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ME 322- Professor Molian's Lecture Notes on

MACHINING

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
MECHNICSOFMACHINING
TOOLWEAR,TOOLLIFE,SURFACEFINISH,ANDMACHINABILITY
TOOLMATERIALSANDCUTTINGFLUIDS
SELECTEDMACHINETOOLSANDMACHININGPROCESSES
MACHININGCENTERS

1. INTRODUCTION
US industries spend annually $60 billion to perform metal removal operations that range from simple
clean-up of castings or welds to high precision work.
What is Machining?
Machining is a process designed to change the size, shape, and surface of a material through removal
of materials that could be achieved by straining the material to fracture or by thermal evaporation.
Why Machining?
Offers important benefits such as
Excellent dimensional tolerances
-Example is forged crankshaft where holes and bearing surfaces require tight tolerances.
External and internal geometrical features
- Sharp corners, grooves, fillets, various geometry
Surface finish
-Example is a copper mirror by diamond turning
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Removal of heat treat distortion

- Parts such as crank and camshafts undergo distortion during heat treatment. Machining is
a process for "straightening" the parts.
Economical if small quantities
There are limitations that include
o Material waste
o Time consuming
o Energy, capital and labor intensive
What constitutes a machining system?
A machining system consists of three components: machine tool, cutting
tool, and workpiece (part to be machined).
How do we classify machining processes?
See Figure1 and also Figure 8.1 of Text.

Chip Forming Processes Chipless Forming Processes

(Cutting) (Finishing) (Non-traditional)
Turning Grinding Electrical Discharge
Boring Lapping Laser
Drilling Honing Plasma
Milling Polishing Water-jet
Planing Buffing Chemical
Shaping Electrochemical
Broaching
Sawing

What are the three fundamental machining parameters?

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Cutting speed (V) is the largest of the relative velocities of cutting tool or workpiece. In turning (Figure
2), it is the speed of the workpiece while in drilling and milling, it is the speed of the cutting tool. In
turning, it is given by the surface speed of the workpiece, V = D1N where D1 is the diameter of the
workpiece.
Depth of cut (d) is the distance the cutting tool penetrates into the workpiece. In turning, for example,
it is given by: d = (D1-D2)/2
Feed (f) is movement of the tool per revolution. In turning, it is the distance the tool travels in one
revolution of the workpiece and is given the units of mm/rev or in./rev.

What is Material Removal Rate (MRR)?

The volume of material removed per minute. In turning, MRR= Vfd.
2. MECHANICS OF MACHINING
In general, machining is 3D-process. For providing an understanding of mechanics of machining, we
simplify the process into a 2D-process called as Orthogonal Cutting as shown in Figure3. In
orthogonal cutting, the workpiece is a flat plate (it can be a thin tube too) and is machined using a
wedge-shaped tool with a rake angle of and a relief angle of . The workpiece is moving at a cutting
speed of V with a depth of cut to. The width remains unaffected.
The chip formation is a localized shear process in a narrow region where the metal is compressed and
then made to flow on the face of the tool. See the diagram (Figure4) and video of an aluminum plate
machined.
The shear angle, , is of fundamental importance. A smaller angle implies a large shear plane leading to
requirement of high cutting forces. Let us develop some equations that help us understand the process
better.
1. Cutting ratio, r
See Figure 8.2. If the chip thickness is tc, then we can show that
r = to/tc = Sin /Cos( - )
WORK OUT PROBLEM 8.89
r is always less than unity. Rearranging the equation gives,
tan = r Cos /(1-r Sin )
2. Shear Strain
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Consider a square element subjected to a shear stress. If the distance sheared is "a" and the
edge length of square is "b", then the shear strain is given by: = a/b.
In metal cutting, the shearing process is similar to a deck of playing cards sliding against
each other as shown in figure. See Figure 8.3. We can write:
= AB/OC = (AO + OB)/OC = Cot + tan ( - )
Low shear and rake angles result in high . A value of >5 indicates much greater deformation in
machining than in metal forming where it is under 1.
WORK OUT PROBLEM 8.90

3. Velocity Ratio
If the velocities are considered (see Figure 8.3),
Q = w toV = w tc Vc
V/Cos ( - ) = Vs / Cos = Vc/Sin

4. Shear Strain-rate
d /dt = Vs/d where d = OC ~ 10-3 to 10-4 inch
Shear strain rate is on the order of 103- 106/sec
Thus, it is this combination of large strains and high strain rates make it difficult to predict chip
formation.

