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Chapter 3
Fluid Dynamics
The surface tension of water is dependent on temperature and its value goes to zero at the critical temperature (705.47 F, 374.15C). Supercritical water is considered single phase in fluid dynamic analysis due to
zero surface tension.
The recommended correlation1 for the surface tension of water and its vapor, , is:
(T T )
= 235.8 10 N / m c
1.256
Tc T
1 0.625 T
(1)
Fundamental relationships
Three fundamental laws of conservation apply to
fluid dynamic systems: conservation of mass, momentum and energy. With the exception of nuclear reactions where minute quantities of mass are converted
into energy, these laws must be satisfied in all flowing systems. Fundamental mathematical relationships
for these principles are presented in several different
forms that may be applied in particular fluid dynamic
situations to provide an appropriate solution method.
However, full analytical solutions are frequently too
complex without the use of a computer. Simplified
forms of the full equations can be derived by applying engineering judgment to drop negligible terms and
consider only terms of significant magnitude for cer3-1
Conservation of mass
The law of conservation of mass simply states that
the rate of change in mass stored in a system must
equal the difference in the mass flowing into and out
of the system. The continuity equation of mass for one
dimensional single phase flow in a variable area channel or stream tube is:
A
V
A
= 0
+ A
+ V
+ AV
x
x
x
t
(2)
u +
v +
w =
t
z
y
x
(3)
(4)
Although no liquid is truly incompressible, the assumption of incompressibility simplifies problem solutions and is frequently acceptable for engineering
practice considering water and oils.
Another relationship useful in large scale pipe flow
systems involves the integration of Equation 3 around
the flow path for constant density, steady-state conditions. For only one inlet (subscript 1) and one outlet
(subscript 2):
Pf
1 G 1 G 2 A
+
+
gc t
A x
A
P
g
= 0
+
sin +
x
gc
where
P
G
A
Pf
g
gc
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
This relationship is useful in calculating steam generator tube circuit pressure drop.
The conservation of momentum is a vector equation and is direction dependent, resulting in one equation for each coordinate direction (x, y and z for Cartesian coordinates), providing three momentum equations for each scaler velocity component, u, v and w.
The full mathematical representation of the momentum equation is complex and is of limited direct use in
many engineering applications, except for numerical
computational models. As an example, in the x coordinate direction, the full momentum equation becomes:
u
u
u
u
+w
+v
+u
z
y
x
t
= fx
P
x
2 u v w
+
x 3 x y z
(5)
where is the average density, V is the average velocity, A is the cross-sectional area, and m is the mass
flow rate.
v u
+
y x y
w u
+
z
z x
= 1 A1 V1 = 2 A2 V2
m
Conservation of momentum
The law of conservation of momentum is a representation of Newtons Second Law of Motion the
mass of a particle times its acceleration is equal to the
sum of all of the forces acting on the particle. In a flowing system, the equivalent relationship for a fixed (control) volume becomes: the rate of change in momentum entering and leaving the control volume is equal
to the sum of the forces acting on the control volume.
3-2
(6)
Term 1
Term 2
Term 3
Term 4
(7)
D
+v
+u
=
y
x
t
Dt
+ v i
=
+w
t
z
(8)
or grad or del = i /x + j /y + k /z
For the special case of constant density and viscosity,
this equation reduces to (for the x coordinate direction):
(9)
(10)
P
H
H
1 P
= q H + q +
+G
A
J
x
t
(11)
where
P
G
A
PH
x
H
J
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
DH
= q +
Dt
DP
+ ikT +
Dt
gc
1 P
Du
2u 2u 2u
+ 2 + 2 + 2
= fx
z
y
Dt
x
x
A general form of the energy equation for a flowing system using an enthalpy based formulation and
vector notation is:
Term 5
(12)
JQ W = J ( u2 u1 ) + ( P2v2 P1v1 )
+
g
1
V22 V12 + ( Z2 Z1 )
gc
2 gc
(13a)
or
JQ W = J ( H 2 H1 )
+
g
1
V22 V12 + ( Z2 Z1 )
gc
2 gc
(13b)
where
Q = heat added to the system, Btu lbm (J/kg)
(See Note below)
W = work done by the system, ft-lbf/lbm (N m/kg)
J = mechanical equivalent of heat = 778.17 ft lbf/
Btu (1 N m/J)
u = internal energy, Btu/lbm (J/kg)
P = pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
= specific volume, ft3/lbm (m3/kg)
V = velocity, ft /s (m/s)
Z = elevation, ft (m)
H = enthalpy = u + P/J, Btu/lbm (J/kg)
g = 32.17 ft /s2 (9.8 m /s2)
g c = 32.17 lbm ft/lbf s2 (1 kg m /N s2)
Note: Where required for clarity, the abbreviation lb is augmented by f (lbf) to indicate pound force and by m (lbm) to
indicate pound mass. Otherwise lb is used with force or
mass indicated by the context.
