FLUID MECHANICS

It is the branch of science that deals with the behavior of the fluids at rest as well as
motion. Fluid mechanics study is classified into the following types.

Fluid statics - Study of Static Fluid

Fluid Kinematics - Study of Moving fluid with no pressure acting on it

Fluid Kinetics - Study of moving fluid with pressure acting on it

Fluid Properties:
Viscosity :
It is the property of a fluid with offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid
over another adjacent layer of the fluid. Let there be two layers of fluid with a distance dy and
velocities u and u+du respectively. The viscosity along with relative velocity causes a shear
stress between the fluid layers.
du / dy
= du / dy
Where = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity. Mathematically viscosity is the shear stress
required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
For liquids decreases with increase in temperature due to cohesive forces predominates
than molecular momentum transfer. However for gases increase with increases with increasing
temperature, because molecular momentum predominates cohesive forces.

Specific weight (or) weight density:

It is the ratio of weight to volume. Its unit is N/m3.
Specific volume:

It is the ratio of volume to weight. Its unit is m3/kg.

Density:
It is the ratio of mass to volume. It signifies what amount of mass is contained in a given
amount of space. It is unit is Kg/m3. Thus specific volume is inverse of density.
Pressure:
It is the force exerted normally on a unit area of a body (Thus the force applied over a
surface is pressure). Pressure increases with depth because of the additional weight of the fluid
above. Pressure = Weight density x height. Its unit is N/m2
1 Atm = 101.325 Kpa = 101.325 KN/m2 = 760 mm of Hg = 14.7 psi = 2117 lb/ft2
1 bar = 105 N/m2.
1 Atm = 101.3 x 103 Pa = 1.01 bar.
1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
Differences between solids and fluids:
The differences between the behaviors of solids and fluids under an applied force are as follows:
i.

For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that the elastic limit is
not exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress.

ii.

The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied and, if the
elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation disappears when the force is removed. A
fluid continues to flow as long as the force is applied and will not recover its original
form when the force is removed.

Differences between liquids and gases:

Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of fluids, they have
many distinctive characteristics of their own. A liquid is difficult to compress and, for many
purposes, may be regarded as incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume,
irrespective of the size or shape of its container, and a free surface is formed if the volume of the
container is greater than that of the liquid.
A gas is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with pressure are large,
cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes of temperature. A given mass of gas has
no fixed volume and will expand continuously unless restrained by a containing vessel. It will
completely fill any vessel in which it is placed and, therefore, does not form a free surface.
Fluid Classifications:
All fluids can be classified as either Newtonian or non-Newtonian. The difference lies in

the relationship between the fluid's tangential stress (friction force between the layers per unit
surface) and the shear rate or gradient (difference in speed between the layers divided by the
distance between them). If the relationship is linear and the fluid has zero stress at zero velocity
gradient then it is Newtonian. If not, it is non-Newtonian, and is further classified into one of
various subdivisions based on the curve of their stress vs. their velocity gradient.
For non-Newtonian fluids, the velocity gradient is dependent on the viscosity; that is, the
fluid has a higher or lower stress depending on its velocity. Based on these qualities, the fluid can
be given its sub classification

NEWTONIAN
Water
Most salt solutions in water
Light suspensions of dye
High-viscosity fuels
Gasoline
Kerosene
Most motor oils and mineral oils

NON-NEWTONIAN
YIELD PSEUDOPLASTIC, BINGHAM PLASTIC, YIELD DILATANT

Clay
Mud
Tar
Sewage sludge
Digested sewage
Thermoplastic polymer solutions

PSEUDOPLASTIC
Sewage sludge
Paper pulp
Grease
Soap
Paint
Printer's ink
Starch
Latex solutions
Most emulsions

DILATANT
Feldspar
Mica
Clay
Beach sand
Starch in water

THIXOTROPIC - RHEOPECTIC
Inks
Most paints
Silica gel
Thixotropic - decreases viscosity over time
Rheopectic - increases viscosity over time

Behaviour of Non-Newtonian fluid:

Time-Independent behaviors:
Properties are independent of time under shear.

Bingham-plastic: Resist a small shear stress but flow easily under larger shear stresses. e.g.
tooth-paste, jellies, and some slurries.

