Have developments in digital technology fundamentally changed diplomatic practice or

are they simply a different means to pursue the same ends? Use at least two examples in
your answer

Assignment AS 1

Word Count: 2987

13/12/14
Name: Jack Arthur Fleming
MA International Studies and Diplomacy

Contents
1. Introduction

2. Digital Diplomacy
2.1 Definition
3. Public Diplomacy

4
5

4. The evolution of modern diplomacy

4.1 The Digital Diplomat

5-8

4.2 Foreign Ministries and Social Media

8-9

4.3 States communicating foreign

Policy through the use of digital tools
5. Conclusion

9-11
11

Introduction

The 21st century has witnessed a rise in technologies at an unprecedented and rapid level. Over
the last 10-15 years in particular, technologies such as personal laptops and smartphones have
been used in business, government and everyday life. The development of digital technologies
such as facebook, twitter and skype, have allowed faster and interactive virtual communication
between wider audiences. The movement and accessibility of information has never been
greater. For governments and diplomats, digital communications have opened up a swathe of
opportunities for integrating digital technologies into everyday diplomatic life. Because of rising
popularity and accessibility of digital tools, governments have had to adapt, sometimes
reluctantly so, to the evolving nature of communicating in the 21st century.
This paper will focus on the growing use of social media tools in everyday diplomatic life,
and how this is changing diplomatic life in the 21st century. Digital technologies are providing
another tool as a means of achieving diplomatic objectives. However they are not replacing
traditional face-to-face diplomacy and negotiation. Digital engagement is a new and evolving
tool that is becoming an increasingly important component of the diplomatic toolkit. Digital
communication in diplomacy complements more traditional methods of ultimately achieving the
same results. Social media tools have opened up new ways of achieving diplomatic objectives.
This paper will draw on examples of governments and diplomats using digital tools in everyday
practice. The essay will briefly look at how the relationship between digital technologies and
diplomacy is defined, and how digital tools are used in the context of public diplomacy. Thirdly
the paper will explore three ways in which social media has become an integral part of
diplomacy.

Digital Diplomacy
Definition
3

There is no definitive term used to illustrate the relationship between diplomacy and the use of
new digital platforms of communication, such as Facebook and Twitter But there are varying
terms used by organisation and individuals. For example the Foreign and Commonwealth Office
(FCO) refers to this relationship as digital diplomacy, and has incorporated a digital strategy to
use digital tools in foreign policy formulation1. E-diplomacy and digital diplomacy are terms used
frequently to highlight the role of new technologies in the diplomatic field. Hanson of the
Brookings Institute highlights new ICT technologies and the Internet as a core element. He
defines e-diplomacy as The use of the web and new ICT to help carry out diplomatic
objectives2. The Diplofoundation also describes E-Diplomacy as a means of delivering
diplomacy with the help of both the web and new ICTs3. The Envoy Centre for Digital Diplomacy
broadly captures digital diplomacy as using the Internet and communication technologies to help
international diplomatic objectives4. Alec Ross, ex advisor for Innovation to Secretary of State
Hillary Clinton, argues that the essence of e-diplomacy is to understand the digital tools that are
in use today. Furthermore, Ross states that through the use of digital tools, new diplomatic and
development goals can be achieved which were otherwise not possible 10-15 years ago5. For
the purposes of this paper I will be using the term digital diplomacy.

Public Diplomacy

1 Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Digital Strategy in Digital Diplomacy. (online). Foreign and Commonwealth
Office, no date. Available from: http://blogs.fco.gov.uk/digitaldiplomacy/digital-strategy/ (viewed 20 November 2014)
2 Hanson, F. Revolution @state: The Spread of E-Diplomacy. (online). 2012. Available from:
http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2012/3/ediplomacy%20hanson/03_ediplomacy_hanson
(viewed 20 November 2014)
3 Diplo. Background: e-diplomacy in E-diplomacy. (Online). Diplo, No date. Available from:
http://www.diplomacy.edu/e-diplomacy/background%20info (viewed 20 November 2014)
4 Envoy Centre for Digital Diplomacy. What is Digital Diplomacy? (Online). 2014. Available from:
https://envoycentre.wordpress.com/2014/01/22/what-is-digital-diplomacy/ (viewed November 25 2014)
5 Hub. Definition of eDiplomacy by Alec J. Ross. (Online). 2013. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=OsMWA_nKkFon (viewed 28 November 2014)

