DEWATS Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems Practice-Oriented Training Manual

Praxis-oriented Training Manual
basics
baseline survey
calculation & design
construction
commissioning
O&M
monitoring
costing
reuse
cure
DHAN Foundation
|centre for urban water resources
cure
|centre for urban water resources
DHAN Foundation
Conceived and written by Jens Gtzenberger

DHAN Programme Officer Wastewater & Sanitation
CIM Expert (Advisor for Decentralised Wastewater Treatment)
2009/10
With inputs from
R.P. Barathsibi, V. Usha Rani, R. Devika,
Supported by:
Content
CONTENT
1
INTRODUCTION______________________________________________________________ 1
DECENTRALISED WASTEWATER TREATMENT & HYBRID SOLUTIONS ____________________ 1
DEWATS BASICS _____________________________________________________________ 4

3.1
Grease Trap _____________________________________________________________ 4
3.2
Settler (and Septic Tank) ___________________________________________________ 5
3.3
Biogas Settler ____________________________________________________________ 6
3.4
Anaerobic Baffle Reactor (ABR)______________________________________________ 7
3.5
Anaerobic Filter (AF) ______________________________________________________ 8
3.6
Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter (HPGF) _______________________________________ 9
3.7
Polishing Pond __________________________________________________________ 11
AREAS OF APPLICABILITY FOR DEWATS __________________________________________ 13
BENEFITS OF DEWATS________________________________________________________ 14
BASELINE DATA _____________________________________________________________ 15
6.1
Field survey ____________________________________________________________ 16
6.2
Hydraulic load __________________________________________________________ 21
6.2.1
Daily flow __________________________________________________________ 21
6.2.2
Peak flow __________________________________________________________ 25
6.3
Bio-chemical and physical parameter ________________________________________ 31
6.4
Sampling ______________________________________________________________ 32
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA ___________________________________________________ 33

7.1
Sludge accumulation _____________________________________________________ 35
7.2
Hydraulic Conductivity ___________________________________________________ 35
7.3
Pipelines ______________________________________________________________ 37
7.4
DEWATS Treatment Capacity and Decentralisation _____________________________ 38
7.5
By-Passes ______________________________________________________________ 38
7.6
Grease Trap ____________________________________________________________ 38
7.7
Settler ________________________________________________________________ 39
7.8
Septic Tank ____________________________________________________________ 40
7.9
Biogas Settler ___________________________________________________________ 41
7.10 Anaerobic Baffle Reactor__________________________________________________ 42

7.11 Anaerobic Filter _________________________________________________________ 43
7.12 Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter ____________________________________________ 45
7.13 Polishing pond (optional) _________________________________________________ 46
i
Content
8
MANUAL DESIGN ___________________________________________________________ 47

8.1
Settler ________________________________________________________________ 47
8.2
Anaerobic Baffle Reactor__________________________________________________ 50
8.3
Anaerobic Filter _________________________________________________________ 55
8.4
Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter ____________________________________________ 59
8.5
Polishing Ponds _________________________________________________________ 62
EXCEL-BASED DESIGN ________________________________________________________ 64

9.1
Spreadsheet Per Capita _________________________________________________ 64
9.2
Spreadsheet Settler ____________________________________________________ 65
9.3
Spreadsheet Baffle Reactor (ABR) _________________________________________ 66
9.4
Spreadsheet Anaerobic Filter (AF) _________________________________________ 67
9.5
Spreadsheet PGF ______________________________________________________ 69
9.6
Biogas Settler ___________________________________________________________ 70
10
CONSTRUCTION __________________________________________________________ 72
10.1 Alignment for Excavation _________________________________________________ 72

10.2 Levelling _______________________________________________________________ 76
10.3 Foundation ____________________________________________________________ 80
10.4 Brick Walls _____________________________________________________________ 82
10.5 Plastering ______________________________________________________________ 84
10.6 Pipe installation - settler, ABR and AF ________________________________________ 85
10.7 Pipe installation - PGF ____________________________________________________ 88
10.7.1
Inlet pipe __________________________________________________________ 88
10.7.2
Inlet channel / Distribution channel _____________________________________ 90
10.7.3
Sampling pipe _______________________________________________________ 90
10.7.4
Drainage pipe _______________________________________________________ 91
10.7.5
Outlet pipe PGF water level adjustment_________________________________ 91
10.7.6
Connecting pipe to polishing pond ______________________________________ 92
10.7.7
Drainage Pipes / Erosion Trenches ______________________________________ 93
10.8 ABR Baffle Wall _________________________________________________________ 93

10.9 AF perforated bottom slab ________________________________________________ 93
10.10
RCC Cover Slab ________________________________________________________ 95
10.11
AF Media ____________________________________________________________ 96
10.12
PGF Media ___________________________________________________________ 96
10.13
Installation of biogas equipment __________________________________________ 98
ii
Content
11
COMMISSIONING _________________________________________________________ 99
11.1 Pipes _________________________________________________________________ 99

11.2 Grease Trap and Grit Chamber _____________________________________________ 99
11.3 Settler ________________________________________________________________ 99
11.4 Biogas Settler ___________________________________________________________ 99
11.5 ABR __________________________________________________________________ 99
11.6 AF ___________________________________________________________________ 100
11.7 PGF__________________________________________________________________ 100
11.8 Polishing Pond _________________________________________________________ 101
12
O&M __________________________________________________________________ 102
12.1 Grease Trap and Grit Chamber ____________________________________________ 102

12.2 Settler / Septic Tank ____________________________________________________ 102
12.3 Biogas Settler __________________________________________________________ 103
12.4 ABR _________________________________________________________________ 104
12.5 AF ___________________________________________________________________ 104
12.6 PGF__________________________________________________________________ 105
12.7 Polishing Pond _________________________________________________________ 106
12.8 Example Maintenance Sheet______________________________________________ 107
13
MONITORING ___________________________________________________________ 108
13.1 Testing intervals _______________________________________________________ 108

13.2 Locations for water testing _______________________________________________ 108
13.3 Parameter ____________________________________________________________ 109
13.4 Hydraulic tests _________________________________________________________ 109
13.5 Other tests ____________________________________________________________ 110
13.6 Documenting __________________________________________________________ 110
14
COSTING _______________________________________________________________ 111
14.1 Space requirement and land costs _________________________________________ 111

14.2 Construction costs ______________________________________________________ 113
14.3 O&M costs ____________________________________________________________ 114
14.4 Costs for analysis _______________________________________________________ 115
14.5 OTHER COSTS _________________________________________________________ 115
15
OVERVIEW ABOUT REUSE OPTIONS FOR DEWATS END-PRODUCTS _________________ 116
15.1 Biogas use ____________________________________________________________ 116

15.1.2
Cooking___________________________________________________________ 117
15.1.1
Others____________________________________________________________ 117
15.2 Effluent use ___________________________________________________________ 117

iii
Content
15.2.1
Irrigation__________________________________________________________ 117
15.2.8
Other reuse options _________________________________________________ 118
15.3 Sludge use ____________________________________________________________ 118

15.3.1
Drying ____________________________________________________________ 118
15.3.2
Composting _______________________________________________________ 118
15.3.3
Direct application ___________________________________________________ 119
ANNEX: Conversion Rates _______________________________________________________ 120

LITERATURE __________________________________________________________________ 122
iv
Abbreviations
ABBREVIATIONS
ABR
AF
BOD5
BORDA
B.S.
cap
c-c
CBS
CBS-unit
CDD
CSR
CH4
CIM
CO2
COD
COHNS
CPCB
CPHEEO
Anaerobic Baffled Reactor

Anaerobic Filter
Biological Oxygen Demand (5 days)
Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association
Back Sight
capita (person)
centre-to-centre
Community Based Sanitation
Community Toilet
Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination
Auroville Centre for Scientific Research
Methane
Centre for International Migration and Development
Carbon Dioxide
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Biodegradable Organic Compounds (consisting of C+O+H+N+S)
Central Pollution Control Board
Central Public Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation, Ministry of Urban
Development
CURE
Centre for Urban Water Resources
D
depth
DEWATS
Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems
DEWATS-CBS DEWATS for Community Based Sanitation
DEWATS-SME DEWATS for Small- and Medium size Enterprises
DHAN
Development of Humane Action
DO
Dissolved oxygen
ECOSAN
Ecological Sanitation
F.S.
Fore Sight
g
grams
GoI
Government of India
GoTN
Government of Tamil Nadu
GTZ
German Development Agency
h
hour(s)
H2S
Hydrogen Sulphide
HRT
Hydraulic Retention Time
I&C
Instrumentation and Control
I.S.
Intermediate Sight
JNNURM
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
v
Abbreviations
Kf
kg
L
lpcd
m2
m3
MC
mg
MLD
N
NGL
NH3
NO3NO2O&M
p
P
PCC
PGF
PO43RCC
SBR
TDA
TDS
TKN
TS
TSS
UD
UDD
UGSS
W
WWTS
yr
hydraulic conductivity
kilograms
length / litre(s) (as per context)
litres per capita per day
square metre
cubic metre
Municipal Corporation
milligrams
Million litres per day
Nitrogen
Natural Ground Level
Ammonia
Nitrate
Nitrite
Operation and Maintenance
person
Phosphorus
Plain Cement Concrete
Planted Gravel Filter
Phosphate
Reinforced Cement Concrete
Sequencing Batch Reactor
Tata-Dhan Academy
Total Dissolved Solids
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Total Solids
Total Suspended Solids
Urine-Diversion
Urine-Diversion-Dehydration
Underground Sewer System
width
Wastewater Treatment System
year(s)
vi
1. Introduction / 2. Decentralised & Hybrid Solutions

1
INTRODUCTION
Small and decentralised wastewater systems have shown to have the same benefits of large scale
centralised systems in protecting public health. A significant advantage of small and decentralised
systems is the ability to utilize the water and nutrients locally. Carried out creatively and in a
proper manner, sustainable systems through closing the water and nutrient loops can be created.
Scientific and technical knowledge has developed an array of small and decentralised systems.
This booklet presents information about the DEWATS (Decentralised Wastewater Treatment
Solutions) technology, including information about the function and treatment processes, design,
construction and operation and maintenance (O&M). These systems are perfectly suitable for local
conditions, relatively easy to implement, acceptable by local users and technical feasible.
2
DECENTRALISED WASTEWATER TREATMENT & HYBRID SOLUTIONS
Decentralised wastewater treatment systems (WWTS) are principally not connected to a

centralised underground
sewer system (UGSS).
The
wastewater
is
treated and reused /
discharged directly at or
near the point of
generation. According to
the definition of the
International
Water
Association
(IWA)
Specialist
Group,
decentralised or small
WWTS treat quantities
up to 100m3 of daily
sewage
flow,
which Fig. 1: decentralised wastewater management
corresponds in India to
roughly 1,000 person equivalent; but can be bigger dependent of applied technology.
Decentralised systems include a range of sizes and technologies, and can also include a
small/simplified UGSS. The most compact decentralised systems work at household level and
comprise a spread of different technologies. At household level, no sewerage system is needed.
Decentralised systems can also be applied successfully on cluster level, to treat the wastewater
generated in an agglomeration of houses, a small village, or the part of a bigger settlement, e.g. on
the periphery of a larger city. In these cases, a simplified UGSS is required, which consists of
smaller pipe diameters and is laid in shallow depths. Decentralised systems are perfectly
appropriate to treat wastewater generated in community toilet centres (CBS-unit) which are
constructed in areas where houses do not possess of individual sanitation facilities.
A barrier for the implementation of decentralised sanitation systems is the current mindset,
favouring centralised systems. The huge technology selection confuses implementers, and
professionals are not trained on decentralised systems.
1

The advantages of decentralised systems are manifold: investment and O&M costs are lower
compared to centralised systems as no expensive centralised UGSS is needed. If necessary, a
simplified sewerage system is sufficient. As houses and settlements can be connected to an
appropriate treatment system more easily, the public health outcome is enormous.
Decentralised systems are very applicable for the treatment of source-separated wastewater
streams. Treatment techniques for the complete wastewater or for grey-, black, and brown water
exist. Hence, for each individual situation, the most appropriate technique can be selected and
applied. The counterproductive mixture of drinking water and rainwater with all kinds of
pollutants is avoided or minimised significantly.
The local reuse of water and nutrients is a huge environmental benefit. Where the systems are
located at the edge of a city or in rural areas, effluents can be sustainably used for e.g. irrigation
(using the water and contained nutrients). Also energy contained in the wastewater can be
recovered easily in
form of biogas and
used locally.
A hybrid system is a
combination of a
centralised
and
decentralised
sanitation system and
is expected to be the
solution for urban
wastewater
management.
The
particular advantages
of centralised and
decentralised systems
Fig. 2: hybrid solution for wastewater management
are integrated, as the
sanitation management system is tailor-made and adapted to the existing conditions.
Treatment systems can be built for single houses, clusters and big agglomerations as required. For
all application areas, feasible and adequate treatment solutions exist. Generally, dense and core
areas of a city are connected to a centralised system and respective wastewater is routed via a
conventional UGSS to the centralised WWTS. As the wastewater quantities generated in core
areas of cities are large, the high implementation and O&M costs for a centralised system are
justifiable. Little agglomerations of households, such as villages or peri-urban areas, can be
connected to a semi-centralised treatment unit. UGSS and the capacity of the treatment units
are therefore extremely reduced.
No shortcomings of hybrid solutions can be reported, as they combine the benefits of centralised
and decentralised systems. Tailor-made solutions are easily applicable, based on the local needs
and conditions.
The length of the UGSS is significantly reduced as wastewater is not transported from isolated
locations over kilometres to the point of treatment; hence, construction and O&M costs are
correspondingly reduced. As the systems are located closer to the point of origin, the location can
be chosen more flexibly. Topographic conditions can be accounted more easily and the system can
2

be located more favourably. Therefore, pumping stations are often not required and a simplified
UGSS is sufficient; hence, implementation costs are reduced.
Water consumption is significantly reduced due to reduced transport needs. The treated water
can be reused more easily after treatment as the quantities are easier to handle and the locations
are often appropriate for direct use (e.g. irrigation at cities outskirts).
A big advantage is that different wastewater streams can be simply separated and treated
according to individual needs. Also, it is far easier to prevent wastewater getting mixed with
rainwater in decentralised parts of the systems, resulting in smaller WWTS capacity needs and
finally in reduced costs. Greywater can be separated and treated more efficiently and eco-friendly.
Decentralised wastewater management enables even complete source-separation followed by a
tailor-made treatment of the individual waste streams, resulting in a more sustainable reuse of
wastewater ingredients, such as the water, nutrients and energy. Hybrid solutions bear the
potential for a sustainable and eco-friendly future sanitation management.
3. DEWATS Basics
DEWATS BASICS
The abbreviation DEWATS stands for Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems and is a
technical approach developed and continuously improved by the Bremen Overseas Research and
Development Association (BORDA), an international non-profit development organization
headquartered in Bremen, Germany with regional offices in India, Indonesia, Vietnam and
southern Africa. The Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination (CDD), a Bangalore based NGO,
officially coordinates BORDA activities in South Asia and represents as an umbrella organisation
several relevant government, public and private stakeholders that define, coordinate and support
the creation of appropriate, demand oriented decentralised service structures in the fields of
community and environment sanitation by means of integrated solutions, combining DEWATS,
decentralised solid waste management, decentralised water supply, sanitation infrastructure, and
socio-economic support measures. For more information about BORDA and CDD activities and
DEWATS technologies please visit www.borda-net.org.
Important and reputable partners have joined the CDD network in order to disseminate DEWATS
technologies. Some of the Indian network partners are the Foundation for Education and
Innovation in Asia (FEDINA), Auroville Centre for Scientific Research, Sulabh International Academy
for Environmental Services, Centre for Environmental Studies - Anna University, EXNORA
International Foundation, and many more. DHAN Foundation is collaborating with CDD since April
2008 and joined the CDD South Asia network in 2009 in order to disseminate DEWATS
technologies around Madurai and TN.
DEWATS systems are effective, reliable, cost efficient and custom-made wastewater treatment
systems, which are perfectly suited for small to medium-size systems at community level and for
individual users like e.g. schools, hospitals, or enterprises. The technical options within DEWATS
are based on a modular and partly standardized design. In the following, the most common
DEWATS modules are briefly described, which consist of settler, biogas settlers, anaerobic filters,
anaerobic baffled reactors, planted gravel filters, anaerobic ponds, and aerobic ponds. However,
wastewater treatment plants do not necessarily include all modules. DEWATS systems can be
designed for individual needs.
3.1
Grease Trap
Its need depends on the physical characteristics of the raw wastewater. If a settler is provided
downstream, they are usually not required for domestic wastewater. However, for canteens
where large quantities of fat and oil can be expected they are essential.
The function of these modules is to
separate floating matter (grease, oil)
through
floatation.
However,
biodegradable organic matter should
not
be
separated
through
sedimentation, why retention times are
only within the range of few minutes.
Baffle walls avoid turbulences and hold Fig. 3: grease trap
back floating matter. A conical trough
can be included to assure a higher flow velocity at the bottom to avoid the sedimentation of fine
4
3. DEWATS Basics
(organic) particles. A T-pipe which dives down under the lowest level of scum prevents grease and
oil of being flushed into the downstream modules. Grease needs to be removed manually on a
weekly basis.
In order to prevent tremendous smell, blackwater should not be routed through a grease trap. In
case that grey- and blackwater should be treated together in a DEWATS, the grease trap has to be
constructed decentralised (e.g. directly attached to the canteen) and its effluent should join the
blackwater directly upstream of the (biogas) settler.
Kind of treatment:
flotation
Wastewater type:
wastewater with high fat and oil contents
not adequate for faecal matter
Advantages:
simple and durable
little space requirement
Disadvantages:
only pre-treatment
need for continuous cleaning
3.2
Settler (and Septic Tank)
Settlers and septic tanks are the most common

small-scale, decentralised wastewater treatment
plants worldwide as they are cheap in construction,
efficient and require low maintenance. They were
originally designed for domestic wastewater;
however, they are also suitable for other
wastewater of similar properties, particularly those
that contain a substantial portion of settleable
solids.
Fig. 4: settler
Design and treatment mechanisms of settlers and

septic tanks are mainly similar. The difference is in the hydraulic retention time of the wastewater;
hence, its volume. Settlers are basically used as a pre-treatment module (e.g. in DEWATS systems)
meanwhile septic tanks are often used as full (however not completely efficient) treatment. In
DEWATS only settlers are used.
In septic tanks two principal treatment mechanisms take place: mechanical treatment through
sedimentation and floatation of solids, and biological decomposition through activity of anaerobic
microorganism contained in the sludge (full treatment). Settlers are supposed to allow only
inorganic solids settling down why sludge accumulation is less and biological decomposition is
therefore limited. In both cases, the clarified layer flows through the outlet.
On the water surface, a scum layer accumulates, consisting of floating materials such as fat,
grease, hair, plastics. Also sludge particles are released from the bottom and are driven above the
water surface, where they accumulate and dry. In order to prevent the scum occupying too much
volume, it needs to be removed regularly. Also the sludge needs to be removed from the bottom
5
3. DEWATS Basics
after roughly two years of operation, depending on the strength of the wastewater and the sludge
storage volume.
Meanwhile settlers consist usually only of one chamber, septic tanks can be distinguished
between single compartment (so called aqua privy) and multiple compartment modules. Both
systems are generally constructed underground.
The treatment efficiency is in the range of 25% BOD removal. Pathogens and nutrients are barely
removed. Settlers can be used for primary treatment, prior to secondary or even tertiary
treatment. They can also be directly integrated into an anaerobic baffle reactor or anaerobic filter.
Kind of Treatment:
sedimentation / flotation
sludge stabilisation
Wastewater Type:
wastewater of settleable solids, especially domestic
Advantages:
simple and durable
little space requirement, not visible (underground)
very low investment and O&M cost
Disadvantages:
low treatment efficiency (only pre- or primary treatment)
only very moderate reduction of infectious organism
effluent not odourless (anaerobic process especially in case of septic tanks)
must be de-sludged regularly
3.3
Biogas Settler
Fig. 5: fixed-dome biogas settler(l) and floating dome biogas settler (r)
Biogas Settlers are wastewater treatment systems suitable for strong substrate. They are not
suitable for weak wastewater. They are therefore only used in Community-Based Sanitation (CBS)
projects where the influent BOD is high compared to sewers. Meanwhile for full treatment
digesters need a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 15-25 days, in DEWATS a HRT of 12-24 hours is
chosen. The systems are used as pre-treatment instead of regular settlers in order to use the
biogas instead of releasing it into the environment. In DEWATS they are therefore called biogas
settler.
Within the settler, the new incoming influent is totally mixed with the old substrate and the
sludge. However, settleable solids sediment to the bottom, where a sludge layer forms, which has
6
3. DEWATS Basics
to be removed after 1-2 years. In most cases, the sludge is excavated by hydraulic pressure
through special desludging pipes.
Besides the mechanical removal of solids, anaerobic bacteria degrade organics and the sludge is
digested anaerobically. Biogas utilisation is recommended to avoid smell. The plant must be gastight. Biogas is collected under the settlers dome, which can be fixed or floating. Normally, gas
production should go together with gas consumption, time-wise and volume-wise. The BOD
reduction efficiency is with approximately 40-50% twice as good as in case of regular settlers.
Kind of Treatment:
anaerobic degradation of suspended and dissolved solids
sludge stabilisation
Wastewater Type:
domestic and industrial wastewater of high BOD/COD
Advantages:
simple and durable
resistant against organic and hydraulic shock loads
no pre-treatment necessary
little space requirement (underground)
biogas use
Disadvantages:
costly in construction (gas-tight)
requires special construction skills (dome)
not suitable for weak, municipal wastewater (mixed with greywater)
effluent smells (anaerobic process)
3.4
Anaerobic Baffle Reactor (ABR)
Anaerobic Baffle Reactors (ABR), also called Baffled Septic Tanks, are a combination of
conventional septic tanks, fluidised bed reactors and an Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
systems. Biological and natural chemical processes are used to digest and remove organic matter.
The ABR consists of a series of
chambers (at least 4), in which
the wastewater flows upstream.
Baffle walls or pipes direct the
wastewater stream between the
individual chambers from top to
bottom. At the bottom of each
chamber, active sludge is
retained. During inflow into the
chamber, wastewater is forced to
pass through the activated sludge
Fig. 6: four-chamber anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR)
blanked whereby it is inoculated
with the wastewater organisms, which decompose the contained pollutants. In the first chamber
easily degradable substances are broken down while in the following chambers, decomposition of
less decomposable substances takes place.
7
3. DEWATS Basics
An equal distribution of fresh wastewater and a close contact between fresh influent and old
active sludge are important process features. The wastewater flows upstream through each
chamber with the effect that sludge particles settle against the up-stream of the water. This
provides the possibility of intensive contact between sludge and newly incoming liquid.
The wastewater flow between the chambers is directed by baffle walls or by a parallel series of
PVC-pipes (which is ultimately preferred) which lead from the upper outlet of one chamber to the
bottom of the following chamber; hence, the wastewater is directly exposed to the active sludge
in the next chamber. The settled sludge must be removed in regular intervals; however, some
sludge should always be left for continuous efficiency. In the first chambers, more sludge can be
expected than in downstream chambers, which determines the time of removal. The last chamber
can have a filter in its upper part to hold back eventual solid particles.
The ABR is suitable for all kind of wastewaters, including domestic. Its efficiency increases with
higher organic load, as for all anaerobic processes. The treatment performance is the range of 65%
- 90% COD (70% - 95% BOD) removal. The pathogen reduction is in range of 40-75%.
Kind of Treatment:
Wastewater Type:
pre-settled domestic and industrial wastewater of narrow COD/BOD ratio
suitable for strong industrial wastewater
Advantages:
simple to build and operate
durable
resistant against organic and hydraulic shock loads
high treatment efficiency
hardly any blockage
relatively cheap compared to AF
Disadvantages:
requires larger space for construction than AF (not economical for large plants)
less efficient with weak wastewater
longer start-up phase than AF
3.5
Anaerobic Filter (AF)
Anaerobic Filters (AF), also known as Fixed Bed or Fixed Film Reactors, include the treatment of
non-settleable and dissolved solids, besides treatment through sedimentation and sludge
digestion. They are generally used for secondary treatment, downstream a settler or ABR to
increase the treatment capacity of the complete system.
Through intensive contact between the wastewater and the bacterial biomass, organic matter is
digested with short retention times. AF are filled with special filter media, such as gravel, rocks,
slag, or plastic pieces. Appropriate materials have a relatively large surface area where bacteria
can fix. A rough surface provides a larger area. Most microorganisms are immobile fixed on the
surface of this filter material and the reactor walls; however, some bacteria are also in suspension.
Due to clogging, the treatment efficiency can be decreased. In this case, the water finds a
8
3. DEWATS Basics
channelled way through open pores and due to high flow velocities the bacteria are flushed out of
the system. Therefore, when the biofilm becomes too thick, the filter needs to be cleaned by backflushing or by removing the filter mass for cleaning outside before refilling.
Anaerobic filters may be operated as down-flow or
up-flow systems. The up-flow system is normally
preferred as the risk of washing out active bacteria
is less. However, backwashing is easier with the
down-flow system. An important design criterion is
equal distribution of wastewater upon the filter
area. The provision of adequate space of free water
before the filter and the same before the outlet
pipe supports equal distribution.
Fig. 7: two-chamber anaerobic filter (AF)
AF can be de-sludged via an integrated pipe, which

