1 BACHILLERATO: GRAMMAR

UNIT 1: BLOOD IS THICKER THAN WATER

PRESENT SIMPLE
FORMS
A: I

work.
works.
work.

He/she/it
You/we/they
N: I

USE
1-to talk about general
truth and permanent
actions(facts):

do not (dont) work.

does not (doesnt)

He/she/it
work_.
You/we/they do not (dont) work.
Q: Do

Does
Do

I
work?
he/she/it
work_?
you/we/they work?

The Earth rotates round its axis.

It rains a lot in autumn.
I speak English and French.

2-to talk about repeated,

customary actions:
He gets up at 8 oclock every
morning.
They never listen to their
teacher.

TIME
PHRASES
always, every
day/month/ye
ar never,
often,
normally,
seldom,
sometimes,
usually, twice
a week/day,
all the time

3-to talk about a planned

future action (a timetable
or schedule )
The train
leaves at 3 tomorrow.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS
FORMS

USE
1-to talk about actions that
are happening now, at the
moment of speaking:

to be (am/is/are) + verb +
A: I-ing
am (Im)
working.
He/she/is
working.
You/we/they
working.

Look! The boys are playing

football. Hurry up! The train is

is (hes)
are (were)

N: I

am not (Im not)

working.
He/she/it
is not (isnt)
working.
You/we/they/ are not (arent)
working.
Q: Am

working?
Is
working?
Are
working?

coming.
2- to talk about actions that
are happening around now,
but not exactly at the
moment of speaking:
We are studying very hard
these days. We have to prepare
for our exams.
3-to speak about what you
have already arranged to
do:
-What are
you doing on Saturday?
-I
am meeting my friend at the
station.
She
is arriving at 8 pm.

TIME
PHRASES
now,
at the
moment,
at present;
Look!, Listen!
these days,
this morning,
today

he/she/we
you/we/they

PAST SIMPLE
FORMS

USE

TIME
PHRASES

Regular verbs + ed : worked, played,

Irregular verbs II column: went, ate
A: I
He/she/it
You/we/they
N: I
work_/go.
He/she/it
work_/go.
You/we/they
work_/go.

worked /went.
worked/went.
worked/went .
did not (didnt)
did not (didnt)
did not (didnt)

Q: Did I
Did he/she/it
Did you/we/they

work_/go?
work_/go?
work_/go?

1-to talk about actions

performed in the past (with
finished time expressions):
I met my friend yesterday.
Did you go to the seaside last
summer?
2-to talk about a
succession of past actions
(stories):
He opened the door,
switched on the light and fed
his cat.
3- to talk about an action
taking place in the middle
of another action:
He fell asleep while the
teacher was explaining new
grammar rules.

yesterday,
2minutes/hou
rs/days/years
ago,
in 1970,
the other day,
last
month/year/
week/ Sunday

PAST CONTINUOUS
FORMS

USE

to be(was/were) + verb + -ing

A: I
He/she/it
You/we/they

was
was
were

working.
working.
working.

N: I
was not (wasnt)
working.
He/she/it
was not (wasnt)
working.
You/we/they were not (werent)
working.
Q: Was
Was
Were
working?

I
he/she/it
you/we/they

working?
working?

1-to talk about a

temporary action taking
place at a given moment in
the past:
What were you doing at 6
oclock yesterday?
2-two or more actions
happening at the same
time in the past:
She was cooking dinner and
her kids were watching TV.
3- action interrupted by
another shorter action in
the past:
I was
working on computer when
the telephone rang.
4- background information
in a story:
The sun was shining and the
birds were singing

TIME
PHRASES
at 6 oclock
yesterday,
from 3 to 6
On Monday,
when Mum
came, while

FUTURE SIMPLE
FORMS

USE

TIME
PHRASES

A: I/we
He/she/it
You/they

shall*/ will
will
will

work.
work.
work.

N: I/we
work

shall not (shant) *

will not (wont)

work.
He/she/it
You/they
Q: Shall/will
Will
Will

will not (wont) work.

will not (wont) work.
I/we
he/she/it
you/they

work?
work?
work?

