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GETTING STARTED
PRESENT SIMPLE
FORMS
A: I
USE
work.
works.
work.
He/she/it
You/we/they
N: I
Does
Do
I
work?
he/she/it
work_?
you/we/they work?
TIME
PHRASES
always, every
day/month/ye
ar never,
often,
normally,
seldom,
sometimes,
usually, twice
a week/day,
all the time
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
FORMS
to be (am/is/are) + verb +
A: I-ing
am (Im)
working.
He/she/is
working.
You/we/they
working.
N: I
is (hes)
are (were)
am not (Im not)
working.
He/she/it
is not (isnt)
working.
You/we/they/ are not (arent)
working.
Q: Am
working?
Is
working?
Are
working?
USE
1-to talk about actions that
are happening now, at the
moment of speaking:
Look! The boys are playing
football. Hurry up! The train is
coming.
2- to talk about actions that
are happening around now,
but not exactly at the
moment of speaking:
We are studying very hard
these days. We have to prepare
for our exams.
3-to speak about what you
have already arranged to
do:
-What are
you doing on Saturday?
-I
am meeting my friend at the
station.
She
is arriving at 8 pm.
TIME
PHRASES
now,
at the
moment,
at present;
Look!, Listen!
these days,
this morning,
today
he/she/we
you/we/they
PAST SIMPLE
FORMS
USE
worked /went.
worked/went.
worked/went .
did not (didnt)
did not (didnt)
did not (didnt)
Q: Did I
Did he/she/it
Did you/we/they
work_/go?
work_/go?
work_/go?
TIME
PHRASES
yesterday,
2minutes/hou
rs/days/years
ago,
in 1970,
the other day,
last
month/year/
week/ Sunday
PAST CONTINUOUS
FORMS
USE
TIME
PHRASES
was
was
were
working.
working.
working.
N: I
was not (wasnt)
working.
He/she/it
was not (wasnt)
working.
You/we/they were not (werent)
working.
Q: Was
Was
Were
working?
I
he/she/it
you/we/they
working?
working?
at 6 oclock
yesterday,
from 3 to 6
On Monday,
when Mum
came, while
FUTURE SIMPLE
FORMS
USE
TIME
PHRASES
A: I/we
He/she/it
You/they
shall*/ will
will
will
work.
work.
work.
N: I/we
work
work.
He/she/it
You/they
Q: Shall/will
Will
Will
work?
work?
work?
*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the
questions shall I?/shall
we?
In
spoken English we normally use
Ill and well.
tomorrow,
the day after
tomorrow,
one of these
days,
next
week/month/
year etc.,
soon,
in the near
future,
some day,
in two
days/five
minutes/a
month etc.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
FORMS
USE
TIME
PHRASES
A: I/we
He/she/it
You/they
N: I/we
working.
shall*/will be working.
will
be working.
will
be working.
be
working.
He/she/it will not (wont)
working.
You/they will not (wont)
working.
Q: Shall/will
Will
Will
be
be
at 5 oclock
tomorrow,
this time on
Sunday,
when I come
I/we
be working?
he/she/it be working?
you/they be working?
*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the
questions shall I?/shall
we?
In
spoken English we normally use
Ill and well.
USE
TIME
PHRASES
have/has +participle
II
- regular verbs +ed
worked, asked
A: I/we/you/they have
He/she/it
has
worked/gone.
worked/gone.
I/we/you/they
he/she/it
It is always connected
with the present and the
only thing which matters
here is the result: the
time when the action
took place is of no
importance:
I have lost my keys. I cant
open the door.
1-to
talk
about
a
completed
action
connected
with
the
present:
I have seen this film and I
can discuss it with you now.
2-questions
in
the
Present Perfect never
start
with
when:
When did you see this film?
3-with
this
morning/evening, today
this week, this year
(when the time periods
are not finished at the
time of speaking):
Have you called you
mother today?
already,
ever,
just,
never,
not
yet, so far,
till now, up
to now , of
late, lately,
recently;
with for and
since;
with
This is the
first time
this
morning/
evening,
today,
this
week,
this
year
worked/gone.
worked/gone.
I/you/we/they
he/she/it
worked/gone?
worked/gone?
USE
1-denotes an action
completed before a certain
moment in the past; it is not
used to denote a succession of
actions (Past Simple):
She had already finished her
work when he came.
But: When I wrote the letter, I
posted it.(Past Simple
succession of actions)
By the time the police arrived ,he
had already disappeared.
2-with the
conjunctions(hardly/scarcely/
nearly/barely + when)
I had hardly done it when they
came.
No sooner had they arrived
than it started to rain.
TIME
PHRASES
when I
entered,
by 5
oclock
yesterday,
(with the
same
adverbs as
Present
Perfect but
in the past
context);
no
sooner
than
FUTURE PERFECT
FORMS
USE
1-denotes an action completed
before a definite moment in the
future:
She will have finished this work by 2
oclock tomorrow.