leads to the reactors bottom with the help of a
pump from the top. As with settlers, desludging has
to be done at regular intervals.
AF are suitable for all municipal and industrial wastewater with low content of suspended solids.
In any case, pre-treatment in e.g. settler is necessary to prevent clogging. The treatment efficiency
in AF is about 70% - 90% BOD removal. As for all other anaerobic systems, the treatment efficiency
increases with higher organic loads.
Kind of Treatment:
Wastewater Type:
pre-settled domestic and industrial wastewater of narrow COD/BOD ratio
Advantages:
simple and durable if wastewater is properly pre-treated
reliable and robust
Disadvantages:
costly in construction (special filter material)
blockage of filter possible
effluent smells slightly (anaerobic process)
3.6
Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter (HPGF)
Horizontal Planted gravel filters (HPGF), also called subsurface flow wetland systems or root zone
treatment plants, is one of three wastewater treatment techniques summarized as constructed
wetlands. Overland treatment systems and vertical gravel filter are the two alternative wetland
systems; however, as they are not common DEWATS technologies they are not further discussed
at this point.
PGF are simple and low-maintenance treatment systems provided they are well designed and
constructed. Even if they look simple, the technology is not at all; hence the construction of pond
systems should be always considered as an alternative. However, gravel filters have a couple of
9
3. DEWATS Basics
benefits as discussed later, why they can be used excellently in decentralized wastewater
treatment systems.
In DEWATS, they are
suitable for pre-treated
domestic or industrial
wastewater of a BOD
content of maximum 50
mg/l. Wastewater must
be pre-treated especially
in respect to suspended
solids, due to the fact
that the biggest problem
in ground filters is
clogging.
Fig. 8: horizontal planted gravel filter (HPGF)
The pre-treated wastewater flows horizontally, below surface, through the root zone of the
planted plants. A distribution system in the inlet ensures equal distribution across the whole
width, which is essential for an efficient treatment performance. The filter body is permanently
soaked with water and operates partly aerobic in the top layer (free oxygen present), partly anoxic
in the middle layer (no free oxygen but nitrate present) and partly anaerobic in the bottom layer
(no free oxygen and no nitrate present). Oxygen reaches the filter through gas exchange at the
surface and through the roots of the plants. The filters are covered by suitable plantation,
meaning any plant, which can grow on wastewater and whose roots go deep and spread wide. To
an extent, the performance also depends on the species of plant chosen.
The treatment process in horizontal ground filters is complex. It consists of the physical process of
filtration, the intake of oxygen as well as the influence of plantation on the biological treatment
process. Even if all influencing factors would be known, it is still their interaction, which is difficult
to predict. Generally, nutrients are removed in the filter through absorption by the plants roots.
Pathogens are removed and eliminated through natural die-off, UV-exposition, adherence, and
antibiotic released by the roots. BOD and COD are further reduced through biological aerobic and
anaerobic composition in the respective layers. However, in DEWATS PGF are not designed to
reduce the BOD and COD (because for that they are relatively expensive compared to the other
modules) but to enrich the anaerobic effluent of the AF with oxygen and so reduce smell. In fact,
sometimes PGF even increase the BOD as the BOD inlet concentration (<50mg/L) is already low.
For design, sophisticated calculating methods exist which depend on data, which in most cases are
hardly available. The design by thumb-rules is mostly sufficient for small treatment systems.
General conditions are a large and shallow filter bed, a wide inlet zone, a reliable distribution of
the inflow over the complete filter width, and round coarse gravel of nearly uniform size as filter
medium.
10
3. DEWATS Basics
Kind of Treatment:
aerobic-facultative-anaerobic degradation of dissolved and fine suspended solids
pathogen removal
Wastewater Type:
domestic and weak industrial wastewater where settleable solids and most suspended
solids are already removed by pre-treatment
Advantages:
pleasant landscaping possible
no wastewater above ground
cheap in construction if filter material is easily available
no nuisance of odour
pathogen and nutrient removal
Disadvantages:
high space requirement
costly if right quality of gravel is not available
great knowledge and care required during construction
intensive maintenance and supervision during first 1 2 years
3.7
Polishing Pond
Maturation ponds receive the effluent from aerobic ponds or other secondary treatment systems
and serve for water storage until further use and primarily for final pathogen removal through UVexposition. The process removes additional BOD, solids and faecal coliforms plus some nutrients.
Fig. 9 shows a typical combination of different DEWATS modules. The system consists of a twochamber settler as a pre-treatment step to remove settleable solids and floating sediments,
followed by a four-chamber ABR to remove organic pollution through anaerobic microbiologic
processes. In both modules, sludge is stabilised anaerobically. A two-chamber AF is constructed
downstream the ABR to further remove organic pollution through anaerobic microbiological
processes and to remove remaining fine particles inclusive attached pathogens. Downstream the
AF, aerobic treatment takes place in a PGF. Here, besides anaerobic and facultative aerobic
microorganisms, aerobic bacteria finally remove organic pollution through oxidation. Pathogens
are removed through natural antibiotics, UV exposition, sedimentation and attachment on the
filter material. Nutrients are removed through plants uptake. The last treatment module is a
polishing pond where oxygen is finally dissolved in the water to avoid smell nuisances, last
remaining pollutants are oxidized and pathogens are further removed through UV exposition. The
pond system also serves for storing the treated water before reuse.
Fig. 9: settler ABR AF PGF polishing pond (not true to scale)
11
3. DEWATS Basics
Fig. 10 shows another typical DEWATS option consisting of a fixed biogas settler where dissolved
and suspended solids are settled and anaerobically stabilised while biogas is generated and
collected, followed by a four-chamber ABR to remove organic pollution through anaerobic
microbiologic processes. Also in the ABR, sludge is stabilised anaerobically. A two-chamber AF is
constructed downstream the ABR to further remove organic pollution through anaerobic
microbiological processes and to remove remaining fine particles inclusive attached pathogens.
Downstream the AF, aerobic treatment takes place in a PGF. Here aerobic bacteria finally remove
organic pollution through oxidation. Pathogens are removed through natural antibiotics, UV
exposition, sedimentation and attachment on the filter material and the water is enriched with
oxygen in order to avoid odour nuisances. Nutrients are removed through plants uptake.
Fig. 10: fixed dome biogas settler ABR AF PGF (not true to scale)
12
4. Areas of Applicability for DEWATS
AREAS OF APPLICABILITY FOR DEWATS
Decentralised sanitation management brings various benefits if applied correctly and under
appropriate conditions. The following list summarises typical situations in which decentralised
sanitation management should be considered or selected.
where the operation and management of existing systems must be improved

where individual onsite systems are failing and the community cannot afford the cost of a
conventional wastewater management system, (e.g. slums and unauthorised settlements)
where the community or facility is remote from existing sewers, (e.g. peri-urban areas and
outskirts)
where localised water reuse opportunities are available, (e.g. irrigation in the periphery and
rural outskirts)
where freshwater for domestic supply is in short supply,
where existing wastewater treatment plant capacity is limited and financing is not available
for expansion
where the site or environmental conditions that require further wastewater treatment or
exportation of wastewater are isolated to certain areas
where residential density is spare, (* - outskirts, peri-urban areas, rural areas)
DEWATS can be successfully applied where it is more advantageous than expensive centralised
wastewater treatment combined with a long UGSS. DEWATS solutions are for example
advantageous for the following areas of applicability:
DEWATS-Community-Based-Sanitation: DEWATS-CBS fills the gap between on-site

sanitation and centralised treatment. It combines appropriate treatment with on-site use of
effluent and biogas. The technologies can be easily adapted to the community needs. User
participation in decision making processes secures sustainable operation, which is often not
the case. Community toilet centres show very good user acceptance and success. They are
especially appropriate for unauthorised settlements as a bridge-solution, slums, and periurban areas.
DEWATS-Small-Medium-Enterprises: Domiciliary establishments like residential colonies,
guest houses, dormitories, schools, hostels and jails where a lot of people live on a
relatively small area generate large quantities of domestic wastewater which needs to be
disposed of and treated. Many institutions are not connected to the UGSS (e.g. because the
whole area is uncovered or they are located offside). Others are connected to settler or
soak pits in which the wastewater is not adequately treated. Here, DEWATS-SME offers
cost-effective and efficient treatment with easy reuse of effluents and biogas.
DEWATS for hospitals and health care facilities: Wastewater from hospitals is regulated
under special legal rules to ensure that it is handled, treated and disposed properly. The
wastewater generated in kitchens, laundries, wards, laboratories, operation theatres,
cleaning, housekeeping and disinfection is concentrated and makes special demands on
treatment. DEWATS is ideal for most hospitals as it can be combined with special treatment
for certain waste streams and can be adapted to the local conditions.
13
5. Benefits of DEWATS
BENEFITS OF DEWATS
The following list without being exhaustive summarises general benefits of DEWATS:
cost efficient as no or only simplified UGSS needed

no high-tech systems needed
low running costs as no electrical devices needed
minimal O&M needs and costs as no specialised personnel needed
high variety of technologies (adaptable to quantity, quality and reuse potential)
energy savings as no electrical devices needed
high local reuse potential
various water reuse options due to relatively small effluent quantities
high variety of water reuse options (irrigation, toilet flushing, groundwater recharge)
easy and effective energy recovery (biogas used as a fuel for cooking and lighting)
no risk of empty systems due to broken UGSS as only simplified or no sewer necessary
no groundwater pollution through long, leaking UGSS
no pollution of downstream water bodies with nutrient leading to eutrophication
easy and efficient user involvement and participation in decision making and O&M
high user acceptance
easily and quickly applicable in so far unconnected areas like slums or city outskirts
appropriate as bridge-solution until a centralised system is provided (unauthorised
settlements)
applicable on household, cluster and community level
easy stormwater separation and therefore less capacity needs for collection and treatment
units
easy source separation (e.g. greywater for irrigation, urine for fertilisation)
14
6. Baseline Data
BASELINE DATA
For the selection of an appropriate treatment technology, essential criteria have to be taken into
account, such as:
weather conditions (temperature and rainfall)

topography
water availability
financial resources
user friendliness and user contribution in construction and O&M
reuse potential of water and nutrients
energy recovery
sustainability
Before being able to calculate and design DEWATS comprehensive data need to be collected. This
includes information about:
metadata of the location (e.g. ownership, responsibilities, names, ward info, stakeholders)
demographic data (e.g. population, density, age structure)
water supply (e.g. pipe supply, water trucks, groundwater wells)
existing sanitation infrastructure (e.g. sewer system, latrines, soak-away pits, community
toilets)
water bodies (e.g. tanks, ponds, ooranies, wells, rivers)
exiting problems (e.g. open defecation, groundwater pollution, diseases, water scarcity)
space availability (e.g. for community toilet, polishing pond, PGF, community garden, tea
stall)
ownership of land (e.g. authorised, encroachment area, private, municipal corporation,
panchayat)
anticipated number of connected households or covered people
wastewater quantities and peak flows
willingness of residents to use certain technologies (e.g. use of gas for tea stall or effluent
for gardening)
In the following, a template for on-site baseline surveys is presented. By means of the collected
data, the applicability of DEWATS can be evaluated easily and a concept can be developed.
Questions like household connections versus a community toilet, adequate treatment modules,
feasible reuse options for effluent and biogas, etc. can be clarified based on these collected
information.
The following template is however to be understood as a collocation of example questions. Many
of the categories might not be applicable in a project and many of the enquired data will not be
available. The below template should rather serve as a reminder for the different potential
sources of information in order to gather data as comprehensive as possible. If available, it is
always preferable to derive similar or comparable data from different sources in order being able
to compare, double-check and evaluate the feasibility of the provided baseline data.
15
6. Baseline Data
6.1
Field survey
16
6. Baseline Data
17
6. Baseline Data
18
6. Baseline Data
19
6. Baseline Data
20
6. Baseline Data
After basic baseline data collection, e.g. by means of above template, and after developing the
basic DEWATS concept (household connection or CBS, wastewater quantity, DEWATS modules,
etc.); additional and more detailed data need to be collected for finally designing the system.
This data include information about hydraulic as well as biological loads hence the characteristics
of the treatable wastewater. The data collection has to be performed with special diligence as all
further project steps are based on these data. Even small inaccuracies and errors can have
significant effects and can endanger the success of the entire project.
Always double-check data from different sources and on feasibility (!)
6.2
Hydraulic load
6.2.1 Daily flow

The treatable wastewater quantity is the most crucial design criteria for DEWATS. In case of
domestic wastewater with more or less moderate organic loads (BOD/COD), the hydraulic design
criteria are mostly decisive. Based on the generated volume (flow rate) the feasibility and the
suitability of DEWATS as well as its size are determined. Especially for the design of ABR and AF
the hydraulic rates are of tremendous importance.
However, the exact determination of the flow rate is in most cases complicated and difficult to
execute as flow rates change during the daytime or season. Also, the identification of flow rates is
difficult due to pure practical/technical reasons (sewage flow in open channels, infiltration, etc.).
In order to measure the wastewater flow rate, collected wastewater volumes per time could be
used. This might be the rise in level of a channel that is closed for a period of time, or the number
of buckets filled during a given time period.
However, as the direct determination of wastewater quantities is mostly not feasible, it is more
easy and practical to measure or inquire the water consumption. However, the treatable
wastewater quantity is not equal to the fresh water consumption as not all fresh water ends up in
the sewer system after being used (e.g. gardening, infiltration or evaporation).
As a rule of thumb, 80% of the consumed fresh water is turned into wastewater after use.
Also where stormwater (rain) gets mixed with the wastewater in the drainage channels to some
extent, the treatable wastewater quantity is not equal to the drinking water quantity discharged
into the UGSS. However, in case of DEWATS projects, stormwater should generally be segregated
from wastewater as far as possible as it increases the treatable quantity (additional cost), it
reduces the efficiency of anaerobic treatment processes, and it carries silt and solid waste, which
decrease the treatment efficiency. Stormwater drains should never be connected to DEWATS.
Hence, after determining the total water consumption, the DEWATS should be designed for 80%
of this daily flow (plus a safety factor of 10-20%).
The determination of the fresh water consumption can be done directly or indirectly. Direct
determination should be preferred, if reliable measures are available.
21
6. Baseline Data
In case of DEWATS on household level, direct measures include:
supplied water quantities through water pipes

- input data: water meters, information provided by supplier, water bills
supplied water quantities through water trucks
- input data: trucks per day, truck capacity, information provided by supplier
supplied water quantities through water (Simplex) tanks
- input data: tank volume, refill intervals
extracted groundwater quantities
- input data: buckets per day, bucket volume
The problem of above methods is the reliability/exactness of provided data (e.g. through
residents, municipal corporations, panchayats, private contractors, etc.), as well as the
determination of the fraction of the supplied water for treatment.
The indirect determination of the per-head water consumption is much more difficult as
consumed water includes sanitation (toilet flush), personal hygiene (shower, washing), cooking,
drinking, dish washing, floor cleaning, watering of garden, laundry, etc. The consumed water
quantity depends therefore very much on the local conditions (social and economical status) and
the availability. In Dubai for example averagely 500 lpcd are used, in USA 295 lpcd, in Germany 129
lpcd, and in India 25 lpcd. However, the daily per-head consumption of 25 lpcd in India is the
country-wide average and varies significantly as shown below:
CPHEEO standard for big Indian cities: 135 lpcd

Second State Finance Commission norm for cities like Madurai: 110 lpcd
Madurai Municipal Corporation (CDP): 60-67 lpcd (2008)
10th Five-Year-Plan standard for rural area: >40 lpcd (first step), >55 lpcd (second step)
Due to the extremely varying quantities, the water consumption and the wastewater generation
(80% of consumption) have to be identified individually for each location by means of collecting all
available information such as from:
municipal corporations or town/village panchayats

private supplier / contractor
residents
In case of Community Based Sanitation (CBS), the determination of supplied/used water

quantities for flushing, hand washing and showering (where provided) depends directly on the
number of daily uses (number of users and use frequency). It is generally easier to determine as
the water usage on household level, as the water use is directly controlled by the operators of the
community toilet centre (CBS-units). In case of CBS, the consumed fresh water equals the
treatable wastewater quantity as much less water gets lost, e.g. through broken UGSS.
22
6. Baseline Data
Direct measures include:
supplied water quantities through water pipes (if CBS-unit is connected to water network)
- input data: water meters, information provided by supplier, water bills
quantities derived from overhead tanks
- input data: tank volume, refill interval (through groundwater pumps, water trucks,
pipelines)
other water storage devices
- input data: volume, refill intervals
Where direct determination is not feasible (e.g. because the toilet centre is still not constructed)
or reliable, consumed water quantities can be identified indirectly per thumb rules depending on
the location (e.g. needed quantity per toilet use). Indirect measures should always be used to
double-check directly derived quantities.
In case of CBS, the following thumb rules can be utilised in order to indirectly calculate the
wastewater generation PER USE.
anal cleansing:
- approx. 2L/use
toilet flushing (only bucket-flush)
- approx. 3L/use
hand washing (by tape):
- approx. 1L/use
cleaning by O&M personal
- approx. 2L/use
periodic flushing of mens urinal (if provided outside)
- depends on use and cleaning frequency
- approx. 2L/urinal and cleaning
bucket shower (if provided)
- approx. 20-30L/use
A detailed composition of the daily wastewater generation needs to be done for each project,
based on the provided infrastructure and local conditions. A typical wastewater generation in a
CBS-unit is between 10-15L per use; however it also can be less (e.g. 8-9L per use), especially in
rural areas where people are used to use less water for washing, flushing and hand washing (e.g.
village panchayats).
In order to calculate the total daily wastewater generation of a CBS-unit, the wastewater
generation per use (8-15L) must be multiplied with the total number of uses per day.
In order to calculate the total number of uses per day, the use frequency of the provided toilet
seats and the total number of toilet seats are required.
The use frequency of a single toilet seat is limited by practical reasons. Meanwhile in very crowded
places like bus stands, toilet users might be obliged to finish within very short time (e.g. because
no door locks are provided and people from the outside push), toilet users of CBS-units usually
have more time. A common value for using a toilet for defecation is 5 minutes; hence a single seat
can be used by maximum 12 people per hours (60min/5min). In cases of very high rush, the
average time for use could be reduced to 4 min, which would result in a maximum capacity per
23
6. Baseline Data
seat of 15 uses per hour. However, as the toilet seats are not used to its maximum capacity
throughout the day (peak hours in morning and evening), the use pattern must be evaluated.
Therefore, the capacity utilization for every seat (percentage seat occupancy) must be determined
throughout the day. This can be done based on experiences from comparable previous CBS
projects or theoretically considering the village/town dynamics.
The number of provided toilet seats depends finally on the anticipated capacity of the CBS-unit
and DEWATS; hence the available financial resources; but should not exceed 20 seats (e.g. 10 for
women and 10 for men) for operational reasons. If one CBS-unit is not sufficient to cover the
complete need, a second CBS-unit (plus DEWATS) should be provided at another location
(provided sufficient financial resources are available).
In order to easily determine above described factors, an EXCEL sheet as presented below is very
helpful.
Fig. 11: EXCEL sheet for determining daily wastewater flow in CBS-units
First, the maximum user per seat and hour (B2-25) needs to be determined (usually 12/hour in
case of 5min per use; occasionally 15/hour in case of 4 min per use). Afterwards the seat
occupancy in percent (E2-25) needs to be entered for every single hour of a day (C2-25). This
24
6. Baseline Data
value can be transferred from existing comparable CBS-units (survey on use pattern) or estimated
based on local conditions (above distribution with two peaks in the morning and evening are
typical). The user per seat (column E) can be automatically calculated by EXCEL by multiplying
column (B) with column (D). It shows how many people use a single seat at a certain hour over the
full day. By multiplying column E with the wastewater generation per use (column F), the
wastewater generation per seat (column G) are calculated. It shows how much wastewater is
generated per seat at a certain hour. Cell E26 is the sum of cells E2-25 and shows how often each
toilet seat is used over the full day. Similarly, cell G26 is the sum of cells G2-25 and shows how
much wastewater is generated from each toilet seat within 24 hours.
Next, the number of toilet seats (D27) needs to be added in order to calculate the total number
of uses of the CBS-unit over a full day (E28=E26*D27) and the total amount of wastewater
generated in the CBS-unit within one day (G28=G26*D27).
The number of chosen toilet seats (D27) depends on the number of people to be served. The total
number of uses per day (E28) correlates more or less with the number of users, as about 70-80%
of adults use the CBS-unit only once a day (only for defecation), hence the served population is
about 75% of the number of daily uses (0.75*E28). This value should ideally equal the number of
people who need a toilet. However, due to the maximum capacity of 20 seats per CBS-unit, space
or financial constraints, a smaller number of toilet seats might need to be chosen. It might not be
possible to serve the complete need with one CBS-unit.
The DEWATS finally needs to be designed for the wastewater quantity displayed in G28 (plus a
safety factor of e.g. 10%).
6.2.2 Peak flow
After determining the total daily flow (m3/d), the flow distribution over a day has to be assessed as
this is responsible for the flow velocity inside the DEWATS modules at certain times. This is of
particular interest in case of the up-flow reactors (ABR/AF), where the up-flow velocity must be
lower than the settling velocity of sludge particles in order to avoid flushing them out of the
system. These modules need to be sized to treat the maximum daily flow rather than having just
the capacity to treat the average daily flow.
In order to determine the peak hour flow rate, the total daily flow must be divided by the hours of
most flow (the time when wastewater is really generated). The peak factor is the quotient
between peak flow rate and average daily flow. Typical peak factors for domestic wastewater are
around 3 for small systems and 2 for large plants (in case of big systems, wastewater quantities
generated at different sources balance themselves more over the day than in smaller plants).
Example 1:
daily flow: 15m3
average daily flow: 15m3 / 24h = 0.625m3/h
hours of most flow: 8
peak hour flow rate: 15m3 / 8h = 1.875m3/h
peak factor: 1.875 / 0.625 = 3
In cases of equivocal, extreme or inconclusive daily flow distributions, a flow diagram might help in
order to identify peak flow rates and peak factors, as shown in the below examples.
25
6. Baseline Data
Example 2 shows a typical distribution for residential areas.
slum with 890 inhabitants (equivalent to 180 households of averagely 5 persons)
water supply: 70 lpcd (e.g. like presently in Madurai)
wastewater generation: 56 lpcd (80% of water supply)
wastewater flow: 50m3/d (56lpcd * 890cap)
Fig. 12: typical 24-h wastewater flow distribution - community
00-05:
05-08:
08-12:
12-14:
14-18:
18-22:
22-24:
sleeping
showering, toilet, cooking, dish washing
working
cooking, toilet, dish washing
working
cooking, dish washing, shower, toilet
sleeping
The load curve (purple) shows the real wastewater generation during the day. The daily flow
line illustrates the wastewater flow averaged over the total day of 24 hours (2.08m3/h).
The peak hour flow line illustrated the wastewater flow averaged over the hours of most
generation, from 07:00 to 19:00 (approx. 4m3/h). As this line illustrates the average flow during
this period, the areas (math: integrals) above and below this line should be equal within this 12hours section.
Above peak factor 2 can also be determined by dividing 24 hours into the hours of most flow
(peak factor = 24h / 12h of most flow = 2)
26
6. Baseline Data
Example 3 shows the distribution of a day-school which includes three meals a day.
day-school with 625 students
water consumption: 62.5m3/d
wastewater generation: 50m3/d
Fig. 13: typical 24-h wastewater flow distribution day school
00-08:
08-10:
10-12:
12-14:
14-16:
16-18:
18-24:
closed
cooking, dish washing
classes
classes
closed
The load curve (purple) shows the real wastewater generation during the day. The daily flow
line illustrates the average wastewater flow averaged over the total day of 24 hours
(2.08m3/h).
The peak hour flow line illustrated the wastewater flow averaged over the 8 hours of most
generation, from 09:00 to 17:00 (approx. 6m3/h). As this line illustrates the average flow during
this period, the areas (math: integrals) above and below this line should be equal within this 8hours section (peak factor = 24h / 8h of most flow = 3).
27
6. Baseline Data
Example 4 shows the distribution of a process-water consuming company.
working hours: 08:00 16:00 (8 hours)
water consumption = wastewater generation: 50m3/d (equally distributed over working
hours)
average daily flow: 50m3 / 24h = 2.08m3
Fig. 14: typical 24-h wastewater flow distribution company
00-08: closed
08-16: uniform generation
16-24: closed
The load curve (purple) shows the real wastewater generation. The daily flow line illustrates
the average wastewater flow averaged over the total day.
The peak hour flow line illustrated the wastewater flow averaged over the hours of generation,
from 08:00 to 16:00 (approx. 6m3/h). As no fluctuations in generation during working hours
exist, the peak flow line is equal to the real generation (50m3 / 8h = 6.25m3/h).
Peak factor = 24h / 8 hours of most flow = 3
or, peak factor = 6m3/h peak flow rate / 2m3/h average flow rate = 3
28
6. Baseline Data
In case of Community-Based-Sanitation (CBS), the peak flow can be easily derived with the EXCEL
sheet which was already used to calculate the total daily flow.
Fig. 15: EXCEL sheet for determining peak flows in CTC
The absolute peak flow is the flow during the hour of most wastewater generation (in above
example between 6-7am when the utilisation of the toilet complex is 95%). At no time, more
wastewater will run into the DEWATS. For this case, the peak flow (D29) is calculated by
multiplying the wastewater generation per seat at that certain time (G8) with the number of seats
(D27). This value should be used to calculate DEWATS modules which react very sensibly on peak
flows, like the ABR and AF, where the risk of flushing out active sludge exists in case of high upflow velocities.
29
6. Baseline Data
In order to save space and cost, less sensible modules such as the settler could be calculated with
an averaged peak flow which takes into account the hours of most wastewater generation, not
only the most extreme hour. In above example, a 3-hours average (6-8am), a 5-hours average (68am and 7pm-9pm) and a 7-hours average (5-9am and 6-9pm) was calculated. To do so, the
average peak flow (e.g. D30) is calculated by multiplying the average wastewater generation per
seat during this certain time period (e.g. G7-9) with the number of seats (D27).
As the case may be, the 3-hours average could also be used to design ABR and AF. In this case,
only during the most extreme peak hour the up-flow velocity will exceed its limit and some sludge
could be flushed out. It is therefore recommendable to calculate ABR and AF with different peak
flows and compare the up-flow velocities. Exceeding the maximum velocity for one hour per day
should be weighted up against the cost saving in case of using an averaged peak flow.
To restrict the wastewater generation in a CBS-unit to keep costs low, opening times might be an
alternative.
In the following, the relation between daily flow, average hourly flow, peak flow, and peak factor
is explained.
daily flow, Qd:
total wastewater flow occurring over a full day of 24 hours

