Chemistry: A Molecular Approach,

3rd edition. NJ Tro

Chapter 1: Matter, Measurement,
and Problem Solving

Chemistry: An Overview

Chemistry: The central science

a) Is the foundation for many other disciplines:
biology, geology, pharmacy, medicine
b) Connects other sciences such as:
materials science, nanotechnology, environmental
science,

What is matter made of?

Matter -- anything that occupies space and has
mass (the macroscopic world)
Today we are fairly sure that matter consists of
individual atoms (the microscopic world)
2

To truly understand chemistry you must learn to think on the

atomic level: Start With The Periodic Table of the Elements
1

18

IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements

He
helium

hydrogen
[1.007; 1.009]

Li

Be

lithium

beryllium

[6.938; 6.997]

9.012

11

13

14

15

16

17

atomic number

10

Symbol

Ne

Key:

4.003

boron

carbon

nitrogen

oxygen

fluorine

neon

[10.80; 10.83]

[12.00; 12.02]

[14.00; 14.01]

[15.99; 16.00]

19.00

20.18

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

sodium

magnesium

10

11

12

silicon

phosphorus

sulfur

chlorine

argon

24.31

aluminium

22.99

26.98

[28.08; 28.09]

30.97

[32.05; 32.08]

[35.44; 35.46]

39.95

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

Ca

Sc

Ti

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

potassium

calcium

scandium

titanium

vanadium

chromium

manganese

iron

cobalt

nickel

copper

zinc

gallium

germanium

arsenic

selenium

bromine

krypton

39.10

40.08

44.96

47.87

50.94

52.00

54.94

55.85

58.93

58.69

63.55

65.38(2)

69.72

72.63

74.92

78.96(3)

79.90

83.80

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

Rb

Sr

Zr

Nb

Mo

Tc

Ru

Rh

Pd

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

technetium

ruthenium

rhodium

palladium

silver

cadmium

indium

tin

antimony

tellurium

iodine

xenon

101.1

102.9

106.4

107.9

112.4

114.8

118.7

121.8

127.6

126.9

131.3

name
standard atomic weight

rubidium

strontium

yttrium

zirconium

niobium

molybdenum

85.47

87.62

88.91

91.22

92.91

95.96(2)

55

56

57-71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

Cs

Ba

lanthanoids

Hf

Ta

Re

Os

Ir

Pt

Au

Hg

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

caesium

barium

hafnium

tantalum

tungsten

rhenium

osmium

iridium

platinum

gold

mercury

thallium

lead

bismuth

polonium

astatine

radon

132.9

137.3

178.5

180.9

183.8

186.2

190.2

192.2

195.1

197.0

200.6

[204.3; 204.4]

207.2

209.0

87

88

89-103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

114

116

Fr

Ra

actinoids

Rf

Db

Sg

Bh

Hs

Mt

Ds

Rg

Cn

Fl

Lv

francium

radium

rutherfordium

dubnium

seaborgium

bohrium

hassium

meitnerium

darmstadtium

roentgenium

copernicium

flerovium

livermorium

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

La

Ce

Pr

Nd

Pm

Sm

Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm

Yb

Lu

lanthanum

cerium

praseodymium

neodymium

promethium

samarium

europium

gadolinium

terbium

dysprosium

holmium

erbium

thulium

ytterbium

lutetium

138.9

140.1

140.9

144.2

150.4

152.0

157.3

158.9

162.5

164.9

167.3

168.9

173.1

175.0

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

Ac

Th

Pa

Np

Pu

Am

Cm

Bk

Cf

Es

Fm

Md

No

Lr

actinium

thorium

protactinium

uranium

neptunium

plutonium

americium

curium

berkelium

californium

einsteinium

fermium

mendelevium

nobelium

lawrencium

232.0

231.0

238.0

Notes
- IUPAC 2009 Standard atomic weights abridged to four significant digits (Table 4 published in Pure Appl. Chem. 83, 359-396 (2011);
doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-10-09-14). The uncertainty in the last digit of the standard atomic weight value is listed in parentheses following the value.
In the absence of parentheses, the uncertainty is one in that last digit. An interval in square brackets provides the lower and upper bounds of the
standard atomic weight for that element. No values are listed for elements which lack isotopes with a characteristic isotopic abundance in natural
terrestrial samples. See PAC for more details.

INTERNATIONAL UNION OF
PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY

- Aluminum and cesium are commonly used alternative spellings for aluminium and caesium.
- Claims for the discovery of all the remaining elements in the last row of the Table, namely elements with atomic numbers 113, 115, 117 and 118,
and for which no assignments have yet been made, are being considered by a IUPAC and IUPAP Joint Working Party.
For updates to this table, see iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/. This version is dated 1 June 2012.
Copyright 2012 IUPAC, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge

Hypothesis: a tentative interpretation or explanation of the observations

- tested by experiments
Experiments: controlled procedures designed to generate observations
Scientific Law: a brief statement that summarizes past observations and
predicts future ones
Theory: a model that explains why nature is the way it is

Two Fundamental Concepts of Chemistry

1. Matter is composed of various types of atoms:

Atoms make up molecules

2. One substance changes to another by reorganizing

the way the atoms are attached to one another:

A chemical change -- chemistry

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

H2 + O2 H2O2

H2O H2 + O
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

Chemistry
5

1.3 The Classification of Matter: 3 states of matter:

H2O(s)

H2O(l)

H2O(g)

A Physical Change is not Chemistry

1.3 The Classification of Matter: (Polymorphism)

1.3 The Classification of Matter according to Composition: Elements,

Compounds, and Mixtures

1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes/Properties

Physical Changes do not alter
the composition of matter.
Chemical Changes alter the
composition of matter.