Public diplomacy became particularly prominent after World War Two and during the
Cold War. Following a devastating world war, there became a greater emphasis on a states
ability to exert soft power. This meant the ability to obtain outcomes that a state wishes to
achieve, through attraction such as promoting culture and values, rather than using coercive
hard power6. Public Diplomacy means to exert indirect influence to mass groups of people,
particularly in liberal democracies, rather than direct influences aimed at foreign governments7.
The use of public diplomacy was often pivotally important during the Cold War. West Berlin radio
stations would regularly broadcast western culture to East Berlin in an attempt to turn citizens
against the government8. There is now a growing public interest in foreign affairs, and more
ordinary people are requesting and demanding a more open diplomacy. Public diplomacy is a
continuation of traditional diplomacy that can also aim to correct misconceptions of a state9. The
transnational flow of information and ideas is central to the concept10. The means of
communicating a countrys culture and policies have changed through the use of the internet
and online media. Governments now hear the feedback of citizens, through digital tools, rather
than a one-way monologue. This is often now known as Public diplomacy 2.011.

The evolution of modern diplomacy through the use of digital tools

The Digital Diplomat
New media tools have allowed virtual communication at any time to a wider range of audiences.
For diplomats the introduction of digital tools has dramatically altered the way diplomats
6 Nye, J. Public Diplomacy and Soft Power. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences.
(online). 2008, vol 616. Available from: http://ann.sagepub.com/content/616/1/94.abstract (viewed 30 November
2014)
7 Berridge, G.R. Diplomacy: Theory and Practice. 4th edition. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, p.182.
8 Ibid
9 Leonard, M. Public Diplomacy. (online). Foreign Policy Centre, 2002, p. 8. Available from:
http://fpc.org.uk/fsblob/35.pdf (viewed 4 December 2014)
10 The Edward Murrow Center of Public Diplomacy. What is Public Diplomacy? (online). no date. Available from:
http://fletcher.tufts.edu/murrow/diplomacy (viewed 4 December 2014)
11 Bastianello, F. Towards a New Era of Public Diplomacy: Twiplomacy. (online). Diplomatic Courier, 2014. Available
from: http://www.diplomaticourier.com/news/topics/diplomacy/2047-towards-a-new-era-of-public-diplomacytwiplomacy (viewed 6 December 2014)

communicate with one another and the wider community. Popular digital applications such as
facebook and twitter have been used as a means of communication with each other and with
mass audiences. Many diplomats have embraced digital tools to communicate with each other
and foreign publics. Diplomats are commonly seen using smartphones and tablets at
conferences and even formal negotiations. The use of digital tools is changing the way
diplomats work on a day-to-day basis.
The use of Twitter is a good example of an increasingly prominent and powerful digital tool
for diplomats in the 21st century. Consequently, 83 percent of the 193 UN member countries
have some level of presence on twitter12, while more than 68 percent of all heads of states and
heads of government had a personal profile on the platform13. This illustrates that digital
technology, such as twitter, is having an effect on the methods of communicating for diplomats
in the 21st century. The number of twitter followers for many heads of states is at an
unprecedented level. For example, U.S. president Barack Obama has amassed over 50 million
followers which is the largest twitter following for any individual in government. It is argued, that
twitter is often simply a means of broadcasting messages that doesnt signal engagement with
wider audiences in negotiation processes14. World leaders and top diplomats can send out
tweets but chose not to engage when reactions and comments come back to them15. However
the use of skype or facebook enables a more effective means of two-way communication16.
Facebook, Twitter and Skype are tools that enable a second dimensional tool for 21st century
communication, which is shaping contemporary diplomatic practice.
Therefore, many leading foreign ministers have embraced twitter as a means of
communication between fellow ministers and also foreign publics. The virtual diplomatic network
12 Twidiplomacy, Twidiplomacy Study 2014. (Online). Twidiplomacy, 2014. Available from:
http://twiplomacy.com/blog/twiplomacy-study-2014-update/ (viewed 7 December 2014)
13 Ibid
14 Carafano, J. Wiki at War: Conflict in a socially networked world. 1st edition. USA: Library of Congress, 2012, p.30
15 Babb, C. Is Twiplomacy Replacing Traditional Diplomacy? (Online). Voice of America, August 2012. Available
from: http://www.voanews.com/content/twitter-diplomacy-social-media/1452891.html (viewed 8 December 2014)
16 Ibid