5. Chip Formation (Figures 8.4 through 8.9)

Chip formation affects the surface finish, cutting forces, temperature, tool life and
dimensional tolerance. A chip consists of two sides 1) the side in contact with the tool is
called shiny side (flat, uniform) due to frictional effects, 2) the other side is the free
workpiece surface that has a jagged appearance due to shear.
A. Continuous
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- Narrow shear zone, there is also a secondary shear zone

- Excellent finish
- Usually for ductile metals
- Occurs at high cutting speed and rake angle but may form at low speed, low rake angle in
castoff soft metals, and characterized by
Wider shear zone that causes distortion, poor finish, residual stresses
-Entanglement of chips with the tool holder. Use chip-breakers.

B. BUE (continuous)

Built-up-edge (BUE) forms when there is a chemical affinity between workpiece and the
tool. It becomes unstable, breaks up and then forms again. The process is repeated
continuously.

- Favorable growth conditions such as high strain-hardening, low speed, large depth of cut,
low rake angle, and high temperature
- Degrades the surface finish changes tool geometry
- Thin BUE helps to improve the tool life
- Cutting fluids will prevent the formation of BUE

C. Discontinuous
-Occurs in brittle materials
-Inclusions/impurities promote this
- Very low or hi V
-Large depth of cut
-Lack of cutting fluid
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Because of the discontinuous nature of the chips, forces vary continually leading to vibrations and
chatter in the machine tool with the end results of poor surface finish and loose tolerances.

D. Serrated chips

- Semicontinuous with zones of high and low shear strains

Occurs in metals where strength decreases sharply with temperature. Example: Titanium.

6. Force Analysis

The objectives are:

1. to properly design machine tools for vibration and chatter-free operations.

2. to understand how material strength affects the cutting forces.
3. to determine the HP of motor to be installed on the machine tool.

The forces acting on the cutting tool are shown in Figure 8.12. Except Fc and Ft, all other forces can
not be experimentally measured. A dynamometer (force transducer) mounted on the workpiece or tool
holder is used to measure Fc and Ft. Draw the free body diagrams of chip, tool and workpiece to
understand how the forces act on. We can write the forces as:

R = (Fc2 + Ft2)1/2 = (Fs2 + Fn2)1/2 = (F2 + N2)1/2

Fc = R cos ( - )
Ft = R sin( - )
Fs = R cos( + - )
Ft = R Sin( + - )

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These forces are small on the order of few hundred newtons, but the local stresses are very high due to
smaller contact areas leading to wear, chipping, fracture. The tool-chip contact length is also small
(about 1 mm).

Coefficient of Friction

At the tool-chip interface, there is friction. The coefficient of friction, , can be written as:
= F/N = tan
F and N are expressed in terms of other forces using a circular force diagram shown in Figure5.
F = Fc sin + Ft cos and N = Fc cos - Ft sin
= F/N = (Ft + Fc tan )/ (Fc-Ft tan )
is on the order of 0.5 to 2 indicating the chip faces considerable frictional resistance when climbing
over the tool face.

Cutting and Thrust Forces

We rewrite the cutting force, Fc = R cos ( - )
where R = K fadbV-c where K, a, b, c = constants
From Tables 8.2 and 8.3, you note that Fc increases with increasing d, decreasing V, and decreasing
rake angle.
We rewrite the thrust force, Ft = R sin( - )=K fadbV-c sin( - )
Thrust force causes deflection of the tool and reduces the depth of cut and affect tolerances. The
machine tool and tool holder must be stiff enough to withstand Ft.
Ft = Fc tan ( - )
and since Fc is always positive, Ft can be positive or negative depending on ( - ). Negative Ft
implies upward force. See Figure 8.13. High rake angle and low friction generally result in upward
forces. High rake angles are not common in machining.

Shear Angle
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This is a challenging parameter to determine. Several theories are advanced to find the shear angle.
One of the earliest analyses (Merchant's) says, "the shear angle leads to maximum shear stress".
Hence we write, = Fs/As = R cos( + - )/(w to/sin )
Differentiate the shear stress w.r.to the shear angle and set it equal to zero (assume that is
independent of ), then we find

= 45 + ( - )/2
see Figure 8.17 to see how this equation poorly predicts the experimental data. Note another equation
(8.21) has been developed but does equally poor in predicting the experimental data.
As the rake angle increases, the shear angle increases. An increase in shear angle will reduce the chip
thickness (how) and reduce the temperature rise.
Let us substitute the above equation in Fc, which becomes

Fc = R cos ( - ) = R sin 2
Stresses in shear plane
There are two stresses in the shear plane caused by Fs and Fn. The average shear stress is:
= Fs/As and = Fn/As

WORK OUT PROBLEMS 8.91, 92 and 93.

