declared that hydrogen from biomass gasification could play a significant role in meeting
the DOE's goal of greenhouse gas mitigation [19].
Table1:Hydrogen vs. other conventional fuels
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Singh and Pal
3. 2 Methanol
Use of methanol is one of the common methods of hydrogen production which is done with the help of reformer,
where it yields CO,CO2 and H2 gas[20]. As per current statistics, 48% of current hydrogen production comes
from natural gas, 30% from oil, 18% from coal and 4% from electrolytic[21]. The generation of hydrogen
from diverse domestic resources can reduce the demand for oil by more than 11 million barrels per day by the
year 2040, which will require us to convert current gasoline stations to hydrogen stations. The department of
energy (DOE) has suggested that the gravimetric density should reach 9 wt% and the volumetric capacity
should be 81g of H2/L [22]
3.2 Benefits with Hydrogen Storage Techniques
Storage is a key issue for the hydrogen economy. It cuts across the production, distribution, safety and
applications aspects [23-24]. Hydrogen energy is very efficient fuel source than traditional sources of energy
and produces more energy per pound of fuel. This clearly means that a car loaded with hydrogen fuel with go
much farther than the one using same amount of traditional source of energy. In fact, hydrogen is three times as
powerful as gasoline and similar fossil fuels, meaning it takes less of it to accomplish more. Storage of
hydrogen in chemical compounds offers a much wider range of possibilities to meet the transportation
requirements, but no single material investigated to date exhibits all the necessary properties.
One gram of hydrogen gas occupiesw11 L (2.9 gallons) of space at STP, so storage implies a need to reduce the
enormous volume occupied by hydrogen. All the practical storage options have disadvantages, but still, the
most promising appears to be hydrides. A viable means of hydrogen storage excludes inefficient and risky highpressure cylinders, expensive cryogenic cylinders and all covalent hydrocarbon compounds[4]. The technical
targets for on board hydrogen based light duty vehicles are given in These vehicles should possess an ability to
store56 kg of hydrogen which will be required to cover an area of around300350 mile.
Table 2. Department of Energy's technical targets for on board hydrogen systems .
Adapted from Ref [26-27]..
hydrogen can be stored in three forms gaseous, liquid or as a solid combined with a metal hydride.
3.2.1 Intermetallic Hydrides
Hydrides hold promise for safe mode of hydrogen storage[4]. and release it later, either at ambient temperature
or through heating of the tank. Intermetallic hydrides possess hydrogen storing capacity of 57 wt% [25]. The
addition of transition metal such as Ti to sodium alanate(NaAlH4), in which Ti stays on the surface and
substitutes for Na ion ,tends to attract a large number of H atoms to its vicinity[28]. Mg2NiH4 attracts wide
532
interest for being a promising hydrogen storing material due to its relatively high capacity, lowcost, light weight
and low-toxicity and for its unusual structural and bonding properties[29,30].
3.2.2 Carbon Nanomaterials
Porous carbon structure is another interesting system for hydrogen adsorption [31]. Hydrogen gets adsorbed on
the surface of carbon through Van der Waals bonding (_6 kJmol_1).Nanotubes. Carbon Nano tubes (CNTs) are
micro scopic tubes of carbon [32]. Many improvements have been achieved in synthesizing microporous
carbonaceous materials with very high hydrogen adsorption properties [33-34] .CNTs and bucky balls have
been modified by transition metals or alkali metals in order to increase the binding of H2 molecules on to metalCNT hybrids [35]. Since H2 molecules at elevated pressures on a solid surface are expected to form a closepacked configuration [36]. Addition of nanostructured graphite to the LiBH4 system can effectively improve
the dehydrogenation kinetics and cyclic stability [37].
Conclusion
Dependency of the fossil fuel on the industrial sector is decreasing with increasing of renewable energy.
Hydrogen must be the primary fuel in future for reducing the emission level and will able to live in clean
atmosphare, few things of benficial resulted concluded that the their use in automobile industry and storage
techniques participating good role globally.
Reference
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Norbeck JM, Heffel JW, Durbin TD, Tabbara B, Bowden JM, Montano MC. Hydrogen fuel for surface
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Zuttel A, Borgschulte A, Schlapbach L. Hydrogen as a future energy. Weinheim: Carrier Wiley-VCH
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Veziroglu TN, Barbir F. Hydrogen: The wonder fuel. Int J Hydrogen Energy;vol. 17,pp.391401, 1992
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M. Sterlin Leo Hudson, P.K. Dubey, D. Pukazhselvan, Pandey S.K , Singh R.K , Raghubanshi H,
Rohit. R. Shahi,Srivastava O.N. Hydrogen energy in changing environmental scenario: Indian context,
i n t e r n a t i onal j o u r n a l o f hydrogen energy vol.34, pp.7358 7367, 2009.
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National Academies of Science (NAS). The Hydrogen Economy - Opportunities, Costs, Barrriers, and
R&D Needs, National Research Council and National Academy of Engineering, Editor. National
Academies Press: Washington, DC, pp. 256,2004.
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Cheng H.M, Yang Q.H , Chang Liu. Hydrogen storage in carbon nanotubes , Carbon vol. 39 pp.
14471454, 2001.
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Szwaja S, Karol G.R. Hydrogen combustion in a compression ignition diesel engine, international
journal of hydrogen energy,Vol. 34 , pp. 4413 4421 ,2009.
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Das L.M. Fuel induction techniques for a hydrogen operated engine Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 15,
No. 11, pp. 833-842, 1990.
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Das LM. Hydrogenoxygen reaction mechanism and its implication to hydrogen engine combustion.
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy Vol. 21,pp.70315,1996
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Changwei Ji, Shuofeng Wang. Effect of hydrogen addition on combustion and emissions performance
of a spark ignition gasoline engine at lean conditions, i n t e r national journa l o f hydrogen energy,
Vol.34, 7823 78 34,2009
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National hydrogen energy road map mnre. 2006,
h t t p : / / m n r e . g o v. i n / f i l e manager/UserFiles/abridged-nherm.pdf
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San Marchi C, Somerday BP. Technical reference for hydrogen compatibility of materials. SAND
2012 e7321. Sandia National Laboratories, 2012.
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C. San Marchi a, E.S. Hecht a, I.W. Ekoto a, K.M. Groth b, C. LaFleur b, B.P. Somerday a, R.
Mukundan c, T. Rockward c, J. Keller d, C.W. James. Overview of the DOE hydrogen safety, codes and
standards program, part 3: Advances in research and development to enhance the scientific basis for
hydrogen regulations, codes and standards, i n t e r n a t i o n a l journal of hydrogen energy 1e12, 2016.
L.M. Das, Dutta V. Hydrogen energy activities in India , i n t e rna t i onal journal o f hydrogen energy
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Ao Xia a,b, Jun Cheng c, Jerry D. Murphy. A Innovation in biological production and upgrading of and
hydrogen for use as gaseous transport biofuel, Biotechnology Advances Vol. 34,pp. 451472, 2016.
Das L.M. Hydrogen vehicle and fuelling infrastrutre in India.2009, http://energy.gov/sites/prod/fi
les/2014/03/f10/cng_h2_workshop_11_das.pdf
Hydrogen Energy Board Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Government of India,
http://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/abridged-nherm.pdf
Morrison G, Kumar R, Chugh S, Puri S.K,Tuli D. K, Malhotra R. K.. The institue of transporation
studies, file:///C:/Users/gurpreet/Downloads/2011-UCD-ITS-RR-11-09%20(1).pdf
Singh J, Gu S. Biomass conversion to energy in India A critique. Renewable and Sus-tainable Energy
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Energy Information Administration (EIA). The impact of increased use of hydrogen on petroleum
consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. SR-OIAF-CNEAF/2008-04,2008,
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Yang J, Sudik A ,Wolverton C ,Siegel DJ .High capacity hydrogen storage materials: attributes for
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pp.65675.
Wang L, Yan R T. News or bents for hydrogen storage by hydrogen spill overa review. Energy
Environ Sci 2008,Vol. pp.26879.
Berry G D, McAceves S M. The case for hydrogen in a carbon constrained world. J Energy Resour
Technol Vol.127, pp.8994,2005.
Schlapbach L, Zuttel A.Hydrogen-storage materials for mobile applications. Nature,Vol. 414, pp.
3538, 2001.
Schulz R, Huot RJ, Liang G, Boily S, Van Neste A. Structure and hydrogen sorption properties of ball
milled Mg dihydride, MaterSci Forum, pp. 312 314 :61522,1999.
Niaz S ,Manzoor T, Pandith A.H. Hydrogen storage:Materials, methods and perspectives, Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews,Vol. 50, pp.457-469, 2015.
Bouza A, Read C.J ,Satyapal S, Milliken J .Annual DOE hydrogen program review,hydrogen
storage,office of hydrogen,fuel cells, and infrastructure technologies , 2004.
Iniguez J, Yildirim T. Structure and hydrogen dynamics of pure and Ti-doped sodium alanate. Phys
Rev B. Vol.70:060101,2004.
Orimo S,Fujii H. Materials science of MgNi-based new hydrides. ApplPhys A. Vol.72 pp.16786,
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SatoT ,Blomqvist H ,Noreus D.Attempts to improve Mg2Ni hydrogen storage by aluminium addition.
JAlloys Compds 2003;356357:4946.
Zubizarreta L, Arenillas A, Pis JJ. Carbon materials for H2 storage. Int J Hydrogen Energy.Vol. 34,pp.
457581,2009.
Darkrim F L , Malbrunot P ,Tartaglia G P .Review of hydrogen storage by adsorption in carbon
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Froudakis G E. Hydrogen interaction with carbon nanotubes: a review of ab initio studies. J Phys:
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nanofibres prepared through palladium catalyst assisted thermal cracking of acetylene. J Alloy Comp
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Chen P ,Wu X ,Lin J ,Tan K L. High H2 uptake by alkali-dopedcarbonnanotubes under ambient
pressure and moderate temperatures Science Vol. 285 pp. 913,1999.
Dresselhaus M S, Williams K A, Eklund P C. Hydrogen adsorption in carbon Materials. MRS Bull.
Vol. 24,pp. 4550,1999.
Wang K , Kang X, Ren J, Wang P ,Nanostructured graphite-induced destabilization of LiBH4 for
reversible hydrogen storage, Journal of Alloys and Compounds pp.685:242e247,2016.
535
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Optimization of EDM Process Parameters with

Al-8% SiC Composite Produced by Stir
Casting Route
Pankaj Kumar Sharma, Vijay Gautam and Atul Kumar Agrawal

Abstract - AluminumSilicon Carbide composites have applications as industrial furniture, pans, covers,
casings, highway signs, pulleys, ducts, manifolds, valve covers, brake rotors, and engine blocks in automotive
sectors. Al-8%SiC composite is electrically conductive and can be processed by Electrical Discharge
Machining. In EDM, metal removal rate, surface finish and tool wear rate play significant role. Everyone wants
to optimize these performance measures. Significant machining parameters affecting the performance
measures are identified as discharge current and dielectric flushing pressure. Orthogonal array L9 has been used
to get optimal setting of control factors viz. current and dielectric flushing pressure for maximization of metal
removal rate and surface finish. The study demonstrates that the EDM process parameters can be adjusted to
achieve better metal removal rate and surface finish. In this paper, the relationships between control factors and
performance measures like MRR and SF have been established.
Keywords EDM; Orthogonal Array; Al-SiC Composite; Metal Removal Rate and Surface Finish.
ntroduction In the continuing quest for improved performance, which may be specified by various
criterion including lower cost, more strength, higher stiffness, higher hardness, and less weight,
conventional materials frequently reach the limit of their usefulness. Thus materials engineer and
scientists are always striving to produce either improved traditional materials or completely new materials.
Composites are an example of latter category [1]. Aluminum- Silicon carbide composite is metal matrix
dispersion strengthen composite in which soft and ductile aluminium matrix is strengthen by hard and brittle
silicon carbide particles. Incorporation of silicon carbide particles into pure aluminium brings significant
changes in some of its core properties like hardness, stiffness, strength, wear resistance. Discontinuous
reinforced aluminium (DRA) composites have been developed in the past two decades for various automobile,
aerospace, electronic packaging and other structural applications [2]. Complicated prcised parts are used into
aerospace and automotive sectors. EDM can be used for manufacturing of such parts. Al-8%SiC composite is
electrically conductive and can be processed by Electrical Discharge Machining. EDM is the thermal erosion
process in which metal is removed by a series of recurring electrical discharges between a cutting tool acting as
an electrode and a conductive workpiece, in the presence of a dielectric fluid. This discharge occurs in a voltage
gap between the electrode and workpiece. Heat from the discharge vaporizes minute particles of workpiece
Pankaj Kumar Sharma
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Research Scholar, DTU, Delhi-110042, India
erpankajsharma719@gmail.com
Vijay Gautam and Atul Kumar Agrawal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Assistant Professor, DTU, Delhi-110042, India
vijay.dce@gmail.com, akadce@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
537
Sharma et al.
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material, which are then washed from the gap by the continuously flushing dielectric fluid [3, 4].
Fig. 1 Basic working principle of EDM process

The most important performance measures in EDM are metal removal rate, surface finish, and tool wear.
They depend on machining parameters like discharge current, pulse duration, pulse frequency and dielectric
flow rate. For the setting of the machining parameters, the goal is in three fold: the maximization of MRR,
maximization of SF, and minimization of Tool wear. This process relies heavily on the experience of the
operators. In practice, it makes very difficult to utilize the optimal functions of a machine owing to there being
too many adjustable machining parameters. With a view to alleviate this difficulty, a simple but reliable method
based on statistically designed experiments is suggested for investigating the effects of various process
parameters on MRR, SF and determines optimal process settings. The Taguchi method, a powerful
experimental design tool, uses simple, effective, and systematic approach for deriving of the optimal machining
parameters. [5]
2.0 Materials and Method
2.1 Matrix Material
In this paper pure aluminum (> 99% Al) is selected as a matrix metal. Aluminum is a relatively soft, durable,
lightweight, ductile, and malleable metal.
2.2 Silicon Carbide
Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound of carbon and silicon. It was originally produced by a high
temperature electro-chemical reaction of sand and carbon. Silicon carbide is an excellent abrasive. Now days,
the material has been developed into a high quality technical grade ceramic with very good mechanical
properties. It is used in abrasives, refractories, ceramics, and numerous high-performance applications. Silicon
carbide is composed of tetrahedra of carbon and silicon atoms with strong bonds in the crystal lattice. This
produces a very hard and strong material. The high thermal conductivity coupled with low thermal expansion
and high strength gives this material exceptional thermal shock resistant qualities.
2.3 Manufacturing of Al-8% SiC Composite
Low cost stir casting route is evaluated for use in the manufacturing of Al- 8% SiC composite. Stir Casting is a
liquid state method of composite manufacturing, in which a dispersed phase is incorporated with a molten
matrix metal by means of mechanical stirrer. For manufacturing of composite, 8 wt% of silicon carbide
particles (below100 m) has been added to molten aluminium with the help of mechanical stirrer.
538
Optimization of EDM Process Parameters with......

2.4 Mechanical Properties of Al-8% SiC Composite
Table1. Mechanical Properties
3. Electric Discharge Machining of Al-8% Sic Composite

EDM of manufactured Al-8% SiC composite is carried out on Victory Electromech's T-3822M model, the input
parameters to be chosen from a limited set of possible values. The analysis of observations was made using the
popular software specifically used for design of experiment applications known as MINITAB 15.
3.1 Optimization of EDM Process parameters using Taguchi method:
A key premise of Taguchi method is that society incurs a loss any time a product whose performance is not on
target gets shipped to a customer. This loss is measurable by the loss function. In general, it can be defined as:
L(y) = f (y-) 2
(1)
Where,
Y = performance characteristic
= ideal or target performance
k = constant
L(Y) = loss function
The characteristic that higher value represents better machining performance, such as MRR, is called
'higher is better, HB'. Inversely, the characteristic that lower value represents better machining performance,
such as surface roughness, is called 'lower is better, LB. The loss function (L) for objective of HB and LB is
defined as follows: [5, 6]
LHB =
(2)
LLB =
(3)
where,
yi = performance characteristic
n= number of experiments
The S/N ratio can be calculated as a logarithmic transformation of the loss function as shown below.
S/N ratio for HB = -10 log10 (LHB)
(4)
S/N ratio for LB = -10 log10 (LLB)
(5)
Higher values of the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) indicate control factor settings that minimize the effects of the
noise factors.
The input and fixed parameters used in the present study are also listed in Table 2. Different settings of discharge
539
Sharma et al.
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current and flushing pressure in the experiments are shown in Table 3.
Table 2. Parameter of setting
Table 3. Levels for various control factors
The most important performance measures in EDM are metal removal rate and workpiece surface finish. In this
work, it is planned to study the behavior of two control factors viz., current and pressure and one interactions
viz., currentpressure based on past experience. According to the Taguchi design concept, a L9 orthogonal array
table was chosen for the experiments. The number of observation under each combination of factors is one i.e.,
the number of replications is one. The response table and response graphs are shown for S/N ratio for MRR in
Table 5. Fig.2 and Fig.3 respectively. Similarly, response table and response graphs are shown for S/N ratio for
SF in Table 5, Fig. 4. and Fig. 5 respectively.
Once these SN ratio values are calculated the range R (R = high SN - low SN) of the SN for each parameter is
calculated and entered into the response table
Table 4. Experimental design using L9 orthogonal array for Al-8% SiC composite
Table 5. Response table for signal to noise ratio
540
Optimization of EDM Process Parameters with......
Current has greater effect on MRR and pressure has greater effect on SF as pre response Table 5. for S/N ratio
Figure 3. Interaction graph
Figure 4. Effect of control factor on SR

Figure 5. Interaction graph
As shown in Table 4 and S/N ratio graphs, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, the optimum values of factors current and flushing
pressure are 6 amperes and 0.4 kg/cm2 to maximize MRR. From the Table 4 and S/N ratio graphs, Fig. 4 and Fig.
5, it is clear that optimum values of factors current and flushing pressure are 4 amperes and 1.2 kg/cm2 to
maximize surface finish and interaction graphs conforming the results of individual graphs. Table 6 gives
optimized values of factors maximizing MRR and minimizing roughness. Controls factors settings are different
for MRR and SF.
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Sharma et al.
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Table 6. Comparing optimal values
5. Conclusions
1. Al-SiC composite was casted by liquid stir casting technique for machining process. Using of aluminium
silicon composite reduces the generation of green house gases as they are produced during the bauxite
processing and alumina reduction for getting aluminum.
2. Al-8% SiC composite is a perfectly conductive material and can be processed by unconventional machining
like EDM, ECM.
3. In this study the machining parameters of EDM like discharge current and flushing pressure are considered
for analyzing and optimization. Discharge current, flushing pressure and their interactions have been found to
play a significant role in cutting operations for maximizations of MRR, minimization of surface roughness. L9
orthogonal array has been used to obtain optimum parameter combination for maximization of MRR and SF.
The optimal levels of EDM process parameters are 6A current, 0.4 kgf/cm2 flushing pressure and 4A current, 1.2
kgf/cm2 flushing pressure for maximization of MRR and SF respectively.
References
[1]
Pankaj Sharma, O.P. Kaushal, Amit Sharma, Industrial Importance of AluminiumFly Ash
nd
Composite, 2 International Conference on Industrial Engineering, SVNIT, Surat, pp. 980-984.
2013.
[2]
C.S. Tjong, Recent Advances in Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminium Based Metal Matrix
Nanocomposites, In Composite Materials Research Progress, Nova Science Publishers, 2008.
[3]
Norliana Mohd. Abbas, Darius G. Solomon, Md Fuad. Bahari, A review on current research trends in
electrical discharge machining, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, Vol. 47, pp.
12141228, 2007
[4]
Amitabh Ghosh and A. K. Malik, Manufacturing Science, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2010.
S.S. Mahapatra, Amar Patnaik, Optimization of wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM)
[5]
process parameters using Taguchi method, International Journal of Advance Manufacturing
Technology, Vol. 28, pp. 422-429, 2006
[6]
L.J. Lin, S.K. Wang, H.B. Yan, S.Y. Tarng, Optimization of the electrical discharge machining
process based on the Taguchi method with fuzzy logics, Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
Vol.102, pp. 48-55, 2000
542
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Search for Ecofriendly Alternatives

Refrigerants in Vapour Compression
Refrigeration Systems for Reducing Global
R. S. Mishra
Abstract- The methods for improving energy and exergetic efficiency have been considered in this paper by
using water as secondary coolant in evaporator with nano particles of Al2O3 and TiO2 mixed R718 refrigerant
is investigated in this paper. Detailed energy and exergy analysis of multi-evaporators at different temperatures
in the vapor compression refrigeration systems have been done in terms of performance parameter for R507a,
R125, R134a, R290, R600, R600a, R410a, R407c, R404a and R152a refrigerants. The numerical computations
have been carried out for both systems. The use of nano particles improves the energy and exergy performance
significantly. The best thermodynamic performance is found using R152a and worst performance is observed
using R410a.
Due to flammable nature of R290, R600, R600a and R152a , the R134a is recommended for domestic
applications. The results were compared by using water in secondary circuit with nano refrigerants and without
nano-particles used and it was found that use of nano-particles improves thermal performances significantly.
The energy performance improvement in terms of COP and exergetic performance in terms of exergetic
efficiency (rational efficiency) using TiO2 is better than using Al2O3 with R718 refrigerant in the secondary
evaporator circuit.
Keywords- Sustainable Development, Performance Improvement, Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Systems, Energy and Exergy Analysis, Nano refrigerants
ntroduction In the Make India and Green India Programme, the use of ecofriendly refrigerants is well
demonstrated due to global warming and ozone depletion and several training programmes are available
for skill development in the various institutions such as SLIT, ITIs, and several polytechnics and various
centres in IITs (such as CRT, CES), various technological universities etc.
This paper highlights the use of R-290 refrigerant is the best alternative and second alternative is R600a. and
third is R-152a. Due to flammable nature of these ecofriendly refrigerants, these refrigerants can only be used
by using safety measures, otherwise R134a and R410a and R404a are easily available in the markets can be
used. The performance of R134a gives better than using R410a and R404a, however for larger Industrial
applications R 717 and R744 can be used. Even in mixing of nanoparticles mixed with R718 in the secondary
circuit and R1234yf for low temperature applications gives better first law and second law performance as
compared to R134a refrigerant .To replace, R134a, R1234yf (of zero ODP and 4 GWP) and R1234ze (GWP=6,
R. S. Mishra
Department of Mechanical, Production Industrial and Automobiles Engineering,
Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
e-Mail Address: hod.mechanical.rsm@dtu.ac.in
Tel: +91-9891079311
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
543
RAME-2016
R. S. Mishra
and Zero ODP) are recommended, although these refrigerants gives 5 to 10% less performance than using
R134a. Although the performance of R134a is better than R134a using nano particles mixing in R718 but
R1234ze can replace R134a for higher temperature applications. The best first law and second law
performances have been found using copper nano materials mixed with R718 in secondary evaporator circuit as
compared to TiO2 nano particles
2. Lterature Revew
Mishra et al. [7-9] performed numerical analysis of vapour compression refrigeration system using R134a,
R143a, R152a, R404A, R410A, R502 and R507A , and discussed the effect of evaporator temperature, degree
of subcooling at condenser outlet, superheating of evaporator outlet, vapour liquid heat exchanger
effectiveness and degree of condenser temperature on COP and exergetic efficiency. They reported that
evaporator and condenser temperature have significant effect on both COP and exergetic efficiency and also
found that R134a has the better performance while R404a has poor performance in all respect. Saravana kumar
[10] compared the performance between R134a and R290/R600a mixture on a domestic refrigerator which is
originally designed to work with R134a and found that R290/R600a hydrocarbon mixture showed higher COP
and exergetic efficiency than R134a. In their analysis ,highest irreversibility obtained in the compressor
compare to condenser, expansion valve and evaporator.
Based on the literature it was observed that researchers have gone through detailed first law analysis in terms of
coefficient of performance and second law analysis in term of exergetic efficiency of simple vapour
compression refrigeration system with single evaporator. Researchers did not go through the irreversibility
analysis ( second law analysis ) of followings
1. Simple VCR with nano particles used as secondary evaporator circuit in the water cooled evaporator
2. Detailed analysis of vapour compression refrigeration systems using thirteen ecofriendly refrigerants with
effect of nano particles for improving their first and second law performances
This paper mainly deals with effect of nano particles (TiO2 and Al2O3) mixed with R718 refrigerants was used
in the water cooled evaporator for improving thermal performance of vapour compression refrigeration
systems for keeping evaporator size constant due to enhancing heat transfer coefficient in the evaporator. The
computation modeling of vapor compression refrigeration systems was carried out with the help of EES for
first and second law analysis in terms of energetic analysis i.e. COP ( First law analysis) and exegetic analysis in
terms of exergetic efficiency, exergy destruction ratio (EDR).
In this analysis we assumed negligible pressure losses and heat losses. The comparative performance for
condenser temperature varying between 320K to 330K with increment of 2 and evaporator temperature is
varying from 265K to 281 K with increment of 4. The energy and exergy change in vapour compression
refrigeration cycle have been calculated for various eco friendly refrigerants such asR125, R507, R-134a,
R404a, R410a, R407c R-290 (propane), R600 (butane), R-600a (isobutene) for environmental temperature of
298K. and results are shown in Table(1-3) respectively. The performance of vapour compression refrigeration
system using ecofriendly refrigerants in the primary circuit and TiO2 nano particles mixed in R718 is used in
the secondary circuit of evaporators are shown in Table-(1). to Table-(3) respectively and it was found that
maximum First law efficiency in terms of COP and maximum second law efficiency in terms of exergetic
efficiency using ecofriendly R152a and minimum first and second law performance using R410a. Due to
flammable nature of R152a, and R290, R600 and R600a which can be used by considering safety measure gives
better performance. The R407c R134a and R404a also gives good performance for replacing R502, R11 and
R12 and R22 which produces global warming and ozone depletion
544
Search for Ecofriendly Alternatives Refrigerants in ....

Table: 1. Performance prediction of vapour compression refrigeration system using TiO2 in R718 in the
secondary circuit and Ecofriendly refrigerants in primary circuit for condenser temperature 48oC and
evaporator temperature of -5oC
Table: 2. Variation of performance parameters with condenser temperature in the vapour compression
refrigeration system using R-134a in primary circuit and Water in secondary circuit
Table 2 explaining the variation of condenser temperature with first and second law performance parameters
and it was observed that increasing condenser temperature reduces first and second law performances and also
increases exergy destruction ratio while Table-3shows the variation of evaporator temperature with first and
second law performance parameters. and it was found that first law performance in terms of coefficient of
performance and second law efficiency increases and exergy destruction ratio of system decreases
Table: 3. Variation of performance parameters with evaporator temperature in the vapour compression
refrigeration system using R-134a in primary circuit and Water in secondary circuit
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The thermodynamic performance have been obtained using R-152a ecofriendly refrigerant and worst
performances were found using R-410a ecofriendly refrigerants. Due to flammable nature of R290, R600 ,
R600a and R152a it is recommended that R407c and R134a is suitable for industrial and commercial
applications.
3. Conclusion
In this paper, first law and second law analysis of vapour compression refrigeration systems using multiple
evaporators and single compressor and single expansion valve with ecofriendly refrigerants in the system and
R718(water used in secondary circuit with and without nano particles mixed with water used as refrigerant)
have been presented. The conclusions of the present analysis are summarized below:
1. The First law efficiency (COP) and Second law efficiency (Exergetic efficiency) of vapour compression
refrigeration systems using R718 mixed with nano particles gives better performance is than without nano
particles used in the secondary circuit of water cooled evaporator for above mentioned ecofriendly
refrigerants.
2. The First law efficiency (COP) and Second law efficiency (Exergetic efficiency) of vapour compression
refrigeration systems using R152a refrigerant is higher but is has flammable nature similar to hydrocarbons
then safety measures to be taken while using R152a or hydrocarbons (R290, R600 and R600a)
3. The first law performance in terms of Coefficient of performance and second law performance in terms of
exergetic efficiency improvesusing TiO2 in thesecondary evaporator circuit as compared to Al2O3 in the
secondary circuit
4. COP and exergetic efficiency for R507a and R134a are nearly matching the same values.are better than that
for R125.
5. For practical applications R-407c, R134a and R404a, R125 can be used recommended because it is easily
available in the market has second law efficiency slightly lesser than R-152a which was not applicable for
commercial applications due to flammable nature and R717 is also toxic nature.
6. The first law performance improvement in terms of COP and second law performance in terms of exergetic
efficiency (rational efficiency) using TiO2 is better than using Al2O3 with R718 refrigerant in the secondary
evaporator circuit.
References
1.
Mishra R S et.al, (2013 )Methods for improving thermal performances of vapour compression
Refrigeration system using eleven ecofriendly refrigerants, ISTE conference on Technological
Universities and Institutions in New Knowledge Age: Future Perspectives and Action plan ISTE
paper NO:149pp- 9, at Delhi Technological University on September 5- 6, 2013
2.
Mishra, R S ( 2013)Irriversibility Analysis of Multi-Evaporators Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Systems Using New and Refrigerants: R134a, R290, R600, R600a, R1234yf, R502, R404a and R152a
and R12, R502, International Journal of Advance Research & Innovations International Journal of
Advance Research & Innovations, 1, , 180-193
3.
Mishra, R S (2013) Thermodynamic performance evaluation of multiple evaporators, single
compressor, single expansion valve and liquid vapour heat exchanger in vapour compression
refrigeration systems using thirteen ecofriendly refrigerants for reducing global warming and ozone
depletion, International Journal of Advance Research & Innovations( IJARI-Vol-1), ISSN No: 23473258, pp-163-171
4.
Mishra, R S (2014) Thermodynamic performance evaluation of multiple evaporators, single
compressor, single expansion valve and liquid vapour heat exchanger in vapour compression
refrigeration systems using thirteen ecofriendly refrigerants for reducing global warming and ozone
depletion International Research Journal of Sustainable Science & Engineering (Monthly Peer
Review Journal , IRJSSE, 2(3), pp.1-10
546
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Modelling of Vapour Compression

Refrigeration Systems Using Ecofriendly
Alternatives Refrigerants in Primary Circuit
and Nano Based Brine (R718) in
Secondary Circuit for Reducing Global
R. S. Mishra
Abstract- Normally in the vapour compressor compression refrigeration systems lot of literature research
materials for performance evaluation are available which is mainly based on the given condenser and
evaporator temperatures. As so far as no literatures are available on the effect of inlet conditions secondary
fluids in the evaporator and condenser temperatures influencing thermal performances. In this paper, water
cooled condenser is used along with brine flowing in the secondary circuit of evaporator and detailed computer
code was generated for above system which mainly deals with the effect of secondary circuit on three LMTDs,
overall heat transfer coefficients of condenser and evaporator and computing condenser and evaporator
temperatures, refrigerating effect and the first law performances and second law performances using energy
exergy analysis. This review paper mainly deals with the best performance is achieved using copper nano
particles as compared to Al2O3
Keywords- Sustainable Technologies, Green Technologies, Sustainable Development, Alternate Refrigerants,
Eco Friendly Refrigerants, Reduction in global warming, Reduction in ozone depletion
ntroduction In the Make India and Green India Programme, the use of several institutions (i.e.SLIT, TTIs,
NITTR ,ITIs, and polytechnics and various centres in IITs (such as CRT, CES), various technological
universities etc. This paper highlights the utility of nano materials ecofriendly refrigerants is well
demonstrated which reduces global warming and ozone depletion and several training programmes are
available for skill development in the mixed in the secondary circuit brine fluid (R-718) and several
ecofriendly refrigerants such as R134a, R407c R1234yf and R1234ze used in the primary circuit of refrigerator.
Mishra [2] pointed out that R-290 refrigerant is giving the best alternative and second alternative is R600a. and
third is R-152a. The flammable nature of hydrocarbons and R152a,ecofriendly refrigerants, these
hydrocarbons refrigerants can only be used by using safety measures, otherwise R134a and R410a and R404a
are locally available in the markets can be also be used. The first law and second law performances of R134a is
giving better thermal performances than using ecofriendly R410a and R404a refrigerants , however for larger
Industrial applications i.e. R 717 and R744 can also be used. Even in mixing of nanoparticles mixed with R718
in the secondary circuit and R1234yf for low temperature applications gives better first law and second law
performance as compared to R134a refrigerant . To replace, R134a, R1234yf (zero ODP and four GWP) and
R1234ze (GWP of six, and Zero ODP) are recommended, although these refrigerants gives 5 to 10% less
R. S. Mishra
Department of Mechanical, Production Industrial and Automobiles Engineering, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi, India
e-Mail : e-professor_rsmishra@yahoo.co.in,
Tel: +91-9891079311
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
547
RAME-2016
R. S. Mishra
performance than using R134a. Although the performance of R134a is better than R134a using nanoparticles
mixing in R718 but R1234ze can replace R134a for higher temperature applications. The excellent first law and
second law performances have been found using copper nano materials mixed with R718 in secondary
evaporator circuit as compared to copper, Al2O3 and TiO2 nano particles of 10 micron size
Literature Review
Mishra et al. [3] performed numerical computations on the vapour compression refrigeration system using
several ecofriendly refrigerants (i.e. R134a, R143a, R152a, R404A, R410A,and R507A), and discussed the
effect of evaporator temperature, degree of sub cooling at condenser outlet, superheating of evaporator outlet,
vapour liquid heat exchanger effectiveness and degree of condenser temperature on COP and exergetic
efficiency. They reported that evaporator and condenser temperature have significant effect on both COP and
exergetic efficiency and also found that R134a has the better performance while R404a has poor performance in
all respect. Mishra 4] compared the performance between R134a and R290/R600a mixture on a domestic
refrigerator which is originally designed towork with R134a and found that R290/R600a hydrocarbon mixture
showed higher COP and exergetic efficiency than R134a. In their analysis ,highest irreversibility obtained in
the compressor compare to condenser, expansion valve and evaporator and did not evaluated athermal
performances based on the effect of secondary circuit of evaporator and condensers.[6-14]Based on the literature it
was observed that researchers have gone through detailed first law analysis in terms of coefficient of
performance and second law analysis in term of exergetic efficiency of simple vapour compression
refrigeration system with single evaporator. Researchers did not go through the irreversibility analysis ( second
law analysis ) of followings:
(I) Simple VCR with nano particles used as secondary evaporator circuit in the water cooled evaporator for
predicting condenser and evaporator temperatures.
(ii )Detailed analysis of vapour compression refrigeration systems using thirteen ecofriendly refrigerants with
effect of nano particles for improving their first and second law performances
This paper mainly deals with effect of nano particles (Copper, TiO2 and Al2O3) mixed with R718 refrigerants
was used in the water cooled evaporator for improving thermal performance of vapour compression
refrigeration systems for keeping evaporator size constant due to enhancing heat transfer coefficient in the
evaporator for computing evaporator and condenser temperatures, overall heat transfer coefficient of
condenser along with two LMTDs in condenser overall heat transfer coefficient and LMTD of evaporator
The computation modelling of vapor compression refrigeration systems was carried out with the help of EES
for first and second law analysis in terms of energetic analysis i.e. COP ( First law analysis) and exegetic
analysis in terms of exergetic efficiency, exergy destruction ratio (EDR).
In this analysis we assumed negligible pressure losses and heat losses. The comparative performance for
condenser temperature varying between 320K to 330K with increment of 2 and evaporator temperature is
varying from 265K to 281 K with increment of 4.
Results and Discussions
The first law and second law thermal performance of vapour compression refrigeration system using
ecofriendly refrigerants in the primary circuit and three types nanoparticles (Copper , Al2O3 and TiO2) mixed in
the brine water is used in the secondary circuit of evaporators are numerically computed and shown in Table(1). to Table-(3) respectively and it was found that maximum First law efficiency in terms of COP and
maximum second law efficiency in terms of exergetic efficiency using ecofriendly R134a using copper nano
particles and minimum first and second law performance using TiO2.
Although thermal performance without nano particles have been computed and it was observed that R152a
gives better thermal performance and thermal performance of hydrocarbons are slightly lesser than R152a but
higher than R134a. The ecofriendly refrigerant R410a gives worst thermal performance in terms of first law
efficiency and exergetic efficiency ( i.e. second law efficiency) performance Due to flammable nature of
548
Modelling of Vapour Compression Refrigeration.....

R152a, and R290, R600 and R600a which can be used by considering safety measure gives better performance.
However R407c R134a and R404a can also giving very good first and second law performance for replacing
R502, R11 and R12 and R22 which produces global warming and ozone depletion[4].. The performance of
vapour compression refrigeration using nano particles is shown in Tables [1] to tables[3] respectively. The
performance improvement using nano particles of 10 microns mixed in the brine water and then used in the
secondary circuit is also observed.
Table- 1a: Variation of first law efficiency (i.e.COP) of vapour compression refrigeration system using
ecofriendly refrigerants in the primary circuit and copper nano particles (of size 10 micron ) mixed in brine
used in secondary circuit of evaporator
Table- 1b: Variation of first law efficiency (i.e.COP) of vapour compression refrigeration system using
ecofriendly refrigerants in the primary circuit and Al2O3 nano particles (of size 10 micron ) mixed in brine used
in secondary circuit of evaporator
Table- 1c: Variation of first law efficiency (i.e.COP) of vapour compression refrigeration system using
ecofriendly refrigerants in the primary circuit and TiO2 nano particles (of size 10 micron ) mixed in brine used
in secondary circuit of evaporator
Table- 2a: Variation of Second law efficiency of vapour compression refrigeration system using ecofriendly
refrigerants in the primary circuit and Copper particles of size 10 micron mixed in brine used in secondary
circuit of evaporator
Table- 2b: Variation of Second law efficiency of vapour compression refrigeration system using ecofriendly
refrigerants in the primary circuit and Al2O3nano particles (of size 10 micron ) mixed in brine used in secondary
549
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R. S. Mishra
Table- 2c: Variation of Second law efficiency of vapour compression refrigeration system using ecofriendly
refrigerants in the primary circuit and TiO2 nano particles (of size 10 micron ) mixed in brine used in secondary
Table-3a: Reduction in Exergy Destruction Ratio (EDR) i.e. Reduction in Irreversibility of vapour compression
refrigeration system using ecofriendly refrigerants in the primary circuit and Copper nano particles (of size 10
micron ) mixed in brine used in secondary circuit of evaporator
Table-3b: Reduction in Exergy Destruction Ratio (EDR) i.e. Reduction in Irreversibility of vapour compression
refrigeration system using ecofriendly refrigerants in the primary circuit and Al2O3 nano particles (of size 10
Table-3c: Reduction in Exergy Destruction Ratio (EDR) i.e. Reduction in Irreversibility of vapour compression
refrigeration system using ecofriendly refrigerants in the primary circuit and TiO2 nano particles (of size 10
550
Modelling of Vapour Compression Refrigeration.....
Conclusions
In this paper, first law thermal performance and second law performances of vapour compression
refrigeration systems using brine water in the secondary evaporator circuit and ecofriendly
refrigerants in the primary circuit of evaporator with single compressor and single expansion
valve in the system & brine water used in secondary circuit with and without nano particles mixed
with water used as refrigerant have been presented. The Some conclusions of the present
investigation are summarized below:
1. The First law efficiency and Second law efficiency (Exergetic efficiency) of vapour
compression refrigeration systems using R718 mixed with nano particles gives better
performance is than without nano particles used in the secondary circuit of water cooled
evaporator for above mentioned ecofriendly refrigerants.
2. The First law efficiency and Second law efficiency of vapour compression refrigeration
systems using R152a refrigerant is higher but is has flammable nature similar to hydrocarbons
then safety measures to be taken while using R152a or hydrocarbons (R290, R600 and R600a)
3. The first law performance in terms of Coefficient of performance and second law performance
in terms of exergetic efficiency improves using copper nano particles as compared to TiO2 in the
secondary evaporator circuit as compared to Al2O3 in the secondary circuit
4. COP and exergetic efficiency for R507a and R134a are nearly matching the same values are
better than that for R125.
5. For practical applications R-407c, R134a and R404a, R125 can be used recommended because
it is easily available in the market has second law efficiency slightly lesser than R-152a which was
not applicable for commercial applications due to flammable nature and R717 is also toxic nature.
6. The first law performance improvement and second law performance in terms of exergetic
efficiency (i.e. rational efficiency) using copper nano particles is better than using Al2O3 with
R718 refrigerant in the secondary evaporator circuit
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Mishra et.al, (2013) Methods for improving thermal performances of vapour compression Refrigeration
system using eleven ecofriendly refrigerants, ISTE conference on Technological Universities and
Institutions in New Knowledge Age: Future Perspectives and Action plan ISTE paper NO:149pp- 9, at
Delhi Technological University on September 5- 6, 2013
Mishra R S (2013) Irriversibility Analysis of Multi-Evaporators Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Systems Using New and Refrigerants: R134a, R290, R600, R600a, R1234yf, R502, R404a and R152a and
R12, R502, International Journal of Advance Research & Innovations International Journal of Advance
Research & Innovations, 1, 2013, 180-193
Mishra R S (2013 ) Thermodynamic performance evaluation of multiple evaporators, single compressor,
single expansion valve and liquid vapour heat exchanger in vapour compression refrigeration systems
using thirteen ecofriendly refrigerants for reducing global warming and ozone depletion, International
Journal of Advance Research & Innovations( IJARI-Vol-1), ISSN No: 2347-3258, PP-163-171
Mishra R. S.,(2014) Thermodynamic performance evaluation of multiple evaporators, single compressor,
single expansion valve and liquid vapour heat exchanger in vapour compression refrigeration systems
using thirteen ecofriendly refrigerants for reducing global warming and ozone depletion International
Research Journal of Sustainable Science & Engineering (Monthly Peer Review Journal , IRJSSE, 2(3),
2014, 1-10
R.S. Mishra, V. Jain, S. S. Kachhwaha [2011) Comparative Performance Study of Vapour Compression
551
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[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
552
R. S. Mishra
Refrigeration System With R22/ R134a /R410a /R407c /M20, International Journal of Energy and
Environment, 2, 2011, 297-310
R. S. Mishra, (2014) Methods for Improving Thermodynamic Performance of Vapour Compression
Refrigeration System Using Twelve Ecofriendly Refrigerants in Primary Circuit and Nanofluid (WaterNano Particle Based) in Secondary Circuit, International Journal of Engineering Technology and Advanced
Research, Vol-4, , pp.878-890
R. S. Mishra (2014) Methods for Improving Thermodynamic Performance of Vapour Compression
Refrigeration Systems using Thirteen Ecofriendly Refrigerants in Primary Circuit and TiO2 Nano Particles
Mixed with R718 used in Secondary Evaporator Circuit for Reducing Global Warming and Ozone
International Journal of Advance Research and Innovation ISSN 2347 3258 Volume 2, Issue 4 (2014) 784789
R S Mishra (2014) Methods for Improving Thermodynamic Performance of Vapour Compression
Refrigeration Systems using Thirteen Ecofriendly Refrigerants in Primary Circuit and TiO2 Nano Particles
Mixed with R718 used in Secondary Evaporator Circuit for Reducing Global Warming and Ozone
Depletion International Journal of Advance Research and Innovation ISSN 2347 - 3258 Volume 2, Issue 4
(2014) 732-735
R. S. Mishra, Methods for improving thermodynamic performance of vapour compression refrigeration
systems using thirteen ecofriendly refrigerants in primary circuit and TiO2 nano particles mixed with R718
used in secondary evaporator circuit for reducing global warming and ozone depletion, 2015
R. S. Mishra (2015) Optimization of Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems using Mixing of Nan
materials International Journal of Advance Research and Innovation, ISSN 2347 - 3258 Volume 3, Issue 1
, pp 41-44
R. S. Mishra (2015) Irreversibility Reduction in Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems Using Al2O3
Nano Material Mixed in R718 as Secondary Fluid International Journal of Advance Research and
Innovation ISSN 2347 - 3258 Volume 3, Issue 2 (2015) 321-327
R S Mishra [2015] Methods for Improving Thermodynamic Performance of Vapour Compression
Refrigeration Systems Using Nano Mixed Ecofriendly Refrigerants in Primary Circuit and Comparison
with Nano Particles Mixed With R718 Used in Secondary Evaporator Circuit and Ecofriendly Refrigerants
in Primary Circuit for Reducing Global Warming and Ozone Depletion International Journal of Advance
Research and Innovation ISSN 2347 - 3258 Volume 3, Issue 2 ,pp. 433-439
R S Mishra 92015) Energy-Exergy Performance Comparison of Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Systems using Three Nano Materials Mixed in R718 in the Secondary Fluid and Ecofriendly Refrigerants in
the Primary Circuit and Direct Mixing of nano Materials in the Refrigerants International Journal of
Advance Research and Innovation ISSN 2347 3258, Volume 3, Issue 3 (2015) 471-477
R. S. Mishra, Rahul Kumar Jaiswal (2015) Thermal Performance Improvements of Vapour Compression
Refrigeration System Using Eco Friendly Based Nano-refrigerants in Primary Circuit, International
Journal of Advance Research and Innovation ISSN 2347 - 3258 Volume 3, Issue 3 (2015) 524-535
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Formability Characterisation of AISI202

Stainless Steel
Prahlad Tewari, Vijay Gautam and Ravi Kumar
Abstract This paper presents formability characterisation of various thicknesses (1.4 mm, 0.84mm and
0.67mm) of AISI202 stainless steel obtained during sequential thickness reduction in a steel cold rolling
operation. AISI202 stainless steel is low nickel stainless steel widely used for utensil manufacturing. Specimens
were laser cut in the direction of 0, 45 and 90 with respect to the rolling direction. Tensile tests of the
specimens were conducted using a crosshead speed of 5 mm/min. Tensile properties such as yield stress,
ultimate tensile tress and percentage elongation along with anisotropic properties were evaluated. Forming
limiting diagram is drawn for the steel by conducting experiments with varying specimen widths.The
experimental studies showed high ultimate tensile strength, high normal anisotropy, low planar anisotropy and
neck free elongation followed by abrupt fracture. Specimens showed higher forming loads and suitability for
deep drawing operation.
Keywords- Formability characterisation; AISI202 Stainless steel; Forming Limit Diagram; Anisotropy;
Tensile test.
ntroductonAustenitic stainless steels (ASS) are non-magnetic steels that contain high levels of
chromium and nickel, and low levels of carbon. Known for their formability and resistance to corrosion,
ASS are the most widely used grade of stainless steel. Although nickel as austenitic stabilizer is most
commonly used to produce austenitic steels. Stainless steels with a low nickel and high nitrogen content are
classified as 200 series and are considered a substitute for 300 series stainless steels. They have good formability
and weldability, as well as excellent toughness, particularly at low, or cryogenic, temperatures. Austenitic
grades also have a low yield stress and relatively high tensile strength[1]. To obtain the expected mechanical
properties of metastable stainless steels through the forming process where the material undergoes complex
deformation, the prediction and control of the change in material characteristics due to the deformation are
necessary [2]. From low end applications like cooking utensils and non structural architecture, to very
sophisticated ones, such as in space vehicles, the use of ASS is indispensable [3]. Takuda et al. 2003 [4], has
conducted experimental studies on forming limit in warm deep drawing of a type 304 stainless steel sheet and
the deformation behaviour and the temperature change are numerically analysed by the combination of the
rigidplastic and the heat conduction finite element methods [4]. Jaxa-Rozen, 2014 has reviewed the
application of cold worked austenitic stainless steel (CWASS) in structural applications. Hussaini et al. 2014[5]
has done experimental and numerical investigation on formability of austenitic stainless steel 316 at elevated
temperatures.
Prahlad Tewari and Vijay Gautam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Assistant Professor, DTU New Delhi 110042
D Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Delhi.
3
prahlad.tewari@gmail.com, 2vijay.dce@gmail.com and dravi@mech.iitd.ac.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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The present paper deals with the development of forming limiting diagram (FLD). Most of the formability tests
give a rough indication of formability only in one single mode of deformation. The FLD [6] is an important
tool to find the limit stains at which necking occurs in a sheet metal under all possible modes of deformation. It
is a graphical representation of limit strains of a sheet metal subjected to different load paths, usually plotted as
major principal engineering strain vs. minor principal engineering strain.
2. Methodology
2.1 Selection of material
The selection of material is based on increasing popularity of 200 series austenitic stainless steels in structural
and non structural applications. It is cheaper than 300 series due to reduced composition of nickel. The studied
material is an austenitic stainless steel of AISI 202 type. The chemical composition was obtained by spectroanalysis and is shown in Table 1. The material was procured as cold rolled close annealed state, in the dimension
of 500mm 500mm in three different thicknesses in an annealed state
Table 1: Chemical composition by spectroscopy (ASTM E 1086 2008)
2.2 Tensile testing

Most common approach to characterize the behaviour of a material is by conducting uniaxial tensile tests. In
this work, simple tensile tests were carried out on a universal testing machine of maximum capacity 50 kN as
shown in Fig. 1. The tensile test specimens as per ASTM-E8M were prepared by laser cutting of the blank. The
anisotropy of the ASS sheet metal was investigated by performing tensile tests at specimen orientation of 0,
45 and 90 to the rolling direction (RD). The tests were carried out include monotonic loadings in tension.
Each test is performed in duplicates to ensure good reproducibility of the experiments. The tests were carried
out at a cross head speed of 5mm/min. Typical engineering stress strain curve is plotted on the basis of force and
displacement data acquired from the dedicated software.
Fig. 1 Tensile testing using 50kN UTM

2.3 Anisotropic parameter
Anisotropic parameter is an important parameter which influences the sheet metal forming. Properties of most
common sheet metals vary with respect to rolling direction. This phenomenon is called anisotropy and is related
to the basic crystallographic texture of the sheet. Anisotropy is present not only in the plane of the sheet but also
554
Formability Characterisation of AISI202 Stainless Steel

in its thickness direction. The former is called planar anisotropy and the latter is called normal anisotropy.
Plastic-strain ratio is a measure of anisotropy in thickness direction in sheet metals and is defined as the ratio of
width strain (w) to thickness strain (t) i.e. R=(w/ t). In order to obtain the value of 'R', a tensile specimen
was first prepared and then subjected to an elongation of 15% to 20%. 'R' value is measured parallel (R0),
transverse (R90) and at 45 to the rolling direction (R45) and normal anisotropy is determined .
Normal anisotropy or average plastic strain ratio is given by the equation :
Ravg = (R0+R90+2R45)/4
The planar anisotropy denoted by R is measured in the plane of the sheet and is given by the equation:
R = (R0+R90-2R45)/2
Higher normal anisotropy is recommended due to more resistance to thinning whereas lower or zero planar
anisotropy is preferred for deep drawing operation to reduce the effect of earring during drawing operation.
2.4 Limiting dome height test
As suggested by Hecker [1974], samples of varying width were deformed using a 101.6mm hemispherical
punch. The width was varied to obtain all possible deformation modes i.e. biaxial tension, plane strain tension
and tension-compression. The schematic diagram of the arrangements of tools used in experiments is shown in
Fig. 2.
A 50 mm diameter punch was used with dies (lower die and blank holder) having a draw bead to prevent the
drawing in of the blank for certain widths. The draw bead ensures that only portion of blank within the die
region is stretched completely without drawing. The sheet strips of varying widths were clamped firmly
between the die and the blank holder before they were stretched over the punch. The extent of drawing in during
punch stretching depends on the width of the blank. As the width decreases the drawing component increases
and stretching component decreases. Specimens of size 100 mm x 100 mm, 100 mm x 80 mm, 100mm x 60mm,
100mm x 40mm, 100mm x 20 mm were used for formability test. The blanks were laser marked with 2.5mm
diameter circles with a gap of 0.5 mm between the circles.
Fig. 2 Experimental setup for LDH test
Fig. 3 Specimens used in experiments
The dome height (LDH) of 100mm x 100mm specimen just before the point of necking/fracture was measured
using a vernier height gauge with a least count of 0.02 mm as shown in Fig 4.
Fig. 4 Measurement of dome height of tested specimen
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2.5 Measurement of Minor and Major Strains