is a term coined by the use of digital tools by diplomats to build virtual communities with each
other, as a means of staying connected. The Swedish Foreign Ministry for example, has been at
the forefront of efforts to promote digital diplomacy. In January 2014 the foreign ministry
convened over 30 digital diplomats to the newly established Stockholm Initiative for Digital
Diplomacy (SIDD), aimed at consolidating a network of digital diplomats17.
Carl Bildt, the current Swedish Foreign Minister, has become a fitting example of a digital
diplomat in action. With a twitter following of over 350,000, Bildt has become a strong advocate
of integrating social media and technological tools into the everyday life of a 21st century
diplomat. Bildt emphasises that diplomats in the 21st century are better equipped to feel the
pulse of citizens18. This means that diplomats are now better connected to understand the
opinions, reactions and emotions of foreign publics and their peers.
Tom Fletcher, the current UK ambassador to Lebanon, is another good example of a
diplomat advocating the use of digital tools in diplomacy. As an active blogger of his own blog
titled The Naked Diplomat, Fletcher argues that diplomats should embrace digital networking to
create public squares for engaging and communicating with the public19. Drawing on his current
experiences as an ambassador in Lebanon, he emphasises how text messaging between
diplomats and advisors in negotiations for example is equally as important as formal
conversation at the table20. The use of Skype also allows discussions about formal negotiations
to continue online between diplomats and advisors. Constant connectivity allows for discussion
to take a creative approach that can complement the formalities of traditional negotiation.
However Fletcher stresses that traditional forms of face-to-face diplomacy are as important as

17 Government Offices of Sweden. Stockholm Initiative for Digital Diplomacy. (online). 2014. Available from:
http://www.government.se/sb/d/18138 (viewed 10 December 2014)
18 TEDx Talks. How internet makes it easier to save the world: Carl Bildt. (Online). TEDx Talks, 2014. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zldG_bhhNU8 (viewed 10 December 2014)
19 Fletcher, T. E-nvoys: What next for Diplomacy? In: Naked Diplomat (online). 2014. Available from:
http://nakeddiplomat.wordpress.com/2014/10/22/e-nvoys-what-next-for-diplomacy/ (viewed 4 December 2014)
20 Ibid

ever, and should not be ignored during a rapid period of digital innovation21. While person-toperson communications form the bedrock for formal negotiations, digital tools can keep
diplomats connected and engaged with each other at any time. However Chrisella Herzog
argues that diplomacy is still about building human relationships22. Social media tools now
available to diplomats are another means of communication and conducting diplomacy, but not
a replacement of traditional diplomacy.