7. Power Analysis
The cutting force system in 3D-turning consists of three forces: Fc is the largest force that accounts for
99% the power required, Ft requires very small power because feed rates are very small, and Fr the
radial force contributes very small also because velocity in the radial direction is negligible.
Ignoring the thrust and radial forces, the total input power to cutting is given by:
Pc = FcV
Pc = Ps + Pf = FsVs + F Vc
where Ps = power required for shearing
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Pf = power to overcome tool-chip interface friction

Additional power for creating new surfaces and for momentum changes as the metal crosses the shear plane is considered
small.
In terms of specific energy or UNIT POWER (specific energy, energy per unit volume of material removal), UNIT
POWER IS A MATERIALS PROPERTY.
UNIT POWER = ut = FcV/w toV = Fc/w to
See Table 8.4 for unit power of different materials. This UNIT POWER has been corrected for motor efficiency, which is
assumed to be 80%. That is, Pmotor = Pc/0.8 . For dull tools, you have to multiply the table data by 1.25.
We can also find out the portion of frictional specific energy,

uf = [sin sin / cos ( - ) cos ( - )] ut

Note that us = ut - uf
Usually 30-40% of the total energy goes to overcome the friction. Go through example problems 8.1
and 8.2.

WORK OUT PROBLEM 8.115.

8. Heat and Temperature in Metal Cutting

The energy dissipated in cutting operations is largely converted into heat, raising the temperature of

chip, tool, and workpiece. The cutting fluid, if used, is an excellent heat sink. There are three sources
for heat development:

1. the shear process itself.

2. the tool-chip interface friction.
3. the flank of the tool rubbing the workpiece (especially if the tool is dull).
Most of the heat produced is carried by the chip (see Figure 8.22) implying that the shear process
(plastic deformation) is most effective in producing heat. Experimental data showed that
o typical values of the temperature rise are 600 to 1500oF
see Figure 8.19 and Figure 8.21
o Temperature can adversely affect the following:
On the cutting tool - Reduce strength and wear resistance
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On the workpiece- Dimensional accuracy and surface integrity

Temperature rise is obtained using thermocouples and infrared pyrometers (experimental) and by heat
flow models. Temperature rise in orthogonal cutting is predicted by:
T = 1.2 (Yf/ c) (Vto/K)1/3
T= Mean value at tool-chip interface, oF
Yf= Flow stress of workpiece, psi
c= Volumetric specific heat of workpiece, in.lb/in3 oF
K =Thermal diffusivity of workpiece, in2/sec
Thermal properties of tool are relatively unimportant.
WORK OUT PROBLEM 8.116

SUMMARY EQUATIONS OF MECHANICS OF MACHINING

1. Cutting ratio = chip-thickness ratio = to/tc = Sin /Cos ( - )

2.Shear strain, = Cot + tan ( - )
1.Velocity ratio, V/Cos ( - ) = Vs / Cos = Vc/Sin

2. Shear strain rate = Vs/d where d = 0.01 to 0.001 mm

3.Shear angle, = 45 + /2- /2
Typical = -10o to +20o for which <20o
6. R = (Fc2 + Ft2)1/2 = (Fs2 + Fn2)1/2 = (F2 + N2)1/2
Fc = R cos ( - )
Ft = R sin( - )
Fs = R cos( + - )
Ft = R Sin( + - )
7. Coefficient of friction, = F/N = (Ft + Fc tan )/ (Fc-Ft tan )
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8. Stresses in shear plane, = Fs/As and = Fn/As

9. Power analysis
UNIT POWER = ut = Fc/w to
Friction UNIT POWER = uf = [sin sin / cos ( - ) cos ( - )] ut
10.Temperatureriseatthetoolchip
T=1.2(Yf/(c)(Vto/K)1/3

3.TOOLWEAR,TOOLLIFE,SURFACEFINISHANDMACHINABILITY
ToolWear
SeeFigures8.23,8.24and8.25
oDegradesthesurfacefinish
oIncreasesthetoleranceand
oIncreasesthecostofmachining