(sum of all wastewater per day)
average hourly flow, Qh: average hourly flow (theoretical value assuming a constant flow
over the full day)
= 24
peak flow, Qpeak:
peak factor, fpeak:
maximum hourly flow during time of most generation (depending

on hours of most generation)
=
relation between hourly wastewater flow during hours of most
flow (peak flow) and average (theoretical) hourly flow
As DEWATS modules are designed for peak flows, the peak flow plays an immense important role.
In cases where the peak factor is big, DEWATS systems get relatively large compared to the total
amount of wastewater. In this case, peaks can be buffered by using feeding tanks. Feeding tanks
reduce the impact of peaks and reduce therefore construction cost. However, they require
generally pumping equipment and valves, which add to the total cost of the DEWATS.
Collection and feeding tanks can be integrated at any place into the DEWATS concept.
Fig. 16: possible arrangement of collection and feeding tank
30
6. Baseline Data
6.3
Bio-chemical and physical parameter
Besides hydraulic input data, also organic loads play a major role in the design of DEWATS;
however less in case of small plants. Additionally the temperature is an essential input data as biochemical reactions in DEWATS significantly depend on ambient conditions. The following
information need to be collected through sampling or, if not possible, through estimation.
BOD inflow (mg/l)

COD inflow (mg/l)
settleable solids, SS (mg/l)
minimum temperature (C)
Based on above hydraulic and organic data the following parameter can be calculated:
BOD per user (g/d)

COD/BOD-ratio (-)
Typical chemical and biological parameters for strengths of wastewater are presented in the
following table.
Table 1: typical composition of untreated domestic wastewater (1)
concentration
contaminant
unit
low
strength
medium
strength
high
strength
total solids (TS)
mg/L
390
720
1230
total dissolved solids (TDS)
mg/L
270
500
860
total suspended solids (TSS)
mg/L
120
210
400
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
mg/L
110
190
350
chemical oxygen demand (COD)
mg/L
250
430
800
total nitrogen (TN)
mg/L
20
40
70
total phosphorus (TP)
mg/L
12
oil & grease
mg/L
50
6
90
8
100
9
total coliforms
no/ 100mL
10 10
10 10
10 1010
faecal coliforms
no/ 100mL
103 105
104 106
105 108
A COD/BOD-ratio of 2-3 is typical for domestic, easily treatable wastewater. Higher ratios indicate
a wastewater which is difficult to treat (the COD analysis includes all organic matter, whereas the
BOD includes only organic matter which are oxidized by bacteria in the laboratory during the 5days BOD test).
31
6. Baseline Data
6.4
Sampling
Before determining above parameter, wastewater samples need to be taken. To meet the
objectives of taking samples, the collected data must be:
representative: the data must represent the wastewater or environment being sampled
reproducible: the data obtained must be reproducible by others following the same
sampling and analytical protocols
defensible: documentation must be available to validate the sampling plan. The data must
have a known degree of accuracy and precision
During taking samples, attention has to be paid on correct procedures, as follows:
arrange laboratory appointment in advance and ensure that tests will be done immediately
label sample containers with unequivocal, readable, waterproof, consecutive numbers
avoid direct contact with wastewater (use gloves)
use clean plastic 1-liter containers with top
chose representative location
wash sampling container with wastewater (fill and empty)
take sample from flowing water (not standing)
fill sampling container completely (no air on top)
close container to avoid water leaving / air entering
note sample location, time and container number on sample plan - do not provide this info
to the lab (!)
transfer containers as soon as possible to laboratory
store containers in cool and shady place during transport - if possible in a cool bag, but do
NOT freeze (!)
In regular intervals, in case of important samples (for design) or in case of doubts, lab test results
should be double-checked and cross-verified by one or more of the following means:
feasibility check with literature

- typical value for BOD for domestic wastewater: 200-400 mg/L
- typical value for COD/BOD-ratio for domestic wastewater: +/-2 (1 to 3 depending
on water)
bring the same samples to different laboratories and compare the results
bring the same sample in two different containers to the same laboratory without the labs
knowledge and compare the results
bring a sample of known quality to the laboratory
32
7. General Design Criteria
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA
The following chapter presents design criteria for dimensioning DEWATS, as well as technical
details for construction. The calculation and design of DEWATS depend on side conditions, such as
climate, wastewater constituents, as well as the required effluent quality. Therefore, different
design approaches exist. Especially for standard modules like settlers or AF, different design
criteria exist in common literature. However, often these criteria refer to use as an individual
treatment plant (e.g. septic tank in combination with a soak-pit) but not as part of a DEWATS
solution. For DEWATS construction, experiences (thumb rules and design criteria based on existing
systems) play a major role in the design, what poses a challenge to newcomers with limited
previous experience.
Before presenting the design criteria for the different DEWATS modules, the following equations
show general relations between calculative units which help to design the modules. These basic
equations are sufficient for the necessary calculations:
relation between linear measures (length L and width W) and surface area A
relation between surface area A, depth D and reactor volume V
relation between flow Q (e.g. m3/d, m3/h, L/min), reactor volume V (e.g. m3, L) and
hydraulic retention time HRT (e.g. d, h, min)
relation between flow Q (e.g. m3/d, m3/h, L/min), surface area A (m2, ha), and hydraulic
surface loading rate pA (e.g. m3/m2*d)
=
relation between flow Q (e.g. m3/d, m3/h, L/min), reactor volume V (L, m3), and hydraulic
volume loading rate pV (e.g. m3/m3*d)
=
relation between hydraulic volume loading rate pV (e.g. m3/m3*d, L/L*h) and hydraulic
retention time HRT (e.g. d, h)
1
relation between peak flow Q (e.g. m3/h), surface area A (m2), and velocity v (m/h)
=
33
relation between void-space volume VV (m3,L), porosity (%) and total volume VT (m3, L)
relation between flow Q (e.g. m /d, m /h, L/min), concentration c (e.g. mg/L, kg/m3) and
organic loading rate q (e.g. g/h, kg/d)
=
relation between organic loading rate q (e.g. g/h, kg/d), surface area A (ha, m2), and
organic surface loading rate qA (e.g. kg/ha*d, g/m2*h)
=
relation between organic loading rate q (e.g. g/h, kg/d), reactor volume V (m3, L), and
organic volume loading rate qV (e.g. kg/m3*d, g/L*h)
=
Attention: With above linear equations, all modules can be calculated based on the respective
design criteria. However, in order to use above equations correctly, it has to be assured that all
units used in a single equation are corresponding (!)
The following box presents useful conversion rates, which are typically used for calculating
DEWATS. Generally, metric units (SI) are used for designing DEWATS (!)
conversion of time
1 minute (min) = 60 seconds (sec)
1 hour (h) = 60 minutes (min) = 3,600 seconds (sec)
1 day (d) = 24 hours (h) = 1,440 minutes (min) = 86,400 seconds (sec)
1 year (yr) = 365.25 days (d)
conversion of weight
1 gram (g) = 1,000 milligrams (mg)
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams (g) = 1,000,000 milligrams (mg)
conversion of lengths
1 decimetre (dm) = 10 centimetre (cm)
1 metre (m) = 10 decimetre (dm) = 100 centimetre (cm)
conversion of areas
1 square metre (m2) = 100 square decimetre (dm2)
1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 square metre (m2)
1 square kilometre (km2) = 100 hectare (ha) = 1,000,000 square metre (m2)
conversion of volumes
1 litre (L) = 1,000 millilitres (mL)
1 cubic metre (m3) = 1,000 litres (L)
34

7.1
Sludge accumulation
DEWATS is largely based on anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. These anaerobic

processes produce less sludge than aerobic processes. Due to the fact that most DEWATS modules
work in anaerobic ambience, the sludge generation is limited. However, especially in the first
modules sludge accumulates and needs to be removed periodically in order to ensure a
sustainable and efficient operation.
Most sludge accumulation happens in the first modules where a considerable quantity of inorganic
and organic settleable solids is present (raw wastewater). Therefore, the sludge accumulation has
to be considered especially in the design of biogas settler, settler, and ABR.
In AF, PGF and polishing ponds sludge also accumulates over time; however, the quantity depends
very much on the strength of the wastewater and the efficiency of upstream modules and is
therefore difficult to predict. As the design of these modules does not depend on the accumulated
sludge volume, its determination is not required. In AF, PGF and ponds the sludge levels need to
be tested during operation in regular intervals and the modules need desludging as required.
Total sludge accumulation in domestic raw sewage: 0.1 l/cap*d (5) (4)
- for de-sludge intervals >2yr: 0.08 l/cap*d (sludge compacts with time) (5)
Above sludge accumulation rate refers to raw (untreated) wastewater; hence, it can be used in
modules in which sludge typically accumulates first of all in settlers and biogas settlers.
As above sludge accumulation rate is a thumb rule, design of DEWATS based on this alone is not
recommended. Although the value generally works well for the design of settlers (and septic
tanks), it bears uncertainties and inaccuracies. For a more detailed and exact calculation, please
refer to the manual and PC-based calculation, which is presented in Chapters 8 and 9.
If the sludge accumulation rate is chosen too small, no direct influence on the treatment efficiency
needs to be expected. However, especially settlers would require shorter desludge intervals which
would result in increased maintenance cost.
In case of ABR, the chamber size is limited due to specific design criteria (upstream velocity). An
increased sludge storage volume would result in additional chambers (constructed in series) but
not in larger chambers. Due to the fact that most sludge accumulates in the first two ABR
chambers, an additional sludge storage volume (hence additional chambers) does not decrease
desludge intervals as the system requires desludging when the first chamber is filled to a certain
degree.
7.2
Hydraulic Conductivity
For designing PGF the hydraulic conductivity of the filter media needs to be identified. Hydraulic
conductivity, symbolically represented as K, is a property of vascular plants, soil or rock that
describes the ease with which water can move through pore spaces or fractures. It depends on the
permeability of the material and on the degree of saturation. If the hydraulic conductivity of a
used material is not known or cannot be tested, literature and common values have to be used.
35

The following figure shows graphically the range of Kf for different soil types. (2)
Fig. 17: hydraulic conductivity of filter media
As per above graph, coarse gravel (which is used in the inlet zone of PGF) has a Kf between 0.010.1m/s (averagely 0.05m/s) and medium gravel (which is used in the inner zones) of 0.0010.008m/s (averagely 0.0045m/s).
The following table also displays common hydraulic conductivities for common diameters.
Table 2: typical medium characteristics for PGF (3)
Medium type
Effective size
(mm)
Porosity
Hydraulic conductivity
(m/s)
Medium sand
0.30
0.005786
Coarse sand
0.32
0.011571
Gravelly sand
0.35
0.057856
Medium gravel
32
0.40
0.115711
Coarse gravel
128
0.45
1.157111
The following hydraulic conductivities are often used for calculating DEWATS PGF:
Kf:
0.00431 m/sec
(CDD, Bangalore, India)
Kf:
0.00400 m/sec
(CES, New Delhi, India)
Kf:
0.00427 m/sec
(ASTEC, Managua, Nicaragua)
As per above table, medium sand correlates with Kf of approximately 0.004m/s, which also
corresponds with above graphic for medium gravel.
As per above derivations, the following Kf should be chosen for the design of DEWATS (for the
smallest corn size of 5mm in order to be on the safe side):
Kf:
0.0043 m/sec = 372 m/d
36

7.3
Pipelines
Minimum sanitary sewer slopes need to be assured to provide a minimum cleansing velocity
(usually 0.6 m/s or 0.75 m/s) in the pipes at full flow or half-full flow. (The physics of hydraulic flow
are such that a sloped pipe will carry water by gravity at the same velocity either half full as well as
full). Table 3 displays minimum sewer slopes for a 0.6 m/s velocity, assuming a Manning pipe
roughness (n) of 0.013. For larger diameters, considerations other than the minimum cleansing
velocity (such as construction tolerances and potential ground subsidence) may govern the
minimum slope selection.
Table 3: minimum sanitary sewer slope (n=0.013)
MINIMUM SANITARY SEWER SLOPE TABLE 1 (Standard Arizona Practice)
Pipe Diameter (inches)
Minimum Slope
S={V/[1.486/n*(D/4)^(2/3)]}^2
0.0084
6 (15cm)
0.0049 (0.5%)
0.0034
10
0.0025
Table 4: minimum sanitary sewer slope (n=various)

PIPE
SIZE
(in)
(mm)
Manning's n -->
MINIMUM SLOPE
FOR 2.0 ft/s (0.6 m/s)
FOR 2.5 ft/s (0.75 m/s)
0.010
0.013
0.015
0.010
0.013
0.015
200
0.0020
0.0034
0.0045
0.0031
0.0052
0.0070
10
250
0.0015
0.0025
0.0033
0.0023
0.0037
0.0052
12
300
0.0011
0.0019
0.0026
0.0018
0.0030
0.0040
15
380
0.00085
0.0014
0.0019
0.0013
0.0022
0.0030
18
450
0.00067
0.0011
0.0015
0.0010
0.0017
0.0023
24
600
0.00045 0.00077
0.0010
0.00071
0.0012
0.0016
30
760
0.0003
0.00056 0.00074 0.00052 0.00088 0.0012
In most cases a 150mm diameter stoneware pipe is used as wastewater pipe. The roughness
(Mannings n) of this pipes is about 0.012. The necessary slope is therefore bigger than in case of
smoother PVC pipes (n=0.009-0.011) but smaller than in case of cement pipes (n=0.012-0.014).
Therefore, the necessary slope has to be bigger than 0.5% (compare Table 3). If local conditions
allow, a slope of 1:120 (0.8%) to 1:100 (1.0%) should be provided. Mannings n-factors for
different
pipe
materials
can
be
derived
from
http://www.fsl.orst.edu/geowater/FX3/help/8_Hydraulic_Reference/Mannings_n_Tables.htm.
37

7.4
DEWATS Treatment Capacity and Decentralisation
In case of big wastewater quantities it is recommendable to split the system down into various
sub-systems. Daily flows up to 50m3/day can be treated in a single DEWATS unit. In case of bigger
flows, it is recommendable to further decentralise the system. As per local requirements, it may
be advantageous to route the complete daily flow through some common modules (e.g. one
settler), meanwhile the other modules are split down into various smaller units (e.g. 1 settler + 2
parallel ABR and AF + 4 parallel PGF).
Decentralising the settler (constructing it closer to the location of wastewater generation)
additionally reduces the quantity of solids flushed through the piping system. If the DEWATS
modules like ABR, AF and PGF need to be constructed far from the point of wastewater origin due
to space constraints, the slope of the connecting pipe can be reduced if the settler is constructed
closer to the point of generation than the other modules.
7.5
By-Passes
In order to be able to shut down individual DEWATS modules if required, by-passes should be
constructed for each single module. Shut-down might be necessary in case of repair works. In any
case, it is necessary to shut-down parts of a DEWATS for regular maintenance works, like desludging of the settler, ABR or PGF. The by-passes should be equipped with valves to distribute the
water as needed (see Figure 18).
Fig. 18: arrangement of by-passes for DEWATS modules
7.6
Grease Trap
Design criteria for a grease trap are presented in the following, as well as general design criteria.
Remember, grease traps should be decentralised (e.g. directly attached to canteens) to avoid
blackwater flowing into the DEWATS module. Grease traps should not be provided for CBS
projects as no or little quantity of grease has to be expected. Faecal matter should never be
routed into a grease trap as it would result in significant smell.
General calculative design criteria:
HRT during peak flow: +/- 3 min (5)

scum storage capacity: +/- 1 week (5)
38

Further constructional design criteria:
baffle wall at inlet side (5)

conical trough / chamfers (5)
T-pipe in (inlet) and outlet, top >20cm above water level, bottom until 50% of depth (6)
inlet-outlet level difference: 5cm (5)
freeboard: 15-20cm above water level
Due its short design HRT, masonry structures have to be adjusted in case of minor flows.
Fig. 19: technical drawing for grease trap for small water flow
7.7
Settler
Design criteria for the calculative dimensioning of settlers are presented in the following, as well
as general design criteria. Where different design criteria are found in literature, the most
common are presented. However, the bold printed should be selected for normal conditions. For
final design please refer to Chapters 8 and 9.
Method
HRT during peak flow (clear zone): 1.5-2.5h (4) / 2h (10) / 1.5-2h (6)
removal interval (additional sludge accumulation volume): 1-2yr (5) / 1.5yr (4) / 2yr (10)
Double check
surface loading rate: <0.6m3/m2*h (peak flow) (4)
number of compartments: 2
depth (outlet pipe to floor): 1.5m - 2.5 m (5) (4) / 1.8m for SME and 2.0m for CBS (6)
L/W-ratio: 3:1 (4) / 2:1 for small systems
inlet-outlet level difference: +/- 15cm (4) / 20cm (6)
scum removal interval from surface: <3 yr (5)
inlet T-joint: dive down under lowest level of scum (+/- 50cm below water level), top-end
>20cm above water level (5) (4) / 30cm (6)
outlet T-joint: 30cm below water level, top-end >20cm above water level (5)/ 30cm (6)
39
freeboard: >30cm (from inlet pipe)

vent pipe: above outlet, extends >2m above settler surface (5)
manholes: one each above inlet and outlet (5)
Fig. 20: technical drawing of 2-compartment settler for a CBS project of 12m3/d wastewater
7.8
Septic Tank
Although septic tanks are usually not part of DEWATS, its design is described as it is a very
common treatment system worldwide and its application might be beneficial under certain
circumstances.
Design criteria for the calculative dimensioning of septic tanks are presented in the following, as
well as general design criteria. The most common are presented below. However, the bold printed
criteria should be selected for normal conditions.
Method 1
HRT during average flow (clear zone): 12-24h (5) (4) / 18h (6) 24h (<6m3/d), 33-1.5Q (614m3/d), 12h (>14m3/d) (13)
removal interval (additional sludge accumulation volume): 12yr (5) / 1.5yr (4) / 2yr (10)
Method 2
volume of first compartment: > 2 * annual sludge volume (5) (4)
volume of first compartment: 67% of total volume in case of 2 chambers (4) / 50% of total
volume in case of 3 chambers (5)
Method 3
total volume: 80-100L/user (thumb rule for India as per (5) (4))
Double check
surface loading rate: <0.6m3/m2*h (peak flow) (9)
40

7.9
number of compartments: 2-3 (5)

depth (outlet level to bottom): 1.5m - 2.5 m (5) / 1.8m (6)
L/W-ratio: 3:1 (4)
inlet-outlet level difference: +/- 15cm (4) / 20cm (6)
freeboard of inner compartment walls: >15cm above liquid level (5) / 20cm (6)
inlet T-joint: dive down under lowest level of scum (+/- 50cm below water level), top-end
>20cm above water level (5) (4)
outlet T-joint: 30cm below water level, top-end >20 above water (5)
vent pipe: above outlet, extends >2m above septic tank surface (5)
chamber connection: wall opening above sludge, below scum level (top 30cm below outlet
level, bottom at least half the water depth above floor), distributed over full width (5)
manholes: one each above inlet, outlet and partition wall (5)
Biogas Settler
Design criteria for the calculative dimensioning of biogas settler are presented in the following, as
well as general design criteria. Often, different design criteria are found in literature. The most
common are presented below. However, the bold printed criteria should be selected for normal
conditions. However, double-checking and feasibility checks should be performed before freezing
the design.
Note: Biogas settler are only applicable for strong wastewater, e.g. in CBS projects. Biogas settlers
should only be integrated if the users are willing to use the biogas (cooking, lighting, cooling). Nonuse leads to smell and will not rectify the higher investment costs compared to a regular settler as
biogas settler are approximately twice as expensive as normal settler. Biogas settlers are
economically only feasible for daily wastewater quantities of minimum 10m3.
Digester (wastewater) volume:

o HRT: 12-24h (6)
Sludge storage volume:
o De-sludge interval of 2 years
sludge accumulation: Excel spreadsheet Settler (see Chapter 9.6) (6)
Scum storage volume:
o 15-30cm freeboard (multiplied by surface area of biogas settler) (6)
o 15-20% of digester (wastewater) volume (14)
Gas storage volume:
o 60-65% of daily gas production (6) (15)
gas production: 0.3-0.4m3/m3 of digester (wastewater) volume (6) (15)
specific gas production (0.35L/g CODrem) (14)
CODrem: Excel spreadsheet Settler (see chapter 8.6)
o 20% of digester (wastewater) volume (15)
Extension chamber volume:
o equal gas storage volume
41

level of gas outlet pipe: 30cm above substrate level (5)

dome-shaped reactor: gas tight (12)
extension chamber: any shape (6)
min. inflow: 10m3/d (6)
Fig. 21: technical drawing of biogas settler for 10m3/d of wastewater
7.10
Anaerobic Baffle Reactor
Design criteria for the calculative dimensioning of ABR are presented in the following, as well as
general design criteria. Often, different design criteria are found in literature. The most common
are presented below. However, the bold printed criteria should be selected for normal conditions.
For final design please refer to Chapters 8 and 9.
Method 1
up-flow velocity (peak flow): <2 m/h (5) / 0.5-1.5m/h (11) / 0.9m/h (6)
Method 2
HRT during average flow (clear zone): >8h (5) / 12-14h (4) / >12h (11)
removal interval (additional sludge accumulation volume): 12yr (5) / 1.5yr (4) / 2yr (10)
Method 3
organic loading rate: <3kg COD/m3*d (5) / 3-4kg COD/m3*d (11)
number of chambers in series: >4 (5) / 2-6 (11) / 5-6 (6)

depth (outlet level to bottom): 1.5m - 2.5 m (5) / 1.8m (6) (10)
width: depending on wastewater quantity (unlimited), provide parallel side/partition walls
for structural stability if W>3.5m (max. width per chamber) (6)
provide distribution channel before ABR in case of wide systems (equal distribution through
several inlet pipes) (6)
42
baffle wall (thin pre-cast slab of cuddapa or ferro-cement) in first chamber to reduce speed
and enable full distribution (following chambers with pipes), wall distance 20cm, shaft
extends up to 20cm above PCC (6)
length of up-flow chambers: 0.7m-0.8m (10) (6)
inlet-outlet level difference: 20cm (6) (between ABRin and AFout)
down-flow pipe diameters: 100mm (6)
level difference between inner pipes and ABR outlet: 20cm (6)
inlet pipes: end 15cm above PCC bottom, top-end >20cm above water level (6), 30cm
outlet T-joint: 30cm below water level, top-end >20cm above water level (6), 30cm
number of pipes: 20-30cm distance between pipes (10-20cm distance to outer walls), over
full width (6)
pipe endings: 45-chamfer in flow direction
manholes: one above each chamber
vent pipes: above outlet, extends >2m above ABR surface
Fig. 22: technical drawing of 5-chamber ABR for a CBS project of 12m3/d wastewater
7.11
Anaerobic Filter
Design criteria for the calculative dimensioning of AF are presented in the following, as well as
43

Method 1:
organic loading rate: 4-5kg COD/m3*d (5) / <4kg COD/m3*d (11)
Cross-check:
up-flow velocity (peak flow): <2 m/h (10) / 1m/h (6)
Cross-check:
HRT: 3648h (5) / 24-48h (11) consider volume of filter material (!)
depth (outlet level to bottom): 1.5m - 2.5 m (5) / 1.8m (6) (10)
inner pipes outlet level difference: 20cm (40cm below inlet pipe) (6)
number of filter tanks: 2-3 (6)
length of filter chamber: < water depth (5)
width: provide partition walls for stability if W>3.5m (max. width per chamber) (6)
provide distribution channel before AF in case of wide systems (6)
clear water space before perforated concrete slab: 50-60cm slab rests on beams which
are placed parallel to flow direction (5)
inlet pipes: 15cm above PCC bottom with pipe endings in 45 angle, top-end >20cm above
water level (6)
outlet T-joint: 30cm below water level, top-end >20cm above water level
height of AF-material: 0.75-1m (6)
filter material: chequered plastic hoses, cut-off water bottles, cinder, gravel, slag
diameter of filter material: 50-100mm (5) / 80-140mm (6) larger grains on bottom
filter material preparation: washed before filling to avoid clogging (5) (6)
diameter of de-sludge pipe (leading from AF surface up to 10cm above bottom): >15cm (5)
manholes: one above each chamber
Fig. 23: technical drawing of 2-chamber AF for a CBS project of 12m3/d wastewater
44