Foreign Ministries and Social Media

Foreign ministries and diplomatic missions have also embraced digital technology as part of
their activity, particularly in public diplomacy strategies. For example The Foreign and
Commonwealth Office in November 2014 introduced a new pilot digital training programme
aimed at equipping UK embassy staff with the latest tools and strategies for digital diplomacy23.
For many foreign ministries, the use of digital tools has become key in promoting states public
diplomacy agendas. But for some states, the idea of integrating these tools into practice has not
always been embraced.
The government of Canada for example, has lagged far behind in digital diplomacy
strategies compared to many of its neighbours. But Canada has now recognised the
effectiveness of reaching out to larger audiences through the use of these tools, and has
created over 50 facebook accounts over the last 18 months24. Canadian foreign minister John
Baird recently announced the launch of an @canada twitter account25. As a means of promoting
21 Fletcher, T. Ambassador 2020. In: Naked Diplomat. (online). 2013. Available from:
http://nakeddiplomat.wordpress.com/2013/09/04/ambassador-2020/ (viewed 4 December 2014)
22 Herzog, C. Diplomacy + SocialGood: The Future of Diplomacy. (Online). Diplomatic Courier, April 2014. Available
from: http://diplomaticourier.com/news/topics/diplomacy/2174-diplomacy-socialgood-the-future-of-diplomacy (viewed
3 December 2014)
23 Burnham, K. Piloting new digital training. (Online). FCO, 2014. Available from:
http://blogs.fco.gov.uk/digitaldiplomacy/2014/11/26/piloting-new-digital-training/ (viewed 6 December 2014)
24 Roland, P. Has Canada Finally Discovered Digital Diplomacy? (online). OpenCanada, 2014. Available from:
http://opencanada.org/features/blogs/roundtable/has-canada-finally-discovered-digital-diplomacy/ (viewed 4
December 2014)
25 Government of Canada. Minister Baird Promotes Role of Digital Diplomacy. (online). 2014. Available from:
http://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do?nid=909069 (viewed 4 December 2014)

everything Canadian, Canadian diplomats have been increasingly using social media to
promote Canadian culture and to advance foreign policy objectives26.
While digital strategies employed by foreign ministries are reaching out to a high number of
foreign publics, it is argued that digital diplomacy success is still hard to measure compared to
results based traditional negotiation27. Rather than digital diplomacy initiatives replacing
traditional forms of diplomacy, digital tools can act as another tool in the diplomatic toolkit to
achieve the same goals. While the anxiety and pressure for governments to embrace digital
tools means greater connectivity, there is still uncertainty of what social media can actually
achieve for diplomats28.

Foreign ministries communicating foreign policy through the use of digital tools
One of the most prominent ways foreign ministries are using these tools is through the
promotion and communication of foreign policy. The use of social media and the use of new
technologies such as tablets have offered another way of communicating and pursuing foreign
policy objectives.
21st Century Statecraft
The US State Departments 21st century statecraft initiative, established by Hillary Clinton in
2010, has been at the forefront of integrating digital technology within diplomatic practice. The
State Departments aim has been to engage with domestic and foreign publics through the use
of tools such as facebook, twitter and flickr29. With over 120 dedicated digital staff at the State
Department, the initiative has aimed to extend diplomacy beyond government-to-government

26 DFATD MAECD. Digital Diplomacy Event with Minister Baird and Special Guests. (online). 2014. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2zikhk9ExpE&feature=youtu.be&t=48s (viewed 5 December 2014)
27 Fung, B. Why its tough for Embassies to Get Social Media Right. (online). OpenCanada.org, 2012. Available
from: http://opencanada.org/features/the-think-tank/comments/why-its-so-tough-for-embassies-to-get-social-mediaright/ (viewed 5 December 2014)
28 Ibid
29 US Department of State. 21st Century Statecraft. (online). 2009. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=x6PFPCTEr3c#t=30 (viewed 5 December 2014)