3-3
V2
V2
g
g
+ 1 = P2v + Z2
+ 2
gc
gc
2 gc
2 gc
(14)
Z
V
=
=
=
=
Briefly, Equation 14 states that the total mechanical energy present in a flowing fluid is made up of pressure energy, gravity energy and velocity or kinetic
energy; each is mutually convertible into the other
forms. Furthermore, the total mechanical energy is
constant along any stream-tube, provided there is no
friction, heat transfer or shaft work between the points
considered. This stream-tube may be an imaginary
closed surface bounded by stream lines or it may be
the wall of a flow channel, such as a pipe or duct, in
which fluid flows without a free surface.
Applications of Equation 14 are found in flow measurements using the velocity head conversion resulting from flow channel area changes. Examples are the
venturi, flow nozzle and various orifices. Also, pitot
tube flow measurements depend on being able to compare the total head, P + Z + (V2 /2 gc ), to the static
head, P + Z, at a specific point in the flow channel.
Descriptions of metering instruments are found in
Chapter 40. Bernoullis equation, developed from
strictly mechanical energy concepts some 50 years
before any precise statement of thermodynamic laws,
is a special case of the conservation of energy equation or first law of thermodynamics in Equations 13a
and b.
Applications of Equation 13 to fluid flow are given
in the examples on water and compressible fluid flow
through a nozzle under the Applications of the Energy Equation section in Chapter 2. Equation 18,
Chapter 2 is:
V2 =
2 gc J ( H1 H 2 ) = C H1 H 2
(15)
where
V2 =
gc =
J =
H1 =
H2 =
C =
This equation relates fluid velocity to a change in enthalpy under adiabatic (no heat transfer), steady, inviscid (no friction) flow where no work, local irrevers3-4
or
Pv =
(16a)
R
T
M
(16b)
where
P
Pvk = constant
(17)
Because P1 and 1 in Equation 13 are known, the constant can be evaluated from P11k. The exponent k is
constant and is evaluated for an ideal gas as:
k = c p / cv = specific heat ratio
(18)
where
cp = specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/lb F (J/kg K)
cv = specific heat at constant volume, Btu/lb F (J/kg K)
= (u1 u2)/(T1 T2)
For a steady, adiabatic flow with no work or change
in elevation of an ideal gas, Equations 13, 16, 17 and
18 can be combined to provide the following relationship:
V22 V12
k 1
P2 k
k
= 2 gc
P1 v1 1 P
k 1
1
(19)
V2 = 8.02
k 1
P2 k
k
P1 v1 1 , ft/s
k 1
P1
(20)
Equations 19 and 20 can be used for gases in pressure drop ranges where there is little change in k, provided values of k are known or can be calculated.
Equation 20 is widely used in evaluating gas flow
through orifices, nozzles and flow meters.