7.12
Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter
Design criteria for the calculative dimensioning of HPGF are presented in the following, as well as
As PGF are relatively expensive and do not contribute much to the cleaning efficiency of DEWATS,
they should only be provided if necessary to reduce smell (ensure aerobic conditions of effluent),
if a bio-test (fish test) of the effluent is required as per applicable standards, or if desired or
required for any other reason (e.g. reduction of nutrients, pathogens).
Method 1
surface area (thumb rule): 4m2/m3 (9) / 5m2/m3 (5) (9) / <10m2/m3 (4) / 5-7m2/m3 for
regular systems and 4-5m2/m3 for large systems/CBS (6)
Method 2
organic loading rate (BOD of pre-treated PGF-inlet): <8g BOD/m2*d (5) / <10g BOD/m2*d (4)
Additionally
required cross-sectional area Ac (if Kf is known): Qd/(Kf*(dH/ds)*86,400) (5)
- Qd: flow rate(m3/d), Kf: hydraulic conductivity (m/sec), dH/ds: slope (m depth/m
lenght), conversion factor (d-sec)
maximum inlet BOD: 40-50mg/L (6)

filter depth: (<)60 cm (5) (6)
bottom slope: (>)1% (5) (6)
filter material: round uniform gravel of nearly equal size (5) locally available material (6)
gravel porosity/void space: 30% - 45% (5)
gravel size (inner zone): 8-16mm (5) / 5-12mm (10-12 first half, 5-7 second half) (6)
gravel size (inlet/outlet trenches): 50-100mm (5) / 80-120mm (6)
gravel size (top layer): 5-10mm to retain saplings / 5-7mm (6)
filter material preparation: washed before filling to avoid clogging (5) (6)
slope between joining grain sizes: <45
plants: phragmites or comparable species with horizontal rhizomes (5), saplings of caras
indica/culacasia/phragmites (6), papyrus in corners (6)
plantation: 2 bunches or 4 sprouted rhizomes/m2 (5) 30cm distance in zig-zag (6)
plantation in inlet zone: first 1-1.5m without plantation (except corners)
water level: 5cm below filter surface (12), 20cm below surface (10 during start-up) (6)
horizontal inlet pipe: ensure water standing in pipe, over full width, perforated
o alternatively/preferred: inlet channel (6)
horizontal drainage pipe: at PGF bottom, over full width, >60% of surface perforated, 68mm holes, 5-10cm hole distance
provide distribution channel before PGF (6)
provide separation walls in flow direction in case of wide systems (6)
sample pipe: vertical pipe in centre of PGF (perforated), removable end-cap
not accessible for outsider in case of CBS and easy excess for O&M
45
Fig. 24: technical drawing of horizontal PGF for a CBS project of 12m3/d wastewater
7.13
Polishing pond (optional)
Design criteria for the calculative dimensioning of a polishing pond are presented in the following,
as well as general design criteria. Often, different design criteria are found in literature. The most
common are presented below. However, the bold printed criteria should be selected for normal
conditions.
As ponds are relatively expensive due to huge space requirements, they can be replaced through
cheaper collection tanks of reasonable volume. They should only be provided where necessary to
reduce smell (ensure aerobic conditions of effluent) or where they are required to reduce
pathogens by UV-exposition. In case of CBS project ponds should never be provided.
HRT: 1-3d (4) (9)
D: 0.9-1m (5) / 1-1.5m (9)

potential fish species (optional for mosquito control): Gambusia (5) (9)
potential plantation: duckweed to remove heavy metals (6)
bottom finishing: geotex foil (6) or concrete to avoid percolation
inlet-outlet arrangement: farthest away to avoid shortcuts (5)
outlet channel (if applicable): lined with concrete
arrangement of banks: pitching or planted with macrophytes (cattail, phragmites) (5)
Fig. 25: model of polishing pond (l) technical drawing incl. PGF outlet (r)
46
8. Manual Design
8
MANUAL DESIGN
After listing the different criteria for design and construction in the previous chapter, this chapter
explains how to calculate the DEWATS modules manually. In praxis the design can be done quickly
by using an Excel design matrix, as explained in Chapter 9, however the manual calculation should
be understood in order to avoid mistakes and ensure proper function (just entering and changing
numbers in Excel does not mean understanding the design). The Excel spreadsheet is based on the
equations and graphs described in this chapter; hence, the content of this chapter should be
studied in order to be able to apply the Excel-based design correctly.
The graphs used in this chapter are derived from existing systems, which were implemented
throughout the last years by the international BORDA network and monitored in the following.
During development of these graphs, existing systems were analyzed to identify
relations/correlations between specific loads/charges and treatment efficiencies. These
correlations were derived empirically and displayed through interpolation in the used graphs. The
Excel design matrix refers to the same graphs, where they are translated into mathematical
equations.
The design of all DEWATS modules is based on
Given design parameter (organic and hydraulic baseline data),
Chosen design parameter (depending on the area of application of the system),
Calculation factors (above described empirical graphs),
Thumb rules (based on experiences from previous designs), and
Mathematical equations (for organic and hydraulic design).
The following sub-chapters show an easy step-by-step instruction how the different DEWATS
modules can be calculated.
8.1
Settler
Given Parameter
Daily wastewater flow (m3/d)
entry data for DEWATS design (based on calculation of water consumption)
Time of most wastewater flow (h/d)
entry data for DEWATS design (based on activities generating wastewater)
BODin and CODin (mg/L)
based on lab test result or per capita calculation
Settleable SS/COD ratio (mg/L / mg/L)
based on lab test result or assumption
Chosen Parameter
Hydraulic retention time HRT (h)
usually chosen 2h (12-24h in case of septic tanks)
Desludging interval (months)
usually chosen 24 months (30 months for CBS)
47
8. Manual Design
Inner width (m)
max. 3.5m for structural stability (parallel series of chambers if more width is
required)
Water depth at outlet point (m)
usually chosen 1.8m (2.0m in case of big systems)
Calculation Factors
Factor COD removal to HRT (Graph 8-1)
HRT < 1:
factor = HRT*0.3
HRT < 3:
factor = (HRT-1)*0.1/2+0.3
HRT < 30:
factor = (HRT-3)*0.15/27+0.4
HRT 30:
factor = 0.58
Factor efficiency ratio of BOD to COD removal (Graph 8-2)
CODrem < 0.5:

factor = 1.06
CODrem < 0.75:
factor = (CODrem-0.5)*0.065/0.25+1.06
CODrem < 0.85:
factor = 1.125-(CODrem-0.75)*0.1/0.1
CODrem 0.85:
factor = 1.025
Factor reduction of sludge volume during storage (Graph 8-3)
HRT < 36:

factor = 1-HRT*0.014
HRT < 120:
factor = 0.5-(HRT-36)*0.002
HRT 120:
factor = 1/3
48
8. Manual Design
Calculation
A) Removal of Organic Pollutants (BOD/COD)
1. Determine max flow at peak hours (m/h)
Daily wastewater flow (m/d) / time of most wastewater flow (h/d)
2. Determine COD/BOD ratio
CODin (mg/L) / BODin (mg/L)
3. Determine factor COD removal to HRT (-)
See graph 8-1
4. Determine COD removal rate (%)
SS/COD ratio (-) / 0.6 * factor COD/HRT (-)
5. Determine CODout (mg/L)
(1 - COD removal rate (%)) * CODin (mg/L)
6. Determine factor efficiency ratio of BOD to COD removal (-)
See graph 8-2
7. Determine BOD removal rate (%)
COD removal rate (%) * efficiency factor BOD/COD
8. Determine BODout (mg/L)
(1 - BOD removal rate (%)) * BODin (mg/L)
B) Determination of sludge volume
9. Determine factor reduction of sludge volume during storage (%)
See graph 8-3
10. Determine sludge volume per BOD removal (L/g BODrem)
0.005 * factor sludge reduction (%)
11. Determine BOD removed (mg/L) or (g/m)
BODin (mg/L) - BODout (mg/L)
12. Determine sludge volume from BOD reduction (m3/m3)
sludge volume per BOD removal (L/g BODrem) * BOD removed (g/m) / 1000 L/m3
13. Determine sludge volume (m)
sludge volume from BOD reduction (m3/m3) * desludging interval (months) * 30
days/months * daily wastewater flow (m/day)
C) Determination of water volume
14. Determine water volume (m)
HRT (h) * max flow at peak hours (m/h)
D) Determination of freeboard volume
15. Determine water plus sludge volume (m)
Sludge volume (m) + water volume (m)
16. Determine settler surface area (m2)
Water+sludge volume (m3) / water depth (m)
49
8. Manual Design
17. Determine freeboard volume (m3)
Settler surface area (m2) * 0.2m
E) Determination of total settler volume
18. Determine total settler volume (m)
Sludge volume (m3) + water volume (m3) + freeboard volume (m3)
F) Determination of chamber sizes
19. Determine required 1st chamber inner length (m)
[ * volume of ST (m3)] / [chosen inner width (m) * chosen water depth (m)]
20. Determine chosen 1st chamber inner length (m)
Select chosen length (m) required length (m)
21. Determine required 2ndchamber inner length (m)
Required 1st chamber inner length (m) / 2
22. Determine chosen 2nd chamber inner length(m)
Select chosen length (m) required length (m)
23. Determine inner surface area (m)
Chosen inner width (m) * [chosen length 1st chamber (m) + chosen length 2nd chamber
(m)]
24. Determine total volume (m3)
Inner surface area (m) * chosen water level (m)
Cross-check:
Chosen total volume > calculated total settler volume
G) Calculation of biogas generation

25. Determine biogas generation (m/h)
(Based on assumption that 70% of biogas is CH4 and 50% is dissolved)
8.2
[CODin (mg/L) CODout (mg/L)] * daily wastewater flow (m/d) * 0.35 / 1000 / 0.7 * 0.5
Anaerobic Baffle Reactor
Given Parameter
See input parameter for settler
Based on BODout and CODout of settler
Lowest temperature (C)
50
8. Manual Design
Chosen Parameter
Water depth at outlet point (m)
Usually chosen 1.8 m
Upflow velocity (m/h)
See rules of thumb
Calculation Factors
Factor BODrem in relation to organic overloading, f-overload (Graph 8-4)
load < 6 kg/m3*d:

factor = 1.00
load 6 kg/m3*d:
factor = 1-(load-6)*0.28/14
Factor BODrem in relation to wastewater strength, f-strength (Graph 8-5)

BODin < 150 mg/L:
factor = BODin*0.37/150+0.4
BODin < 300 mg/L:
factor = (BODin -150)*0.1/150+0.77
BODin < 500 mg/L:
factor = (BODin -300)*0.08/200+0.87
BODin < 1000 mg/L:
factor = (BODin -500)*0.1/500+0.95
BODin < 3000 mg/L:
factor = (BODin -1000)*0.1/2000+1.05
BODin 3000 mg/L:
factor = 1.15
Factor BODrem in relation to temperature, f-temp (Graph 8-6)

temp < 15 C:
factor = (temp-10)*0.25/5+0.55
temp < 20 C:
factor = (temp-15)*0.11/5+0.8
temp < 25 C:
factor = (temp-20)*0.09/5+0.91
temp < 30 C:
factor = (temp-25)*0.05/5+1
temp 30 C:
factor = (temp-30)*0.03/5+1.05
51
8. Manual Design
Factor BODrem in relation to number of up-flow chambers,(f-chamber (Graph 8-7)
no = 1:
factor =0.4
no = 2:
factor =0.7
no = 3:
factor =0.9
no > 3:
factor =(no-3)*0.06+0.9
Factor BODrem in relation to HRT, f-HRT (Graph 8-8)

HRT < 5h:
factor = HRT*0.51/5
HRT < 10h:
factor = (HRT-5)*0.31/5+0.51
HRT < 25h:
factor = (HRT-12)*0.18/15+0.82
HRT 25h:
factor = 1
Factor efficiency ratio of COD to BOD removal (Graph 8-9)

BODrem < 0.5:
factor = 0.9434
BODrem < 0.75:
factor = 0.9434-(BODrem-0.5)*0.0545/0.25
BODrem < 0.85:
factor = (BODrem-0.75)*0.0867/0.1+0.8889
BODrem 0.85:
factor = 0.9756
CODrem = BODrem * factor
Rules of Thumb
SS/COD ratio
0.42 (domestic: 0.35-0.55)
Hydraulic retention time, HRT
Not less than 8 hours
Preferably between 12-14 hours for the whole ABR
Above 20hrs retention time, no more reduction and not anymore economically
viable
Length to height ratio (every chamber)

0.4
52
8. Manual Design
Distance between pipes
Should not exceed 30cm
Number of chambers
Preferably 5 (4 6 as per BOD load)
Outlet water depth
Preferably 1.8 m (max. 2.2 m in case of big systems)
Up-flow velocity
Preferably 0.9 m/h (max. 1.1 m/h in case of big systems)
Organic load
< 3 kg/m * day BOD
Calculation
A) Determination of Chamber Size
1. Determine BODin and CODin (mg/L)
BODout and CODout of settler
2. Determine max peak flow per hour (m/h)
volume of wastewater (m/d) / time of most wastewater flow (h/d)
3. Determine required max. length of chamber (m)
water depth at outlet (m) * 0.4
4. Determine chosen length of chamber (m)
Chosen length not much bigger than max. length
5. Determine required min. width of chamber (m)
max peak flow per hour (m) / up-flow velocity (m/h) / chosen length of chamber
(m)
6. Determine chosen width of chamber (m)
Chosen width > required min. width
7. Determine actual up-flow velocity (m/h)
max peak flow per hour (m/h) / [chosen length (m) * chosen width(m)]
Check!!! Actual up-flow velocity is best below 0.9 m/h!!!
If up-flow velocity is higher, adjust width and length
B) Determination of number of chambers
8. Determine number of chambers
Try 4 to 5 chambers and check outlet BOD of total DEWATS
If another chamber is required to meet the BOD and COD effluent standard, add a
sixth chamber
Check!!! Min. number of chamber is 4, max. is 6 !!!
C) Determination of sludge storage volume
9. Determine actual volume of ABR (m)
Chosen length (m) * chosen width (m) * chosen depth (m) * number of chambers
10. Determine sludge volume (m)
5% * actual volume of ABR (m)
53
8. Manual Design
11. Determine water volume (m)
actual volume of ABR (m) sludge volume (m)
12. Determine HRT (h)
water volume (m) / daily wastewater flow (m/d) * 24 h/d
Check!!! HRT should be below 20hrs for an economically viable treatment!!!
Prioritize actual up-flow velocity!!!
D) Removal of organic pollutants (BOD, COD)
13. Determine organic BOD load (kg/m*day)
BODin (mg/L) * max peak flow per hour (m/h) * 24 h/d / actual volume of ABR (m)
/ 1000 g/kg
Check!!! Organic load < 3kg/m*day BOD !!!
14. Determine factor organic overload
See graph 8-4
15. Determine factor strength
See graph 8-5
16. Determine factor temperature
See graph 8-6
17. Determine factor number of chambers
See graph 8-7
18. Determine factor HRT
See graph 8-8
19. Determine BOD removal rate by factors (%)
factor organic load * factor strength * factor temperature * factor number of
chambers * factor HRT
20. Determine applied BOD removal rate (%)
= BODrem by factors if BODrem by factors < 0.8
= BODrem by factors*[1-0.37*(BODrem by factors-0.8)] if BODrem by factors*[1-0.37*(BODrem by
factors-0.8)] < 0.95
otherwise BODrem by factors = 0.95
(1 - BOD removal rate by factors) * BODin (mg/L)
22. Determine total BOD removal rate (%)
1 (BODout (mg/L) / BODin (mg/L))
23. Determine factor efficiency COD removal to BOD removal (-)
See graph 8-9
24. Determine total COD removal rate (%)
Total BOD removal rate (%) * factor efficiency COD to BOD removal rate (-)
25. Determine CODout (%)
(1 total COD removal rate) * CODin (mg/L)
54
8. Manual Design
E) Calculation of biogas generation
(based on assumption that 70% of biogas is CH4 and 50% is dissolved)
8.3
[CODin (mg/L) BODout (mg/L)] * daily wastewater flow (m/d) * 0.35 / 1000 / 0.7 *
0.5
Anaerobic Filter
Given Parameter
Based on BODout and CODout of ABR
Lowest temperature (C)
Specific surface of filter medium (m2/m3)
Based on assumption (usually 80-120)
Voids in filter mass (%)
Based on assumption (usually 30-45)
Chosen Parameter
Depth of filter tank (m)
Usually chosen 1.8 m
Length of filter tank (m)
depth of filter tank
Width of filter tank (m)
3.5 m (per series)
Number of filter tanks (-)
Usually chosen 2 (1-3)
Calculation Factors
Factor CODrem relative to temperature, f-temp (Graph 8-10)
temp < 20 C:
factor = (temp-10)*0.39/20+0.47
temp < 25 C:
factor = (temp-20)*0.14/5+0.86
temp < 30 C:
factor = (temp-25)*0.08/5+1
temp 30 C:
factor = 1.10
55
8. Manual Design
Factor BODrem in relation to organic load, f-load (Graph 8-11)
load < 4 kg/m3*d:

factor = 1.00
load 4 kg/m3*d:
factor = 1-(load)*0.4/16
Factor CODrem related to wastewater strength, f-strength (Graph 8-12)
CODin < 2000 mg/L:

factor = CODin*0.17/2000+0.87
CODin < 3000 mg/L:
factor = (CODin -2000)*0.02/1000+1.04
CODin 3000 mg/L:
factor = 1.06
Factor CODrem related to specific filter surface, f-surface (Graph 8-13)
surface < 100 m2/m3:

factor = (surface-50)*0.1/50+0.9
surface < 200 m2/m3:
factor = (surface-100)*0.06/100+1
surface 200 m2/m3:
factor = 1.06
56
8. Manual Design
Factor CODrem related to HRT, f-HRT (Graph 8-14)
HRT < 12h:
factor = HRT*0.16/12+0.44
HRT < 24h:
factor = (HRT-12)*0.07/12+0.6
HRT < 33h:
factor = (HRT-24)*0.03/9+0.67
HRT < 100h:
factor = (HRT-33)*0.09/67+0.7
HRT 100h:
factor = 0.78
Factor CODrem related to number of up-flow chambers, f-chamber

factor = 1 + (no * 0.04)
Factor efficiency ratio of BOD to COD removal (Graph 8-15)
CODrem < 0.5:

factor = 1.06
CODrem < 0.75:
factor = (CODrem-0.5)*0.065/0.25+1.06
CODrem < 0.85:
factor = 1.125-(CODrem-0.75)*0.1/0.1
CODrem 0.85:
factor = 1.025
BODrem = CODrem * factor
Rules of Thumb
SS/COD ratio
0.42 (domestic: 0.35-0.45)
Hydraulic retention time, HRT
15 - 20 hours in DEWATS
24 - 48 hours as stand-alone treatment
Specific surface of filter medium
Usually 120 m2/m3 (80-120 m2/m3)
Voids in filter material
Usually 40% (30% - 45%)
Size of filter material
Usually 80-140 mm diameter gravel
Up-flow velocity (within filter voids)
max 2.0 m/h
Organic load
< 4kg/m3/day COD
57
8. Manual Design
Outlet water depth
Preferably 1.8 m (max. 2.2 m in case of big systems)
Calculation
A) Determination of chamber size and numbers
1. Determine BODin and CODin (mg/L)
BODout and CODout of ABR
2. Determine max peak flow per hour (m/h)
volume of wastewater (m/d) / time of most wastewater flow (h/d)
3. Determine filter height (m)
depth of filter tank (m) lower freeboard (m) upper freeboard (m) depth of
filter plate (m)
depth of filter tank (m) 0.6 m 0.4m 0.05m
4. Determine no. of chambers (-)
Try 1 to 2 chambers and check outlet BOD of total DEWATS
If another chamber is required to meet the BOD and COD effluent standard, add a
third chamber
5. Determine HRT inside AF reactor (h)
[(depth of filter tank (m) filter height (m) * (1 - voids in filter mass (%))) * length of
each tank (m) * width of filter tank (m) * number of filter tanks (-)] / [daily
wastewater flow (m3/d) / 24 (h/d)]
!!!Check HRT with rules of thumb!!!
6. Determine max velocity in filter voids (m/h)
max peak flow per hour (m3/h) / [width of filter tank (m) * length of each tank (m) *
voids in filter mass (%)]
!!!Check max velocity in AF is <2.0 m/h!!!
7. Determine net volume of filter tank (m3)
length of each tank (m) * width of filter tank (m) * number of filter tank (-) * [depth
of filter tank (m) filter height (m) * (1 - voids in filter mass (%))]
B) Removal of organic pollutants (BOD and COD removal)
8. Determine organic COD load on AF (kg/m3*d)
volume of wastewater (m3/d) * CODin (mg/L) / net volume of filter tank (m3) /
1000g/kg
!!! Check: organic load < 4kg COD/m3*day !!!
9. Determine factor temperature
See graph 8-10
10. Determine factor organic load
See graph 8-11
11. Determine factor strength
See graph 8-12
58
8. Manual Design
12. Determine factor filter surface
See graph 8-13
13. Determine factor HRT
See graph 8-14
14. Determine factor number of chambers
See graph 8-15
factor temperature * factor strength * factor surface * factor HRT * factor organic
load * factor chamber
(1 COD removal rate (%)) * CODin (mg/L)
17. Determine factor efficiency BOD removal to COD removal (-)
See graph (page 14)
18. Determine BOD removal rate (-)
COD removal rate * factor efficiency BOD removal to COD removal
(1 BOD removal rate (%)) * BODin (mg/L)
C) Calculation of biogas generation
(based on assumption that 70% of biogas is CH4 and 50% is dissolved)
[CODin (mg/L) CODout (mg/L)] * daily wastewater flow (m/d) * 0.35 / 1000 / 0.7 *
0.5
8.4
Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter
Given Parameter
Based on BODout / CODout of AF
Minimum annual temperature
e.g. in South India 30C
Hydraulic conductivity of filter material
Usually chosen 4.3*10-3 m/sec for fine gravel (middle part) = 372 m/d
59
8. Manual Design
Chosen Parameter
Expected BODout
100mg/L for irrigation
30mg/L as per CPCB for surface water bodies
20mg/L as per some state governments
5mg/L for toilet flushing (to avoid anaerobic conditions in storage tank)
Bottom slope
Usually chosen 1% (balance hydraulic losses)
Depth of filter bed
Usually chosen 0.6m (ensure aerobic conditions)
Rules of Thumb
BODmax on inlet cross sectional area
usually chosen 150 g/m2*d
BODmax load on chosen surface
usually chosen 10 g/m2*d
Void of gravel
usually chosen 35%
Chosen surface area (practiced by CDD)
usually chosen 5 m2/m3 (4 m2/m3 for large PGF)
Calculation Factors
Efficiency Factor of BOD removal to COD removal (Graph 8-16)
CODrem < 0.5:
factor = 1.06
CODrem < 0.75:
factor = (BODrem-0.5)*0.065/0.25+1.06
CODrem < 0.85:
factor = 1.125-(BODrem-0.75)*0.1/0.1
CODrem 0.85:
factor = 1.025
BODrem = CODrem * factor
Required HRT relative to temperature in filter (Graph 8-17)

temp < 15C:
factor = 82-(temp-10)*37/5
temp < 20C:
factor = 45-(temp-15)*31/5
temp < 25C:
factor = 24-(temp-20)*11/5
temp < 30C:
factor = 13-(temp-25)*6/5
temp 30C:
factor = 7
60
8. Manual Design
Influence of desired BOD removal rate on HRT (Graph 8-18)
BODrem < 40%:
factor = BODrem * 0.22/0.4
BODrem < 75%:
factor = (BODrem -0.4)*31/35+0.22
BODrem < 80%:
factor = (BODrem -0.75)*9.5/5+0.605
BODrem < 85%:
factor = (BODrem -0.8)*12.5/5+0.7
BODrem < 90%:
factor = (BODrem -0.85)*17.5/5+0.825
A) Biological Design Requirements
BODrem 90%:
factor = (BODrem -0.9)*30/5+1
1. Determine COD/BOD ratio

CODin (mg/L) / BODin (mg/L)
2. Determine BOD removal rate (%)