communication. Public diplomacy work based on innovative new technologies has been to
central to the State Department. Alec Ross, ex senior advisor of Innovation to Hillary Clinton,
explains that 21st century statecraft accounts for the technology and changing demographics of
the 21st century30. Since the creation of the State Departments digital initiative there have been
many practical programmes in an effort to harness the growing interaction between people and
government. For example the State Department have conducted regular technology delegations
and exchanges, aimed at leveraging international partnerships between governments and the
private sector to find mutual benefit in indigenous and collaborative innovation31. The State
Department has also used digital technology to improve electoral monitoring and map
irregularities32. With over 400 Facebook accounts department wide and over 300 official twitter
feeds communicating 11 languages33, the State Department has become increasingly active on
social media platforms. U.S. embassies and consulates are trained to integrate local and global
social media tools to help foster international dialogue. However the State Department stresses
that traditional diplomacy is still a core component of their work34.
Kosovos digital strategy
With over 70% of the countrys population under the age of 3035, Kosovo is a highly digitally
tuned in nation. Internet usage is high and facebook is the most social media platform - used
by nearly three quarters of Internet users36. Many online companies however such as Amazon
do not yet recognise Kosovo after gaining independence in 2008. The launch of Digital Kosovo,
30 Bloomberg. Alec Ross on 21st Century Statecraft Diplomacy. (online). no date. Available from:
http://www.bloomberg.com/video/alec-ross-on-21st-century-statecraft-diplomacyDCpmSXs9RRyvCzFMQE4p5Q.html (viewed 5 December 2014)
31 Digitizingamerica. 21st Century Statecraft. (online). No date. Available from:
http://digitizingamerica.shanti.virginia.edu/sites/shanti.virginia.edu.digitizingamerica/files/21st%20Century
%20Statecraft.pdf (viewed 6 December 2014)
32 Ibid
33 U.S. Department of State. 21st Century Statecraft. (online). no date. Available from:
http://www.state.gov/statecraft/overview/index.htm (viewed 7 December 2014)
34 Ibid
35 Yeni Diplomasi. Digital Kosovo Launches to Empower Digital Diplomacy. (online). 2013. Available from:
http://www.yenidiplomasi.com/2013/09/digital-kosovo-launches-to-empower.html (viewed 7 December 2014)
36 Ibid

10

an initiative set up by the IPKO Foundation in 2013, is part of a strategy to gain greater
recognition by the global Internet community. Supported by the Foreign Ministry of Kosovo, the
initiative allows for citizens to act as digital diplomats and to use online advocacy to gain wider
online inclusion and recognition. Kosovos digital strategy is part of a broader public diplomacy
drive to reinvent the country after years of ethnic struggles and war. The Foreign Ministry is
using the digital technologies available to help illustrate key foreign policy objectives to wider
audiences. Speaking in October 2014, the Deputy Foreign Minister of Kosovo Petrit Selimi,
views digital communication as a creative means of changing the image of Kosovo37. For
example, instagram competitions have been encouraged to best illustrate Kosovo, in an effort to
reinvent the country38. States are becoming increasingly active in implementing digital
strategies, for different purposes.

Conclusion
This paper has aimed to highlight the growing role of digital communications in diplomatic life from diplomats using digital tools, to embassies using social media as a means of promoting
foreign policy. As discussed throughout the paper, digital communications is evolving diplomatic
practice, but traditional means of face-to-face diplomacy is ultimately still needed as a means of
achieving objectives. Digital engagement between fellow diplomats and with citizens is providing
another means of conducting diplomacy - contributing to the field, but not replacing it. With
advancements in digital technology rapidly increasing year on year, governments and diplomats
have to adapt as part of evolving diplomatic practices. But this does not mean that traditional
means of communication and relationship building on a face-to-face level is dying out. This is
fundamentally important for diplomacy to succeed.

37 Portland. The Age of Digital Diplomacy. (online). no date. Available from: http://www.portlandcommunications.com/publications/age-of-digital-diplomacy/ (viewed 8 December 2014)
38 Ibid