Pseudo-plastic: Most non-Newtonian fluids fall into this group. Viscosity decreases with
increasing velocity gradient. e.g. polymer solutions, blood. Pseudoplastic fluids are also called as
Shear thinning fluids. At low shear rates(du/dy) the shear thinning fluid is more viscous than the
Newtonian fluid, and at high shear rates it is less viscous.
Dilatant fluids: Viscosity increases with increasing velocity gradient. They are uncommon, but
suspensions of starch and sand behave in this way. Dilatant fluids are also called as shear
thickening fluids.
Time dependent behaviors:
Those which are dependent upon duration of shear.
Thixotropic fluids: for which the dynamic viscosity decreases with the time for which shearing
forces are applied. e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
Rheopectic fluids: Dynamic viscosity increases with the time for which shearing forces are
applied. e.g. gypsum suspension in water.
Visco-elastic fluids: Some fluids have elastic properties, which allow them to spring back when a
shear force is released. e.g. egg white.
Types of Fluid:
Ideal fluid : Incompressible and where = 0.
Real fluid : If > 0 then it is called as real fluid.
Ideal plastic fluid : Shear stress is more than yield value and proportional to velocity gradient.
Isothermal Process:
Changes in density takes place at constant temperature. P / = constant.
Adiabatic process:
Changes in density occurs without any heat transfer to and from the gas in the absence of
friction.
Surface Tension:
It is the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the
surface between two immiscible liquids, such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane
under tension. It is denoted by . It is the magnitude of force per unit distance. SI unit = N / m.

Surface tension of liquid droplet = pd / 4

Surface tension of hollow bubble = pd / 8
Surface tension of a liquid jet = pd / 2
Cohesion and Adhesion:
Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid. But
adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the molecules of a solid
boundary surface in contact with liquid.
Capillarity:
It is the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube relative to the adjacent
general level of liquid, when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. Rise in liquid level is
called as capillary rise and fall in liquid level is called as capillary depression. ( First figure
shows capillarity rise and second figure shows capillarity depression ) Its value is expressed in
Cm or mm. Its value is dependent upon

Surface tension,

Diameter of pipe and

Weight density of liquid.

Capillary rise = h= 4 Cos / wd.

for glass and water = 0 and hence the above expression becomes h = 4 / wd.

Pascal's Law:
Pressure at a point in static fluid is equal in all directions.
Hydrostatic Law:
The rate of increase in pressure in vertically downward direction must be equal to
specific weight at that point.
w=P/z
Where,
z = Height of fluid element from the fluid surface ( Pressure head )
p = Pressure above the atmospheric pressure.
Pressure management systems:
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air above an area. At sea level, a column of air
extending up through the atmosphere, with a cross sectional area of 1 m2, encloses about 10,000
kg of air. This air weighs about 1 x 105 N. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude.
If measurement is made above complete vacuum then it is called as absolute pressure. If
the pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure than it is called as gauge pressure. The
atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15o is 101.3 KN / m2. There are two types of pressure
measuring devices. They are manometer and mechanical gauges.
Manometer: These are devices that are used for the measure of pressure at a point in fluid by
balancing a column of the fluid by same or another column of fluid. There are two types of
manometers. They are simple manometers and differential manometers.
Simple Manometer: It is a glass tube where one end is connected to a point where pressure is to
be measured and the other end remains open in the atmosphere. There are 3 types of simple
manometers. They are
1. Piezometer,
2. U - Tube manometer and
3. Single column manometer.
U - Tube manometer: It contains a u tube. One end of which is connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and the other end open to atmosphere. The U - Tube contains
mercury. There are two types of manometer. They are

1. Single column manometer ( In this, there are further vertical single column
manometer and inclined single column manometer )
2. Differential manometer : These are devised used to measure the pressure different
between two points in a pipe or between two different pipes. It contains a U tube
with a heavier liquid. ( There are types. They are differential U - tube manometer
and inverted U - tube manometer. )
Mechanical gauges:
These are device that are useful for measuring the pressure by balancing the fluid column
by spring or dead weight.
Buoyancy:
When a body is immersed in a fluid a upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body.
This upward force is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
Center of buoyancy:
It is the point through which the force of buoyancy acts on the body. Buoyant force is a
vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Hence center of buoyancy =
center of gravity of fluid displaced.
Meta centre: It is the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted by a
small angle.
Kinematics of flow:
There are two methods to describe the fluid motion. They are lagrangian method and
Euler method. In lagrangian method a fluid particle is followed during its motion and its
velocity, acceleration and density are described.
But in Eulerian method the velocity, acceleration and density are described at a point in
flow field. This is most commonly used.
Velocity Potential:
It is defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction.
Stream function:
It is defined as the scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative with
respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to this direction.

Types of fluid flows:

Steady Flow : is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity,
pressure and density at any point does not change with time.
Unsteady flow : is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity,
pressure and density at any point changes with time.
Uniform motion : is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity at any given time does not
change with respect to space.
Non-Uniform motion : is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity changes with respect
to space.
Laminar flow : is the one in which the fluid particles move in well defined paths, with one layer
of fluid moving over another layer of fluid smoothly. Streamlines are straight and parallel. This
is also called as viscous flow.