(BODin (mg/L) - BODout (mg/L)) / BODin (mg/L)
3. Determine efficiency factor of BOD removal to COD removal
See graph 8-16
BOD removal rate (%) / efficiency factorBOD/COD
CODin (mg/L) * (1 - COD removal rate (%))
B) Hydraulic Design Requirements
6. Determine hydraulic conductivity (m/d)
7. Determine factor HRT - temperature (d)
See graph 8-17
8. Determine factor BOD removal HRT
See graph 8-18
9. Determine HRT (d)
factorHRTTemperature * factor BOD removalHRT
10. Determine HRT in 35% pore space (d)
HRT (d) * 35%
11. Determine cross section area 1 (m2)
Daily wastewater flow (m3/d) / [hydraulic conductivity (m/d) * bottom slope (%)]
12. Determine cross section area 2 (m2)
Daily flow (m3/d) * BODin (mg/L) / BODmax on inlet cross sectional area (150 g/m2*d)
13. Determine chosen cross section area (m2)
Select larger one of cross section 1 and 2
61
8. Manual Design
C) Dimensional Design Requirements
14. Determine required width of PGF (m)
Cross section area (m2) / depth (m)
15. Determine chosen width of PGF (m)
16. Determine required surface area 1 (m2)
Daily flow (m3/d) * [BODin (mg/L) - BODout (mg/L)] / BODmax on surface area (10
g/m2*d)
17. Determine required surface area 2 (m2)
Daily flow (m3/d) * HRT (d) / depth (m)
18. Determine chosen surface area (m2)
Select larger one of surface area 1 and 2
19. Determine required length of PGF (m)
Chosen surface area (m2) / chosen width (m)
20. Determine chosen length of PGF (m)
21. Determine actual surface area (m2)
Chosen length (m) * chosen width (m)
Check: actual surface area > chosen surface area
Note: Calculation of surface area in praxis (based on CDD experience):
Surface area determined with thumb rule of 4-7m2/m3 wastewater to ensure
aerobic conditions (comes usually slightly bigger than above mentioned methods)
Biggest area chosen (CDD thumb rule, HRT, BODmax on surface)
D) Cross-checks
22. Determine hydraulic load on chosen surface area (m/d)
Daily flow (m3/d) / actual surface area (m2)
23. Determine BOD load on chosen surface area (m/d)
Hydraulic load (m/d) * BODin (mg/L)
Should be <10g/m2*d (compare thumb rules)
8.5
Polishing Ponds
Given Parameter
Chosen Parameter
Water depth
Usually chosen 1.0m
Rules of Thumb
HRT: 1-3 days
62
8. Manual Design
Calculation
1. Determine volume (m3)
Daily flow (m3/d) * HRT (d)
2. Determine surface area (m2)
Volume (m3) / depth (m)
3. Determine dimensions (m)
Any form possible (length and width, or diameter)
Shortcuts between inlet and outlet should be avoided
63
9. Excel-Based Design
EXCEL-BASED DESIGN
The literature design criteria presented in Chapter 7 are often thumb rules and oversimplify the
design in some cases. Variations in treatment efficiencies, removal rates and volumes over time
and in dependence of influencing factors are not considered. Therefore BORDA developed a
computer-based calculation matrix to calculate the different DEWATS modules, considering these
different relations and influences. Relations and diagrams were developed based on field tests and
experiences and incorporated into a half-automatic EXCEL spreadsheet. (For more information
please refer to the book DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing
Countries by Sasse, Chapter 13).
In these EXCEL spreadsheets only some input data need to be added by the user, whereupon the
modules are calculated automatically. The cells in which project-specific data need to be added by
the user are marked in yellow (DO NOT CHANGE OTHER CELLS). However, in order to get a correct
design, the user needs to know how to enter necessary data. In many cases the final design results
on playing with the input data until a reasonable design is achieved. The following sub-chapters
offer advice on how to feed these data into the matrix for different fields of applicability. This
includes CBS projects, DEWATS for households with an underground sewer system (UGSS) as well
as DEWATS for small or large wastewater quantities.
9.1
Spreadsheet Per Capita
With this spreadsheet the organic and hydraulic load of the DEWATS can be determined based on
available entry data.
Fig. 26: EXCEL spreadsheet Per Capita (example: CBS)
If a DEWATS shall be designed for which the wastewater quantity and quality is already known
through on-site tests (e.g. in case of already existing CBS units or UGSS), the number of user/s
(A5), the water consumption per use/r (C5) and the COD/BOD5 ratio (D5) can be directly
entered. In this case, BOD5 per use/r (B5) has to be adjusted in order to get the BOD5
concentration (F5) which was determined in previous analysis. This sheet must be filled out
correctly although the data are available as the following calculations refer on cells and values
from this spreadsheet.
In most cases the site conditions are unknown; hence, the hydraulic and organic loads need to be
developed as exact and realistic as possible. In CBS projects the number of user/s (A5) can be
determined as explained in Chapter 6.2.1 - in the form of number of uses. In the case of UGSS,
the number of user (A5) can be estimated based on the planned number of household
connections (e.g. 5 users per house). Likewise, the water consumption per use/r (C5) can be
64
determined for CBS like described in Chapter 6.2.1 (8-15L/use), and can be estimated in case of
UGSS in reference to the water supply as explained in Chapter 6.2.1 (e.g. 80% of freshwater
consumption). In both cases, the BOD5 per use/r (B5) needs to be adjusted to receive a typical
BOD5 concentration (F5), which is 1,000-1,500mg/L in case of CBS, and 300-400mg/L in case of
UGSS. Common values for B5 are 10-20g/day for CBS, and 30-40g/day for UGSS.
9.2
Spreadsheet Settler
With this spreadsheet the inner dimensions of a settler and its cleaning efficiency can be
calculated based on the hydraulic and organic loadings derived from the Per Capita spreadsheet,
simple calculative design criteria like the HRT and de-sludge intervals, as well as based on
constructive design criteria such as inner width and water depth (see Chapter 7.7).
Fig. 27: EXCEL spreadsheet Settler (example: CBS)
The daily wastewater flow (A5) is directly transferred from the Per Capita sheet (E5), but can
also be entered directly. After entering the time of most water flow (B5), EXCEL automatically
calculates the peak flow (C5). In case of UGSS these peak hours (B5) can be derived as described in
Chapter 6.2.2. In case of CBS projects, the peak flow (C5) is directly calculated with a separate
table, which considers the use pattern of the respective CBS-unit (see Chapter 6.2.2). In this case,
the peak hours (B5) need to be adjusted to get the already determined peak flow (C5). Please
note: In case of CBS settlers can be calculated with smaller peak flows (e.g. 9-hrs average) instead
of the max. peak flow in order to reduce its size. In this case time of most wastewater flow (B6)
on the Baffle Reactor spreadsheet has to be set to the maximum peak flow.
The COD inflow (D5) and the BOD5 inflow (E5) are transferred automatically from the Per
Capita spreadsheet, but can be entered manually as well.
The HRT inside the tank (F5) is usually set 2h. For small systems it can be increased to 2.5 h.
If data are available (in case of existing CBS-units or UGSS), the settleable SS/COD ratio (G5) can
be calculated based on laboratory analysis. If not a typical value of 0.42 is chosen.
The de-sludging interval (A11) is usually chosen 24 months, but can be increased up to 36
months in case of CBS projects (large sludge quantities due to high inlet BOD).
65
The inner width (B11) can be chosen freely within reasonable limits (max. 3.5m per line).
The water depth at outlet point (C11) is usually chosen with 1.80m as per design criteria
(Chapter 7.7). In case of large systems, it can be increased slightly to a maximum of 2.10m in order
to keep the necessary surface area small. The depth is always related to the outlet pipe.
Next the inner length of first chamber (E11) and inner length of second chamber (G11) need to
be adjusted as per the required lengths automatically calculated in D11 and F11. The ratio
between total length (E11+G11) and width (B11) should be between 1:2 and 1:3.
Finally the actual volume (I11) needs to be double-checked with the calculated required
volume incl. sludge (H11).
The COD outflow (I5) and the BOD5 outflow (J5) are calculated automatically and serve as
input data for the calculation of the ABR in the next spreadsheet.
9.3
Spreadsheet Baffle Reactor (ABR)
With this spreadsheet the inner dimensions, the number of chambers, and the cleaning efficiency
of an ABR can be calculated based on hydraulic and organic loading rates derived from the
Settler spreadsheet, simple calculative design criteria like the up-flow velocity, as well as
constructive design criteria such as the water depth (see Chapter 7.7).
Please note: As settlers should be exclusively calculated with the Settler spreadsheet (see
previous chapter), the HRT in settler (H6) must be set zero.
Fig. 28: EXCEL spreadsheet Baffle Reactor (example: CBS)
66
Most input data like A6, C6, D6 and F6 can be directly transferred from the Settler spreadsheet.
As per the basic settings of the EXCEL file they are automatically copied from the respective cells.
The time of most wastewater flow (B6) can generally be transferred as well from the respective
cell in the Settler spreadsheet (B5). However, in some cases (especially in CBS) settler and ABR
can be designed with different peak flows, which are previously calculated with a separate EXCEL
file (see Chapter 6.2.2). This can be done to reduce the size of the settler (e.g. settler with 9-hrs
average peak flow, and ABR with maximum peak flow). In this case, the peak hours (B6) need to be
adjusted until the previously determined peak flow is displayed in A21.
The value for lowest digester temperature (G6) needs to be entered as per local conditions. In
South India 30C is a common value.
The settler calculation should remain untouched as the settler is calculated independently. H6
must be set zero.
For normal standard systems, the up-flow velocity (A11) should be chosen 0.9m/h. In case of
large systems, the velocity can be increased to 1.0-1.1m/h in order to limit the surface area of the
chambers and so the complete size of the ABR.
The depth at outlet (B11) needs to be chosen as per design criteria, usually 1.80m. In special
cases it could be increased slightly.
The length of chambers (D11) should be set 0.7m for normal conditions. The length of
downflow shaft (E11) is set zero as pipes are used instead of baffle walls (if a baffle wall should be
used in the first ABR chamber, additional 25cm should be added to the chambers length when
preparing the technical drawing 20cm for the shaft and 5cm for the plate). The width of
chambers (G11) should be chosen slightly larger as the required width (F11). For constructional
reasons the maximum width of a single line should be 3.5m.
The number of upflow chambers (H11) has to be chosen as per local needs. In case of high BOD
loads, six chambers might be necessary. In case of very low organic loads, four chambers might be
sufficient. In order to determine the required number of chambers (maximum 6) the COD out
(L11) and BOD out (M11) must be checked (the AF will further reduce the BOD, however the
BOD inlet of the PGF should be less than 50mg/L).
Instead of adding another chamber in order to increase the BOD removal efficiency, the width of
the chambers (or its depth) could be slightly increased. By playing with the values a suitable
solution can be determined, while checking the BODout of the AF.
9.4
Spreadsheet Anaerobic Filter (AF)
With this spreadsheet the inner dimensions, the necessary number of chambers, and the cleaning
efficiency of an AF can be calculated based on hydraulic and organic loading rates derived from
the ABR spreadsheet and some constructive design criteria such as the water depth (see Chapter
7.7).
Please note: As settlers should be exclusively calculated with the Settler spreadsheet (see
previous chapter), the HRT in septic tank (G6) must be set zero.
67
Fig. 29: EXCEL spreadsheet Anaerobic Filter (example: CBS)
Most input data like A6, C6, D6, E6 and F6 can be directly transferred from the Baffle Reactor
spreadsheet. As ABR and AF should be calculated with the same peak flow (unlike settlers), also
the time of most wastewater (B6) can be transferred from the ABR spreadsheet. As per the basic
settings of the EXCEL file they are automatically copied from the respective cells.
The septic tank calculation should remain untouched as the settler is calculated independently.
G6 must be set zero.
The specific surface of filter medium (A13) could be calculated in case of plastic bottles or PVC
hoses. In case of e.g. gravel it should be filled as per literature values or estimated. 120m2/m3 is a
typical value.
The voids in filter mass (B13) has to be tested (e.g. by comparing the water volume of an empty
bucket with the water volume of the same bucket filled with filter material) and filled into the cell.
40% is a typical value.
The depth of filter tanks (C13) needs to be chosen as per design criteria, usually with 1.80m. In
special cases it could be increased slightly.
The length of each tank (D13) can be chosen but should be smaller than the water depth. In case
of regular systems, the length should be chosen with 0.9m; however, it can be increased to 1.2m
68
to a maximum of 1.5m. The width of filter tanks (F13) can be selected freely. Per a single line the
maximum length should be 3.5m for structural stability.
The number of filter tanks (E13) has to be chosen as per local needs. In case of high BOD loads
three chambers might be necessary, otherwise two chambers are sufficient. In order to determine
the required number of chambers (E13) and the filter width (F13), the following data must be
checked: COD outflow of AF (H20), BOD outflow at AF (H21), maximum velocity in filter
voids (H13), and HRT inside AF reactor (G13). The different values need to be adjusted to
comply with a BOD inlet concentration at the PGF (H21) of less than 40-50mg/L, a maximum upflow velocity (H13) of 1.7m/h (preferable 1m/h), and a HRT (G13) of approximately 18h as per
design (HRT can be less).
Instead of adding another AF chamber in order to increase the BOD removal efficiency, the width
of the chambers (or its depth) could be slightly increased or an additional ABR chamber could be
added (max. 6).
9.5
Spreadsheet PGF
With this spreadsheet the inner dimensions (surface area, cross-sectional area) and the cleaning
efficiency of an PGF can be calculated based on hydraulic and organic loading rates derived from
the AF spreadsheet and some constructive design criteria such as the recommended water depth
(see Chapter 7.7).
Please note: Previous experiences showed that the design based on the EXCEL spreadsheet does
not lead to sufficient surface area in order to enrich the water with oxygen. The EXCEL sheet can
be used to calculate the required cross-sectional area but the surface area needs to be adjusted
based on a thumb rule. Afterwards the cleaning efficiency gets calculated automatically.
Fig. 30: EXCEL spreadsheet Gravel Filter (example: CBS)
Most input data like A5, B5, C5 and F5 can be directly transferred from the Anaerobic Filter
spreadsheet. As per the basic settings of the EXCEL file they are automatically copied from the
respective cells.
The bottom slope (H5) and the depth of filter at inlet (I5) could be changed depending on the
local needs, but are almost considered as constants. As per design criteria, the slope should be
1.0% and the depth of the filter 0.60m.
69
The hydraulic conductivity Ks (G5) needs to be entered manually depending on the used filter
material. Please refer to Chapter 7.2 for more information (372m/d is a typical value). With G5,
the average wastewater flow (A5) and the bottom slope (H5), the necessary cross-section area
(D11) is calculated automatically, based on Darcys law. The width of filter basin (E11) is
calculated hereupon automatically with the cross-section (D11) and the filter depth (I5). The
chosen width (F11) can be entered as per local conditions and like but should not fall below the
value calculated in E11.
The outflow BOD5 (E5) has to be entered manually as per legal standards for the anticipated use
(20mg/L for discharge into surface water bodies as per CPCB standard, 30mg/L for irrigation
purpose in Tamil Nadu, etc.). However, in order to be on the safer side, a lower concentration of
e.g. 10mg/L could be chosen for the calculation. This value directly affects the calculation of the
surface area required (G11). The in the following calculated area is accordingly sufficient for
BOD-reduction; however, as per experience, often not to ensure aerobic conditions. Therefore,
the total surface area needs to be calculated manually with the thumb rule of 5-7m2/m3 of
wastewater (4-5m2/m3 in case of CBS). After manual calculation of the required surface area, the
length chosen (I11) can be calculated manually by dividing the required surface area into the
chosen width (F11) and entered into the EXCEL sheet. The actual surface area chosen (J11)
should be consequently more or less like the manually calculated area.
9.6
Biogas Settler
Biogas settlers are not calculated with the BORDA Excel sheets. Instead the design criteria
presented in the previous chapter should be used for manual calculation.
However, in order to calculate the sludge accumulation in the biogas settler and the amount of
removed COD, the BORDA Excel spreadsheet Settler should be used, as described in the
following:
Fig. 31: EXCEL spreadsheet Settler for calculating biogas settler (example: CBS)
70
Calculation of Sludge Accumulation (to calculate the Sludge Storage Volume)
The applicable entry data (A5, B5, D5 and E5) are usually directly transferred from the Per-capita
spreadsheet (or can be entered directly). The HRT inside tank (F5) should be chosen as per
design criteria (mostly 24h). Based on that, the specific sludge accumulation is calculated and
displayed in sludge l/g BOD removed (H12). With the BOD inflow (E5), the BOD outflow (J5)
and the daily flow (A5), the quantity of removed BOD can be calculated by multiplying (D5 minus
E5) with A5, while considering the units. Multiplied with H12 this leads to the daily sludge
accumulation.
The sludge storage volume can be finally calculated with this daily sludge accumulation and the
de-sludge interval (usually 2 years).
Calculation of removed COD (to calculate the Gas Storage Volume)
The entry data and the HRT (A5, D5, E5 and F5) need to be chosen as described above. With the
COD inflow (D5), the COD outflow (I5) and the daily flow (A5), the quantity of removed COD
per day can be calculated by multiplying (D5 minus I5) with A5, while considering the units.
The gas production can be calculated with the removed COD per day and the specific gas
production (0.35L/g CODrem). The required Gas Storage Volume can finally be calculated with the
gas production and the relevant percentage (mostly 65%).
Note: The other data calculated in the Settler spreadsheet such as water depth (C11),
dimensions (B11, D11, F11) or total volume (H11) are not applicable for the calculation of biogas
settlers. Also the generated biogas (J11) cannot be used and has to be calculated separately as
described above.
71
10. Construction
10
CONSTRUCTION
10.1
Alignment for Excavation
The determination of excavation lines is explained by means of below technical drawing.
Fig. 32: technical drawing TDA hostel cluster
72
10. Construction
As seen in above figure, different (brick) wall thicknesses are usually chosen for construction,
depending on the excavation depth. Main brick walls should be built in 0.23m (between settler,
ABR, AF, and PGF) and the partition walls in 0.115m (between the ABR chambers). These wall
thicknesses are sufficient despite the depth of up to 4m below NGL as the same water pressure
applies on both sides of the walls during operation. These wall thicknesses are also sufficient
during commissioning, when one chamber is filled while the next chamber is still empty. In case of
doubts, the modules could be filled from the top with (clean) water during commissioning to avoid
one-sided water pressure on walls. In case of the outer brick walls, earth pressure on the external
sides faces water pressure on the inner side during operation. However, when the modules are
empty (during construction, before commissioning and during maintenance) the full earth
pressure applies on the walls. Therefore, different wall thicknesses can be chosen in dependence
of the depth. Usually a wall thickness of 0.23m is chosen for the upper parts of the DEWATS
modules (approx. up to 1.2m below NGL). The mid-level walls (approx. 1.2m to 2.4m) are designed
with 0.345m and the lower walls with 0.46m thickness. The PCC foundation overlaps the walls by
0.15m.
Before excavation, the outer boundaries of the DEWATS have to be
determined and marked on the construction area. First the centre
lines of the surrounding walls are marked with cords, strapped with
metal rods. These centre lines denote the centre of the upper brick
walls. After marking the centre lines, the excavation lines can be
marked. The excavation lines indicate the outer edges of the PCC
foundation. The excavation lines are calculated in reference to the
centre lines in dependence of the respective wall thickness. In case
of the upper walls of 0.23m, the identification of the excavation line
is very easy as only the 0.115m from the centre lines to the edge of
the bricks plus the PCC foundation overhang of 0.15m need to be
added (0.115m + 0.15m = 0.265m). In case of the mid-level and
bottom walls it is recommendable to prepare sketches in order to Fig. 33: alignment of centre lines
graphically derive the necessary distances between the centre and
excavation lines. The distance between centre lines and excavation lines can also be easily taken
from detailed technical drawings in AutoCAD.
The following sketches show the derivation of the excavation lines in dependence of the wall
thickness.
In case of the upper level,
the wall thickness is 0.23m;
hence, the distance from
the centre line to the edge
of the wall is 0.115m. The
PCC foundation extends
0.15m from the edge of
bottom footing. Hence, the
distance from the centre
line to the excavation line
adds
up
to
0.265m
(0.115m+0.15m).
Fig. 34: centre and excavation lines for top-level walls
73
10. Construction
In case of the mid-level, the
wall thickness is 0.23m on
top and 0.345m on the
bottom; hence the distance
from centre line to the edge
of the wall is 0.23m. The
PCC foundation overlap is
0.15m. Hence, the distance
from the centre line to the
excavation line adds up to
0.38m (0.23m+0.15m).
Fig. 35: centre and excavation lines for mid-level walls
Fig. 36: centre and excavation lines for bottom-level walls
In case of the bottom- level,

the wall thickness is 0.23m
on the top, 0.345m in the
middle part and 0.46m in
the lower part; hence, the
distance from the centre
line to the edge of the wall
is 0.345m. The PCC
foundation extends 0.15m
from the edge of bottom
footing. Hence, the distance
from the centre line to the
excavation line adds up to
0.495m (0.345m+0.15m).
Once the necessary distances between centre lines and the excavation lines are identified, the
excavation lines can be marked with white lime powder.
Fig. 37: measuring distance between centre and excavation lines (l), marking excavation lines (c), final alignment (r)
The following figure shows based on the technical drawing in Fig. 32 a sketch of the plant with
brick walls and centre lines. The inner dimensions of the modules and the respective thicknesses
of the brick walls are given in below figure. The red marked centre lines are marked on site with
cords. In reference to these lines, the excavation lines are calculated and marked.
Note: Detailed drawings in AutoCAD make it very easy to measure the distance between centre
and excavation lines (outer edge of PCC foundation).
74
10. Construction
Fig. 38: wall thickness and inner dimension (plan view)
Fig. 39: centre and excavation lines
75
10. Construction
Above figure shows the same DEWATS plant with centre and excavation lines. The centre-tocentre width of the settler, ABR and AF for instance is calculated with the inner width of 2m plus
twice 0.115m (inner wall edges to centre line) for each side (0.115m + 2m + 0.115m = 2.23m). The
distances from the centre lines to the respective excavation lines (0.265m, 0.38m and 0.495m)
were explained in above figures and are here graphically illustrated. Based on a drawing like
presented in Fig. 39, the builder is able to start the excavation.
10.2
Levelling
The alignment only provides information about the location of excavation not about the depth.
The excavation depth depends on the depth of the total inlet pipe, the depth of the respective
DEWATS modules, the inlet-outlet level differences in the DEWATS modules, and the thickness of
the PCC foundation.
In order to define the exact depth of excavation, first the level of the inlet pipe needs to be
identified (always in reference to the pipes bottom). If the pipe already exists, the level can be
measured with a dumpy level. If the pipe does not exist, the level of the pipe can be calculated
based on the existing sewer lines, the necessary pipe slopes, the level differences inside the
DEWATS modules and the level of the total outlet. Often the total outlet level (e.g. natural
channel, community garden, or soak pit) determines all other levels as it is fixed. The DEWATS
modules can be adjusted (e.g. elevated) in many cases to keep the outlet level. If this is not
possible, wastewater has to be pumped between the different DEWATS modules or after the PGF.
In order to identify all levels, a fixed reference point needs to be chosen. This benchmark (defined
as 100.000m altitude) should be a permanent point, which does not change in altitude during e.g.
heavy rain or construction. If feasible, the benchmark should be directly visible from all points of
the construction side to avoid interruption to the reference points. All existing levels need to be
identified in reference to this benchmark. All future levels (e.g. the depth of the inlet pipe,
excavation depths of the different DEWATS modules) need to be calculated in reference to this
benchmark.
A hydraulic drawing, based on the previously prepared technical drawings, helps to identify
necessary levels for pipes, PCC floors, etc. On this hydraulic drawing, the existing ground level, the
future ground level and the future levels of pipes and PCC floors can be marked. If prepared in
AutoCAD, level differences and levels required for excavation can be easily taken from the
drawing.
Below figure shows an example arrangement of a CBS-DEWATS system (DEWATS modules plus
attached community toilet), together with the corresponding hydraulic drawing. All levels are
derived based on the existing ground level at the total outlet (Oorani) in order to avoid pumping.
All DEWATS modules (pipe levels, floor levels) and the level of the elevated toilet block are
planned accordingly. For this purpose, all pipe slopes and level differences in the DEWATS modules
(hydraulic gradient) need to be considered by backward-calculating, beginning from the existing
ground level at the total outlet (Oorani).
76
10. Construction
77
Fig. 40: layout and hydraulic drawing (in reference to total outlet level oorani)
10. Construction
For determining levels, a dumpy level is used. The following example demonstrates by means of the so-called collimation method how levels can be determined
in relation to the defined benchmark (BM).
Fig. 41: levelling using collimation method
By using a table like presented in the following figure, it is easy to calculate levels in relation to the benchmark (usually set 100.000). Especially if the dumpy level
needs to be relocated during taking levels, (e.g. if the distance gets to large or if a barrier obstructs the direct view between dumpy level and staff) this method
enables an easy calculation of the levels related to the benchmark.
Below table demonstrates by means of the above example, how levels can be calculated and noted.
78
10. Construction
Fig. 42: levelling using collimation method
Note: For double-checking the correctness of calculation, the following method can be used.
F.S. B.S. = first R.L. last R.L.
4.114 3.232 = 100.000 99.118
0.882 = 0.882
The following pictures show excavation works in an early stage. The excavation is done along the
excavation lines. With an excavator bulk works can be done. Exact excavation of the walls along
the excavation lines is done manually. Over-excavation should be avoided.
Fig. 43: constant dimensional checks during coarse machine-excavation in an early stage of excavation
The left picture of Fig. 44 shows a solid concrete benchmark. From this reference point (set on
100.000m by definition), all further levels and excavation depths are defined. The middle and right
pictures show the transfer of the centre lines to the excavated floor by using a metal weight.
Cornerstones should be directly fixed in cement after excavation. With these reference points, the
construction of the PCC foundation can start.
Fig. 44: fixed benchmark for DEWATS (l), transfer of centre lines to bottom (m), placing of cornerstones (r)
79
10. Construction
Fig. 45 shows excavation works for a polishing pond. The surrounding walls are sloped to avoid
silting during rain, sliding and to assure a nice appearance. The right photo shows the location for
a PGF outlet chamber, located between PGF and polishing pond.
Fig. 45: excavation of pond (l and c) and outlet of PGF (r)
10.3
Foundation
Before fixing the foundation, soil profile testing should be done. In case of hard soil, the
foundation can be build directly. Otherwise sand or gravel filling below is required.
After excavation (and sand/gravel filling), the foundation can be provided either in a single layer of
PCC or in a double layer of PCC and RCC. PCC is strong in compression but it has very little strength
in tension. Steel on the other hand is equally strong in compression and tension, but it cannot
resist equal amount of compressive force. Thus the combination of concrete and steel has proved
to be ideal, as the two materials are used to take up the stresses they are most suitable for.
Depending on the soil conditions, groundwater level and the load of the DEWATS superstructure,
a civil engineer needs to decide whether PCC is sufficient or whether the foundation should be
build in PCC and RCC, about the required thicknesses of the RCC/PCC, as well as about the
reinforcement details for RCC (spacing, rod diameter for main and distribution reinforcement).
Single PCC foundations for DEWATS are usually built in 0.15-0.2m thickness, depending on the soil
type and groundwater level. A recommended mixture for the PCC is 1 : 4 : 8 or 1 : 5 : 10 (cement :
sand : jelly) with a 40mm diameter jelly and a proper water-cement ratio to ensure a strong and
long-lasting foundation.
In case of combined PCC-RCC foundations, the PCC is usually built in 0.1m thickness and the RCC
layer in 0.15-0.2m thickness, depending on the loads and soil type. A recommended mixture for
the PCC is M20 (1 : 2 : 4).
For RCC foundations, minimum seven days curing should be ensured. Only after 21 days curing the
maximum strength of the concrete will be derived. PCC needs to cure for 7 days.
In order to maintain the designed foundation thickness, bricks can be fixed and threads can be tied
in tension over the complete area. The brick level should be adjusted with a dumpy level.
Fig. 46: concrete mixer (l), levelling with dumpy level (c) and level reference by brick stones (r)
80
10. Construction
Fig. 47: raw PCC (l), manual pouring (c) and ongoing works on construction side (r)
Fig. 48: manual compacting (l) and level check with level tube (c/r)
The cement mortar is thoroughly mixed, poured on the sand bed and compacted (manually) until
the final level (height of the adjusted bricks) is reached. The surface shall be maintained absolutely
plain.
As the RCC/PCC is rough, the surface needs to be smoothened. Therefore, finer cement mortar is
added on top to fill gaps and ensure a smooth surface. A recommended mixture is of 1 : 4 (cement
: sand). During concreting the levels have to be checked with a dumpy level or a level tube.
After finishing the foundation, RCC needs to be cured for 7-21 days and PCC needs to be cured for
7 days. Therefore, water has to be sprayed on top of the foundation in the morning hours. Curing
is very crucial to ensure a strong and water-tight foundation.
The foundation can be plastered later together with the side walls. The thickness of the plastering
should be 20mm thick. Only after providing the final plastering, the foundation will be water-tight.
For practical reasons, concreting
of the foundation should start in
the lowest module, which is
generally the AF, followed by the
ABR and finally the settler (ABR
and AF foundations are often
constructed on the same level, in
this case they can be concreted
together).
Fig. 49: step-wise concreting of PCC foundation
The connecting area between AF and PGF has to be concreted in phases as well. First, the
foundation is provided in the horizontal parts of all modules (AF, ABR, settler, PGF). After
constructing the AF outlet wall, the backside of this wall (PGF-side) is re-filled with soil or concrete,
compacted and then covered with RCC/PCC.
81
10. Construction
10.4
Brick Walls
In most cases, bricks are adequate for wall construction. However, depending on the soil type,
groundwater level, and the depth of excavation, the outside pressure might get so high, that bricks
might collapse (e.g. loose soil or very high groundwater table). In these cases, walls need to be
constructed in RCC or with solid concrete bricks, which is finally more expensive. However, in most
cases of high pressure on the walls, the construction of pillars is sufficient. RCC and concrete walls
are the absolute exception. Note, also RCC walls or walls made of solid concrete bricks need to be
plastered.
If brick walls are found to be sufficient for wall construction, the necessary thickness of the walls
needs to be determined in dependence of depth of construction. In order to reduce material and
labour cost, stepped footing is usually provided. For normal conditions, 0.23cm walls are provided
to a depth of 0.6m, 0.35m walls are provided at a depth between 0.6m and 1.2m. Below 1.2m
below ground level, walls are usually provided in a thickness of 0.46m.
Walls are generally constructed with bricks
of the dimensions: L=23cm, W=11.5cm,
D=8cm. Bricks in different depths should be
arranged depending on the wall thickness.
They should be laid in the form of English
bonding.
Fig. 50: English bonding for brick wall of 0.46m
For the brick wall construction, a mortar with a cement-sand mixture of 1:5 should be used.
In case of stepped brick footing, the vertical walls need to
be constructed in phases. First, the lowest part is
constructed (W=0.46m), afterwards the middle part of the
brick walls (W=0.345m) can be built. Ultimately, the upper
part of the brick walls (W=0.23m) can be constructed.
After complete wall construction, the outer sided can be
plastered and soil can be refilled after proper curing.
Fig. 51: sequence of side-wall construction
Below pictures show an early stage of step-wise wall