11

Bibliography
Books
Berridge, G.R. Diplomacy: Theory and Practice. 4th edition. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010
Carafano, J. Wiki at War: Conflict in a socially networked world. 1st edition. USA: Library of
Congress, 2012,
E-Journals
Nye, J. Public Diplomacy and Soft Power. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and
Social Sciences. (online). 2008, vol 616. Available from:
http://ann.sagepub.com/content/616/1/94.abstract
Online Blog Articles
Burnham, Katie. Piloting new digital training. (Online). FCO, 2014. Available from:
http://blogs.fco.gov.uk/digitaldiplomacy/2014/11/26/piloting-new-digital-training/
Envoy Centre for Digital Diplomacy. What is Digital Diplomacy? (Online). 2014. Available from:
https://envoycentre.wordpress.com/2014/01/22/what-is-digital-diplomacy/
Fletcher, Tom. Ambassador 2020. In: Naked Diplomat (online). 2013. Available from:
http://nakeddiplomat.wordpress.com/2013/09/04/ambassador-2020/
Fletcher, Tom. E-nvoys: What next for Diplomacy? In: Naked Diplomat (online). 2014. Available
from: http://nakeddiplomat.wordpress.com/2014/10/22/e-nvoys-what-next-for-diplomacy/
Online Videos
Bloomberg. Alec Ross on 21st Century Statecraft Diplomacy. (online). no date. Available from:
http://www.bloomberg.com/video/alec-ross-on-21st-century-statecraft-diplomacyDCpmSXs9RRyvCzFMQE4p5Q.html
DFATD MAECD. Digital Diplomacy Event with Minister Baird and Special Guests. (online).
2014. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2zikhk9ExpE&feature=youtu.be&t=48s
TEDx Talks. How internet makes it easier to save the world: Carl Bildt. (Online). TEDx Talks,
2014. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zldG_bhhNU8
US Department of State. 21st Century Statecraft. (online). 2009. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6PFPCTEr3c#t=30
Online Articles

12

Babb, Carla. Is Twiplomacy Replacing Traditional Diplomacy? (Online). Voice of America,

August 2012. Available from: http://www.voanews.com/content/twitter-diplomacy-socialmedia/1452891.html
Bastianello, Francesca. Towards a New Era of Public Diplomacy: Twiplomacy. (online).
Diplomatic Courier, 2014. Available from:
http://www.diplomaticourier.com/news/topics/diplomacy/2047-towards-a-new-era-of-publicdiplomacy-twiplomacy

Diplo. Background: e-diplomacy in E-diplomacy. (Online). Diplo, No date. Available from:

http://www.diplomacy.edu/e-diplomacy/background%20info
Fung, Brian. Why its tough for Embassies to Get Social Media Right. (online). OpenCanada.org,
2012. Available from: http://opencanada.org/features/the-think-tank/comments/why-its-sotough-for-embassies-to-get-social-media-right/
Herzog, Chrisella. Diplomacy + SocialGood: The Future of Diplomacy. (Online). Diplomatic
Courier, April 2014. Available from: http://diplomaticourier.com/news/topics/diplomacy/2174diplomacy-socialgood-the-future-of-diplomacy
Paris, Roland. Has Canada Finally Discovered Digital Diplomacy? (online). OpenCanada, 2014.
Available from: http://opencanada.org/features/blogs/roundtable/has-canada-finally-discovereddigital-diplomacy/
Yeni Diplomasi. Digital Kosovo Launches to Empower Digital Diplomacy. (online). 2013.
Available from: http://www.yenidiplomasi.com/2013/09/digital-kosovo-launches-to-empower.html

Online Reports
Hanson, Fergus. Revolution @state: The Spread of E-Diplomacy. (online). 2012. Available from:
http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2012/3/ediplomacy
%20hanson/03_ediplomacy_hanson
Leonard, Mark. Public Diplomacy. (online). Foreign Policy Centre, 2002, p. 8. Available from:
http://fpc.org.uk/fsblob/35.pdf
Twidiplomacy, Twidiplomacy Study 2014. (Online). Twidiplomacy, 2014. Available from:
http://twiplomacy.com/blog/twiplomacy-study-2014-update/
Websites
Government of Canada. Minister Baird Promotes Role of Digital Diplomacy. (online). 2014.
Available from: http://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do?nid=909069
Government Offices of Sweden. Stockholm Initiative for Digital Diplomacy. (online). 2014.
Available from: http://www.government.se/sb/d/18138

13

The Edward Murrow center of public diplomacy. What is Public Diplomacy? (online). no date.
Available from: http://fletcher.tufts.edu/murrow/diplomacy
U.S. Department of State. 21st Century Statecraft. (online). no date. Available from:
http://www.state.gov/statecraft/overview/index.htm

14

15