The film will have already started by
the time we come .Hurry up!
shall/will + have
+participle II
A: I/we
shall*/will have
worked/gone.
He/she/it will
have
worked/gone.
You/they will
have
worked/gone.
N: I/we
shall not (shant) * have
worked/gone.
will not (wont)
He/she/it will not (wont)
You/they will not (wont)
worked/gone.
Q: Shall/will
I/we
worked/gone?
Will
he/she/it
worked/gone?
Will
you/they
worked/gone?
TIME
PHRASES
have
*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the questions
shall I?/shall we?
In spoken English we normally use
Ill and well.
by this
time
tomorrow,
by 2
oclock
tomorrow,
when you
come back
have
have
have
USE
TIME
PHRASES
have been
will
have been
(wont)
for
I/we
have
been
he/she/it
have
been
you/they
have
been
*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the questions
shall I?/shall we?
In spoken English we normally use
Ill and well.
UNIT 1
*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the questions
shall I?/shall we?
In spoken English we normally use Ill
and well.
USE
TIME
PHRASES
I/we/you/they
been
he/she/it
been
for, since;
How long?
USE
1-denotes an action which
began before a definite
moment in the past,
continued up to that moment
and was still going on at the
moment:
We could not go out because it
had been raining for two hours.
2-denotes an action which
was no longer going on at a
definite moment in the past,
but which had been in
progress not long before:
The babys face was red and wet.
He had been crying.
TIME
PHRASES
since,
for
NOUN SUFFIXES
Nouns from adjectives
-ness is one of a number of noun suffixes. It is used to make nouns from adjectives.:
happy
sad
weak
good
ready
tidy
forgetful
-ity is another noun suffix that is formed from adjectives.
possible
probable
responsible
complex
hilarious
scarce
Nouns from verbs
-tion, or, less frequently -sion (both pronounced with a 'sh' sound on the initial letter)
are noun suffixes that are used to make nouns from verbs.
admit
alter
inform
decide
describe
multiply
Note that adjustments that are necessary to the spelling in each case:
Admission
Information
Description
Alteration
Decision
multiplication
-er /-or (person who does the action of the verb)
sail
work
paint
run
teach
law
Nouns from verbs and adjectives
-ment is another suffix that is used to make nouns from verbs and occasionally from
adjectives:
enjoy
replace
appoint
arrange
merry
-ance and -ence are suffixes that are used to make nouns from adjectives and
sometimes from verbs:
absent
silent
independent
important
admit
appear
exist
More restrictive noun suffixes (nouns from nouns)
-ship (abstract nouns denoting different kinds of relationships)
Relationshi
friendship
partnership
membership
priesthood
ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES
-ous: danger, fame
-al: music, politics, economics, industry
-y: cloud, fog, sun, dirt
-ive: attract, create
Note: Sometimes there is a spelling change. Here are common examples:
double the consonant,
leave out the finals before al,
sun/sunny,
politics/political;
fog/foggy
economics/economical
leave out the final e,
change y to i before al,
create/creative,
industry/industrial
fame/famous
-able
This suffix (also -ible in some words . Quite often, -able (and -ible) has the meaning can
be done.
Enjoy
confort
knowledge
suit
wash
drink
Words ending -able quite often express the opposite meaning by adding the prefix un-,
words ending -ible add the prefix in-.
-ful often means full of + th.e meaning of the adjective:
Care
helpful
pain
thought
-less means without + the meaning of the adjective:
Care
pain
use
thought
job
home
10
UNIT 2
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
There are three types of the if-clauses.
Form
Type
if clause
1st (condition possible to fulfill)Simple Present
infinitive)
2nd (condition improbable to fulfill) Past simple
3rd (condition impossible to fulfil)
Past Perfect
participle *
main clause
will-future (or Modal +
would + infinitive *
would + have + past
Examples: 1st : If you buy the cake, I will bring the sandwiches.
2nd: If Sam read the book, he would like it
3rd: If the museum had opened the exhibition, we would have visited it today.
* We can substitute would for could or might (should, may or must are sometimes
possible, too).
So far you have only learned the basic rules for Conditional Sentences. Depending on
the context other tenses different to the ones mentioned above can be used.
11
Condition
refers to:
IF Clause
Simple
Present
future action
action going
on now
If the book is
interesting,
Present
Progressive
finished
action
improbable
action
present facts
Present
Perfect
should +
Infinitive
Simple
Present
Main Clause
If he is snoring,
If he gets what he
wants,
Future I
Imperative
buy it.
Modal
Auxiliary
Future I
Imperative
Modal
Auxiliary
Future I
we will visit
him.
Imperative
visit him.