*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the
questions shall I?/shall
we?
In
spoken English we normally use
Ill and well.

1-to talk about future

actions:
Ill call you tomorrow.
Mary will get a present next
month.
2-to predict the future
(with probably, I
expect..., I'm sure...,
(I) think..., don't think,
I wonder..., perhaps) I
think it will rain
tomorrow. Perhaps
she'll be late.
I don't think the exam will
be very difficult.
3- to express intention at
the moment of decision:
Do you like these shoes?
- Yes, I'll buy them.

tomorrow,
the day after
tomorrow,
one of these
days,
next
week/month/
year etc.,
soon,
in the near
future,
some day,
in two
days/five
minutes/a
month etc.

4-in the 1 st type of

conditional sentences
If the weather is fine, well
go to the country.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

FORMS

USE

TIME
PHRASES

have/has +participle
II
- regular verbs +ed
worked, asked
A: I/we/you/they have
He/she/it
has

worked/gone.
worked/gone.

N: I/we/you/they have not (havent)

worked/gone.
He/she/it
has not (hasnt)
worked/gone.
Q: Have
worked/gone?
Has
worked/gone?

I/we/you/they
he/she/it

It is always connected
with the present and the
only thing which matters
here is the result: the
time when the action
took place is of no
importance:
I have lost my keys. I cant
open the door.
1-to
talk
about
a
completed
action
connected
with
the
present:
I have seen this film and I
can discuss it with you now.
2-questions
in
the
Present Perfect never
start
with
when:
When did you see this film?
3-with
this
morning/evening, today
this week, this year
(when the time periods
are not finished at the
time of speaking):
Have you called you
mother today?

already,
ever,
just,
never,
not
yet, so far,
till now, up
to now , of
late, lately,
recently;
with for and
since;
with
This is the
first time
this
morning/
evening,
today,
this
week,
this
year

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

FORMS
had +participle II
- regular verbs +ed :
worked,
asked
-irregular verbs-III column: gone,
A: I/you/we/they had
He/she/it
had

worked/gone.
worked/gone.

N: I/we/you/we/they had not (hadnt)

worked/gone.
He/she it
had not (hadnt)
worked/gone.
Q: Had
Had

I/you/we/they
he/she/it

worked/gone?
worked/gone?

USE
1-denotes an action
completed before a certain
moment in the past; it is not
used to denote a succession of
actions (Past Simple):
She had already finished her
work when he came.
But: When I wrote the letter, I
posted it.(Past Simple
succession of actions)
By the time the police arrived ,he
had already disappeared.
2-with the
conjunctions(hardly/scarcely/
nearly/barely + when)
I had hardly done it when they
came.
No sooner had they arrived
than it started to rain.

TIME
PHRASES

when I
entered,
by 5
oclock
yesterday,
(with the
same
adverbs as
Present
Perfect but
in the past
context);
no
sooner
than

UNIT 2: ITS RAINING CATS AND DOGS

FUTURE PERFECT
FORMS

USE
1-denotes an action completed
before a definite moment in the
future:
She will have finished this work by 2
oclock tomorrow.
The film will have already started by
the time we come .Hurry up!

shall/will + have
+participle II
A: I/we

shall*/will have
worked/gone.
He/she/it will
have
worked/gone.
You/they will
have
worked/gone.
N: I/we
shall not (shant) * have
worked/gone.
will not (wont)
He/she/it will not (wont)
You/they will not (wont)
worked/gone.
Q: Shall/will
I/we
worked/gone?
Will
he/she/it
worked/gone?
Will
you/they
worked/gone?

TIME
PHRASES

have

*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the questions
shall I?/shall we?
In spoken English we normally use
Ill and well.

by this
time
tomorrow,
by 2
oclock
tomorrow,
when you
come back

have
have
have

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FORMS

USE

TIME
PHRASES

shall/will + have + been+ verb + -ing

A: I/we
working.
He/she/it
working.
You/they
working.

shall/will * have been

will

have been

will

have been

N: I/we shall not (shant)* have been

working.
will not

(wont)

1-denotes an action which will

begin before a definite
moment in the future, will
continue up to the moment
and will be going on at that
moment:
You will have been waiting for
more than two hours when her
plane finally arrives.
In the fall I will have been
studying here for 2 years.
He will be tired when he arrives.
He will have been travelling for
24 hours.

for

He/she/it will not (wont) have been

working.
You/they will not (wont) have been
working.
Q: Shall/will
working?
Will
working?
Will
working?