Turbulent Flow : is the one in which the fluid move in Zigzag manner randomly. Eddy
formation takes place and thus there is a loss of energy.
Compressible Flow : Here the density of fluid changes from point to point.
Incompressible Flow :The density is constant. Thus gas is compressible fluid, but liquids are
incompressible fluids.
Rotational Flow : In this the fluid particles when traveling in a stream line, rotate about their
axis.

Discharge :
It is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing per second through a section of pipe or
channel.
For incompressible fluids discharge = Volume / second = Lit / sec.
For compressible fluid discharge = Weight / second = N / s.
Bernoulli's Equation :
In an ideal incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and continuous, the sum of
pressure energy, potential ( or datum ) energy and kinetic energy is constant along a stream line.
This law is based on the conservation of energy.
Continuity Equation :
It is based on the principle of conservation of mass. For a fluid flowing through a pipe, at
any cross section, the quantity of fluid flowing per second is constant. Any fluid must satisfy
this equation.
1A 1V1 = 2A2V2
Venturimeter:
It is a device used to measure the rate of flow of fluid in a pipe
Orifice meter:
It is a device used for the measurement of rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. Works on
the same principle of venturimeter. But cheaper than the Venturimeter. By reducing the cross
sectional area of flow passage a pressure difference between the two sections is developed and
the measurement of pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through the
pipe.
Pitot's Tube:
is a device used to measure the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or channel. When a
velocity of a fluid is made zero by bringing it to rest, the kinetic energy is converted to pressure
energy and hence pressure is increased.
Flow over notches:
A notch may be defined as an opening provided in the side at a tank or vessel such that
the liquid surface in the tank is below the top edge of the opening. In general notches are used
for measuring the rate of flow of liquid from a tank or in a channel. The sheet of water flowing

through a notch is knows as the nappae (French term meaning sheet) or vein. The bottom edge
of a notch over which the water flows is known as sill or crest, and its height above the bottom of
the tank or channel is known as crest height. A notch is more often termed as sharp crested weir
on account of similarity in the pattern of flow over a notch and sharp crested weir. Notches are
classified as follows.

Rectangular notch,

Triangular notch

Trapezoidal notch

Parabolic notch and

stepped notch

Notches may be classified according to the effect of the sides on the nappe emerging
from a notch, as notch with end contraction and notch without end contraction or suppressed
notch. If the sides at a notch cause the contraction of nappe, then it is said to be notch with end
contraction on the other hand if there is no contraction of the nappe due to the sides or in other
words the end contractions are suppressed than it is known as a notch without end contraction.
In a channel, if the crest length of the notch is less than the width of the channel then it is a notch
with end contraction. But if the crest length of the notch is equal to the width of the channel then
it is a notch without end contraction.
Dimensional Analysis:
It is a mathematical technique used in research works and for conducting model test. It
deals with the dimension of various physical quantities involved in the phenomenon.
Boundary Layer Flow:
When a real fluid passes through the boundary, it adheres to it. Hence the velocity of
fluid near the boundary will be same as that of the boundary. If the boundary is stationery then
the velocity of fluid near the boundary is zero. But for away from the boundary there is a high
velocity and hence a velocity gradient exists.
The increase in velocity from zero to free stream velocity is normal to the boundary. This
variation takes place in a very small region near the boundary. This is called as boundary layer.
In the boundary layer region, the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall equal to
= du / dy
But however outside the boundary layer velocity V = U and du / dy = 0 and hence shear
stress = 0.

Forces acting on a body:

A force exerted by the fluid on the body. The total force Fr ( resultant force ) acts in a
direction normal to the surface of the body.
Drag : This is the component of resultant force, in the direction of motion. This force is exerted
by the fluid in the direction of motion.
Lift : This is the component of resultant force which is exerted by the fluid on the body normal to
the direction of motion. Lift occurs only when the body is inclined at an angle to the direction of
fluid flow.
HYDRAULIC MACHINES:
Hydraulic machines convert fluid energy into mechanical energy or vice versa.
Turbines:
Turbines convert Hydraulic energy to mechanical energy. A turbine is a device which
converts the enthalpy and kinetic energy of a moving fluid into some form of mechanical work.
A basic turbine consists of a rotor or series of rotors. These rotors are mainly composed of fins
connected to a shaft. When a fluid flows through the fins, the angle of the fins causes the rotor or
rotors spin, which causes the shaft to rotate. The torque in the shaft is then able to do some form
of mechanical work, such as rotate a compressor or turn a generator which produces current. An
important application is the steam power plant which utilizes steam pressure to rotate a generator
and produce electricity. As the fluid passes through the turbine, it loses some of its velocity,
pressure, and temperature.
There are three types of turbines. They are Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines.
Turbines are classified as

Impulse turbine : Here the water at the inlet of turbine contains only kinetic energy.

Reaction turbine :If the water at the inlet posses both kinetic energy and pressure energy
then it is called as reaction turbine.