construction. First, the lower parts of the modules are
constructed. The location of the walls should be
permanently checked in relation to the centre lines.
Fig. 52: lower settler walls (l), centre reference line (c), and lower PGF walls (r)
82
10. Construction
Fig. 53: refilling with soil (l), manual compacting (c), total view during early wall construction (r)
Fig. 54 shows the middle-stage wall construction. The walls have already reached the top layer
(0.23m). The inner ABR partition walls are still not completed.
Fig. 54: settler walls (l), ABR inner walls (c), total view - after rainfall (r)
If the system is constructed during the rainy season, water will stand in the DEWATS modules after
rainfall. If it rains immediately on the concrete, the strength of the concrete will be reduced;
whereas rain after the initial setting will help curing.
The ABR partition walls (0.115m) should be constructed
after the outer walls of the settler, ABR and AF modules
have been finished. Openings for the PVC-pipes should
be kept directly during brick wall construction in order
to avoid breaking the walls later, which might cause
cracks and damages and could weaken the wall.
As the pipe levels are important for the uniform
distribution, special precision is necessary for the levels
of these wall openings. Therefore, the levels of the
holes and the level difference between the different
holes should be checked with a dumpy level or level
tube.
83
Fig. 55: openings in brick walls for PVC pipes
10. Construction
10.5
Plastering
After wall construction, the inner and outer wall
surfaces need to be plastered completely with a
watertight cement-sand mortar in order to prevent
water leakage. Wastewater seeping out of the DEWATS,
either through the walls or through the flooring, could
accumulate in the surrounding soil where it starts to
ferment and smell. Also surrounding water seeping into
the system has to be avoided.
Fig. 56: ongoing outer wall plastering
For all inner surfaces and for outer surfaces in case of

high water tables, a water-proofing compound (e.g.
Fosroc) should be added to the cement to enhance the
characteristics of the plastering (1kg/bag or as per
manufacturers recommendation). If a water-proofing
compound is used, a 1:4 mixture is used. Outer walls
with a low groundwater level can be plastered in 1:4,
without adding water-proofing compound.
For the outer walls, a rough plastering (1:5) is generally
sufficient; meanwhile a smooth plastering should be
chosen for inner surfaces. However, this needs to be
evaluated as per local conditions.
Fig. 57: 1:4 cement-sand mortar
Both inside and outside plastering should be done

always with a 20mm thick coat.
Only one coat of plastering is sufficient, inside and outside. If the plastering is done correctly, the
walls will be water-tight.
Curing of the walls over the next seven days is essential to ensure a water tight plastering.
Also RCC walls or walls made of concrete bricks should be plastered like brick walls.
Below photos show a DEWTAS system after finished wall construction, re-filling of soil and
completed plastering. Wall corners are filled with mortar in a triangular shape.
Fig. 58: plastered ABR chambers (l), detail of plastered corners (c), total view of plastered DEWATS (r)
In cases of extreme risk of water seepage, a chemical sealing compound (e.g. Dr. Fixit Super
Latex or Cero Bito Plaster) could be applied additionally on the surface of the cement plastering.
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10. Construction
10.6
Pipe installation - settler, ABR and AF
After plastering, the PVC pipes can be prepared and installed. 6kg/cm2 PVC pipes (IS-certified)
should be used in order to prevent breaking.
Before installation, the required levels need to be marked inside the modules. The levels of the
horizontal pipes (connecting two T-pipes in different chambers) need to be transferred into the
modules with a dumpy level as per technical drawing. For example, the design level of the AF
outlet pipe can be transferred with a dumpy level into the AF and marked with a water-tight
marker on the outlet wall. From this reference point, all other levels of the horizontal pipes can be
marked on the respective walls by using a level tube, considering the inlet-outlet level differences.
After marking all pipe levels, the levels should be double-checked with the technical drawing and a
dumpy level.
Fig. 59: marking of pipe levels prior to installation
As the levels of the horizontal pipes determine A) the water levels inside the modules; and B) the
inlet-outlet level difference, precision during marking the levels and pipe installation is crucial.
Due to the fact that the floor levels might differ from the original design due to construction
errors, the vertical distances between horizontal pipes and PCC can differ respectively. Because of
that, a dumpy level and level tube should be used for marking the pipe levels instead of measuring
the vertical distance between PCC and pipes.
Fig. 60: vertical distance between PCC and horizontal pipes (in case of inaccurate construction)
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10. Construction
Keeping the pipe levels as per design is very important in case of inaccurate flooring, as errors
result in varying water depths. However, maintaining the inlet-outlet level difference between
each module is more important than the water depth. Reduced inlet-outlet level differences can
result in hydraulic problems, while reduced water depths only result in a slightly
reduced/increased HRT. Fig. 60 demonstrates the influence of inaccurate PCC levels on the water
level.
Nevertheless, the vertical distances between the pipe markings and the PCC should be measured
for double-check before installation. If the pipe marking was done correctly, the distance should
be as per design, corrected with the construction error of the floor (e.g. design distance for ABR
outlet is 180cm from floor, floor was laid 5cm above design, hence the real distance should be
175cm).
All connecting pipes (except settler inlet and AF outlet)
consist of several parts, which are:
1) T-pipe on outlet side of previous module
2) T-pipe on inlet side of next module
3) horizontal connecting pipe between both chambers
4) vertical pipe which reaches over the scum level on the
outlet side
5) vertical pipe which reaches over the scum level on the
inlet side
6) vertical pipe which dives down under the expected
scum level on the outlet side
7) vertical pipe which reaches to the bottom of the next
chamber
Fig. 61: compartments of connecting pipes
As it is difficult to join the pipes after installation of the horizontal part, it is recommended to
assemble all seven pipes before installation. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the lengths of
the segments before joining the pipes with liquid PVC solvent, as explained in the following:
The T-pipes (1 and 2) come in standard
sizes. The horizontal pipe (3) should have a
length that the vertical pipes (6 and 7) are
close to the brick walls to fix them with
clamps.
Its
length
is
therefore
approximately 4cm less than the wall
thickness.
The derivation of the lengths of the
vertical parts (4, 5, 6 and 7) can be easily
done with the help of a drawing like Fig. 62
and the design criteria (presented in
columns B, C, and D of Fig. 63). As most
criteria refer to the water level, they need
to be referred to the floor level first
(columns F and G).
Fig. 62: derivation of pipe lengths (example: ABR-AF)
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10. Construction
In below table, the design criteria are put in reference to the PCC floor by considering the water
height. The distance between the pipes top ends and the PCC (a) is calculated by adding the water
height (h) to the required distance above water level (A). Analogue, the distance between the
pipes lower ends and the floor (b) is the water height (h) minus the distance by which the pipes
dive down under the water level (B).
Fig. 63: design criteria for vertical pipes, in reference to PCC floor
Once the necessary distance between the upper/lower ends of the vertical pipes and the PCC is
known (a, b/C) it is easy to calculate the required length of the pipe extensions (4, 5, 6 and 7).
The upper parts (4 and 5) are calculated by subtracting the height of
partition wall up to pipe opening (x) and the diameter of the
connecting pipe (d) from the design level (a). Additionally, 2cm for
joining the pipe with the T-pipe should be subtracted.
Length of pipes (4) and (5) = a x d 2cm
The lower parts (6 and 7) are calculated by subtracting the design level
(b in case outlet pipes, C in case of inlet pipes) from the measured
level of the horizontal pipe (x). Additionally, 2cm for joining the pipe
with the T-pipe should be subtracted.
Length of pipes (6) = x b 2cm
Length of pipes (7) = x C 2cm
In order to join the different pipe compartments together, a plastic
solvent should be used to ensure durable connections.
Fig. 64: pipe calculation
The bottom of the vertical inlet pipes should be bevelled in a 45angle, with the opening in water flow direction.
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10. Construction
Fig. 65: cutting of 45-angle at pipe ending (l), installation of inlet pipes (c), installed series of inlet pipes (r)
10.7
Pipe installation - PGF
The PGF inlet pipe is located on the surface of the PGF filter material. The pipe should distribute
the water over the full width of the PGF. The PGF drainage pipe is located at the bottom of the
PGF outlet over the full width of the system. The vertical sampling pipe is located in the centre of
the PGF to take wastewater samples from the filter bed. A height-adjustable outlet pipe is located
in a chamber at the PGF outlet in order to adjust the water level in the PGF. In the following, the
preparation and installation of the different pipes is explained.
10.7.1 Inlet pipe
The inlet pipe is installed to distribute the AF effluent over the full width of the PGF. Covering the
complete pipe with holes would lead to a strong hydraulic load of the filter bed around the inlet
pipe (PGF centre) and to dead spots in the PGF corners. In order to ensure a full distribution over
the complete width, the water needs to stand in the pipe. A single horizontal line of holes ensures
an equal water level inside the pipe over its full width. When the water level rises above this level,
the overflow drains equally into the filter bed through all holes (see Fig. 66, top). Therefore, the
holes are placed at one horizontal line approximately 0.5cm to 1cm above the pipes bottom.
Please note, that the level of the holes directly influences the water level in the AF. The vertical
distance between the holes and the bottom of the PGF inlet pipe should be therefore as small as
possible to ensure water standing in the pipe (<1 cm). If more is desired, this additional level has
to be taken into account during planning the AF inlet/outlet level difference (e.g. 20cm plus
additional distance between hole and bottom of PGF inlet pipe).
The holes need to be placed exactly at one level as the water would flow through the lowest hole
if they are not equal, which would reduce the distribution efficiency (see Fig. 66, bottom).
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10. Construction
Only a few holes with big diameters are
preferable to many small holes in order to
prevent clogging and to ensure a good
horizontal distribution. In order to determine
the necessary diameter and number of holes,
the total cross-section (area) has to be
calculated and checked on feasibility (e.g.
compared to the cross-section of the total
inlet pipe or the total cross-section of the
intermediate ABR/AF pipes). If for example
19 holes of 50mm diameter are provided at
30cm centre-to-centre over the full width of
6m, the total cross-section would be
19*/4*(5cm)2=370cm2. Compared to the
cross-section of an inlet pipe with
/4*(15cm)2=177cm2 and the total crosssection of for example six intermediate pipes
of 6*/4*(10cm)2=472cm2, the total crosssection of all holes in the PGF distribution
pipe is sufficient.
Fig. 66: importance of vertical level of holes in inlet pipe
The holes can be smelted into the PVC pipe with a hot metal bolt. In order to make sure that all
holes are exactly on the same vertical level (to ensure equal distribution), a horizontal line has to
be marked on the pipes surface before smelting the holes.
During installation, the level of the pipe should be checked in reference to the PCC bottom with a
measuring tape. A level tube should be used to ensure that the pipe is installed completely
horizontally (to ensure equal distribution over the full width). During adjusting and before
permanently fixing with metal clamps, the pipe can be temporarily supported with e.g. bricks. The
location of the holes is identified with a metal-elbow of 90 and a measuring tape and adjusted by
rotating the pipe (<1cm above pipe bottom). The horizontal pipe sections are connected to the
horizontal T-joint using a special PVC solvent.
Fig. 67: smelting of holes (l), installation of inlet pipe (m), installed inlet pipe fixed with clamps (r)
End-caps should be provided in order to enable the water standing in the pipe up to the level of
the holes. These end-caps should not be permanently fixed with the adhesive solvent to enable
manual cleaning in case of clogging.
The inlet pipe should be covered with filter material (coarse material) to avoid intensive contact
between the anaerobic wastewater and the ambient air, which leads to smell.
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10. Construction
10.7.2 Inlet channel / Distribution channel
Instead of an inlet pipe, a distribution channel with wall openings through which the AF effluent
flows into the PGF, can be provided. By providing a channel, the risk of clogging is reduced and the
distribution channel can be cleaned more easily as it is accessible from the top. Also during
construction, the exactness of the vertical level of the wall openings can be controlled more easily
compared to a distribution pipe. Construction cost might be slightly higher.
Channels are especially preferable in case of wide PGF (big wastewater quantities) as the water
can be distributed more easily over the full width. In this case it is recommendable to distribute
the water equally into various channels before it is routed into the PGF.
Fig. 68: distribution channel and PGF inlet
The last distribution channel should have a straight number of openings to ensure an equal
distribution of the water flow (see plan view). Water should be allowed to stand 2cm in the
channels (opening 2cm above channel bottom) to ensure a proper distribution over the full width
(see longitudinal view). A distribution channel might be also necessary for wide ABR or AF (>3.5m).
10.7.3 Sampling pipe
A 150mm sampling pipe should be installed in the centre of the PGF.
In cases of larger PGF it is recommendable to provide two sample
pipes, one at each side of the middle part of the PGF. Samples taken
permit calculating the efficiency of the first half of the PGF compared
to the efficiency of the second half.
The pipe has to be completely perforated enabling water
penetrating into the pipe from all surroundings sides. The holes are
drilled in a diameter of approx. 10mm to avoid clogging with small
stones and plants roots.
The pipe can be fixed on the floor with cement. The height of the
cement should be moderate to avoid covering many holes. After
filling with filter media, the pipe will stabilised through the gravel.
The pipe should be covered with a removable end-cap (no solvent).
90
Fig. 69: PGF sampling pipe
10. Construction
10.7.4 Drainage pipe
The drainage pipe collects the water in the outlet zone and drains it from the PGF. For this
purpose, the water has to be separated from the gravel. The horizontal drainage pipe is connected
to a height adjustable outlet pipe, which regulates the water level inside the PGF (see Chapter
9.7.4). As the drainage pipe is located at the bottom of the PGF, it is in a completely watersaturated zone, thus the perforation can cover 100% of the pipes surface (min. 60%).
The holes should be of 6-8mm diameter at 5-10cm c-c. Again, the total cross-section of all holes
has to be calculated and checked on feasibility (e.g. compared to the cross-section of the total
inlet pipe or the total cross-section of the intermediate ABR/AF pipes). The holes can be drilled
with an electric drilling machine. The different parts of the drainage pipe are connected to the Tjoint by using an adhesive PVC solvent. The pipe is fixed on the PGFs bottom with metal clamps.
The ends of the pipe closed with end-caps.
Fig. 70: components of PGF drainage pipe (l), pipe fixed with clamps (m), filling of connection channel with cement (r)
10.7.5 Outlet pipe PGF water level adjustment

The outlet pipe is installed in an attached chamber.
It is connected to the drainage pipe. The pipe
comprises of three parts: the horizontal connection
pipe, a 90-elbow, and a vertical part. The
horizontal part is permanently connected with the
drainage pipe by using a PVC-adhesive. The vertical
part is permanently connected to the elbow. The
elbow is not bonded to the horizontal pipe but
loosely attached. Therefore, the vertical part can
be rotated. By rotating the pipe, the water level
inside the PGF can be adjusted. The water level
inside the PGF is equal to pipe end.
Fig. 71: PGF outlet chamber / pipe
The outlet chamber has to be of sufficient width to rotate the elbow pipe to some extent. For
cleaning the PGF, the elbow and vertical pipe can be removed completely. Alternatively a flexible
PVC tube can be used to regulate the water level inside the PGF (see Fig. 72, right).
In order to avoid people stealing the vertical pipe or changing the position by rotating (which
would result in changing the water level inside the PGF), the chamber can be covered with a
lockable metal plate.
In order to avoid surface water (e.g. during heavy rains) running into the PGF, which would result
in clogging of the outlet zone, the freeboard must of sufficient height above ground level.
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10. Construction
Fig. 72: fixed, horizontal part of outlet pipe with elbow (l), rotatable outlet pipe (c), alternate flexible outlet tube (r)
10.7.6 Connecting pipe to polishing pond

If a polishing pond is included in the DEWATS concept, it is connected to the PGF outlet chamber
through a PVC pipeline or through a stoneware pipe. The pipeline should be laid with sufficient
slope (compare Chapter 7.3). In order to minimize the excavation depth of the pond, the pipe can
be connected to the PGF outlet chamber allowing a height between the flooring and the outlet
pipe, e.g. 10cm above flooring (compare Fig. 71). It is recommendable to provide a small level
difference of 5-10cm between the pipe outlet and the ponds water surface in order to prevent
water backflow, e.g. in case of heavy rainfall.
The ponds inlet should be placed more or less
opposite of the outlet in order to ensure a full
distribution over the entire volume (full
mixture) and to prevent shortcuts. Shortcuts
would result in reduced HRT and possibly smell
due to fermentation processes in death
zones. The pond outlet can be constructed
with pipes or as an open channel, as per local
requirements.
Fig. 73: possible arrangements of inlet/outlet pipes
Fig. 74: installation of connecting pipe between PGF and pond (l), arrangement of connecting pipe with slope (r)
92
10. Construction
10.7.7 Drainage Pipes / Erosion Trenches
As stormwater contains small
particles (sand and grit), which can
clog the PGF filter material and silt
the polishing pond, rainwater
runoffs should have no access to
the DEWATS; hence, get neither
mixed with the wastewater, nor
directly flow into the modules from
surroundings. Where necessary,
drainage pipes / open drains
should be provided around the
system. These drains can be
connected to the total outlet or
routed into receiving bodies.
10.8
Fig. 75: example arrangement of drainage pipes
ABR Baffle Wall
In order to ensure a full distribution of the inflowing wastewater over the full width of the ABR
and by this to reduce the flow velocity, a thin precast slab (cuddapa or Ferro cement slab) can be
provided in the first ABR chamber instead of down-flow pipes. Due to the material characteristics,
no plastering is required. Grooves have to be provided on the side-walls during construction up to
the required depth. During slab installation, it is inserted though this grooves. The distance
between precast slab and inner wall should be 20cm and it should end 20cm above floor PCC.
10.9
AF perforated bottom slab
Fig. 76: perforated RCC precast slab
The AF filter media rests on a perforated, precast

RCC slab, which is usually placed 50cm above the
flooring to provide an equal and undisturbed
flow throughout the media. The precast slab is
usually built of 50mm thickness in order to bear
the load of the filter material and it is reinforced
with steel. Approximately 50mm diameter holes
can be provided in 150mm c-c. The holes should
be already foreseen during concreting to avoid
drilling afterwards. This can be done by placing
placeholders like e.g. banana trunks. The crosssectional area of all holes should be crosschecked on feasibility, e.g. by comparing with the
total inlet pipe. To facilitate the installation, the
plate can be built in various compartments.
The plates rest on columns as indicated in above sketch. Holes for the desludge-pipe and the inlet
pipes need to be foreseen during concreting. Exact planning and measurement of the holes is
required to avoid reworking during installation inside the AF (!)
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10. Construction
Fig. 77: de-sludge pipe arrangement
A desludge pipe should be foreseen in the centre of the

perforated slab to desludge the chamber with a
vacuum/sludge pump without removing the filter media.
If a concrete support is provided in the centre of the AF,
the pipe can be placed next to this support. The pipe
should extend approximately 50cm above the AF filter
material. The pipe should be bevelled on its lower end to
provide sufficient distance to the floor for desludging
(approx. 5cm). By rotating the pipe during pumping most
sludge can be removed.
Fig. 78: placing of steel reinforcement (l), banana trunks placeholders (c), concreting of RCC bottom slab (r)
Fig. 79: check of 50mm thickness (l), removed placeholders (c), plastered brick substructure (r)
Fig. 80: perforates slab (l), placing of slab module (c), complete perforated slab with desludge pipe (r)
94
10. Construction
10.10 RCC Cover Slab
The settler, ABR and AF need to be
covered for safety reasons and to prevent
nuisances through smell. The cover can
consist of pre-fabricated slabs, which are
placed on top of the modules or it can be
concreted on top of the modules with the
help of a scaffold.
A common thickness for RCC cover slabs is
100mm, prepared with a cement-sandgravel-mixture of M15 (1:1.5:3) or M20
(1:2:4). As per IS 456:2000 specifications,
20mm gravel aggregate should be used.
Fig. 81: arrangement of RCC reinforcement
The main reinforcement (usually 10mm @ 100mm c/c) should be provided along the longer
distance (longitudinal) and distribution reinforcement (usually 8mm @ 150mm c/c) should be
provided along the shorter distance (transverse). An experienced civil engineer should design the
slab and reinforcement.
During construction, openings for manholes and vent
pipes should be foreseen. The pipes should be placed
before the concrete hardens. After concreting, the RCC
plate should cure for 7-21 days.
Fig. 82: metal supports for manhole covers
For covering the manholes, pre-fabricated metal

supports should be embedded into the surface of the
slab. After fixing the metal support, a fitting concrete
plate needs to be embedded into the metal frame. The
manhole covers should be equipped with a metal handle
for easy lifting. The manhole size should be sufficient to
enable a worker climbing inside the modules for O&M.
Fig. 83: installed metal support (l), placing in concrete (m), concreting of manhole RCC slab (r)
95
10. Construction
10.11 AF Media
Volcanic stone is a very suitable filter media as it consists of a
very large surface (on which bacteria can attach easily) due to
its high porosity. However, in many regions volcanic slag is not
available, such as in Tamilnadu. Industrial slag, like e.g. from
metal industry, is also a recommendable AF filter media, which
can also be used for PGF. Slag is a by-product of metal smelting
and is generated during the process of refining metals and
making alloys. Slag is also sometimes referred to as cinder, in a
reference to its sometimes dark and crumbly appearance. Slag Fig. 84: slag
has a porous surface and provides therefore optimal conditions for attachment of
microorganisms. In case volcanic stones or slag are not, or only very costly, available, other
alternatives need to be considered in order to keep the overall construction costs of the DEWATS
moderate. As huge quantities of AF and PGF filter material are needed, its procurement can easily
raise the overall costs significantly.
Where slag is not reasonably available, regular gravel (also called aggregate) can be used as filter
media. As per the design criteria, the diameter should be within 80mm and 140mm. The gravel
should be preferably round and of uniform size in order to ensure a defined void volume. The
surface should be preferably rough for easy bacteria attachment, what disqualifies smooth river
pebbles. If the gravel is delivered in different sizes, it might be necessary to manually sort out the
correct diameter. Before the filter media is filled into the AF, the material has to be cleaned (e.g.
from dust and fine solids) to prevent clogging after commissioning. For this purpose, the material
could be spread on a plane surface and washed with a water hose (if possible high-pressure) and
brushes (depending on the grade of contamination). Alternatively, the media can be filled into
bamboo buckets and repeatedly submersed into a water drum while rotating to remove attached
particles. In this case, the water in the drums need to be replaced in adequate intervals.
Fig. 85: delivery of AF aggregate (l), manual sorting of filter material (m), washing of aggregate in bamboo buckets (r)
10.12 PGF Media