It is sufficiently accurate for most purposes to determine velocity differences caused by changes in flow
area by treating a compressible fluid as incompressible. This assumption only applies when the difference
in specific volumes at points 1 and 2 is small compared
to the final specific volume. The accepted practice is
to consider the fluid incompressible when:
(21)
22)
where
(P) = pressure head difference between locations
1 and 2 = (P1 P2) , ft (m)
Z
= head (elevation) difference between locations 1 and 2, ft (m)
V
= velocity at locations 1 and 2, ft/s (m/s)
When the approach velocity is approximately zero,
Equation 22 in English units becomes:
V2 =
2 gh = 8.02 h , ft/s
most flow situations there are also bulk fluid interchanges known as eddy diffusion. The net result of
all inelastic momentum exchanges is exhibited in
shear stresses between adjacent layers of the fluid. If
the fluid is contained in a flow channel, these stresses
are eventually transmitted to the walls of the channel. To counterbalance this wall shear stress, a pressure gradient proportional to the bulk kinetic energy,
V 2 / 2 gc, is established in the fluid in the direction of
the bulk flow. The force balance is:
(25)
w =
f 1 V2
4 v 2 gc
(26)
4 f 1 V2
dP
f 1 V2
=
=
dx
D 4 v 2 gc
D v 2 gc
(27)
(28a)
VdV
+ Pdv + vdP = dQ dWk
gc
(28b)
du +
(24)
where
(23)
In this equation, h, in ft head of the flowing fluid, replaces (P) + Z. If the pressure difference is measured in psi, it must be converted to lb/ft2 to obtain P
in ft.
D2
( dP ) = w D ( dx )
4
or
du +
Tds = dQ + dQF
(30)
dQF
VdV
vgc
v
dQF
dx V 2
= f
D v 2 gc
v
(32)
VdV
f V2
dx
vgc
D v 2 gc
(33)
V
= G = constant
(34)
v
Substituting Equation 34 into Equation 33 for a flow
channel of constant area:
dP = 2
G2 v
G2
dx
dv f
2 gc
2 gc D
(35)
P1 P2 = 2
3-6
G2 1
G2
(v2 v1 ) + f
2 gc
2 gc D
dx =
and
(31)
Three significant facts should be noted from Equation 31 and its derivation. First, the general energy
equation does not accommodate pressure losses due
to fluid friction or geometry changes. To accommodate
these losses Equation 31 must be altered based on the
first and second laws of thermodynamics (Chapter 2).
Second, Equation 31 does not account for heat transfer except as it may change the specific volume, ,
along the length of the flow channel. Third, there is
also a pressure loss as the result of a velocity change.
This loss is independent of any flow area change but
is dependent on specific volume changes. The pressure
loss is due to acceleration which is always present in
compressible fluids. It is generally negligible in incompressible flow without heat transfer because friction
heating has little effect on fluid temperature and the
accompanying specific volume change.
Equation 27 contains no acceleration term and
applies only to friction and local pressure losses. Therefore, dQF/ in Equation 31 is equivalent to dP of
Equation 27, or:
dP =
L
0
vdx
(36)
L
0
vdx =
L
dT
T2 T1
L
T2 T1
2
1
vdT = Lvav
(37)
(38)
(39)
where
R = 2 / 1
= averaging factor
In most engineering evaluations, is almost linear in T and l/2. Combining Equations 36 and
37, and rewriting 2 1 as 1 ( R 1):
P1 P2 = 2
+ f
G2
v1 ( vR 1 )
2 gc
L G2
v1 ( vR + 1 )
D 2 gc
(40)
Equation 40 is completely general. It is valid for compressible and incompressible flow in pipes of constant
cross-section as long as the function T = F(x) can be assigned. The only limitation is that dP/dx is negative at
every point along the pipe. Equation 33 can be solved
for dP/dx making use of Equation 34 and the fact that
P11 can be considered equal to P22 for adiabatic flow
over a short section of tube length. The result is:
dP
=
dx
Pf / 2 D
g Pv
1 c 2
V
(41)
P2 = V 2 / v2 gc = v2 G 2 / gc
(42)
V2
V 2
=
2 gcCv
2 gcC
(43)
Eu = P / V 2 / gc
(44)
v
G 2 2v1 v2
n 2
2 gc v1 + v2
v1
L G 2 2v1v2
+ f
D 2 gc v1 + v2
P1 P2 = 2
L G2
v
D 2 gc
L G
v
De 105
(47)
where
P =
=
L =
De =
Friction factor
The friction factor () introduced in Equation 26, is
defined as the dimensionless fluid friction loss in velocity heads per diameter length of pipe or equivalent
diameter length of flow channel. Earlier correlators in
this field, including Fanning, used a friction factor one
fourth the magnitude indicated by Equation 26. This
is because the shear stress at the wall is proportional
to one fourth the velocity head. All references to in
this book combine the factor 4 in Equation 25 with as
has been done by Darcy, Blasius, Moody and others.