The strain measurement was done in travelling microscope (Radical make, model no IS500, least count
0.001mm). Major and minor principal strains were calculated by measuring major and minor diameters of
ellipses on the deformed samples. On the basis of the results obtained from the major and minor strains, forming
limit diagram was plotted. A picture of travelling microscope presented in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Measurement of strains

3.1 Stress strain curve
Typical engineering stress-engineering strain curve and a true stress-true strain curve of specimens of thickness
0.67 mm corresponding to orientation 0, 45 and 90 degree to the rolling direction are shown Fig. 6(a)-(c).
Similarly 0.84mm are shown in Fig.7(a)-(c) and 1.4 mm are shown in Fig. 8(a)-.
The value of yield strength i.e. onset of permanent deformation, was taken at 0.2% engineering strain. The
values of strength (YS and UTS) and ductility (% elongation) show a large variation in mechanical properties.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) was determined by maximum load and original cross-section area of the
specimen.
(a)
556
(b)
Fig. 6(a)-(c) Engineering stress vs. strain and True stress vs. strain curve of 0.67 mm specimen
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Fig. 7(a)-(c) Engineering stress vs. strain

and True stress vs. strain curve of 0.84 mm specimen
Fig. 8(a)-(c) Engineering stress vs. strain and

True stress vs. strain curve of 1.44 mm specimen
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It can be seen that average yield stress ranged 219 268.3 MPa for 0.67 mm specimens, 379.5 395 MPa for
0.84 mm specimens and 298.6 345.7 MPa for 1.4 mm specimens. The sheets are not highly anisotropic
although some variations are seen in the yield stress which may occur due to material batch inconsistency.
Ultimate tensile strength was determined by maximum load and original cross section area of the specimen and
is found to be in the order of 800 - 1000MPa on an average.
Average UTS ranged 818 893 MPa for 0.67 mm specimens, 892.6 954.2 MPa for 0.84 mm specimens and
914 976.3 MPa for 1.4 mm specimens. The ultimate tensile strength of the material is very high suggesting
higher forming loads and better formability characteristics.
Tensile specimens showed neck free uniform elongation of approximately 59.6% resulting in abrupt fracture at
the end of the tensile test.
3.2 Anisotropic properties
The planner anisotropy of 0.67 mm specimen was found to be 0.0319 and normal anisotropy was found to be
0.9767. The details of the anisotropy of specimen in the direction parallel, diagonal and perpendicular are
depicted in the Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 Anisotropic values of 0.67 mm specimen
The planner anisotropy of 0.84 mm specimen was found to be -0.04157 and normal anisotropy was found to be
0.9535. The details of the anisotropy of specimen in the direction parallel, diagonal and perpendicular are
depicted in the Fig. 10.
The planner anisotropy of 1.4 mm specimen was found to be 0.04915 and normal anisotropy was found to be
0.84636. The details of the anisotropy of sheet in the direction parallel, diagonal and perpendicular are depicted
in the Fig. 11
558

Planar anisotropy has minor but important effect on drawability. Higher the value of planar anisotropy, the more
earing occurs. Thus this increases the need for trimming and reduces the total depth of draw. The planar
anisotropy of these specimens is comparatively low and they are suitable for deep drawing operations. The
normal anisotropy determines thinning behaviour of sheet metals during stretching and it is an important
parameter in deep-drawing operations. The material is almost isotropic which is not good for deep drawability,
although multistage draw with intermediate annealing is advisable.
3.3 Forming Limit Diagram
Forming Limit Curve was obtained at FLDo 3.5 (Major strain at which minor strain is zero). It can be seen in
Fig 12 that all the strains were below the Forming Limit Curve. This result was mainly due to the fact that all the
forming experiment were performed in the safe condition i.e. just before the possibility of cracking condition.
Fig. 12 Forming Limit Diagram

The Limiting Dome Height (LDH) was experimental found out to be 24.88 mm. The dome heights of the
specimens (in safe condition) used for testing are provided in Table 2.
Table 2: Dome height of the specimens
4. Conclusions
On the basis of the above studies following conclusions can be drawn:
1.
It can be seen that average yield stress ranged between 219 to 268.3 MPa for 0.67 mm thick sheet,
379.5 to 395 MPa for 0.84 mm thick sheet and 298.6 to 345.7 MPa for 1.4 mm thick sheet.
2.
The average UTS of all the sheets is approximately 900MPa, suggesting a very high forming loads.
3.
All the sheets are almost isotropic as the normal anisotropy is close to 1. Although, higher the
anisotropy higher will be the thinning resistance and deeper cups can be dtawn. High value of strain
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hardening exponent (0.54) indicates that the sheets have high uniform elongation which is required for
deep drawing. The percentage elongation of the steel is more than 55%. Hence, this steel is good for
deep drawing operations.
References
1.
Lula, R., J. Parr, and A. Hanson, Stainless Steel, American Society for Metals. Metals Park, Ohio, 1986.
2.
Galle, S., P.Y. Manach, and S. Thuillier, Mechanical behavior of a metastable austenitic stainless steel
under simple and complex loading paths. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2007. 466(12): p. 47-55.
3.
Lo, K.H., C.H. Shek, and J.K.L. Lai, Recent developments in stainless steels. Materials Science and
Engineering: R: Reports, 2009. 65(46): p. 39-104.
4.
Takuda, H., et al., Finite element analysis of the formability of an austenitic stainless steel sheet in warm
deep drawing. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2003. 143144(0): p. 242-248.
5.
Hussaini, S.M., S.K. Singh, and A.K. Gupta, Experimental and numerical investigation of formability for
austenitic stainless steel 316 at elevated temperatures. Journal of Materials Research and Technology,
2014. 3(1): p. 17-24.
6.
Keeler, S., Forming Limit CriteriaSheets, in Advances in Deformation Processing. 1978, Springer. p.
127-157.
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Experimental and Numerical Investigations on

Formability of AA1200
Manoj Kumar, Suresh Kumar , Vijay Gautam
and Prahlad Tewari
Abstract The ability of a sheet metal to be formed in a given forming process without failure or necking is
known as its formability. Formability is a measure of the amount of deformation a material can withstand prior
to fracture or excessive thinning. Forming Limit Diagram is a graphical representation of limit strains at which
necking/fracture occurs in a sheet metal under all possible modes of deformation. In the present paper, tensile
properties of AA1200 sheet are determined as per ASTM-E8M standard. Anisotropy of the sheet is also
determined by giving 20% elongation to the tensile specimens in a UTM. The values of yield strength, tensile
strength and ductility show a huge variation because of the differences in as rolled specimens, annealed
specimens, and different thickness of the Al sheets. The standard limiting dome height test is conducted on the
specimens of different thicknesses and it is found that formability of the sheet metal increases with increase in
sheet thickness.
Keywords AA1200 Aluminum Alloy, Sheet Metal Forming, Forming Limit Diagram, Stretch forming, and
Anisotropy.
ntroduction Sheet metal forming is a process in which flat thin blanks are deformed permanently to
produce a wide range of products. These operations are widely used in the industries and hence the
knowledge of various sheet metal forming processes and deformation criteria are essential to manufacture
good quality products. Common parts made by sheet metal forming processes include automobile body panels,
fuel tanks, aircraft parts, various parts for building industries and also for making domestic home appliances,
food and drink cans. Aluminium alloys are now-a-days replacing the steel in automobile industry since they
have higher strength to weight ratio, comparable strength and high corrosion resistance. With advent of
manufacturing technology, many researchers have been attracted to determine the forming limit curves of
various aluminium alloys which may reduce the vehicle weight to achieve better fuel efficiency [1-3].
Aluminium alloy selection depending on the above mentioned properties may look better, but the
manufacturing aspect also needs to be considered.. Hence the formability of aluminium alloys needs to be
studied thoroughly. Because of their inferior forming properties, advanced methods are being used to exploit
their full potential. The experimental determination of forming behavior of these modern materials is time
consuming which necessitates some easier methods of determining formability. Finite element simulation or
theoretical methods are finding wider importance now-a-days. This can lead to the optimization of process and
design variables to achieve better quality stampings.
Manoj Kumar and Suresh Kumar

Assistant professor, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,
HMR Institute of Technology and Management, Delhi, India
Vijay Gautam and Prahlad Tewari
Department of Mechanical Engineering, DTU, Delhi-110042.
1
manozme@gmail.com, 3Vijay.dce@gmail.com, 4 prahlad.tewari@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Some lab tests used to determine formability of sheet metals are quite common. The Swift-cup test [4] is a
drawing test. A series of blanks with steadily increasing diameters are deep drawn, and at one point a diameter is
reached, where the punch penetrates but not yet completely drawn cup. The Swift cup test is the determination
of the limiting drawing ratio (LDR) for flat-bottom cups. A simulative test in which circular blanks of various
diameters are clamped in a die ring and deep drawn into a cup by a flat-bottomed cylindrical punch.
The Erichsen & Olsen tests [5] are used to estimate sheet metal formability under pure stretching conditions.
The sheet is clamped between two flat plates and is stretched by a ball. Cups are formed by stretching over a
hemispherical tool. The height of the cup represents the formability index. Cups with larger height represent
good resistance to necking. The results depend on stretchability rather than drawability. The Erichsen and Olsen
test produce bending strains in the test and hence no longer used in the industry.
The cupping tests discussed above are losing favour because of irreproducibility. Hecker [6] attributed this to
insufficient size of the penetrator, inability to prevent inadvertent drawing in of the flange, and inconsistent
lubrication. He proposed the limiting dome height test (LDH) [7]. The specimen width is adjusted to achieve
plane strain and the flange is clamped to prevent draw-in. The limiting dome height (LDH) is the greatest depth
of cup formed with the flanges clamped. The LDH test results correlate better with the total elongation than with
the uniform elongation. This test is widely used in the industries.
2. Methodology
2.1 Selection of materials.
Sheet metal for present work is Aluminium Alloy 1200 grade in as rolled and annealed state of thickness 1mm
and 1.6mm.As rolled metal sheets are those sheets which are come directly from the roll mill. The properties of
as rolled sheets are unfavorable for forming due to accumulated strains. Moreover, it depicts an isotropic
behaviour which changes to anisotropic soon after the annealing of the sheet metal. The sheet metal received
was in as-rolled condition which has high strength and low ductility and strain hardening exponent. To bring the
material in formable state needed heat treatment in vacuum. The distorted, dislocated structure resulting from
cold working of aluminium is less stable than the strain free, annealed state, to which it tends to revert. The
chemical compositions of the selected material is given in Table 1.
Table.1: Chemical composition of the as rolled AA1200 (by weight %).
2.2 Preparation of tensile specimens

The Laser cutter works by directing a high powered laser beam very precisely at the chosen material to cut right
through. The cutting beam is very fine focus (typically around 0.1mm) and precise resulting in incredibly
detailed and accurate cuts. By reducing the beam power we can mark the surface of the material, this is known
as etching or engraving and can give some stunning effects on materials. The specification of the machine used
is given in Table 2.
The sub-sized specimens of AA1200 as per ASTM standard E8M were used for tensile testing. The rolling
direction of the sheet was determined with help of stretcher roll marks. The specimens were prepare d by laser
cutting of annealed and as rolled aluminium alloy sheets in different directions relative to rolling direction
(RD), i.e., 0 in RD, 45 w.r.t RD and 90 w.r.t RD as shown in Fig. 1.
562
Experimental and Numerical Investigations on......

Table.2: Specification of laser cutting machine
Fig. 1 Laser cutting of tensile specimens

The specimens were tested in uniaxial tension on Instron machine. Load elongation data was obtained for all the
tests which were converted into engineering stress strain curves. The standard tensile properties such as yield
stress, ultimate tensile stress, uniform elongation and total elongation were determined from the stress- strain
data.
2.3 Determination of anisotropy
The plastic strain ratio, which is a measure of anisotropy, was determined using specimens prepared according
to ASTME517 specification. The specimens were elongated to predetermined longitudinal strain
(15%depending on the % elongation up to UTS) and the testing was stopped before the onset of necking. Final
width and gauge length were measured and the plastic strain ratio (R) is calculated as below [George E Dieter,
Mechanical metallurgy]. The R value was determined in three directions as mentioned in the tensile tests by
repeating the above procedure. The normal anisotropy or average plastic strain ratio and planar anisotropy were
calculated using the formula:
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R0, R45 and R90 represent t he R value in three directions.
2.4 LDH test of Al alloy sheets.

As suggested by Hecker [6], samples were deformed using a hemispherical punch. The All the LDH specimens
were etched with the circles of 2.5mm diameter. The width was varied to obtain all possible deformation modes
i.e. biaxial tension, plane strain tension and tension-compression. The width of the samples varied from 20mm
to 100mm. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 2. The plane strain deformation width was found to be
approx 50mm. The specimens tested for the LDH are shown in Fig. 3. The necking strains are clearly seen in
both the specimens. The necking strains were measured using a trinocular microscope.
Fig. 3 LDH tested specimens showing biaxial stretch

Fig. 2 Experimental setup on 100 tonne double
action hydraulic press
2.5 Finite Element Analysis
Computer based simulations are widely used by sheet metal engineers to meet the demand for better quality
products. These simulations using finite element are used for predicting the failures, assessing a proposed
forming process, designing tools and also in troubleshooting the manufacturing problems.
In the this work, the finite element simulation was carried out for the prediction of failure in stretch forming of
aluminium alloys. The FE simulation was carried out in Abaqus 6.11, commercially available dedicated
software for sheet metal forming applications. This system provides preprocessing (auto meshing, tool
positioning, draw bead representation) and post processing (animation, formability plot, forming limit
diagram). Default input parameters are generally chosen to give efficient, accurate simulation results. The FE
simulations as shown in Fig. 4 were done to check the accuracy of failure prediction in stretch forming of
aluminium alloys. The failure predictions based on the developed as well as existing correlations were
compared with the experimental results. The forming limiting diagram developed from the software is shown in
Fig. 4 Simulation of deep drawn specimen with flat punch
564
Fig. 5 Forming limit diagram developed from the simulations

Fig. 5.
The tensile properties of the tested specimens of both the thicknesses and as rolled sheets are given in Table 3
and 4. It is observed that 1mm thick sheet is stronger than the 1.6mm thick sheet. This could be attributed to the
higher reduction in the thinner sheet and higher dislocation density. The tensile results of 1mm thick sheet
depicts higher strength in the specimens oriented transverse to the rolling direction and minimum strength in the
direction inclined w.r.t. the rolling direction. The values of strain hardening exponent are very low, which
indicates that the sheet is almost unworkable at room temperature. Similar results are seen with the sheets of
1.6mm thickness, although in this case the percentage elongation is higher than the 1mm thick sheet.
Experiment shows that these sheets are completely isotropic.
Table 3 Tensile properties of as Rolled AA1200 (Thickness: 1mm)
Table 4 Tensile properties of as Rolled AA1200 (Thickness: 1.6mm)
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The sheets of both the thicknesses are annealed at 220C in an inert atmosphere to prevent oxidation. The tensile
properties of the tested specimens of both the thicknesses and as annealed sheets are given in Table 5 and 6. It is
observed that the strength of the sheets have reduced but ductility has improved significantly which can be
attributed to the formation of new strain free grains after annealing. The percentage elongation of the specimens
oriented at 45 to the rolling direction is the highest followed by the specimens along and transverse to the
rolling direction. In the annealed sheets also, the strength of the thinner sheet is higher than the thicker sheet.
The results of the normal and planar anisotropy for the annealed sheets are given in Table 7. The average normal
anisotropy of the sheets are 0.45 (approx.) which indicates that these sheets are poor in deep drawability. The
drawability of these sheets may be improved by warm working.
Table 5 Tensile properties of annealed AA1200 (Thickness: 1mm)
Table 6 Tensile properties of annealed AA1200 (Thickness: 1.6mm)
Table 7 Values of anisotropy of the sheets
Thickness
1mm
1.6mm
(
0.64
0.54
0.22 0.73
0.27 0.71
0.45
0.45
0.46
0.34
The results for the LDH tests of as annealed specimens of AA1200 of both the thicknesses are given in Table 8.
The limiting strain values and the formability of sheet metal were found to increase with increase in the sheet
thickness. The plane strain condition is observed to occur with a width sample of 50mm in both the thicknesses.
The maximum dome height of the specimen measured is 22.26mm, whereas the dome height is 24.14mm with
the thicker sheet. This can be attributed to the higher thinning resistance of the thicker sheet.
As discussed, stretch forming with a flat punch of different sheet thicknesses was simulated using ABAQUS
6.11 to predict failure and LDH for the cases of biaxial stretching, plane strain condition and tensioncompression. The simulation results agree closely with the experimental results. The LDH has been found to be
24.14 mm which is significantly higher LDH which means formability increases with the increases of
566

thickness. There has been a significant improvement in accuracy of prediction of limiting dome height and limit
strains in FE simulations. The blow figure explains the finite element analysis.
Table 8 LDH test values of annealed AA1200 for different thickness
4. Conclusions
Based on the results and discussion presented in the previous chapter the following conclusions are drawn:
1.
The tensile tests showed a large variation in mechanical properties of the aluminium alloys.
2.
The annealed specimens have high strain hardening exponent indicating good stretchability.
3.
Anisotropy influences both mechanical and physical properties of metals. The value of the average
plastic strain ratio in annealed specimens is less than 0.5 which indicates poor drawability of the sheets.
The value of planar anisotropy is almost found to be equal to the average plastic strain ratio indicating
the earing tendency of the sheets.
4.
From the LDH test the limiting strain values and the formability of sheet metal were found to increase
with increase in the sheet thickness.
5.
There has been a significant improvement in accuracy of prediction of limiting dome height and limit
strains in FE simulations.
References
1.
Hirsch, J., Aluminium in innovative light-weight car design. Materials transactions, 2011. 52(5): p.
818-824.
2.
Ayres, R.A., Alloying aluminum with magnesium for ductility at warm temperatures (25 to 250 C).
Metallurgical Transactions A, 1979. 10(7): p. 849-854.
3.
Leitermann, W. and J. Christlein. The 2 nd generation Audi space frame of the A2: A trendsetting allaluminium car body concept in a compact class car. in Seoul 2000 FISITA World automotive congress.
2000.
4.
Dieter, G.E. and D. Bacon, Mechanical metallurgy. Vol. 3. 1986: McGraw-Hill New York.
5.
Banabic, D., Sheet Metal Forming Processes :Constitutive Modelling and Numerical Simulation.
2010: Springer, Berlin. 318.
6.
Hecker, S., Formability of aluminum alloy sheets. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology,
567
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7.
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1975. 97(1): p. 66-73.

Hosford, W.F., Cadell, R. M., Metal forming- Mechanics and Metallurgy. Book. 2007: Cambridge
University Press.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Bio-Diesel Derived from Waste Vegetable

Oil as an Alternative Fuel for Diesel
Engine: A Review
Shiv Kumar Ray and Om Prakash
Abstract- Bio-diesel is proved as an attractive alternative fuel for use in diesel engine due to its renewable
nature for a short span of time. Bio-diesel has several advantages among other new renewable and cleans
alternative fuel in terms of availability, performance and emission. The objective of this paper is to prove waste
vegetable bio-diesel oil as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. Methanol with NaOH catalyst give the best
result in terms of bio-diesel yield (98 weight %). Among the metal chloride catalyst, Fe and Al obtained the
highest bio-diesel yield (97 & 86 weight %). The molar ratios 6:1 give the optimum bio-diesel yield (97
weight%). The temperature was the most dominant factor which affects the reaction time and biodiesel yield.
Waste vegetable oil, bio-diesel gave the performance and emission characteristics nearer to that of petroleum
based diesel, making it a promising renewable sourse for the diesel engines.
Keywords - Waste vegetable oil; Waste frying oil; Waste cooking oil; Bio-diesel yield.
1. Abbreviation:
WVO : Waste Vegetable Oil
WFO : Waste Frying Oil
WCO : Waste Cooking Oil
FFA : Fee Fatty Acid
PBD : Petroleum Based Diesel
ntroduction Energy is vital for social and economic growth for the entire mankind and, our economy
significantly depends on the continuing accessibility of energy from sources that are economical,
accessible and environmentally friendly. The world's energy demand has enormously (629 quadrillion
Btu, International Energy Outlook 2016) increased which leads the shortage and depletion of conventional
sources [1-2]. The world's petroleum reserves are limited and extensive use of petroleum products has
increased our concern towards alternative energy resources. Fossil fuels are the main cause of increased global
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and other pollutant level, a consequence of global warming and health
problem. Therefore, it is the cause of concern and have encouraged research world-wide for alternative sources
of energy. Biofuels are emerging as substitutes for fossil fuel and among the biofuels, bio-diesel derived from
Shiv Kumar Ray

Mechanical Engineering Department, Research Scholar, NIT Patna
shivroy2k5@gmail.com,
1
Om Prakash
Mechanical Engineering Department, Professor, NIT Patna
om.prakash@nitp.ac.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Ray and Prakash
various sources is being explored as a favorable alternative to petroleum fuels. It is renewable and available
throughout the world. According to American Society for Testing and Materials bio-diesel is defined as
monoalkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from a renewable feedstock. ''Bio'' represents its renewable
and biological source ''diesel'' refers to its use in diesel engines [3]. Bio-diesel can be used in pure form or mixed
with diesel without any modification to the engine. As an alternative fuel, bio-diesel shows numerous merits
when compared to that of the petroleum diesel. Researchers have reported that unburned hydrocarbons,
particulate matter and carbon monoxide levels are found less by using bio-diesel, but nitrogen oxide levels get
increased with bio-diesel [4]. For the life cycle of bio-diesel carbon dioxide produced by combustion can be
recycled and hence minimizing its impact on the greenhouse effect. Biodiesel has lubricating properties which
reduce engine wear and extend life of the engine. Bio-diesel is costlier than petroleum based diesel fuel since it
is produced from vegetable oil.
Vegetable oils have turned into more attractive renewable resources for bio-diesel production. Vegetable oils
may be the probable substitute for the petroleum based petrochemicals in the nearby future. One of the first
transesterified of vegetable oil was performed in early 1846 when Rochieder described glycerol preparation
through ethanolysis of castor oil [5]. Since then, alcoholysis has been studied by several researchers in many
parts of the world. Transesterification of triglycerides is not a new process scientists E. Duffy and J. Patrick did
it as early as 1853 [6]. In 1893 German inventor and mechanical engineer, Rudolph Diesel published a paper
entitled 'The theory and construction of a rational heat engine'. Rudolph Diesel used peanut oil to fuel one of his
engines at the Paris Exposition of 1900 [7]. Zhang et.al. Studied four different processes for bio-diesel
production from waste cooking oil under alkaline or acidic conditions to reduce the raw material cost. The acid
catalysed process proved to be technically feasible with less complexity than the alkali catalysed process using
waste cooking oil, thus making it a reasonable alternative to commercial bio-diesel production [8]. Phan et. al.
investigated the effects of molar ratio, KOH concentration and temperature on the bio-diesel conversion. A
biodiesel yield of 8890% was obtained at the methanol and oil ratios of 7:18:1, with temperatures of 3050
and 0.75 wt. % of KOH. Bio-diesel blends with a percentage of below 30 vol% have physical properties within
standard, which indicated that these could be used in diesel engines without major modification [9]. Predojevic
investigate the bio-diesel produced by two-step alkali transesterification of waste sunflower oils using
methanol and KOH as catalyst and influence of different purification methods on the properties and yield. That
property of bio-diesel reflected the one of the feed stock. The result also showed that the yield was 92% in case
of silica gel and phosphoric acid treatments while 89% in the case of hot water treatment [10]. Banerjee et. al.
Studied the effect of various operating and processing parameters on the transesterification of WCO depends on
the quality of the feedstock oil and with an increase in temperature during transesterification, results higher biodiesel yield. Among all the alcohols employed by various researchers, methanol has been reported to give the
best result in terms of bio-diesel yield and for transesterification process alkaline catalysts was found more
suitable [11]. Ednildo et. al. carried out an experiment on a laboratory scale and, in a semi-industrial pilot plant
on waste oil. For transesterification process, waste vegetable oils were reacted with methanol in the presence of
basic catalyst. The conversion rate was between 81% and 85wt%. It was also found that for higher ester yield
the amount of glycerine formed had less. Thus, concluding that the removal of glycerine is important in for biodiesel yield [12]. Ghoreishi et. al. investigated the production of bio-diesel in supercritical methanol. In this
study CO2 was used as a co-solvent to reduce the level of reaction temperature and molar ratio and as a pressure
enhancer for miscibility of alcohol and oil to improve yield. The experimental bio-diesel yield of 95.27% was
achieved in the predicted operating conditions [13]. Carlinia et. al. investigated the operating conditions that
maximize the bio-diesel production from WCO. The tests carried out on WCO samples coming from domestic
residential and categorized on the basis of FFA content. The oil containing FFA equal to 3%, with NaOH
concentration 0.5% w/w of oil and 100% of methanol was the best operating conditions, and gave the bio-diesel
yield of 94.3% and a density of 0.875 g/cm3 [14]. Guerra et. al. studied the effects of bio-diesel yield by using
direct pulse sonication for ethanol and methanol transesterification reaction from the waste vegetable oil with
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Bio-Diesel Derived from Waste Vegetable Oil as an ......

no external heating and mechanical mixing. It was observed that the bio-diesel yields were greater than 99%wt
at lower power density and ultrasound intensity for ethanol-methanol mixtures as compared to ethanol or
methanol transesterification reaction [15]. Yassin et. al. investigated the catalytic performances of ionic liquid
metals chloride in the transesterification process, and the yield of bio-diesel reached 97 wt.%. Fe and Al obtain
the highest bio-diesel yields among the metal chlorides [16]. Piker et. al. used egg shells as catalyst at room
temperature for bio-diesel production from fresh soybean oil and waste cooking oil, high yield of fatty acid
methyl ester was obtained 98 wt.% from fresh soybean oil and 97 wt.% from WCO, after 11 h of regular stirring
[17]. Maneerung et. al. Produced low cost and efficient CaO catalyst by using chicken manure as a raw material,
for bio-diesel production, up to 90%wt bio-diesel yield was achieved by using CaO from the transesterification
reaction of waste cooking oil [18]. Pugazhvadivua et. al. found that the preheated waste frying oil up to 135
improve the engine performance also CO and smoke emissions were reduced. Thus preheated waste frying oil
up to 135 can be used as a diesel fuel for short-term engine operation [19]. Zafer et. al. examined methyl ester
obtained from waste frying oil on a four-cylinder direct injection diesel engine with turbocharged.
Experimental results were nearly the same with existing diesel fuel and the amount of emission such as CO,
CO2 and smoke of waste frying oils were less than diesel fuel [20]. Muralidharan et. al. analysed performance,
emission and combustion characteristics of a single cylinder four stroke variable compression ratio multi fuel
engine when fuelled with waste cooking oil methyl ester and its blends with diesel. The results indicated a
longer ignition delay, maximum rate of pressure rise with the lower heat release rate and at a higher
compression ratio, mass fraction was higher for waste cooking oil methyl ester as comparable diesel. In case of
blend B40 the brake thermal efficiency was maximum at 50% load. The blends when used as a fuel, carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon was reduced while nitrogen oxides emissions increases [21]. Sanli et. al. tested biodiesels and its blends produced from waste frying oil using methanol and ethanol fuel in a direct injection diesel
engine. The results showed that ethyl ester bio-diesel had a slightly better thermal efficiency than methyl ester
bio-diesel. Ester fuels emitted less CO and HC emissions, but they caused to produce more NOx. CO2
emissions were very close to each other. Ethyl ester bio-diesel released relatively less emissions than methyl
ester bio-diesel [22]. Dogan studied the effects of cooking conditions on the cold flow properties and kinematic
viscosity of bio-diesel produced from cooking oils. Results shown that increase in salt and water content,
cooking time and temperature, minimizes the physical properties and cold flow properties, while the heating
values of all bio-diesels were improved with the increased salt content [23]. The objective of this paper is to
gather knowledge about the bio-diesel derived from waste vegetable oil and its effect on the performance &
emission on diesel engines. So that WVO bio-diesel can be proved as an alternative fuel for diesel engine. This
paper collects the work published by researchers in scientific journals about WVO bio-diesel production and its
effect on diesel engine performance & emission when using it as fuels.
Figure 1. Transesterification reaction of triglycerides with alcohol.
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3. Transesterification of WVO
Transesterification is a reaction process which is used for bio-diesel production from fat or oil with an alcohol
and glycerol as by-product in other words transesterification means taking a triglyceride molecule, neutralizing
it then removing the glycerine, and creating an alcohol ester [11]. The transesterification reaction can be
processed in the presence of catalyst to increase the rate of reaction, by using alcohols having 1-8 carbon atoms.
R1, R2, R3 and R/ represent alkyl groups. The reaction is shown in figure 1.
4. WVO Bio-Diesel Yield and Its Properties
It has been found that the WVO bio-diesel yield depends on a number of variable. Among which molar ratio,
type of catalyst, reaction time, reaction temperature and acid value of the waste vegetable oil has great effect on
the WVO bio-diesel yield [8-17]. WVO bio-diesel yield is given in Table 1.
Table 1. WVO bio-diesel yield with different alcohol and catalyst.
Figure 2. WVO Bio-diesel Yield with methanol and ethanol
572

4.1 Effect of alcohol on WVO bio-diesel yield
Alcohols are used for transesterification of vegetable oil to produce bio-diesel, and among all alcohols that can
be used for transesterification reaction are methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol [6]. Ethanol
and methanol are used most frequently, ethanol has been preferred since it is derived from agricultural products
and is renewable, while methanol because of its low cost and its physical and chemical advantages. Methanol
has been reported to give the best result in terms of bio-diesel yield [6,16]. WVO bio-diesel yield with methanol
and ethanol is shown in Figure 2.
4.2 Effect of catalyst on WVO bio-diesel yield
A catalyst is normally used to increase the reaction rate and yield of bio-diesel. The transesterification reaction
can be catalysed by alkalis [9,10,12,13], acids [14], or liquid metals chlorides [16]. The reaction by using an
acid catalyst is found slower than the base catalyst and requires a temperature higher than 90. Also acid
catalyst (H2SO4) can produce salt, which may be the cause of corrosion [14]. Among the metal chlorides use of
Fe and Al obtained the highest bio-diesel yield [16].
4.3 The effect of reaction time and reaction temperature on WVO bio-diesel yield
Several researchers had studied the effect of temperature on conversion of oils and fats into bio-diesel [9,10,12].
Figure 4. shows the effect of temperature with reaction time for different catalyst. It has been observed that with
increase of reaction temperature the reaction time decreases significantly. It is also observed that the acidic
catalyst performed slower than that of alkali catalyst.
Figure 4. Reaction time and reaction temperature
Figure 5. WVO Bio-diesel Yield with reaction

temperature and reaction time
Figure 5. shows the WVO bio-diesel yield with reaction temperature and reaction time for different catalyst. It
has been observed that the reaction temperature influence the WVO bio-diesel yield significantly. NaOH was
found the best catalyst in terms of reaction temperature, reaction time and WVO bio-diesel yield, among all.
4.4 Effect of molar ratio on the yield of WCO bio-diesel
Molar ratio is an important variable which affects the yield of waste vegetable oil bio-diesel. Guerra et. al.
evaluated the effect of different molar ratios on the transesterification reaction at a fixed catalyst concentration,
the bio-diesel yield increased with an increase in the molar ratios, 97% of bio-diesel yield was observed in 6:1
molar ratios [15].
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4.1 WVO bio-diesel fuel Properties

The properties of WVO bio-diesel fuels are compared with petroleum based diesel in Table 2. The
characteristics of WVO bio-diesel are close to petroleum based diesel, and, therefore, bio-diesel becomes a
strong substitute to replace the petroleum based diesel if the need arises. WCO bio-diesel has a viscosity close to
petroleum based diesel.
Table 2. Property ranges of WVO bio-diesel fuel [3,5,23]
5. Result and Conclusion

WVO bio-diesel can be the good sustainable substitute for low cost bio-diesel production. It found that the
transesterification process is best for the production of WVO bio-diesel among all processes, and the main
factors which affected the transesterification process are the molar ratio, reaction temperature, reaction time,
catalyst, contents of free fatty acid and moisture, among these which affects the WVO bio-diesel yield most is
the molar ratio and reaction temperature. NaOH was found best for transesterification process of WVO among
the catalyst in terms of reaction temperature and yield.
Waste vegetable oil, bio-diesel gave the performance and emission characteristics nearer to that of petroleum
based diesel, making it a promising candidate for the diesel engines. A diesel engine can run successfully on
bio-diesel and its blends without any engine modifications.
Hence, bio-diesel from waste vegetable oil may be considered as a low cost renewable substitute for petroleum
based diesel fuel.
From the figure and facts of the different researchers one can concludes that catalyst NaOH can be used for the
higher as well as lower range of temperature but at higher temperature range 250 to 300 oC the reaction time is
less than 50 minute. The H2SO4 reaction temperature is low but the reaction time is higher. So it is suitable for
lower temperature. The selection should be made on the basis available temperature and the reaction time will
accordingly higher or lower.
References
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N.M Angeliki, On energy consumption and GDP studies; A meta-analysis of the last two decades,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, 2014, Vol. 29, pp. 3136.
[2]
V. K. Vladimir and G. T. Alexey, World energy and climate in the twenty-first century in the context of
historical trends: Clear constraints to the future growth, Journal of Globalization Studies, Elsevier,
2010, vol. 20, pp. 2740.
[3]
A.K. Agrawal and L.M. Das, Bio-diesel development and characterization for use as a fuel in
compression ignition engines, Trans ASME 2001; 123:4407
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vegetable oil in engines: Review and experimental measurement of emissions, fuel consumption and
injector fouling on a turbocharged commercial engine, Fuel, Elsevier, 2016, vol. 182, pp. 198209.
A. Demirbas, Bio-diesel fuels from vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical
alcohol transesterifications and other methods: a survey, Energy Conversion and Management,
Elsevier, 2003, vol. 44, pp. 20932109.
A. Demirbas Progress and recent trends in bio-diesel fuels, Energy Conversion and Management,
Elsevier, 2009, vol. 50, pp. 1434.
A. Demirbas, Bio-diesel production from vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical
methanol transesterification methods, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, Elsevier, 2005,
vol. 31, pp. 466487.
Y. Zhang, M.A. Dube, D.D. McLean and M. Kates Bio-diesel production from waste cooking oil: 1.
Process design and technological assessment Bioresource Technology, Elsevier, 2003, vol. 89, pp.
116.
Any N. Phan and Tan M. Phan Bio-diesel production from waste cooking oils Fuel, Elsevier, 2008,
vol. 87, pp. 34903496.
Zlatica J. Predojevic The production of bio-diesel from waste frying oils: A comparison of different
purification steps, Fuel, Elsevier, 2008, vol. 87, pp. 35223528.
A. Banerjee and R. Chakraborty Parametric sensitivity in the transesterification of waste cooking oil
for bio-diesel production: A review, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Elsevier, 2009, vol. 53,
pp. 490497.
A. T. Ednildo, S. C. Gilberto, M. F. Tiago., M. Q. Cristina, R. Massimo, T. Vincenzo, and U. Giordano
Recovery of different waste vegetable oils for bio-diesel production: A pilot experience in Bahia
State, Brazil, Waste Management, Elsevier, 2013, vol. 33, pp. 26702674.
S.M. Ghoreishi and P. Moein Bio-diesel synthesis from waste vegetable oil via transesterification
reaction in supercritical methanol, Journal of Supercritical Fluids, Elsevier, 2013, vol. 76, pp. 24
31.
C. Maurizio, C. Sonia and Silvia Cocchia A Pilot-Scale Study of Waste Vegetable Oil
Transesterification with Alkaline and Acidic Catalysts, Energy Procedia, Elsevier, 2014, vol. 45, pp.
198 206.
Edith Martinez-Guerra and Veera Gnaneswar Gude Transesterification of waste vegetable oil under
pulse sonication using ethanol, methanol and ethanolmethanol mixtures Waste Management,
Elsevier, 2014, vol. 34, pp. 26112620.
A. Yassin, Y. Fathy, E. Kady, S. Ahmed, L. K. Mohamed, S. A. Shaban, K. Ahmed Highly effective,
ionic liquids for bio-diesel production from waste vegetable oils, Egyptian Journal of Petroleum,
Elsevier, 2015, vol. 24, pp. 103111.
A. Piker, B. Tabah, N. Perkas, A. Gedanken A green and low-cost room temperature bio-diesel
production method from waste oil using egg shells as catalyst, Fuel, Elsevier, 2016, vol. 182, pp.
3441.
T. Maneerung, S. Kawi, Y. Dai, C. Wangb Sustainable bio-diesel production via transesterification of
waste cooking oil by using CaO catalysts prepared from chicken manure, Energy Conversion and
Management, Elsevier, 2016, vol. 123, pp. 487497.
M. Pugazhvadivua, K. Jeyachandranb Investigations on the performance and exhaust emissions of a
diesel engine using preheated waste frying oil as fuel, Renewable Energy, Elsevier, 2005, vol. 30, pp.
21892202.
Z. Utlua, M. S. Kocakb The effect of bio-diesel fuel obtained from waste frying oil on direct injection
diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions, Renewable Energy, Elsevier, 2008, vol. 33, pp.
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K. Muralidharan, D. Vasudevan Performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a variable
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H. Sanli, M. Canakci, E. Alptekin, A. Turkcan, A.N. Ozsezen, Effects of waste frying oil based methyl
and ethyl ester bio-diesel fuels on the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a DI
diesel engine Fuel, Elsevier, 2015, vol. 159, pp. 179187.
T. H. Dogan The testing of the effects of cooking conditions on the quality of bio-diesel produced from
waste cooking oils, Renewable Energy, Elsevier, 2016, vol. 94, pp. 466-473.
M. Lapuerta, O. Armas, J. R. Fernandez Effect of bio-diesel fuels on diesel engine emissions
Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, Elsevier, 2008, vol. 34, pp. 198223.
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Heat Transferin Microchannel Heat

Sink: Review
Sunny Chandra and Om Prakash
Abstract-High performance computers, avionics, defense systems require powerful cooling systems like
micro-channel heat sink to dissipate large amount of heat flux. The microchannel heat sink is usually made from
high thermal conductivity materials with the high surface area to have high heat transfer with lower temperature
differences. Micro-channelsfabricatedto have high surface area by micro-machining technology. The heat sink
features flow boiling of working fluid through a series of parallel micro-channels with cross- sectional
dimensions ranging from 10 to 100 m. The objective of this paper is collectively present the work done by
different researchers on the heat transfer mechanism in microchannel heat sink in laminar flow conditions. Two
phase heat transfer in microchannel heat sink is more effective than single phase heat transfer as two phase heat
sinks dissipates high heat fluxes at smaller flow rate of working fluid in comparison to single phase heat sinks at
same temperature difference. Effect of variation of two phase heat transfer coefficient with Reynolds number
(Re) and aspect ratio () is presented in this paper. Two phase heat transfer coefficient shows increasing trend
with Reynolds number and aspect ratio.
Keywords- Microchannel heat sink; Heat transfer mechanism in microchannel heat sink; two phase heat
transfer coefficient.
Abbreviations
Sunny Chandra,
Mechanical Engineering Department, Research Scholar, N.I.T Patna
sunnychandra27@gmail.com,
Om Prakash
Mechanical Engineering Department, Professor, N.I.T Patna
om.prakash@nitp.ac.in
Corresponding Author: 8987260099
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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ntroduction Due to the faster signal speed and superior performance of electronic devices, the past two
decades have witnessed exceptional increases in heat dissipation in high performance computers,
electrical vehicle power electronics, avionics, and directed energy laser and microwave weapon systems.
Today localized heat dissipation from advanced microprocessors has already exceeded 100 W/cm2, while
high-end defence application such as lasers, microwave devices and radars are beginning to exceed 1000
W/cm2, whereas in nuclear reactors needs heat flux removal rate of 10000 W/cm2 [1]. Requirement for heat
dissipation will continue to rise with the improvement in technologies and further reduction in the size of these
applications. Heat fluxes for different applications are shown in figure 1. Trends of cooling technologies
adopted to meet the steep increase in heat fluxes over the years are shown in figure 2. The exponential curve
shows the increase in the heat flux and changes in the cooling technologies. Powerful cooling systems are
needed to face the challenges of emerging technologies as well as to make possible further developments in
these technologies that will increase the heat dissipation. Various cooling systems have been developed to
achieve the desired. These consist of pool boiling thermosyphons, channel flow boiling, jet and sprays etc [2].
The concept of micro-channel heat sink was first introduced by Tuckerman and Pease in the early 1980s. Microchannel heat sink is an inventive cooling technology which removes large heat fluxes from a small volume. The
heat sink is usually made from high thermal conductivity materials such as silicon or copper with the microchannels made-up into its surface by either precision machining or micro-fabrication technology. Microchannels have characteristics dimensions ranging from 10 to 1000 m [3] and they serve as flow passages for
the working fluid. Very high surface area to volume ratio, large convective heat transfer coefficient, small mass
and volume, and small coolant inventory make heat sink very suitable for cooling devices like microprocessors,
laser diode arrays, radars, and high-energy-laser mirrors [4]. Micro-channel heat sinks can be categorised as
single phase and two phase. The coolant may maintain its liquid single phase state throughout micro-channels
for a fixed dissipative heat flux and high flow rate which corresponds to a single-phase heat sink. If coolant flow
rate is comparatively low, the liquid coolant may reach its boiling point while flowing in micro-channels and
flow boiling occurs, which results in a two-phase heat sink. Two phase heat sinks are ideally suited for
dissipating large amount of heat within very limited space which is demand of the modern applications. These
devices are light weight and compact, and needs very small coolant inventory.
Figure 1: Variation of dissipation of heat flux

for different applications
578
Figure 2: Variation of cooling of Heat

flux with year required due to development
of new technology in different fields [16].
Heat Transferin Microchannel Heat Sink: Review
The objective of this paper is to understand the heat transfer phenomena in microchannel heat sink by
presenting a review on the different parameters which affects two phase heat transfer coefficient in
microchannel heat sink under laminar flow condition.
2. Heat transfer in micro-channel heat sink
Heat transfer mechanism in micro-channel heat sink is different for subcooled and saturated boiling conditions
because of the void fractions. In subcooled boiling liquid flow is abundant phase change happens mostly by
bubble formation at the wall, while saturated flow boiling in microchannels is governed by two mechanisms:
nucleate boiling and forced convection boiling [3]. In the nucleate boiling dominant region, liquid near the
heated channel wall is superheated to an adequate degree to maintain the nucleation and growth of vapour
bubbles. The heat transfer coefficient in this region is dependent upon heat flux, but less susceptible to mass
velocity and vapour quality. The nucleate boiling region is normally related with the bubbly and slug flow
patterns, and the forced convection boiling region related to the annular flow pattern. Qu &Mudawar [5]
measured the incipient boiling heat flux in a heat sink containing 21 rectangular micro-channels 231 m wide
and 713 m. Tests were performed with deionized water as coolant at inlet velocities of 0.133-1.44 m/s, inlet
temperatures of 30, 60 & 90oC at an outlet pressure of 1.2 bar. Their findings were that at incipient boiling, a
small number of nucleation sites appear at the same time close to the exit of several micro-channels, with one or
two sites per micro-channel. In the forced convection boiling dominant region, large heat transfer coefficient
causes suppression of bubble nucleation along the heated wall, so the heat is transferred mainly by single-phase
convection through the thin annular liquid film and carried away by evaporation at the liquidvapor interface.
Qu &Mudawar [3] tested the heat transfer characteristics at a mass velocity range of 135-402 kg/m2s, inlet
temperatures of 300C, 600C, and at outlet pressure of 1.17 bar. Results indicated an unexpected transition to
annular flow near the point of zero thermodynamic equilibrium quality, and exposed that dominant heat transfer
mechanism is forced convective boiling corresponding to annular flow. The heat transfer coefficient in this
region depends on coolant mass velocity and vapour quality, but independent of heat flux.Saisorn et al. [6] has
studied experimentally the heat transfer characteristics of airwater flow in horizontal micro-channels. The
tests were performed at a heat load of 80 W, with superficial Reynolds numbers of gas and liquid ranging
between 54142 and 131373, respectively. Two inlet sections with different designs were used in this work to
investigate the dependency of Nusselt number on flow characteristics. The experiments exposed that the
development of small gas slugs instead of gas core flow involves an increase in Nusselt numbers due to which
gasliquid flow gave heat transfer enhancement up to 80% over the liquid flow.Mirmanto [7] performed
experiments to investigate local heat transfer coefficients during flow boiling of water in a rectangular
microchannel. The hydraulic diameter of the channel was 0.635 mm. The nominal mass fluxes varied from 200
to 700 kg/m2s and heat fluxes in the range of 171 to 685 kW/m2 were applied. An inlet fluid temperature of 98
C and pressure of 125 kPa were maintained at the microchannel entrance. Results showed that heat transfer is
dominated by nucleate boiling and the effect of quality suppresses the local heat transfer coefficient.
2.1 Effect of working fluid other than water on heat transfer performance of microchannel heat sink
In most of studies water is used as working fluid but water is not an appropriate working fluid for removing
large amounts of heat from electronic devices because of its current carrying capacity and corrosive nature [8].
Now some researchers have moved to Freon based refrigerants like FC-72, FC-77 because of its high dielectric
constant due to which these refrigerants can withstand at very high heat fluxes. But Freon's have also some
limitations because of its ozone layer depletion rate which is harmful for environment. Hence now a day's some
eco-friendly refrigerants like R134a, R123, R410a, HFE-7000, HFE-7100 etc. are employed as coolant in the
test module to solve the problems of corrosiveness and ozone layer depletion. Nascimento et al. [9] performed
an experimental investigation of a micro-channel heat sink based on flow boiling of R134 in micro-channels.
The results showed that the heat-sink average heat transfer coefficient increases with increasing mass velocity
for a fixed mean vapour quality. Dong et al. [10] investigated flow boiling of Freon R141b in rectangular
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microchannel heat sinks. Experiments were performed over mass velocities ranging from 400 to 980 kg/m2s
and heat flux from 40 to 700 kW/m2, and atmospheric pressure at outlet. The results showed that the mean heat
transfer coefficient of R141b flow boiling in present microchannel heat sinks depends greatly on mass velocity
and heat flux.Lee &Mudawar [11] explored the cooling performance of microchannel heat sink using HFE7100
for four different microchannel sizes. Results revealed that heat fluxes in excess of 700 W/cm2 could be
managed without burnout.
2.2
Effect of channel and heat sink geometry on heat transfer in micro-channel heat sink
Channel and heat sink geometry plays important role in heat transfer performance analysis of a micro-channel
heat sink.Liu et al. [12] studied the heat transfer performance of the high pin fins with the Reynolds number
ranging from 60 to 800 using deionized water as working fluid. The studies were carried out for micro square
pin fins of 559x 559 m2 and 445 x 445 m2 cross-section. They has concluded that heat dissipation rate could
reach 2.83 x 106 W/m2 at the flow rate of 57.225 L/h and the surface temperature of 73.40C for 445 x 445 m2,
also heat resistance decreased with increase in pressure drop.Prajapati et al. 2015 [13] compared the flow
boiling characteristics of deionized water in three different configurations of micro-channels through
experimental investigations. The investigated channel configurations were uniform cross-section, diverging
cross-section and segmented finned micro-channels. Experiments have been conducted with subcooled liquid
state at the entry and varying coolant mass and heat fluxes. For entire operating conditions, segmented finned
channels demonstrate the highest heat transfer coefficient. Peles et al. 2005 [14] investigated experimentally
the heat transfer phenomena over a bank of micro pin fins. It has been observed that very low thermal
resistances are achievable using a pin fin heat sink as compared tomicro-channel convective flows, therefore
heat transfer performance has been improved for the devices using micro pin fins.Deng et al. [15] has compared
the flow boiling performance of reentrant microchannels (REEM) and conventional rectangular microchannels
(RECM) at the same hydraulic diameter. Comprehensive comparative experiments with two coolants, i.e.,
deionized water and ethanol, were performed at inlet sub-cooling of 100C and 400C, and mass fluxes of
200300 kg/m2s. Experimental results showed that the re-entrantmicrochannels present significant rise in twophase heat transfer in large inlet subcooling cases and moderate to high heat fluxes.
Two phase heat transfer coefficient investigations for different authors has been compared at different Reynolds
number (Re) and different aspect ratio (). In figure 3. two phase heat transfer coefficient result at Re= 200-600
for different investigations has been plotted. Two phase heat transfer coefficient shows increasing trend with
Reynolds number from figure 5. It can be understand that higher aspect ratio is beneficial for dissipating high
heat fluxes as increase in Nusselt number ratio of three wall and four wall heat transfer leads to enhancement in
Table 1: Summary of heat transfer investigations
580
Figure 3: Reynolds number (Re) Vs Two phase heat transfer coefficient (ht).
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Figure 4: Aspect ratio () Vs Nusselt number ratio of three wall and four wall heat transfer (Nu3/Nu4).
two phase heat transfer coefficient.