Volcanic stones or slag are also appropriate materials for the PGF. Where these materials are not
easily or reasonably available, gravel (aggregate/jelly) can be used instead. Again, the chosen
media should be of more or less uniform size (to ensure voids) and more or less round.
Different grain sizes have to be used for filling the PGF. Grain sizes of 80-120mm for the inlet and
outlet zone and 5-12mm for the inner layer (preferably 10-12mm in the first and 5-7mm in the
second half), arranged as per the following figure, are recommended.
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10. Construction
Fig. 86: arrangement of PGF filter media
As these grain sizes are not always exactly available, also regular construction aggregates can be
used. The following grain sizes can also be chosen:
inlet: 80mm aggregate (to avoid clogging of the inlet zone)

intermediate layer between inlet and main filter: 40mm aggregate (to avoid smaller gravel
filling voids of the 80mm aggregate)
main filter: 12-20 mm aggregate (literature recommendation is 20mm in first half and
12mm in second half)
intermediate layer between main filter and outlet: 40mm aggregate (to avoid smaller
gravel filling voids of the 80mm aggregate)
outlet: 80mm aggregate (to avoid clogging of the outlet zone)
top layer: 6-12mm aggregate (to enable planting of seeds)
Fig. 87 shows an alternative arrangement of the different gravel sizes. All grain sizes have to be
arranged in sequence to avoid smaller gravel filling voids of bigger compartments.
Fig. 87: alternative arrangement of PGF filter media
Needed quantities can be easily calculated by means of above drawings and the PGF width.
Before the filter media is filled, it has to be cleaned (e.g. from dust and fine solids) to prevent
clogging after commissioning. Gravel of considerably different sizes (too big or too small) has to be
manually removed in order to maintain defined void space. If the gravel is delivered in very inhomogenous sizes, it has to be sorted manually.
The inlet pipe should be covered with filter media (coarse gravel for inlet of 90-120mm) to avoid
intensive contact between the anaerobic wastewater and the ambient air, which leads to smell.
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10. Construction
Fig. 88: coarse inlet zone (l), different corn sizes (c), complete top view of inlet zone with 4 different grain sizes (r)
Fig. 89: 80mm gravel in outlet (l), 40mm intermediate layer in outlet (c), filling of 12-20mm gravel in central PGF (r)
10.13 Installation of biogas equipment

At least 60% of all non-functional biogas units are due to defect gas piping. Therefore, extreme
care has to be taken for proper installation. It is advisable to select a single size for all pipes, valves
and accessories. The requirements for biogas pipes, valves and accessories are principally the
same as for other gas installations. However, as biogas is 100% saturated with water vapour and
contains hydrogen sulphide, gas lines made of PVC or rigid PE plastic pipes are most appropriate.
Flexible gas pipes laid in the open must be UV-resistant.
Any type of gas cookers or stoves can be used. However, it is necessary to expand or change the
nozzle size to about 1.4 1.6mm. Also the air supply needs often to be closed completely (e.g.
with aluminium foil). The right air supply can be found out by practical experiments easily. Due to
the 12% sulphuric acid content, simple gas stoves get often corroded after one or two years of
use. Therefore, it is recommended to use solid steel cookers to avoid corrosion. (4).
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11. Commissioning
11
COMMISSIONING
The following chapter presents details about the commissioning requirements for the different
DEWATS modules. Commissioning is relatively simple in case of DEWATS and not much has to be
considered; however, in order to achieve the best possible performance after a minimum time,
the following recommendations should be followed. (5) (4)
11.1
Pipes
Underground wastewater pipes (e.g. simplified sewer system) are often laid before the DEWATS
modules are constructed and later connected to the system, prior to commissioning. During the
time of non-use, the pipes can get contaminated with liquid and solid waste, which reach the
piping system through the toilets or through junction boxes (especially if not closed properly).
These contaminants can compact on the pipes bottom and detach when the pipes are
commissioned. As a result, contaminants like soil, dust, silt, paper, animals, etc. will be flushed
into the DEWATS. In order to disburden the settler, pipes have to be cleaned prior commissioning.
The pipes can be flushed by pumping water through it. The flushed sediments can be subsequently
removed manually from junction boxes and the settler.
11.2
Grease Trap and Grit Chamber
Before commissioning, sediments should be removed in order to avoid them being flushed into
the downstream pipes and the settler, resulting in a reduced sludge storage volume. No further
special activities are required.
11.3
Settler
No special commissioning steps are required. Settlers can be used immediately. Sediments flushed
into the settler during pipe flushing should be removed in order to ensure the full sludge storage
volume. Floating material should be removed as well prior to start of operation.
Sludge digestion starts only after some days. Therefore, it will take some time until the bacteria
biocenosis is established and the full efficiency is reached. (5) (4)
11.4
Biogas Settler
In order to accelerate the commissioning process and preventing the settler from turning sour, the
settler should be inoculated with active bacterial material. Therefore, sludge from settlers/septic
tanks, slurry from a biogas plants, or cow dung (mixed 1:1 with water) should be poured into the
settler before start of operation. Once the process has stabilized, the large volume of unfermented
biomass will result in a high rate of gas production. Regular loading can commence after the gas
production has dropped off to the expected level. (5) (4)
11.5
ABR
The treatment performance of ABR depends on the mixture of incoming wastewater with
activated sludge retained on the chambers bottom, which contains the microorganisms involved
in the cleaning processes. As in new-built ABR sludge is still not accumulated, the cleaning
efficiency is still low in the beginning and will be fully established after 3-6 months. In order to
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11. Commissioning
ensure an (almost) full treatment capacity directly from start, the ABR can be inoculated with
sludge removed from an existing septic tank or with a cow-dung mixture (mixed 1:1 with water). In
order to prevent clogging of downstream modules, only the inlet of the ABR (usually the first one
or two chambers) should be inoculated with active sludge. In this case, the chambers should be
filled with a 20cm layer of sludge 1-2 days before commissioning.
It is recommendable to start operation with less than the full daily wastewater flow (approx. 25%)
and to increase the daily quantity steadily over the first three months. This helps bacteria to
multiply and accumulate in the active sludge layer and prevents bacteria to be flushed out.
Starting with the full hydraulic load delays the maturation significantly. Starting with a reduced
flow happens automatically in case of most communities where the DEWATS was calculated for a
projected number of future residents. In this case, the daily wastewater flow increases with the
number of connected households. In case of DEWATS for CBS, the daily wastewater flow could be
reduced in the beginning through controlling the number of daily users.
It is beneficial to operate the ABR during commissioning with a stronger wastewater (higher
organic load) in order to enhance the accumulation of microorganisms in the sludge layer.
Stronger wastewater could be achieved during commissioning by providing less water for toilet
flushing or by separating low-contaminated waters from e.g. dishwashing. (5) (4)
11.6
AF
Also in AF, the treatment efficiency depends on a surplus of active microorganisms contained in
the sludge. Bacteria existing in the wastewater settle on the surface of the AF filter media and
build a biofilm over time. However, until the biofilm is set-up, the treatment efficiency is almost
zero. In order to ensure adequate treatment from the beginning, active sludge (e.g. from septic
tanks/settlers) should be sprayed on the filter surface to inoculate the AF with bacteria.
It is recommendable to start operation with only a quarter of the daily wastewater flow to prevent
bacteria to be flushed out the system and to steadily increase the flow over the next three
months. The full treatment efficiency can be expected after six to nine months. (5) (4)
11.7
PGF
As young plant saplings might not grow on wastewater, it is advisable to feed the plants in the
beginning with plenty of fresh water and to increase the wastewater quantities parallel to the
plant growth. The saplings should be planted approximately one week before commissioning and
the PGF should be filled with clear water (make sure that soil is removed from the roots to avoid
clogging of the filter media).
Especially during the commissioning phase it is important to adjust the water level in the PGF
exactly according to the wastewater flow by means of the swivel arm or flexible bend located in
the PGFs outlet chamber. The water flow should be limited to the root zone of the plants and no
water should stand on the PGFs surface as this would attract flies and other vectors and could
provoke smell. If water stands on the surface, the outlet pipe should be lowered. If the water level
is significantly under the gravel surface, the outlet pipe should be elevated to maintain the
maximum possible water depth and by this treatment efficiency. (5) (4) During commissioning, the
water level should be 10cm below surface. During regular operation, 10-20cm is recommendable
to reduce smell, flies and mosquitoes. (6)
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11. Commissioning
11.8
Polishing Pond
No special commissioning activities are required for polishing ponds. In case of aerobic ponds,
which are principally very similar to polishing ponds, it is recommended to start operation with
river water before wastewater is routed into it. Polishing ponds can be commissioned with the
effluent of the PGF. (5) (4)
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12. O&M
12
O&M
Despite the fact that DEWATS plants are very easy to operate and require only little maintenance,
minor checks and works need to be performed in regular intervals in order to ensure sustainable
and proper operation and efficient treatment. Due to the nature of maintenance works and
checks, it is helpful to develop a site-specific maintenance plan with daily, weekly, monthly and
occasional O&M works for the respective personal in charge. An example service sheet is
presented at the end of this chapter.
Please refer to CDDs publication Operational Tasks for the Upkeep of DEWATS for more
information. The publication is available online at www.cdd.org.
12.1
Grease Trap and Grit Chamber
Grease traps / grit chambers are usually only provided where significant amounts of oil and grease
have to be expected (e.g. in case of canteens). Oil and grease accumulate on the water surface in
front of the baffle walls. Inorganic settleable solids (e.g. sand, grit) accumulate at the units
bottom. As the volume of the module is comparatively small, the unit fills relatively fast and
requires therefore regular maintenance.
After removal, the inorganic sediments (mostly sand) and the floating material have to be treated
as they are contaminated with pathogens. Due to the fact that pathogens are only attached to the
surface (e.g. on sand) and due to relatively small quantities, the sludge and scum can be locally
treated and disposed. Sand can be applied on fields (mixed with soil) after drying. Floating
material can be disposed of with regular household solid waste after drying or co-composted.
The following maintenance practices ensure a proper function of the grease trap and grit
chamber:
weekly inspection of sand level (stick test)
daily (if required) inspection of amount of floatable material
monthly inspection of structural conditions (water tightness, inlet and outlet pipes)
removal of plants from surroundings as required
influent water testing as per monitoring schedule
12.2
Settler / Septic Tank
Fresh solids enter the module continuously and add to the sludge and scum layer (depending on
their density). Inorganic particles (e.g. grit, sand) and organic material settle down and
accumulate. The organic materials are digested by microorganisms. The end-products of these
anaerobic processes are soluble compounds which are flushed into the ABR, as well as gases which
leave the module through the inlet and vent pipe.
Due to its own weight and the weight of the above water, the underlying sludge layers get
compacted over time and harden. Despite the fact that the anaerobic digestion processes reduce
the volume of sludge (and scum) the total volume increases due to continuously inflowing
material. The treatment efficiency reduces continuously with the decreasing hydraulic retention
time of the wastewater. If the recommended cleaning intervals are not kept, the clear water
volume and the treatment efficiency get insufficient.
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12. O&M
In order to be able removing the sludge efficiently and to maintain satisfactory performance, the
module needs desludging after approximately 18 months (depending on the design), before the
sludge (especially lower layers) get too compact and hard. The sludge needs to be pumped out
with special sludge-pumps of sufficient capacity. However, some sludge should be left inside to
ensure that active biomass remains in the module and the inflowing wastewater is continuously
treated.
As the sludge and scum contain living pathogens, they should be directly treated, either on-site or
externally through an adequate contractor. In the second case, it has to be ensured, that the
disposal contractor does responsibly treat the sludge and scum after removal in order to prevent
spreading of diseases. Feasible sludge treatment includes drying in sludge drying beds or
composting. For (re)use option, refer to Chapter 14. If feasible (e.g. in case of schools), desludging
should be done during non-operation or reduced operation periods in order to minimize flushing
dispersed sludge into downstream units.
The surroundings of the module should be kept free of plants, especially trees, in order to prevent
roots growing into the module or pipes. Roots have the potential to break brick walls and grow
through concrete masonries. (5) (4)
The following maintenance practices ensure a proper function of the settler/septic tank:
no excessive disposal of household chemicals (e.g. cleaning agents, insecticides) as
they can temporarily disrupt the biological treatment process
no garbage disposals in toilets as solid waste contributes to unnecessary sludge and
grease accumulation in the system, reducing the clear water volume and sludge
storage capacity
monthly inspections of sludge and scum level (stick test), structural conditions (water
tightness, inlet and outlet pipes) the tank should not be entered due to presence of
toxic gases and insufficient oxygen (!)
removal of sludge after approximately 18 months to ensure sufficient clear water
volume to prevent solids flowing to the next treatment unit (sludge level should be
min. 40 cm below lower end of outlet T-pipe) no complete emptying (!)
removal of scum when water surface is completely covered with a thick scum layer
(scum level should be min. 10 cm below upper end of outlet T-pipe)
influent and effluent testing as per monitoring schedule
12.3
Biogas Settler
As biogas settlers are extremely maintenance-low units, no specific O&M works are required on
regular basis. Only, it may be necessary to remove sand and grit after some years in order to
maintain the necessary volume and HRT.
For desludging, the integrated de-sludge pipe needs to be opened whereupon the sludge is
pressed through the pressure of the above water out of the module. The sludge should be treated
appropriately afterwards through e.g. drying or composting.
General maintenance works include keeping the surroundings free of plants, especially trees, in
order to prevent roots growing into the module or pipes. (5) (4)
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12. O&M
The following maintenance practices ensure a proper function of the biogas settler:
12.4
ABR
As basically the same microbiological reactions take place like in settlers/septic tanks, desludging
is required in regular intervals in order to maintain the required HRT and in order to prevent
sludge being flushed into the next unit. Desludging intervals depend on the sludge generation
rate; hence on the strength of the wastewater and the microbiological activity. Especially in the
first and second chamber sludge removal might be necessary after some time.
For ABR it is very important that some sludge remains in each chamber after desludging in order
to retain active biomass in the system and to ensure adequate and stable treatment after
desludging. The sludge needs to be pumped out with special sludge-pumps with sufficient
capacity.
Furthermore, floating material, such as coarse solids and grease, needs to be removed as needed.
As the sludge and scum contain living pathogens, they should be directly treated, either on-site or
externally through an adequate and responsible contractor. Feasible sludge treatment includes
drying in sludge drying beds or composting. For (re)use option, refer to Chapter 14. If feasible (e.g.
in case of schools), desludging should be done during non-operation or reduced operation periods
in order to minimize flushing dispersed sludge into downstream units.
roots growing into the module or pipes. (5) (4)
The following maintenance practices ensure a proper function of the ABR:
removal of sludge after approximately 18-30 months to ensure sufficient HRT and to
prevent solids escaping into the next treatment unit (scum level should be min. 60 cm
below lower end of outlet T-pipe) no complete emptying (!)
removal of scum when water surface is covered with a thick scum layer (scum level
should be min. 10 cm below upper end of outlet T-pipe)
12.5
AF
Also in AF, the same anaerobic chemical processes take place like in ABR and settlers/septic tanks,
in which sludge is generated. However, in case of AF, the sludge-generating bacteria are attached
to the filter material and only partly in suspension. The sludge is therefore partly attached to the
filter material plus settles down to the AFs bottom where it accumulates under the perforated
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12. O&M
slab. In order to prevent clogging of the filter and to maintain the required HRT, the generated
sludge has to be removed in regular intervals. Desludging intervals depend on the sludge
generation rate. As the organic load (BOD, COD) of the pre-treated wastewater is significantly
lower as in the upstream modules, also the sludge accumulation is respectively smaller. In general,
desludging should be considered when emptying the other modules.
The sludge can be removed with a sludge-pump through the vertical desludge pipe provided in the
centre of the AF. Due to the bevelled end of the pipe, some sludge automatically remains under
the perforated slab. Also sludge attached to the filter material remains in the AF; hence the
treatment efficiency remains almost stable. During sludge removal, it is favourable to back-flush
the AF if possible. For this purpose, clean water can be poured on the filter material from top to
flush down solids.
As the sludge contains living pathogens, it should be directly treated after removal, either on-site
or externally through an adequate and responsible contractor. Feasible sludge treatment includes
drying in sludge drying beds or composting. For (re)use option, refer to Chapter 14. If feasible,
desludging should be done during non-operation or reduced operation periods in order to
minimize flushing dispersed sludge into downstream units.
The following maintenance practices ensure a proper function of the AF:
removal of sludge to ensure sufficient HRT and to prevent clogging of the filter material
removal of scum as required
12.6
PGF
As the treatment efficiency depends on the HRT and particularly on the contact between the
wastewater and the roots of the plants, the water level in the PGF should be controlled in regular
intervals and adjusted by means of the swivel arm/flexible bend located in the PGFs outlet
chamber. The water flow should be only within the root zone and no water should stand on the
surface as this would attract flies and other vectors and could provoke smell. If water stands on
the surface, the outlet pipe should be lowered. If the water level is significantly under the gravel
surface, the outlet pipe should be elevated.
As an optimal distribution of wastewater over the full width is essential for efficient treatment (no
death zones), the distribution at the inlet side has to be checked in regular intervals. Therefore,
holes in the distribution pipe/channel have to be checked regularly. Also the inlet zone of the filter
bed needs to be checked visually on clogging in regular intervals.
The treatment efficiency of the PGF has to be monitored regularly. When the efficiency reduces or
when clogging occurs, the filter material needs to be replaced or cleaned. Often it is sufficient to
replace only the gravel the inlet zone (coarse media in the inlet, first 1-2 metres). However, if
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12. O&M
clogging occurs over the full length of the PGF or if the treatment efficiency of the second half is
low as well, the complete filter material has to be replaced or washed. In order to save costs, the
same filter material can be refilled after cleaning. For cleaning, the material has to be spread on
the ground (outside the PGF) and washed either with a high-pressure cleaner or (if not available)
by hand, using brushes and fresh water (e.g. river water or ground water).
If no parallel filter beds are provided which could be maintained alternately or if no bypass pipe is
available, the wastewater has to be routed untreated through the PGF. In this case it should be
ensured that the effluent is not used for e.g. irrigation purposes as the effluent standards might
not be kept. In case of CBS, it is recommendable to shut down the complete system until the PGF
is cleaned. In this case, the PGF O&M works should be combined with desludging of the
settler/septic tank, ABR and AF, as well as with maintenance works of the CBS-unit itself (e.g.
replacement of broken toilet bowls, painting, etc.).
As stormwater contains small particles like sand and grit, which would clog the filter material,
rainwater should never have access to the system. Therefore, where applicable, drainage
pipes/erosion trenches have to be de-silted, emptied and cleaned as required.
The following maintenance practices ensure a proper function of the PGF:
weekly check of water level and adjustment with swivel pipe, if required
monthly inspections of possible clogging in inlet pipe/channel and manual cleaning, if
required
monthly inspection of water distribution over full width (especially in inlet zone) and
possible clogging of filter material (removal/cleaning if required)
monthly inspections of structural conditions (water tightness, inlet and outlet pipes)
de-silting and cleaning of drainage pipes / erosion trenches as required (if applicable)
influent, PGF centre and effluent testing as per monitoring schedule
12.7
Polishing Pond
The maintenance requirements of ponds are very simple. While anaerobic ponds need a certain
amount of attention (e.g. regular desludging), polishing ponds only need very basic O&M. Inlet and
outlet structures should be controlled during operation. A drop in effluent quality indicates that
the pond needs desludging. For desludging the pond needs to be emptied. Sludge removal can be
done with a sludge pump. The sludge needs proper treatment or disposal in the following. If not
various ponds are constructed parallel, the wastewater has to be bypassed to the total DEWATS
outlet.
As stormwater contains small particles like sand and grit, which would silt the pond and reduce
the HRT accordingly, rainwater should not have access to the system, which could be especially
the case if the pond is constructed below natural ground level. Therefore, where provided,
surrounding drainage pipes/erosion trenches have to be de-silted, emptied and cleaned as
required.
If the pond bottom is sealed with a plastic foil, the surroundings should be kept free of plants,
especially trees, in order to prevent roots destroying the foil. In case the embankment is stabilized
through grass, the greens should be maintained as needed, e.g. mowed. (5) (4)
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12. O&M
The following maintenance practices ensure a proper function of the polishing pond:
monthly inspections of structural conditions (water tightness in case of plastic foil for
sealing, inlet and outlet pipes)
de-silting and cleaning of drainage pipes / erosion trenches as required (if applicable)
desludging if required (in case of reduced HRT or treatment efficiency)
12.8
Example Maintenance Sheet
The following figure shows an example maintenance sheet which should be provided to
maintenance personnel. The personnel has to be instructed exactly how to perform the respective
maintenance works and should be supervised occasionally in order to make sure that all activities
are performed correctly and responsibly. Additional SOPs could be prepared and provided to
explain necessary works in more details (e.g. including pictures and sketches).
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13. Monitoring
13
MONITORING
Testing and monitoring the performance of a DEWATS is important in order to evaluate whether
the system achieves the anticipated standards. If properly communicated, positive outcomes and
experiences help to inform decision makers and different stakeholders about the benefits of
DEWATS and serve as door-openers for further projects. Therefore, a detailed monitoring
programme should be in place for each DEWATS project and statistic evaluations should be done
with all implemented systems. Monitoring and evaluation includes taking samples, laboratory
analysis, tests of hydraulic performance, as well as an analysis of the social impact of the system
through interviews with user groups about their satisfaction and the positive changes since project
execution. The following chapter gives an overlook about the range of monitoring requirements.
13.1
Testing intervals
After commissioning, tests should be done in regular intervals in order to check and monitor the
proper function. During the first half year after commissioning, basic parameters (suspended
solids, BOD, COD, nitrates, phosphates, coliforms) should be test on a monthly basis. After the
commissioning phase, parameters should be tested and monitored in 6-months intervals in order
to evaluate the performance of the system and to be aware of eventual maintenance needs (e.g.
desludging of settler, etc).
13.2
Locations for water testing
Wastewater samples should be collected from the following locations in order to calculate the
cleaning efficiency of the different DEWATS modules as well as the overall efficiency:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
raw wastewater from inlet channel (or inlet of settler)

inlet zone of first ABR chamber
outlet zone of last ABR chamber
inlet PGF
PGF sampling pipe
PGF outlet chamber
pond outlet channel
Based on above sampling locations, the cleaning efficiencies of the following modules can be
calculated:
settler efficiency:
ABR efficiency:
AF efficiency:
PGF first half efficiency:
PGF second half efficiency:
total PGF efficiency:
pond efficiency:
overall DEWATS efficiency:
1 - (ABR 1 inlet / raw wastewater)

1 - (ABR 4 outlet / ABR 1 inlet)
1 - (PGF inlet / ABR 4 outlet)
1 - (PGF sample pipe / PGF inlet)
1 - (PGF outlet / PGF sampling pipe)
1 - (PGF outlet / PGF inlet)
1 - (pond outlet / PGF outlet)
1 - (pond outlet / raw wastewater)
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13. Monitoring
13.3
Parameter
The samples should be analysed on the following physical parameters:
pH
temperature
turbidity
colour
odour
suspended solids
Test for chemical parameters include:
BOD5
COD
nitrates
nitrites
phosphates
sulphates
chlorides
oil and grease
Microbiological test include:
total coliforms
E. coli
During sample collection, the general physical conditions of the treatment units should be noted.
For example damages, leaks, and any need for maintenance should be evaluated and considered
for action. All measured parameter should be checked and compared with the respective
standards, depending on the type of reuse or disposal.
13.4
Hydraulic tests
Within the commissioning phase of 6 months, hydraulic tests should be performed on a monthly
basis to know about treated wastewater quantities and water losses within the DEWATS modules
(especially PGF due to evaporation and pond due to evaporation and infiltration). Especially in
case of DEWATS for new settlements the treated quantity is of special interest as the number of
connected users may still increase continuously. After the commissioning phase, hydraulic tests
should be done on a half-year basis.
For hydraulic tests, the wastewater quantity occurring per a certain time interval has to be
measured in the inlet channel (e.g. in the inlet of the settler) and the PGF outlet. For measuring
the flow rate, the wastewater quantity has to be identified per time. Means of measuring are:
time to fill a receptacle of known volume

flow velocity in combination with cross-sectional area
The measured flow rates have to be transferred into standard units such as m3/h or m3/d.
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13. Monitoring
13.5
Other tests
Regular interviews should be conducted with the concerned users to ascertain how the DEWATS is
being operated and functioning. The users should be interviewed on their use habitats, e.g. times
and frequencies of toilet use, ease/efficiency of maintenance, as well as their satisfaction with the
CBS-unit/DEWATS/tea stall/community garden/biogas use, as applicable (user friendliness, O&M,
cleanliness, use of biogas, reuse of effluent, etc).
13.6
Documenting
For each DEWATS system, individual books should be maintained on site. For each documenting
paper, a single person should be appointed with one alternate in order to ensure proper
accounting. The following data should be documented for every DEWATS (depending on the kind
of DEWATS):
number of daily users (for toilet, washroom, etc.)

quantity of tea sold and amount of money earned (in case of tea stalls)
quantity and kind of vegetables harvested and amount of money earned (in case of
community gardens)
quantity of biogas generated per day and information about use
daily, weekly, monthly and casual maintenance works
All data should be collected and checked by responsible personal in regular intervals. A backup
should be stored in electronic form on a central PC (with minimum one alternate for data
security). In regular intervals, statistics should be prepared such as:
number of DEWATS systems in use (DEWATS-CBS, DEWATS-SME, hospitals, institutes, etc.)

number of users served
quantity of wastewater treated
treatment efficiencies
income generated due to sold tea, garden products, urine fertilizer
info about reduced illness/diseases in covered areas
user satisfaction
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14. Costing
14
COSTING
The following chapter provides basic information about cost factors in DEWATS projects. As the
material and labour cost differ significantly from location to location, the following numbers and
thumb rules are just for reference and need to be elaborated in detail for each project individually.
14.1
Space requirement and land costs
Space requirements for DEWATS modules depend on the quantity and quality of wastewater.
Wastewater with high organic loads require longer HRT, hence space. The wastewater quality
particularly turns decisive regarding space requirements in case of highly polluted water.
However, in most cases, DEWATS are calculated based on hydraulic criteria. The sizes of the
different reactors therefore directly depend on the quantity of wastewater.
The following table provides a rough overview of required surface areas for the different DEWATS
modules for different daily wastewater quantities. As a rule of thumb, settlers require 1m2/m3
wastewater, ABR require 2m2/m3, AF require 1m2/m3 and PGF require 4m2/m3 of wastewater. A
total DEWATS requires approximately 5-8m2 surface area per m3 of wastewater.
Table 5: necessary surface areas for DEWATS modules of different capacities
DEWATS module
Necessary surface area (approximate value)