The friction factor is plotted in Fig. 1 as a function of
the Reynolds number, a dimensionless group of variables defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces. The Reynolds number (Re) can be written:
Re =
VDe
VDe
GDe
or
or
(48)
where
(46)
P = f
(45)
P1 P2 = f
often more convenient to use mixed units. For example, a useful form of Equation 46 in English units
is:
=
=
=
V =
G =
De =
(49)
Laminar flow
Laminar flow is characterized by the parallel flowing of individual streams like layers sliding over each
other. There is no mixing between the streams except
for molecular diffusion from one layer to the other. A
Turbulent flow
When turbulence exists, there are momentum interchanges between masses of fluid. These interchanges are induced through secondary velocities,
irregular fluctuations or eddys, that are not parallel
to the axis of the mean flow velocity. In this case, the
condition of the boundary surface, roughness, does
have an effect on the velocity gradient near the wall,
which in turn affects the friction factor. Heat transfer is substantially greater with turbulent flow (Chapter 4) and, except for viscous liquids, it is common to
induce turbulent flow with steam and water without
Fig. 1 Friction factor/Reynolds number relationship for determining pressure drop of fluids flowing through closed circuits (pipes and ducts).
3-8
Velocity ranges
Table 1 lists the velocity ranges generally encountered in the heat transfer equipment as well as in duct
and piping systems of steam generating units. These
values, plus the specific volumes from the ASME
Steam Tables (see Chapter 2) and the densities listed
in Tables 2 and 3 in this chapter, are used to establish
mass velocities for calculating Reynolds numbers and
fluid friction pressure drops. In addition, values of
viscosity, also required in calculating the Reynolds
number, are given in Figs. 3, 4 and 5 for selected liquids and gases. Table 4 lists the relationship between
various units of viscosity.
Table 1
Velocities Common in Steam Generating Systems
Velocity
Nature of Service
Air:
Air heater
Coal and air lines,
pulverized coal
Compressed air lines
Forced draft air ducts
Forced draft air ducts,
entrance to burners
Ventilating ducts
Crude oil lines [6 to 30
in. (152 to 762 mm)]
Flue gas:
Air heater
Boiler gas passes
Induced draft flues
and breaching
Stacks and chimneys
Natural gas lines (large
interstate)
Steam:
Steam lines
High pressure
Low pressure
Vacuum
Superheater tubes
Fig. 2 Relative roughness of various conduit surfaces. (SI conversion: mm = 25.4 X in.)
ft/min
m/s
1000 to 5000
5.1 to 25.4
3000 to 4500
1500 to 2000
1500 to 3600
15.2 to 22.9
7.6 to 10.2
7.6 to 18.3
1500 to 2000
1000 to 3000
7.6 to 10.2
5.1 to 15.2
60 to 3600
0.3 to 18.3
1000 to 5000
3000 to 6000
5.1 to 25.4
15.2 to 30.5
2000 to 3500
2000 to 5000
10.2 to 17.8
10.2 to 25.4
1000 to 1500
5.1 to 7.6
Water:
Boiler circulation
Economizer tubes
Pressurized water
reactors
Fuel assembly channels
Reactor coolant piping
Water lines, general
61.0
76.2
203.2
25.4
70 to 700
150 to 300
0.4 to 3.6
0.8 to 1.5
400 to 1300
2400 to 3600
500 to 750
2.0 to 6.6
12.2 to 18.3
2.5 to 3.8
3-9
Table 2
Physical Properties of Liquids at 14.7 psi (0.101 MPa)
Liquid