I/we

have

been

he/she/it

have

been

you/they

have

been

*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the questions
shall I?/shall we?
In spoken English we normally use
Ill and well.

UNIT 3: FACE THE MUSIC

MODAL VERBS
What are modal verbs?

Modals are special verbs which behave irregularly in English.

They are used to indicate modality and give additional information about the
function of the main verb that always follows it.

They have a great variety of communicative functions such as:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Permission
Ability
Obligation
Prohibition

5.
6.
7.
8.

Lack of necessity
Advice
Possibility
Probability

9. Remember: Modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without to

*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the questions
shall I?/shall we?
In spoken English we normally use Ill
and well.

10.

Exceptions: ought to, have to, need to

11.

LIST OF MODALS

12.Modal
Verb

13.Meaning

14.Expressing

15.Example

16.must

17.internal
oligation

20.100 % internal
obligation

23.I must stop when the

traffic lights turn red.

18.

21.

19.to be very
probable

22.logical
conclusion
(deduction)

24.He must be very

tired after such
enormous work

26.not to be
allowed to

27.prohibition

25.must
not

28.You must not smoke

in the hospital.

29.

33.ability
34.permission
35.possibility

36.I can swim

37.Can I use your phone
please?
38.Smoking can cause
Hosibl

45.ability in the
past
46.
47.more polite
permission
48.
49.possibility

50.When I was younger I

could stay up all
night and not get
tired..
51.Excuse me, could I
just say something?
52.It could rain
tomorrow!
58.May I use your phone
please?
59. It may rain
tomorrow!

30.to be able
to
31.to be
allowed to
32.it is
possible
40.to be able
to
41.
42.to be
allowed to
43.
44.it is
possible
54.to be
allowed to
55.it is
possible,
probable
61.it is Hosible,
probable

66.necessary

67.necessity

71.not
necessary

72.lack of
necessity/absen
ce of obligation

73.I need not buy any

tomatoes. There are
plenty in the fridge.

75.used to say
or ask what
is the
correct or
best thing
to do.
76.To suggest
an action or
to show
that it is
necessary
77.to be very
probable

78.50 % obligation
79.
80.
81.Advice
82.
83.logical
conclusion
(deduction)
84.
85.

86.I should / ought to

see a doctor. I have a
terrible headache.
87.
88.You should / ought to
revise your lessons
89.
90.He should / ought to
be very tired after
such enormous work
91.

C
an

39.

c
ould

53.

M
ay

60.
ight
64.

56.permission
57.possibility,
probability

62.weak
possibility,
probability

ave
to
65.

63.I might come and

visit you in America
next year, if I can
save enough money.
68.Do I have to say
more?

n
eed
to

69.

D
ont
have
to

70.

n
eed
not

74.
S
hould
/ough
t to

92.

h
ad
bette
r

93.to suggest
an action or
to show
that it is
necessary

94.advice

95.You d better revise

your lessons

96.

98.
99.

97.

MODAL PERFECT

All modal perfect auxiliary verbs refer to the past.

100.FORM: MODAL+ HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

7. must have done = we are almost sure something happened in the
past
Jane wasnt feeling well yesterday. She must have caught a cold.
Bill didnt answer the phone when I called him. He must have fallen asleep.
101.
102.
2. cant have done = we are almost sure something did not happen
in the past
She cant have forgotten to send you an invitation. I gave her your address.
They cant have gone to bed late. They were very tired.
103.
104.
3. may / might / could have done = it is possible that something
happened in the past but we arent sure.
Laura hasnt arrived yet. She may/might/could have missed the bus.
I didnt see Paul at work. He may/might/could have been ill.
105.
106.
4. could have done = we had the ability to do something in the past
but did not do it.
You could have told us about the new project!
She could have called me when she arrived but she forgot.
107.
108.
5. should have / ought to have done = (a) it was the right thing to
do but we didnt do it. (b) we expected something to happen but it
didnt.
You should have told him the truth.
They ought to have received the cheque by now.
109.
110.
6. would have done = we wanted to do something but we didnt do
it in the end.
They would have emailed you but the Internet was down yesterday.
I would have bought that DVD but I didnt have enough money.
111.
112.
7. neednt have done = it wasnt necessary to do something but we
did it.
You neednt have gone to the supermarket. Ive already done the shopping.
The weather was warm and sunny. I neednt have taken an umbrella.
113.