10m3/d
50m3/d
Settler
8 m2
24 m2
Biogas Settler
20 m2
80 m2
ABR
16 m2
63 m2
AF
13 m2
48 m2
PGF
50 m2
250 m2
Polishing Pond
20 m2
100 m2
As most DEWATS modules are constructed below ground, the area above the modules is not
necessarily lost but can be used as e.g. parking space, play grounds, storage areas, etc.
Additionally to the land requirement for
the DEWATS modules itself, space for
e.g. a community toilet building has to be
considered. The necessary space
depends on the kind of DEWATS project
and the number of toilets seats for men,
women and children. Space for
eventually provided shower facilities,
hand-wash facilities etc. has to be added
additionally. Approximately 4 m2 have to
be allotted per toilet seat and 6 m2 per
shower cabin.
Fig. 90: space requirement for community toilet
111
14. Costing
If a community garden is integrated into the DEWATS project, additional space for the garden
needs to be considered. Usually not the full effluent can be used as it is too much. In most cases
the use of 3m3 of effluent per day is sufficient for gardening.
If a tea stall for biogas use is provided, approximately 6-9 m2 for the building have to be allotted.
Another building has to be provided to store O&M equipment (e.g. buckets, shovel, broom, rake,
trimmer, knifes) and to provide shelter for maintenance personal. Another 6-9 m2 need to be
allotted for this building.
However, the total space requirement depends mainly on the arrangement of the DEWATS
modules and the buildings; hence from the local conditions. Fig. 91 demonstrates two possible
arrangements of a DEWATS system for 10m3/d consisting of settler, ABR, AF, PGF, a community
toilet with 6 seats/2 showers and a building for O&M.
Fig. 91: different arrangements and space requirements for DEWATS
A complete DEWATS project requires between 2m2 and 12m2 per m3 of wastewater. The lower
space requirement is applicable in case of a very rudimentary DEWATS consisting of a basic settler
and a little ABR. The high requirement refers to a luxury DEWATS including polishing ponds etc.
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14. Costing
14.2
Construction costs
In the following, labour and material cost for rural areas are displayed (rural region of Madurai
District, 2007/08).
earth works (excavation):

PCC 1:4:8 (foundation):
brick works in cement 1:6 (different wall thicknesses):
brick works in cement 1:4 (inner ABR walls of 115cm):
water-proof plastering in cement 1:4 (12mm thickness):
RCC items in CC 1:1.5:3 (cover slab, perforated AF slab):
steel reinforcement (110kg/m3 RCC):
80mm gravel (material cost):
40mm gravel (material cost):
12-20mm gravel (material cost):
6-12mm gravel (material cost):
washing and filling of gravel (labour cost):
100mm diameter PVC pipe:
150mm diameter PVC pipe:
100mm T (inner pipes in settler, ABR, AF):
150mm T (total inlet, PGF inlet/outlet/sample, AF de-sludging):
150mm elbow (PGF outlet):
100mm pipe rain cover:
earth works (filling and levelling soil around DEWATS):
Rs. 125 / m3
Rs. 2,259 / m3
Rs. 3,055 / m3
Rs. 343 / m2
Rs. 92 / m2
Rs. 4,046 / m3
Rs. 55 / kg
Rs. 726 / m3
Rs. 726 / m3
Rs. 850 / m3
Rs. 500 / m3
Rs. 150 / m3
Rs. 268 / m
Rs. 442 / m
Rs. 270 / piece
Rs. 660 / piece
Rs. 660 / piece
Rs. 150 / piece
Rs. 10 / m3
Fig. 92 shows the average investment

costs as per experiences made in India
by CDD Society. As already discussed,
construction cost depend very much on
local conditions (quality of soil, ground
water level, necessary freeboard and
excavation
depth, labour cost,
availability of material, etc), thus the
following cost should be seen as a
thumb rule and only used for reference
and feasibility checks.
As experience with DEWATS is growing
and more and more systems get
implemented, investment costs might
Fig. 92: average DEWATS investment costs in India (as per CDD)
reduce over time. On the other hand,
increase in labour and material cost might raise costs. In case of two SME-DEWATS implemented
in 2008 at Tata-Dhan Academy, Madurai, Tamilnadu (rural area), the investment cost were approx.
Rs. 33,000/m3 for the hostel block and approx. Rs. 40,000/m3 for the entry cluster, hence below
the Indian average. As per experiences of CDD network partner Hunnarshala Foundation (Gujarat),
the construction cost is between Rs. 30,000 and 40,000/m3 wastewater.
As per CDD Societys experience, the investment costs for a CBS-unit is between Rs. 60,000 and Rs.
80,000 per toilet seat (cost for the toilet complex plus the attached DEWATS).
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14. Costing
Cost for simplified sewer systems are between Rs. 800 and Rs. 1,200 per running metre as per CDD
Societys experience.
14.3
O&M costs
O&M costs depend largely on the labour rate as generally no special equipment is required.
Therefore, O&M costs relate directly to the O&M activities. In the following, a rough overlook
about O&M costs is presented based on common O&M activities, as presented in Chapter 11.8.
Daily works
Inspection/emptying of grease trap (scum):
5 min/day
30 hours/year
Weekly works
Inspection/emptying of grease trap (sludge):
Inspection of PGF (inlet pipe):
10 min/week
5 min/week
9 hours/year
4 hours/year
Monthly works
Testing of sludge/scum in settler/ABR/AF:
Inspection/cleaning of PGF inlet pipe:
Inspection of water distribution in PGF inlet:
Inspection of structural conditions:
Inspection of pond tightness (plastic foil):
20 min/month
1 hour/month
30 min/month
30 min/month
20 min/month
4 hours/year
12 hours/year
6 hours/year
6 hours/year
4 hours/year
As per above table, a total of approximately 75 man-hours are required annually for regular O&M,
which corresponds to approximately 9 man-days. These works can be performed by an instructed,
unskilled labour. With a daily salary of about Rs. 300, the annual O&M labour cost are
approximately Rs. 3,600.
Additionally, occasional O&M works occur, for which different salaries need to be accounted:
Occasional works
Pumping of sludge in settler/ABR/AF:
o pump-wagon (once/18 months):
Removal of scum in settler/ABR/AF:
o instructed labour (2 hours/6 month):
De-silting of erosion trenches:
o unskilled labour (8 hours/6 months):
Removal and cleaning of PGF material:
o Unskilled labour (5 pers., 2 weeks/3 years):
Desludging of pond:
o Unskilled labour (5 pers., 2 weeks/10 years):
Removal of plants from surroundings:
o Unskilled labour (2 hours/month):
Rs. 7,500/18 months Rs. 5,000/year

Rs. 50/6 months
Rs. 100/year
Rs. 100/6 months
Rs. 200/year
Rs. 6,000/3 years
Rs. 2,000/year
Rs. 6,000 /10 years
Rs. 600/year
Rs. 25/month
Rs. 300/year
As per above table, additional Rs. 9,000 are required on an annual average for occasional O&M
works.
Regular O&M works and occasional O&M works add up to a total of approximately Rs. 13,000 per
year. However, this data are very dependent on the local conditions, the type of DEWATS as well
as on local wages and should therefore be used as reference only.
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14. Costing
14.4
Costs for analysis
The following approximate costs apply for wastewater samples (Auroville Laboratory for Water,
Soil, and Food Analysis, 2009):
BOD:
Rs. 250 / sample
COD:
Rs. 200 / sample
nitrates:
Rs. 80 / sample
nitrites:
Rs. 70 / sample
phosphates:
Rs. 80 / sample
sulphates:
Rs. 80 / sample
chlorides:
Rs. 50 / sample
oil and grease: Rs. 200 / sample
total coliforms: Rs. 220 / sample
E. coli:
Rs. 220 / sample
14.5
OTHER COSTS
If the existing topography does not provide sufficient natural slope for a free wastewater flow, a
wastewater pump needs to be provided. Usually a 1 HP (horse powers) pump is adequate, which
costs approximately Rs. 20,000.
115
15. Reuse Options
15
OVERVIEW ABOUT REUSE OPTIONS FOR DEWATS END-PRODUCTS
Using and re-using DEWATS end-products is of big interest; especially today, where the need for
renewable resources exists and further develops due to a decreasing availability of water, energy
and fertilizer sources. Increasing water scarcity, falling and polluted groundwater tables, empty
drinking water wells, eutrophic and collapsed rivers, increasing exploitation of limited mineral
fertilizer sources, bad harvests, overexploitation of conventional energy sources, etc. clearly show
the need for breaking with the thoughtless use of endless resources and for shifting towards
regenerative resources.
The following diagram illustrates the material flows in a typical DEWATS project, including input
material, the treatment processes, and the end-products.
sludge
effluent
influent
-
grey water
black water
DEWATS
low BOD/COD
some pathogens
nutrients
biogas
-
contains energy
Fig. 93: inputs and outputs of DEWATS
Depending on the kind of reuse, the end-products need to comply with respective state and
central government standards. Respective standards are presented in the next sub-chapters.
15.1
Biogas use
Biogas consists to 55-75% of methane (CH4), 25-45% of carbon dioxide (CO2) plus traces of hydrosulphur (H2S), and ammonia (NH3). The typical foul smell derives from the H2S, which transforms
into sulphurous acid (H2SO3), which is also responsible for its corrosive nature.
Approximately 350 L of methane are generated per 1kg of removed COD. The calorific value of
methane is about 6 KWh/m3 and depends mainly on the methane content. Approximately 1 m3 of
biogas can substitute 5 kg of firewood or 0.6 L of diesel fuel.
As DEWATS consists mainly on anaerobic digestion, significant amounts of biogas are generated.
Untreated biogas damages the ozone layer and should be burned therefore for ecological reasons.
During burning, methane transforms in CO2 and water.
116
15. Reuse Options

In most cases, the biogas is stored under the dome of a biogas settler. Only in some cases, a
floating drum is provided. If a floating drum is available, the gas pressure is constant and the gas
can be used as per need. In case of the more common fixed-dome digesters, the gas must be used
more or less as per its generation. It is therefore necessary to use the gas on a daily basis, as it
would otherwise escape through the extension chamber, what would result in smell and ecological
problems (ozone).
15.1.2 Cooking
In most DEWATS projects the gas is used for cooking. Especially in CBS projects the provision of a
gas cooker proofed to be beneficial. The gas burner can be used to cook tea or snacks in an
attached tea stall. This tea stall could be operated by the same people who operate the toilet
complex (e.g. self-help groups). This brings an additional income to the project and operators. For
more technical details please refer to Chapter 10.12 or to DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater
Treatment in Development Countries.
15.1.1 Others
Another common application of biogas is lighting. In this case, the gas is burned in a gas lamp. This
might be beneficial in case of CBS, which are opened in the evening. This will increase the safety
for women and children and ensure usage. Heating is another possible application of biogas;
however, as this manual refers to DEWATS in tropical climates this is no common application. If
needed, for example in mountain areas, the biogas could be burned in a gas heater and generate
heat for domestic use. Biogas can also be burned in a combustion engine to generate power.
15.2
Effluent use
A wide range of use options exist for DEWATS effluents. Compared to centralised treatment, the
water can be used directly on-site or near the place of origin.
Agricultural and landscape irrigation are the most common forms of effluent reuse. Especially in
dry areas where agriculture contributes predominantly to livelihoods, this is extremely
advantageous. DEWATS effluents are particularly appropriate to be used for irrigation as organic
matter, solids and pathogens are (mostly) eliminated while nutrients such as N, P, and K remain in
the effluent; viz. the water as such is reused and the nutrients serve additionally as a natural
fertilizer at the same time.
15.2.1 Irrigation
Irrigation refers to use in agriculture, irrigation in horticulture, landscape irrigation, and irrigation
of a community garden in case of CBS projects. As per local requirements (water and nutrient
demand of the respective plants), the quantity and frequency (e.g. alternately with fresh water)
must be adapted.
Appropriate crops to be irrigated with effluents include trees, pasture grass, corn, as well as food,
fodder and fibre crops. In case of doubts regarding the pathogen content, it is recommended to
avoid direct contact with the eatable parts of the plants.
The effluent can be either directly applied to the agriculture fields or alternatively after storage. In
case of direct application, the effluent can either be applied through gravity or pumping.
Before applying effluents on the fields, an adequate effluent quality needs to be assured. In India,
the effluent quality of wastewater treatment systems is regulated by the CPCB under the Water
117
15. Reuse Options

(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974; approved and notified by the government
(Ministry of Environment and Forests, MoEF) under the Environment Protection Act 1986, Chapter
4, Section 25. The following table presents standards applicable for irrigation.
Table 6: Indian Wastewater Discharge Standards (7) (8)
Parameter
Unit
Effluent for
discharge in
inland surface
water bodies
Effluent for
discharge into
public sewers
Effluent for
discharge into
land for
irrigation
Bathing water
5.5 - 9
5.5 - 9
5.5 - 9
6.5 8.5
Total Suspended Solids

(TSS)
[mg/l]
100
600
200
Biochemical
Demand (BOD5)
[mg/l]
30
350
100
[mg/l]
10
20
10
pH
Oxygen
Oil & Grease
In order to avoid over-fertilization, the field have to be irrigated once with fresh water after three
times irrigation with treated wastewater.
15.2.8 Other reuse options
If the effluent is not directly used, groundwater recharge would be an easy and eco-friendly option
for re-use. The nutrients get lost, however the water would contribute to re-fill often overexploited groundwater resources. Infiltration into the ground can be done e.g. through attached
soak pits or underground drains.
Washing, application to habitat wetlands, toilet flushing, fire fighting, use as construction water,
flushing of centralised sewer systems, and industrial reuse (e.g. cooling water, process water) are
other feasible options for effluent reuse.
15.3
Sludge use
15.3.1 Drying
Drying of sludge is not only a re-use option but necessary in order to prepare the sludge for
subsequent reuse and particularly to destroy pathogens. As the sludge is difficult to transport, it
should be dried close to the DEWATS. If possible, a sludge-drying bed should be used for several
DEWATS in order to reduce the space requirements (sludge drying beds are only used temporarily
per DEWATS). For drying, the sludge has to be exposed in a thin layer to sunlight. Under tropical
conditions, the time for drying and efficient reduction of pathogens is within the range of some
weeks. For the drying process, the sludge should be put on a sludge-drying bed which is made of
gravel and sand layers and which is equipped with drainage pipes. The depth of the applied sludge
should not exceed 20cm in order to ensure efficient exposition to UV light. For more information,
please refer to DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Development Countries.
15.3.2 Composting
Composting should be considered, especially in case of domestic or CBS wastewater, in order to
kill pathogens as temperatures rise during the process up to 70C. In order to reach the required
50% dry-solid content, the sludge needs to be mixed with dry organic matter like straw. The
mixture needs to be covered with soil and kept for 3-12 months.
118
15. Reuse Options

Composting is a very efficient re-use option as the harmful sludge is transformed into a valuable
and nutrient-rich fertilizer and soil conditioner, which is easy to handle. The composting time
should be considered when defining the time for desludging, as farmers might need the compost
at certain times of a year. For more information, please refer to DEWATS Decentralised
Wastewater Treatment in Development Countries.
15.3.3 Direct application
In case of small sludge quantities (small DEWATS) the sludge can be directly applied on noneatable plants such as flowerbeds. In this case, the contained nutrients will be re-used. In hot
climates, the extremely thin sludge layer will dry almost immediately; hence, bacteria die off. If
children have direct access, this option should not be considered.
For more information about reuse of effluent, biogas and sludge please refer to DEWATS
Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Development Countries.
119
Annex: Conversion Rates
ANNEX: Conversion Rates
To convert
into
M ultiply
LINEAR MEASURE
inch
Millimetre
25.4
0.03937
inch
Centimetre
2.54
0.3937
Foot
Metre
0.3048
3.281
Mile
Kilometre
1.6093
0.62137
Furlong
Metres
201.1678
0.004971
Miles
Nautical miles(Int)
0.858975
1.15078
square inch
Square millimetres
645.16
0.00155
square inches
Square centimetres
6.4516
0.155
square foot
Square metres
0.0929
10.764
Acre
Square metres
4046.9
0.00025
square mile
Square kilometres
2.59
0.3861
Acre(4840 sq.yd)
Hectare(10000 sq,m)
0.40468
2.4711
16.387
0.061
SQUARE MEASURE
CUBIC MEASURE
cubic inch
cubic centimetre
cubic foot
cubic metre
0.02832
35.315
cubic foot
gallon (imp)
6.2288
0.16054
cubic foot
Litres(1000 c.c)
28.3161
0.0353156
gallon(imp)
Litres
4.54596
0.219976
Pint (0.124' Imp Gin)
Litres
0.568
1.76
U.S.gallon
Litres
3.78533
0.264178
Annex: Conversion Rates
To convert
into
M ultiply
WEIGHT MEASURE
Kilogram
Newton
9.807
0.102
Ounces
Grams
28.3495
0.035274
pounds
Kilogrammes
0.4536
2.20462
Cwt
Quintol(100 kg)
0.50802
1.9684
Ton
Kilogrammes
1016.05
0.0009842
US Ton
Kilogrammes
907.18
0.0011
Ton(2240 lb)
Metric Ton (Tonne)
1.01605
0.9842
Maunds
Ton
0.036735
27.2222
Tols
Gramme
11.6638
0.087535
0.981
10.2
0.070307
14.2233
4.88243
0.204816
10.937
0.091436
14.6959
0.06804
PRESSURES AND DENSITIES

Kilogram per sq.cm
Newton per sq.mm
Pounds per sq.in
Kg per sq.cm
Pounds per sq.ft
Kg per sq.metre
Tonnes per sq.ft
Tonnes per sq.metre
Atmospheres
Pounds per square inch
inch of Hg
Kg per sq.cm
0.0345316
28.959
Pounds per square inch
Feet of water
2.30672
0.433516
Feet of water
Kg per sq.cm
0.0304792
32.81
Pound per cu.in
grammes per c.c
27.6799
0.0361273
Pound per cu.ft
kg per cu.metre
16.02
0.062422
M ISCELLANEOUS
pound per foot
Kg per metre
1.48816
0.67197
Miles per hour
feet per second
1.46667
0.68182
feet per second
K.M per hour
1.09728
0.91134
H.P.(550 ft.lb/sec)
Metric H.P
1.01387
0.98637
To Obtain
From
M ultiply
Literature
LITERATURE
1. Eddy, Melcalf &. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse. New York, USA : McGraw Hill,
2003.
2. Bahlo, Klaus. Naturnahe Abwasserreinigung: Planung und Bau von Pflanzenklaeranlagen.
Staufen bei Freiburg : Oekobuch, 1992. 3-922964-52-4.
3. Crites/Tschobanoglous. Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems. USA :
McGraw-Hill, 1998. 0-07-289087-8.
4. FEDINA, Klatte. DEWATS Training Course (DTC). Bremen : BORDA, 2004.
5. Sasse, Ludwig. DEWATS: Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries.
Bremen, Germany : SIITRAT, New Delhi, India, 1998. 81-900981-00-1.
6. (CDD), Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination. various interviews / emails / Training workshop
on DEWATS design. Bangalore, 2008/2009.
7. Board, Pollution Control. General Standards For Discharge Of Environmental Pollutants.
[Online] [Cited: 12 12 2007.] http://hppcb.nic.in/EIAsorang/Spec.pdf..
8. Board, Central Pollution Control. Indian Standards for Industrial & Sewage Effluents Discharge.
1998.
9. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi. Designing Decentralised Systems.
[Power Point Presentation] New Delhi : CSE.
10. Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination. Excel Design Spreadsheet. [EXCEL] Bangalore : CDD.
11. BORDA. Decentralised Wastewater Treatment (DEWATS) Training Course - How to chose and
calculate DEWATS.
12. BORDA-InWent. Online Training: Decentralised Waste Water Treatment in Developing
Countries; module 4: The configuration of DEWATS. 2004.
13. Centre for Affordable Water Technology (CAWST). Participant Manual on Low Cost Sanitation.
Calgary, Canada : s.n., 2008.
14. International, Foundation Ecosan Service (ESF) and Seecon. Ecosan Training Course Summer
2007. 2007.
15. Werner, Stohr, Hees. Biogas Plants in Animal Husbandry. s.l. : GTZ-GATE, 1989.
Prepared by
DHAN Foundation - Centre for Urban Water Resources (CURE), Madurai
Supported by
DHAN Vayalagam (Tank) Foundation (DVTF), Madurai
Centre for International Migration and Development (CIM), Frankfurt - Germany
Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination Society (CDD), Bangalore
Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association (BORDA), Bremen - Germany
CDD Partners
Alchemy Urban Systems Pvt. Ltd, Bangalore / CDD Society, Bangalore / CEPT (Centre for
Environmental Planning and Technology), Ahmedabad / CES Anna University (Centre for
Environmental Studies), Chennai / CSR (Centre for Scientific Research), Auroville / DHAN
Foundation, Madurai / ENHPO (Environmental and Public Health Organisation), Katmandu Nepal
/ EXNORA International, Chennai / Hunnar Shaala, Bhuj / Indian Institute of Youth Welfare, Nagpur
/ INSPIRATION, Cochin / LEDeG, Leh / L&S Architects, Bangalore / PMDFC (Punjab Municipal
Development Fund Company), Lahore Pakistan / Pondy Auroservice Consultant, Pondicherry /
Rajiv Ghandi Rural Housing Corporation Ltd, Bangalore / RLHP, Mysore / Waste Wise, Bangalore
- SYNOPSIS Small and decentralised wastewater systems have shown to have the same benefits of large scale
centralised systems in protecting public health. A significant advantage of small and decentralised
systems is the ability to utilize the water and nutrients locally. Carried out creatively and in a
proper manner, sustainable systems through closing the water and nutrient loops can be created.
Scientific and technical knowledge has developed an array of small and decentralised systems.
This booklet presents information about the DEWATS (Decentralised Wastewater Treatment
Solution) technology; including information about the function and treatment processes, design
aspects manually and by a PC-based matrix, construction details, operation and maintenance
(O&M), as well as basics about cost requirements and reuse aspects.
DHAN Foundation, a CDD network partner, promotes the implementation and dissemination of
DEWATS as these systems are perfectly suitable for local conditions, relatively easy to implement,
acceptable by local users and technically feasible.

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Praxis-oriented Training Manual

|centre for urban water resources

|centre for urban water resources

Conceived and written by Jens Gtzenberger

DECENTRALISED WASTEWATER TREATMENT & HYBRID SOLUTIONS ____________________ 1

DEWATS BASICS _____________________________________________________________ 4

Grease Trap _____________________________________________________________ 4

Settler (and Septic Tank) ___________________________________________________ 5

Biogas Settler ____________________________________________________________ 6

Anaerobic Baffle Reactor (ABR)______________________________________________ 7

Anaerobic Filter (AF) ______________________________________________________ 8

Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter (HPGF) _______________________________________ 9

Polishing Pond __________________________________________________________ 11

AREAS OF APPLICABILITY FOR DEWATS __________________________________________ 13

BASELINE DATA _____________________________________________________________ 15

Field survey ____________________________________________________________ 16

Hydraulic load __________________________________________________________ 21

Daily flow __________________________________________________________ 21

Peak flow __________________________________________________________ 25

Bio-chemical and physical parameter ________________________________________ 31

GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA ___________________________________________________ 33

Sludge accumulation _____________________________________________________ 35

Hydraulic Conductivity ___________________________________________________ 35

DEWATS Treatment Capacity and Decentralisation _____________________________ 38

Grease Trap ____________________________________________________________ 38

Septic Tank ____________________________________________________________ 40

Biogas Settler ___________________________________________________________ 41

7.10 Anaerobic Baffle Reactor__________________________________________________ 42

MANUAL DESIGN ___________________________________________________________ 47

Anaerobic Baffle Reactor__________________________________________________ 50

Anaerobic Filter _________________________________________________________ 55

Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter ____________________________________________ 59

Polishing Ponds _________________________________________________________ 62

EXCEL-BASED DESIGN ________________________________________________________ 64

Spreadsheet Per Capita _________________________________________________ 64

Spreadsheet Settler ____________________________________________________ 65

Spreadsheet Baffle Reactor (ABR) _________________________________________ 66

Spreadsheet Anaerobic Filter (AF) _________________________________________ 67

Spreadsheet PGF ______________________________________________________ 69

Biogas Settler ___________________________________________________________ 70

10.1 Alignment for Excavation _________________________________________________ 72

Inlet pipe __________________________________________________________ 88

Inlet channel / Distribution channel _____________________________________ 90

Sampling pipe _______________________________________________________ 90

Drainage pipe _______________________________________________________ 91

Outlet pipe PGF water level adjustment_________________________________ 91

Connecting pipe to polishing pond ______________________________________ 92

Drainage Pipes / Erosion Trenches ______________________________________ 93

10.8 ABR Baffle Wall _________________________________________________________ 93

RCC Cover Slab ________________________________________________________ 95

PGF Media ___________________________________________________________ 96

Installation of biogas equipment __________________________________________ 98

11.1 Pipes _________________________________________________________________ 99

O&M __________________________________________________________________ 102

12.1 Grease Trap and Grit Chamber ____________________________________________ 102

MONITORING ___________________________________________________________ 108

13.1 Testing intervals _______________________________________________________ 108

COSTING _______________________________________________________________ 111

14.1 Space requirement and land costs _________________________________________ 111

OVERVIEW ABOUT REUSE OPTIONS FOR DEWATS END-PRODUCTS _________________ 116

15.1 Biogas use ____________________________________________________________ 116

15.2 Effluent use ___________________________________________________________ 117

Other reuse options _________________________________________________ 118