A Physical Property is one

that a substance displays
without changing its
composition.
A Chemical Property is one
that a substance displays
only by changing its
composition via a chemical
change.
9

1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes/Properties

Any sort of Rusting is a
Chemical Change. The
composition of matter is altered.

10

1.5 Energy and Physical and Chemical Changes:

Energy: The capacity to do work(w) or produce heat(q)

1) Energy is always conserved in a chemical or physical change
2) Systems with high potential energy tend to change in a direction
of lower potential energy, releasing energy into the surroundings
11

1.6 The Units of Measurement I: SI units

A quantitative observation (measurement) consists of 2 parts:
1. A number
Both must be present for a
2. A unit
measurement to be meaningful!
The system of units we are going to use is based on the metric system:

~ 2.2 lb.
~1.1 yards

~6x1023 particles
12

1999 Mars Climate Orbiter: $125,000,000 lost.

The root cause of the loss was a failed translation of
English units into metric units.

13

1.6 Units of Measurement II: prefixes

Because the fundamental units are not always convenient,
prefixes are used to change the size of the unit:

14

1.8 Solving Chemical Problems:

convert from one system of units to another:

15

1.8 Dimensional Analysis I: or the unit factor method

convert from one system of units to another:
Example 1: convert 12 inches to cm
By definition (Back cover of book): 1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly
1. divide by 2.54 cm:
2.54 cm = 1 in.
2.54 cm
2.54 cm

= 1 =

2. divide by 1 in.:
2.54 cm = 1 in.
1 in.
1 in.

unit factors

12 inches

2.54 cm
1 inch

= 30.5 cm
16

1.8 Solving Chemical Problems: Temperature

3 major T scales, definition & conversion
Tk and Tc differ in zero point

Tk = Tc + 273.15
Tc = Tk - 273.15

TF differs from Tk and Tc in

zero point and degree size

TF = 32 + (Tc x 9/5)
Tc = 5/9(TF - 32)
17

1.8 Temperature II; normal body & room temperatures

Tc = 5/9(TF - 32)

RT: 68 oF = xx oC ?

Tc = 5/9(68 - 32) = 20 oC

18

1.8 Density, a Derived Unit: mass per unit volume

mass
density =
=d
volume

or

- a physical
property often
used to
identify a
substance

19

1.8 Density II:

Q. A chemist finds that 25.00 cm3 of a substance has

a mass of 19.625 g at 25oC. Which of the following
compounds is most likely the substance?
density = m/V
19.625 g
3
=
0.7850
g/cm
25.00 cm3

compound
Chloroform
Diethyl ether
ethanol
Isopropyl
alcohol

density(g/cm3)
1.492
0.714
0.789
0.785

toluene

0.867

20

1.8 Density III:

Q. instead of 19.625 g the chemist rounded to 20 g.

Which compounds is most likely the substance?
density = m/V

20 g
3
=
0.8
g/cm
25.00 cm3

compound
Chloroform
Diethyl ether
ethanol
Isopropyl
alcohol

density(g/cm3)
1.492
0.714
0.789
0.785

toluene

0.867

*These calculations bring up a important point about

significant figures and uncertainty in measurements 21

1.7 The Reliability (Uncertainty) of a Measurement I:

1. A measurement always has a degree of uncertainty:
2. The uncertainty depends on the precision of the measuring
device
3. The way we indicate the uncertainty
in a measurement is by recording
the number of certain digits plus the
first uncertain digit
(the estimated number)
These numbers are called:
significant figures

V1 = 2.81 mL
V2 = 0.280 mL

22

1.7 Uncertainty in Measurements II: accuracy and precision

1. Accuracy: the agreement of a particular value with the true
value
2. Precision: the degree of agreement among several
measurements of the same quantity
(the reproducibility)

True values:
2.80 mL

V1 = 2.81 mL

0.300 mL

V2 = 0.280 mL

23

24

1.7 Significant Figures and Calculations I: counting

A) Nonzero integers always count as significant figures
1234 has 4 sig figs
B) Three types of zeroes:
1. Leading zeros do not count as significant figures
0.089 has 2 sig figs
2. Captive zeros always count as significant figures
12.03 has 4 sig figs,
3. Trailing zeros are significant only if the number contains a
decimal point
2.4000 has 5 sig figs, 2400 has 2 sig figs
C) Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant
figures
1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly, 5 experiments,
25

1.7 Significant Figures II: mathematical operations

A) multiplication and division: number of sig figs in result is the
same as the least precise measurement in calculation
1. x 2.00 = 2 1 sig figs
B) addition and subtraction: the result has the same number of
decimal places as the least precise measurement used in
the calculation
12.013
+18.1
30.113 => 30.1, 1 decimal digit
C) rules for rounding: in a series of calculations round at the
end; if the digit to be removed is less than 5 the preceding
digit stays the same, if the digit to be removed is greater
than 5 the preceding digit is increased by 1:
1.331 rounded to 2 sig figs is 1.3
26
1.36 rounded to 2 sig figs is 1.4