_PRIVATE__Typesofwear

Mechanisms

Flank

Temperature,Adhesion,Abrasion,Plasticflow

Crater

Temperature,Diffusion,Oxidation

Chipping,Fracture

MechanicalshockandThermalfatigue
(interruptedcutting)

Adhesion:Highpressure/temperaturecauseadhesionofofasperitiesbetweenthetoolandthechip.
Abrasion:HardparticlesintheworkpiececauseabrasionofthetoolDominantmechanismfor
flank
PlasticFlow:Hightemperaturesoftensthetoolandhighstressescausetheplasticdeformationof
thecuttingedges
Diffusion:Exchangeofatomsacrossthecontactboundarybetweenthechipandthetool.Toolmay
lose"hardatoms"
ToolLifeisdeterminedbydifferenttypesofwear.Flankwearissaidtobethegoverningfactor.

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FlankwearincreaseswithtimeasshowninFigure6.Inthebreakinperiod,thecuttingedgeslose
theirsharpnessrapidly.Inthesteadystate,thereisanuniform wear, and in the accelerated
region,thereisrapidwearduetohightemperature.
Ifweplotflankwearasafunctionoftime,wefindFigure7.Flankwear(alsocalledaswearland)
isthedistanceVBwhichisthecriterionfortoollife(toolhastoberesharpenedorchanged).VBis
measuredusingatoolmaker'smicroscope.
SeeTable8.6forthemaximumvalueofVBallowedfordifferentmachiningoperations.
VBisestablishedbasedonTaylor'stoollifeequationgivenby
VTn=C(forgivenvaluesofd,f)
V=cuttingspeed,mostcriticalparameter
T=toollife,minutes,todevelopflankwearlandVB
C=constant=Toollifefor1min
SeeFigure8.27.Theplotisloglog.Ingeneral,T=60120minforHSStooltodevelopVBand3060minfor
carbidetooltodevelopVB.
WORKOUTPROBLEMS8.97and98
Factorsaffectingn,C
Cisinfluencedbythetypeofworkpieceandcuttingconditions.
nisafunctionofthecuttingtoolmaterial
Sinceflankweariscumbersometoevaluateinproductionenvironment,severalsimple,subjectivecriteriamay
beused.
Completefailureofthecuttingedge
Visibleobservationoftheflankwear
Fingernailtestacrossthecuttingedge
Changesinthesound
Changesinchipformation
Degradationofsurfacefinish
Increasedconsumptionofpower
(wattmeterconnectedtothemachinetool)
Numberofworkpiecesmachined

-- Cuttingtime
SurfaceFinishandIntegrity
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Finishrepresentsgeometricpropertieswhileintegritypertainstopropertiessuchasfatiguelife,corrosionetc.
ReadSection4.2.1formoreinformationonsurfaceintegrity.
_PRIVATE__Finish(geometricfeatures)

Roughness
Waviness
Lay
FlawsIntegrity

Residualstresses
Phasetransformation
Plasticdeformation
Cracks

Figure4.2showsthesurfaceterminologyandsymbols.

Roughnesscloselyspaced,irregulardeviations
Wavinessgreaterspacingdeviationscausedbythedeflectionsoftools,dies,thermal
warping,unevenlubrication,vibrationsetc
Flawsscratches,holes,cracks,depressions,inclusions
Laydirectionofthepredominantsurfacepattern
MeasuresofSurfaceRoughness
1.Arithmeticaverage(AA)Widelyadopted
2.Rootmeansquare(RMS)Usedmostlypriorto1950
3.Roughnessheight(Peaktovalleydistance)

Surfaceprofilometer(Figure4.4)isusedtomeasuresurfaceroughness.Readsection4.3.
Figure8.33showstheroughnessdataforvariousmachiningprocesses.Variablesthatinfluencetheroughness
are:

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BUEmoredamagingeffectonroughness
Toolradiussharperthetool,higherwouldberoughness
Feedlargerthefeed,higherisroughness
Vibration/chatterincreasetheroughness

Machinability
Machinabilityisatermthatincludesseveralparameters:finish,integrity,toollife,cuttingspeed,force,chip
formation,compositionandpropertiesofmaterialetc.Ingeneral,toollifeandsurfacefinisharemeasuresof
machinability.Theratingsaregivenformaterials.AISI1112steelisgivenratingof100.Whatitmeansisthat,
thesteelcanbemachinedat100fpmfor60minutesoftoollife.Someothermaterialsratingsare:
MaterialMachinabilityRating
AISI314055
Brass300
2011Al200
Grayiron70
Inconel30