Result and Conclusions
Heat transfer mechanism in microchannels is different for saturated and subcooled flow boiling conditions.
Saturated flow boiling conditions are governed by nucleate and forced convection. The nucleate boiling region
is associated with the bubbly and slug flow patterns while forced convection boiling is related to the annular
flow. In subcooled flow phase change occurs mostly by bubble formation at the wall.
Two phase heat transfer coefficient enhances with augmentation in Reynolds number (Re) due to which
performance of microchannel heat sink will be improved in laminar flow conditions.
Two phase heat transfer coefficient enhances with increase in Nusselt number ratio of three wall and four wall
heat transfer due to enhancement in aspect ratio.
From the above review work one can concludes that heat transfer coefficient is having close relation with the
Reynolds number but different coefficient of increments. The coefficient of increment is a factor of operating
conditions.
References
[1]
J. Lee, I. Mudawar, Fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics of low temperature two-phase microchannel heat sinks- Part 1: Experimental methods and flow visualization results, International Journal
of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol.51, pp 43154326, 2008.
[2]
W. Qu & I. Mudawar, Measurement and correlation of critical heat flux in two-phase micro-channel
heat sinks, International Journal of Heat andMass Transfer, vol. 47, pp 20452059, 2004.
[3]
W. Qu & I. Mudawar, Flow boiling heat transfer in two-phase micro-channel heat sinks-I,
Experimental investigation and assessment of correlation methods, International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer, vol. 46, pp 27552771, 2003
[4]
W. Qu, I. Mudawar, Experimental and numerical study of pressure drop and heat transfer in a singlephase micro-channel heat sink, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 45, pp
25492565, 2002.
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[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
W. Qu, I. Mudawar, Prediction and measurement of incipient boiling heat flux in micro-channel heat
sinks, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 45, pp 39333945, 2002.
S. Saisorn, P. Kuaseng, S. Wongwises, Heat transfer characteristics of gasliquid flow in horizontal
rectangular micro-channels, Experimental Thermal and Fluid, vol. 55, pp 5461, 2014.
M. Mirmanto, Local pressure measurements and heat transfer coefficients of flow boiling in a
rectangular microchannel,Heat Mass Transfer, vol.52, pp 73-83, 2016.
S.T. Kadam, R. Kumar, Twenty first century cooling solution: Microchannel heat sinks-A Review,
International Journal of Thermal Sciences, vol. 85, pp 73-92, 2014.
F.J.D Nascimento, H.L.S. Leao, G. Ribatski, An experimental study on flow boiling heat transfer of
R134a in a microchannel-based heat sink, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, vol. 45, pp
117127, 2013.
T. Dong, Z. Yan, Q. Bi, Y. Zhang, Freon R141b flow boiling in silicon microchannel heat sinks:
experimental investigation, Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 44, pp 315324, 2008.
J. Lee, I. Mudawar, Fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics of low temperature two-phase microchannel heat sinks- Part 2. Subcooled boiling pressure drop and heat transfer, International Journal of
Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 51,pp 43274341, 2008.
M. Liu, D. Liu, S. Xu, Y. Chen, Experimental study on liquid flow and heat transfer in micro square pin
fin heat sink, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 54, pp 56025611, 2011.
Y. K. Prajapati, M. Pathak, M. K Khan, A comparative study of flow boiling heat transfer in three
different configurations of microchannels, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 85, pp
711-722, 2015.
Y. Peles, A. Kosar, C. Mishra, C.J Kuo, B. Schneider, Forced convective heat transfer across a pin fin
micro heat sink, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol.48, pp 3615-3627, 2005.
D. Deng, W. Wan, H. Shao, Y. Tang, J. Feng, J. Zeng, Effects of operation parameters on flow boiling
characteristics of heat sink cooling systems with reentrant porous microchannels, Energy Conversion
and Management, vol. 96, pp 340-351, 2015 340351.
Thermal Management in Electronic Equipment, HCL Technologies, February 2010.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Low-Cost Manufacturing and Implementation

of an Optimized Model of Horizontal
Axis Hydrokinetic Turbine and
Test Bed Assembly
Suyash Nigam, Tanmay Nema, Vansh Sharma,
Shubham Bansal and Raj Kumar Singh
Abstract- Hydrokinetic turbine is a developing technology which harnesses zero-head free flow of water. This
presents a low emission way to satisfy the increasing energy demand of the world, at the same time minimally
affecting the hydrological ecology. The primary classification of these turbines is done on the basis of axis of
rotation relative to the flow- horizontal (HAHkT) and vertical hydrokinetic turbines with horizontal axis
improving on some of the problems of vertical axis ones.
This paper illustrates our methodology to manufacture 3-D printed blade and hub assembly in an economic
manner to test the horizontal axis HAHkT in a test bed facility.
Keywords- HAHkT; hydrofoil; chord length; 3-D printing;
Introduction India, with its emphasis on 'Skill India' and 'Make in India' campaigns is power hungry but
deficient today. However, it is blessed with abundance of hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in terms of
exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario. [1-2] States rich in harness able natural water reserves are
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka and Himanchal Pradhesh [3] These turbines have already
been tested commercially in several quarters of the world.[4-12]
In this regards, hydrokinetic turbines offer a viable, clean and efficient alternative. These energy conversion
systems have a propeller with two or more blades rotating around a horizontal or vertical shaft by the effects of
the hydrodynamic forces present in a free stream. Each blade may consist of a single or multiple hydrofoil
geometry depending upon the radial distance. The blades rotate with the torque that is produced by the lift or
drag force, depending on the orientation.
Each blade section has an optimum angle of attack, which is the angle between the relative velocity and the
blade section's chord line. On the other hand, hydrokinetic turbines are subjected to high thrust and torsional
loads due to density of water causing high bending moment at the blade root. So, thicker blade sections are
preferred near the hub.
Applying the above principles, s832 and e817 profiles were chosen in our work previously along with optimal
chord angles and converging results. [13] However the real challenge faced in a project is more often than not in
the implementation phase when faced with a myriad of problems. To test the model, a hydrokinetic turbine and
associated components were developed.
Suyash Nigam, Tanmay Nema, Vansh Sharma, Shubham Bansal and Raj Kumar Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, India
suyashnigam@dtu.ac.in, tanmaynema@dtu.ac.in, sharmavansh99gmail.com,
shubhambansalrmr@hotmail.com, rajkumarsingh@dce.ac.in,
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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2. Test Apparatus
The primary challenge faced in manufacturing any component is the selection of the material. In our case the
material selected for the components of the apparatus is aluminium solely on the fact it is lighter than the
available alternative of Mild Steel. Aluminium is a very desirable metal because it is more malleable and elastic
than steel. Aluminium can create shapes that steel cannot, often forming deeper or more intricate spinnings.
Especially for parts with deep and straight walls, aluminium is the material of choice. Steel is a very tough and
resilient metal but cannot generally be pushed to the same extreme dimensional limits as aluminum without
cracking or ripping during the spinning process. A look on the table of properties can alleviate further doubts.
Table 1. Comparison of structural properties of steel and aluminium
Clearly, the density of steel is 2.5 times that of aluminium. Hence the strength to weight ratio of aluminium is
higher. Also, considering the serviceability of the apparatus, steel is more prone to rusting whereas aluminium
is not. Using mild steel would have required extra strength to the mounts making it heavier and a costly setup.
Hence aluminium was preferred naturally.
2.1. Parts Designed
Hub
Design criterion: The hub mounts the blades and the nose along with a shaft in the center. The square bore was
selected to discard the need of a key to prevent relative motion. The 3 holes on the side are given to mount the
nose with the help of fasteners.
Material used: Aluminium Manufacturing process undertaken: CNC Wire-Cutting The choices available for
the manufacturing were CNC-Milling and CNC-Wire Cutting. The process was selected on the basis of the
square shape of the bore and lesser time required to manufacture the part. Better dimensional accuracy is
achieved with lesser cost.
!
Figure 2. Model of shaft

Figure 1. Model of Hub
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Low-Cost Manufacturing and Implementation of..........

! Shaft
Design criteria: The Shaft was made square on the front part to eliminate the need of cutting a keyway and using
a key. A bore with M6 tapped dimension is given to mount the pulley at one end.
Material used: Aluminium Manufacturing process undertaken: Lathe work
Lathe work was selected, as the part was simple in design and the piece could be quickly manufactured and the
cost was null. The part did not require much accuracy as in case of the hub.
Figure 3. Shaft in manufacturing

Figure 4. Model of pitch varying mechanism
! Blades
Design criteria: The basic profile of the blade model was made up to the height of 12cm. The base mount part
was split into two parts to provide a method to test the profile for various angles of attack. The holes provided
restrict motion of both parts and the cylindrical extrusion ensures better locking. Material used: ABS (Plastic)
Manufacturing process undertaken: 3D printing (with 100% infill)
The blades required high accuracy which is very difficult to achieve as such small scale model by other
processes like CNC milling. Also, the cost of 3D printing is less compared to other processes.
Figure 5. Model of optimised blade
Figure 6. Blade and pitch angle assembly manufacturing
! Nose
Design criteria: The nose is designed to minimize drag and for easy mounting to the hub via 3 fasteners.
Material used: ABS (Plastic)
Manufacturing process undertaken: 3D printing (with 100% infill)
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Figure 7. Model of nose
Figure 8. Manufactued nose
! Pulleys
Design criteria: The pulleys are designed according to the belt available in the market and the reduction ratio
required for the motor. A v-style groove was selected with 1.5mm wall on sides and 3mm depth. The belt
thickness was kept 4mm. Material used: ABS (Plastic) and Aluminium
Manufacturing process undertaken: Lathe work
Figure 9. Model of pulley
Figure 10. Model of bearing mounts
! Bearing Mounts
Design criteria: The mounts are designed according to the bearing and keeping focus on easy and simple usage.
2 tapped holes are used to fasten the mount to the base plate.
Material used: Aluminium
Manufactruring process undertaken: Lathe work
Lathe was selected over choices like milling and pantograph due to less wastage of material in manufacturing.
Also, the process was cheaper and time saving.
Figure 11. Manufactured bearing mounts
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Figure 12. Stepper motor with mounted pulley

and wiring to measure V-

3. Devices Used For Testing
3.1.Stepper Motor
It was decided to use AC stepper motor in reverse as a generator coupled with the turbine for the
experimentation to measure the open circuit voltage and closed circuit current to calculate power by coupling
the motor to the output shaft.
3.2. Flow Meter
A digital flow meter was setup 30cm ahead of the turbine to calculate the flow velocity of water incident on
the blades. Data was logged directly on the laptop by interfacing the meter with Arduino UNO board and
running the code to measure the flow velocity. Water flow sensor is mainly consisting of plastic valve body,
rotor assembly and Hall Current Sensor. It is installed in the water inlet end for detecting water flow. When
water passes through the flow rotor assembly, Magnetic rotor will rotate and Speed will change as the flow
changes. Hall Current sensor provides an output of the corresponding pulse Signal, which is used for
calulations.
Figure 13. Flowmeter to measure water velocity

3.3. Tachometer
The RPM at the driven pulley is estimated through a digital tachometer.
3.4. Bearings
Waterproof bearing were purchased according to the bearing load calculations. The FOS of the bearing
available for 12mm shafts is more than suffice for the experiment.
3.5. Belt
Rubber belt was selected with minimum width and appropriate load capacity.
3.6. Multi-Meter
The experimental power output is calculated by measuring the current and voltage output at the output
terminals of the stepper motor which is being used in reverse as a generator.
4. Assembled Model
The following is the assembled model of the blade-hub assembly along with the flowmeter, arduino, shaft,
pulley, belt and stepper motor along with connections for voltmeter. The test bed has gates on both sides whose
openings can be varied to regulate the flow velocity and depth of the channel.
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Figure 14. Assembled model of the turbine blades with hub, bearing mounts and shaft.
5. Conclusion
The future course of action in this project would be to overcome the challenges of stagnant flow conditions in
the upper half of the channel depth due to backpressure from the gates. This assembly when tested in a flow bed
with velocity closer to 2m/s is expected to give 15-20W of power which is considerable keeping in mind the
dimensions and requirements of the model.
A turbine placed in natural conditions with a flow velocity of 2m/s and radius as 2m would have its power output
in the range of 7-8KW which is a sizeable amount of clean and decentralized power with little investment and
upkeep. These turbines present a viable solution to the energy problems of the country and are in line to offer an
exciting alternative for the country's plan to develop 225GW of clean energy by 2022.
References
[1]
http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-worldenergy/country-and-regional-insights/india-insights.html
[2]
http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/electricity_gener ation.pdf; Annual Energy Outlook 2014.
[3]http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/inst_capacit y/jul15.pdf. Central Electricity Authority,
Ministry of Power, Government of India. July 2015. Retrieved 15 Sep 2015.
[4]
h t t p : / / w w w. c l e a n e n e r g y a c t i o n p r o j e c t . c o m / C l e a n E n
ergyActionProject/Hydropower_Case_Studies_files/St
rangeford%20Narrows%20SeaGen%20Tidal%20Pow er%20Plant.pdf Strangford Narrows SeaGen
Tidal Power Plant, Fundamentals of Renewable Energy, as accessed on October 21, 2015.
[5]
Douglas, C.A., G.P. Harrison, and J.P. Chick, Lifecycle assessment of the Seagen marine current
turbine. Proceedings of the Institution of MechanicalEngineers Part M: Journal of Engineering for the
Maritime Environment, 2008
[6]
http://www.marineturbines.com/SeaGen-Technology/Energy-Capture, official website of Marine
Current Turbine Limited, as accessed on October 24, 2015.
[7]
Rkke, Astrid, Nilssen, Robert, Marine Current Turbines and Generator preference. A technology
review, International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality (ICREPQ'13) Bilbao
(Spain), 20th to 22th March, 2013
[8]
S e a G e n E n v i ro n m e n t a l M o n i t o r i n g P ro g r a m m e F i n a l R e p o r t , a s a v a i l a b l e
onhttp://seageneration.co.uk/files/SeaGen-Environmental-Monitoring-Programme-FinalReport.pdf, accessed on October 24, 2015.
[9]
Colby, Jonathan. Multi-scale Hydrodynamicanalysis of kinetic hydropower arrays.
NortekUSATechnical Symposium, March 17, 2011.
590

[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Verdant Power, Inc, Final Report - GO18168 Improved Structure and Fabrication of Large, HighPower KHPS Rotors, Award No. DE-FG36-08GO18168
D. Sale, J. Jonkman, W. Musial; A Hydrodynamic Optimization Method and Design Code for
Stall-Regulated Hydrokinetic Turbine Rotors,OMAE2009; May/June 2009
Vauthier, Philippe. The underwater electric kite. East river deployment, UEK Corporation.
Nigam, S. Et al, Design and Pitch Angleoptimisation of Horizontal Axis Hydrokinetic Turbine with
constant Tip Speed Ratio, 5thICAME,Singapore 2016.
591
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Engineering Mathematical Assessment of

Buckling Effect on the Mechanical Pumps
Column-Beam Structure During Crude
Deportation Through
the Bore Well
L. N Das and R.K. Singh
Abstract- In this paper an engineering mathematical analysis of buckling's cause and effect on the mechanical
pumps' column beam structures during crude evacuation through the bore well mechanical exploration is
discussed. A mathematical formulation for determining maximal axial load of a column and limitation to
buckling moment calculation is also discussed. Finally, a set of parameters concerned with the buckling effect
of the borehole inner pipe column beam due to pumping crude oil load is discussed.
Keywords- Buckling, bifurcation, compressive stress, permissible stress, Buckling Load Factor (BLF), Factor
of safety (FOS), Critical pressure.
ntroduction: Mechanical buckling is the deformation of structures due to external or internal loads. The
cause and effect of mechanical buckling of columns and beams has been studied extensively. Several
problems concerned to buckling are estimated with the mathematical formulation. Some of these texts are
found in mathematical investigation on mechanical problems of transmission line [7], the stability of elastic
equilibrium [2], Structures buckling under tensile dead load [3], Effects of the constraint's curvature on
structural instability, tensile buckling and multiple bifurcations [4], Buckling of bars, plates, and shells [5],
Observation of eigenvalue buckling analysis within a finite element context [6], Mathematical model and
analytic solution for buckling of inclined beam-columns [8]. In these cited texts, roughly variety of load factors
are concerned for study of reasonable models of buckling estimation and deterministic study of the distributed
weights of the inclined beam-column whose ends are pinned, built in, clamped or free. The driving loads on the
columns or beams are either in the form of axial and lateral forces, moments, torque and pressure.
Some of the model's approach is based on the analysis of the total potential energy of the system and
investigation conditions are leading to the states of stable or unstable equilibrium system. The stability or
unstable conditions are characterized by bifurcation, Eigen values or singularities.
1.1 A Few Sentence Concerning Cause and Effect of Buckling
Two words buckle and buckling are used in engineering design. In civil structure engineering a beam acts
buckling is due to the plastic behavior of the material used in the beam construction. In Mechanical structure
both the buckle and buckling behavior are found. A buckle consists of four main components: frame, chape, bar
L. N Das
Department of applied Mathematics
R.K. Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi technological University, India, 110042.
E-mail: lndas@dce.ac.in
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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and pong and are used to bind and control a force that within curved surface. The buckle force mechanism is the
discussion of the buckling behavior's mathematically estimation and engineering analysis of the buckling
characteristic. Beam or column buckling is a sudden sideways failure of a structural member subjected to high
compressive stress, where the compressive stress at the point of failure is less than the ultimate compressive
stress that the material is capable of withstanding. Mathematically, a Column (or beam) buckling is estimated
by use of an artificial axial load eccentricity that introduces a secondary bending moment and the bending
moment is not a part of the primary applied force to the beam. In case an applied load is increased on the column
(or beam) it will become large enough to cause the column (beam) unstable and is said to have buckled. Thus
buckling is an unpredicted deformations of the column (beam) and distributes a load within the part of the
structure. The sudden topological change of the column (beam) is due to occurrence of the bifurcation.
Bifurcation occurs when a smooth change is made to the parameter values regulating both the continuous and
discrete systems like Ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. Bifurcation are marked
from the visualization of stationary points and are identified as local or global bifurcations. The example of
local bifurcation include: Saddle-node (fold) bifurcation, Trans-critical bifurcation, Pitchfork bifurcation, and
period doubling (flip) bifurcation. The example of global bifurcations are Homo-clinic, hetero-clinic, and
infinite-period bifurcations. The global bifurcations occur when a larger invariant sets such as periodic orbits,
collide with equilibria. This causes changes in the topology of the trajectories in the phase space which cannot
confined to small neighborhood, the changes in the topology extend to an arbitrarily large displacement.
Bifurcation in the solution to equations of static equilibrium is the cause of buckling. At certain stage under an
increasing load, further load is able to be sustained in one or two states of equilibrium. One is either a purely
compressed state with no lateral deviation or a laterally-deformed state.
1.2 The Maximum Axial Load of a Column (Beam) and Limitation to Buckling Moment Calculation.
Let us consider a column AB with axial force (pressure) P nd lateral reactions at A and B are RA and RB
respectively. The equation representing bending of the column is
By application of simple elastic static theory, the lateral reactions at the points A and B are
and
respectively. Using these reaction loads, the total bending moment along the axis of the
column is expressible in the form Eqn. (2) and (3).
(2)
(3)
594
for
for
Engineering Mathematical Assessment of Buckling .....
By substituting the moment equations (2) and (3) into the expression (1), we find
(4)
(5)
Assume
for
for
and solving the differential equations we obtain the solutions
(6)
(7)
Assume a suitable boundary condition may be
(8)
Substituting these values in Equations (6) and (7), the constants C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 are determined as
(9)
By substituting the above constants into expression (6) and (7) we find the following deflections for the column,
(10)
(11)
The maximum lateral displacement occurs at
and thus
(12)
If sin kL = 0 the solution value is infinite. Or, for = , the u (x) thus for =
causes buckling of the column as
, the critical axial load that
1.3 The Mathematical Analysis of Mechanical Exploration of Fluid from the Bore Well
The structure supporting crude oil mixed gases deportation from the underground well to the connective pipe
lines are complex and combination of several column and beams. The inner bore well structure can be
compared with a concentric columns under uniaxial tensile stress. The fluid column inside the thin walled pipe
is under internal pressure. The mean tangential stress under variable pressure in the interior of the pipe remain
approximately constant and permits maximum stress to avoid bursting of pipe. The relation of permissible
maximum stress to avoid pipe bursting is estimated with the relation
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Where, stress permissible relates with the Safety factor- S, Reducing factor A, and the stress of bursting
B
(T,t) which is a function of temperature and tensile strength.
The strength of the pipe can be determined by analyzing the relation
=
where
is the maximum stress occurring in section being analyzed, K is the characteristic strength property of
the pipe material, S is the safety factor and A material- specific reducing factor.
Characteristic Strength: Since a number of different material specific strength parameters are used in the bore
well wall cylinder pipe structure building depending on the specific material behavior the characteristic
strength is decided based on brittle failure extreme point calculation.
During pumping of fluid through the bore well wall cylindrical pipe, the loads are both static and dynamic,
hence for a dynamical loads the characteristic failure value is decided by analyzing the mechanical charts such
as Wohler curve [9] or the Smith diagram [9] of the measurement data.
Safety Factor: During fluid flow through the bore well cylindrical pipe heat may arise as an external effect by
friction or damping. Thus the safety factors are used in structural design of cylindrical pipe parts. The maximum
level safety for load bearing structural parts depends on a number of variables, including the various
uncertainties in calculating and deforming the characteristic values of materials, the uncertainty may be
calculation of load by using complicated assumptions to the simpler geometry, stress or previous processing
parameters. It is the designer's determination of magnitude of the safety factors with the objective to prescribe
maximum levels of safety for load bearing structures parts. The group of safety factors are considered for crude
oil lifting processes.
1.
The safety factor for safeguarding the borehole cement coated steel cylinders fracture due to cracking
while applied additional strength to explore deep soil compressed crude oil-gas pressure.
2.
The safety factor for safeguarding the underground pumped crude oil lifter pipes strength to protect
bending and buckling.
Reducing Factors: The uncertainties or lack of known physical properties data under special conditions are not
to be considered as safety factor, but rather be considered as reducing factors. The reducing factors should be a
value greater than one [9] and categorized to
AT is a factor concerning the effect of temperature on the vertical pipe that supports/or resist flow of crude due to
stress or tensile strength of the material. It is scaled as
Ast is a factor concerning effect of static load quantity during few hours, weeks, months or years of operation
Adyn is the factor concerning effect of dynamic load accounts within unit hour phase
AA is the factor concerning to aging effect
Aw is the factor concerning to properties of crude due to absorption of water must be reduced.
Thus the permissible stress can be estimated from the relation,
1.4 The Buckling Effect of the Borehole Inner Pipe Column Beam Due to Pumping Crude Oil Load
The crude oil lifting through the pipe inside of a bored well is assumed to be free column with the load same to
the weight of the crude.
1.
If the applied loads are less than the estimated critical loads the buckling status is not predicted and the
buckling load factor (BLF) is greater than one.
2.
If the applied loads are exactly equal to the critical loads buckling status is expected and BLF is equal to
one.
3.
4.
596
If the applied loads exceed the estimated critical loads, buckling status is predicted and BLF is less
than one.
If you reverse the load direction and buckling is predicted than buckling is possible and BLF is greater
Engineering Mathematical Assessment of Buckling .....
5.
6.
than minus one and less than zero.

If you reverse the load directions expecting a buckling the buckling status is possible and BLF is equal
to minus one.
If the applied loads are less than the estimated critical loads, even if you revere their
directions buckling is not predicted and BLF is less than minus one.
The buckling load factor (BLF) is a safety factor called Factor of safety (FOS). If the physical length of the
column is known L and the compressive load is set, then the designed structure has buckling of column reduces
to three issues: I) settle on the end or boundary conditions and determine its effective length Leff II) determine the
material, second moment of area product EI that is sufficient to prevent buckling III) insure that the cross
section has sufficient area A so that the compressive stress is less than the allowable known stress.
The critical buckling load as per definition of Euler is
The effective length of column is that
deflects into the shape of a half sine wave and that is Pcritical not an actual load, but a load independent number
which is a characteristic of the geometry and material of the column, mathematically it is associated with the
Eigenvalue of the system.
Thus the designed structured load
If the fluid lifts through a thin round cross section and the material elastic modulus E is known then I can be
approximated to
Then r0 and ri can be calculated if the designed structure load, Factor of
safety and effective length are known.
1.5 Conclusion:
The crude oil lifting, deportation, and exploration process structures consists of several columns and beams
along with the mechanical instruments, electronic measurements. All the process are part of Civil, Mechanical,
Electrical, Electronic and Computer engineering studies. Thousands of institutions are engaged in this process
and some list of these institution are found in the internet and necessary to show in the reference. In the modern
crude lifting technology, the crudes are lifted by underground immersed pumps and over-ground beam pump
process. We conclude this article by citing the Beam Pump devices view graph used in classical oil fields overground drives and the graph is mentioned bellow.
The Beam Pump graph [11]
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Reference
1.
Timoshenko, S. P. and Gere, J.M., theory of elastic stability, 2 ed., McGraw-Hill, 1961.
2.
W. T. Koiter, The stability of elastic equilibrium, PhD thesis, 1945.
3.
Zaccaria, D., Bigoni, D., Noseli, G., Misseroni, D., (2011) Structures buckling under tensile dead load,
Proceedings of the Royal socirty A. 467 (2130): 1686-1700. Doi:10.1098/rspa.2010.0505
4.
Bigoni, D. Misseroni, D., Noselli, G., Zaccania, D., (2012) Effects of the constraint's curvature on
structural instability, tensile buckling and multiple bifurcations, Proceedings of the royal society A.
doi:10.1098/rspa.2011.0732
5.
Jones, Robert M., (1Dec 2007) Buckling of bars, plates and shells. CRC, ISBN 978-1560328278.
6.
Earls, Christopher J. (2007) Observation of eigenvalue buckling analysis within a finite element
context, Proceedings of the structural stability research council, annual stability conference, New
Orleans, LA.
7.
Kato, k. (1915), Mathematical investigation on mechanical problems of transmission line, Journal of
the japan society of Mechanical engineers, 19; 41.
8.
Jorge h. B., Sampaio Jr. and Joan R Hundhausen, mathematical model and analytical solution for
buckling of inclined beam-columns, dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0307-904x(980100014-8
9.
Calculations for structures under Mechanical load-examples of geometry sample structural parts
under static loads, www.christiani.eu/pdf/86066_probe.pdf.
10.
Amir Javidinejad, Buckling of Beams and Columns Under Combined axial and horizontal laoding
with various axial loading application locations, Journal of Theoretical and applied Mechanics, Sofia,
2013, Vol. 42, No.4, pp. 19-30.
11.
Beam Pump, www.tech-flo.net/beam-pumps.html
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Design of a Mechanical Hexapod

using Klann Mechanism
Akshay Kaushika and Raj Kumar Singh
Abstract: Mechanical Hexapod is a device that is capable of moving on six legs, imitating the gait of a spider.
Although, the wheel is the primary component used in all forms of transportation equipment, the inherent
disadvantages such as movement over uneven terrain or climbing stairs cannot be overlooked. The hexapod
incorporates Klann Mechanism to enable movement and overcome some of the limitations of the wheel. The
purpose of the hexapod robot is to ease the movement either on flat or on the inclined surface.
Keywords: Klann Mechanism, Hexapod, Linkages.
ntroduction The study involved in the proposal is mainly concerned with a hexapod robot with
maneuverable wheel which is a combination of six legs robot and mobile robot. Hexapod robot is one of
the most statically stable and possesses a great amount ofadaptability while standing or moving because of
its development utilizing six legs that can be effectively controlled. For the most part, every robot made will be
naturally motivated from the conduct of a creature or bug, particularly their strolling attributes. For the hexapod
robot, cockroach, 8-legged creature and the stick creepy crawly are the most generally utilized and have been
ethologically (experimental investigation of creature conduct) and neurophysiologicaly (investigation of
sensory system capacity) concentrated widely by other individuals beforehand. In this component, connections
are associated by turn joints and change over the pivoting movement of the crank into the development of foot
like that of creature strolling.
[1]
The extents of each of the connections in the system are characterized to streamline the linearity of the foot for
one-portion of the turn of the crank. The rest of the turn of the crank permits the foot to be raised to a
foreordained stature before coming back to the beginning position and repeating the cycle. Two of these
linkages coupled together at the crank and one-half cycle out of stage with each other will permit the edge of a
vehicle to travel parallel to the ground.
Hexapod possesses a wide range ofapplications in the manufacturing of robots. A substantial rendition could be
used in conjunction with the current observation innovation and in this way give constant visuals of any
predetermined locale on any of the presentation gadgets such TV and PC screen. Remote-controlled automated
toys can be produced keeping in mind the end goal to pull in gathering of people of age gathering five to nine. It
can likewise discover use in the military by introducing flammable and hazardous material identifiers and
consequently block potential risk to human life.Hexapod can beused as heavy tanker machines for carrying
bombs as well ascarrying other military goods. In small scale industries, the robot can be utilized for carrying
light weight goods, for instance, between inventory and logistics. Uneven terrains suchas mountain roads or
other difficult patches whereordinary vehicles cannot moveeasily, the six-legged spider can overcome such
AkshayKaushika1 and Raj Kumar Singh2

IV year student, 2Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological
university, New Delhi, India
E-mail: akrksdtu@gmail.com; Tel: +91-9310050824
1

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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obstructions. Heavy loads can be easily transported on a large scale model. The geometry and conditions can be
changed according to application needs. It can travel on rough surfaces very easily, so this machine may prove
to be the essential and only mode of transportation in areas where ordinary vehicles cannot travel.
2. Theoretical Discussions
Legged motion systems have been proved to be effective innumerous robotic missions where better mobility
overirregular landscapes is desired. However, locomotion capabilitiesof robots are often constrained by a
limited range ofgaits and associated energy efficiency. This article presents the design of a novel reconfigurable
Klannmechanism capable of transcending beyond such constraints. Such approach opens up new research
avenues, opportunities and applications.
3. Benefits of Klann Mechanism
w
Simplicity of design: the design is simple and less intricateascompared to other proposed mechanisms.
w
Compatibility: Better compatibility combined with optimum number of linkages
w
Reliability: This mechanism consists of linkages made up of pivot joints and light, durable materials
such as Aluminum for better reliability.
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Design of a Mechanical Hexapod using Klann Mechanism
[7]
Fig. 3
Design Flow Chart for Proposed Mechanical Hexapod
4. Consruction
A single leg is a six-bar linkage that comprises of the casing, pinions, electric engine, crank, associating arm,
lower rocker, leg and an upper rocker. [3]The ground focuses for the upper and lower rocker in this design are
vertically in line to permit a coupled pair of legs to move similar to the front wheels of an average automobile.
The frame and links comprise of aluminum as per lightweight requirements. Four gears and two pinions made
of nylonmaterial are used.
5. Mechanism
A single leg consists of a six-bar linkage made up entirely of pivot joints that converts rotating motion into linear
motion. [4, 7]One hundred and eighty degrees of the input crank results in the straight-line portion of the path
traced by the foot. The result of two of these linkages coupled together at the crank and one-half cycle out of
phase with each other is a device that can replace a wheel and allow the frame of the vehicle to travel relatively
parallel to the ground. The remaining rotation of the input crank allows the foot to be raised to a predetermined
height before returning to the starting position and repeating the cycle.[8]The arachnid instrument functions on
the standard of the Klann system that involves arrangements with six leg linkages [4] with three linkages
similarly dispersed on either side of the casing. These six linkages are associated with two crank shafts, with
three cranks on every shaft.
Fig. 4[5]: Hexapod six bar linkage
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Here a connecting rod interfaces the linkages with their separate cranks and the connecting rod is bolstered by a
rocker at the center shaping a crank rocker component. Step tallness is accomplished by pivoting the connecting arm
which is joined to the crank toward one side and the center of the leg on the other. It turns on a grounded rocker 180
degrees of crank revolution per stride.
Gear motors are finished rationale power frameworks comprising of an electric motor and a reduction gear train
Fig. 5[5]: Four legged spider

incorporated into one simple to-mount bundle. This significantly decreases the unpredictability and expense of
planning and developing force instruments and machines requiring high torque at moderately low shaft rate or RPM.
6. Cad Software- Solid Works
Solid Works [5] is a solid modeler, and utilizes a constant quantity feature-based approach to form models and
assemblies. The computer code is written on Parasolidkernel. Parameters ask constraints whose values verify the
form or pure mathematics of the model or assembly. Parameters are either numeric parameters, like line Aluminous
flux unit lengths or circle diameters, or geometric parameters, like tangent, parallel, concentric, horizontal or vertical,
etc. Numeric parameters are related to one another through the utilization of relations, which permit them to capture
style intent.
7. Future Scope The possibility of such strolling system has been broadly investigated by mainstream researchers,
however monstrous measure of potential concerning examination investigation still exists in the six-legged robot,
holding up to be exploited. [9]Changing applications, for example, military use for dangerous material transportation,
hazardous material location and salvage work in difficult to reach regions can be tried for ideal voltage and pace
prerequisites alongside analyzing the weight conveying limit.
8. References
1.
Soyguder S, Alli H; Design and prototype of a six-leggedwalking. International Journal of Industrial Robot,
2007; 34(5): 412422.
2.
Lovasz E Ch, Pop C, Pop F, Dolga F; Novel Solution for Leg Mechanism. Int. J. of Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, 2014; 19(4): 699-708.
3.
K. Tolga, D. Akif, Y. Nihat; Design of six-legged walking robot and evolving algorithms. International
journal of Machine Learning and Computing; April 2015; Vol.5 No. 2.
4.
Senthil Kumar. M, Dinesh. T, Sushil Dev. R; Design of Tarantula using Klann linkage; Int. Journal of Engg
research & Technology; October 2013;Vol.2 Issue 7
5.
http://www.mekanizmalar.com/mechanicalspider.html
6.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klann_linkage
7.
U.Vanitha, S.Vijayganapathy;Sch. J. Eng. Tech., 2015; 3(9):737-740
8.
mechanicalspider.com/concept.html
9.
www.hatchedeggs.com
/blog/education/mechanical engineering- project-mechanical-spider
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Exprimental Study of Two Stroke Engine on

Variation of Exhaust Pipe Diameter
Rajashekhar Sardagi
Abstract- The paper deals with two stroke petrol engine. The exhaust pipe diameter is varied to study the
performance of the two stroke petrol engine. In this paper the effect that the exhaust pipe geometry has on the
characteristic parameters of the scavenging processes in small two stroke engines, by using the experimental
method, which gives a reasonable degree of accuracy together with a certain simplicity and execution speed.
Better the scavenging the thermal efficiency and brake mean effective pressure will be increase at high speed.
The scavenging process depends on the location of transfer port and the engine geometry. The study of the
scavenging is beyond the scope of this paper. The variation of exhaust pipe effect on the performance is studied
in this paper.
Keywords- Two stroke scavanging, scavanging, exhaust pipe diameter.
Statment: Experimental study of variation of exhaust Pipe diameter.
Objectives:
1. To Study the variation of exhaust pipe on the two stroke petrol Engine.
2. To calculate the air consumption v/s Engine speed.
3. To Calculate the Specific fuel consumption v/s Engine speed.
4. To calculate the fuel consumption v/s Engine speed.
ntroduction The kinetic energy of the gas discharge is the main factor in the scavenging, When the
exhaust port opens, there is a pressure release of gas into the ports and pipe. This imparts kinetic energy to
the column in front of it. As the slug of pressure reaches the end of the pipe, the energy is transferred to the
region of the exhaust port, causing a rarefaction which pulls out the residuals concurrently with arise in port
pressure as the kinetic effect decreases. The pressure waves in the out flowing are formed by sound waves and
move at the speed of sound. In order to start such a wave, however, a sudden impulse is necessary.
Gas speed: The conventional calculation for gas speed through the value and port is however useful in so far as
it gives some indication. This takes piston speed as the primary factor, which is, of course, correct as far as the
theoretical exhaust stroke, extending from BDC to TDC, and is concerned. It depends on the cross sectional
area of the cylinder and the port.
Column Inertia: The gas Inertia is zero at the top and bottom dead center and it is maximum at about half stroke.
Rajashekhar Sardagi
Department of Automobile Engineering, Mumbai University,
M H Saboo Siddik College of Engineering, 8 Saboo Siddik Road Byculla Mumbai (Maharastra State),
sardagitirupati@gmail.com, Tel: 9324835690
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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At the peak Engine revolutions it is around 200 to 300 feet per sec. it is obvious that any gas speed based on
piston speed must be zero at the overlap period. We can hope to preserve some kinetic effect, but a wave moving
at 1400 feet per sec or more in the gas is certainly going to have a decisive affect on gas travelling at mean of 200
or so. If the wave is moving away from the port it will help the inertia effect, if it is moving away from the port it
will easily overcome the inertia and recharge the cylinder with residual. In using long branch pipe we may have
with advantage removed some of the aids to this recharging that exist in conventional manifolds. For the
diameter of the pipe most commonly used, the maximum wave pressure is appox. Inversely proportional to the
cross sectional area of the pipe. The raise of pressure tend to decrease at a higher engine speed, the exhaust pipe
diameter would require to be larger than for one design to operate at more moderate speed. The exhaust pipe is
used to evacuate the cylinder of the burnt charges and draw the fresh charge up to into the cylinder. This charge
is being assisted by the ramming effect.
Organ Pipe Theory: at TDC of the overlap period. We know that the positive pressure pulse initiated by the
valve opening towards BDC of the power stroke emerges from the open end and scatters to atmosphere. A
reflected wave of rear faction, i.e. of opposite sign, instantaneously enters the open end and travels up to the
valve, where it is again reflected but this time as of the same ( negative sign ) on again emerging at the open end,
a positive travels up to the valve, i.e. open end reflection of the rear faction is accompanied by a flow gas down
the pipe. If v= velocity of sound in the gas feet/sec, L is the length of the pipe from valve to outer end in inch, T=
Time for pulse to travel from closed to open end and back in sec. In terms of crank angle degrees of the crank
shaft rotation in degree. T=(RPM L)/v. using the value of T equivalent to 120 from the time the exhaust valve
opens sufficiently to start an effective wave, this may be assumed for calculation purposes to give favouriable
conditions at the port. The speed of the sound is difficult to determine, as will be apparent from later
observation. If as suggested, a speed of 1700 ft per sec. is taken as representative, the pipe length to give the
above conditions for any fixed Engine speed may be obtained for example rpm for desired maximum torque =
4000, v= 1700 ft per sec, T= 120 crankshaft degrees. Pipe length L in inch = v T/rpm = 1700 120/4000 = 51
= 4 ft 3 obeously with any increase or decrease in engine speed, T becomes shorter or longer respectively, and
thus L must be shortened or lengthened in proportion. This is exemplified in the table below.
Therefore no doubt that the single cylinder pipe calculated initially on the forgoing lines have shown good
results and the formula serve as an admirable basis for starting experiments. There is no guarantee of what it will
do at other speeds. For example, a good pipe length under the above conditions might lower the torque at
another point in the power curve as to offset any advantages. Also, a fundamental flaw in the principal is seen by
the fact that the rpm for maximum torque could be increased to a point at which there is no pipe left at all. A
further discrepancy is added by the fact that when the valve is open the cylinder is effect include in the pipe
length and, as the piston in moving, so that the resonant length of L is also varying. As regards the value to use T
the only accurate method of obtaining this would be direct measurement of pressure.
Pressure and the pipe length: It will be noted that when using a fairly long pipe the maximum pressure at about
BDC tend to raise at high speed. The critical length of the pipe, which gives the highest pressure of the first
pulse, increases the length beyond this gives no further rise in pressure. The critical length decreases as the
engine speed increases. Slow valve opening would call for a long pipe while for a very high speed engine the
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length would be under 2 feet.
For the diameters of pipe most commonly used, therefore, the maximum wave pressure is approx. inversely
proportional to the cross sectional area of the pipe. The table below also gives practical guide to suitably pipe
bores.
For 2 and 1.5 liters, 4 cylinder engine the individual cylinder capacity would be respectively 500 and 375 cc. the
pipe bores corresponding to the cross sectional area required would also be determined to some extent by the
engine port size.
Resonance: At least one designer in the past has attributed a useful torque increase through the theory that the
pipe was pulsating in its own period and in time with the exhaust valve, thus producing a low pressure period at
the port of overlap TDC. Obviously, this can happen, as seen from some of the curves. A more doubtful claim
however, is that such effect will then occur at multiples of the engine speed, i.e. if there is a good boost in torque
at 1000 rpm, there will also be one at 2000.
Pressure in Long Pipes: The Magnitude of the rise at higher speeds is such that it cannot be the result of a
residual wave, as such a wave would have had its effect earlier and would in any case be small. In high speed
engines the gas rushes into the pipe with a considerable velocity head. In doing so it has to accelerate the gas
already in the pipe and must therefore translate part of its velocity head into a static head. Further, the supply of
this high speed gas is limited, and soon tails off, this causes a decrease of pressure near the engine, and an
increase 2 or 3 ft. along the pipe. A pressure wave is thus started back towards the engine.
Now the pipe is increased in diameter by about 50% at this point where the pressure increase takes place, the
wave of increased pressured will almost disappear, the pressure drop is much more rapid, and this holds good
even when the pipe length is increased. This confirms the above explanation, since such an increase in cross
sectional area will reduce the forces necessary to accelerate the gas already in the pipe and eliminate the
pressure build-up.
The process of investigating the increasing diameter or stepped pipe has another interesting development, in
that the larger diameter length vibrate in its own period, it being possible to combine the wave to give a very low
pressure drop after the initial positive pulse.
Exhaust Pipe System: when considering the exhaust system it is most important that the size, shape and length
of the exhaust port taken into consideration as it is part of this system can affect results if ignored.
Plain Pipe: The plain pipe of constant diameter cutoff square to the desired diameter cutoff square to the desired
length. Thus, length and diameter are the only variables.
Plain Pipe of constant diameter with megaphone of constant angle of taper attached to the end furthest from the
exhaust port. Note that the length of plain Pipe could be zero in which case the megaphone would start at the
exhaust port. This, in fact gives a system that the same as the first part of type 4 listed below. The variables of the
system have increased to diameter of the Pipe, and angle of taper and length of megaphone. It should be noted
that the smallest diameter of the megaphone is same as that of the Pipe, and that the larger diameter is dependent
on the angle of the taper and the length of the megaphone.
Plain Pipe with an expansion box fitted to the end furthest from the exhaust port. The expansion box may be of
any desired shape but usually comprises a shallow tapered divergent megaphone to the end of which is attached
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a short tapered convergent which reduces the exhaust system again. Attached to this may be a tail Pipe of
constant diameter.
With this system the number of variables has further increased to diameter and length of the plain Pipe, angle of
taper and length of first megaphone, length and smaller diameter of second megaphone and length and diameter
of tail Pipe. It should be noted that normally the larger diameter of the megaphones are the same, and the smaller
diameter of the second megaphone and that of the tail Pipe are the same. Usually this diameter is less than that of
the exhaust Pipe. The working of the whole system is partially dependent on the total length of the Pipe as well
as those of the constitant parts so that the system is much more difficult to experiment with than the first two
described.
It can be further shown that a small diameter exhaust Pipe gives a better theoretical air consumption curve than a
large one. However, this has to be balanced against the greatly increased frictional losses that arises with the
smaller Pipe so that in this case the smaller Pipe has to be a compromise based on the exhaust port. The action of
the reverse cone is provide a closed end Pipe effect of a gradual nature so that the initial negative pressure wave
effect of gradual nature so that initial negative pressure wave is reflected as positive wave returns to the exhaust
port. Thus the cylinder is scavenged by the negative pulse, which also initiates a ramming wave in the transfer
passages, and the fresh charge is allowed to spill into the exhaust system but is forced back into the cylinder by
the returning pressure wave. As the first wave cycle is the one greatest amplitude, it provides the maximum
effect if used correctly as it contains the most energy, subsequent waves contain less energy to attenuation of the
wave. Naturally the diameter and to some extent the length of the tail Pipe play a considerable part in this effect
as the degree of restriction will affect the pressure building up in the chamber and this in turn affects the speed at
which the positive wave returns to the exhaust port. The Engine speed at which maximum torque will be
developed is dependent on the length of the tapered and on the length and diameter of the tailpipe. It is also
affected by the volume of the chamber. A general guiding rule may be stated that as the Engine speed for
maximum torque increases so the length and volume decrease, while the tailpipe length increases and its
diameter reduced. As these the tailpipe length increase and its diameter reduces. As these point do interest this
can be taken as a general guide. As the length of the tailpipe has an effect on the maximum RPM the Engine will
reach, a compromise is often is made. This is done by using a large chamber and bore tailpipe to keep the RPM at
while maximum torque occur as low as possible, but to use a long tailpipe to obtain at high maximum speed. The
plain pipe is the simplest form of the exhaust system and once the diameter has been chosen. The suitable length
may be taken by cutting down in the stages the pipe. A sleeve may be made to slide along the pipe to vary the
length, this allows the approx. length to be determined.
Engine Specification: Bajaj Auto, Bore=57 mm, stroke=57mm, displacement= 145.45 cc, CR=7.4:1,
scavenging type= Tangential flow, inlet type= piston controlled port, exhaust open= 53.48 b: BDC.
Dynamometer= Rope Brake type, Diameter of the drum= 275 mm, Dia. of Rope= 10 mm, Effective dia= 285
mm; Air Intake measure, Diameter of orifice= 20 mm, coefficient of discharge= 0.6 Manometric fluid= water,
fuel measurement= Vol flow.
Other equipments: Four Pipes of dia= 38.5 mm, 43.7 mm, 55 mm, 62 mm, extension chamber for exhaust gases,
silencer, Techometer, Stopwatch etc.
Data Analysis: The data's are as below. The Table(1) for 5 Kg loading.
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Graph (1)
Graph (2)
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Graph (3)
Graph (4)
Conclusion
Table(1) show the data for 5 Kg load, Table (2) show the data for 7 Kg load. The graph(1) is drawn speed v/s air
consumption for 5 kg load, The graph(2) is drawn speed v/s Specific fuel consumption for 5 kg load.
The table(2) show the data for 7 kg load, the graph (3) for speed v/s air consumption for load 7 kg, the graph (4)
show speed v/s Specific fuel consumption for load 7 kg.
The graphs show variation of specific fuel consumption with engine speed and variation of air consumption
with speed for different exhaust pipe diameter. The specific fuel consumption of the engine reduces at first as
the diameter of the exhaust pipe increased and then as the diameter is further increased the SFC raises up again.
As the diameter of the exhaust pipe diameter reduces the friction in the exhaust pipe which helps better removal
of exhaust gasses. But the increase in diameter of the exhaust pipe affects the scavenging because of higher
pressure at the exhaust port during the exhaust which is due to lower kinetic energy of the gases in the exhaust
pipe. Maximum possible speed of the engine reduces with increases in diameter of the pipe.
References
[1]
Exhaust System: Roy Baker
[2]
The scintific design of exhaust and intake systems: Philip H Smith
[3]
Two stroke tuners Handbook: Gordon Jennings
[4]
Exhaust pipe design method for optimization of the scavenging process: SAE paper No 850083
[5]
The Motor vehicle: Newton Steeds Garret
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Automatic Turn-Off Indicator System for

Vehicle Safety in two Wheelers
Abstract Confusion in driving may lead to inconvenience, or even fatal accidents. Indicator lights have
provided us a mean to signal other vehicles the direction where we wish to turn so that these vehicles can give us
time and space to do so. In two-wheelers, however, the indicator light does not turn off automatically once the
turn has been maneuvered. The driver, may forget to turn off the indicator manually. This leads to confusion and
inconvenience to the other drivers. The project deals with an innovative system, which can be applied to all the
two-wheelers, to automatically turn off the indicator light once the turn is made.
Keywords- Indicator light, Automatic, Turn Off, Two Wheelers, Safety
ntroduction Each day 377 people in India die in a traffic accident. More than 1.2 million people in the
world die each year on the roads. Two wheelers account for 25% of total road crash deaths. One of the main
cause of accident is turning of vehicle without any indication or wrong indication. Using wrong indicator
leads to confusion in the following traffic which also results in congestion on roads. By implementing the auto
turn-off indicator system this confusion can be eliminated.
A considerable expansion was seen in the sales volume of the scooter segment during 2014-15 as far as the twowheelers were concerned. The domestic motorcycle sales volume moved up to 10 percent, whereas the scooter
segment recorded a growth of 30.7 percent in sales volume. In the past 2-3 years, around a dozen new scooter
brands have been introduced in India. But the motorcycle segment lags behind in this regard. This is due to the
fact that the recently launched gearless scooters cater to the needs of both men and women, while motorbikes
are a segment preferred by men only.
As far as mechanism for detecting the turn of vehicle and switching off the indicator is concerned, the
accelerometers gives a good information for detecting it. These measure the acceleration in the different
coordinates,through these measurements change in angle or position could be detected.
Using an accelerometer and analyzing statistical data to detect when a vehicle turns can be implemented in a
way so as to avoid confusion on the road and help in safety of the driver and passengers.
One approach to turn off the indicator is by using a timer that shuts off the indicator at a predetermined time.

Student (B-Tech), Department of Mechanical Engineering, DTU, Delhi-110042,
jasminder.singh.bhumra@gmail.com, mudit2294@gmail.com , prajaylohani@gmail.com
1
Jasminder Singh; Tel: +91 9953994422

ENGINEERING, DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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However, it is not a robust system as each driver turns the indicator on at a different time depending on the traffic
congestion and style of driving. An intelligent system able to detect the angle of the vehicle is better option as it
is capable of applying in any scenario.
1.1 Literature Review
Figure 1 : Forces in turning of a two-wheeler vehicle

The forces, both physical and inertial, acting on a leaning bike in the rotating reference frame of a turn where N
is the normal force, Ff is friction, m is mass, r is turn radius, v is forward speed, and g is the acceleration of
gravity.
Equation 1 : Relation of angle with speed and radius of curvature

Where, v is velocity of vehicle
g is acceleration due to gravity
r is radius of curvature
is angle of lean
Where, w is wheelbase
is steer angle
is caster angle
The finite width of the tires alters the actual lean angle of the rear frame from the ideal lean angle. Actal lean
angle increases with tire width and decrease with center of mass height. Assuming that the speed of the vehicle
is approximately 10-20 kmph, the value of angle can be detected by an accelerometer easily.
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2. Expected Outcome
When the system is turned on, the accelerometer starts to take readings in small intervals along the angle of the
vehicle with respect to the ground.
As soon as the vehicle starts truning, the accelerometer detects the change in angle, and turns the indicator off
one the vehicle restores to normal position.
3. Details of Apparatus
3.1 Microcontroller Atmega 32
The AtmelAVRATmega32 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced RISC
architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega32 achieves throughputs
approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus processing
speed.
The device is manufactured using Atmel's high density nonvolatile memory technology. The Onchip ISP Flash
allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system through an SPI serial interface, by a conventional
nonvolatile memory programmer, or by an On-chip Boot program running on the AVR core. The boot program
can use any interface to download the application program in the Application Flash memory. Software in the
Boot Flash section will continue to run while the Application Flash section is updated, providing true ReadWhile-Write operation. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a
monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega32 is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly-flexible and costeffective solution to many embedded control applications.
The Atmel AVR ATmega32 is supported with a full suite of program and system development tools including: C
compilers, macro assemblers, program debugger/simulators, in-circuit emulators, and evaluation kits.
Figure 2. ATmega 32 Microcontroller
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Figure 3: ATmega 32 Pin Diagram
3.2 Accelerometer ADXL335

The ADXL335 is a small, thin, low power, complete 3-axis accelerometer with signal conditioned voltage
outputs. The product measures acceleration with a minimum full-scale range of 3 g. It can measure the static
acceleration of gravity in tilt-sensing applications, as well as dynamic acceleration resulting from motion,
shock, or vibration. The user selects the bandwidth of the accelerometer using the CX, CY, and CZ capacitors at
the XOUT, YOUT, and ZOUT pins. Bandwidths can be selected to suit the application, with a range of 0.5 Hz to
1600 Hz for the X and Y axes, and a range of 0.5 Hz to 550 Hz for the Z axis. The ADXL335 is available in a
small, low profile, 4 mm 4 mm 1.45 mm, 16-lead, plastic lead frame chip scale package (LFCSP_LQ).
The ADXL335 is a complete 3-axis acceleration measurement system. The ADXL335 has a measurement
range of 3 g minimum. It contains a polysilicon surface-micromachined sensor and signal conditioning
circuitry to implement an open-loop acceleration measurement architecture. The output signals are analog
voltages that are proportional to acceleration. The accelerometer can measure the static acceleration of gravity
in tilt-sensing applications as well as dynamic acceleration resulting from motion, shock, or vibration.
The sensor is a polysilicon surface-micromachined structure built on top of a silicon wafer. Polysilicon springs
suspend the structure over the surface of the wafer and provide a resistance against acceleration forces.
Deflection of the structure is measured using a differential capacitor that consists of independent fixed plates
and plates attached to the moving mass. The fixed plates are driven by 180 out-of-phase square waves.
Acceleration deflects the moving mass and unbalances the differential capacitor resulting in a sensor output
whose amplitude is proportional to acceleration. Phase-sensitive demodulation techniques are then used to
determine the magnitude and direction of the acceleration.
The demodulator output is amplified and brought off-chip through a 32 k resistor. The user then sets the signal
bandwidth of the device by adding a capacitor. This filtering improves measurement resolution and helps
prevent aliasing.
Figure 4: ADXL 335 Accelerometer
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Automatic Turn-Off Indicator System for Vehicle .....