114.

GERUND

115.
A gerund is a verb in its ing (present participle) form that functions as a
noun that names an activity rather than a person or thing. Any action verb can be
made into a gerund.
9

116.

Spelling Tip

117.
Add ing
to most
verbs.
118.
119.
Ex.
play >
playing
120.
cry
> crying
121.
bark >
barking

123.
For
verbs that
end in e,
remove the
e and add
ing.
124.
Ex:
slide >
sliding
125.
ride > riding

127.
For
verbs that
end in ie,
change the
ie to y and
add ing.
128.
Ex: die
> dying
129.
tie
> tying
130.

126.
122.

135.

131.
For a verb
whose last
syllable is written
with a consonantvowel-consonant,
double the last
letter before
adding ing.
132.
Ex: beg >
begging
133.
begin >
beginning.
134.
However:
enter > entering
(last syllable is
not stressed)

Examples

136.
Gerunds can appear at the beginning of a sentence when used as a subject:
Jogging is a hobby.
137.
ago.

Gerunds can act as an object following the verb: Daniel quit smoking a year

138.
Gerunds can serve as an object after a preposition: I look forward
to helping you paint the house.
139.
Note: The same spelling rules that apply to the progressive tenses
also apply to gerunds.
140.
141.

142.

INFINITIVE

143.
An infinitive is a verb form that acts as other parts of speech in a sentence.
It is formed with to + base form of the verb. Ex: to buy, to work.
144.

EXAMPLES

145.

Infinitives can be used as:

146.

An object following the verb: Jim always forgets to eat

10

147.
A subject at the beginning of a sentence: To travel around the world
requires a lot of time and money.
148.

An adverb modifying a verb: You promised to buy me a diamond ring.

149.

An adjective modifying a noun: Tara has the ability to succeed.

150.

151.
152.

GERUND OR INFINITIVE

Some verbs and verb phrases are directly followed a gerund:

153. Paul avoids using chemicals on the vegetables he grows.

154.

Some verbs are directly followed by an infinitive:

155.

Do you want to call your family now?

156.
Some verbs are directly followed by a noun or pronoun and then by an
infinitive:
157.
158.

I convinced Catherine to become vegetarian.

He advised me to sell all my shares of stock.

159.
Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund without causing a
change in meaning:
160.
161.
162.
163.

Will you continue working after you give birth?

Will you continue to work after you give birth?
Some people prefer getting up early in the morning.
Some people prefer to get up early in the morning

164.
Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund with a change in
meaning:
165.
He stopped drinking coffee. (He never drank coffee again.)
166.
He stopped to drink coffee. (He stopped what he was doing and drank
some coffee.)
167.
He remembered sending the fax. (He remembered the act of send the fax)
168.
He remembered to send the fax. (He remembered the fax and sent it.)
169.
Ill never forget meeting that singer. (impossible to forget something
happened in the past)
170.
She always forget to bring the books. (forget to do something that should
have been done)
171.
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
11

178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.

193. UNIT 4: MY LIPS ARE SEALED

194.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

195.

There are three types of the if-clauses.

196.

Form

197. Type
if clause
198.
1st (condition possible to fulfill)
Simple Present
Modal + infinitive)
199.
2nd (condition improbable to fulfill) Past simple
200.
3rd (condition impossible to fulfil)
Past Perfect
past participle *

main clause
will-future (or
would + infinitive *
would + have +

201.
202.

Examples: 1st : If you buy the cake, I will bring the sandwiches.

203.

2nd: If Sam read the book, he would like it

204.
visited it today.