4.TOOLMATERIALSANDCUTTINGFLUIDS
ToolMaterials
Acuttingtoolissubjectedto:
oHightemperatures(300to1500oF)

o High contact stresses (103 to 106 psi)

o High speed chips (10 to 1000 fpm)
Required Properties
o Hot hardness
o Wear resistance
o Chemical inertness
o Toughness (for interrupted machining)
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Tool Materials
Steels

Cast Alloys

Carbides

Ceramics

Carbon

Co-Cr-W

WC, TiC, some Co

Si3N4, CBN,
Diamond

High-speed

READ THE TEXT FOR DETAILS (READING ASSIGNMENT)

Cutting Fluids
Cutting fluids reduce the heat, wash away the chips, and protect the machined surface from oxidation.
It is a coolant as well as a lubricant. See Figure 8.49 for the high activity of cutting fluids.
The cutting fluid accelerates the thermal cycling in interrupted cutting operations such as in milling.
This condition leads to thermal stresses and causes cracking. The mechanism of cutting fluid action
involves capillary action in which case the fluid should have small molecules and proper wetting of the
surface (see Figure 8.50). The cutting fluids are applied in flood or in mist conditions. Flood cooling is
applied in lathe, milling, gun drilling, and end milling. Mist cooling is applied in grinding.
Selection of the cutting fluid depends on the workpiece (minimize chemical reactions, staining, stress
corrosion etc), on the machine tool (slideways and bearings are to be compatible with the fluids), and
on the operator safety.

5. SELECTEDMACHINETOOLSANDMACHININGPROCESSES
Lathes - Oldest machine tools

Engine Lathe - Simple and versatile but require a skilled machinist because all controls are manipulated
by hand. It is inefficient for large production runs (Figure 8.55).

Tracer Lathe - Machine tool with an attachment that is capable of turning parts with various contours.
Turret Lathe - Several cutting tools are mounted on the turret in the cross-slide. They are capable of
performing multiple operations such as turning, boring, drilling, facing, thread cutting.

Automatic Lathes - Also called as chucking machines, they are usually vertical and do not have tailstock
and are used for machining regular and irregular shapes.

CNC Lathe- turret lathe controlled by CNC. Automated, suitable for low to medium volumes of
production (Figure 8.56).

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Operations on a Lathe
SEE Figure 8.51. Straight turning, taper turning, grooving, threading, facing, profiling, drilling, boring,
cutting off, and knurling.
TURNING

The turning parameters include tool geometry, feed, depth of cut, and cutting speed.
Tool Geometry
Turning operations use single-point geometry cutting tools. The tool geometry affects cutting speed,
chip control, surface finish, tolerances (vibration and chatter) and cutting force. The geometry of a
right-hand cutting tool (i.e. tool travels from right to left) is shown in Figure 8.52.
The effects of tool geomtery on various aspects are given in the table below.
Feed, Depth of Cut, and Cutting speed
See Table 8.14 for a summary
See Table 8.12 for typical values of cutting parameters.
Forces in Turning
See Figure 8.53. These forces are important in the design of machine tools as well as in the deflection
of tools for precision machining.
WORKOUT PROBLEMS 8.96, 8.100, 8.101, 8.102, and 8.103
Turning Process Capabilities
1. Production Rates - See Table 8.15, relative ratings
2. High-speed machining, > 2000 fpm
-Important in aerospace and automotive to improve productivity only when cutting time is
the largest.
1. Ultraprecision machining - surface finish in nanometers, and accuracies in sub-micron range.
Examples are optical mirrors, computer memory disks, drums for copying machines. Diamond
turning is common. The workpiece materials include Cu, Al, Ag, Au, Ni, and plastics. The depth
of cut is in the nanometer range. High-stiffness machine tools, vibration-isolation tables, and
dust-free environment are needed.
2. Hard turning - use CBN tools for finish-machining hardened steels.