The ADXL335 uses a single structure for sensing the X, Y, and Z axes. As a result, the three axes' sense directions are
highly orthogonal and have little cross-axis sensitivity. Mechanical misalignment of the sensor die to the package is
the chief source of cross-axis sensitivity. Mechanical misalignment can, of course, be calibrated out at the system
level.
4. Program
As the driver turns on the indicator switch, the microcontroller starts the program. The program reads the inclination
angle from the accelerometer. Then checks whether the turn is completed or not, by reading the value stored in the
'Turn Completed' variable.
If the turn has been completed, then the indicator lamp stops, and the program stops.
If the turn is not completed, the indicator starts blinking.
Now, the program checks if the vehicle is turning or not, by reading the 'Turning' variable value.
If the vehicle is turning, but its angle of inclination is greater than 85, then the system assumes that the turn has been
completed, thus turning off the indicator lamp.
If the vehicle is not turning, but is inclined less than 75 then the system perceives that the vehicle is still turning,
thereby keeping the indicator lamp on, it acts accordingly.
Figure 5 : Program Flow Chart
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4.1 Validation of Apparatus or Code

The apparatus and the code have been thoroughly validated and verified. Several changes in the apparatus and
the codes were made to overcome as much as limitations as possible.
Most of the mechanically vulnerable components were removed or altered accordingly. Earlier proposed idea
to use servo mechanism for turning off the switch was replaced by digital switches. Microcontroller was
changed from the expensive, and bulky Arduino Uno to a much more cost efficient ATmega 32.
Best efforts are made to make the code foolproof. Smoothing, averaging of the previous few values are
considered to get a statistically stable system. Smoothing also reduces any misinterpretation that the system
might read from road jerks, pit holes, etc. by decreasing the sensitivity of the accelerometer.
The current model gives a validation of over 90%. The remaining errors being caused by calibration problem,
high sensitivity of the electrical instruments, and human errors.
References
[1]
Hadpe Mukesh, Dr. Deshmukh D.S., Solanki P.M., November 2014, Vibration Analysis of a Two
Wheeler (Analytically) ,International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and
Technology, Volume 3, Issue 11, pp 17415-17421.
[2]
R. Prashantkumar, V. C. Sagar, S. Santosh,
Nambiar Siddharth, December 2013, Two Wheeler
Vehicle Security System, International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Emerging Technologies,
Volume 6, Issue 3, pp 324-334.
[3]
Srivastava Vishal, Gupta Tejasvi, Kumar Sourabh, Kumar Vinay, Rafiq Javed, Dwivedi Kumar Satish,
April 2014, Automatic Side Stand, International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology
(IJEAT), Volume 3, Issue 4, pp 179-182.
[4]
Ghosh M, Mukhopadhyay S, December 2009, Stability Analysis of a Two-wheeler during Curve
Negotiation under Braking, National Conference on Machines and Mechanisms(NaCoMM09), pp 1718.
[5]
Velhal Nilkanth, Sabale Devendra, January 2015, Prolong Brake rolong Indicator System,
International Journal of Research in Engineering & Advanced Technology, Volume 2, Issue 6, pp 106108.
[6]
National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Road Transport & Highway, Law commission of India,
Global status report on road safety 2013.
[7]
Gururaj G., 2008, Road traffic deaths, injuries and disabilities in India: Current scenario, The National
Medical Journal of India, Volume 21, Issue 1, pp 14-20.
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Fuzzy Method for the Selection of Suitable

Feed Stock for the Production of Biodiesel
Kiran Pal and Naveen Kumar Garg
Abstract- Investigations are being carried out on different non edible seed oils with different production
methods e.g.; different processes, different molar ratios, different catalysts, different reaction time and different
temperature, throughout the world. Vegetable oils are important substitutes for diesel fuel, as their properties
are comparable to diesel fuel and also they are renewable in nature. In this paper, we propose a fuzzy based
method for the selection of the suitable feed stock oil out of some feed stock oils researched so far in India. This
method is based on the relations between different parameters and feedstocks available to obtain biodiesel,
using intuitionistic fuzzy sets. For this purpose, we develop a hypothetical case study with assigned degree of
membership and degree of non-membership based on the relation between the feedstocks, their properties and
constraint like their availability in different zones of India.
Keywords: Fuzzy Set, fuzzy relations, Intuitionistic fuzzy sets (IFS), non edible oil, feed stock, biodiesel
ntroduction Use of biodiesel is being promoted to take care of rapidly depleting reserves of fossil fuels
and increasing pollution level. In country like India, where the choice is to be made between food and fuel,
the non edible oils are best suited for the production of biodiesel as compared to edible oils. Every feed
stock has its pros & cons and unique characteristic. In this paper, we propose a mathematical model for the
selection of a feedstock for production of biodiesel based on the set of available feedstock related options. In
this paper, Thumba (F1), Moringa Oleifera (F2), Jatropha (3F), Mahua (F4), Sal (F5) and Karanja (F6) are
chosen to find out the feasibility as promising resource for production of biodiesel in different parts of India.
Adlassnig [1], Ahn[2] and Yao[3] elaborated fuzzy relation between sets.
For a fixed setX, IFS of A is defined as:
Where
define the degree of membership and degree of non-membership of the element x X to the set A.
For every x X,
and the amount
is called the
intuitionistic index or hesitation index, which may require to membership value, non-membership value or
both. Let A be an IFS of the set X and let R be an IF relation from X Y, then Max-min-max composition Bof
Kiran Pal
Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Delhi Institute of Tool Engineering, Okhla, New Delhi- 110020,
Naveen Kumar Garg
Lecturer, Automobile Engineering, Department of Automobile Engineering; G B Pant Institute of Technology,
Okhla, New Delhi-110020.
Email: gargnk_34@rediffmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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IFS with the IF relation R(X Y) is defined as B= RoA with membership and non-membership function.
Let F = { f , f , ......., f } ; P = { p , p , ....., p } ;
be the finite set of feed stock,
C = { c1 , c2 , ............., cq } ;
1
2
m
1
2
n
parameters and constraints respectively. According to Kumar [4, 5], two fuzzy relations (FR), Q and R are
defined as:
Where ) Q , (f, p) indicate the degree to which the parameter p appear in feedstock f and vQ (f, p) indicate the
degree to which the parameter p does not appears in feedstock f. Similarly R ( p,c) indicate the degree to
which parameter p confirm the constraints c and VR (p, c)indicate the degree to which the parameters p does not
confirms the constaints c.
The composition T of IFRs R and Q (T=RoQ) describe the state of feedstock if in terms of the undertaken for the
process from S to C given by membership and non-membership as:
We can estimate the labels of parameters of different feed- --stocks using the information obtained from the
chart of given case study. From Q and R, one may compute new measure of IFR T for which, in general, the
parameteteric labels of feedstock f for any constraint c such that the following is to be satisfied:
(I)
is greatest and (ii) The equality T= R o Q is retained.

This new measure of T will translate the higher degrees of association and lower degree of non-association of
property as well as lower degrees of intuitionistic index to the processing.
If there is almost equal values for different processing in T is obtained, we consider the case for which
intuitionistic index is least.
2. Case Study
To see the application of the method, let us frame a hypothetical case study:
Let
be the set of feed stocks and
available parameters of different feedstocks .
Suppose the IFR Q (SI) is given by (hypothetically):
616
be the set of
Fuzzy Method for the Selection of Suitable Feed Stock.....

Let the Constraints
be the set of options available for their availability.

Suppose the IFR
is given by (hypothetically):
Table 1: Decision Matrix -1
The Composition RT = o Q is follows as:

Table 2: Decision Matrix-2
Table 3: Decision Matrix-3
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From the table, we conclude that feedstock

are suitable for Western India [7-9] and
feedstock
[6] is suitable for Southern India for production of biodiesel.
3. Conclusion.
In this paper, we use generalized concept of fuzzy set theory. A study for selecting and promoting the feedstock
selection in different zones of India has been made with IFS theory. IFS method is an efficient tool for decision
making problem. A fuzzy base feedstock selection for biodiesel production is being made which may prove to
be an optimized selection.
References.
[1]
Adlassnig KP (1986). Fuzzy set theory in medical diagnosis. IEEE Trans. On Systems, Man, and
Cybernetics SMC. 16: 260-265.
[2]
Ahn JY, Kim YH, Kim SK (2003). A fuzzy differential diagnosis of headache applying linear
regression method and fuzzy classification. IEICE Trans. INF. & SYST. E86-D: 2790-2793.
[3]
Yao JF, Yao JS (2001). Fuzzy decision making for medical diagnosis based on fuzzy number and
compositional rule of inference. Fuzzy Sets and Systems. 120: 351-366.
[4]
Supriya Kumar De, Ranjit Biswas, Akhil Ranjan Roy, An application of intuitionistic fuzzy sets in
medical diagnosis Fuzzy Sets and Systems 117 (2001) 209-213
[5]
Vijay Kumar, Isha Bharti and Y K Sharma, Fuzzy Diagnosis Procedure of the Types of Glaucoma,
International Journal of Applied Information Systems 1 (6): 42-45, February 2012, Published by
Foundation of Computer Science, New York, USA.
[6]
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/madurai/Moringa-cultivation-gets-a-boost-as-TN-grantsRs-1-5-cr-to-popularise-it/articleshow/49640706.cms?gclid=CJX30r3Mnc8CFdiJaAod8bUHeg
[7]
Amit Pal, SS Kachhwaha, SMaji, MKG Babu, Thumba (Citrullus colocyntis) seed oil: A sustainable
source of renewable energy for biodiesel production, JSIR, VOL 69, May 2010, 384-389
[8]
http://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/akshay-urja/november-december-2011/EN/34-37.pdf
[9]
http://www.bepls.com/nov_2015/14.pdf
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Effect Of Friction Coeficient On En-31with

Different Pin Materials Using Pin-OnDisc Apparatus
Ramakant Rana, R. S. Walia and Manik Singla
Abstract- Alloys of Steel have encompassing application in today's technological industries. The range of
physical properties that can be imparted to them is remarkable. Tests were conducted using a pin-on-disc test rig
as per International StandardsSpecification G99. Experiments have been carried out to study the Friction
Coefficienton EN-31 Steel, while the operational parameters were normal load (N) and RotatingVelocity of pin
w.r.t. rotating disk at room temperature. Based on the experiments it is found that Friction Coefficientis strongly
dependent on applied load, sliding speed and material. Based on the experiments, better tribological results
have been achieved in the starved boundary lubrication mode.
Keywords: Friction Coefficient, Sliding Speed, Pin-On-Disc, Taguchi.
ntroduction Studies have revealed that Friction Coefficient depends on normal load, sliding velocity,
type of material, temperature, lubrication and vibration [Chowdhury M. A. et al. (2013), Kato K. (2000),
Singh M. et al. (2002), Torres Y. et al. (2004), Iwai Y, et al. (2001), Sharma Kumar Vipin et al. (2016)]. The
normal load plays an important role for the variation of friction and wear loss.
In many metal pairs, the Friction Coefficientis low at low loads and a transition occurs to a higher value as the
normal load is increased. At low loads, the oxide film effectively separates two metal surfaces and there is little
or no true metallic contact, hence the friction coefficient is low. At higher load conditions, the film breaks down,
resulting in intimate metallic contact, which is responsible for higher friction [Rabinowicz E. (1995)].
Now days, many materials either sliding or rolling are used in different applications. The increase in demand for
light weight and energy efficient materials with high strength, stiffness, and wear resistance lead to the
experiment of many materials. EN-31 steel is one type of medium strength steel that is suitable where good
allround performance is required. EN-31 is widely used for applications which require better properties than
mild steel but does not justify the costs of an alloy steel. EN-31 can be flame or induction hardened to produce a
Ramakant Rana
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
e-mail: 7ramakant@gmail.com
R. S. Walia
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
e-mail: waliaravinder@yahoo.com,
Manik Singla
Student, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Maharaja Agrasen Institute of
Technology Delhi, India
e-mail: 26maniksingla@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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good surface hardness with moderate wears resistance. EN-31 is widely used for many general engineering
applications. Typical applications include shafts, studs, bolts, connecting rods, screws, piston rod etc., where
Friction Coefficient is responsible for many problems. This leads to experiment the effect of Friction
Coefficientof EN 31 steel sliding against various materials at various loading conditions. EN-31 Steel is the
most common form of steel and its price is relatively low. The properties provided by this material are
acceptable for many applications. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable;
surface hardness can be increased through carburizing. It is often used when large quantities of steel are needed.
The consequences of Friction are many, Itusually cost money, in the form of energy loss and material loss:
A.
Friction decreases productivity
B.
Friction affect quality of Product
C.
Friction causes accident
Classifications of friction components:
1. Force transmitting components:
Some components that are expected to operate without interface displacement are called as force
transmitting components.
2. Energy absorption-controlling components:
Some components which require large values of a normal force with intermediate coefficient of
friction are known as energy absorption - controlling components such as in brakes and clutches.
3. Quality control components:
Some systems that require constant friction and the components which give constant friction are
called as quality control components.
4. Low friction component:
The materials that are expected to operate at maximum efficiency at the time of force
transmitting like gears in a watch are called as low friction component.
Set up used in the study of wear test is capable of producing situation accessing Friction Coefficient of the
prepared sample. It consists of a pin on disc, loading panel and controller. The entire test was carried out using a
pin on disc machine with normal condition. The condition has 40-50% relative humidity and a temperature of
32-35oC.
In the due course of the experiment. Friction Coefficientwas measured and calculated by using the given
formula:
= Fw / L
(1)
Here,: Friction Coefficient, Fw: Friction (Newton), L= Load (N)
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Figure 1: Friction Monitor Used for the Friction Tests
Effect Of Friction Coeficient On En-31with Different....

3. Experimentation
Experiments were performed using a design matrix generated with the help of Taguchi technique. Three
different materials were chosen as pin material which were tested at three different levels of speed and loads.
EN-31Steel was taken as the plate material. Pin samples and disc has been cleaned properly before and after
each test to prevent any form of corrosion on the surface.
The specimen was held steady and stationary within a holder of the apparatus and the required normal load was
applied through lever mechanism as can be seen in the figure 1. The sliding distance was kept at 1.0 km for all
tests various levels of the load speed and pin material were listed in table 1.
Table 1: Various levels for input factors
Table 2: Observations for different set of input factors
Figure 2: Variation of Wear Rate with Pin Material, Load and Speed.
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TABLE 3: Taguchi L9 (34) OA (parameters assigned) with response.
Figure 3: Normal probability plot for Friction

Coefficient
Figure 4: Interaction Plot for Friction Coefficient

It is clear from the figure 2 that Brass has least Friction Coefficient as compared to Aluminum and Mild Steel as
it developed a protective layer in atmospheric conditions [SinglaManoj et al. (2009), Basavarajappa S. et al.
(2006)].
The Friction Coefficientincreases with the increase in Load as, at low loads, the oxide film effectively separates
two metal surfaces and there is little or no true metallic contact, hence the friction coefficient is low.
At higher load conditions, the film breaks down, resulting in intimate metallic contact, which is responsible for
higher friction [Rabinowicz E. (1995)].
The Friction Coefficient decreases with disc speed. Friction increases or decreases as a result of increased
sliding velocity for different materials combinations.
An increase in the temperature generally results in metal softening in the case of low melting point metals. An
increase in temperature may result in solid-state phase transformation which may either improve or degrade
mechanical properties [Sharma Kumar Vipin et al. (2016),Bhushan B. (1999),Dharmalingam S et al. (2011)].
622
Effect Of Friction Coeficient On En-31with Different....

Table 4 shows the responses of Friction Coefficient along with the ranks of the process parameters and Table 2
shows the Taguchi L9 Orthogonal Array (OA) used in the experimentation [Mandal N. et al. (2012)].
Table 4: Response Table for Friction Coefficient
Figure 3 shows the Normal probability plot for Friction Coefficientand the Figure 4 shows the Interaction Plot
for Friction Coefficient. The results in Figure 3 and Figure 4 revealed that the residuals generally fall on a
straight line implying that the errors are normal. Figure 3 also revealed that they have a pattern and all the values
are in an unusual structure. This implies that the range proposed in the Design of Experiment is adequate and
there is no reason to suspect any violation of the independence assumption [Basavarajappa S. et al. (2006)].
Figure 5 shows the Scatter-Plot of Friction Coefficientvs Pin Material, Load and Speed. Figure 5 depicted that
Friction Coefficient was least with the Brass in as comparison to the Mild Steel and Aluminium. It also depicted
that the Friction Coefficient increases with the increase in Load and decreases with the increase in Speed.
5. Conclusion
The material undergoes heavy wear due to sticking of the surfaces as a result of heat generated from friction.
The amount of Friction increases as the normal load increases along with the decrease of disc speed. The test pin
and the disc exhibits high amount of chatter due to sticking of surfaces.
In this paper, application of Taguchi optimization is applied for the Friction Coefficienton EN-31 Steel is
carried out. Taguchi Optimization Technique has been applied for optimizing the Friction Coefficient to
investigate the influence of parameters like Load and Speed. The results are as follows:
(1) For the Friction Coefficient, the Pin Materialand the Speed are the main influencing factors on the Friction
Coefficient, followed by the Load.
(2) Interaction plots are useful in determining the optimum condition to obtain particular values of Friction
Coefficient.
(3) Verification experiments carried out show that the optimized values can be used for obtaining the Friction
Coefficientwithin 5% error as can be seen in Normal probability plot for Wear Rate data (Figure 3).
References
[1].
K. Kato, Wear in relation to friction - a review, Wear, 241, 2000, 151157
[2].
M. Singh, D. P. Mondal, O. P. Modi, A. K. Jha, Two body abrasive wear behaviour of aluminum alloy
sillimanite particle reinforced composite, Wear, 253, 2002, 357368
[3].
Y. Torres, S. Rodriguez, A. Mateo, M. Anglada, and L. Llanes, Fatigue behavior of powder metallurgy
high speed steels, fatigue limits prediction using a crack growth threshold-based approach, Mater. Sci.
Engg. a Structure Mater, 387389, 2004, 5014.
[4].
Y. Iwai, T. Honda, H. Yamadaa, T. Matsubara, M. Larsson, S. Hogmarkd, Evaluation of wear resistance
of thin hard coatings by a new solid particle impact test, Wear, 251, 2001, 861867
[5].
Sharma Kumar Vipin, Singh R.C., Chaudhary Rajiv, wear testing of aluminiumsilicon alloy
fabricated by stir casting, isft-2016, id no: 2016-isft- 443, (2016)
[6].
Singlamanoj, Singh Lakhvir, Chawla Vikas, Study of wear properties of Al-Sic composites, Journal
of minerals and materials charactrerisation and engineering, 813-819, (2009)
[7].
Basavarajappa S., Chandramohan G., Dry sliding wear behaviour of metal matrix composites: a
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[8].
[9].
[10].
[11].
[12].
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statistical approach, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 656660, (2006).

Dharmalingam S, Subramanian R, SomasundaraVinoth K, Anandavel B., Optimization of
tribological properties in aluminium hybrid metal matrix composites using gray-Taguchi method, J
Mater Eng Perform,145766, (2011)
Mandal N. , Roy H., B Mondal, Murmu N.C, Mukhopadhyay S.K., Mathematical modelling of wear
characteristics of 6061 AlalloySiC composite using response surface methodology, Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance, 1724, (2012)
Chowdhury M. A., Nuruzzaman D. M., Roy B.K., Samad S., Sarker R., Experimental Investigation of
Friction Coefficient and Wear Rate of Composite Materials Sliding against Smooth and Rough Mild
Steel Counter faces, Tribology in Industry, Vol.35, No.4, 2013, pp.286.296.
Rabinowicz E., 1995. Friction and Wear of Materials, 2nd Edition, Wiley.
Bhushan B., 1999. Principle and Applications of Tribology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Clean India Mission: Issues and Challenges

Kiran Pal, Tulika Srivastav and Manish Jain
Abstract- To lead the mass movement for cleanliness, was one of the Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi's dream.
However, we have named him as the father of the nation, but forgotten his dream. The year 2016 is completing
but yet no concrete step is taken or large scale developments have been initiated to dispose off the wastes
entirely from the country.In this work an attempt is made to dicuss the challenges in clean India Mission and
prioritise the probable directions and methods to achieve this goal. Some of the successful case studies across
the world are also discussed.
Keywords- Clean India; Zero Waste Urbanization; Swachh Bharat Abhiyan; Garbage.
ntroduction: India is currently the world's third-largest garbage producer. The amount of waste
generated is 3 million trucks of garbage and it remains untreated and disposed off by municipal
authorities everyday in an unhygienic manner leading to health issues and environmental degradation.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi want a Swachh Bharat (clean India) by 2019, but sweeping the streets alone
won't help India's to face real garbage challenge.
As our country is growing prosper, 62 million tonnes of garbage is generated everyday by the 377 million
people living in urban India, now the world's third-largest garbage generator[1]. With rapid urbanisation,
industrialisation and an explosion in population in India, solid waste management will be a key challenge for
state governments and local municipal bodies in the 21st century.
The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) was created to tackle the issues related to waste
management, cleanliness and sanitation on a national level. Through this initiative the government of India
aims at the complete collection and scientific processing, disposal, reuse/recycle of garbage, officially called
municipal solid waste, for all 4041 statutory towns in the country. The total cost of the mission is estimated at Rs
Kiran Pal, and

Department of Mathematics, Delhi Institute of Tool Engineering, Okhla, New Delhi, India
kiranpaldite@gmail.com
Tulika Srivastav
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi, India
tulika.rns@gmail.com
Manish Jain
Department of Mechanical Engineering, RJIT, BSF Academy, Takenpur, Gwalior, India,
manish01rj@gmail.com
Corresponding Author; tel:09868109159
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Pal et al.
62,009 crore out of which the central government will contribute Rs 14,623 crore[1].
Everyone knows that dumping of waste can block drains which can cause floods, contamination of water and air
pollution, leading to the spread of diseases around the area.The Government of Maharashtra even banned the
production, sale and use of plastic bags in 2005, in response to annual flooding in Mumbai. A total of 1,33,760
tonnes per day (TPD) of garbage was generated in all states and union territories of India[1].
Only 68% of the garbage generated in the country is collected out of which 28% is treated by the municipal
authorities. Thus, the poor collection and treatment of waste leads to dumped garbage on streets shows up the
poor and inefficient system available to tackle waste management in our country. If this issue is not tackled
efficiently, with better policies and practices, the total waste generation is projected to be 165 million tonnes by
2031 and 436 million tonnes by 2050.
One should try to learn from various countries like Sweden, which is a zero waste country; Sri Lanka, which is
segregating its waste, and from Bhutan too where everybody is conscious to not to pollute their land.
2. Concept of Zero Waste:Zero Waste means designing and managing products and processes to systematically avoid and eliminate the
volume and toxicity of waste and materials, conserve and recover all resources, and not burn or bury them. It is a
whole system approach that aims for a massive change in the way materials flow through society, resulting in no
waste. Zero waste focuses more on eliminating waste through recycling and reuse, it also emphasize on
restructuring production and distribution systems to reduce waste. Zero waste is a goal rather than a hard target.
Zero Waste provides guiding principles for continually working towards eliminating wastes.
To achieve zero waste, waste management has to move from a linear system to being more cyclical so that
materials, products and substances are used as efficiently as possible. Materials must be chosen so that it may
either return safely to a cycle within the environment or remain viable in the industrial cycle.
Zero waste promotes not only reuse and recycling, but, more importantly, it promotes prevention and product
designs that consider the entire product life cycle. Zero waste designs strive for reduced materials use, use of
recycled materials, use of more benign materials, longer product lives, reparability, and ease of disassembly at
end of life. Zero waste strongly supports sustainability by protecting the environment, reducing costs and
producing additional jobs in the management and handling of wastes back into the industrial cycle. A Zero
waste strategy may be applied to businesses, communities, industrial sectors, schools and homes.
Benefits include :Saving money. Since waste is a sign of inefficiency, the reduction of waste can reduce costs.
Faster Progress. A zero waste strategy improves upon production processes and improving environmental
prevention strategies which can lead to take larger, more innovative steps.
Supports sustainability. A zero waste strategy supports all three of the generally accepted goals of sustainability
- economic well-being, environmental protection, and social well-being.
Improved material flows. A zero waste strategy would use far fewer new raw materials and send no waste
materials to landfills. Any material waste would either return as reusable or recycled materials or would be
suitable for use as compost.
There are a few cities around the world that have become leaders in the zero-waste movement. New York City
has gotten a startwith a pilot composting program and a long-needed ban on styrofoam containersit still
has a long way to go.
Case Studes of Zero Waste
3.1 San Francisco's Composting Paradise
San Francisco became the largest U.S. city to commit to zero waste in 2002, promising to divert 100% of its
waste from landfills by 2020. Working with restaurants, hotels, landlords, and the construction industry to get
them to participate. Today, at more than 80% landfill diversion, San Francisco is well on its way to zero waste,
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but the last bit may be the hardest. The city can get to 90% landfill diversion by continuing its current activities.
The last 10%, however, will require state or national laws that require or incentivize more product
manufacturers to get on board with the program.
3.2 Sweden's Story
Sweden (and every city in it) has a slightly different approach to zero waste. It fuels itself off of trash, burning
about 2 million tons of trash a year in waste-to-energy plants, is replacing a not-insignificant amount of the
nation's fossil fuel use, and drastically reducing landfill waste. This, however, has a caused a problem: Sweden
has become so efficient at recycling and reducing waste that it doesn't have enough trash to burn to power its
facilities. It imports about 800,000 tons of trash annually from neighboring countries to feed its incineration
plants.
Sweden's success was rooted in a cultural shift around attitudes towards trash that began in the 1970s and took
decades to bear fruit.
3.3 Capannor, Italy's Work
Capannori is a small town that is leading Europe towards its continent-wide zero-waste goal. It started in 1997
when local activists defeated a proposal for an incineration plant and developed an alternative instead: a waste
tax that would reward residents for reducing non-recyclable waste. According to IPS News, the town gave
residents garbage bags with codes on them to track each household's waste production. This was only the
beginning of a long education effort that saw a nearly 40% reduction in the amount of waste generated per
person between 2004 and 2012. Because of selling its recyclables, its zero-waste program is self sustainable
and even makes money for the city.
4. Zero Waste Concept For Inda:Idea of Zero Solid Waste City for Delhi:In Delhi, 5 Municipal Authorities are responsible for Municipal solid Waste Generation and Management. Total
8360 TPD MSW generated daily in Delhi.
There are 3 landfill sites namely Bhalswa land fill site, Ghazipur sanitary land fill site, Okhla sanitary land fill
site. Bhalswa These landfill site are not designed as per the schedule 3 of the MSW rules. In absence of
availability of landfill sites, all the 5 Municipal Bodies are using these three sites for illegal disposal of MSW.
A Sustanable Approach For Waste Management:Now the time has come to reduce those piles of garbage which are lying over these areas & creating a boundary
between Haryana & Delhi.
Firstly, segregation of the biodegradable & non biodegradable wastes is must.
Secondly, make lots and send some of the biodegradable wastes for landfill composting, incineration process
and rest other lots to waste to energy conversion plants.
In this way we can sell fertilizers & manures formed as a result of composting to farmers at a cheaper price &
electricity to small villages which are still living in dark. Also plant set-ups will lead to employment in that area.
Now the time has come we should start educating people to reduce the wastes at house levels.
Try to recycle, reuse as much as one can. For instance, use both sides of every page of a notebook before moving
on to the next clean notebook. Use unneeded, printed on printer paper for a scratch pad.
Here are some useful steps that ensure to reduce the trips to the landfill each year:
1. Donate Clothes
Believe it or not, throwing away of clothes is one of the biggest contributions for landfills today. Open up our
closets; pick clothes that are no longer needed like a sweater that was fashionable last year, a ripped shirt, or
some clothes that one just don't want to keep any more. All these contribute to landfill.
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First, make sure that these are clothes that are not needed any more. Then, donate clothes to people in need or to
Goodwill stores, or hold a sale in your garage (though assuming the clothes are still wearable, of course). You
know what they say, another man's trash is another man's pleasure.
2. Reduce Food Waste
Food is another item that are often just carelessly toss away without thinking twice about it. Each year, a very
large percentage of our purchased food is left uneaten. Instead of simply throwing away food, make good use
out of it. Even keep just a small percentage of uneaten food and donate it, millions of needy people would be fed.
3. Eat Healthy
Also think about eating healthier. Buy healthier foods that don't require as much disposable waste in the form of
packaging. Reuse old shopping bags and containers for maximum efficiency, and better yet, cloth bags. Don't
buy fast food take out as often either.
4. Save Leftovers for Next Day
Don't forget about leftovers! Too many people are careless enough to throw away half of a good meal and not
save it for later. Eating leftovers more often will save on money and result in less food waste. Try making it a
habit to save the rest of tonight's food in the fridge for tomorrow's lunch or dinner.
5. Buy Things With Less Packaging
One can also stock up on food in the freezer. Buy a bunch of food at the same time and store it in the freezer, and
don't buy any more food until the freezer is empty. In addition, buying food in bulk means less packaging and
less waste.
6. Boycott Plastic Water Bottles
Millions of plastic water bottles are thrown away by people every day. Don't be one of those people. With this
practice one can save boat load of money by switching to reusable glass bottles and produce less waste by
dumping plastic water bottles into the trash, which in turn means no contribution to the mountains of bottles in
landfills or (gulp) in the bottom of the ocean.
7. Just Don't Buy as Much Stuff.Really
Though it's quite tempting to buy as much things as money can buy, if one is serious about cutting down on the
number of trips made to the landfill each year, simply buying less stuff will severely cut back on those number
of trips all ready. Be mindful of what to throw and what to not.
8. Recycle
Don't just throw away old glass bottles or aluminium cans. Instead, recycle them. Keep a recycle bin at home, to
place old soda cans, paper, metal and plastic cups. Most urban areas have a recycling station in town. Try
making more trips to the recycling station than to the landfill.
9. Purchase Items Made From Recycled Products
Consider buying items made from recycled products so that one can help the environment in making it clean
and green. Also, this will set as an example for one's friends, family and relatives and they will also start buying
items made from recycled products.
10. Clean Smarter
Instead of buying cleaning solutions from market to unclog drains, use baking soda and vinegar for your
cleaning projects. Baking soda has countless uses and neither vinegar nor baking soda will hurt the
environment. This way one can avoid all the bottles of cleaners and cans used by us.
11. Composting
Composting is easy and natural process that takes remains of plants and kitchen waste and turns it into nutrient
rich food which help your plants grow. Compost is organic materials that has been collected together and
decomposed. Composting helps you recycle your kitchen waste and reduces the amount of that is sent to
landfills that proves safe for the environment.
12. Reuse
Make habit of carrying old shopping bag with while going out for shopping. An old shopping bag can replace
hundreds of plastic bags that will end up in landfills. Use empty wine or beer bottles into lamps, oil and vinegar
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dispensers or send them to recycling centers as few of them may be recycled.
13. Buy Rechargeable batteries
Rechargeable batteries will help in saving money for the long run and keep disposable batteries out of landfills.
Disposable batteries can prove very harmful for the environment as chemicals inside the batteries can leak.
14. Buy Items Packaged in Recycled Cartons
Buy products that are packaged in recycled cartons and reuse those cartons. Similarly, old newspapers make
great packaging material. This helps to promote recycling.
Concluson:
By studying the various methods of reducing waste worldwide, it may be understood that clean India is not an
impossible task. However, a long way is to be covered. Many steps were proposed some of them have been
initiated to dispose off the wastes entirely from the country. The concept of ZERO WASTE, if implemented by
every individual, can reduce waste at root level and thus willm be a great contribution towards clean India
mission. It will be a great achievement for our country which is rich in culture & population and may became
richer in cleanliness too.
References1.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_waste acessed on- 6/09/2016 ;
2.
Wastehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_waste acessed on-6/09/2016:
3.
http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/15-easy-ways-to-reduce-landfill-waste.php acessed on8/09/2016 ;
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Abstract- The demand for petroleum products are rising day by day due to rapid industrialization in the world.
But the petroleum resources are limited and these will be depleted in the near future due to excess exploitation
of these resources. Researchers are working to find out alternative feedstock which may have economic
viability as well. Non-edible vegetable oils are one of the best alternatives as compared to edible vegetable oils.
India has scope for the cultivation of non-edible plants and hence, the production of biodiesel. In this paper,
Thumba, Linseed, Wild Apricot, Algae, Cottonseed and Mahua are chosen to find out its viability as potential
resources for biodiesel in India.
Keywords- Biodiesel Feedstock; Thumba; Mahua; Algae; Wild Apricot; Cottonseed.
ntroduction It is reported that there are 100 billion barrels reserves of petroleum in the world and are
presumed to be exhausted in around 40 years [1]. In comparison to gasoline, the consumption of diesel is
more than five times in India [2]. India will become the third biggest consumer of fuel in the transport
sector after USA and China in 2020 with annual fuel consumption growth rate of 6.8% [3-4]. Fossil fuel
reserves are limited in earth and its depletion is a major concern because of its extensive use in the world. Its use
also deteriorates the atmosphere, giving harmful emissions. Serious efforts are required to prevent further
deterioration of the environment. Considering these factors, there should be search for renewable source of
energy which can replace fossil fuels. Therefore, renewable energy technologies from solar, wind and biomass
are being explored and its popularity is also increasing. Utilization of renewable energy technologies is at a
slow pace because of lack of availability and its technical know-how with economic constraints. But, biofuel is
becoming more popular as a renewable energy source because it can be used as a substitute for fossil fuel
directly in internal combustion engine without any engine modification or little engine modification. Biofuels
are obtained from various plant seeds [7]. In comparison to other petroleum fuels, diesel fuel is widely used to
generate power in various sectors like transport, agriculture, commercial and industrial. Various researchers
considered biodiesel as the best alternative fuel to substitute diesel [8].
Biodiesel is a fatty acid alkyl ester derived from a chemical reaction between vegetable oils and alcohol with or
without the presence of a catalyst. Biodiesel acts as a renewable energy sources to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions (GHG). It can also replace the fossil fuels in case of depletion of its reserves [9]. Biodiesel is
generally renewable fuel and is derived from vegetable oils or animal fats. It is generally produced by the
Sanjay Mohite and Sudhir Kumar
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra,
Haryana, India
Sagar Maji and Amit Pal
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 9953190067, Fax: +91 1744 238350
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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method of transesterification in which, vegetable oils or animal fats is converted into fatty acid methyl esters
[10-11]. It is evident that biodiesel reduces harmful emissions. Biodiesel can be produced easily and it has
higher cetane number, good lubricating properties, higher density and low sulphur emissions as compared to
diesel. Biodiesel production has reached up to 2.2 billion gallon in the world. It is reported that more than 350
numbers of oil bearing crops are found to be used in the manufacture of biodiesel [11-12]. Soybean, palm,
rapeseed, peanut and sunflower oils are considered as potential source for biodiesel production among more
than 350 oil bearing available plants. However, non-edible oils such as Jatropha, Cottonseed, Mahua, Karanja
etc. are more advantageous in comparison to edible oils [15-17]. Developing countries like India can produce
renewable energy from non- edible oils in an effective and economical manner [19]. Required characteristics of
feedstocks for biodiesel production should be its local availability, compatible with present farm infrastructure,
high oil yield, easily grow in local environment conditions which includes type of soil, latitude, rain etc., good
fatty acid composition, lesser requirement of water, pesticides and fertilizer, well-known growth season,
uniform seed maturity, useful by-products and ability to grow on wastelands and with off-season also. Oilseeds,
algae, animal fats and low-value materials such as greases, used cooking oil etc. are the four types of major
feedstock for biodiesel production [20]. First generation biodiesel is made from edible vegetable oils. Second
generation biodiesel produced from non-edible plants can be raised in semi or non-arable lands which results in
higher revenue collection for under-utilized lands. These feedstocks are relatively cheaper thereby reducing the
price of biodiesel production. Scientific knowledge for these feedstocks are unfortunately not sufficient,
resulting in a pile of challenges for their development [21]. Biodiesel produced from macroalgae and
microalgae is called third generation biodiesel. Their yields are higher in comparison to first and second
generation biodiesel with respect to per cultivation area due to algae's higher photo-synthesis capability. Algae
also absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere during its growth. Algae can be grown without the use of land or fresh
water resources if cultivated on or near sea unlike other oil crops. Technologies use in the production of
biodiesel from algae are not sufficient, resulting in higher consumption of energy and unsatisfactorily yield
during harvesting and drying. Microalgae production is troublesome to maintain with advanced bio-reactor
while there are hazards of pollution by other microorganisms in open pond system [21-22].
Biodiesel Feedstock in India
Thumba
Thumba is a non-edible vegetable oil plant. It is a creeper type plant. It can grow in sandy soil. It springs up in
several regions of Rajasthan and Gujrat in India and rely on rain. Local soap industries use raw thumba seed oil
for soap preparation. It starts bearing after 6 months [4]. It is called Indrayan in Hindi and Bitter apple in
English. It originates from Turkey and found in various portions of Asia and Africa. The plant has 3-7 lobed
leaves which are 5-10 cm in length at the middle portion. Its fruit is round in figure and yellow in color. Its
flowers are monoecious. It grows alongwith Bajara crops and hence minimal care is required. This plant is
eatable by animals. Laxative and anti-inflammatory drugs are being prepared with its use [23]. Its other names
are Colocynth, bitter cucumber, wild gourd. It is a desert viny plant which grows in sandy, arid lands. This plant
is native to the Mediterranean basin and Asia. It is an annual or a perennial plant in Indian arid zones and causes
a great survival rate under extreme xeric conditions. It survives in areas of annual rainfall 250 mm to 1500mm
and an annual temperature of 14.80C to 27.80C. It grows from sea level up to 1500 meters above sea level on
sandy loam, subdesert soils and sandy sea coasts with a pH range between 5 and 7.8. The roots are large, fleshy
and perennial, leading to a high survival rate due to long tap root. Leaves are palmate and angular with 3 to 7
divided lobes. The flowers are yellow and solitary in the axes of leaves and are borne by yellow-greenish
peduncles. Each has a subcampanulated five lobed corolla and a five parted Calyx. They are monoecious. The
fruit is smooth, spheric with a 5-10 cm diameter and extremely bitter taste. Each plant produces 15 to 30 fruits.
The seeds are gray and 5mm long and 3mm wide. The seeds are bitter in taste, nutty flavored and rich in fat and
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protein. The oil content of the seeds is 17-19% (w/w). It contains 67-73% Linoleic acid, 10-16% oleic acid, 58% stearic acid and 9-12% palmitic acid. The yield of oil is 400 liter per hectare. The thumba oil can also be used
for medicinal and soap products. The yield of seeds is about 6.7 to 10 tons/hectare [24]. The seeds also contain
high amount of arginine, tryptophan and sulfur containing amino acids. The seed flour is rich in micronutrients
and could thus be applied in food formulations in regions with low milk consumption as West Africa [25]. This
plant can be produced on marginal soils and can improve soil quality with intercropping. Colocynth is
generally cultivated with Cassava (intercropping) in Nigeria [26]. Cucurbitaceae is a large plant family
consisting of 100 genera and 750 species and is available in regions of tropical, subtropical, deserts and
temperate regions. Cucurbits seeds contain about 50% oil and up to 35% protein. Thumba belongs to genus
Citrullus species of Cucurbitaceae family, consisting of different varieties called as melons. Thumba is also
found in middle east, Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, Benin and other African countries. It is interplanted as a crop with
Maize, Cassava and Yam. It resembles as Safflower, Corn, Cottonseed, Sunflower and Sesame oil due to the
presence of unsaturated fatty acid in it [27].
Algae
Chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment of Algae. Algae does not like the various structures that
characterize plants on land as the phyllids of bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants and the roots, leaves
and other organs that are found in tracheophytes ( vascular plants) [28]. As algae biodiesel does not compete
with food production for land, its importance is increasing day by day. Algae can be developed in farm or
bioreactor. Its production cost is high and therefore, it creates hindrance for its commercialization. Researchers
have also reported that algae can also be grown on flue gas, thus consuming greenhouse gases [29]. Oils of
micro and macro algae are one of the best sources for biodiesel production. Diatoms (Bacillar- iophyceae),
golden brown (chryso-phyceae), green algae (chlorophyceae) and blue green algae (cyano phyceae) are the
types of micro-algae. 25,000 micro-algae species are available and only 25 species are being practiced today. It
is a high yielding feedstock. It is an organism with a capacity to cause photo- synthesis and is less than 2mm
in diameter. Micro-algae oils are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids with four or more double bonds [30-32].
Microalgae is the third generation feedstock and is very economical as compared to edible oils. It has the
highest oil yield capacity as compared to other oil crops and it is up to 25 times higher than the yield of palm oil
[33-34]. Microalgae have faster growth rates than other crops. The yield is 20,000 to 80,000 liters of oil per acre
in a year. Farmland or freshwater is not needed for its development. Microalgae grow faster than Macroalgae
and it contains more oil also. Biodiesel production process from algae is similar to other ordinary crops with
some minor changes in the process of extraction. The extraction operation to retrieve the oil from microalgae is
of high cost. The methods use for the extraction of oil from algae are supercritical fluid extraction, solvent
extraction, ultrasonic extraction and mechanical pressing. Solvent extraction, ultrasonic extraction and
mechanical pressing methods require lots of time and solvent and the supercritical fluid extraction method
require a lot of energy [35-39]. Greenhouse gas emissions would be reduced by 4.7% if diesel is replaced by
algae biodiesel. The production cost of algae biodiesel is 60% more than that of diesel in present scenario [40].
Linseed
It belongs to Linaceae family. Linseed is a herbaceous plant. Its botanical name is Linum usitatissimum and it is
also called flax. This plant produces seeds 4 to 6 cm long, pale, dark brown, oval and flattened in shape. The tree
rises to a peak of 0.3 to 1m. It is utilized for the production of cloth fiber, seed and linseed oil. Fertile, fine
textured and loamy soils are suitable for the cultivation of Linseed crops. The favorable conditions for oil
content and quality in Linseed crop, is sufficient moisture and cool temperature. Seeds are placed in round
capsules containing one to ten seeds per capsules. Linseed seeds contain 33 to 47% oil. The yield of irrigated
crop is 1200 to 1500 kg per hectare. Linseed seeds contain 30-40% lipids, 20-25% proteins, 4-8% moisture, 3-
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4% ash and 20-25% dietary fiber. Linolein, Linolenin and olein are important glycosides in Linseed oil.
Arachidic and palmitic are also present in a small amount. Linseed oil contains free fatty acids such as stearic,
oleic, palmitic, linoleic and alpha- Linolenic. Linseed oil contains 1.94% free fatty acids. Linseed cake, obtain
after extraction of oil, is used to feed cattle. It is also employed as an additive in baking goods. Big amount of
decrease in viscosity and flash point of linseed oil biodiesel is reported after transesterification. Several
methods are employed for the production of Linseed oils like alkali refined, cold pressing, sun bleached and
solvent extraction method. It is an edible oil. But its consumption is very less in human food because of its
potent smell and aroma. India produces 500 tons of linseed per annum. Linseed is available in various
countries of Europe, North and South America and Asia (particularly India). Climate and soil conditions are
favorable for the production of Linseed in India. Linseed oil contains 60% unsaturated fatty linolenic acid,
whereas this acid is available below 1% in other types of oils with the exception of soybean and rapeseed oil
containing 8 and 7% linolenic content. Presence of Linolenic acid in large quantity in Linseed oil makes it
suitable for drying paints purpose. Wood is also treated when linseed oil is used on it. It is likewise utilized in the
manufacture of Linoleum, a floor cover made from natural materials mixture. It is likewise applied in industrial
lubricants, leather product, treatment and to prevent rust. Drying alkyd paints are made up with the oil prepared
by crushing these seeds. Drying alkyd paints contain linseed oil which has a higher amount of linolenic acid.
This is a unsaturated compound which is oxidized easily [16,19, 41-44]. Number of double bonds are
responsible for oxidation stability of biodiesel. Methyl Linolenate is more susceptible to oxidation in biodiesel
and therefore, EN 14214 restricts its content up to 12%. Methyl Linolenate content in Linseed oil biodiesel is
around 45-47%, which is more susceptible to oxidation [45-46]. At the temperature of 9000C when the diesel
engine is running, Linseed oil biodiesel may be polymerized and oxidized due to the presence of two double
bonds between reactive methylene groups [46-47].
Cottonseed
Soya bean oil, sunflower oil and rapeseed oil are the common oils which are mostly used for biodiesel
production. Cottonseed oil is a cheaper oil used for biodiesel production. The botanical name of cottonseed oil
is Gossypium hirsutum L and it belongs to Malvaceac family. It gives natural fiber, which is used in textile
industry. It is also reported that it is ninth best crop for oil production. Cotton seeds are extracted to produce oil,
which gives the cottonseed oil and cottonseed cake. It is reported that cottonseed cake contains 20% oil and
37% polysaccharides so that biodiesel and biohydrogen can be produced out of this cake [48-51]. It is a cooking
oil extracted from seeds of G. hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum species of cottonseed. Its oil has clear light
golden color. Because of its stability properties, Cottonseed oil is used in preparing food for mayonnaise, salad
oil, salad dressing, etc. After extraction, the level of Gossypol is reduced in untreated cottonseed oil by
intensive treatment, as it has undesirable side-effects on consumption. Cottonseed oil contains natural
saturated fatty acids like oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. It is also named as being naturally hydrogenated by
scientists. The production capacity of its oil is 4.6 MT per annum. It consists of 70% unsaturated fatty acids
which includes 52% polyunsaturated (linoleic) and 18% monounsaturated (oleic) and 26% saturated (stearic
and palmitic) [32,52-53]. It is a herbaceous annual plant. It is cultivated in 3 months per year. Cottonseed
contains 15% oil and yields 0.1 to 0.2 t/ha. In Brazil, cottonseed is used for biodiesel production because of its
low cost [54-56].Cottonseed oil has been used in foods such as potato chips. Now cottonseed is being used in
processed foods, including cereals, breads and snack because of its lower price than Olive or Canola oil [57].
Mahua
Mahua is a medium size, deciduous tree which is available in various rural area in India. The Mahua tree grows
up to a height of 60-70 feet. 20 to 40 kg of seeds can be brought about by a Mahua tree per annum. 1,35,000
million tons of Mahua oil is produced per annum in India. Greenish yellow is the color of raw Mahua oil [58].
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Mahua seed and kernel contains 35-40% and 70% oil respectively. Mahua oil can be used for soap making and
biodiesel production. Its flowers are used to produce ethanol in an economical way. Its oil cake can be used to
feed in a poultry farm. It contains about 20% FFA. India has a production capacity for Mahua oil as 181000
metric tons per annum [53, 32,59-60]. Mahua tree is a tropical tree. It is from Sapotaceae family. It grows to 20
m height in a short span of time. It is adaptable to arid climate. It gives fruits in a span of 4 to 7 years which is
non-edible. Mahua oil biodiesel has poor low temperature properties because of presence of relatively high
percentage of saturated fatty acid [60-64]. It is cultivated in warm and humid regions for its oleaginous seeds. It
produces 20 to 200 kg of seeds annually per tree. The seed cakes obtained after extraction of oil constitute
fertilizer. The flowers are used to produce an alcoholic drink in tropical India. Various portions of the tree,
including the bark, are utilized for the medicinal purposes. [65]. The two major species of Madhuca are
Madhuca Indica (Latifolia) and Madhuca Longifolia which are available in India. In India, seed potential of the
tree is 50,00,000 tons and oil potential is 1,80,000 tons. The flowering seasons range from February to April. It
is rich in sugar (73%) and next to cane molasses. It is the most significant raw material for alcoholic
fermentation. Mahua seeds contain 35% oil and 16% protein [66].
Wild Apricot
Wild apricot is grown in temperate region of the world and its major producers countries are Greece, Italy, USA,
Spain and France [67]. India covers 2.42% earth surface, i.e. 328 million hectares geographical areas. Wild
apricot (Prunus armeniaca Linn) is also called Chullu, Khurmani, Shara, Aaroo and Khubani in local language
in India. It belongs to Rosaceae family and subfamily Prunoidea. The tree is found in dry, temperate regions of
northwestern Himalayas in India upto an altitude of 3000 m. It is also found in the Kumaon region of India. It is a
hardy plant. It is having 45-50% oils in kernel resembling almond oil. This oil is used in cosmetic, medicine and
confectionery. The tree has 50-60 years age. The cake after extraction of oil can be used as manure as it contains
Nitrogen (6.64%), Phosphorus (2.2%) and potash (1.14%). After detoxification of hydro-cyanic acid, the cake
may also be used for feeding cattle. The tree can be grown in deep and well drained soils with pH values of 6 to
6.8. Its fruits can be grown favorably in the long winter, frost free and warm spring seasons. The suitable
temperature for its growth is 16.60C to 32.30C. Annual rainfall of 100 cm is suitable for its growth. The wild
apricot tree is approximately 10-15 m tall with a red brown bark. The tree starts yielding over 4-5 years and
continues to do so up to 50-60 years. After 10-15 years, it starts full yielding of about 85-100 kg fruits per tree.
Well maintained tree yields 120-150 kg fruits [68]. Weight of fruit ranges from 8 to 15.1 g, diameter from 2.3 to
2.5 cm and pulp ranged from 77.8% to 87.3%. Pulp to stone ratio varies from 3.5 to 6.9:1 [69]. The wild apricot
is not suitable for table purpose due to the presence of high acids and low sugars. The seed yields 27% of the
kernels and Kernels contains 47% of oil [70]. Presence of a cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin causes bitterness
in the taste of kernels [71]. Oil contains 94% unsaturated fatty acids. It contains 75% oleic acid and linoleic
acids [72-73]. Libing Wang and Haiyan Yu found that Siberian Apricot has a high oil content, low acid value and
water content. Excellent Cold flow properties of Siberian apricot were found to be -140C. It is also stated that
Siberian apricot is low cost, low acid value and high oil producing species for biodiesel production in China
[74]. New castle, fruit of wild apricot is used for the preparation of jams, chutney and naturally fermented and
distilled liquor. It is also reported that apricot-soya leather, toffee and fruit bars have been prepared to cater the
requirements of proteins for adult and children. It is also reported that every part of wild apricot is used for the
preparation of different types of value added products and therefore, economy of farmers can be enhanced by
the commercial use of this fruit [75]. Wild apricot fruits are used as medicine to get relief from diarrhea, fever,
thirst and its seed tonic are used in liver troubles, earache, piles and deafness [76]. It is reported that apricot cake
after oil extraction contains 0.06% hydrocyanic acid and hence it is not recommended for animal feed as such. It
may be employed as animal feed only after removal of essential oil (1.2% -1.8%) with the distillation operation.
After boiling, apricot cake is used for feeding animals in Ladakh. Wild apricot seedling yields bitter kernel
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constituting about 22-34% of the pit. These bitter kernels are used for oil extraction. The oil content in kernel
ranges from 36%-62%. The apricot oil is rich in Carotenoids and vitamin E. It contains 70-75% oleic acid and
16-22% Linoleic acid as major fatty acids. The protein content in kernel ranges from 20.5 -45.2%. Bitterness in
apricot kernel is due to the presence of Amygdalin which on hydrolysis yields hydrocyanic acid, which are
harmful for consumption to human. Therefore oil cake must be detoxified before using it for food purposes. A
sizeable quantity of apricot kernels is available in Ladakh which are mostly used for oil extraction. Oil color is
generally light to deep yellow [77].
Conclusion
Non-edible vegetable oils are one of the best alternatives as compared to edible vegetable oils. India has scope
for the cultivation of non-edible plants and hence, the production of biodiesel. Thumba, Linseed, Wild Apricot,
Algae, Cottonseed and Mahua may be used as potential resources for biodiesel production in India.
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free fatty acid containing oil from Madhuca indica, Energy Fuel 21: 368-372:2007
Mohibbeazam M.M, Waris A, Nahar N.M. Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl esters of some
non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India, Biomass Bioenergy 29:293-302:2005
Ghadge S.V., Raheman H., Biodiesel production from Mahua (Madhuca Indica ) oil havng high free
fatty acids, Biomass Bioenergy 28:601-605:2005
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahua_longifolia#cite-note-5
www.svlele.com/mahua.htm
Ghorpade VM, Hanna MA, Kadam SS (1995) Apricots In: Salunkhe DK, Kadam SS (eds) Handbook
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of fruit science and technology , Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 335-361.