Modal
Auxiliary
we can visit
him.
Future I
I will
congratulate her.
Imperative
congratulate
her.
Modal
Auxiliary
we can
congratulate her.
Simple
Present
he is very nice.
IF Clause
Main Clause
present / future
event
Simple
Past
If I had a lot of
money,
Condition
al I
consequence in
the past
Simple
Past
If I knew him,
Condition
al II
IF Clause
Main Clause
present
Past
Perfect
Condition
al I
past
Past
Perfect
Condition
al II
WISH
There are three distinct types of I wish / if only sentences:
1. Wish, wanting change for the present or future with the simple past.
If only I knew how to use a computer.
Use: To express a wish in the present or in the future.
The simple past here is an unreal past.
When you use the verb to be the form is were.
Example: I wish I were a millionaire!
2. Regret with the past perfect.
I wish I had woken up early. (I didn't wake up early and I missed my bus.)
Use: To express a regret.
The action is past.
3. Complaints with would + verb.
I wish you wouldn't arrive so late all the time (I'm annoyed because you always
come late and I want you to arrive on time)
Use: To complain about a behavior that you disapprove.
Expressing impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with a present action.
TIME CLAUSES
Time clauses referring to the future are formed like the first conditional (present simple in
the subordinate clause and future simple in the main clause). What we change are the
conjunctions.
as long as
by the time
13
the
(that)
moment
as soon as
when
until
before
UNIT 3
THE PASSIVE
Passive voice is used when the important information is on the action and not on the
person who does it.
How to transform a sentence into the passive?
Active form: subject + verb + object + complements
Passive form: subject + passive verb + complements + by + agent
How to turn a verb into the passive?
Active: the verb is written in the right verbal tense
Passive:to be (verbal tense of the active verb + past participle.
Example: The students finished the project on time.
The project was finished on time by the students
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
CONTINUOUS
TENSES
Present
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
Past
Future
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
MODAL
Can
Could
ACTIVE
The boy can open the box.
The boy could open the box.
Might
PASSIVE
The box can be opened by the boy.
The box could be opened by the
boy.
The box might be opened by the
14
May
Have to
Must
Should
Ought to
MODAL
PERFECT
Can
Could
Might
May
Must
Should
Ought to
boy.
The box may be opened by the boy.
The box has to be opened by the
boy.
The box must be opened by the
boy.
The box should be opened by the
boy.
The box ought to be opened by
the boy.
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
Intransitive verbs (verbs without an object) cannot usually form a passive sentence as
there is no object to be the subject, so if we want to do a passive construction, we need
15
an impersonal structure. This kind of sentence doesnt exist in other languages (Spanish,
German, etc)
STRUCTURE: There are two structures to make this kind of passive:
1. It + to be + past participle of the intransitive verb + by + agent + that +
subordinate clause.
2. Subject of the subordinate clause + to be + past participle of the intransitive
verb + to + infinitive clause+ by + the teacher
SOME INTRANSITIVE
VERBS
SAY
BELIEVE
THINK
CONSIDER
EXPECT
KNOW
HOPE
UNIT 4
MODAL VERBS
What are modal verbs?
They are used to indicate modality and give additional information about the
function of the main verb that always follows it.
4. Prohibition
5. Lack of necessity
6. Advice
7. Possibility
8. probability
16
A list of modals
Modal
Verb
Meaning
Expressing
Example
must
internal
oligation
100 % internal
obligation
He must be very
tired after such
enormous work
must
not
to be very
probable
logical
conclusion
(deduction)
not to be
allowed to
prohibition
can
could
may
might
have
to
need
to
dont
have
to
need
not
shoul
d/oug
ht to
had
bette
to be
allowed to
it is
possible
to be
allowed to
it is
possible,
probable
it is
possible,
probable
ability
permission
possibility
ability in the
past
more polite
permission
possibility
permission
possibility,
probability
weak
possibility,
probability
I can swim
Can I use your phone
please?
Smoking can cause
cancer !
When I was younger I
could stay up all
night and not get
tired..
Excuse me, could I
just say something?
It could rain
tomorrow!
May I use your phone
please?
It may rain
tomorrow!
I might come and
visit you in America
next year, if I can
save enough money.
Do I have to say
more?
necessary
necessity
not
necessary
lack of
necessity/absen
ce of obligation
used to say
or ask what
is the
correct or
best thing
to do.
to suggest
an action or
to show
that it is
necessary
to be very
probable
to suggest
an action or
50 % obligation
I should / ought to
see a doctor. I have a
terrible headache.
Advice
to be able
to
to be
allowed to
it is
possible
to be able
to
logical
conclusion
(deduction)
advice
to show
that it is
necessary
MODAL PERFECT
1. must have done = we are almost sure something happened in the past
Jane wasn't feeling well yesterday. She must have caught a cold.