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Geometry

Advantages

Limitations

Rake Angles

Control chip flow

Weakens edges

5to20

Reduce Fc

Difficult to grind

Reduce Temp

Decrease cutting angles

Improve surface finish

Relief (about 6)

Reduce friction

High stresses on the edge

Less flank wear

Side cutting (about 15)

Reduce the heat

Change f and d
Improve surface finish1

Separate the tool and

workpiece,
Tool chatter

End cutting (about 15)

Reduce heat

Reduce surface finish1,

Chatter

Nose radius (about 1/8")

Improve cutting speed

Separate tool and work

Improve surface finish2

Tool chatter

1. hmax = f/(cot Cb + tan Cs)

2. hmax = f2/8R

Equations 1 and 2 do not include the effects of workpiece material, vibration and type of machine tool.
BORING
Boring consists of producing circular, internal profiles in hollow workpieces or on holes. The boring
bar is long and must be stiff. Boring can be accomplished in the lathe or in boring mills if large pieces
are used. SEE Figure 8.58.
DRILLING
Drilling machine, called as drill presses, are vertical machine tools. Significant problems include the
chip disposal, accurate locations, carefulness in preventing the drill from breaking and supplying cutting
fluid.
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Operations: Drilling, Reaming, Tapping

DRILLING
See Figure 8.60
Drilling - uses standard chisel-point twist drills with diameters ranging from 0.006 in. to 3 in. Trepanning
technique can be used to drill larger diameter holes about 6 in.
Core Drilling - Drill a larger hole on a smaller hole.
Step drilling - Double sized drill
Counterboring - stepper hole. Useful to seat bolt heads in the holes.
Countersinking -Hole is cone shaped for flat head screws.
Reaming - Enlarge the hole, provide better tolerance/finish.
Center Drilling - To begin the center for a hole.
Gun Drilling- deep holes with aspect ratios > 300
REAMING
Is an operation to make an existing hole dimensionally more accurate than can be obtained by drilling
alone and to improve surface finish. A reamer is a multiple-edge cutting tool that removes very little
material. The most accurate holes are produced by a sequence of operations that involve centering,
drilling, boring, and reaming.
TAPPING
Internal threads in the holes of workpieces are produced by taps. After tapping, the tool is
mechanically collapsed and removed without having to rotate it. Sizes up to 4 in.
Mechanics of Drilling Table 8.17 for parameters
Axial speed of the drill = f N = feed rate and
MRR = (Hole area) (fN)
Horse power for drilling is to overcome thrust and torque forces.
UNIT POWER = (power for torque + power for thrust)/MRR

Thrust force, if excessive, will break the tool. Usually it is small, on the order of few hundred lbs. It is a
function of cutting parameters in addition to the strength of workpiece material. It can be small when
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compared with torque. WORK OUT PROBLEMS 8.104 and 8.105

MILLING

Includes a number of processes that are capable of producing a variety of configurations. See Figure
8.63.
Typesofmillingmachinesandtheircomponents
1. Horizontal spindle (see Figure 8.70)
2. Vertical spindle (see Figure 8.71)
Three forms of milling:
o Slab Milling (Horizontal)
o Face Milling (Vertical)
o End Milling (Vertical)
See Table 8.18 for milling parameters and formulas.

Slab milling , (see Figure 8.64) also called as peripheral milling, the axis of cutter rotation is parallel to
the workpiece surface. The depth of cut is in the range 0.04" to 0.3". Go through Example 8.8
Face milling, (see Figure 8.65) the cutter is mounted on a spindle having axis of rotation
perpendicular to the workpiece surface. See next apages for calculations. Go through Example 8.9.
End milling, where the cutter is smaller than the face miller, can be used to produce various profiles
including dies.

Conventional(Up)andClimb(Down)milling
Up Milling

Down Milling

- Beginning chip thickness is small

- Beginning chip thickness is large

Advantages

Advantages

1. Oxide scale or hard surface of work

does not matter

1. Low temperature (long tool life)

2. Rigidity is not critical because the

cutter is opposed by the feed of the work
(machine is even).
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2. Smaller feed marks

3. Downward part of cutting force holds
the workpiece (slender parts)
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Drawbacks

1. Tool chatter

Drawbacks

2. Feed marks

1. Rigid setup is needed due to the cutter

pulling the workpiece along.

3. Clamp workpiece
(work moves up)

2. Not suitable for oxide scale surfaces.

WORK OUT PROBLEMS 8.106, 107, 108, 109, 110 and 111.

6. MACHINING CENTERS
READ TEXT SECTION 8.10 (READING ASSIGNMENT)

http://www.public.iastate.edu/~mebbs/courses/ME322/Machining.html

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