National Oilseeds & vegetable oils development board, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India, Gurgaon, India, Oct,2007.
Sharma SD (1994) Variation in local apricots growing in Kinnaur of Himachal Pradesh (India) Fruit
Var.J 48 (4) :225-228
Amit Kumar and S.Bhan, Correlation studies in wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) plus trees, Journal
of Horticulture and Forestry, Vol.2(2) pp 017-021, Feb,2010.
Montgomery RD (1969) Cyanogenens.In: liener, I.E.(ed) Toxic constituents of plant foodstuffs,
Academic press, New york pp 143-157.
Gandhi VM, Mulky MJ, Mukerji B, Iyer VJ, Cherian KM, (1997) Safety evaluation of wild apricot
oil, Food Chem Toxicol. 35:583-87.
Aggarwal KK, Masood K, Bedi KL, Narasimha MB, Khalid-Masood, (1974) Commercial utilization
of wild apricot kernels , J of the oil technol assoc of India 6,67-69
Libing Wang, Haiyan Yu, Biodiesel from Siberian apricot(Prunus Siberica L) seed kernel oil,
Rakesh Sharma, Anil Gupta, G.S.Abrol, V.K.Joshi,Value addition of wild apricot fruits grown in
North-West Himalayan regions a review, J Food Sci Technol (Nov,2014) 51 (11) 2917-2924.
Parmar C, Kaushal MK (1982) Prunus armeniaca L, In: wild fruits, Kalyani publishers, New Delhi, pp
66-69
K.V. Peter, Underutilized and Underexpolited Horticultural Crops Vol.2, New India Publishing, Jan,
2007, pp 78-79
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Oct. 14 & 15.
CFD Analysis of Single Phase Turbulent

Flow with Forced Convection Heat Transfer
inside a Circular Micro-Channel
Abstract- For many years, several experiments have been conducted to analyze the fluid flow and heat transfer
parameters in microchannel heat sinks which are designed for applications in electronic cooling. these microchannels provide high surface area per unit volume and large potential for heat transfer. This paper addresses
and investigates the study of a single phase water cooled circular micro-channel heat sink with CFD. The
hydrodynamic and thermal behavior of the system has been studied in terms of velocity, pressure and
temperature contours. Simulations have been done for microchannel of diameter .76mm with water as coolant.
The results have been compared with the results of other researchers.
Keywords- Micro-channel; CFD; Forced Convection.
Notation-
Introduction
1.1 Microchannel Heat Sink
With advancement of microelectronics heat removal becomes of great importance. This is due to integrated
density of chips and increased current and voltage handling capacity of these devices. The heat removing
capacity of microchannel is 50 times higher than conventional heat sinks. These microchannel induce thermal
stresses on the system which are being cooled. In order to avoid these thermal stresses large pressure drop is
required which further needs a pumping system. Several improvements have taken in the field of microchannel.
One of such example is multilayered microchannel. The main advantage of multilayered microchannel is that it
Department of Mechanical Engineering, B.Tech(4th year), Delhi Technological University,
srishubham20@gmail.com, rajkumarsingh@dce.ac.in
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 8802096094.

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
641
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Srivastava and Singh
needs less pressure drop across the microchannel and it offers less thermal resistance as well. Obot in 2003 gave
a simpler classification which is based on hydraulic diameter. According to his classification channel whose
hydraulic diameter is less than 1mm is called microchannel. Hydraulic diameter can be defined as
Dh= 4A P
(1)
Micro-channels provide one of the alternatives to finned tube heat exchanger. Microchannel heat sinks are
usually made of material of high thermal conductivity such as copper and silicon using precision machining of
micro machining processes. Microchannel is actually composed of a number of parallel micro channels and
coolant is forced through this microchannel. It is the coolant that takes away heat from the heated surface.
Advantages of using microchannel are as follows:
w
It provides large surface area to volume ratio.
w
It facilitates a high value of convective heat transfer coefficient.
w
It has small mass and volume.
w
It requires less inventory.
w
Because of these merits micro-channels are well suited as heat sink for devices like high performance
micro-processors, laser diode array, radars and high energy laser mirrors.
2. Mathematical Formulation
2.1 Introduction
A two dimensional analysis of single phase flow and heat transfer has been carried in a circular microchannel of
diameter 0.76 mm and of length 152.4 mm. Initial length of 63.5 mm which is insulated, precedes the heated
section. This ensures that the flow is fully developed before entering the heated region. The heated length of
microchannel is subjected to uniform heat flux intensity of 3000 W/m2. After the heated region insulated microchannel of length 152.4 mm follows. Distilled water has been used as the coolant which is entering inlet of the
microchannel with velocity of u = 18 m/s. the operating pressure is 1 atm in absolute scale. A schematic diagram
of the problem has been shown in the figure below:
Figure 1. Fluid flow through a circular micro channel

2.2 Assumptions
Steady state heat conduction.
No heat generation within the microchannel.
Uniform heat transfer coefficient over the entire surface of the microchannel.
Homogeneous and isotropic microchannel material (i.e. thermal conductivity of material constant).
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CFD Analysis of Single Phase Turbulent Flow with .....
Negligible contact thermal resistance.

Heat conduction one-dimensional.
Negligible radiation
Thickness of microchannel is negligible and is placed horizontally.
Density of the coolant is constant.
2.3 CFD Modelling- Governing Equations

In axis symmetric geometry continuity equation gets transformed as
(2)
Where, x is axial direction while r is radial direction.
In case of 2D axis symmetric problem the momentum conservation equation in axial and radial direction is
given as below:
(3)
(4)
Where
(5)
Since the microchannel thickness is small and it is horizontally placed, body forces Fx and Fr is taken to be zero.
This will modify eqn. 2 and eqn. 3 as below:
(6)
(7)
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In the present problem standard k- model has been selected as the flow is turbulent. Transport equations that
are used by ANSYS for single phase turbulent flow are as follows:
(8)
(9)
2.4 geometry in ANSYS Workbench

As per our problem specification cross-section of microchannel is circular and heat flux is uniform, the flow is
assumed to be axis symmetric. When we opt for axis symmetric Cartesian coordinates gets converted into
cylindrical polar coordinates. It implies that flow parameters vary in axial direction corresponding to x
coordinate and radial direction corresponding to y coordinates in 2-D geometry. The properties are assumed to
be independent of azimuthal coordinate . Therefore, the above problem microchannel can be modeled in
rectangular domain.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of circular microchannel as per problem specification

2.5 Physical Setup
Double precision solver
Cylindrical coordinate system
Pressure based solver
Steady state
Energy equation model(k-)
Enhanced wall treatment for near wall treatment
Fluid material- water
Material for microchannel copper
Boundary conditions: operating pressure=101325 Pa; heated wall q''=3000W/m2; other than heat wall
q''=0;
Boundary condition at inlet: velocity type; axial velocity= 18m/s; turbulent viscosity=10; % intensity
of turbulence=5
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Boundary condition at inlet: Pgauge=0; % of backflow turbulent intensity=5; backflow turbulent

viscosity ratio=10
2.6 Numerical Solutions

Governing equations that FLUENT uses to solve the problem are non-linear equations which are solved in a no
of iterations. Following are the salient features of the solution:
Discretization scheme: 2nd Order Upwind
Solution initialization: Standard
Convergence criteria: 10-6
No of iterations :1000
Iterations required for convergence :316
Solution initialization: Standard
In order to analyze skin friction coefficient other than standard quantities, skin friction coefficient is transferred
to post-processor from additional quantities
3.1 Introduction
A 2-D model was developed to study and analyze the fluid flow and heat transfer in the circular channel. A
number of calculations are performed by FLUENT and results are produced to show the variation of different
parameters.
3.2 Simulation of Circular Microchannel
3.2.1 Velocity Vector
For velocity vector location is selected as periodic 1. This facilitates the display of velocity vector periodically
along the entire surface of geometry. Line arrow is selected as symbol and symbol size is selected as 0.1.
ANSYS 14.5 displays only half of the cross section thereby showing velocity vector and other variation of half
of the cross section only. In view tab, mirroring condition is applied about ZX plane in default transform to work
out this problem. In order to have a better view of the result, scale is applied and set as (1, 30, 1). This stretches
the result in Y direction by 30. After all these settings, velocity vector appears as below:
Figure 3. Velocity vector
Figure 4. Velocity contour
3.2.2 Velocity Contour

For plotting velocity contour, first of all we open the contour tab and in geometry tab periodic 1 is selected as
location. Velocity is set as variable and again for viewing option reflection or mirroring is selected. Method of
mirroring is selected as z-x plane and again we apply scale in order to have better view of result which is set as
(1, 30, 1). This stretches our result in y direction. After all these settings our velocity contour appears as above:
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The minimum value of velocity is zero which is near the wall of the channel which is in no slip condition and the
maximum value of velocity is 28.0201 m/s which is in the central region near the axis of the channel.
3.2.3 Temperature Contour
For the temperature contour we follow the same procedure as that of previous case except temperature is
selected as the variable which appears as below:
Figure 5. Temperature contour

The minimum value of temperature is 298.15 K which is at the inlet of the channel. While the maximum value
of temperature is 345.404 K which is near the wall and at end of the heated region of microchannel.
3.2.4 Pressure Contour
Pressure is set as variable while all process remains the same. Pressure contour appears as below:
Figure 6. Pressure contour
The maximum value of gauze pressure is 4062.1 Pa which is at the inlet of the channel while the minimum value
of gauge pressure is 0 Pa which is at the outlet of the channel as our operating condition is atmospheric pressure.
As per the prediction, pressure decreases in the direction of flow.
3.2.5 Wall Temperature Variation
Again for this purpose we need to create another separate line. Under location tab we select line and name it as
walls and two-point method is selected as method for drawing line. The two point for line named wall is
specified as point1 (0, 0.00038, 0) and point2 as (0.1524, 0.00038, 0). No of samples is selected as 100. On
applying these data line named outlet is created. Now for plotting wall temperature variation under data series
tab, wall is selected as location, temperature is selected as variable under X axis tab and temperature is selected
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as variable under Y axis tab. Graph of wall temperature appears as below:
Figure 7. Wall temperature variation

3.2.6 Pressure Plot along Centerline
As centerline is already created we just need to specify centerline as location and X as variable for x axis tab and
pressure as variable for Y axis tab. With all these data the variation of pressure along centerline is plotted which
appears as below:
Figure 8. Pressure along centerline

3.2.7 Temperature Profiles
In this section we are going to plot the variation in temperature at the three different locations for which lines
have already been created in the previous section at x= 0.0635m, x=0.1143m and x= 0.1542m. All processes are
same as that of the previous case except for the fact that in this case temperature is selected as variable under X
axis tab while Y is selected as variable under Y axis tab. The temperature profiles appear as below:
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Figure 9. Temperature profiles at x= 0.0635m, x=0.1143m and x= 0.1542m
It is obvious from the graph that as we move closer to the wall of channel temperature increases and temperature
is constant at the exit of channel which complies with the graph drawn earlier under the heading graph of
temperature along outlet. At the beginning of the cross section where heating starts increase in temperature is
less while at the cross section where heating region ends increase in temperature is more which is obvious.
3.2.8 Wall Shear
The line named wall has already been created. So under data series tab wall is specified as the location. X is
selected as variable for X axis tab while Wall Shear is selected as variable under Y axis tab. When above said
conditions are applied the variation of wall shear is obtained as below:
Figure 10. Wall shear variation
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3.3 Model Validation
3.3.1 Grid Independence Test
The model is tested for grid-independence to give proper resolution to the region where large gradients of fluid
flow and heat transfer characteristic is predicted. A grid independence test was carried out by increasing the
number of nodes and cells and decreasing the element size for the microchannel heat sink which is given in table
below:
Table 1. Grid Independence Test
The fine grid mesh for the x and y-directions is adopted to properly resolve the velocity and viscous shear layers
and to more accurately define the heat transfer at the surface of the channel, thereby improving the temperature
resolution. CPU time as well as the memory storage required increases dramatically as the number of grid nodes
is increased. However, results and graphs obtained upon refining the mesh is approximately similar and very
close to the previous results which confirm the grid independence of the present simulation.
3.3.2 Model Validation with Previous Experimental Studies
Nusselt Number Calculation
Nusselt number is a non-dimensional number which provides us information regarding convective heat
transfer. Expression for convective heat transfer at the channel wall is give as below:
(10)
From the above expression convective heat transfer coefficient is found as below:
(11)
When we put the value of convective heat transfer in the expression of Nusselt number expression changes as
below:
(12)
Where
h is the convective heat transfer coefficient.
k is thermal conductivity of water.
L is the characteristic length. For the circular channel it is the diameter of the channel.
is the heat flux to which heated wall of microchannel has been subjected.
Tw is the temperature of channel wall at a given location.
Tm is mean temperature in the channel at the same location where Tw has been defined.
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Validation of CFD Modeling

The present CFD model is validated by comparing the value of Nusselt number calculated by post processor of
FLUENT to the value of Nusselt number that is obtained from the correlations for the microchannel by T. M.
ADAMS. In the experimental investigation conducted by T. M. ADAMS found that the value of Nu that is
determined experimentally comes out to be much higher than the value that is calculated using conventional
correlations. Gnielinski modified correlation given by Petukhov which is given as below:
(13)
Nu is Nusselt number
Re is Reynolds number
Pr is Prandtl number
F is friction factor whose expression was given by Gnielinski as below:
f = (1.82 log(Re)-1.64)-2
(14)
Nu value calculated by Gnielinski eqn. comes to be 135.50. T. A. ADAMS modified Gnielinski eqn. which is as
below:
Nu = NuGn (1+ F)
(15)
Where F is given by
F = C. Re. (1- (D/Do)2)
(16)
Where
C = 7.6 x 10-5 and Do = 1.164 mm
4. Concluson
Result of CFD analysis was validated using results of experimental work of T. A. ADAMS and therefore the
model is genuine and can be applied to any fluid flow and heat transfer problem in the circular microchannel.
Features of this chapter can be concluded as below:
Simulation of circular microchannel, of diameter 0.76mm with water as a coolant with turbulent flow and
forced convective heat transfer subjected to uniform heat flux of 3000 W/m2, was performed.
Simulation of microchannel of diameter 0.76mm with air as a coolant was also performed.
Graphs comparing axial velocity at three different locations namely at x = 0.0635m, x = 0.1143m, x = 0.1542m
inside the channel, were plotted. The axial velocity variations in Y direction, in case with water as a coolant
overlapped each other but in case of air the variation in axial velocity at different locations were different.
The maximum temperature attained by the coolant in case of air was 346.399 K while in case of water it was
345.404 K. This is due to fact that water has higher specific heat capacity and thereby more heat carrying
capacity.
Variation in wall shear was plotted in the direction of flow. The plot showing variation in wall shear first fell and
then rose a little bit in the region where flow is not fully developed when using water as a coolant. But in case of
air as a coolant curve first falls down in the flow developing region, remains constant once flow is fully
developed, rises in the heated region after which it again remains constant.
Rise in temperature of channel wall is more in case of air when used as a coolant.
Deviation in value of Nusselt number calculated experimentally, from the values which are predicted from
different correlations are more for higher Reynolds number.
The present analysis shows that water promises to be a better coolant when compared to air.
650

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[1]
Qu W, Mudawar, 2002, Analysis of three-dimensional heat transfer in microchannel heat sinks
Intenational Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 45, pp. 397385.
[2]
C.J.Kroeker, H.M. Soliman, S.J. Ormiston, 2004, Three-dimensional thermal analysis of heat sinks
with circular cooling micro-channels, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 47, pp.
47334744.
[3]
Shakuntala Ojha, 2009, Cfd Analysis on Forced Convection Cooling of Electronic Chips,
Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology, Rourkela.
[4]
Y.S.Muzychka, 2005, constructal design of forced convection cooled microchannel heat sinks and
heat exchanger International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 48, pp. 31193127.
[5]
Ravindra Kumar, Mohd. Islam and M.M. Hasan, 2014, A Review of Experimental Investigations on
Heat Transfer Characteristics of Single Phase Liquid Flow in Microchannels, International Journal
of Advanced Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 4, pp. 115-120.
[6]
Sambhaji T. Kadam, Ritunesh Kumar, 2014, Twenty first century cooling solution: Microchannel
heat sinks, International Journal of Thermal Sciences, Vol. 35, pp. 73-92.
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Tuckerman, D.B. and Pease, R.F., (1981), High performance heat sinking for VLSI, IEEE Electronic
Devices Letters, Vol. 2, pp. 126-129.
[8]
Wong, H. and Peck, R.E., (2001), Experimental evaluation of air-cooling electronics at high
altitudes, ASME Journal of Electronic Packaging, Vol. 123, pp. 356-365.
[9]
Lee, P. and Garimella, S.V., (2003), Experimental investigation of heat transfer in microchannels,
Paper No. HT2003-47293, ASME Proceedings of HT2003 Summer Heat Transfer Conference, Vol. 37.
[10]
Choi, S.B., Barron, R.F. and Warrington, R.O., (1991), Fluid flow and heat transfer in microtubes,
ASME Micromechanical Sensors, Actuators, and Systems, Vol. 32, pp. 123-134.
[11]
Rahman, M.M. and Gui, F., (1993), Experimental measurements of fluid flow and heat transfer in
microchannel cooling passages in a chip substrate, ASME International Electronics Packaging
Conference, Binghamton, New York, USA, Vol. 4, pp. 685-692.
[12]
Rahman, M.M. and Gui, F., (1993), Design, fabrication and testing of microchannel heat sinks for
aircraft avionics cooling, Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering
Conference, Vol. 1, pp. 1-6.
[13]
Adams, T.M., Abdel-Khalik, S.I., Jeter, S.M. and Qureshi, Z.H., (1998), An experimental
investigation of single-phase forced convection in microchannels, International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer, Vol. 41, pp. 851-857.
[14]
M. Mahalingam and J. Andrews, High Performance Air Cooling for Microelectronics, in: Proc. Int.
Symp. on Cooling Technology for Electronic Equipment, Honolulu, Hawaii, pp. 608625, 1987.
[15]
S. Yu, T. Ameel, and M. Xin, An Air-Cooled Microchannel Heat Sink with High Heat Flux and Low
Pressure Drop, in: Proc. 33-rd Nat. Heat Transfer Conf., Albuquerque, New Mexico, Paper No. NHTC
99-162, pp. 17, 1999.
[16]
Aranyosi, L. M. R. Bolle, and H. A. Buyse, Compact Air-Cooled Heat Sinks for Power Packages, IEEE
Trans. Components, Pack. Manuf. Technol. Part A, Vol. 20, pp. 442451, 1997.
[17]
Peng, X.F. and Peterson, G.P., (1996), Concective heat transfer and flow friction for water flow in
microchannel structures, Intenational Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,Vol. 39, pp. 2599-2608.
[18]
Mokrani, O., Bourouga, B., Castelain, C. and Peerhossaini, H. 2009. Fluid flow and convective heat
transfer in flat micro channels, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 52, pp.
13371352.
[19]
C.J. Kroeker, H.M. Soliman, S.J. Ormiston, 2004, Three-dimensional thermal analysis of heat sinks
with circular cooling micro-channels, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,Vol. 47, pp.
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[20]
Reiyu Chein, Janghwa Chen, 2009, Numerical study of the inlet/outlet arrangement effect on
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H. Ghaedamini, P.S. Lee, C.J. Teo, 2013, Developing forced convection in convergingdiverging
microchannels, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 65, pp. 491-499.
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Experimental Assessment of Waste Vegetable

Oil As Alternative Dielectric Fluid in
Electric Discharge Machining
Abstract: Electric-Discharge Machining (EDM) process has seen major development in terms of quality and
quantity in recent time. The dielectric fluid plays an important role in concentrating the plasma channel over
the machining area and removes debrises from the machining area. This dielectric although important for the
process still it is a major source of pollution to the environment and causes carcinogenic problem to the operator
in long term usage. The castoff edible vegetable oil is discarded into environment after series of cooking cycles
once the oil double bonds starts breaking into single bonds leading to its saturation. Similarly, waste vegetable
oils such as jatorpha, linseed, etc. obtained from forest tree and plants can be found from local markets and have
limited usage. The EDM dielectric properties required like viscosity and breakdown strength are in the range
for these oils also but rare studies have been done in using such oils as EDM dielectric. This work reports, a
comparative study of use of conventional hydrocarbon oil, waste vegetable oil, and castoff edible vegetable oil
in EDM of Inconel 718. The effects of various parameters viz. current, pulse- on-time, and duty factor on
volumetric removal rate, electrode wear rate, and surface finish are analyzed. Preliminary experimental result
shows that waste vegetable oil or cast off vegetable oil could be an alternative dielectric for green EDM process.
Keywords: Electric Discharge Machining, Waste vegetable oil, Castoff edible vegetable oil, Green Dielectric,
Environmental Impact.
ntroduction The rapid development in the field of metal manufacturing sector results in development of
alloys having inherent properties of hardness and strength. These properties increases the application area
and makes the alloys hard to machine with conventional machining process as well. Electric-Discharge
Machining (EDM) is most vital non-conventional machining process used to machine these hard to machine
alloys, accounts for more than 7% market share in machining processes[1].Since 1943, when two Russian
scientist B.R. Lazarenko and N.I. Lazarenko[2] reported the ability of EDM considerably improve its
machinability when the machining area is immersed in dielectric medium rather than machining it dry most of
EDM is done in a dielectric medium. This process have variant like Die sinking EDM, wire cut EDM, electricdischarge drilling, electro-discharge milling [3], electro-discharge grinding [4], electric-discharge texturing
[5], electric-discharge coating [6], electro discharge deposition. Initially limited to electrically conductive
materials, researcher also reported machining of insulating material ceramics [7] and composites [8].
Pulse current, Pulse on time, Pulse off Time, dielectric used are decisive element of EDMperformance. Pulse
current, Pulse on time, dielectric governs the machining capability and process stability whereas dielectric
deals with the operator health and environmental concern of the process. The dielectric performs most of the
vital function viz. concentrating and maintain ionization channel, carrying away the heat and debrises and
maintaining insulation between workpiece and electrode. As the dielectric breakdowns it emits various gases
which are reported to be of carcinogenic nature [9]. It has been reported that oil based dielectric emits aerosol,
metallic particles, carbon dioxide, carbon mono-oxide, butyl acetates[10] and water based releases carbon
(Assistant professor, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,
HMR Institute of Technology and Management, Delhi
E-mail:- nitesh.kmr.sngh@gmail.com *, manozme@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Kumar and Kumar
Fig. 1: Environmental effect of EDM components

mono-oxide, nitrogen oxides, metallic particles, chloride creating a hazardous zone near machine. Effects of
EDM component on environment are shown in Fig.1
Many researches have been reported regarding better machining capabilities but for environmental concern are
listed to few only. Some researchers suggest tap water [11], deionised water with additives [12], as an
alternative of Conventional Hydrocarbon Oil (CHO) to minimise environmental impact without any significant
effect on machining capabilities. However, some researcher also suggest use of gaseous dielectric viz. helium
or argon [13] and air or Oxygen [14] to minimise environmental impact.
1.1 Sustainable EDM Process
Sustainability process could be defined as a process which is employed to diminish the negative effects on
environment, sustain energy and natural resources, to ensure safety to the society and economically intact. It
can be improved by minimising environment degradation, manufacturing cost, energy utilization, process
waste and enhancing personnel health, operational safety. EDM process which is generic process to machine
alloys which are hard and challenging to machine, uses dielectric fluid during machine. This dielectric fluid
cause carcinogenic problems to the operator due to precarious emission near breathing zone [9], skin problems
[15] generation of sludge and toxic waste degrades environment, land and water. In early stage of the process
kerosene is used as dielectric but its capability degrade during long term machining. This drives researcher to
look for some alternatives dielectric having longer life cycle.
Implementation of ISO 14001 standard forces manufacturing industry to care about environmental aspect
rather than economical only. Manufacturing industry now tries to maintain a balance between economy and
environmental side. The ISO standard which mainly consider environmental protection as prime importance
guide the industries to use or create more eco-friendly process. Many researches have been reported using an
alternative dielectric fluid which is as good as conventional dielectric fluid in machining as well as decreases
environment impact. Usage of distilled water [11], water-oil emulsion [16] was reported giving satisfactory
results and helps in reducing ill-effect on environment and operator as well. The EDM process produces sludge,
dielectric waste, deionising resins need proper and effective discard into environment as these are nonrecyclable and toxic[17]. On the contrary waste for these water based dielectric can be easily discarded into
municipal sewer line after extracting debrises. Some research also reported usage of gaseous dielectric like
oxygen [14] and helium or argon [18] during machining bringing pollutant to almost zero. Currently there is no
dielectric that could completely replace EDM conventional dielectric to make this process total clean and
sustainable.
1.2.1 Properties Required In Alternative to Conventional Dielectric For EDM Process
It has been reported by shah et.al. [19] that vegetable oil have comparable dielectric properties as that of
hydrocarbon oils. These fluids may replace water, gas dielectric and hydrocarbon oils from EDM process. A
654
Experimental Assessment of Waste Vegetable Oil As.....

fluid could be identified as a potential dielectric for EDM if it has higher flash point [19], higher oxygen content
[20], higher Breakdown voltage [21], higher viscosity [21], nontoxic [22], lower volatility and toxic emissions
and better biodegradability [23].However a lot of research work has been reported to improve the machinability
of EDM process but application of Waste Vegetable Oil (WVO) as possible dielectric in EDM has been reported
by few researchers [24]. Result of previous research work suggest that there is scope of usage of WVO as a
possible dielectric for EDM process. Low price, easy and abundant availability and higher sustainability impact
index among all bio oils [25]also help researchers to select WVO as an alternative dielectric. Authors have tried
WVO to investigate feasibility through performance analysis and examine the response behaviour of Material
Removal Rate (MRR), Electrode wear rate (EWR) and Surface roughness (SR) with comparison to CHO to
minimise the environmental impact and ensure healthy working condition for the operator without a significant
change in output parameters of the process. In this research work a WVO Pongamia Pinnata and Blended Used
Vegetable Oil (BUVO) was used to study feasibility of oils as dielectric for EDM process. Effect of pulse
current, pulse on time and duty factor on Output parameter viz. MRR, EWR and SR have been studied to
analyse the feasibility.
2. Experimental Setup and Details
The experimental work has been performed on an ENC 35 Die sink EDM (Electronica machine tools LTD),
R-C based circuit is employed for pulse generation in this EDM machine with current rating 35A. Negative
polarity on electrode was used during the experimentation.
2.1 Workpiece, Electrode and Dielectric
The workpiece material that was used for this study purpose is a hard to machine super alloy, Inconel 718. The
dimension of workpieces used for machining is 70mm x 15mm x 15mm, and hardness is 41 HRC. The
workpiece material composition is give in Table 1. Sample images of machined work pieces are shown in Fig 2
(a-c).
Cylindrical copper electrode of 10mm diameter was selected for this experiment. Electrode material
composition was shown in Table 2.Refined WVO, BUVO and CHO used as dielectric for this research work
and properties of all the dielectric fluid used are shown in Table 3. Sample of CHO, WVO, and BUVO was
shown in Fig 3(a-c)
2.2 Experimental Work
Influence of three control parameter viz. pulse current, pulse on time, duty factor (four levels of each), as shown
Table 1: Workpiece material Composition
Fig 2(a) Workpiece machined using Fig 2(b) Workpiece machined using Fig 2(c) Workpiece machined using
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Fig 3(a) CHO sample
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WVO as dielectric fluid
Fig 3(b) WVO sample
BUVO as dielectric fluid
Fig 3(c) BUVO sample
Table 3: Physical Properties of dielectrics
in Table 4, on EDM response parameter, viz. (MRR),(EWR), and(SR), was examined. Depth of cut was kept
constant for all set of experiments. Loss of weight is considered to evaluate MRR and EWR using 1mg accuracy
digital weighing scale manufactured by Wensar Electronic. SR was measured using surface roughness tester
(Surtronic-128) with accuracy of 0.001m.Design of Experiment (DOE) was done using Taguchi OA and bust
Design to optimise the number of runs, time and resource consumption .A total of 48 runs were performed, 16
experiment each with CHO, WVO, BUVO as dielectric medium. Results have been recorded and comparative
analysis has been done for all the three dielectric.
3. Experiment Results and Discussion
3.1 Influence of Control Parameter on MRR
The response behaviour of MRR has been recorded under the influence of control parameters selected and
shown in Fig. 2(a-c). MRR is defined as weight of material removed per unit time, which is most significant for
this process economy. To achieve better production economy a higher MRR is desirable.
In Fig 2-a. comparative response behaviour shows influence of pulse current on MRR. It was observed that the
MRR increases with increase in pulse current, for all the three dielectric used, which is as result of increase
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Fig 2-a: Effect of current on MRR
FIG. 2-b: Effect of Pulse on Time on MRR
Fig. 2-c: Effect of Duty Factor on MRR
spark energy. It was also observed that that MRR for WVO is higher than the other two dielectric fluids for
current range used. Higher breakdown voltage and higher oxygen content causes intense oxidation [26] and
delayed sparking, results into an efficient sparking cycle and concentrated discharge energy.
The Comparative response behaviour shown in Fig.2-b shows the effect of pulse on time on MRR. Result
obtained here shows a similar trends and the WVO results in highest MRR while the BUVO results in lowest.
With increase in Pulse on time the spark channel sustain for much longer time resulting in more time and energy
available for melting and vaporizing phenomenon. Hence increasing trend was observed. Also higher
breakdown voltage and viscosity of WVO strengthen the dielectric ionisation in discharge gap results into
longer sustain and thus higher MRR. Lower MRR with BUVO may be due to lower dielectric strength resulting
in early spark and weaker discharge channel.
Fig.2-c shows response trends of duty factor influence on the behaviour of MRR. Results shows similar trend
for all the three dielectrics. However the WVO results in higher MRR than the other two for all levels. This may
be attributed to the fact that higher breakdown voltage and viscosity of WVO cause a strenuous ionised state for
longer time resulting in higher MRR than other two while the saturated single bond restrict the formation of
Fig.3-a: Effect of Current on EWR
Fig.3-b: Effect of Pulse on time on EWR
stable ionised channel resulting lower MRR.

It can be summarised that the WVO results in higher MRR than CHO while used vegetable oil results in lower
MRR. Response trends similar to kerosene [27] can be observed with WVO and used vegetable oil for same set
of experiment. It implies that the WVO undergoes similar melting, evaporation and dielectric breakdown
phenomenon as kerosene. Moreover WVO used significantly increases MRR for the control parameter used in
this experiment.
3.2 Influence of control parameter on EWR
In EDM process the spark generated causes high speed electron strike onto the surface of softer electrode
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resulting into erosion of electrode surface. This erosion alter the geometry and dimension of the electrode and
the cavity produced as well. Hence, minimum EWR is desirable to achieve better dimension and size. Also due
to this erosion electrode need frequent dressing increasing the loss of electrode material and hence the electrode
cost.
Fig.3-c: Effect of Duty Factor on EWR.

Fig. 3(a-c) shows a comparison of response behaviour of influence of control parameters condition. Fig. 3-a
shows that EWR increases for all the three dielectric fluid used here with an increase in pulse current. Similar
trend was reported by Gopalakannan and Senthivelan[28] using kerosene. This may be due to the fact that with
increase in pulse current spark energy increases resulting in increment in number for electron impinging on the
surface of electrode. Higher Oxygen content and better conductive discharge channel results in highest EWR
for WVO while lowest for BUVO.
Fig. 3-b shows impact of Pulse on time on EWR. Results indicate that EWR increases for all the three dielectric
used. However electrode surface worn out highest in case of WVO while lowest for BUVO for same pulse on
time value. With increase in pulse on time more time is available for the electron to strike on the electrode
surface. High viscosity of WVO results in high discharge energy density while for used vegetable oil the
discharge channel density is less minimising the frequency of electron striking the electrode surface and hence
increasing the EWR.
Fig. 3-c shows influence of duty factor on EWR. Results obtained shows similar response trend for all the three
dielectric. Moreover, for same value of duty factor WVO results in higher value of EWR while BUVO results in
lowest EWR. Higher duty factor cause heating of electrode due to lesser time available for heat transfer which
soften electrode material results in higher value of EWR. Higher viscosity also confines the plasma channel[12,
16]results in more electron movement toward electrode which increases EWR.
From the above results in can be summarised that WVO results in higher EWR than the other two while the used
vegetable oil shows lowest EWR for the selected control parameters. Moreover similar trend has been observed
for all three dielectric and also similar to the results of other researchers for the same control parameter. The
similarity in response trend for WVO and used vegetable oil as compared with CHO indicates operational
feasibility of WVO and Used vegetable oil for EDM process.
3.3 Influence of Control Parameters on SR
SR could be termed as the average roughness of the surface machined by EDM process. For the good accuracy,
low wear and high service life low SR is desired. Response trends under the influence of control parameter on
SR has been shown in Fig. 4(a-c).
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Fig 4-a. Effect of current on SR
Fig 4-c. Effect of Pulse on time on SR
Fig 4-c. Effect of Duty Factor on SR
(a) Machined with CHO
(b) Machined with WVO
c) Machined with BUVO
Fig 5.1: SEM images of Inconel 718 machined by EDM process using a copper electrode with pulse
current 3A, Pulse on time 70sec, and Duty factor 0.60
(a) Machined with CHO
(b) Machined with WVO
c) Machined with BUVO
Fig 5.2: SEM images of Inconel 718 machined by EDM process using a copper electrode with pulse
current 12A, Pulse on time 70sec, and Duty factor 0.75.
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Fig. 4-a shows the response trend between pulse current and SR for all the three dielectric. At higher value of
current the spark impinge on the work surface with more intensity to remove the material. The higher impact
force results in formation of wider crater and generates coarse surface. Higher SR has been reported with WVO
may be due to high energy density of plasma channel. Also higher breakdown voltage of WVO results into
higher spark energy which causes deeper penetration in work surface to remove the Material[27]. The higher
impact force results in formation of wider and deeper craters generating coarse surface[29].
Fig 4-b shows the response trend with change in pulse on time. Higher pulse on time results in more sparks that
extends the melting and evaporation of material resulting in wider crater. However higher temperature due to
prolong sparking softens the material and resulted in formation of coarse surface.
Fig.4-c shows the effect of duty factor on SR. Higher duty factor result in lower time for heat dissipation and
reionisation of discharge gap. Reduced spark time also results in shallower and smaller crater. However higher
viscosity results in formation of concentrated plasma channel increasing the surface roughness. While with
BUVO weaker plasma channel and smoother surface.
It could be summarised from the above results that higher viscosity and higher breakdown voltage results in
highest SR in case of WVO while lowest with CHO.
3.4 Surface Micrographs
To analyse the machined surface SEM images have been recorded and analysed. Fig 5.1 shows the SEM images
of surface machined at lowest value of current while fig5.2shows images at highest value of current used in this
experimental work of all the three dielectrics fluid used.
Fig 5.1(a-c) shows machined surface at 3A pulse current. Fig.5.1-a shows SEM image of surface machined
using CHO as dielectric. Very few micro-cracks has been observed which may be due to a rapid machining and
cooling cycle. Smoother surface has been observed. Recast layer has been observed which may be due to
melting and solidification of material on the workpiece surface. Using WVO as dielectric deeper and wider
crater has been observed shown in fig 5.1-b which may be due to higher viscosity of WVO which resist the
expansion of plasma channel. Larger micro cracks has been observed due to higher strength of spark associated
with higher breakdown voltage. Surface machined with BUVO as dielectric shown in fig 5.1-c shows recast
layer and smaller micro crack. Shallower craters was observed may be due lower spark energy to impinge into
the surface deeply.
Fig 5.2 (a-c) shows surface machined at 12A pulse current. Fig 5.2-a shows surface machined using CHO as
dielectric. Recast layer on the surface shows material solidified on the machined surface. A coarse surface with
deeper craters was observed due to higher spark energy associated with higherpulse current. Surface machined
with WVO shown in fig 5.2-b shows a smoother surface with very few micro cracks. Sludge globules was also
observed which may be due to absence of flushing pressure. BUVO results in generation of a smoother surface
as shown in fig 5.2-c.Lesser micro cracks was observed may be due to low spark energy. Surface with smaller
crater than the other two dielectrics used has been observed.
4. Conclusion
Feasibility of WVO and used vegetable oil has been studied in this experimental work. Following conclusions
can be made on the basis of experimental results obtained
I.
WVO results in 32% higher MRR as compared to CHO means low production cost as higher volume of
material will be removed per unit of time while BUVO results in 10% lower causing a higher cost of
production.
II.
EWR obtained while machining with WVO is 40% higher compared to CHO while BUVO results in
8% lower EWR. Higher EWR results in high cost of tooling and poor geometrical and dimensional
accuracy. Also the electrode wears at faster rate increasing tool changing cost as well.
III.
Average surface roughness obtained with WVO is 21% higher than that with CHO results in coarse
surface while BUVO results in 16% higher average surface roughness results in a coarse surface after
machining.
IV.
The response trend observed with alternative dielectric is quite similar with that of CHO. This indicate
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V.
that the material removal principle and erosion mechanism are similar to that of CHO. This indicates
the feasibility of WVO and BUVO for EDM. WVO is found to be best out of three dielectrics used.
A coarse surface was observed by surface morphology after machining with WVO while a surface
smoother than WVO was observed with BUVO. Also recast layer phenomenon was seen with all the
three dielectric used.
5. References
[1]
H. Moser, Growth industries rely on EDM, vol. 127, Manuf Eng, 2001, pp. 62-68.
[2]
Krar, F. Stephen and R. Arthur, "Exploring Advanced Manufacturing Technologies," Industrial Press,
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[3]
J. Tao, A. Shih and J. Ni, "Near-Dry EDM milling of mirror-like surface finish," Int J Electr Mach, no.
13, pp. 161-166, 2008.
[4]
H. Chow, B. Yan and F. Huang, "Micro slit machining using electro-discharge machining with a
modified rotary disk electrode(RDE)," J Material Process Technol, no. 91, pp. 161-166, 1991.
[5]
J. McGeough and H. Rasmussen, "A theoretical model of electro- discharge texturing," J Mater
Process Technol, no. 68, pp. 172-178, 1997.
[6]
N. Parkanskll, K. Ya, M. Goldiner and A. Gitlevich, "Study of electrical discharge coating
degradation," J Mater Sci, no. 18,pp.1151-1154, 1983.
[7]
T. Tani, F. Fukuzawa, N. Mohri and M. Okada, "Machining phenomena in EDM of insulating ceramics
using powder suspended working oil," in proceeding of the 12th ISEM, Bilbao.
[8]
H. Kansal, S. Singh and P. Kumar, "An experimental study of the machining parameters in powder
mixed electric discharge machining of Al10%SiCP metal matrix composites," Int J Machining and
machinability of material, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 396-411, 2006.
[9]
F. N. Leao and I. R. Pashby, "A review on the use of environmentally-friendly dielectric fluids in
electrical discharge machining," Journal of Materials Processing Technology, no. 149, pp. 341-346,
2004.
[10]
B. Bommeli, "Study of the harmful emanations resulting from the machining by electro-erosion," in
Proceedins of the seventh International symposium on electromachining, 1983.
[11]
S. Jilani and P. Pandey, "Experimental investigation into the performance of water as dielcetric in
EDM," Int J Mach. Tool Design, no. 24, pp. 31-43, 1984.
[12]
W. Konig and L. Jorres, "Aqueous solutions of organic compounds as dielectric for EDM sinking,"
Ann. CIRP, no. 36,pp.105-109, 1987.
[13]
V. Ramani and M. Cassidenti, "Inert-Gas Electrical Discharge Machining NASA," National
Technology Transfer Center (NTTC), Wheeling, WV, 1985.
[14]
M. Kunieda and S. Furuoya, "Improvement of EDM efficiency by supplying oxygen into gap," CIRP,
vol. 40, pp. 215-218, 1991.
[15]
C. Goh and S. Ho, "Contact dermatitis from dielectric fluids in electro-discharge machining," Contact
Dermatitis 28, 1993.
[16]
Y. Zhang, Y. Liu, R. Ji, B. Cai and Y. Shen, "Sinking EDM in water-in-oil emulsion," Int J adv manuf
technol, vol. 24, pp. 705-716, 2013.
[17]
S. Yeo, H. Tan and A. New, "Assessment of waste streams in electric-discharge machining for
environmental impactanalysis,," J Eng. Manufacturing, no. 212, pp. 393-401, 1998.
[18]
M. Kunieda and M. Yoshida, "Electrical Discharge machining in gas," CIRP, vol. 46, pp. 143-146,
1997.
[19]
Z. Shah, Q. Tahir and C. Town, "Dielectric properties of vegetable oil," J Scientific Research, vol. 3,
no. 3, pp. 481-492, 2011.
[20]
E. Giakoumis, "A statistical investigation of biodiesel physical and chemical properties and their
correlation with the degree of unsaturation," Renew Energy, no. 50, pp. 858-878, 2013.
[21]
C. Mcshane, "Vegetable oil based dielectric coolant," IEEE Ind Appl Mag, no. 8, pp. 34-41, 2002.
[22]
S. Bashi, U. Abdullahi and Y. Robia, "Use of natural vegetable Use of natural vegetable," Inst Eng
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U. Abdullahi, S. Bashi, I. Member, R. Yunus and H. Nurdin, "The Potentials Of Palm Oil As A
Dielectric Fluid.," in National Power & Energy conference (Pecon) Proceedings, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia, 2004.
J. B. Valaki, P. P. Rathod and C. Sankhavara, "Investigations on technical feasibility of Jatropha curcas
oil based bio dielectric fluid for sustainable electric discharge machining (EDM)," Journal of
Manufacturing Processes, no. 22, pp. 151-160, 2016.
M. Khan, A. Chhetri and M. Islam, "Analyzing sustainability of community based energy
technologies.," Energy sources, no. 3, pp. 403-419, 2007.
X. Wang, L. Zhidong, X. Rongyuan, T. Zongjun and H. Yinhui, "Research on the influence of dielectric
characteristics on the EDM of titanium alloy.," Int J Adv Manuf Technol, no. 72, pp.979-987, 2014.
M. Shabgard, M. Seyedzavvar and S. Oliaei, "Influence of input parameters on characteristics of EDM
process.," J Mech Eng, vol. 9, no. 57, pp. 689-696, 2011.
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316 L and 174 PH stainless steels.," J miner Mater Charact Eng, no. 11, pp. 685-690, 2012.
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pp. 1195-1201, 2005.
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Review on Morphology and Microstructure

Analysis of MGO Reinforced Al
Composites For Rame 2016
Surabhi Lata, Nitish Kumar Verma, Chetan Singh ,
Roop Lal and Ramakant Rana
Abstract - The never-ending demands of advanced materials in the various fields of engineering and
manufacturing has significantly increased the development of composite materials. Nowadays a shift is
observed from the monolithic materials towards the composite materials. Numbers of ceramic materials are
being used to reinforce various grades of aluminium alloy matrices. Metal matrix composites are exhibiting
high potential characteristics as aerospace, automobile, defence, and research industries' materials. The
properties of aluminium based composites can be easily tailored to achieve the desired strength, hardness, etc.
This paper reviews the morphological and microstructural properties of aluminium reinforced with a refractory
material i.e. MgO at Nano and micro levels. The input parameters governing the morphology and
microstructure were weight and volume fraction of reinforcement and the sintering temperature along with the
fabrication technique. The study of morphology included the porous nature of composite and the density
measurements with hardness (Brinell Hardness Tester). A detailed review revealed the MgO as reinforcement
in a various grades of aluminium is a promising material with a little consideration of its agglomeration and
rigid nature during the fabrication process. It can be easily overruled by controlling the sintering temperature at
the time of fabrication. Therefore, it can effectively and efficiently be used as a reinforcement with all heat
treatable and non- heat treatable aluminium alloys.
Keywords: Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite, Magnesium Oxide, Morphology, Density, Hardness,
Microstructure, Sintering, Powder Metallurgy
ntroduction Growing technologies demand smart materials and composites on nanoscale possessing all
the desired properties. The various components of the composite retains their structure and characteristic,
but the composite display better properties such as low density, elastic modulus, stiffness, high specific
strength, strength-to-weight ratio, and enhanced wear and creep resistances [1]. The shift from monolithic
Surabhi Lata
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Maharaja Agrasen
Institute of Technology, Delhi, India, e-mail: surabhilata.delhi@gmail.com
Nitish Kumar Verma
Student, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology
Delhi, India, e-mail: nitish28.verma@gmail.com
Chetan Singh
Student, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Maharaja Agrasen
Institute of Technology Delhi, India, e-mail: chetan.singh.95@gmail.com
Roop Lal
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi, India, e-mail: rooplalrana@dce.ac.in
Ramakant Rana
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi, India, e-mail: 7ramakant@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Lata et al.
alloys to particle and fibre reinforced composites revolutionised the aerospace and automotive world. The base
metal used extensively is aluminium (Al) because of its properties and easy availability. Aluminium is ductile,
light and strong material whose mechanical and electrical properties can be tailored. The aluminium based
composites exhibits excellent properties such as excellent thermal conductivity, high shear strength, excellent
abrasion resistance, high temperature operation, non-flammability, etc. allowing it to be used in various kinds
of environment. The various kinds of reinforcements used are SiC, Al2O3, ZrO2, B4C, MgO, industrial wastes
and agricultural wastes [2]. These materials possess properties such as refractoriness, high hardness, and high
compressive strength, wear resistance, etc. enhancing their suitability as reinforcement in matrix of
composites.
This paper reviews the research carried out previously on magnesium oxide reinforced aluminium based
composite. Magnesium oxide (MgO) is a refractory material possessing properties such as the good thermal
shock resistance, high melting point, low thermal conductivity and excellent thermodynamic stability [2]. MgO
has high modulus and high strength refractoriness which when added to low ductile matrix produces composite
with properties lying in between matrix and reinforcement. The controlling factors for the composite properties
are the processing conditions, distribution of reinforcement and relative amount. Manufacturing of aluminium
metal matrix composites can be done by liquid state process (squeeze casting, ultrasonic assisted casting,
compo casting and stir casting) and solid state process (friction stir process, vapour deposition technique,
powder blending followed by consolidation (PM processing) and diffusion bonding).
2. Density Measurement
M.A. Baghchesaraetal. [2] investigated the variables that affect the density of the fabricated composite having
elemental parts as Aluminium powder alloy (A356.1 with D50 = 1 m) and nano-sized MgO (with D50 = 70
nm). The significant variables were the sintering temperature and volume per cent of Nano MgO. The highest
density value were recorded in samples containing 1.5 and 2.5 volume per cent of nanoMgO at three
temperatures (575C, 600C and 625C). Increasing volume fraction of MgO particles in aluminium, increases
the density of samples adhering to the fact that MgO has higher density. But the increased volume fraction
affects the sintering and wettability of MgO in molten Al alloy resulting in particles agglomeration and
eventually in reduction of density. The melting point and sintering point temperatures are inter-related and due
to this sample compaction is prevented. Hence, increasing the sintering temperature increases particles
wettability which helps to reduce the porosities rate thereby increasing the density of samples.
Table 1: Reinforcement with SiC, Al2O3, MgO with particle size 0.220 m for porosity
and density after extrusion[4]
H. Abdizadeh et al. [3] conducted comparative study of density of composite fabricated by stir casting and
powder metallurgy process possessing various content of MgO particles by volume. The results exhibited the
casted composites were denser than the sintered samples. This occurs due to the high porosity which is
encountered in the sintering process. It was clearly discovered that the porosity during the fabrication process
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significantly affect the density of the sample. As the volume of MgO is increased from 1.5 to 2.5 volume %, the
density increases but above 5% the porous nature resurfaces and the density value goes down. Whereas in
sintered samples the increased MgO content decrease the density because of the formation of rigid MgO
network in composite.
NripJit et al. [4] analysed the porosity and density for SiC, Al2O3 and MgO as reinforcements maintaining the
particle size constant at 0.220 in A384.1. A characteristic change was observed in these factors of the Al alloy
and MMCs from as-cast to extrusion as a function of reinforcement from x=0 to x=0.10. The porous nature was
found to increase with increasing content of reinforcement. The table below shows the high values of porosity
are obtained in case of MgO as reinforcement while high values of density are obtained in case of alumina as
reinforcement. MgO being a refractory material forms a rigid network in composites resulting in decreased
wettability in molten matrix. The decreased value leads to porous nature of composite sample which directly
reduces the density.
3. Microstructural Analysis
M.A. Baghchesaraetal. [2] conducted the research on the microstructures of fabricated composites with
variable MgO content. The figures below shows the microstructures with the content of 2.5 and 5.0 vol % MgO,
sintered at 625 C. With 5.0 vol% MgO, agglomeration of particles has been initiated which becomes
prominent as the sintering temperature is slightly decreased from 625 C to 575 C. It is clearly visible from the
figures that MgO nanoparticles are well embedded in the aluminium matrix at low MgO content. Similar
experiments were conducted to study the effect of reinforcement content through the microstructure analysis at
various sintering temperatures. MgO agglomeration displayed the porous behaviour in the composite which is
visible in the figures 1.
Figure 1 (a): SEM image of composite containing

2.5 vol % MgO sintered at 625 C[2]
Figure 1 (b): SEM image of composite containing 5 vol % MgO sintered at 625 C[2]
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E. Manikandan et al. [5] studied the microstructural images of MgO reinforced aluminium composite with
weight fraction of 2.0 wt.% and 2.5 wt.%. The homogeneity of the composite was excellent at low weight
fraction of reinforcement but it was disturbed as the weight fraction was increased. This disturbance occurs due
to the rigid behaviour of MgO and low thermal conductivity developing a porous structure.
Figure 1 (c): SEM image of composite containing 5 vol % MgO sintered at 625 C[2]
P. Balaji et al. [6] conducted a comparative research on the microstructure of Al 6061 alloy with Al 6061
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) composite using SEM. The figures below display the microstructure of aluminium
alloy and aluminium composite at 2.0 wt.% of MgO as reinforcement. It was observed that the porosity starts
dominantly as the reinforcement content is increased beyond 2.5 wt. %. This can be controlled by increasing the
sintering temperature which is directly controlling the wettability property of the reinforcement.
Figure 2 (a): SEM image of aluminium alloy[6]
Figure 2 (b): SEM image of Al-MgO

composite of 2.0 Wt. %[6]
Figure 2 (c): Presence of pores in the Al-MgO composite of 2.5 wt. %[6]
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A.R.I. Kheder et al. [7] discussed about the strengthening effect of various reinforcement through the
microstructure analysis. Optical microscope was used to analyse the particulate volume fractions, their
distribution in the casting and the grain size of the Al matrix at a magnification of X50 [8]. The results displayed
that the particulate volume fractions were uniformly present across the casting, horizontally and vertically.
Though a slight difference exist between the volume fractions values in horizontal and vertical direction. The
variation in horizontal direction is less than that in vertical direction. These results confirmed that the composite
preparation was successfully done with relatively uniform distribution of the particulates within the matrix. It
was also observed that the addition of the particulates decreased the grain size which was 897 m for pure Al in
as-cast condition. The largest decrease was viewed at initial additions of the particulates, namely at 5 wt% in all
cases, then the decrease diminished and at 20 wt% particulate additions it became almost constant. The
composite grain sizes are finer than the base matrix as these particulates act as nuclei for the grain formation
during solidification and also inhibit the processes of the grain growth [9].
Harsh Bhadiar et al. [10] worked on the morphology of the fabricated aluminium based composite by varying
reinforcement weight percentages. The MgO was studied as reinforcement using the Secondary electron
imaging mode of Scanning electron microscopy. SEM image of initial silicon carbide particles are mostly
angular at 5% weightage of reinforcement which was destroyed to attain flake shaped particles at 15% of
weightage reinforcement of MgO and SiC. This destruction of shape was followed to lead to sub-angular
particles generating a rough surface morphology. The X-Ray Diffraction and SEM study shows that the
addition of MgO particles in different amount of sizes and varying percentage of particle sizes in the casting
strengthens composites particularly, at 10% of MgO as shown in the figure(s) 3.
4. Hardness
Praveen G et al. [11] investigated the hardness of A356.1 Aluminium Alloy Matrix composite reinforced with
MgO particles. The Brinell Hardness Tester with a load of 187.5 Kgf and with a Ball Indenter Diameter of
2.5mm was used to test the composite at various Wt. % reinforcements (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0) for varying
temperature and T6 condition of heat treatment. The Hardness Number (BHN) for As cast A356.1 Aluminium
alloy at room temperature (280 C) is 73.61, which gradually increases to 89.97 at 540 C for As cast material,
after heat treatment. Similarly the Hardness Number for 2 Wt.% reinforced A356.1 Aluminium alloy at room
temperature (280 C) is 79.53 while after heat treatment it increases to 98.41 at 540 C.
Girisha K.B et al. [12] researched the mechanical properties of Al356.1 aluminium alloy matrix composites
reinforced with MgO nanoparticles. The base matrix was reinforced with MgO reinforcement with content %
as 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0. The hardness increases as the reinforcement content increases but shows a dip due to its
rigid nature and agglomeration in the composite. This agglomeration enhances the porosity which decrease the
strength and hardness of the composite. This is clearly depicted in the graph shown below.
A.R.I. Kheder et al. [7] discussed about the strengthening effect of various reinforcement along with the
hardness and impact tests. The graph below displays the result as enhancement in the value of hardness on
increasing wt% of the particulates used in this work. These increases can be related to the interaction of the
dislocations with the particulates and grain refinement with increasing wt% of the particulates.
Figure 3 (a):At 5 % (wt.) of MgO-AMMCs[10]
Figure 3 (b):At 10 % (wt.) of MgO-AMMCs [10]
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Figure 4 (a): BHN Vs Wt. % Reinforcements

at varying temperatures by Praveen G et al. [11]
Figure 5 (a):Hardness Vs Reinforcement by