Temperature F (C)
Water
70 (21)
212 (100)
70 (21)
Automotive oil
SAE 10
SAE 50
Mercury
Fuel oil, #6
70
70
180
70
Kerosene
55 to 57
57 to 59
846
60 to 65
60 to 65
50 to 51
(21)
(21)
(82)
(21)
Table 3
Physical Properties of Gases at 14.7 psi (0.101 MPa)**
Instantaneous
Specific Heat
Temperature Density, cp
cv
k,
F
lb/ft3 Btu/lb F Btu/lb F cp/cv
Air
70
200
500
1000
0.0749
0.0601
0.0413
0.0272
0.241
0.242
0.248
0.265
0.172
0.173
0.180
0.197
1.40
1.40
1.38
1.34
70
200
500
1000
0.1148
0.0922
0.0634
0.0417
0.202
0.216
0.247
0.280
0.155
0.170
0.202
0.235
1.30
1.27
1.22
1.19
H2
70
200
500
1000
0.0052
0.0042
0.0029
0.0019
3.440
3.480
3.500
3.540
2.440
2.490
2.515
2.560
1.41
1.40
1.39
1.38
Flue gas*
70
200
500
1000
0.0776
0.0623
0.0429
0.0282
0.253
0.255
0.265
0.283
0.187
0.189
0.199
0.217
1.35
1.35
1.33
1.30
70
200
500
1000
0.0416
0.0334
0.0230
0.0151
0.530
0.575
0.720
0.960
0.406
0.451
0.596
0.836
1.30
1.27
1.21
1.15
CO2
CH4
* From coal; 120% total air; flue gas molecular weight 30.
** SI conversions: T, C = 5/9 (F-32); , kg/m3 = 16.02 x lbm/
ft3; cp, kJ/kg K = 4.187 x Btu/lbm F.
3-10
Specific Heat
Btu/lb F (kJ/kg C)
62.4 (999.4)
59.9 (959.3)
Gas
Density
lb/ft3 (kg/m3 )
1.000 (4.187)
1.000 (4.187)
(881 to 913)
(913 to 945)
(13,549)
(961 to 1041)
(961 to 1041)
(801 to 817)
0.435
0.425
0.033
0.40
0.46
0.47
(1.821)
(1.779)
(0.138)
(1.67)
(1.93)
(1.97)
be based on equivalent pipe lengths, but are preferably defined by a multiple of velocity heads based on
the connecting pipe or tube sizes. Equivalent pipe
length calculations have the disadvantage of being
dependent on the relative roughness (/D) used in the
correlation. Because there are many geometries of
valves and fittings, it is customary to rely on manufacturers for pressure drop coefficients.
It is also customary for manufacturers to supply
valve flow coefficients (CV) for 60F (16C) water. These
are expressed as ratios of weight or volume flow in the
fully open position to the square root of the pressure
drop. These coefficients can be used to relate velocity
head losses to a connecting pipe size by the following
expression:
(50)
N v = kD 4 / CV 2
Table 4
Relationship Between Various Units of Viscosity
Part A: Dynamic (or Absolute) Viscosity,
Pa s
Ns
m2
Centipoise
kg
ms
0.01 g
cm s
1.0
0.001
1.49
413 x 106
47.90
1000
1.0
1488
0.413
47,900
lbm
ft s
672 x 103
672 x 106
1.0
278 x 106
32.2
lbm
ft h
lbf s
ft2
20.9 x 103
20.9 x 106
0.0311
8.6 x 106
1.0
2420
2.42
3600
1.0
115,900
0.01 cm2
s
ft2
s
ft2
h
106
1.0
92,900
25.8
10.8
10.8 x 106
1.0
278 x 106
38,800
0.0389
3600
1.0
where
N = number of velocity heads, dimensionless
k = units conversion factor: for CV based upon
gal/min/()1/2, k = 891
D = internal diameter of connecting pipe, in.
(mm)
CV = flow coefficient in units compatible with k and
D: for k = 891, CV = gal/min/()1/2
CV and corresponding values of N for valves apply
only to incompressible flow. However, they may be extrapolated for compressible condition using an average
specific volume between P1 and P2 for P values as high
as 20% of P1. This corresponds to a maximum pressure
ratio of 1.25. The P process for valves, bends and fittings is approximately isothermal and does not require
the most stringent limits set by Equation 21.