Bill didn't answer the phone when I called him. He must have fallen asleep.
2. can't have done = we are almost sure something did not happen in the
past
She can't have forgotten to send you an invitation. I gave her your address.
They can't have gone to bed late. They were very tired.
4. could have done = we had the ability to do something in the past but
did not do it.
You could have told us about the new project!
She could have called me when she arrived but she forgot.
5. should have / ought to have done = (a) it was the right thing to do but
we didn't do it. (b) we expected something to happen but it didn't.
You should have told him the truth.
They ought to have received the cheque by now.
UNIT 5
SPEECH, in which we
PRESENT PERFECT
PAST PERFECT
CONTINUOUS
talk about
the idea that
CONTINUOUS
/PAST
was
expressed
He
said
he
had
been
writing.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
CONTINUOUS
without
He he
saidcan
he had been joking.
"I can explain
He says
quoting
the
I have been writing.
the fact.
explain the fact.
exact
words
I was joking.
that
were
used.
CONDITIONAL SHOULD /
REPORTED
FUTURE SHALL / WILL
WOULD
STATEMENTS
We will be late.
He said he would be late.
If the CONTINUOUS
reporting verb is
CONDITIONAL
the Simple
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
He said he in
would
be using the
Present,
Present
I will be using the car.
car.
Perfect or Future,
CAN / MAY / MUST
COULD / MIGHT / HAD TO
there is no change of
I can swim.
She saidtense
she could
in the swim.
words
It may rain.
He said
it might rain.
reported.
I must go.
She said she had to go.
CHANGE OF TIME EXPRESSION
Direct
Reported Speech
Speech
Today
That day/the same day
Yesterday
The day before/the previous
day
The day
Two days before
before
yesterday
Tomorrow
The following day/the next
day/the day after
Ago
Before
Now
Then/at that time
Last
The previous week / The
week/year
week/year before
Next
The following week/month
week/mon
th
REPORTED QUESTIONS
CHANGE OF
PRONOUNS /
DETERMINERS
Dir
Rep
ect
orte
Sp
d
eec
Spee
h
ch
I/
He /
You
She
We
They
My
His /
/
Her /
you
Our
r
Our
Their
Thi
That
s/
/
The
Thos
se
e
Direct Speech
Where does he live?
Where is the station?
Why is my mother
driving so fast?
Reported Speech
She wanted to know where he
lived.
He enquired where the station
was.
He asked why his mother was
driving so fast.
Direct Speech
Is anyone her?, he asked.
Can I help you?, she
asked.
Did you buy this book?
Reported Speech
He asked if anyone was there.
She asked whether she could
help me.
She enquired if I had bought that
book.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
SUGGESTIONS
We can use the following reporting verbs: suggest, recommend, advise or invite,
depending on the speakers intentions. The structures used are:
A clause formed by that + subject + verb in the base form:
Lets watch the new film Mathew suggested
Mathew suggested that we watch the new film.
A gerund with no specified subject:
Buy the food in the new shop around the corner Molly recommended
Molly recommended buying the food in the new shop around the corner.
REPORTING VERBS
UNIT 6
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend
whether he knows her. You could say:
That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative
clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most
important thing you want to know who the girl is.
As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the
additional information the girl is talking to Tom. Use the girl only in the first part of
the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the
relative pronoun who). So the final sentence is:
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
rel
ati
ve
pr
on
ou
n
use
example
wh
o
wh
ich
Do
you
see
the
cat which is lying on
the roof?
wh
ich
He
couldnt
read which surprised
me.
wh
os
e
possession
things
and
wh
om
th
at
I
dont
like
table that stands
the kitchen.
for
people
animals
the
in
Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms, who, which,
that are used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as
follows:
RELATIVE ADVERBS
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This
often makes the sentence easier to understand.
This is the shop in which I bought my bike. This is the shop where I
bought my bike.
rela
tive
adv
erb
mea
ning
use
example
whe
n
in/o
n
whic
h
wher
e
in/at
whic
h
refers to a place
the
place where we
met him
why
for
whic
h
refers to a reason
The relative clause is necessary to identify the girl, other way it is not possible to
know which girl we are referring to.
Do you know Sarah, who won the first price in the competition?
Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a
ing form. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
I told you about the woman who lives next door. I told you about the
woman living next door.
the roof?
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? Do you see the cat lying on
When the relative pronoun is accompanied by a preposition, we can still use which
if the antecedent is refers to a thing; but if it refers to a person, we can use whom
instead of who. This use is very formal, so the preposition usually comes at the end of
the sentence and the pronoun can be omitted.
This is the house in which I lived. This is the house (which) I lived in.
The student to whom I talked was very mature. The student (who) I
talked to was very mature.
We use neithernor in order to associate two elements and show that both of
them are excluded or impossible.