Girisha K.B et al. [12]
Lata et al.
Figure 4 (b): BHN Vs Temperature for Different

Wt. % Reinforcements by Praveen G et al. [11]
Figure 5 (b): Bar Chart of Hardness Vs % of

Reinforcement by Girisha K.B et al. [12]
Figure 6: Brinell hardness vs. particulate weight percentage by A.R.I. Kheder et al. [7]
668

5. Conclusion
A review of the research work on Aluminium Matrix Composites has been presented in this paper. The various
grades of aluminium have been studied with various reinforcements and they have been tested for their
morphology and mechanical properties for a long time. This paper presents the effect of content of magnesium
oxide in various grades of aluminium. Three characteristics have been thoroughly focussed on i.e. density,
microstructure and hardness.
It can be concluded from the review that on increasing the MgO content beyond a certain value significantly
affect the density and hardness of the composite. The density and hardness shows a dip on increase in content of
reinforcement due to the refractoriness behaviour of MgO particles which form a rigid network during the
process of fabrication. This creates pores and voids which decrease the strength and density eventually
affecting the hardness of the composite. In order to prevent the porous structure of the composite, the sintering
temperature is increased which enhance the wettability of the MgO particles in the molten aluminium. Hence,
the interpretation of the review explains MgO as a good reinforcement material because of the high hardness,
stiffness and strength it imparts to the composite considering a little care of its rigid network formation and the
agglomeration process.
MgO nanoparticles when added to base matrix alter the mechanical properties such as hardness, density,
surface finish etc. The properties strictly vary on the basis of amount being added in the matrix. It has been
observed that composites containing 2.5 and 5 vol. % MgO fabricated at 625C showed maximum compressive
strength and hardness respectively when compared to other volume %. Among these two variants, 2.5 vol %
reflects high reliability as it has maximum density. As the content of MgO is increased composites exhibit a
decrease in the mechanical properties [13]. MgO nanoparticles also possess an impressive quality of adsorbing
and retaining for a long time (in the order of months) the significant amounts of halogens such as chlorine and
bromine due to the extensive porous structure with considerable pore volume. They have the potential
properties which enable them to act as a potent disinfectant. These particles have a stronger and faster effect on
the killing action of both bacteria and spores [14]. Moreover the antibacterial activity of the MgO nanoparticles
is size and concentration dependent [15].
References
[1].
Krishna Murari Pandey , AbhijitDey, Characterization Of Fly Ash And Its Reinforcement Effect
On Metal Matrix Composites: A Review, Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 44 (2016) 168-181
[2].
M.A. Baghchesara, H. Abdizadeh and H.R. Baharvandi, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties
of Aluminum Alloy Matrix Composite Reinforced with Nano MgO Particles, Asian Journal of
Chemistry Vol. 22, No. 9 (2010), 6769-6777
[3].
HosseinAbdizadeh, Reza Ebrahimifard and Mohammad Amin Baghchesara, Investigation of
Microstructure and Mechaincal Properties of Nano MgO reinforced Al Composites manufactured by
Stir Casting and Powder Metallurgy Methods: A Comparative Study, Composites: Part B 56 (2014)
217221.
[4].
NripJit, Anand K. Tyagi and Nirmal Singh, Analysis Of Properties For Sic,Al2o3 And Mgo As
Reinforcement Keeping Particle Size At 0.220 In (A384.1)1-X [(Reinforcement)p]x, International
Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology, ISSN 0976-3945, Vol. II, Issue III, 2011.
[5].
E. Manikandan, P. Balaji, I. Madhan Ram, G.G. Sozhamannan, K.Velmurugan and V.S.K.
Venkatachalapathy, Tribological Behavior of Aluminium (Al) - Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
Composite, Journal of Material Science and Mechanical Engineering (JMSME) Print ISSN: 23939095; Online ISSN: 2393-9109; Volume 2, Number 1; January-March, 2015 pp. 61-65
[6].
P. Balaji, R. Arun, D. Jegath Priyan, I. Madhan Ram, E. Manikandan, Comparative Study of Al 6061
Alloy with Al 6061 Magnesium Oxide (MgO) Composite, International Journal of Scientific &
Engineering Research, Volume 6, Issue 4, April-2015, ISSN 2229-5518.
[7].
A.R.I. Kheder, G.S. Marahleh,, D.M.K. Al-Jamea, Strengthening of Aluminum by SiC, Al2O3 and
MgO, Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Volume 5, Number 6, Dec. 2011
ISSN 1995-6665 Pages 533 541.
[8].
Huang, Y.D., Froyen, L., Wevers, M., "Quality Control & Nondestructive Tests in Metal Matrix
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[9].
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[11].
[12].
[13].
[14].
[15].
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Composites, MMCAssess Consortium", Thematic Network, Institute of Materials Science & TestingVienna Uni. of Technology MMC-Assess, 2000, vol. 5.
Daoud, A., El-Bitar, T. and Abd El-Azim, A.N., "Tensile properties & fracture behavior of rolled
Al5Mg-Al2O3 or Graphite Particulate Composites", International Conference on Production
Engineering, Design & Control, P. 1405 (1999).
Harsh Bhadiar, Hartaj Singh, Amit Sharma, Pardeep Singh, Kapil Singh, A fabrication and Micro
structural study of A384.1 Metal Matrix Composites, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil
Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) e-ISSN: 2278-1684, p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 12, Issue 2 Ver. II (Mar
- Apr. 2015), PP 34-38, DOI: 10.9790/1684-12223438
Praveen G, Girisha K B, Yogeesha H C, Synthesis, Characterization and Mechanical Properties of
A356.1 Aluminium Alloy Matrix Composite Reinforced With Mgo Nano Particles, International
Journal of Engineering Science Invention ISSN (Online): 2319 6734, ISSN (Print): 2319 6726,
Volume 3, Issue 6, June 2014, PP.53-59
Girisha K B, H C Chittappa, Preparation, Characterization and Mechanical Properties of Al356.1
Aluminium Alloy Matrix Composites Reinforced With MgO Nanoparticles, International Journal of
Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, ISSN: 2319-8753, Vol. 2, Issue 10,
October 2013.
Mohammad Amin Baghchesara, Hossein Abdizadeh, Hamid Reza Baharvandi, Effects of MgO Nano
Particles on Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Matrix Composite prepared via
Powder Metallurgy Route, 2nd International Conference on Ultrafine Grained & Nanostructured
Materials (UFGNSM), International Journal of Modern Physics: Conference Series Vol. 5, 607614,
DOI: 10.1142/S201019451200253X, 2012.
RavishankarRai V, Jamuna Bai A, Nanoparticles and their potential application as antimicrobials,
Science against microbial pathogens: communicating current research and technological advances.
Zhen-Xing Tang, Bin-Feng, MgO Nanoparticles as Antibacterial Agent: Preparation and Activity,
Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering, ISSN 0104-6632, Vol. 31, No. 03, pp. 591 - 601,
dx.doi.org/10.1590/0104-632.20140313s00002813, July - September, 2014.
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
Harmonic Analysis of First Stage Gas Turbine

Blade Made of 1N738 alloy
Abstract The paper deals with the harmonic analysis of first stage IN738 gas turbine blade by means of
experimental modal analysis and finite element method. The frequency response function FRFs of the turbine
blade are obtained by an impulse response technique using an impact hammer on the turbine blade and
measuring vibration response by an accelerometer. Both the excitation and response signals are fed into the
vibration analyzer for computing FRFs. The modal parameters, i.e. frequency, damping and mode shapes are
estimated by applying Global Rational Fraction Polynomial method, a global curve fitting of frequency
response measurements using the Rational Fraction Polynomial method on a set of FRFs. A finite element
model of the first stage IN738 gas turbine blade is created using three dimensional scanning technique and the
modal parameters extracted from the finite element analysis are to be compared with the experimental modal
analysis results. Numerical (Finite element model) results show excellent agreement with the experimental
modal analysis results.
Key words: Experimental modal analysis, IN738 First Stage Gas Turbine Blade, Mode, Harmonic analysis,
Resonant frequency
ntroduction For understanding and solving structural dynamics problems, the experimental modal
analysis and finite element modeling are commonly used to extract modal parameters. The experimental
modal analysis can be used to obtain the modal model from the measured FRF data.The relationship
established between the vibration response at one location and excitation at the same or another location as a
function of excitation frequency is known as frequency response function (FRF). Frequency response functions
are usually obtained by applying the system input artificially through some type of exciter, i.e. either impact
hammer or magnetic shaker; different types of excitation can be imparted including stepped sinusoid, transient,
random or white noise [1]. The input is usually measured by a force transducer at the driving point while the
response is measured by the accelerometers or other probes. Both the excitation and response signals are fed
into an analyzer for computing the FRF data [2]. Numerical (finite element analysis) and experimental modal
analysis have become two pillars in modern structural dynamics.
There are numerous methods in categories of indirect methods and direct methods available to extract the
modal parameters from a set of measured FRF's. The indirect methods are based on the modal model, i.e. on the
modal parameters (frequency, damping and mode shape) while the direct methods are based on the spatial
model (mass, stiffness and damping matrix coefficients). For the analysis of turbine blade, indirect method
Global Rational Fraction Polynomial method (GRFP) has been applied for estimating modal parameters, i.e.

Department of Mechanical, Production, Industrial and Automobile Engineering, Delhi
Technological University, Delhi-110042, India
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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frequency, damping and mode shapes [3-6].

Tsai et al. [7] performed shaker test for experimental modal analysis on a blade disk. His experimental set up
consisted of accelerometer mounted on the bladedisk. He used MEscope software to perform the analysis of
measured data to get the mode shapes and natural frequencies. He found that the results obtained from the
experimental data agree very well with the results from the finite element analysis. Griffin et al. [8] introduced
Fundamental Mistuning Model (FMM) for the prediction of vibratory response of a bladed disk system. Their
experimental modal analysis setup consisted of excitation source, laser vibrometer and spectrum analyzer;
FMM Software was used for the analysis of measured data in order to compute system properties. Choi et al. [9]
worked on the investigation of blade failure in a gas turbine. They performed an impact test of the blade using
the fixed boundary condition established using a bench-vice; the natural frequencies and mode shapes for the
fixed boundary condition were found experimentally and numerically. The frequencies were calculated using
SAMCEF software. On comparison, they observed that natural frequencies showed good agreement except for
the second mode; this was because the second mode was generated from the lateral motion of the fixed blade,
and the vice could not fully constrain the lateral motion. Rao et al. [10] worked on the failure analysis of
compressor blade. In view of the blade failure in stage R3 of the compressor, they carried out Modal testing on a
few blades in each of the lower stages using impact hammer and accelerometer. Each blade was impacted at 15
locations and response was picked up by three accelerometers; the real and imaginary functions of Frequency
Response Functions (FRFs) showed peaks corresponding to the modal frequencies of the blade.
In this paper a first stage gas turbine blade of 30 MW gas turbine made of nickel based super alloy Inconel
738LC, having operating temperature 11000C and has been failed after rendering useful service of 1, 30,000 hrs
is harmonically analyzed by means of experimental modal analysis and finite element (FE) method. The
experimental analysis is performed using a combination of impulse hammer, accelerometer and Vibration
analyzer, which generated a set of frequency response functions. The modal parameters, i.e. natural
frequencies, modal damping and mode shapes are extracted by applying Global Rational Fraction Polynomial
method (GRFP), on a set of FRFs. A finite element model of first stage IN738 gas turbine blade is developed and
harmonic analysis performed using Finite Element Software, ANSYS. The resonant frequencies extracted from
the finite element model are compared with the experimental modal analysis results. The numerical (Finite
element model) results show excellent agreement with the experimental modal analysis results.
The paper is organized in seven sections. The section two deals with the theoretical background for the
estimation of modal parameters by applying GRFP method on a set of FRFs. The section three provides the
details of experimental set-up used for Experimental modal analysis on the First stage IN738 Gas turbine blade.
The section four provides results of the estimation of modal parameters from the measured FRF's. The section
five provides results of the Finite element Modal Analysis of the First stage IN738 Gas turbine blade. In section
six the comparison of both experimental and numerical results is provided. The section seven contains the
conclusions.
II Theoretical Background:
Mathematically, the modes of vibration are defined by certain parameters of a linear dynamic model of a
structure. The dynamic properties of a structure can be written as a set of differential equations in the time
domain, Eq. (1) or as a set of equations containing transfer functions in the Laplace (frequency) domain, Eq. (2)
& } + [K ]{ x(t)} = { f(t)}

[M ]{&&x(t)} + [C ]{ x(t)
(1)
where [M],[C] and [K] are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices respectively along with the
corresponding acceleration{x&&}and the external force {f}(t) applied to the system.
By taking Lapalace transform of Eq.(1) , one may write the equation as
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Harmonic Analysis of First Stage Gas Turbine....

or
(2)
The frequency response function is defined as the system transfer function along the frequency axis, and is
defined as the inverse of the system matrix
(3)
In partial fraction form, frequency response function is written as
(4)
Thus, transfer function is
(5)
where,
aijk residue for kth pole k = damping co-efficient, d damped natural frequency and undamped natural frequency
For a model with n degrees-of-freedom, it is clear that the FRF contains n pole pairs. Every pole has a different
residue associated with it. For six modes, Eq.(5) can be decomposed as
Modal properties are evidenced by the resonance peaks which appear in the FRFs measurements. The modal
(6)
frequency is closely related to the frequency of a resonance peak, and is often approximated by using the peak
frequency itself. The modal damping is evidenced by the width of the resonance peak, and can be approximated
as one-half of the difference between the two frequencies on either side of the peak where the FRF value is equal
to .707 of the peak value. These two frequencies are known as the half- power points. The mode shapes are
evidenced by the heights of the resonance peaks, and are commonly obtained by joining the resonance peak
values from a set of FRFs measurements [3-6]
Vibrating Beam
Mode 1
Measurement
Points
Mode 2
Mode 3
Imaginary part
of FRF's
Fig. 1: Global Rational Fraction Polynomial method, (GRFP)
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III Experimental Setup

In order to measure the frequency response functions of the turbine blade, one end of the turbine blade is
fully constrained in order to prevent all displacements; the boundary conditions are similar to that of cantilever.
This boundary condition was established using a fixture.
3.1 Measurement set up:
The frequency response function measurement setup is shown in Fig. 2. In addition to the turbine blade, it
consists of four main parts: a turbine blade fixture, a PCB-78534 accelerometer, a PCB-086C03 impact
hammer and a vibration analyzer OROS. At the start of the experiment, the input range, the frequency range and
resolution, triggering, windowing, averaging and hammer tip are selected.
Fig.2: The FRF measurement setup

IV Estimation of modal parameters
Modal parameters, i.e. natural frequency, damping, and mode shape of the first stage IN738 gas turbine blade
are estimated by applying Global Rational Fraction Polynomial method on a set of measured FRFs.
4.1 Modal Frequency:
FRF measured at location 1 while performing experimental modal analysis on the first stage IN738 gas turbine
blade is shown in Fig. 3.In this figure, six dominant resonance peaks around approximately 484, 1475, 1810,
2550, 2950 and 3450Hz are identified. Six of these modes are dominant modes as they appear clearly in
measured FRFs. Therefore, the first six natural frequencies of turbine blade are 484, 1475, 1810, 2550, 2950
and 3450Hz. The figure also shows a resonance peak around 2160 Hz. This mode is also dominant and clearly
appears as an eigenmode. Around 50, 300 and 4100 Hz, possible resonance peaks are present but these are not
distinct enough to identity them as resonance peaks. These three modes are almost indistinguishable in the
figure but they are nevertheless taken into consideration. The most likely reasons behind the weak appearance
of these modes are: the modes are physically less relevant, the modes were insufficiently excited and/or the
modes were incompletely measured.
Fig. 3: FRF measured at location
674

4.2 Modal Damping:
Modal damping is evidenced by the width of the resonance peak, and calculated using half power method
Fig. 4.
Fig 4 : Modal damping estimation from the measured FRF, (GFRP) Method
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4.3 Mode Shape:

In order to obtain the mode shapes of turbine blade, consider the imaginary part of the amplitude
(acceleration/force) versus frequency diagram, FRFs Fig. 5. Mode shapes of the first stage IN738 gas turbine
blade are obtained by joining the peak values of each of the resonance peaks which occur at the same frequency
in all of the FRFs measurements. For example mode 1 of the turbine blade is obtained by joining peak values at
natural frequency 484 Hz at all the measured locations starting from the measured location 6 to the measured
location 1. Similarly mode shapes 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are obtained by joining peak values at natural frequencies
1475, 1810, 2550, 2950 and 3450Hz respectively. All six mode shapes are shown in Fig. 6.
Measured
Measured
Measured
Location3
Measured
Mesaured
Measured
Location 1
Location 2
Location 4
Location 5
Location 6
Fig. 5: Real and Imaginary part of amplitude (acceleration/force) versus frequency FRFs
Mode 1 at frequency 484.375Hz

at frequency 1810Hz
676
Mode 2 at frequency 1475Hz
Mode 3

Table 1: Material properties of IN738 Turbine Blade
Mode 4 at frequency 2550 Hz
Mode 5 at frequency 2950 Hz
Mode 6 at frequency 3450Hz
Fig. 6: Mode Shapes of IN738 first Stage Gas Turbine Blade

V Finite Element Modal Analysis of IN738 First Stage Gas Turbine Blade
The finite element model of IN738 first stage gas turbine blade is developed by using three dimensional
scanning technique Fig. 7(a).The modeling and post-processing are performed on finite element based software
ANSYS. The finite element model generated has 136468 nodes and 84361 elements Fig. 7(b). Triangular
surface mesh is made followed by volumetric meshing using auto meshing features of ANSYS 15. The
boundary conditions of the finite element model are similar to that of a cantilever. The turbine blade surface,
clamped to the fixture, is constrained by the tie constraints to the fixture surface, and the fixture is, in turn, given
fixed boundary conditions on its outer surfaces. The material properties and dimensions of IN738 turbine blade
are listed in Table1 and Table 2 respectively. The material properties and dimensions of mild steel turbine blade
fixture are listed in Table 3 and Table 4 respectively.
Table 2: Dimensions of IN738 gas turbine blade (size of bounding box)
Table 3: Dimensions of structural steel turbine fixture (size of bounding box)
Table 4: Material properties of structural steel turbine fixture
Fig. 7(a): 3-D Model of IN 738 gas turbine blade Fig. 7(b): Mesh model of IN 738 first stage gas turbine blade
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The frequency response function of IN738 First Stage Gas Turbine Blade is obtained by performing harmonic
analysis on ANSYS as shown in Fig. 8.
Fig.8: Harmonic analysis of first stage gas turbine blade

VI Results and Discussions
The resonant frequencies of IN738 extracted from harmonic analysis using finite element software, ANSYS
and the experimental modal analysis are shown in Table 1.
The modal parameters of IN738 first stage gas turbine blade estimated from a set of FRFs by applying GRFP
method agree well with the modal parameters extracted from finite element model. The percentage difference
calculated between the experimental modal analysis results and the harmonic analysis results is mostly is within
7%. Graphical representation of this comparison is shown in Fig. 9.
Table 7: Comparison of resonant frequencies obtained through GRFP method & harmonic analysis
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Fig.9: Comparison of resonant frequencies obtained through harmonic analysis and GRFP

VII Conclusions
1.
Modal analysis can be a powerful tool for assisting in the identification and elimination of fatigue
problems arising in the turbine blade. The first application of modal analysis is in the determination of
dynamic characteristics of turbine blade and the second application of modal analysis is in the
validation of computer generated models of the turbine blades. These models can be very useful for
investigating the turbine and turbine blade properties under running conditions.
2.
The modal parameters of the first stage IN738 gas turbine blade, i.e. natural frequency, damping, and
mode shape are estimated from a set of FRFs by applying Global Rational Fraction Polynomial
(GRFP) method.
3.
The modal parameters of IN738 first stage gas turbine blade estimated from a set of FRFs agree well
with the modal parameters extracted from the finite element analysis. The percentage difference
between the experimental modal analysis results and the finite modal analysis results is within 7 %.
References
[1.]
Jimin, He. and Zhi-Fang, Fu. , Modal Analysis ISBN 0 7506 5079 6, Butterworth-Heinemann
publications 2001.
[2.]
Maia, N. M. M., Silva, J. M. M., Theoretical and Experimental Modal Analysis, Ed.: Maia & Silva,
Publ. Research Studies Press, Distrib. John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
[3.]
Fillod, R., Lallement, G., Piranda, J., Raynaud, J. L., Global method of modal identification,
proceedings of the 3'd International Modal Analysis Conference (IMAC lIl),vol. II, Orlando,
Florida,U. S. A., pp-1145-1151, 1985.
[4.]
Richardson, M.H. & Formenti, D.L., Parameter Estimation from Frequency Response Measurements
using Rational Fraction Polynomials, Proceedings of the 1st International Modal Analysis
Conference, Orlando, Florida, November 8-10, 1982.
[5.]
Richardson, M. H. & Formenti, D. L. Global Curve Fitting of Frequency Response Measurements
using the Rational Fraction Polynomial Method, Proceedings of the 3rd International Modal Analysis
Conference, Orlando, Florida, pp 390-397, January 28-31, 1985.
[6.]
Formenti, D. and Richardson, M. H. Global Frequency & Damping from Frequency Response
Measurements, Proceedings of the 4th International Modal Analysis Conference, Los Angeles,
California, February 3-6, 1986.
[7.]
Gwo-chung Tsai, Rotating vibration behavior of the turbine blades with different groups of blades,
Journal of sound and vibration, Vol. 271, pp- 547-575, 2004.
[8.]
Griffin J.H., Feiner D.M.,Fundamental Mistuning Model for determining system properties and
predicting vibratory response of bladed disks, Patent No.-US7082, 371B2, July 25, 2006.
[9.]
Choi Yeon-Sun, Investigation of blade failure in a gas turbine, Journal of Mechanical Science and
Technology, Vol. 24, No.-10, pp- 1969-1974, June 2010.
[10.]
Rao.A.R.,Dutta B.K.,Vibration analysis for detecting failure of compressor blade Journal of
Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 25, pp- 211-218,2012.
679
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Corrosion and its Remedy in Dry Type

Fire Sprinkler System in LPG
Bottling Plant: A Case Study:
Abstract---- Internal corrosion in the security air pipeline is a major problem faced by the Delhi Bottling Plant
(Indian Oil Corporation Limited) authorities which accounts for a surplus cost of about 1.97 million INR every
year to the plant. The security air pipeline consists of compressed air, which remains stagnant in the pipeline for
a long time, and is released only when there is a case of fire in the plant. This stagnant air comprises of water
vapors, which after their condensation, starts the process of internal corrosion. This surplus cost arises due to
several effects of corrosion like:
1.
Cracks in pipeline leading to their repairing cost.
2.
Plant shutdown cost while repairing.
3.
Degradation cost of pipelines leading to its replacement after every 4-5 years.
4.
Excessive running cost of screw air compressor.
5.
Other miscellaneous cost
After completion of this research, it was calculated that this huge amount of money can be saved by
IOCL, if a system of nitrogen inserting, as proposed in this paper, is used for the pipelines.
ntroduction Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOCL) is the flagship national oil company in the downstream
sector. The LPG Bottling Plant of IOCL (Delhi Bottling Plant) is situated at Tikri Kalan, New Delhi. As the
plant deals with LPG, it has high vulnerability to fires. Hence, a dry type fire sprinkler system is installed
in the plant for automatic sprinkling of air.
(Fig.1- Schematic diagram of fire sprinkler system at Delhi Bottling Plant.)

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
681
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Vashist and Srinivas
The Table-1 shows the specifications of the compressed air line.

Type of fire sprinkler system: Deluge valve dry type; Gets activated at 79 deg Celsius temperature.
Table1- Specifications of compressed air line.
2. Problem
A major problem faced by the plant authorities was the internal corrosion of compressed air carrying security air
pipeline. Due to this frequent rusting of piping, large amount of money was being spent on undue maintenance
and repairing of cracks formed (due to corrosion).
The leaks and cracks in the pipings can also lead to leakage of air which may be disturbing in the operation of the
plant.
The leaks in the pipings also caused loss in pressure drop by the compressor which increased the work done by
compressor and hence it's running cost.
Some methods like using water drainers (to drain out the water causing corrosion) or draining out the whole air
periodically were also tried but of not much use.
Fig2. Internal corrosion in pipings:
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Corrosion and its Remedy in Dry Type Fire Sprinkler....

3. Experiments to Detect the Root Cause of this Corrosion
1.
Dew Point Temperature, temperature and pressure of inlet air was noted down.
These readings were taken at a point just after after the compressor outlet. Using a dew point analyser, the dew
point was noted down as 14.4 deg Celsius. Hence, in the piping, moisture condensation (and corrosion) will
start as soon as the air reaches14.4 deg Celsius.
Inlet temperature and pressure were noted down as35.5 deg Celsius and 5.6 bar respectively.
2.
TDS of groundwater- Quantity of total dissolved solids in the ground water was found out to be 13000
ppm.
3.
History of pipe replacement and service.
The whole fire sprinkler system's piping was being replaced after 4-4.5 years with a new one.
Also, as there was no feasible method of repairing the leaks, that particular section of the piping was replaced
with a new one, which involved new pipes, nipples, their welding, fitting etc. Analysing last four years' data of
the plant, approximately 250 metres of the piping was replaced annually.
4.
Physical and chemical Analysis of the rust formed.
Physical analysis showed spots of reddish brown colour rust, indicating Iron Hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) formed at
particular areas of pipes. The concentration of the rusting was more at areas which were wet with liquid
moisture in the pipeline, like, near the air water interface.
The precipitate was confirmed as Iron Hydroxide (both ferrous and ferric) by qualitative analysis, in which
drops of potassium thiocyanate were added to the rust sample which gave a blood red coloured precipitate,
confirming ferric ions.
4. The Main Cause of Corrosion
As visible from the formation of Iron( II and III) hydroxides as the precipitate(the rust), and also [7], attack of
oxygen and moisture on the metal pipes is the main cause of corrosion in pipelines.
Following reactions take place: Anodic Reaction
Feo Fe+2 + 2e iron becomes a water soluble ion
Cathodic Reaction
O2 + H2O + 2e 2OH oxygen creates demand for e
Electrochemical Reaction
FeO + O2 + H2O Fe(OH)2 iron hydroxide precipitate
The further oxidation of the ferrous hydroxide gives ferric hydroxides which forms the reddish brown rust in the
pipes. The iron oxide can also exist as two different forms, hematite (Fe2O3) or magnetite (Fe3O4), in presence
of excess oxygen in the piping. All of these corrosion reactions produce solids that are trapped within the fire
sprinkler system piping.
Also, the solids that are produced by the action of oxygen on the metal piping produce conditions that favour the
proliferation of some bacteria in the system[7], which can also indicate towards microbiologically influenced
corrosion (MIC) in the piping. But, the attack of oxygen still remains as the primary cause of corrosion. Hence,
focus will be on preventing the oxygen from entering the pipings instead of killing the bacteria.
Also, there is a very small percentage of CO2 in the air, CO2 being readily soluble in water can form Carbonic
Acid which can also contribute towards corrosion according to the reaction:
Co2 + H2O H2CO3 carbonic acid
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
HCO3 H+ + CO3= yields 2 hydrogen ions
2Feo + 2H+ + O2 + 2H2O H2 + 2Fe(OH)2 iron
hydroxide precipitate.
But again, the quantity of CO2 being very loin(refer to pie chart showing composition of air) air, the main
ingredient of corrosion still remains Oxygen. Hence, to solve this problem of corrosion, there can be two
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perspectives [2]:
5. A) One perspective of preventing corrosion can also be to remove moisture from the piping by applying
regenerative and dessicant dryers that can lower the dew point of entering air and prevent moisture in air from
condensing. Yes, this can stop corrosion if all of moisture is completely removed from the piping. But to remove
all the moisture, it is virtually impossible because of the reasons:
1. The temperature changes throughout the length of the piping will cause moisture to condense at some or
other point.
2. Dryers cannot remove water that is already trapped in the system piping and the air in the sprinkler pipeline
remains stagnant most of the time.
3. Dryers and piping will require very tight maintainence schedule to maintain no moisture condition
throughout piping.
4. Even a small amount of moisture present in the air can combine with oxygen and lead to aggressive
corrosion.
Hence, the bottom line is that the air in the piping is persistently moist and oxyegenated.
5.B) Replace the compressed air with an inert,dry, supervisory gas that can prevent the electrochemical reaction
of oxygen, moisture and iron.
5. Using Nitrogen as the Inert Gas to Prevent the Corrosion Reaction
The air comprises of Nitrogen, Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide as its main constituents with the
compositionshown in Fig3. These three gases dissolve in water when come in direct contact with it.However,
these have different solubilities in water( Annexure with table with Solubility values), Nitrogen being the least
and Carbon Dioxide being the most.Hence, the composition of these gases, when dissolved in water changes
significantly as shown in figure.
Fig3-Pie chart showing composition of air.

Also, to participate in corrosion and react with the metal, a gas must dissolve in water.And out of the dissolved
gases, only oxygen and carbon dioxide react with metal,nitrogen being an inert gas does not participate in
corrosion.
Hence, increasing the amount of dissolved Nitrogen(and simultaneously stripping off oxygen and carbon
dioxide from water) in the water,can prevent oxygen from reacting with the metal and hence can be a preventive
measure against corrosion.
Following Henry's Ideal Gas Law, amount of dissolved oxygen in water can be decreased by decreasing the
amount of oxygen in the air in piping or by increasing the amount of nitrogen. The objective of adding nitrogen
gas to fire sprinkler piping that contains water is to displace the oxygen and replace it with nitrogen. For each
percent of nitrogen that is added to the space above the water, the corresponding amount of oxygen is reduced. If
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the nitrogen in the space is increased to 9799% the percentage of oxygen drops proportionately to 13%.
Water that has been stripped of its dissolvedgases, particularly oxygen and carbon dioxide, is no longer
corrosive. So even if water remains in the pipe, if it is under an atmosphere that is 9799% nitrogen it will be
essentially noncorrosive water.
Also Nitrogen being an inflammable and inert gas is safe to use in this plant.
6. Replacing Compressors With Nitrogengenerators
The most effective way to introduce Nitrogen in the pipings was found to be Nitrogen Generators. Nitrogen
generators are nitrogen producing complexes that produce dry compressed nitrogen. A general type of nitrogen
generator has the following major components:
1. Air Compressors
2. Refrigerated dryer
3. Nitrogen Cabinet (which houses the membrane)
4. Nitrogen Storage Tank
Atmospheric air is compressed in the compressor to the desired pressure. Compressed air from the compressor
is dried in the refrigerated dryer to lower the required dew point temperature. After this, dried, conditioned and
compressed air passes through a semi-permeable membrane.
Oxygen, moisture and other components permeate the membrane and about 98-99% pure Oxygen is given out.
According to the type of fire sprinkler system here in the plant, the following majorspecifications for the
Nitrogen Generator were decided:
Power- 11 kW Capacity- 65 cfm
Op. Pressure 8 bar
Nitrogen - 98-99% pure.
Dew point temp - 4-5 deg Celsius.
Fig4-Parts of nitrogen generators.

7. Estimated Monetary Savings through this Study And Quantifying the Losses Due to Corrosion
1. Annual Repairing cost
From pipe repairing history,
Pipe section replaced annually = 250metres
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I. Pipe Cost :Cost of pipe = Rs. 210 per metre Total cost = 210x250= Rs. 52500
ii. Pipe accessories
Nipples and others cost = Rs. 70 per nipple I nipple needs in every 5 metre of pipeline.
Hence, 50 nipples replaced every year.Total cost of nipples = 50x70 = Rs.3500
iii. Welding
Cost of welding = Rs 25 per metre Total welding cost = 25x250 = Rs 6250
iv. Labour cost and other miscellaneous cost
= Rs.10000
Total annual repairing cost = 52500+3500+6250+10000= Rs 16265.(I)
2. Increased running cost of compressor
Ideal running time per day= 1 hour Actual running time per day= 7 hours
Extra running time per day = 7-1= 6 hours
Extra running time per year= 6x365=2190 hours
As there are two compressors in parallel, one works as secondary when the primary one cannot produce the
desired pressure drop. Hence,approximating the running time of secondary compressor as half that of primary,
Total extra running time of compressor per year= 2190 + 2190/2 =3285 hours.
Rating of compressor= 11kW
No. Of extra electricity units consumed per year= 3285x11= 36135 units.
Electricity rate= Rs 6.8 per unit.
Total extra electricity cost = 6.8x36315= Rs. 246942 (ii)
3. Pipe degradation cost
Whole pipeline gets replaced in every 4 years, which costs around 2 crores. Hence, degradation cost per year =
2/4 = 0.5 crores.
If the pipe is made rust free, the degradation of pipe will be reduced and the life of pipeline will be increased.
Assuming a minimum increase of 2 years in the life of pipeline.
Degradation cost per year will be then = 2/6 =.33 crores.
Reduction in degradation cost= .5-.33
= .17 crores= Rs.17 lakhs (approx) (iii)
Hence, total estimated monetary losses due to corrosion in one year =
(i)Annual repairing cost+
(ii)Annual increased cost of compressor+ (iii)Annual degradation cost
=16265+246942+1700000 = Rs. 19.7 lakhs (approx.).
8. Conclusion
The severe problem of internal corrosion in pipelines is adding to the expenditure of the plant as well as delay in
productivity. The estimated excess cost is about 19.7 lakh rupees per annum, due to this corrosion. This huge
amount of money can be saved by employing a Nitrogen inserting system (which involves nothing but just
adding a nitrogen membrane after the screw compressor) in the plant.
Nitrogen, being an inert gas, will not allow the metal in pipelines to come in contact with oxygen and moisture
in the air, preventing the process of corrosion.
References
1. Using Nitrogen Gas to Remove Corrosive Gases from Fire Sprinkler Water(March 2009) Jeffrey
Kochelek.
2. Dr. Craig Seidelson- Commissioning a Nitrogen Generator in China.(IJET Vol- 2, Sept 2012).
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Jeffrey Kochelek -Controlling corrosion in fire protection systems, protecting cultural resources(Aug
2010).
4. Potter Corrosion Solutions- Potter Nitrogen Generators.
5. Managing Safety in Nitrogen Inerting Fire Sprinkler Systems.( Jeffrey T. Kochelek (Engineered Corrosion
Solutions, LLC) and Gerard van Moorsel (Engineered Corrosion Solutions, LLC).
6. Nitrogen use in attic protection (Scott Brodman).
7. Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion is NOT the primary cause of corrosion in fire sprinkler
system(October 2009)-Jeffrey Kochelek.
8. Nitrogen Inerting field case study- Illinois Distribution Centre.( Engineered Corrosion Solutions).
9. Pipeline drying using dehumidified air with low dew point temperature.
10. Compressed air and gas drying( Compressed air and gas institute.
3.
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A Review of Solar Energy Utilization System

Dheeraj Kumar and Om Prakash
Abstract- Solar energy is one of the best sources of renewable energy; it is available in large amount and is
expected to deliver the same amount of energy for many years. The area of solar energy application is wide. It
can be used for water heating, water desalination, solar energy storage system etc. This paper presents the
review of the development of solar energy utilization system and its application for water heating, water
desalination and solar energy storage system. The comparative studies of flat plate collectors and parabolic
collectors have been done in this paper. It is observed that the flat plate collector operates in narrow range
whereas; parabolic collector can be operated within wide range of temperature limit and can handle liquid as
well as the vapor phase with efficient manner.
Keywords- Renewable energy; phase change material; solar desalination; solar collector.
ntroduction India is the second largest populated country in the world and most of the population is living
in rural areas. They are totally depending on the conventional energy resources (coal, oil etc.). But it is
predicted that the conventional energy sources are limited. So the researcher goes toward
unconventional/renewable energy sources, when we talk about unconventional energy resources, then it is
found that the solar energy is the mother of all kinds of renewable energy resources such as wind, tidal etc.
The area of solar energy is wide; it is the abundant, neat and clean source of energy. Ellabban et al. [1] explained
solar energy can be utilized for medium and small application with low operating cost and this feature of solar
energy creates more attention toward solar energy. Hurib et al. [2] gave the reason to adopt the solar resources,
in mountain regions where transportation of fuel and electric grid are not economical and also the area where the
requirement of the energy is very low at these places solar energy is the perfect solution of the energy
requirement. They have studied various aspects of renewable energy such as solar village project, solar
powered water desalination project, solar thermal dish project, 350kW solar hydrogen production project, solar
hydrogen utilization project. Hassan [3] designed a solar air heater with flat plate, straight tubes and corrugated
tubes absorber. He compared between the solar air heater and solar liquid heater and found that solar air heater
has more advantage over solar liquid heater such as in solar air heater there is no salt deposition, no corrosion, no
boiling and freezing problem and there is no leaks etc. He also compared on the basis of with or without heat
storage system, in with solar heat storage system two materials (sand and paraffin wax) is used. Sand is used for
sensible heating and cooling whereas phase change materials are used for latent heat exchange process. Paraffin
wax is used as phase change material PCM with ambient temperature, whereas Glauber's salt may be used as
Dheeraj Kumar
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Research Scholar, NIT Patna
dheeraj88788@gmail.com,
Om Prakash
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Professor, NIT Patna,
om.prakash@nitp.ac.in Tel: +918878836549
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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PCM with low ambient temperature and low solar intensity. In the same row Yousif et al. [4] described the
development and testing of solar air heater they determined the collector efficiency of solar air heater, solar air
heater offer more advantage over solar liquid heater, air heater required less plumbing and there is
noproblem of boiling and freezing and no air lock problem.
2. Development of Solar Energy Utilization System
Sun is the vast source of energy available on earth. Solar energy can be utilized for space heating or cooling, and
can also be used for water and air heating. It can be stored in the form of thermal energy into the thermal energy
storage system. Jamar et al. [5] in the past solar energy was only used for water heating. It was stored in the form
of thermal energy in the thermal storage system, but without the use of insulation hot water could not be
maintained for long time. The real era of solar energy utilization system starts with the beginning of 19th century.
Belessiotis et al. [6] explained that there were many inventors and researchers all around the world, who
contributed in the development of solar energy. Some of the names are August Mauchot a French engineer, John
Eriction an American engineer, C.L.A. Tellier, H.E. Wilsie and J.Boyle, Frank Shuman etc. The first solar plant
was developed by Frank Shuman. The Newyork Times [7] published the Frank Shuman's work, according to
this, sun is the cheaper and abundant source of energy, where as coal is the more expensive and scarce source of
energy. Frank developed the power for pumping of 6000 gallons of water per minute by solar power plant.
Belessiotis et al. [6] installed the solar plant in Meadi to pump the water from Nile River. [7] Frank Shuman
gave the idea to reduce the cost during non favorable weather conditions, by storing water in the insulated tank
at boiling point, which reduced the steam production cost for power generation. Availability of pure water is one
of the great challenges for humanity. Mona et al. [8] designed a solar still for water desalination, in which they
used charcoal as the absorber medium; in this system water continuously flow through the charcoal bed, and
evaporate desalinized water collected from the glass cover. In their experiment, they observed that still
efficiency depends on the size of charcoal
used and also the volume flow rate. Fine particle at low flow rate and coarse particle at high flow rate give the
best efficiency. They obtained 32.3% still efficiency in their experiment. Salah et al. [9] observed that only 3%
of water on earth is in fresh form; whereas only 1% of water is for human utilization. They developed a single
slope desalination system by using step-wise water basin and used reflecting mirror on the inside surface of
solar still to reduce heat loss. It is observed that average 4.343 lit/day/m2 desalinized water is produced by using
step-wise water basin, and average 5.244 lit/day/m2 can be produced by using step-wise water basin and sun
tracking system, in a fully sunny day from 8am to 6pm. Ashish et al. [10] proposed the use of solar energy for
water heating in paper industry for pulp making, Boiler feed water heating and steam generation. Jaramilla et al.
[11] studied the various aspects of parabolic trough concentrator PCT. They performed an experimental and
numerical study as well as compared the actual and theoretical thermal efficiency of the system.
3. Process Heating
The application area of solar energy is broad; it is used in water heating, space heating, desalination etc. Here
my study is specified to solar energy for water heating and solar heat storage system. Day by day due to
decreasing conventional energy storage, researchers move toward solar energy utilization system. Today's solar
water heating systems have become globalized and it is a great achievement in the energy field. Many works
have been done and more projects are going in this regard.
4. Type of Solar Collector and Their Comparetive Study
Solar collector is a type of heat exchanger; it is used to absorb solar radiation, in the form of heat. This heat is
transferred to the working medium, which may be utilized for space
heating,
domestic
applications,
industrial applications etc. or may be stored in the form of heat in the heat storage system.
Soteris [12] described, basically there are two types of solar collector; non-concentrating solar collector and
concentrating solar collector. Non-concentrating solar collector has absorbing surface area equal to
intercepting area where as concentrating collector has absorbing surface area more than the intercepting area.
Non-concentrating collector is also called stationary solar collector. It is fixed and does not track the solar
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radiation, whereas concentrating type solar collector tracks the solar radiation. According to Soteris [12] there
are three types of non-concentrating solar collector.
a.
Flat plate collector (FPC)
b.
Stationary compound parabolic collector (SPC)
c.
Evacuated tube collector (ETC)
Here my study is specified for flat plate collector (FPC) and compound parabolic collector (CPC).
4.1 Solar collector
Flat plate collector
Flat plate collector is simple in construction and working. It works on the same principle of heat exchanger, the
only difference is that in heat exchanger, heat exchange takes place between two fluids, one fluid gets heated
and other one gets cooled, whereas here radiating heat of sun is absorbed by fluid and gets heated. Figure1
represents the construction of flat plate collector.
Here solar radiation is absorbed by the flat plate collector in the form of heat and transferred to the working fluid
by exchanging heat. This fluid is transferred to the heat exchanger through the pipe line, where it exchanges heat
with another fluid.
Figure 1. Flat plate collector [13].

Graph 1 Performance of flat plate collector [15]
Graph 1 shows that the working range of flat plate collector and table1 represents the collective data of the
graph.
l Compound parabolic collector (CPC)
Stationary compound parabolic collectors have special types of geometry, in which the falling solar radiation is
concentrated at a smaller surface area. So that smaller surface absorbs more heat. Fig.2 shows the construction
of compound parabolic collector
.Here solar radiation falls at the parabolic surface and by the reflection it concentrates at the small pipe line, in
which the working fluid flows. Parabolic collectors are two types, parabolic trough type and parabolic dish
type. Fig. (3,4) shows the parabolic trough and dish type collector.
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Table1. Collective for flat plate collector.
Fig. 2. Stationary compound parabolic collector [14]
Fig. 3 Parabolic trough collector [16]

Fig. 3 Parabolic trough collector [16]
Daniel [15] in his study compared the parabolic trough and parabolic dish collector and represented a graph as
shown in graph 2. This graph is tabulated in table 2.
Graph 2. Collector efficiency of parabolic trough and parabolic dish collector [15]
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Table2. Collective for parabolic collector
5. Conclusion
This paper reviews the development of solar energy utilization system, and its application in various field. The
main focus of this review is solar water heating, solar desalination and solar energy storage system. For water
heating two most commonly used collectors are flat plate collector and parabolic collector. The operating range
of flat plate collector is limited, where as parabolic collector operates within wide range of temperature limit
and can be used at low solar intensity with efficient manner. Here the study of thermal energy storage material
has been done. Sand can be easily used for sensible heating, whereas paraffin wax and Gluaber's salt are used for
latent heating and cooling. Paraffin wax can be used at high ambient temperature whereas Grualer's salt can be
used at low ambient temperature.
References
[1]
O. Ellabban, H. Abu-Rub, F. Blaabjerg,Renewable energy resources-current status, future prospects
and their enabling technology, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, Vol. 39, pp. 748-764,
November 2014. (Review Article)
[2]
F.S. Huraib, S.M. and S.E. Alawaji Lessons learned from solar energy project in Saudi Arabia,
(WREC), vol. 9 issue 1-4 pp. 1144-1147, September-December 1996. (Article)
[3]
Hassan E.S. Fath Thermal performance of a simple design solar air heater with built-in thermal
energy storage system, International Journal of Energy conversion and management, vol. 36, issue
10, pp. 989-997, October 1995. (Article)
[4]
K. M. Yousif and B.E. Smith Development and testing of a solar air heater for a teaching
laboratory,WREC, vol. 9, issue 1-4, pp. 600-604 September-December 1996. (Article)
[5]
A. Jamar, Z.A.A. Majid, W.H. azmi, M.Norhafana, A.A. Razak. A review of water heating system for
solar energy application, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 76 pp. 178187 August 2016
[6]
V. Belessiotis, E. Delyannis, The history of renewable
energies
for
water
desalinationInternational Journal of Desalination, vol. 128 No. 2, pp 147-159 April 2000. (Article)
[7]
Appliance concentrates the heat rays and produces steam which can be used to drive irrigation pumps
in hot climates, the newyork times, July 2, 1916 (Article)
[8]
Mona M. Naim, Mervat A. Ab El Kawi, Non- conventional solar stills Part 1 Non- conventional solar
stills with charcoal particles as absorber medium, International Journal of Desalination, vol. 153,
issue 1-3, pp. 55-64, February 2002 (Article)
[9]
[9] Salah Abdallah, Omar Badran, Mazen M. Abu- Khader, Performance evaluation of a modified
design of a single slope solar still, International Journal of Desalination, vol. 219, No. 1-3, pp. 222-
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[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
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230, January 2006 (Research Article)

Ashish K. Sharma, Chandan Sharma, Subhash C. Mullick, Tara C. Kandpal, Potential of solar energy
utilization for process heating in paper industry in India, Journal of Cleaner Production, July 2016,
(Article)
O. A. Jaramilla, Monica Borunda, K.M. Velazquez-Lucho, M. Robles, parabolic trough solar
collector for low enthalpy processes, International Journal of Renewable Energy, vol. 93, pp. 125141, August 2016 (Article)
Soteris A. Kalogiou, Solar thermal collectors and applications, International Journal of Progress in
Energy and Combustion Science, vol. 30, issue 3, pp. 231-295, 2004 (Article)
WECF, construction of solar collectors for warm water guide, A Practical Guide, May 2010
(Practical Guide)
V. Ryan, Solar power Parabolic solar collectors, 2009 (eBook)
Daniel Chiras, Power from the sun, 2009, ch.5 (eBook Chapter)
Hank Price, Eckard Lu pert, David Kearney, Eduado Zarza, Gilbert Cohen Randy Gee, Rod Mahoney,
Advances in Parabolic Trough Power Technology, Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, DOI:
10.1115/1.1467922, vol. 124, May 2002(Article)
Shung-wu, Lanxiao, Yiding Cao, You-Rong Li, A parabolic dish/AMTEC solar thermal power
system and its performance evaluation, International Journal of Applied Engineering, vol. 87, issue
2, pp. 452-462 February
2010 (Article)
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Current World and Indian Energy Scenario:

The Challenges of Achieving 175 gw
of Renewable Energy by 2022.
Anubhav Uppa and J P Kesari
Abstract-Energy is the basic need and is one of the major inputs required for the development of nation. Today
majority of this energy demand is met through fossil fuels which have created a major problem for mankind in
form of global warming. World has decided to move towards sustainable way of development in form of recent
growth in worldwide renewable energy power generation plants. In last 2 decades only fossil fuel based sources
were developed throughout world at very fast rate resulting in problem of Global warming and climate change.
After Paris climate change summit in 2015, whole world decided to lay more emphasis on carbon free sources
of generation for electricity purpose to have sustainable development of whole world. During recent times, the
CO2 emissions shows that new generation sources mainly came from Renewables (hydro, solar, wind, other),
Nuclear and Gas based sources. India's energy demand has grown exponentially in last few decades which are
directly related to its recent economic and population growth. Recent trends like urbanisation and
industrialization has fuelled the energy demand in India. With 18% of total world population, per capita energy
consumption is still very low at 1/3rd of world average which allows for a strong energy demand growth. Main
reason for this low energy consumption is that large population.. 240 million people still remains without
modern energy as they are out of reach of power system. India has third highest coal reserves. The heavy
reliance on coal for primary energy demand has associated environmental costs with it like land degradation,
deforestation, erosion and acid water runoff. Natural gas has small 6% share in domestic energy demand.
Current hydro power based generation capacity stands at 45 GW with 10% of it falling in small hydro power
(SHP) category. Bio energy is responsible for 25% share of total energy consumption of India with major usage
in cooking in rural households. This traditional use of biomass has given rise to major issues like adverse effects
on heath due to indoor polluting.
Renewable energy is rapidly growing in India to achieve targets of 175 GW renewable energy by 2022. Solar
power and wind & biomass power are major constituents of these targets set by government of India with 100
GW and 75 GW target respectively. India is currently 4th in wind power installed capacity in the world with 26
GW as of 2016 and in solar power its capacity is over 8 GW as of 2016. Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu are three
states with more than 1 GW of solar power alone. Out of 100 GW, 40 GW target has been setup in the target of
rooftop which will help in reducing distribution and transmission losses. Also cost of both solar and wind has
been under Rs 6 crore per MW with tariff Between Rs 5 to 6 per unit. The current share of nuclear power in the
Anubhav Uppal
M.Tech in Renewable Energy Technology,
J P Kesari
Associate Professor in Mechanical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University,
drjpkesari@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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generation mix is very small at 3%. India has limited low-grade uranium reserves. The nuclear industry in India
is also subject to the challenges faced by worldwide nuclear industry.
ntroduction Energy is the basic need of human life. Also it is one of the major inputs required for the
development of nation. In fact energy is used as a parameter to compare development levels of developing
nation with those of developed countries. As the population of the world is increasing day by day, energy
demand is also increasing exponentially. Today majority of this energy demand is met through fossil fuels (coal,
oil and natural gas) which have created a major problem for mankind in form of global warming. Limited nature
of these sources of fuel and relatively high prices has forced the world to make huge investments in the field of
alternate sources of energy (wind, solar, tidal, etc).
Energy can be classified as:1. Renewable energy: - energy obtained from the sources that are inexhaustible in nature i.e. energy from sun,
biomass, wind, oceans, etc. these energy sources can be harnessed without any release of harmful pollutants.
2. Non-renewable energy: - energy obtained from the sources that are exhaustible in nature i.e. energy from
conventional fuels like coal, oil and gas which will be gone by next 50 to 75 years.
Despite major dependence on fossil fuels in power sector and transportation sector, now world has decided to
move towards sustainable way of development in form of recent growth in worldwide renewable energy power
generation plants.
2. World Energy Scenario
International organisations like international energy agency have published the World Energy Outlook 2015:
global energy trends to 2040. Important highlights of this report show the recent trends and current energy
consumption data of the world. Analysing this data will help us to understand the current issues in the energy
sector and associated problems with current energy scenario. We will use this analysed data to find out useful
solutions to this current problem which is sustainable and environment friendly in nature.
2.1 Global electricity generation by source
Worldwide electricity is generated from variety of different sources like fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural
gas, Nuclear power and renewable energy sources like hydro power, wind power, solar power, other renewable
sources, etc. majority of power still comes from fossil fuel based power plants with an share of 67% in total
electricity generation for year 2014 which is equivalent to 15000 TWh and more units generated. Related CO2
emissions with fossil fuel based generation source for year 2014 was 12 gigatons. Following table gives the
2014 vs. 2040 scenario of world electricity generation based on different sources [1]:-
Following data shows that after fossil fuels, Renewable energy and Nuclear Energy sources are major sources
used worldwide for electricity generation with a share of 22% and 11% respectively. Following pie chart Gives
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Current World and Indian Energy Scenario: ....