When pressure drop can be expressed as an equivalent number of velocity heads, it can be calculated by
the following formula in English units:
P = N v
v
12
G
105
(51)
where
P = pressure drop, lb/in.2
N = number of equivalent velocity heads, dimensionless
= specific volume, ft3/lb
G = mass flux, lb/ft2 h
Another convenient expression, in English units only,
for pressure drop in air (or gas) flow evaluations is:
Steam 41 / Fluid Dynamics
P = N v
30 T + 460 G
B 1.73 105 103
(52)
where
P = pressure drop, in. wg
B = barometric pressure, in. Hg
T = air (or gas) temperature, F
Equation 52 is based on air, which has a specific
volume of 25.2 ft3/lb at 1000R and a pressure equivalent to 30 in. Hg. This equation can be used for other
gases by correcting for specific volume.
The range in pressure drop through an assortment
of commercial fittings is given in Table 5. This resistance
to flow is presented in equivalent velocity heads based
on the internal diameter of the connecting pipe. As noted,
pressure drop through fittings may also be expressed as
the loss in equivalent lengths of straight pipe.
V12
2 gc
= P2v +
V22
V2
+ Nc 2
2 gc
2 gc
(53)
Subscripts 1 and 2 identify the upstream and downstream sections. Nc, the contraction loss factor, is the
number of velocity heads lost by friction and local nonrecoverable pressure loss in contraction. Fig. 6 shows
values of this factor.
When there is an enlargement of the conduit section in the direction of flow, the expansion of the flow
stream is proportional to the kinetic energy of the
flowing fluid and is subject to a pressure loss depending on the geometry. Just as in the case of the contraction loss, this is an irreversible energy conversion
to heat resulting from inelastic momentum exchanges. Because it is customary to show these losses
as coefficients of the higher kinetic energy term, the
mechanical energy balance for enlargement loss is:
P1v +
V12
V2
V2
= P2v + 2 + N e 1
2 gc
2 gc
2 gc
(54)
A
= 1 1
A2
(55)
Table 5
Resistance to Flow of Fluids Through
Commercial Fittings*
Fitting
0.3 to 0.7
0.2 to 0.5
0.15 to 0.5
0.6
0.6
0.1
2.0
5.0
3.0
1.0
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
1.6
1.7
0.2
10.0
16.0
7.0
3.0
3-12
Fig. 6 Contraction loss factor for >30 deg (Nc = 0.05 for 30 deg).
Turning vanes
The losses in a rectangular elbow duct can be reduced by rounding or beveling its corners and by in3-13
Pressure loss
A convenient chart for calculating the pressure loss
resulting from impact losses in duct systems conveying air (or flue gas) is shown in Fig. 13. When mass
flux and temperature are known, a base velocity head
in inches of water at sea level can be obtained.
Flow over tube banks
Bare tube The transverse flow of gases across tube
banks is an example of flow over repeated major crosssectional changes. When the tubes are staggered, sectional and directional changes affect the resistance.
Experimental results and the analytical conclusions
of extensive research by The Babcock & Wilcox Company (B&W) indicate that three principal variables
other than mass flux affect this resistance. The primary variable is the number of major restrictions, i.e.,
the number of tube rows crossed, N. The second variable is the friction factor which is related to the
Reynolds number (based on tube diameter), the tube
spacing diameter ratios, and the arrangement pattern
(in-line or staggered). The third variable is the depth
factor, Fd (Fig. 14), which is applicable to banks less
than ten rows deep. The friction factors for various
in-line tube patterns are given in Fig. 15.
The product of the friction factor, the number of
major restrictions (tube rows) and the depth factor is,
in effect, the summation of velocity head losses
through the tube bank.
N v = f N Fd
(56)
3-15
Fig. 14 Draft loss depth factor for number of tube rows crossed in
convection banks.
3-16
Boiler circulation
An adequate flow of water and steam-water mixture is necessary for steam generation and control of
tube metal temperatures in all circuits of a steam generating unit. At supercritical pressures this flow is
produced mechanically by pumps. At subcritical pressures, circulation is produced by the force of gravity
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
3-17
3-18