Tangential flow. The water flows tangential to the runner.

Radial flow : If the water flows in the radial direction through runner then it is called as
radial flow. Further they are classified into Inward radial and outward radial.

Axial flow : The water flows in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of runner.

Mixed flow : If the water enters radially, but leaves in a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of runner, then it is called as mixed flow turbine.

Draft Tube:
The pressure at exit in the reaction turbine is less than atmospheric pressure. Hence a
pipe of gradually increasing area is used to carry the discharge from turbine outlet to tail race.
Unit Quantities in turbines:
In order to compare the performance of different turbines which operate with different
speeds, blade angles the results are obtained in terms of quantities which is obtained when the
head of the turbine is made unity. Unit speed and unit discharge are two such quantities. Unit
speed is the speed of the turbine at unit head. and Unit discharge is the discharge is the discharge
of turbine at unit head.
Pumps:
Convert mechanical energy to Hydraulic energy. A pump is a device used to raise,
transfer, or compress liquids and gases. Water is a typical fluid used by pumps in applications
such as irrigation and cooling, among others. Another very typical use of a pump is to force gas
into a combustion chamber such as in a jet engine, where it is termed a compressor. Multitudes
of uses have been discovered for pumps involving liquids varying from blood to sludge.
Although a pump can be used with almost any liquid, certain attributes of the working fluid must
be considered when designing a pump. For example, if the pump must displace an acidic fluid,
the pump must be composed of materials which will not react with the acid.
In a pump system, there must be some form of work done on the pump to make it
operate. In most cases, this would be a motor which would drive either a piston or a type of rotor.
The pump then does work on the fluid passing through it, and this work is translated into total
energy within the fluid. Following are the different types of pumps.
Centrifugal Pumps:
The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is
converted to pressure energy by means of centrifugal force then that hydraulic machine is called
as centrifugal pump.
Principle:
The centrifugal pump works in the principle of forced vortex flow. According to which
when a liquid is rotated by a external tongue, there is arise in pressure head. This rise in pressure
head at any point in the rotating liquid is proportional to the square of tangential velocity of the
liquid at that point. At the outlet of the impeller, the pressure is more and hence the rise in
pressure head is also more. The liquid will be discharged at the outlet at a high pressure. This
high pressure will be sufficient to lift the liquid to a very great heights.
Multistage Centrifugal Pumps:

If the centrifugal pump contains two or more impellers then it is multistage pump. They
may be mounted on same shafts or different shafts. This arrangement is done to obtain

High head or

Discharge huge quantity of water.

To obtain huge quantity of water impellers are connect in series ( In same shaft). If the
discharge is required is high the impellers are connected in parallel ( different shafts )
Reciprocating Pump:
If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy by sucking a liquid into a
cylinder in which a piston reciprocates and exerts a thrust on the liquid and increase the
hydraulic energy is called the reciprocating pump. Following are parts in reciprocating pumps.

Suction Pipe and valve

Delivery pipe and valve,

piston, connecting rod and crank.

The piston moves back with the crank and connecting rod attachment. The crank rotates
by electric motor. Both the valves are one way valves or Non return valves, allowing the water
to flow only in one direction.
When the piston moves from right to left vacuum is created in cylinder. But the liquid is
at atmospheric pressure. Hence because of this pressure drop, the liquid is forced through the
suction valve into cylinder. When it moves from left to right the pressure in cylinder is above
atmospheric suction valve closes and delivery valve opens and liquid is forced into delivery pipe.

FLUID MECHANICS BOOKS

1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald
2. Schaum's Outline of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics by Ranald V. Giles, Jack B.
Evett, Cheng Liu, Jack Evett
3. Investigating Solids, Liquids, and Gases with Toys by Jerry L. Sarquis (Editor), Lynn
Hogue, Mickey Sarquis, linda Woodward
4. Boundary-Layer Theory by Hermann Schlichting, Klaus Gersten, Egon Krause,
Katherine Mayes
5. Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics by Joel H. Ferziger, Milovan Peric
6. 2,500 Solved Problems In Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics by Jack B. Evett, Cheng
Liu
7. Fluid Mechanics, Second Edition by Pijush K. Kundu, Ira M. Cohen
8. Applied Fluid Mechanics (5th Edition) by Robert L. Mott
9. Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics by Ron Darby
10. Computational Fluid Dynamics by T. J. Chung

Lastly updated on Monday, December 01, 2003 , 12:49 PM

ThisPageisanoutdated,usergeneratedwebsitebroughttoyoubyanarchive.ItwasmirroredfromGeocitiesattheendofOctober,2009.
Foranyquestionsaboutthispagecontacttherespectiveauthor.ToreportanymaliciouscontentsendtheURLtooocities[at]gmail[dot]com.Foranyquestionsconcerningthearchivevisitourmainpage:OoCities.org.