the percentage share of different sources in worldwide scenario:-
Also high share of fossil fuel based electricity generation is directly related to high levels of CO2 Emissions
annually. From the last 2 decades, CO2 Emissions have increased from 6 Gt in 1990 to 12.50 Gt in 2015 i.e.
Greenhouse Gas emissions have doubled with total electricity generated from 11000 TWh in 1990 to 23000
TWh in 2015. This shows that in last 2 decades only fossil fuel based sources were developed throughout world
at very fast rate resulting in problem of Global warmingand climate change.
After Paris climate change summit in 2015, whole world decided to lay more emphasis on carbon free sources
of generation for electricity purpose to have sustainable development of whole world. Therefore it is clear from
table 2 that after 2015 till 2030 the CO2 emissions have become constant at around 12 Gt or more but electricity
generation has increased from 23000 TWh in 2015 to 33000 TWh in 2030. This constant CO2 emissions shows
that new generation sources mainly came from Renewables (hydro, solar, wind, other), Nuclear and Gas based
sources. Following figure gives the comparison between total electricity generation by different source for year
2014 vs. 2040:Electricity generation from Renewable energy sources have changed from 5000 TWh in 2014 to 13500 TWh in
2040 i.e. almost it has become 3 times from 2015. Percentage share of fossil fuel based generation has gone
down from 67% in 2015 to 55% in 2040 and at the same time renewable energy based sources has gone up from
22% in 2015 to 34% in 2040 which shows that 12% in fossil fuels usage in next 25 years to 12% more renewable
energy usage in next 25 years. This historic shift in world energy scenario is directly linked with stabilization of
world CO2 Emissions from 2015 t0 2030 as shown in this figure:-
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3. Indian Energy Scenario

India's energy demand has grown exponentially in last few decades which are directly related to its recent
economic and population growth. Recent trends like urbanisation and industrialization has fuelled the energy
demand in India. Keeping in view of this situation government of India are making efforts to invest heavily in
energy sector to supply energy for all its population. Energy demand in India has a percentage share of 5.7% in
global energy demand for year 2013. With 18% of total world population, per capita energy consumption is still
very low at 1/3rd of world average which allows for a strong energy demand growth. Main reason for this low
energy consumption is that large population i.e. 240 million people still remains without modern energy as they
are out of reach of power system. Following figure gives the comparison between per capita energy
consumption between India and world [2]:-
Primary energy demand and Gross domestic product (GDP) in India is related directly as GDP of India has
resulted in growth from 3600 Billion US dollars in 1990 to 7800 billion US dollars in 2013 along with primary
energy demand from 260 Million tonnes of oil equivalent in 1990 to 680 Million Toe in 2013. Also India GDP
growth for 2015 was at 7.5% with an equivalent growth in Energy demand. Following figure gives the
relationship between GDP and total primary energy demand as discussed above:-
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3.1 Primary energy demand in India by fuel
70% of the Indian energy demand is met by fossil fuels due to rapid rise in consumption of coal with a share of
44% in total energy demand of 775 MToe for year 2013. On the other hand demand for bio energy i.e. solid
biomass like fuel wood, straw, charcoal, or dung have decreased as households have moved to Liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) for cooking purposes. Oil consumption is mainly for transportation sector with diesel
having 70% share in oil market. Natural gas has small share about 6% in energy mix used mainly for power
production and fertilizer industries. Hydropower, nuclear power, renewable sources like wind, solar,
geothermal is used at very small scale in power sector. Following pie chart gibes the current scenario of India
energy mix:-
3.2 Fossil fuel balance in India

Fossil fuel balance in India is more on the import side than export side with 200 Mtoe of crude oil imports, 120
Mtoe of coal imports and 15 Mtoe of natural gas imports for year 2013. All these imports have a very acute
effect on India economy as high fuel prices means high economic trade deficit for India. Also domestic
production of fossil fuels in India is not at very high level to ensure energy security for India in recent future.
Following figure gives the balance between fossil fuels export- import for year 2013:-
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Uppa and Kesari
India has third highest coal reserves in the world i.e. 12% of the world total but these deposits are of low quality
due to less calorific value and high ash content; hence India faces major problems in meeting the coal demand of
its country with current resources. In 2013, India produced a 340 million tonnes of coal equivalent (Mtce) and
imported 140 million tonnes of coal equivalent from Indonesia, Australia, and South Africa. To curb imports
Government of India has ordered to double its coal production by 2020. Coal sector is dominated by
government organisations like Coal India limited (CIL) with 80% of total coal production in India. This heavy
reliance on coal for primary energy demand has associated environmental costs with it like land degradation,
deforestation, erosion and acid water runoff. Also coal reserves are mainly concentrated in eastern and central
India, while demand centres are mainly in North West India, south India which makes it mandatory to transport
this coal from source to demand centre via railways which makes energy process high. OIL India mainly
depends upon crude oil imports for primary energy demand fulfilment as domestic crude oil production is just
900,000 barrels per day and demand is nearly 4.4 million barrels per day. India has low oil reserves i.e. around
5.7 billion barrels mostly located in western part of country like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra , in northeast
India like Assam , etc. oil sector is dominated by state owned agencies like Oil and natural gas corporation
(ONGC) and Oil India Limited (OIL).
3.4 Natural Gas
Natural gas has small 6% share in domestic energy demand. Main onshore gas producing fields are located in
states of Assam, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. Offshore field include Krishna Godavari basin.
Total natural gas production was 34 billion cubic metres in 2013. Major gas producing companies are state
owned like Gail authority of India limited (GAIL). Also unconventional sources of gas like coal bed methane
and shale gas are still in early stages of development in India.
3.5 Hydropower
Current hydro power based generation capacity stands at 45 GW with 10% of it falling in small hydro power
(SHP) category. Only 1/3 rd of total hydro potential has been harnessed and future has much more to achieve
mostly in north east India. But major issues in the development of these plants are technical and environmental
problems like public opposition. Apart from being clean source of power, hydro power projects also help in
water management for flood control, irrigation and domestic proposes. High upfront costs especially for large
hydro projects with long term dept financing issues have stalled the further growth in last decade. Hence
government has laid more emphasis on small hydro project with upper limit as 25MW for power generation
with total installed capacity as of 2016 over 4GW.
3.6 Bioenergy
Bio energy is responsible for 25% share of total energy consumption of India with major usage in cooking in
rural households. This traditional use of biomass has given rise to major issues like adverse effects on heath due
to indoor polluting. As of 2016 nearly 8 GW of biomass base power in India is operational i.e. mainly bagasse
cogeneration. National bio energy mission has been launched by government to popularise use of biomass
gasifiers, bio fuels, etc. blending of bio fuels in conventional fuel up to 20% has been set up as target of National
Bio energy mission.
3.7 Wind and Solar
Renewable energy is rapidly growing in India to achieve Re Invest 2015 targets of 175 GW renewable energy
by 2022. Wind power and solar power are major constituents of these targets set by government of India with
100 GW and 60 GW target respectively. India is currently 4th in wind power installed capacity in the world with
26 GW as of 2016 and in solar power its capacity is over 6.5 GW as of 2016. Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu are
700

three states with 1 GW of solar power alone. Out of 100 GW, 40 GW target has been setup in the target of rooftop
which will help in reducing distribution and transmission losses. Also cost of both solar and wind has been
under Rs 6 corers per MW with tariff Between Rs 5 to 6 per unit.
3.8 Nuclear Power
India has 21 operating nuclear reactors at seven sites with a total installed capacity of 6 GW as of 2016. Another
6 nuclear power plants are under construction stage with capacity around 4 GW. The operation of the existing
nuclear plants has been low in the past due to severe fuel shortages i.e. the average load factor was at 40%. This
problem was solved after India became a party to the Nuclear Suppliers Group in 2008, allowing access to
uranium. The average plant load factor rose to over 80% in 2013. The current share of nuclear power in the
generation mix is very small at 3%. India has limited low-grade uranium reserves. The nuclear industry in India
is also subject to the challenges faced by worldwide nuclear industry, including project economic difficulties
like financing and the consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi accident in Japan.
References
1. World Energy Outlook 2015 published by International Energy Agency (IEA), London, 10th November
2015.
2. India Energy Outlook 2015 published by International Energy Agency (IEA), New Delhi, April 2015.
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Engine Performance Parameter and

Combustion Characteristics for
Biodiesel: A Review
Amrik Singh, Amit Pal, Deepanjali Nimker,
Harwinder Singh and S. Maji
Abstract- Due to increase in price of petroleum and potential exhaustion, alternative fuel has gained much
attention in this century. This paper reviews the engine performance parameter and the emission of biodiesel
and its blends compared to diesel engine. Biodiesel is directly used in compression ignition (CI) engine with or
without modification, as viscosity of biodiesel is high, so it faces some technical issues. This paper reviews the
technical issues and modifications in compression ignition (CI) engine. It also provides the combustion
characteristics of compression ignition (CI) engine and various techniques to improve biodiesel's combustion
performance.
Keywords- Engine performance; Engine modification; Combustion; Biodiesel.
ntroduction Biodiesel can be produced from various feedstocks, like waste cooking oil, microalgae etc,
which after transesterifcation form esters and glycerol [1]. Biodiesel produce lower exhaust emission
compared to petro diesel [2]. Biodiesel can be used directly (in pure form) in compression ignition (CI)
engine or in blended form with slight or no modification. Fuel properties of biodiesel changes with different
blends of biodiesel with diesel, because biodiesel has different fuel properties compared with petro diesel [3].
Biodiesel blended with diesel results in reduction of Particulate matter (PM), Hydrocarbon (HC) and
Carbonmonoxide (CO) emissions but slight increase in NOx emission [1,4].
Various studies show the use of biodiesel in internal combustion engine [5, 6]. However many modifications are
recommended while using biodiesel, NOx emission can be reduced by retarding injection timing (10 to 50) or by
use of catalytic converter. Use of B100 requires modification in injection timing and fuel pump [7].
2. Performance Parameter of Engine
2.1 Engine Performance
Various researchers mentioned that biodiesel run satisfactorily in diesel engine up to B20 blend. However many
researcher obtained good combustion characteristics with B100 biodiesel due to oxygenated nature of
biodiesel. To evaluate the performance of engine fueled with biodiesel and its blends following parameters are
used.
Brake power (B.P): It is the power available at the output shaft. It is rate of doing work. It is the product of
angular velocity and torque. So to find power torque (T) and speed (N Round per minute) is required. Thus
torque is measured with dynamometer and speed with tachometer. However indicated power (I.P) is more than
Amrik Singh, Amit Pal, Deepanjali Nimker, Harwinder Singh and S. Maji
Corresponding author:amriksingh200@gmail.com
1

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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shaft power because some power is used to overcome friction. Thus the difference between I.P and B.P is known
as frictional power. So mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio B.P to I.P.
(1)
Literature survey shows that engine power drop with the use of biodiesel because of low heating value of
biodiesel [8]. It is expressed in terms of brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) in Kg/kw-hr. The power and
torque produced by engine running on biodiesel is 3-5% less as compared to engine fueled with diesel [9].
However some results show fluctuation. [10] found that heating value of almond biodiesel is 41.76 MJ/KG,
which is 14% lower than the LHV (lower heating value) of diesel. [11] used B100 biodiesel and observed that
torque loss for it is 9.1% compared to D2 diesel at fixed RPM (round per minute) due to variation in LHV (lower
heating value) and their high density and kinematic viscosity.
Biodiesel blends are prepared by mixing petro diesel with biodiesel in suitable proportions and mostly denoted
by B factor. It is found in various ranges B2, B5, B20, B30, B50, B70, B80, B100 [12]. Three methods are
used for blending, splash mixing method, in line mixing method and injection mixing. Many researchers found
that with increase in biodiesel content power will decrease [8]. [13] used cotton seed oil and found that torque
decreases with increase in concentration of biodiesel blends because of high viscosity of biodiesel and low
heating value as compared to diesel. This trend is observed in all the engines like single cylinder four stroke
engine and 6 cylinder DI (Direct injection) diesel engine. However some researchers have reported that
biodiesel upto B20 blend does not follow above trend. The power increases upto B20 blend and reach maximum
and then decreases with increase in biodiesel content. For pure biodiesel (B100) the power produced is
minimum [8]. It has been observed that B100 biodiesel has solvent effect and release accumulated impurities in
the vehicle's fuel system which clog filters and require filter replacement [12].
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption : It is the amount of fuel consumed to develop brake Power (9)
(2)
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) =
Mf = mass of fuel consumed in Kg/hr

B.P = brake power in KW
Few authors reported that brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of biodiesel is higher than diesel due to
lower heating value and high viscosity. Many researchers reported that increase in specific consumption of fuel
is equal to the loss in calorific value compared to diesel [14,15,16, 17]. [16] found that increase in specific fuel
consumtion is 13% compared to diesel while decrease in calorific value is 13.8% which is almost similar. [18]
works on this area and find that specific fuel consumption increase by using biodiesel due to low calorific value.
However some researcher obtained that increase in fuel consumption in case of biodiesel is more than loss in
calorific value [13,19,20]. For instance [21] reported that specific fuel consumption increase by 18.7%
whereas loss in calorific value is 12.5% which is lower than specific fuel consumption. [13] obtained that for
B100 biodiesel fuel consumption increase by 18% whereas loss in heating value is 8% only.
Few researchers found that increase in fuel consumption was less than loss in calorific value [22,23]. [24] Has
obtained that for B100 biodiesel increase in specific fuel consumption was 4.8% while loss in calorific value is
7.4%.[25] found no difference in fuel consumption for biodiesel and diesel.
Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of power output to the energy supplied by the fuel. It is named as Indicated or
brake thermal efficiency [9].
Indicated thermal efficiency
704
(3)
Engine Performance Parameter and Combustion....
Brake thermal efficiency
(4)
Cv = Calorific value KJ/Kg

Mf = mass of fuel supplied Kg/Sec
[18] worked on brake thermal efficiency and found that there is no change in efficiency by using blends up to
B20 and after that with increase in blending BTE decreases, due to low heating value of fuel.
2.2 Additive Effect on Engine Performance:
Studies have reported that the additives such as kerosene, ethanol, methanol, Mg and Mo improve the fuel
properties which increase the performance and control NOx emission. However the selective additives should
be used in engine [26]. [4] found that mixing Mg and Mo based additives with tall oil does not work properly.
Guru et. al. [8] used Mg based additives and found positive effect on flash point, pour point and viscosity. Use of
ethanol additives enhance the combustion performance. It has been found that use of additives rich in
antioxidants with biodiesl reduce the NOx emission [26]. [27]studied the effect of antioxidant fuel additives on
soybean and Jatropha biodiesel and found decrease in NOx but increase in CO, HC and smoke emissions. The
National Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL) reported that NOx emissions are reduced by ethyl hexyl nitrate, di
tertiary butyl peroxide and tertiary butylhydroquinone [26].
3. Emissions
As compared to engine running on pure diesel, engine running on biodiesel blends show significant
improvement in greenhouse gases emission. Use of biodiesel blends reduce particulate matter (PM), Carbon
dioxide (CO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), with slight increase in NOx emissions due to presence of oxygen and
undergoes complete combustion and improve performance [28]
3.1 Particulate Matter (PM):
PM is mixture of liquid droplets and extremely small particles also known as particle pollution [12]. PM
includes acids, organic chemicals, dust particles and metals [29]. Studies have reported that PM emission from
biodiesel blends are 30 - 47 % lower as compared to diesel [12]. [31]obtained result of five pure biodiesel on DI
engine with turbo charging and found that PM emissions are reduced by 53 69 % on average to diesel. Few
authors reported that PM increases due to higher viscosity which cause poor fuel atomization and combustion,
so quality deteriorates [38,39].
3.2 Hydrocarbon (HC):
In biodiesel and its blends unburnt hydrocarbon emissions are less, because of oxygen present in fuel which
lead to better combustion. Various researchers reported that exhaust emission of HC are lesser by 20-67% for
biodiesel as compared to petrodiesel [29]. Many authors reported that with increase in biodiesel blend HC
emission decreases [8]. [30] observed that with increase in biodiesel blends hydrocarbon was reduced linearly.
3.3 Nitrogen Oxides (NOX):
NO and NO2 are called as NOx. Its emission takes place at high temperature from by reaction of Oxygen and
Nitrogen during combustion [29]. NOx is responsible for depleting ozone layer [32]. Researchers observed that
NOx emission increases with increase in blending and average increase is noted on average by 10-13% [12].
However in the literature [33,34] it is reported that NOx emissions are similar in biodiesel and diesel. [35] used
B35 blends of soybean and diesel on several vehicles and found that difference was not important. However
some literature reported that NOx emission is reduced using biodiesel [36].
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3.4 Carbon Monoxide:

CO forms in earlier stages of combustion before full conversion to CO2. The CO emission from biodiesel is 4850% lower than diesel [12]. [40] found that with use of biodiesel CO emission was reduced to 50% compared to
low sulphur diesel. Maximum reduction was observed by [19] nearly 73-94%. However some researchers
observed less reduction in CO emission around 30% compared to diesel [8]. It was observed that with increase
in biodiesel content, oxygen content increases which result in lower CO emission [8].
3.5 Carbon Dioxide:
Compared to diesel, biodiesel reduces CO2 emission. It was reported that CO2 emissions are reduced due to
lower Carbon to Hydrogen ratio [8].
4. Technological Issues in Internal Combustion Engine and their Solution:
It is very important to study the technical sustainability of biodiesel in compression ignition engine. There are
various technical and environmental advantages of biodiesel over petrodiesel. Carbon deposit, Cold starting,
Engine wear, Storage and Clogging are some technological disadvantages. However injection timing and fuel
supply system are required to modify to run engine on pure biodiesel.
Till now without any modification in existing Internal combustion (I.C) engine biodiesel is directly used having
some physical and chemical properties similar to petrodiesel. Very important physical and chemical properties
of various biodiesel are in table 1 as compared to diesel. All the biodiesel have the required properties to
satisfactorily run in diesel engine. Viscosity of biodiesel is more compared to diesel, at low temperature fluidity
of fuel decreases, which affects the fuel injection system [37]. However [41] found that higher viscosity helps in
reducing plunger leakage and increase fuel injector efficiency. Biodiesel has higher cloud point and pour point
compared to diesel due to this biodiesel freezes at higher temperature compared to diesel.
The engine fueled with biodiesel faces some problems that include fuel freezing at low temperature, less energy
density, fuel degradation stored for long period [37]. The engine fueled first time with biodiesel blend face one
more problem, has a layer of deposits in fuel tank and hose etc. Biodiesel blends removes those deposits which
block fuel filters [37].
Biodiesel can be mixed with diesel at any level to create biodiesel blends. When pure biodiesel B100 is injected,
combustion starts at the early stage with shorter ignition delay, due to this temperature of the exhaust gas in
B100 is lower than diesel. So injection timing needs to be adjusted [42].
Table 1. Comparison of various properties of biodiesel with diesel. [9]
706

Biodiesel at higher temperature is more prone to oxidation and forms products like aldehyde and alcohol
insolubles, which causes injector fouling, forms deposits in engine and other parts[37]. Biodiesel reacts with
plastic pipes, so must be changed when pure biodiesel is used [43].
Most of the studies show that 20% blends of biodiesel with diesel are run in engine without modification. Thus it
would be appropriate to use blends rather than 100% biodiesel in existing engine.
The solution to problem of high viscosity, high cetane number of biodiesel is modification of engine. The
following modification are required, fuel pump, fuel filter and retardation in injection timing.
Fuel pump generally faces problem like corrosion of fuel injector, at low temperature pump seizure due to high
viscosity. To tackle these problems pump material should be more corrosion resistant (like aluminium alloy,
iron based alloy etc.) [37].
To reduce the cold weather problem, heating system can be used which draw heat from engine radiator [37]. To
solve fuel filter problem many researchers prescribed quicker fuel filter change which however increase
cost.[44] found that as compared to diesel engine, for biodiesel fuel injector should be checked twice because of
coking in biodiesel fueled engine. The temperature of nozzle has to be kept below 250o C to avoid plugging and
coke formation.
5. Modification of Engine
Various researchers work on engine modification using different biodiesel in different engine. [45] worked on
diesel engine using blends of palm and rapeseed oil biodiesel with diesel by modifying IVO 18o (inlet valve
open) before TDC (top dead centre), IVC 234o (inlet valve closed) after TDC, while exhaust valve opening
and closing at 120o and 16o after TDC respectively with compression 16:1 and observed that these blends have
shorter ignition delay than diesel fuel. [46] worked on 6 cylinder diesel engine fueled with soy blends with
following modification, inlet valve opening and closing 20o BTDC (before top dead centre) /200o ATDC (after
top dead centre), EVO (Exhaust Valve Open) 220 BTDC, EVC (Exhaust Valve close) 20o ATDC and found
that SFC (specific fuel consumption) and NOx emission are higher due to low calorific value and presence of
oxygen content compared to biodiesel. Calorific value of various blend of biodiesel is shown in Table 2.[47]
used Soy biodiesel on four stroke engine by modifying fuel injection system and found slight increase soot
emission and BSFC whereas NOx emission slightly reduced due to increase of exhaust gas recirculation rate.
[13] used single cylinder diesel engine having compression ratio 18:1, maximum torque 250Nm, standard
injection pressure 20MPa and obtained that engine performance is increased with the use of ethanol blending
with biodiesel and diesel.
[48] experimented on four stroke direct injection engine by modifying injection pressure (19.6 MPa) and
compression ratio 18:1 and obtained that exhaust emission are reduced by using tallow methyl esters.
Table 2. Properties of fuel of Karanja oil and neem oil different blends [49, 50]
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6. Combustion In Compression Ignition (C.I.) Engine:

Diesel engine works on the basis of compression ignition. Compression raise temperature and pressure of air
inside the cylinder when fuel injected atomize with air and autoignites. The combustion depends upon the air
and fuel mixture. Generally compression ratio in CI engine is in the order of 12-24 to ensure high temperature.
So mixture autoignites [26]. Combustion process in CI engine completes in four stages.
I. Delay period a) Physical delay b) Chemical delay
ii. Uncontrolled Combustion
iii. Controlled Combustion
iv. After burning
I. Delay period: Delay period starts when the fuel is injected in the cylinder, this period is called preparatory
period. During this period fuel vaporized and mixed with air but ignition has not yet started. Delay period is
found different for both diesel and biodiesel [26]. This is further divided into two sections: Physical delay and
Chemical delay.
Physical delay: The time between fuel injection and chemical reaction attainment is known as physical delay.
During this period fuel is vaporized and mixed with air so that it can auto ignite. Physical delay depends on
viscosity, higher the viscosity greater is the physical delay. Viscosity of various biodiesel is given in Table1.
Chemical delay: After physical delay period free flame reaction start slowly and after some time fuel burns
automatically and the time consumed in this is known as chemical delay. It depends upon the temperature of
surrounding. Higher the surrounding temperature lesser is the chemical delay [51].
ii. Uncontrolled combustion: During physical delay and chemical delay mere fuel droplet injected and group
of droplets burn together, this produced uncontrolled combustion. During this period pressure rise rapidly.
Extent of pressure rise depends on amount of fuel injected in this period [51].
iii. Controlled combustion: After some period of time of uncontrolled combustion the temperature of the
combustion chamber is so high that as soon as the fuel droplets enter in the combustion chamber it burns
instantaneously and this is called controlled combustion.
iv. After burning: Diesel fuel is less volatile, there are some pockets of air/fuel mixture which will burn during
expansion, known as after burning.
7. Different Techniques to Improve Combustion in Biodiesel.
To improve the combustion of engine when fueled with biodiesel many properties are needed to be improved
because viscosity and mass density of biodiesel are higher after transesterification. As viscosity affects
vaporization, atomization and fuel air mixing, [52] found that viscosity, surface tension and density affects the
atomization in diesel engine. However the density and viscosity is compensated by using turbocharge [53].
Turbo charger ensure more air at higher temperature and pressure at the time of injection in the cylinder and
provides better combustion [54].
8. Conclusion
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel to diesel made from natural sources such as microalgae, vegetable oils and
animal fats. Biodiesel operates in CI engine without modification, mainly characterized by cloud point, pour
point, viscosity and heating value etc. It is concluded from the literature that use of biodiesel results in loss of
power because of low heating value. Biodiesel has high viscosity which affects the fuel injection system
especially in cold weather which require heating system to increase the fluidity of fuel. Moreover various
emissions are reduced using biodiesel with slight increase in NOx emission. CO emission are also reduced. It is
also concluded that carbon deposit and engine parts wear is reduced with biodiesel compared to diesel. Apart
from this it was found that biodiesel has shorter ignition delay due to low compressibility, higher cetane number
and viscosity. Engine performance and emission are improved with the use of various antioxidants and
additives. In future many modifications are needed in the engine and fuel properties so that biodiesel can
completely replace diesel.
708
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A Literature Review of Hydrogen Production

From Biomass Gasification
Koushik Maji, P. Goyal and Amit Pal
Abstract - Renewable energy can assist countries meet their policy demand for secure, reliable and affordable
energy through broadening electricity access and stimulating development. Among available sources biomass
can play a major role for the development of sustainable energy system. The energy situation in rural India is
characterized by low quality of fuel, low efficiency of use, low reliability of supply and limited access leading to
lower productivity of land, water and human effort, ultimately leading to low quality of life and environmental
degradation. First, dependence on biomass (fuel wood, crop residue and cattle dung) and traditional cook stoves
with low efficiency which emit smoke into kitchen, leads to low quality of life for most rural women. Secondly,
dependence on centralized grid electricity supply to low-load rural situations is characterized by fluctuating
voltage, unreliable supply and shortage of power in most parts of rural India. Dependence on coal-based electric
power plants are leading to environmental degradation, land degradation, air, water and soil pollution and
global. The objective of using biomass energy for producing electricity is to promote commercialisation of
biomass gasification to produce fuel and synthesis gases that can be subsequently converted to substitute for
fossil fuel based energy products and chemicals, and lay the foundation for secure and sustainable energy
supply. This study assesses upgraded technology for gasification to increase efficiency of fuel by filtering
syngas with the help of fine sieve filters. In view of these, it has been decided to collect and review the research
activities carried out on biomass gasification by the various researchers.
Keywords- Biomass gasification; Syngas; Tar Purification; Catalytic Gasification
ntroduction Gasification is the process of converting biomass into a gaseous fuel and the process is
influenced in one of these medium among air, oxygen and steam. Combustion in which oxidation is
substantially complete with single stage, but gasification converts the chemical energy of the carbon in the
biomass into a combustible gas in two phases. The gas produced can be upgraded its quality and is
comparatively easy and more versatile to use than the original biomass e.g. it can be used to gas engines and gas
turbines, or used as a chemical feedstock to produce liquid fuels. Strictly, gasification includes biochemical as
well as thermochemical conversion, the former involving microorganisms at ambient temperature without any
oxygen, i.e. anaerobic digestion, while the latter uses air, oxygen or steam at temperatures more than 800C.
Koushik Maji and Amit Pal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042.
maji.koushik1992@gmail.com, amitpal@dce.ac.in,
P. Goyal
Amity Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh,India
priyankagoel03@gmail.com
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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The term ''gasification'' in this study will indicate only to the thermochemical conversion of biomass.
Thermochemical conversion technologies have certain advantages and disadvantagesover biochemical
conversion technologies. The main advantages is that the feedstock for thermochemical conversion can be any
type of biomass including agricultural residues, forestry residues, by products from bio refineries, residues of
food industry, by products of any bioprocessing facility and even organic municipal wastes; and the product
gases can be converted to different types of fuels (H2, Fischer-Tropsch (FT) diesels, synthetic gasoline) and
chemicals (methanol, urea) as substitutes for petroleum-based chemicals; the products are more compatible
with existing petroleum refining operations. The major disadvantages are the high cost associated with
removing tar and undesirable contaminants like alkali compounds from the product gas, high temperatures
required, and the unproven use of products (syngas and bio-oil) as transportation fuels. However, study on the
improvisation of gasifier operating conditions and heat recovery, syngas cleaning, bio-oil stabilisation,
utilization of product effectively can make the process important for sustainable production of biofuel. It was
concluded that use of cellulosic biofuels (ethanol via gasification and fermentation, FT diesel and dimethyl
ether (DME) from biomass, etc.) in light duty locomotives results in significant savings of fossil fuel resources
and reduction in greenhouse gases. Co-production of cellulosic biofuels and power generation by GTCC
consumes the least fossil fuel resources and results in the greatest reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
on a per-mile basis, of the thermochemical conversion techniques.
The literature on combustion characteristics of the different biomass materials, different types of gasifiers in
general and their applications have been reviewed. The article which was taken for the purpose of literature
review cover wide areas of biomass gasification. Some focus on the techniques whiles other focussed on
modification.
Presently, power sector is facing a problem due to lack of fossil fuel and problem of energy cost and climate
change is also associated with it. So dependence on fossil fuel has to be reduced and has to replace it with
renewable energy resources. Among those, biomass gasification is most widely used due to its cleanliness.
Hydrogen production from biomass through concentrated solar heat flux is easy, flexible, costs effective.
Pozzbon et al. [1] and Tanaka et al. [2] investigated that concentrated solar heat flux can be used to raise the
gasification temperature more than 1200. There is an impact of wood fibre orientation relative to the solar
flux and moisture content, but wood fibre orientation has small effect. They have shown the same results with
the different experimental set-up. pozzbon used an artificial sun and a new reaction chamber in his experiment,
while Tanaka used a bubbling fluidized bed boiler to gasify and a gas turbine to produce power. These studies
shows that the overall performance will be improved if the whole set up is integrated with solar thermal process.
Sharma et al. [3] showed that to increase the hydrogen content of the producer gas, steam is used along with air
in a gasifier. In this study downdraft gasifier is used along with air-steam mixture.
Thattai et al. [4] did thermodynamic assessment on high percentage (up to 70%) biomass co-gasification with
the integration of combined cycled power plant in Netherland. It is an experimental model validation in which
tests have been carried out at the 253MWe coal based power plant. The demonstration of such a high percentage
biomass co-gasification experiment at a large scale power plant have huge impact for further development of
low emission/carbon neutral power plants. To achieve net electrical output pre-treated biomass has been used
2.1 Factors Influence the Biomass Gasification
2.1.1 Addition of HO, CO and O
Billaud et al. [5] explained the influence of oxygen, water vapour, addition on biomass gasification in entrained
flow reactor. He showed that between the temperature range of 800 and 1000, HO or CO addition has no
influence on gasification product yields. But at 1200 and 1400 the char gasification is significantly enhanced.
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2.1.2 Effect of Surroundings and Fuel Size.
Lundberg et al. [6] concluded that the operational conditions of a reactor, through modified fuel axial mixing,
can influence the char gasification rate. He used, a bench-scale bubbling fluidized bed was used to investigate
how the gasification rate of biomass char was influenced by the fuel axial location, the pyrolysis atmosphere,
the fuel size and the fuel concentration during pyrolysis and char gasification. He elaborated that fuel particle
size has an impact on both the gasification rate and the dependence of the gasification rate on the degree of char
conversion. The smaller the particle size, the higher was the gasification rate.
The surrounding conditions, including the heating rate affects char reactivity by affecting char structure. Many
other authors have shown that chars formed at high heating rates are much more reactive than those produced at
low heating rates. If a low heating rate is used the morphology of the fuel particles remains unchanged. If a high
heating rate is used, the volatile yield is much higher. The char is more porous than that formed using a low
heating rate. So it can be concluded with the above experiments that char is more reactive.
The fuel size also affects the heating rate. Smaller particles have higher heating rates, which make them more
reactive than larger fuel particles. Another factor that affects char reactivity is that the total surface area of the
char.
Lundberg et al. observed that surface area and pore volume of the char were very low after pyrolysis, when
exposed to steam surface area and the pore volume increased.
Vilches et al. [7] found that at low fluidization velocities the level of axial fuel segregation was high but when
increasing the fluidization velocity above 8 times of the minimum fluidization velocity showed no further effect
on the fuel axial mixing. Fatehi et al. [8] also observed that the evolution of char porous structure can affect the
conversion rate of the char by affecting the intra particle transport. In this paper, a model is developed and is
based on the capillary theory.
2.1.3 Addition of Catalyst
Xu et al. [9] investigated the influence of tar-containing syngas from biomass gasification on dense palladium
and palladium Ruthenium membranes. These are the hydrogen-selective membranes to extract pure
hydrogen. The concentrations of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, steam and methane in
the syngas fed to the membrane were observed. The typical hydrogen concentration in the syngas was about
16%. The average hydrogen sulphide right after the biomass gasifier was not more than 0.2 ppm consistent with
the sulphur dry weight in the raw biomass. The conversion of biomass into hydrogen rich gas is a replacement of
fossils fuels.but to render it into the commercial market tar component needs to be reduced. To achieve this
catalytic gasification is much more reliable than other experiments. Noble metal catalysts have good properties,
but their costs are major considerable matter in their industrial application. Transitional metal catalysts exhibit
excellent catalytic activity at low cost, but they suffer deactivation resulted from carbon deposition. A few
researcher addressed this study and used nickel based steam reforming catalyst with or alternative to calcined
dolomite.Rapagna et al.[10] also explained in his study that the use of dolomite in a secondary reactor results in
an increase in the overall gas yield. To perform this experiment author used a secondary catalytic fixed bed
reactor. A disadvantage has been acknowledged in the rapid loss of the catalytic activity due to the fouling by
carbon build-up on the surface of the catalyst itself. Such deactivation can be partially overcame by using
catalyst in the fluidised state and in a secondary reactor results show that the total gas yield under these
conditions after several hours of operation is considerably lower than that at the start of the test: tar conversion is
far for complete and heavy components are still present in the product gas.
Di Blasi explained calcium and potassium have a catalytic effect on char gasification. However the presence of
high concentration of silicon and potassium can form silicate which can deactivate its catalytic effect.
Chen et al. [11] also dealt with the catalytic gasification. The catalyst used in this study is LaXFeO. The use of
catalysts allows a lower gasification temperature and favours tar cracking leading to higher hydrogen yield. It is
a prepared catalyst. It is a perovskites type (ABO) oxides. A-denotes rare earth or alkaline earth metals, while
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B- denotes transition metal. If this oxides contains iron this oxides would exhibit excellent property. The use of
Fe in the perovskite phase is conducive to the supply of oxygen species. Thus carbon formation can be
suppressed.
Hamad et al. [12] performed series of experiment to investigate the effects of different operating parameters on
the performance of the gasification process and also the effect of catalyst. The catalysts selected are marly clay,
calcium hydroxide, dolomite, and cement kiln dust. The purpose of using catalyst includes cracking of tar;
decreasing the gasification temperature; and enhancing steam reforming. Clay is used as a raw material in the
cement industry as a cheap source of CaO. This catalyst was proven to enhance yield, quality of the product gas
and decrease the yield of tars by cracking the high molecular weight organic components. Dolomite contains a
higher content of CaO than marly clay. The use of dolomite decreases the liquid fraction, increases secondary
decomposition of tars and also increases the specific surface area of solid residue. Olivine and Zinc chloride
used as alternative catalysts for the gasification. Compared to other additives, zinc chloride produced five to
eight times more hydrogen. Calcium oxide is a cheap alkali material and used as a carbon dioxide sorbent. Large
quantities cement kiln dusts are produced during the production of Portland cement. Cement kiln dust is
produced at high temperature and it is in oxidized form. And when it is exposed to atmosphere part of it
converted into carbonate form. Cement kiln dust used to save energy in the gasification.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that the gasification technology is an environment friendly skill. A wide variety of biomass
material such as bagasse, municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, waste wood, could be, used as feed material for
gasifier. Catalytic gasification is much more efficient. Nickel based catalyst are extremely active for the
elimination of methane and tars. Furthermore solar pyro gasification of dry samples exhibits very good energy
conversion efficiency. The product contains 90% of the input power capturing up to 72% incident solar power in
the chemical form.
Comparison with air gasification or steam gasification, the supercritical water gasification can directly work
with the wet biomass slurry without drying, and have high gasification efficiency in lower temperature. Another
technique is pyro-gasification, which is highly endothermic. Two main drawbacks come with pyro-gasification
technique: the efficiency with respect to the biomass is lowered and the produced syngas is diluted by N if air is
used to power combustion in the gasification reactor.
References
[1]
Pozzobon, V., Salvador, S., and Bzian, J. J. (2016). Biomass gasification under high solar heat flux:
Experiments on thermally thick samples. Fuel, 174, 257-266
[2]
Tanaka, Y., Mesfun, S., Umeki, K., Toffolo, A., Tamaura, Y., and Yoshikawa, K. (2015).
Thermodynamic performance of a hybrid power generation system using biomass gasification and
concentrated solar thermal processes. Applied Energy, 160, 664-672
[3]
Sharma, S., and Sheth, P. N. (2016). Airsteam biomass gasification: experiments, modeling and
simulation. Energy Conversion and Management,110, 307-318
[4]
Thattai, A. T., Oldenbroek, V., Schoenmakers, L., Woudstra, T., and Aravind, P. V. (2016).
Experimental model validation and thermodynamic assessment on high percentage (up to 70%)
biomass co-gasification at the 253MW e integrated gasification combined cycle power plant in
Buggenum, The Netherlands. Applied Energy, 168, 381-393.
[5]
Billaud, J., Valin, S., Peyrot, M., and Salvador,
S.
(2016). Influence of H 2 O, CO 2 and O 2 addition on biomass gasification in entrained flow reactor
conditions: Experiments and modelling. Fuel, 166, 166-178.
[6]
Lundberg, L., Tchoffor, P. A., Pallars, D., Johansson, R., Thunman, H., and Davidsson, K.( 2 0 1 6 ) .
Influence of surrounding conditions and fuel size on the gasification rate of biomass char in a fluidized
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A Literature Review of Hydrogen Production From....
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
bed. Fuel Processing Technology, 144, 323-333.

Vilches, T. B., Sette, E., and Thunman, H. (2015). Behaviour of biomass particles in a larges c a l e
(24MWth) bubbling bed reactor. WITTransactions on Engineering Sciences, 89, 151-160.
Fatehi, H., and Bai, X. S. (2016). Structural evolution of biomass char and its effect on the gasification
rate. Applied Energy.
Xu, N., Kim, S. S., Li, A., Grace, J. R., Lim, C. J., and Boyd, T. (2016). Investigation of the influence
of tar-containing syngas from biomass gasification on dense Pd and PdRu membranes. Powder
Technology, 290, 132-140.
Rapagna, S., Jand, N., and Foscolo, P. U. (1998). Catalytic gasification of biomass to produce
hydrogen rich gas. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 23(7), 551-557.
Chen, G., Yao, J., Liu, J., Yan, B., and Shan, R. (2015). Biomass to hydrogen-rich syngas via catalytic
steam gasification of bio-oil/biochar slurry. Bioresource technology, 198, 108-114.
Hamad, M. A., Radwan, A. M., Heggo, D. A., and Moustafa, T. (2016). Hydrogen rich gas production
from catalytic gasification of biomass. Renewable Energy, 85, 1290-1300.
717
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Performance Analysis of CI Engines

Using Biodiesel-Diesel Blends
Abstract: Methods for reduction in global warming using bio-diesel blends in single cylinder compression
ignition engine has been investigated in terms of the quantity and quality of energy. In our study the first and
second Laws of thermodynamics are employed to analyze the quantity and quality of energy in a single
cylinder, direct injection diesel engine using conventional diesel fuel and biodiesel fuel. Performance and
emissions have been calculated for each fuel operation and compared with each other. Performance tests are
also conducted for equivalence airfuel ratio, fuel consumption, volumetric efficiency, brake thermal
efficiency, brake power, and brake specific fuel consumption, while exhaust emissions are analyzed for carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide and unburned hydrocarbons (HC), using diesel and biodiesel blends with
different percentages of fuel at three-fourth throttle opening position for variable brake power in a VCR Engine.
Keywords: Biodiesel, Transesterification, Opacity, Brake Specific Fuel Consumption, Brake Thermal Energ
Introduction
The petroleum fuels play a very important role in the development of industrial growth, transportation,
agricultural sector and to meet many other basic human needs. The increasing energy demand, reducing
harmful emissions, and depletion of fossil fuel resources inevitably necessitate for the optimum utilization of
exhaustible fossil fuel and non-renewable energy resources. Hence, the scientists are looking for alternative
fuels and biodiesel is one of the best available sources to fulfill the energy demand of the world. There are
several factors that need to be taken care before recommending any alternate fuel to be used with existing
technologies on a large scale. The main factors are stated below:1.
Extent of modification required in existing hardwares, i.e., if any alternate fuel needs extensive
modification in the existing hardware involving huge capital investment, then it may be difficult to
implement.
2.
The investment cost for developing infrastructure to manufacture and supply of these alternate fuels.
The excessive infrastructure cost may act as a deterrent to the development of the alternate energy
resources.
3.
Environmental compatibility as compared to conventional fuels.
4.
Additional cost to the user in terms of routine maintenance, equipment wear and lubricating oil life.
The excessive additional cost will have an adverse effect on the widespread acceptance of
alternate fuels.
Biodiesel has high potential to gradually replace petroleum based fuels as they satisfy most of the parameters
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042.
shashank20mohan@gmail.com
Corresponding Author; Tel: +91 8285177272 ,

DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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mentioned above. Biodiesel is a sulfur-free, non-toxic, biodegradable and oxygenated fuel with a higher cetane
number and lubricity. Although vegetable oils hold promise as alternative fuels [4, 5], using raw oils in diesel
engines can lead to problems like injector coking and piston ring sticking. Hence raw oils are converted into
more suitable form called Biodiesel. Biodiesel are the alkyl esters produced from triglycerides present in
naturally occurring fats and oils by transesterification with alcohol, usually methanol, in the presence of a
catalyst. Transesterification involves a reaction between immiscible alcohol and triglycerides to form glycerol
and esters in the presence of catalyst as shown in equation 1. The reaction is reversible and hence excess alcohol
is required to shift the equilibrium to the product side.
O
CH2-O-C-R1
O
CH-O-C-R2
CH2-OH
3CH3OH
CH-OH
CH2-O-C-R2
O
CH2-O-C-R3
(Triglyceride)
CH3-O-C-R1
O
CH2-OH
(Alcohol)
(Glycerol)
CH3-O-C-R3
(1)
(Methyl esters)
Many researchers [5, 7-16], have studied biodiesel fuels and their blends with petroleum diesel
fuel as an alternative energy source in the compression ignition engine, and its performance,
emissions and combustion characteristics of the engine were analyzed. The results showed that
biodiesel fuels provided increase in brake specific fuel consumption (Bsfc) since biodiesel fuels
have lower heating values. Based on these studies, biodiesel can be used as a substitute for diesel
in diesel engine.
Considerable research has been carried out for Thermodynamic analysis of CI engines for using
Biodiesel blend [1-3, 6]. Biodiesel blend has not been used majorly till now and it has a great
scope in India. Research is being carried out to make Biodiesel economically viable for
transportation purposes. Increase of biodiesel percentage in biodiesel blends would help in
preventing unsustainable usage of natural resources. Biodiesel usage results in lower emissions
of toxic compounds. NOx emission increases whereas Hydrocarbon emissions decrease with
Biodiesel. Cetane number of Biodiesel is more than normal diesel. This paper deals with energetic
and exegetic analysis of CI engine using higher percentage of biodiesel blend, optimization of
engine performance using higher percentage of biodiesel blend irreversibility associated with
various processes of CI engine.
2.Material and Methods
Cottonseed oil is extracted from the seeds of cotton plant of various species, mainly Gossypium
hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum. Cotton grown for oil extraction is one of the big four
genetically modified crops grown around the world, next to soy, corn, and rapeseed. Refined CSO
is composed predominantly of oleic acid. Oleic acid is an C18:1 unsaturated fatty acid. Gossypol is a
toxic yellow polyphenolic compound produced by cotton and other members of the order
Malvaceae, such as okra. This coloured compound is found in tiny glands in the seeds, leaf, stem,
tap root bark and root of the cotton plant. CSO used in this work was purchased from a local
market of Madhya Pradesh where cotton is cultivated in abundance. Diesel (D-100) was
purchased from nearby Indian oil Corporation Petrol Pump.
This project is carried out in two stages: preparation of biodiesel from cottonseed oil and
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Performance Analysis of CI Engines Using Biodiesel-....

testing for performance of VCR diesel engine using B20 and B40 and B60 Biodiesel-Diesel blends.
Energy Analysis
Most transient-flow processes can be modelled as a uniform flow process. With the purpose of simplifying the
first law calculations of the test engine, the following assumptions were made; the engine operates at steadystate, the whole engine, including the dynamometer, is selected as a control volume, the combustion air and the
exhaust gas each forms ideal gas mixtures and potential and kinetic energy effects of the incoming and outgoing
fluid streams are ignored. After these assumptions, fuel energy rate to the control volume is given by the
following equation
where LHV is the lower heating value (kJ/kg) and mf is the mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s), respectively.
Power of the engine are determined by Equation Pe=V.I/1000 (KW)
After that, brake specific fuel consumption, (bsfc) can be calculated by following relation.
Total exhaust heat, the overall heat in the exhaust gases expressed as a rate of energy flow is given by
where; mgw : mass flow rate of calorimeter cooling water (kg/s); Cp,w : specific heat of the calorimeter cooling
water (kJ/kgK); Tw1: cooling water inlet temperature (C); Tw2: cooling water outlet temperature(C); Te1:
Exhaust gas temperature at engine(C); Te2: Exhaust gas temperature at inlet to calorimeter (C);
Te3:exhaust gas temperature at outlet from calorimeter (C);
T0: ambient air temperature (C) [26,34].
Total heat loss to be consisting of cooling water and radiation heat is determined by Eq.(2). Thermal efficiency
of the control volume (energy percentage), is usually determined as the ratio of the power output (net work) to
the fuel energy input and determined by Eq.(3).
Exergy Analysis
Unlike energy, the value of exergy depends on the state of the environment as well as the state of the system.
Therefore, exergy is a combination property. The exergy analysis of thermal systems is performed to improve
energy source utilization by determining the order of exergy destructions and losses in the processes and
components of the system and then by reducing them. In principle, four different type of exergy can be
identified. These are denoted, respectively, as kinetic, potential, physical and chemical exergy, viz.: The
specific flow exergy of a fluid stream (e) is obtained from this sum, Eq. (4). However, exergy is the sum of the
thermo mechanical and chemical exergies. tme and che are thermo mechanical and chemical exergies,
respectively. Thermo mechanical exergy is defined as Eq.(5)
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Where h and s are flow enthalpy and flow entropy per unit mass at the relevant temperature and pressure,
respectively, while h0 and s0 stand for the corresponding values of these properties when the fluid comes to
equilibrium with the reference environment. The specific chemical exergies of liquid fuels can be evaluated
from the following expression on a unit mass basis h, c, o, and s are the mass fractions of H, C, O, and S,
respectively. Chemical exergies of diesel fuel (C16H34), and biodiesel (C18.74H34.43O2) were computed
using this equation, and the values are presented in Table
Table 1. Elemental analysis of No.2 diesel fuel and biodiesel [6]
And finaly, exergy rate balance relation is given by Eq. (6)
and
T indicates the absolute temperature at the location on the boundary where the heat transfer occurs. When
computing the rate of exergy transfer accompanying heat transfer, it was assumed that Qcvis rejected into the
ambient air from the boundary having the same temperature as the engine coolant exiting the engine block.
Inserting values for the exergy transfers accompanying heat, mass flow, and power transfers, the rate of exergy
destruction in the engine can be determined by the Eq. (7)..
3. Experimental Work
3.1 Preparation of Cottonseed oil Methyl Esters (CSOME)
The cottonseed oil was filtered thoroughly twice to remove any suspended impurities. It is then heated at 1101200 C to remove any moisture content. Free Fatty Acid Content of the. In order to find FFA content, 10 gm of
Isopropyl alcohol is added to the oil with 2 drops of phenolphthalein. It is then poured into a burette and then
titrated with N/10 solution of NaOH. In our experiment 0.1 ml of NaOH was required. The FFA content of the
acid is calculated by the formula : (5.61 X Volume used )/2. Since the FFA content of the Cottonseed oil comes
out to be less than 1.5, we can go for straight transesterification of the oil. Methanol (20 % by volume of oil ) and
KOH (1% by weight of oil) are thoroughly mixed till they get completely dissolved to form potassium MethaOxide. Cottonseed oil is then mixed with Potassium Methaoxide while the mechanical heating and stirring is
going on at about 65 C for 1.5 hours. Glycerin is formed at the bottom layer CSOME floats above it after the
mixture is allowed to settle for 2 hrs. Raw Biodiesel is then collected and is Water Degummed and/or Acid
722

Degummed to bring the Phosphorous content to 250/25 ppm respectively. Thereafter, biodiesel is repeatedly
washed with water at 35-40 C. Finally, the biodiesel is heated to 120 C to remove any excess water.
3.2 Preparation of CSOME and Diesel Oil Blend
The CSOME was properly filtered with a diesel engine fuel filter and then blended with diesel oil in varying
proportions with the intention of reducing its viscosity close to that of the diesel fuel. Engine test experiments
are performed with different diesel-CSOME blends. All these blends were stable under normal conditions.
3.3
Experimental Set Up for Performance Testing
Fig: 1 Experimental setup

The setup consists of a single cylinder, four strokes, Diesel engine connected to eddy current type dynamometer
for loading. It is used with necessary instruments for combustion pressure and crank-angle measurements.
These signals are interfaced to a computer through engine indicator for P- & P-V diagrams. Sensors are used
interfacing airflow, fuel flow, temperatures and load measurement. The setup has standalone panel box
consisting of air box, two fuel tanks for duel fuel test, manometer, fuel measuring unit, transmitters for air and
fuel flow measurements, process indicator and engine indicator. Rotameters are provided for cooling water and
calorimeter water flow measurement. The engine specifications are given in Table 3. The setup enables varying
the compression ratio for measurement of engine performance parameters like BTE, brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC). Lab view based Engine performance analysis software package Engine soft LV is used
for on line performance evaluation. A computerized diesel injection pressure sensor is used for the
measurement of combustion chamber pressure
5. Results and discussions
Fig. 2 to 10 shows performance characteristics at variable load conditions at different compression ratios for
neat diesel and diesel-CSOME blends (B-20, B-40 and B-60).
Fig.2 : Comparison of Opacity v/s Brake

Power for diesel and CSOME blends at 16 CR

Power for diesel and CSOME blends at 18 CR
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Fig.4 : Comparison of Opacity v/s Brake Power

for B-20 at different compression ratios
Mohan et al.
Fig.5 : Comparison of Opacity v/s Brake Power

for B-40 at variable compression ratio

Power for B-60 at different compression ratios
Fig.7: Comparison of BTE v/s Brake Power

for diesel and CSOME blends at 18 CR.
Fig.8: Comparison of BTE v/s Brake Power

for neat diesel and CSOME blends of at 16 CR
Fig.9: Comparison of BSFC v/s Brake Power

for diesel and CSOME blends at 18 CR
Fig.10: Comparison of BSFC v/s Brake Power for neat diesel and CSOME blends at CR 16
724

4.1 Variation of the Smoke Opacity W.R.T. Brake Power at 16 CR
Fig. 2 shows that smoke opacity value for neat diesel is slightly lower as compared to the dieselCSOME blends. Biodiesel has about 10% oxygen by weight, which results in decrease of smoke opacity.
However, its higher viscosity results in increase in smoke opacity. At lower compression ratio (16) effect of
volatility dominates the effect of oxygen content. Probably vaporization and atomization of high viscosity fuel
become difficult at lower compression ratios.
4.2 Variation of Smoke Opacity W.R.T. Brake Power at 18 Compression Ratio
Fig.3 shows opacity value for all diesel-CSOME blends increases from 1% to 33% between the brake
power ranges of 0.5 and 4kW brake power. The trend regarding the variation of opacity values w.r.t. brake
power is almost similar for all types of blends. The opacity value for neat diesel is slightly higher as compared to
all types of blends. Addition of CSOME to neat diesel increases the viscosity and oxygen content of the fuel.
The effect of latter dominates at 18 compression ratio and thus decrease in opacity is noticed for all dieselCSOME blends. Extremely low sulphur in biodiesel also results in low smoke opacity.
4.3 Variation of Opacity W.R.T. Brake Power for B-20, B-40, B-60 Blends At Different Compression
Ratios
Fig.4 to 6 shows opacity values for B-20, B-40, B-60 blends respectively. It shows that smoke opacity
decreases at higher compression ratios as the effects of higher viscosity and lower volatility reduces as
compression ratio increases.
4.4 Variation of BTE W.R.T. Brake Power At 18 Compression Ratio
Fig. 7 shows the variation of BTE v/s brake power for diesel-CSOME blends in comparison to neat
diesel. For all selected diesel-biodiesel blends, BTE increases with brake power output and the trend is almost
similar to diesel. This small gain in BTE as compared to diesel is due to the presence of oxygen in biodiesel
molecules and its higher lubricity, which results in better combustion and lower frictional losses.
4.5 Variation of BTE W.R.T. Brake Power At 16 Compression Ratio
diesel. For all selected blends BTE increases with brake power output and the trend is almost similar with
diesel. No significant change in BTE is seen, when using diesel-CSOME blends as compared to diesel. DieselCSOME blends show poor vaporization and atomization characteristics at lower compression ratios due to
higher viscosity and lower volatility. This counteracts the effect of increase in BTE due to the presence of
oxygen in biodiesel molecules and higher lubricity.
4.6 Variation of BSFC W.R.T. Brake Power At 18 Compression Ratio
diesel at 18 compression ratio. BSFC values were found to be slightly higher than those of neat diesel inspite of
increase in BTE with diesel-CSOME blends. This is due to lower heating values of diesel-CSOME blends and
thus more fuel was required for maintenance of constant power output. An indicator of the loss of heating value
and thus less than expected fuel consumption is due to the oxygen content of the CSOME blends.
4.7 Variation of BSFC W.R.T. Brake Power At 16 Compression Ratio
Fig. 10 shows the variation of BTE v/s brake power for diesel- CSOME blends in comparison to neat
diesel at 18 compression ratio. The percentage increase in BSFC, with biodiesel blends as compared to diesel at
16 compression ratio is more as compared to the corresponding increase at 18 compression ratio. This is due to
negligible rise in BTE with biodiesel blends at 16 compression ratio.
5. Conclusions
In our study, test engine was operated at steady-state without modifications to engine or injection system. Using
data gathered from the present study, energy balances to the engine were performed for the either fuel. And then,
energetic performance parameters of the engine computed and compared with each other. Since the net calorific
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value of diesel is greater than that of the biodiesel. It means that to cover the same distance, greater amount of
biodiesel is needed. In addition to this, using of biodiesel fuel shows the similar energetic performance values
with that of diesel fuel.
In our study, the first and second Laws of thermodynamics are employed to analyze the quantity and quality of
energy in a single-cylinder, direct injection diesel engine using petroleum diesel fuel and biodiesel fuel. The
experimental data are collected using steady-state tests which enable accurate measurements of air, fuel and
cooling water flow rates, engine load, and all the relevant temperatures.
The results of tested biodiesel offer similar energetic performance as petroleum diesel fuel. Special attention is
given to identification and quantification of second-law efficiencies and the irreversibilities of various
processes and subsystems. The latter being particularly important since they are not identified in traditional
first-law analysis.
High biodiesel conversion yield is obtained for combined (hydrodynamic cavitation and mechanical stirring)
process as compared to hydrodynamic cavitation or mechanical stirring alone. Higher percentage of catalyst
does not have much impact on biodiesel production. Smoke opacity values were lower for diesel-CSOME
blends as compared to neat diesel when the engine is operated at 18 compression ratio. Brake Thermal
Efficiency for diesel- CSOME blends was higher as compared to neat diesel when the engine is operated at 18
compression ratio. Brake specific fuel consumption for diesel- CSOME blends was higher as compared to neat
diesel inspite of increase in Brake Thermal Efficiency.
References
1.
P. Sekmen and Z. Ylba. The Determination of a Diesel Engine Performance with Exergy Analysis,
MSc Thesis, ZKU Graduate School of Natural&Applied Sciences Deptof Mech. Eng., Zonguldak,
2007.
2.
N. Janardhan, P.Ushasri and P.V.K.Murthy. Biodiesel as an Alternative Fuel for Diesel Engines-A
Review, Renewable and Sustainable EnergyReviews, 2009,13(103-09).
3.
C.D. Rakopoulos and E.G. Giakoumis. The Influence of Cylinder Wall Temperature Profile on the
Second-Law Diesel Engine Transient Response, Applied Thermal Engineering, 2005, 25(11-12).
4.
R.E. Sonntag, C. Borgnakke and G.J.Van Wylen. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics. 5th edition, New
York: Wiley; 1998.
5.
R.W. Haywood. Equilibrium thermodynamics for engineers and scientists. New York: Wiley; 1980.
6.
P.F. Flynn, K.L. Hoag, M.M. Kamel and R.J. Primus. A new perspective on diesel engine evaluation
based on second law analysis. SAE paper No. 840032. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive
Engineers Inc; 1984.
7.
J.H. Van Gerpen, H.N. Shapiro. Second-Law analysis of diesel engine combustion. Trans ASME J Eng
Gas Turbines Power.
8.
H.N. Shapiro, J.H. Van Gerpen. Two zone combustion models for second law analysis of internal
combustion engines and application of availability and energy balances to a diesel engine, Trans
ASME J Eng Gas Turbines Power, 1988, 110 (4629).
9.
A. Pal, A. Verma, S.S. Kachhwaha and S. Maji. Biodiesel production through hydrodynamic cavitation
and performance testing Renewable Energy, 2011, 35(619-624).
10.
G.P. Beretta and J.C. Keck. Energy and entropy balances in a combustion chamber: analytical solution,
Combust Sci Technol, 1983,30 (1929).
11.
J.A. Caton. Operating characteristics of a spark-ignition engine using the second law of
thermodynamics: effects of speed and load, SAE paper no. 2000-01-0952. Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers Inc; 2000.
12.
W.L.R. Gallo and L.F. Milanez. Exergetic analysis of ethanol and gasoline fueled engines. SAE paper
no. 920809. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers Inc, 1992.
13.
K.B. Lee. Performance and emission study of ethanol on medium capacity diesel engine. Energy,
2010,35 (2484-249210).
14.
A.K. Agarwal, J. Bijwe and L.M. Das. Wear assessment in biodiesel fuelled compression ignition
engine. J Eng Gas Turbine Power 2003,125:3 (820-6).
726
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Split and Recombination Micromixer

with Offset Inlets
Farhan Ahsan Khan, Noorul Huda, Afzal Husain,
Mohammad O. Hamdan and M. A. Ansari
Abstract- EPresent study proposes a novel design of passive micromixer based on the concept of offset inlets,
and split and recombination. The proposed micromixer is designed with non-aligned inlet channels and
spatially repeating 3D mixing units with mixing chambers & sub-channel having alternate bends to stir the
flow. A variance based mixing index was used to compute the degree of mixing of fluids. A characterization
methodology was employed to study the effect of various design parameters. A comparison of mixing
performance was performed between proposed micromixer and 3D serpentine micromixer. The proposed
micromixer gives excellent performance over a wide range of Reynolds number covered in the study.
Keywords- Passive micromixer; offset inlets; Split and Recombination; Numerical Analysis; Mixing index.
ntroduction Many biological processes require efficient mixing of reactants e.g. enzyme reactions, DNA
sequencing, protein folding, etc. Nowadays focus is on developing methods to manipulate the flow in
microchannels to enhance fluid mixing. Large surface to volume ratio of microfluidic devices facilitates
in mixing that helps to control the output in chemical reactions. Micromixers can be broadly classified into two
categories, i.e., active and passive. Passive micromixers do not require any external source, they have specially
designed geometries to alter the flow pathuid flow and achieve better mixing.
Stroock et al. [1] investigated a T-channel having periodic herringbone grooves and observed the formation of
transverse flow that caused chaotic advection thus enhanced the mixing in the channel. The split and
recombination concept has also been considerably used to improve mixing performance in microchannels.
Ansari et al. [2] showed that at higher Reynolds numbers (Re > 40) split and recombination based on unbalanced
collision was more effective in enhancing the mixing performance. Later Afzal & Kim [3] performed numerical
analysis of a micromixer having convergent divergent walls with split and recombination and observed that
symmetric pair of Dean vortices formed at the throat of the divergent portion that effectively increased the
mixing of fluids. Interfacial area of fluid streams gets increased by Dean vortices, thereby facilitating faster
diffusion and increases mixing performance. Hossain & Kim [4] performed numerical simulations on 3D
Farhan Ahsan Khan, Noorul Huda and Afzal Husain
1
Department of Mechanical and and Industrial Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University,
PC-123, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman,
farhankhan@squ.edu.om, noorul2008huda@gmail.com, afzal19@squ.edu.om,
Mohammad O. Hamdan
D Mechnaical Engineering Department, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE,
mohammadh@uaeu.ac.ae
M. A. Ansari
Mechnaical Engineering Department, Aligarh Muslim University, 202002, UP, India,
mubashshir@gmail.com
Corresponding Author; Tel: +968 2414 1322, Fax: +968 2414 1316.
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Khan et al.
serpentine SAR micromixer and compared its mixing performance with 3D serpentine micromixer. It was
noticed that performance of 3D serpentine SAR micromixer was better than the 3D serpentine micromixer and
the reason was presence of two mixing mechanisms, split and recombination and chaotic advection.
Viktorov et al. [5] proposed two novel micromixer designs (Y-Y mixer & H-C mixer) based on the concept of
split and recombination and carried out comparative analysis with tear drop micromixer. The mixing
performance was better for the two designs in comparison to that of tear drop micromixer, also the pressure drop
values were lower. Ansari et al. [6] observed that by making the inlet channel non-aligned, mixing performance
of micromixers can be significantly increased. With this motivation, a novel design of passive micromixer
based on the concept of offset inlets, and split and recombination is proposed in the present study. The
micromixer is having non-aligned inlet channels, spatially repeating 3D mixing units of mixing chambers and
sub-channels with alternate bends to stir the flow. A variance based mixing index was used to compute the
degree of mixing of fluids. A characterization methodology is employed to study the effect of various design
parameters and performance analysis has been done through three-dimensional numerical analysis.
2. Numerical Methodology
The schematic of the proposed passive, three-dimensional, split and recombine micromixer with offset inlets is
shown in Fig.1. The height (H)and pitch (p) was fixed at 600 m and 700 m, respectively. The mixing channel
depth (d) and total depth (D) were fixed at 80 m and 160 m, respectively. The main channel splits into two
sub-channels of equal width (w) and then recombines at the mixing chamber (length = lc and height = h) with
offset arrangements. The inlet and exit channel lengths were fixed at 1.5 mm. Five repeating mixing units were
taken for study. Three non-dimensional parameters, viz., lc/p, h/H and w/d, were formed and varied from 0.36
to 0.42, 0.25 to 0.5 and from 0.625 to 1.375, respectively. Water and ethanol were taken as working fluids for
micromixer as shown in Fig. 1.
Figure 1. Schematic of the proposed micromixer

A commercial code was used for performing numerical simulations by solving advection-diffusion equation for
steady, incompressible laminar flow. The domain was discretized using structured high quality hexahedral grid.
The advection-diffusion type equations solved for the concentration field by combining concentration field
with mass conservation equation for each fluid as shown below:
(1)
Here, Ci is the concentration gradient and is the diffusion constant. Eq. (1) was used to calculate the mass
fraction of each of the mixing components. Pure ethanol enters from Inlet-1 and pure water enters form Inlet-2.
At outlet condition of zero static pressure was applied. A no-slip condition was used over the channel walls. The
properties of both fluids (water and ethanol) have been taken at 20C. Reynolds number was computed based on
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Split and Recombination Micromixer with Offset Inlets

the properties of water. To determine degree of mixing performance of the micromixer variance (of mass
fraction) based mixing index has been used. The numerical analyses were performed for various Reynolds
numbers ranging from 0.1-50.
Fig. 2 shows the velocity vectors and fraction distribution at the mid of different mixing chambers. There is no
formation of vortices at low Reynolds numbers (Re = 5) whereas at high Reynolds numbers (Re = 50), a large
vortex is formed in the mixing chamber which contributes to mixing enhancements. The presence of secondary
flows in mixing chambers & in sub-channels stretches the fluid interfaces resulting in increase in mixing
performance.
Figure 2. Velocity vectors and Ethanol mass-fraction distribution on yz plane at the middle of mixing
chambers for (a) Re = 5 and (b) Re = 50.
It is observed that similar mixing performance is obtained at low and high Reynolds number values for different
values of parameters, however their effect becomes significant at intermediate Reynolds numbers. Fig. 3 shows
the effect of different parameters on mixing performance at Re = 5. There is insignificant change in mixing
index with change in lc/p values. It was also observed that change in h/H values has more pronounced effect on
mixing than change in w/d values. Higher mixing performance is observed for lower h/H values (h/H = 0.25).
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Khan et al.
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(b)
(a)
Figure 3. Variation of mixing index with lc/p for different h/H values at fixed w/d values at
Re = 5. (a) w/d = 0.625 (b) w/d = 1 (c) w/d = 1.375.
The mixing performance was found to be the highest for lc/p = 0.36, h/H = 0.25 & w/d = 1 at all Reynolds
numbers. It is observed that maximum mixing is achieved within three mixing units, except for Re = 5 (see Fig.
4) and later mixing units contribute marginally. It means we can use lesser number of mixing units to have same
mixing performance and it will result in relatively smaller pressure drops.
730
(a)
(b)
Split and Recombination Micromixer with Offset Inlets
Figure 4. Mixing index variation along the micromixer length for Re = 0.1, 5 and 50 and
lc/p = 0.36, h/H = 0.25 & w/d = 1 (b) h/H = 0.25 & w/d = 1.375 and (c) h/H = 0.5 & w/d = 0.625.
A comparison for mixing performance at various Reynold number values has been done between the proposed
micromixer and 3D serpentine micromixer as shown in Fig. 5. The mixing performance at Re = 0.1 was found to
be 88% higher and at it was 84% higher Re = 1 than the mixing obtained by previously reported 3D serpentine
proposed by Ansari et al. [7]. The proposed micromixer performs better than the previously proposed
micromixer at all Reynolds numbers covered in this study.
Fig. 5 Comparison of mixing performance of proposed micromixer with 3D serpentine micromixer [7] .
4. Conclusion
The variation of lc/p did not show any significant effect on mixing index. The mixing values were higher for
smaller values of h/H mixing index. Effect on mixing with change in h/H values, is more significant than change
in w/d values. The effects of change of parameters are more prominent for medium Reynolds numbers than low
and high Re numbers. Lesser number of mixing units can be used for low and medium Re values as the
maximum mixing is achieved within first three mixing units. The mixing index at exit for lc/p = 0.36, h/H = 0.25
and w/d = 1 is the highest, at all Re values covered in this study in comparison to other parameter values. Over
entire range of Reynolds number covered in the study, the proposed micromixer gives excellent performance.
The mixing performance at Re = 0.1 was found to be 88% higher and at Re = 1 was found to be 84% higher than
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the mixing obtained by previously reported 3D serpentine micromixer.

Acknowledgements
Authors acknowledge the support of Sultan Qaboos University through Collaborative Research Grant
(CL/SQU-UAEU/15/02) and Internal Research Grant (IG/ENG/MEID/14/03) for conducting this research.
References
[1]
A. D. Stroock, S. K. W. Dertinger, A. Ajdari, I. Mezic, H. A. Stone, and G. M. Whitesides, Chaotic
mixer for microchannels., Science, vol. 295, no. 5555, pp. 647651, 2002.
[2]
M. A. Ansari, K.-Y. Kim, K. Anwar, and S. M. Kim, A novel passive micromixer based on unbalanced
splits and collisions of fluid streams, J. Micromechanics Microengineering, vol. 20, no. 5, p. 55007,
2010.
[3]
A. Afzal and K. Y. Kim, Passive split and recombination micromixer with convergent-divergent
walls, Chem. Eng. J., vol. 203, no. September, pp. 182192, 2012.
[4]
S. Hossain and K.-Y. Kim, Mixing analysis in a three-dimensional serpentine split-and-recombine
micromixer, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., vol. 100, pp. 95103, 2015.
[5]
V. Viktorov, M. Mahmud, and C. Visconte, Comparative Analysis of Passive Micromixers at a Wide
Range of Reynolds Numbers, Micromachines, vol. 6, no. 8, pp. 11661179, Aug. 2015.
[6]
M. A. Ansari, K. Y. Kim, K. Anwar, and S. M. Kim, Vortex micro T-mixer with non-aligned inputs,
Chem. Eng. J., vol. 181182, pp. 846850, 2012.
[7]
M. A. Ansari and K. Y. kim, Parametric study on mixing of two fluids in a three-dimensional
serpentine microchannel, Chem. Eng. J., vol. 146, no. 3, pp. 439448, 2009.
732
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Oct. 14 & 15.
Thermal Performance and Emission Test

of CI Engine Using Biodiesel Produced
from Waste Cooking Oil Blend With Diesel
Jatinder Kataria, S.K. Mohapatra and K. Kundu
Abstract- Compression ignition (C.I.) engine is the undebated choice for power applications, stationary or
mobile. There is an urgent need of alternative high potential fuel for C.I. engines in order to fulfil energy needs
without hampering the thermal performance and stringent emission standards. In the present work, a four stroke
variable compression ratio engine was tested. Waste cooking oil was chosen as an alternative fuel, which was
upgraded into biodiesel in the laboratory using mechanical stirring and ultrasonic cavitation technique of
biodiesel production. The various biodiesel blends were prepared (i.e. B20, B40, B60, B80 and B100) with
conventional diesel fuel and two compression ratios (i.e. 15, 17.5) were chosen for present work. The
experimental test rig including hardware interfaced with engine soft software was used for online data logging
for thermal performance of engine in tabulated and graphical form. The emission of CO, HC, and NOx were
measured using AVL gas analyser (AVL Di gas 444), while smoke opacity was recorded using AVL 437. The
thermal and engine emissions were obtained in the laboratory for different concentration of biodiesel blends at
two compression ratios (i.e. 15, 17.5) for comparative analysis. The results showed that as the biodiesel
concentration in a blend was increased, the thermal performance and emission were observed to be marginally
higher; on the other hand as compression ratio was increased, the thermal performance improved, CO and
smoke opacity decreased, while HC and NOx level increased.
Keywords- Compression ignition engine; waste cooking oil; mechanical stirring; ultrasonic cavitation,; smoke
opacity; thermal performance
ntroduction In the present context, compression ignition engines are the undebated choice for almost all
shaft power (stationary or mobile) applications. The massive utilization of diesel fuel due to their superior
fuel economy and robustness has resulted in diesel crisis, in addition to environment threat leading to
climate change. From a survey, the world consumption for petroleum and other liquid fuels is expected to reach
at 107 million barrel per day by 2030 [1]. The globe today uses about 147 trillion kWh of energy which is
expected to rise in the coming future [2]. Under such exponentially increasing trend, it can be realized that the
Jatinder Kataria and S.K. Mohapatra

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Thapar University, Patiala-147004, Punjab, India,
Jatinder80@gmail.com, skmohapatra@thapar.edu
K. Kundu
Department of Bio fuel, Centre of Excellence for Farm Machinery, Ludhiana-141006, Punjab, India
K_kundu@cmeri.res.in
Corresponding Author; Tel: +9996919882
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Kataria et al.
petroleum resources might be depleting fast. A major chunk of this exponential rise in energy demand will be
due to the developing countries, which is bound to grow leaps and bounds. Another major global concern is
environmental degradation. The intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) concluded in climate
change- 2007 that because of global warming effect the global surface temperatures are likely to increase by
1.10C to 6.40C between 1990 and 2100. Due to these two reasons the whole world is in the search of an
alternative fuel which is similar to the conventional diesel in terms of physical and chemical properties and can
be used in the existing diesel engine without any engine modifications. Biodiesel is biodegradable, renewable
and environment- friendly [3].
1.1 Biodiesel Fuel
The idea of utilization of vegetable oil as substitute for diesel was demonstrated by Rudolph Diesel around the
year 1900, when vegetable oil was proposed as fuel for engines. Various products derived from vegetable oils
have been proposed as an alternative fuel for diesel engines [4]. Biodiesel can be produced from an enormous
feedstock such as vegetable oils or animal fats [5].Vegetable oils may be edible or non-edible. Previously, the
use of vegetable oil as diesel fuel was limited due to its high viscosity (near 10 times of the gas oil) [6]. In order
to adapt the fuel to the existing engine the properties of vegetable oil had to be modified. The increased viscosity
and low volatility of vegetable oils for diesel engine lead to severe engine deposits, injector choking and piston
ring sticking [7]. However, these effects can be minimised or eliminated through transesterification process of
vegetable oil to form methyl ester [8]. Transesterification will reduce the viscosity up to the level of
conventional diesel and will make the fuel suitable for engine operations. Transesterification is the process of
reacting a triglyceride with an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to produce glycerol and fatty acid esters. The
whole process is shown in fig1
Fig-1. Transesterification Process

ASTM international defines Biodiesel as the mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from
renewable liquid feedstock such as vegetable oils and animal fats for use in CI engines. Biodiesel can be
blended in any proportions with petroleum diesel or can be used neatly. The use of biodiesel in conventional
diesel engines results in substantial reduction in all emissions except NOx which can be controlled by EGR [9].
Biodiesel differs from conventional diesel fuel in its chemical and thermophysical properties which results in
the difference in its combustion characteristics. For instance, the cetane number of biodiesel is higher than
conventional diesel which leads to the shorter ignition delay time. The viscosity of biodiesel is higher
approximately 1.5 times than conventional diesel [10] and due to larger viscosity the combustion duration of
biodiesel is higher. On account of high kinematic viscosity; nozzle fuel spray, evaporation and atomization
process of biodiesel results in slower burning and longer combustion duration [11], despite the duration is
shorter than conventional diesel under low, medium and high load [12]. The cold flow properties such as cloud
point and the pour point are also greater than conventional diesel. Due to this, it is less responsive in cold
weather which results in difficult starting in cold weather. The heat release rate of biodiesel is lower than
conventional diesel, lessening the peak pressure rise rate, peak cylinder pressure and power. It is estimated that
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Thermal Performance and Emission Test of CI Engine ...

in current scenario, as compared to conventional diesel the cost of biodiesel is higher, which is the main
hindrance to its commercialization. 70%-85% of the total biodiesel production cost arises from the cost of raw
material [13]. Using waste cooking oil as raw material should reduce the raw material cost and make it
competitive in price with conventional diesel. Waste cooking oil thus opened a good opportunity to study its
suitability to produce biodiesel. Thus the main aim of this work was to investigate the physical and chemical
characteristics of waste cooking oil and compare these properties with base line diesel for thermal and emission
performance. The properties of the base line diesel and waste cooking methyl ester are given in table 1.
Experimental setup consisted of variable compression ratio compression ignition engine of 3.5 kW rated power
single cylinder vertical water cooled engine connected to eddy current dynamometer for loading. This setup
Table-1. Properties of diesel and waste cooking oil methyl ester
enabled varying the compression ratio for measurement of engine's thermal performance parameters (i.e.,
brake power, indicated power, frictional power, BMEP, IMEP, brake thermal efficiency, indicated thermal
efficiency, mechanical efficiency, volumetric efficiency, specific fuel consumption, A/F ratio) using engine
performance analysis software package Engine Soft LV. A set of piezoelectric sensors were mounted on the
engine for pressure measurements. One mounted on cylinder head, was for measuring cylinder pressure and the
other was mounted on the fuel line near the injector for measuring injection pressure. The piezo sensors have an
advantage of good frequency response and linear operating range. Specially designed tilting cylinder block
arrangement mechanism was used for varying the compression ratio without stopping the engine and without
altering the combustion chamber geometry. The compression ratio could not be brought below 13 because of
knocking and greater vibration. A small water pump was used for continuous flow of water for cooling the
engine and its associated parts. An eddy current dynamometer was used for loading the engine. The
dynamometer consisted of a rotor mounted on a shaft running in bearings, which rotates within a casing. Inside
the casing, there were two field coils connected in series. When these coils were supplied with a direct current, a
magnetic field was created in the casing on either side of the rotor. When the rotor was turned in this magnetic
field, eddy currents were induced creating a braking effect between the rotor and casing. The rotational torque
exerted on the casing was measured by a strain gauge load cell incorporated in the restraining linkage between
the casing and dynamometer bedplate. To prevent overheating of the dynamometer, water was circulated
through the casing using a pump. The setup consisted of transmitters for air and fuel flow measurements. Rota
meters were provided for cooling water and calorimeter water flow measurement. Provision was also made for
online measurement of temperature of exhaust, inlet, and outlet cooling water and calorimeter water flow rate
and load on the engine. These signals were interfaced to a computer through a data acquisition system.
Windows based engine performance analysis software package Engine soft LV was used for online
735
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Kataria et al.
performance evaluation. The software displays P- and P-V diagrams, power, mean effective pressure,
thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption, air-fuel ratio, and heat utilized. The exhaust gases from the
engine were sampled from exhaust line through a specially designed arrangement for diverting the exhaust gas
through sample line without increasing the back pressure and was then analysed using exhaust gas analyser. The
gases measured were CO (% and ppm), CO2 (%), HC (ppm), O2 (%), NOx (ppm), and SOx (ppm). For
measurement of smoke intensity of the exhaust gas, a smoke meter was used. The smoke intensity was
measured in terms of Hartridge Smoke Unit (%). The instrument also measured the absorption coefficient K of
the exhaust gas in m1.The specifications of the engine used for conducting the experiments are as given in Table
2.
3. Expermental Procedure
The experiment was conducted for pure diesel, blends of biodiesel from waste cooking oil with diesel and, pure
biodiesel from waste cooking oil which is termed as B100. BXX is the general term used for blend where XX
Table-2. Test Engine Specification
Fig-2. Photographic view of VCR CI Engine

signifies the percentage of biodiesel in the blend. For example a blend of 20% biodiesel and 80% diesel the
designation is B20. The experiments were performed for diesel, B20, B40, B60, B80, and B100. Before
cranking the engine, a sufficient amount of lubricating oil and fuel was ensured. The water flow was set at 250
LPH and calorimeter to 60 LPH. The computer was powered ON and ENGINESOFT LV was started and the
calorific value, density of fuel and compression ratio were entered. Now the engine was cranked manually and
made to run ideally for 5 min. When the engine reached its stabilized conditions, the readings were recorded at
736

different loading conditions such as no load, part load and full load. For changing the compression ratio, tilting
cylinder head mechanism was used which is user- friendly. By loosening the Allen bolts, the block was tilted by
using the adjuster screw to a particular compression ratio. After attaining the desired compression ratio, the
Allen bolt was tightened. The range of compression ratio was varied from 14 to 18 and injection pressure 150
bar to 250 bar.
The thermal performance of the engine was evaluated in terms of brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and
brake thermal efficiency (BTHE), and the emissions measured were carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, unburnt
hydrocarbon, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulfur, and oxygen. The smoke intensity and absorption coefficient
of exhaust gas were also measured.
4. Results and Dscussons
Various engine performance parameters such as brake thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption,
mechanical efficiency and engine emission parameters such as carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbon, nitric
oxide and smoke opacity were measured at two compression ratios (i.e. 15:1 and 17.5:1) for all blends of
biodiesel along with diesel at different engine loads.
4.Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)
The effect of variation of brake power output on specific fuel consumption at typical compression ratios of 17.5
and 15 for different biodiesel blends are shown in figure 4.1-4.3. The specific fuel consumption decreases with
brake power output. It can be observed that specific fuel consumption does not show any significant deviation
with different blends of biodiesel fuel. The effect of compression ratio has been highlighted in fig 3. It shows
marginally lower specific fuel consumption at higher compression ratio. It can be observed that for all blends of
biodiesel, the brake specific fuel consumption was higher than conventional diesel. This pattern was due to the
fact that biodiesel blends have a lower heating value than does conventional diesel. We can also see that the
BSFC of B20 is almost the same as that of base line diesel at both compression ratios (17.5 and 15 respectively).
5. Brake Thermal Efficiency
The effect of variation of brake power output on brake thermal efficiency at typical compression ratios of 17.5
and 15 for different biodiesel blends are shown in figures 5.1-5.3. The brake thermal efficiency of the engine
Fig-4.1. Brake specific fuel consumptions v/s

Brake power (CR
Fig-4.2. Brake specific fuel consumptions v/s

Brake power (CR 15)
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Kataria et al.
Fig-4.3. Comparison of Brake specific fuel consumptions v/s Brake power CR 17.5 & 15
increases with brake power output. It can be observed that brake thermal efficiency at different blends is
comparable with diesel fuel. For CR of 17.5, the maximum values of brake thermal efficiencies were recorded
to be 31.99 and 31.72 for biodiesel blends of B60 and B80, respectively. At CR values of 17.5 and 15, the
maximum value of thermal efficiency was obtained at B20. Similar results were also reported by Ozsezen et al.,
2009 [14].
6. Emission Characteristics
Carbon-monoxide
Carbon monoxide is one of the arbitrate compound formed during the intermediate combustion stage of
Fig-5.1. Brake thermal efficiency v/s Brake

power output CR 17.5
Fig-5.2. Brake thermal efficiency v/s Brake

power output CR 15
Fig-5.3. Brake thermal efficiency v/s Brake power output CR 17.5,15
738

hydrocarbon fuels. CO formation depends on air fuel equivalence ratio, fuel type, combustion chamber design,
starting of injection timing, injection pressure and speed. The effect of brake power output of engine on carbonmonoxide emission with various blends of biodiesel at two levels of compression ratio (i.e., 17.5 and 15) has
been plotted in figure 6.1 and 6.2. At part load, pure diesel mode (with CR of 17.5) shows slightly lower level of
CO emission than any biodiesel blends; at full loads, the biodiesel blends show better control on carbonmonoxide emissions. It may be expected due to complete oxidation. However, at CR of 15, the biodiesel shows
slightly higher trends for CO emission than pure diesel mode. Similar trends were also accounted by Mazumdar
and Agarwal, and Rao et al [15-16].
7. Oxides of Nitrogen Emission
The effect of variation of brake power output on NOx emissions at compression ratios of 17.5 and 15 for
different biodiesel blends are shown in figure 7.1 and 7.2. NOx emissions increase with the increase in
Fig. 6.1. Carbon monoxide v/s Brake

Fig. 6.2. Carbon monoxide v/s Brake

power output CR 15
concentration of biodiesel in the blend and compression ratio. The emissions of nitrogen oxides from engine
exhaust are highly dependent on oxygen concentration and thus, the combustion temperature. In general the
NOx concentration varies linearly with the load of the engine. As the load increases, the overall fuel-air ratio
increases resulting in an increase in the average gas temperature in the combustion chamber and hence NOx
formation, which is sensitive to temperature increase. The NOx obtained in this experiment follows the trends as
described by Shirneshan [17].
8. Unburnt Hydro-Carbon Emission
The effect of variation of brake power output on hydrocarbon emissions at compression ratios of 17.5 and 15 for
different biodiesel blends are shown in figure 8.1 and 8.2. The emission of hydrocarbons (HC) tends to decrease
Fig. 7.1. Nitrogrnoxide v/s Brake power

output CR 17.5
Fig. 7.2. Nitrogrnoxide v/s Brake power

output CR 15
739
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Kataria et al.
with increasing the concentration of biodiesel in the blends as shown in figure. The reduction in the HC was
linear with the addition of biodiesel for the blends tested. These reductions indicate a complete combustion of
the fuel. Waste cooking oil biodiesel contains high oxygen content, which makes better combustion.
9. Smoke Opacity
The effect of variation of brake power output on smoke opacity at compression ratios of 17.5 and 15 for
different biodiesel blends are shown in figure 9.1 and 9.2. Smoke opacity gives slightly increasing trends with
Fig. 8.1. Unburnt hydrocarbon v/s Brake

Fig. 8.2. Unburnt hydrocarbon v/s Brake

power output CR 15
brake power output. However, as either biodiesel concentration or compression ratio increases, the smoke
opacity increases.
Conclusions
In the present work, the thermal performance and emission characteristics of a variable compression ratio
compression ignition engine fueled with biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil have been experimentally
Fig. 9.1. Smoke opacity v/s Brake

Fig. 9.2. Smoke opacity v/s Brake

power output CR 15
investigated and compared with base line diesel. The final inferences of the present work are summed up as
follows.
1.
The diesel engine can run satisfactorily on biodiesel and its blends with diesel without any engine
modification.
2.
The specific fuel consumption decreases with brake power output. The different blends of biodiesel
fuel do not put any significant effect on specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption is
inversely proportional to compression ratio. It can be observed that for all blends of biodiesel, the
brake specific fuel consumption was higher than conventional diesel. This pattern was due to the fact
that biodiesel blends have a lower heating value than conventional diesel.
3.
There is significant reduction in CO, unburnt hydrocarbons and smoke emissions for biodiesel and its
740

blends as compared to conventional diesel. Whereas, NOx emission of waste cooking oil methyl esters
is marginally higher than conventional diesel.
It can be summed up that in order to minimize the dependency on fossil fuels, waste cooking oil methyl ester is
competent enough as conventional diesel, which will solve the problem of air pollution and utilization of waste
cooking oil (by trans- esterifying it to produce biodiesel for compression ignition engine)
References
[1]
Intergovernmental Panel. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change, 2009.
[2]
Energy Information administration. International Energy Outlook, Office of Integrated Analysis
and Forecasting, U.S. Department of Energy, (2009).
[3]
H. An, W.M. Yang, A. Maghbouli, J. Li, S.K. Chou, K.J. Chua. Performance, combustion and emission
characteristics of biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil. Applied Energy 2013; 112: 493499.
[4]
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural gas, Government of India, April 20, 2009.
[5]
V. Bhardwaj, S. Sharma, S. K. Mohapatra, K. Kundu. Performance and emission characteristics of a
C.I. engine fuelled with different blends of biodiesel derived from mustard oil. Proceedings of
International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering 2013 80-86.
[6]
A. K. Agarwal. Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuels for internal combustion engines.
Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 2007; 33: 233271.
[7]
G. Velgutth. 1983. Performance of vegetable oil and their monsters as fuel for diesel engine. Society of
Automotive Engineers 1983; Paper Number 831358.
[8]
S.J. Clark, L. Wagner, M. D. Schrock, P.G. Piennar. Methyl and ethyl soybean esters as renewable fuels
for diesel engine. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 1984; 61(10) 16321638.
[9]
D. Agarwal, S. Sinha, A. K. Agarwal. 2006. Experimental investigation of control of Nox emissions in
biodiesel fuelled compression ignition engine. Renewable Energy 2006; 31: 23562369.
[10]
J.F. Sun, JA. Caton. TJ. Jacobs. 2010. Oxides of nitrogen emissions from biodiesel fuelled diesel
engine. Progressive Energy Combustion Science 2010; 36: 67795.
[11]
L. Raslavicius and Z. Bazaras. Variation in oxygenated blend composition to meet energy and
combustion characteristics very similar to diesel fuel. Fuel Process Technology 2010; 91: 1049-54.
[12]
J. Bittle, B. Knight, T. Jacobs. 2009 The impact of biodiesel on injection timing and pulse width in a
common rail medium-duty engine. Presented at the SAE power train fuels and lubricants fall meeting.
San Antonio Texas SAE 01-2782.
[13]
X. Meng, G. Chen, Y. Wang. Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil via alkali catalyst and its
engine test. Fuel Process Technology 2008; 89: 851857.
[14]
A. N. Ozsezen, M. Canakci, A. Turkcan, C. Sayin. Performance and combustion characteristics of a DI
diesel engine fuelled with waste palm oil and canola oil methyl esters. Fuel 2009; 88: 629-636.
[15]
B. Mazumdar, A. K. Agarwal. Performance emission and combustion characteristics of biodiesel
(Waste cooking oil methyl ester) fuelled IDI engine. Society of Automotive Engineers 2008; 0113.
[16]
G. L. N. Rao, S. Sampath, K. Rajgopal. Experimental studies on the combustion and emission
characteristics of a diesel engine fuelled with used cooking oil methyl ester and its diesel blends.
International Journal of Engineering and Applied Science 2008; 4: 6470.
[17]
A. Shirneshan. HC, CO, CO2 and NOx emission evaluation of a diesel engine fuelled with waste frying
oil methyl ester 2013; 75: 292297.
741
RAME-2016
Oct. 14 & 15.
A Comparative Study on Electronic Design

Automation Tools
Neeta Pandey, Shruti Dutta and Naman Saxena
Abstract- Electronics forms a major part of mechatronics and robotics. The process of automating the method
for electronic simulations, testing, debugging before building the hardware rig, is carried out using Electronic
Design Automation (EDA) tools. Electronic Design Automation (EDA) tools are soft wares that are used for
designing, simulating and logically analysing electronic circuits and printed circuit boards(PCB) so that
flawless and completely functional electronic hardware setups can be obtained. The history of EDA tools dates
back to 1981, since then these tools have been constantly ameliorated and revolutionized. Nowadays, numerous
VLSI based companies like Synopsis, Cadence, Mentor Graphics make available various EDA tools in the
market. Their products have a dispersed range from virtual prototyping, analog and digital simulation, logic
synthesizer to power analysis, static timing analysis, and a lot more. It has become cardinal to understand the
minutiae differences in each of the available tools so that they can be used to user's advantage and the user can
get the best possible technologies suited for their own research and projects. This paper gives a delineate
comparison between the various EDA tools available for different purposes and elaborates on the future
prospects and scope of these software automation tools.
Keywords- Electronic Design Automation; Clock Domain Crossing; Static Timing Analysis; Power analysis;
Lithography; Integrated circuits; Printed circuit boards; Design-for-test(DFT).
ntroduction Electronic Design Automation refers to designing, simulating, prototyping and logically
synthezing integrated circuits and printed circuit boards[1][2]. They are software tools that are used to
emulate the electronic hardware[3]. Building hardware is a tedious and difficult process. In order to
understand the properties and demeanour of the circuit once it's made, EDA tools are used. By doing so, suitable
changes can be made in the circuit design before it is finally implemented on the hardware. Making hardware is
costly and time consuming, hence having many hit and trials on the hardware may not seem a very judicious
option. Circuits are first designed and simulated using the EDA software tools and then finally replicated on
hardware to save time and money.
Neeta Pandey
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Delhi Technological University,
neetapandey@dce.ac.in,
Shruti Dutta and Naman Saxena
Department of Electrical Engineering, Delhi Technological University,
shrutidutta@dtu.ac.in, namansaxena@dtu.ac.in
Tel: 011 27871018
DTU DELHI , INDIA.
(ISBN: 987-194523970-0)
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Pandey et al.
There has been a lot of advancement in the field of electronics in the past few decades. As electronics and it's
components have been continuously evolving and improving, the demand for better EDA tools is also
increasing. Earlier the circuits could be analysed only through self-instincts and manual analysis. The circuits
were drawn by hand and required very high degree of precision. It was quite a difficult task and could be
aberrant due to human error. Later in 1981, the concept of EDA tools was established thus simplifying circuit
design and simulation[4]. Numerous VLSI(Very Large Scale Integration) industries have launched their EDA
software tools in the market for the convenience of the researches. They have released various products, each
for a different purpose[5]. EDA tools have a wide range of possibilities. They can be used for prototyping,
analog and digital simulations[6], power analysis, debugging, circuit simulations ,static timing analysis[7],
testbench verification and a lot more [8] [9]. The leading companies such as Synopsis, Cadence, Mentor
Graphics[10] have aided to the various needs of the user and made suitable products in each category[11][12].
This paper tries to delve upon these EDA software tools and provide an analysis of the best products in each
domain.
2. Historical Background
Integrated circuits were mostly designed and laid out manually. The company named Calma had GDSII format
to produce Gerber files, but in these also the electronic translations had to be done manually.
With the advent and introduction to VLSI in 1980 by Carver Mead and Lynn Conway lead to the uprising
interests of researchers in automating the process of designing electronic circuits[4]. As the circuits started to
get more and more complexed , the need for EDA tools increased. Designing and simulating these circuits
manually became cumbersome. This led to the birth of the concept of software based simulations and
automating the process. The softwares were programmed to replicate the behaviour of the hardware circuits.
One of the earliest EDA tool used was "Berkley VLSI Tools Tarball" based on UNIX utilities.
The EDA industry embarked its journey in 1981. New companies which focused primarily on EDA such as
Mentor Graphics, Daisy Systems came into existence. The Design Automation Conference in 1984 was an
important milestone in the development of EDA tools[4]. The U.S Department of Defense started funding
VHDL(Hardware Description Language) in 1981. In 1986, Verilog (another popular Hardware Description
Language) was introduced by Gateway Design Automation. Following these developments, there had been a
rapid increase in companies developing EDA tools.
Currently, the frontend of these software remains standardized and involves design and development of subcircuits and cells implementing certain logics based on constraints and desired outputs. Not only designing, but
these circuits are simulated using their predicted hardware behaviour. As the semiconductor industry evolves
and ameliorates, the need of EDA tools has become more prominent than ever.
3. Varous Classfcatons
Depending on their purpose of utilisation, EDA tools are classified as follows
3.1 Design
EDA tools are used for automating the process of designing the integrated circuits (IC's) and printed circuit
boards (PCB), thus reducing human labor and effort. Synthesis, placement and routing algorithms are used for
the construction of circuit boards [1][6]. The algorithm are based on the constraints of minimum delay and
reduced circuit complexity. Designing a circuit involves various steps and procedures, which are as follows
Behavioural synthesis ( High - level synthesis or algorithmic synthesis)- The circuit is described using
high level language such as C/C++ and then converted to Register Transfer Language(RTL) such as
Verilog/VHDL [1][2][6].
Logic synthesis- Converting the RTL description to a netlist format for the logic gates.
Schematic Design- Standard schematic design EDA tools for analog and digital components are
available.
744
A Comparative Study on Electronic Design Automation...
Layout- The schematic is then further routed and layout is made for designing the PCB and placing the
components.
3.2 Electronic Circuit Simulation

EDA tools are used to replicate the behaviour of the hardware implementation of the circuits[11]. This helps in
predicting the properties of the circuit without having to implement it on the hardware thus saving money
and time. As electronic circuits have a wide variety, ranging from analog, digital and mixed-mode,
different varieties of simulators are available. The various simulators are classified as
Transistor level simulation- This a very low level of simulation where the transistors are used to develop
the circuit. This is quite a tedious task as all the basic gates have to be drawn at their transistor level [3].
However, this provides more control to the user as he can vary the design at a very intrinsic level[13].
Logic simulation- The circuit defined using RTL is given a set of logic inputs (0/1) to determine the output
of the circuit. They are generally used to implement Boolean functions.
Analog simulation- Certain EDA tools are only used to simulate analog (having continuous time input)
circuits. However, they generally operate in mixed-mode, providing flexibility for both analog and
digital circuits [5].
Digital Simulation- EDA tools are used to simulate digital(having binary inputs) circuits and determine
their properties and behaviour[3][5].
3.3 Parameter analysis and circuit verification
This is a very integral part of circuit formation as it helps us in determining the various parameters such as
dynamic power, static power, bandpass frequency, propagation delay and others[6][7][8]. They help us in using
a test bench to check whether the circuit is functioning as desired for the given inputs. The various verification
and analysis which are carried out on circuits are
Clock Domain Crossing verification: This is used to check the conditions of meta stability (when setup
time and hold time constraints are not fulfilled) in the circuit. This check helps in solving the timing
issues[8].
Static timing analysis: Static time analysis is a critical analysis. It is an analysis in which the timing of the
full or a part of the circuit is studied without changing the input conditions. It takes into consideration
setup time, hold time and propagation delay[7].
Power analysis: The two most important parameters for analysing a circuit are time and power. Analysis
of different types of power such as static power, dynamic power is important for understanding the
properties of the circuit.
Functional Verification(using test-bench): Using a test-bench, one can verify the functional behaviour of
the circuit and the way it behaves with changes in the input. Verifying the circuit is very important in order
to check whether the circuit is behaving as predicted[4][10].
3.4 Fabrication processes
Mask preparation and generation: A photo-mask has to be prepared using photolithography in order to get
the desired design and then using photo positive or photo negative material to print the IC or PCB using
the mask[14].
Optical Proximity Correction (OPC): It checks for diffraction and interference caused due to the small
wirings in the circuits so that light doesn't disturb the functioning of the circuit.
Automatic test pattern generation (ATPG): It generates data patterns to check the functioning of the logic
gates and other components
Built-in self test(BIST): It produces self sufficient test controllers to test the logic of the circuit[1].
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Pandey et al.
4. Comparison of Various EDA Tools

As mentioned above, leading VLSI companies have released numerous products pertaining and specialising in
their own respective fields. The following table gives a list of the various products by the two leading VLSIEDA companies Cadence and Synopsys. It also states the various features of the tools and helps in holistic
understanding of these tools.
Table 1. Comparison of available EDA tools in differrent domains by Cadence and Synopsis
746
5. Future Scope of Expanson

The above table provids a comprehensive list of all the latest EDA tools available in the market by
the leading VLSI companies, Cadence and Synopsis. However, there still remains opportunity for
further developments such as747
RAME-2016
Pandey et al.
Integrating all the verifications in a single complete suite of tools

Increasing the range of microcontroller and FPGA simulation tools such that a common
suite of soft wares can be used
Allowing analog and digital communications to be carried out together at a common
platform
CDC, Static timing analysis and power analysis should be integrated together
Mask preparation and lithography visualisations should be more comprehensive
6. Concluson
The paper gives a plenary review of various types of EDA tools available in the market under
different domains such as design, simulation, analysis and verification, and fabrication processes.
It also takes up products which are currently the latest and the best in the buiseness, by leading
companies Synopsis and Cadence, providing a list of products from both of them. Lastly, it tries to
delve into the future scope of further automating the process of electronic simulations. Future
developement in EDA tools is seminary for the development of technology as we know of it today
in all fields be it mechatronics, robotics, aeronauticals and the rest.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
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S.-M. Kang and Y. Leblebici, CMOS digital integrated circuits : analysis and design. Tata
McGraw-Hill, 2003.
R. Rajsuman, System-on-a-chip : design and test. Artech House, 2000.
A. Schtz, The Concept of Electronic Design Automation, in The Electronic Design
Automation Handbook, Boston, MA: Springer US, 2003, pp. 3349.
Z. Liu, B. W. McGaughy, and J. Z. Ma, Design tools for reliability analysis, in Proceedings of
the 43rd annual conference on Design automation - DAC 06, 2006, p. 182.
L. Scheffer, L. Lavagno, and G. (Grant E. Martin, EDA for IC implementation, circuit design, and
process technology. Boca Raton FL: CRC Taylor & Francis, 2006.
V. Vijayabhasker and M. R. Purushotham Naik, STATIC TIMING ANALYSIS OF THE NONGAUSSIAN VARIATION SOURCES FOR VLSI CIRCUITS, Int. J. Comput. Sci. Mob. Appl.,
vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 5357, 2014.
J. EDA Association, M.-S. IEEE Computer Society. Technical Council on Test Technology, K.
IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society, J. Y. International Federation for Information Processing, J.
Park, M. Kumar, M. Kumar, N. Tripathi, and A. Ranjan, Proceedings of the 2015 Design,
Automation & Test in Europe Conference & Exhibition (DATE) : 9-13 March 2015,
Grenoble France. EDAA, 2015.
G. Luo, W. Zhang, J. Zhang, and J. Cong, Scaling Up Physical Design, in Proceedings of the
2016 on International Symposium on Physical Design - ISPD 16, 2016, pp. 131137.
B. K. Fawcett, Tools to speed FPGA development, IEEE Spectr., vol. 31, no. 11, pp. 8894, Nov.
1994.
K. Wakabayashi and T. Okamoto, C-based SoC design flow and EDA tools: an ASIC and system
vendor perspective, IEEE Trans. Comput. Des. Integr. Circuits Syst., vol. 19, no. 12, pp.
15071522, 2000.
L. Stok, Developing Parallel EDA Tools [The Last Byte], IEEE Des. Test, vol. 30, no. 1, pp.
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6566, Feb. 2013.

N. Saxena, S. Dutta, N. Pandey, and K. Gupta, Implementation of asynchronous pipeline using
Transmission Gate logic, in 2016 International Conference on Computational Techniques in
Information and Communication Technologies (ICCTICT), 2016, pp. 101106.
M. D. Levenson, N. S. Viswanathan, and R. A. Simpson, Improving resolution in
photolithography with a phase-shifting mask, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 29, no. 12, pp.
18281836, Dec. 1982.
749

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75 years of excellence

(14 & 15th October, 2016)

JOINT ORGANIZING SECRETARIES

INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD

Prof. Yogesh Singh

Message: Chairman, RAME-2016

Message: Convener, RAME-2016

1. Fabrication of Al6082/ZrO2 Surface Composite by Friction Stir

3. Ultrasound Assisted Biodiesel Synthesis Via Enzymatic Interesterification

4. Overview of Carbon Nano Tubes

6. A Review on Thermoelectric Generator used in Automotive Waste Heat Recovery

7. Effect of Variation of High Temperature R1234ze Condenser Temperature

8. Biodiesel Feedstock in India: A Review

9. Triacylglyceride's Transesterification for Biodiesel: A Review

10. Mathematical Analysis of Exhaust Based Thermoelectric Generator

12. Experimental Analysis of Solar Assisted Biodiesel Productionfor RAME 2016

13. Biodiesel Production: A Review on Innovative Techniques

14. Fabrication of Magnesium Based Metal Matrix Composites Through Friction

16. Comparative Performance, Emissions and Combustion Analysis

17. Process Optimization of Transesterification for Biodiesel

19. Numerical Analysis of Forced Convection in A Lid Driven

20. Application of Design of Experiment Technique For Optimization

21. An Empirical Study on Application of Information and Communication

22. Thermoeconomic Insulation For Environmental Sustainability

23. Thermo Economic Analysis and Optimization of Thermal Insulations

24. Performance Analysis of Biogas Run Dual- Fueled Diesel Engine

25. An Empirical Study on Problems & Risks Faced by Indian

26. Vibration Response of Finite Element Modeled FGM Plate n

27. Offshore Wind Resource Evaluation of Four Locations in Indian Ocean

28. Job Shop Scheduling Optimization Using Genetic Algorithm

29.Optimisation of Ultrasound Assisted Enzymatic Interesterification

30. Numerical Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade at Different

31. Performance Evaluation of Fouled Evaporator Vapour

32. Effect of Diethyl Ether and Biodiesel Blend on the Performance

33. Effect of Grain Size on Springback in V-Bending of

34. CFD Analysis and Optimisation of Operational Parameters for

35. Mechanical Characterization of Epoxy Based Thermoses Polymer Composite

36. Recent Research Development in Micro Forming

37. Effects of Cetane Improver on Diesel Engine Performance and Emissions

38. Storage Stability of Biodiesel: A Review

39. Catalysts used in Biodiesel Production

40. Biodiesel Production from WCO using Heterogeneous Catalyst

41. CFD Analysis of Wavy Edge Rectangular Micro-Channel

42. Availability Analysis of A Mechanical System With Load Sharing

43. Go-Kart Chassis Analysis: Design Methodology Integrating

44. Performance Analysis of Solar Air Conditioning: A Review

45. Thermodynamic Analysis of Different Desiccant Cooling Cycles

46. Evaluation of Static Fracture Toughness (KIc) of Al2014-T6

47. Thermoeconomic Comparative Analysis of Constructal

48. Impact of Cutting Parameters on Tool Tip Temperature

49. A Review on Zeolite - Water Adsorption Refrigeration System

50. Application of Additives to Improve the Performance of

51. Modeling and Analysis of Machining Parameters on Surface

52. Application of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies In

53 Combustion Characteristics of Jatropha Biodiesel In A

54. Production, Utilization and Performance of Diesel-BiodieselEthanol Blends in IC Engines

56. Review of Formula One Aerodynamic Devices

57. Potential Research Study of Utilizing Water- Diesel Emulsion

58. Solving the Vendor Selection Problem Using Fuzzy Topsis

59. Sustainable Manufacturing System: Literature Review

60. Design of Gear Train for Speed Magnification using the

61. Development of Polynomials for the Thermodynamic

62. Comparison of Cooling Duty and Pressure Drop of Green

63. Experimental Investigation of the Performance Characteristics