3rd: If the museum had opened the exhibition, we would have

205.
206.

The sentence containing if can be the first or the second.

207. If I study, I will pass the exam. / I will pass the exam if I study.
208. If I were there by six oclock, I would drive you to the airport.
209. I would drive you to the airport if I were there by six.
210.

12

211.
* We can substitute would for could or might (should, may or must are
sometimes possible, too).
212.
213. So far you have only learned the basic rules for Conditional Sentences. Depending
on the context other tenses different to the ones mentioned above can be used.
214.
215.

Conditional Sentences Type I (likely)

216.
C
onditio
n
refers
to:

219.
f
uture
action

234.

ction
going
on now

217.

220.

Si
mple
Present

Pr
esent
Progres
sive

IF Clause

221.

If the
book is
interesting,

235.

236.
If he is
snoring,

218.

222.
Future I

223.
I
will buy it.

227.
Imperat
ive

228.

buy it.

232.
Modal
Auxil
iary

233.

you can
buy it.

237.
Future I

238.
I
will wake
him up.

242.
Imperat
ive

243.

wake him
up.

247.
Modal
Auxil
iary

248.

you can
wake him
up.

252.
Future I
249.
fi
nished
action

264.
i
mproba

250.

Pr
esent
Perfect

265.
s
hould +

251.
If he has
moved into his
new flat,

266.
If she
should win this

Main Clause

257.
Imperat
ive
262.
Modal
Auxil
iary
267.
Future I

253.

we
will visit
him.

258.

visit him.
263.

we
can visit
him.

268.

will
congratulat
13

216.
C
onditio
n
refers
to:

217.

IF Clause

218.

Main Clause

e her.

ble
action

279.
p
resent
facts

Infinitiv
e

280.

Si
mple
Present

272.
Imperat
ive

race,

281.

277.
Modal
Auxil
iary

If he gets
what he
wants,

282.
Simple
Pres
ent

273.

congratulat
e her.
278.

we
can
congratulat
e her.

283.

he
is very
nice.

284.
285.
286.
287.

Conditional Sentences Type II (unlikely)

288.

Con
dition
refers to:

289.

291.
prese
nt / future
event

292.
Simpl
e
Pa
st

296.
cons
equence in
the past

297.
Simpl
e
Pa
st

IF Clause

293.
If I
had a lot of
money,

298.

If I
knew
him,

290.

Main Clause

294.
Conditi
onal
I

295.
I would
travel around the
world.

299.
Conditi
onal
II

300.
I would
have said hello.

301.
302.

Conditional Sentences Type III (impossible)

303.
Co
ndition
refers
to:
306.

pre
sent

304.
307.
Past

IF Clause
308.
If I had
known it,

305.
309.
Conditi

Main Clause
310.
I
would not be
14

303.
Co
ndition
refers
to:

304.

IF Clause

305.

Pe
rfe
ct
311.

pa
st

312.
Past
Pe
rfe
ct

onal
I
313.
If he had
learned for the
test,

314.
Conditi
onal
II

Main Clause

here now.

315.
he
would not
have failed it.

316.

317.

INVERSION IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

318.
Inversion in conditions is possible, in this case, they are more formal than
the usual constructions.
319.
In the first conditional, inversion can be applied using should:
320. If you feel hungry,.
321. If you should feel hungry,. (should form of the condition clause)
322. Should you feel hungry, you can eat what you want.(inverted form)
323.
In the second conditional, inversion is possible in the case where the verb
is were:
324. If she were here, everything would be easier. (usual condition clause)
325. Were she here, everything would be easier. (inverted form)
326.
In the third conditional, the condition clause formed with the
auxiliary had can be inverted:
327. If he had listened the message,. (usual condition clause)
328. Had he listened the message, he would have arrived on time. (inverted
form)
329.

330. TIME CLAUSES

331.
Time clauses referring to the future are formed like the first conditional
(present simple in the subordinate clause and future simple in the main clause).
What we change are the conjunctions. In this case we use:
332.
as
long as

the
(that)

moment

until

before

when
by the time

as soon as

15

Examples: I will phone you when I arrive.

By the time she arrives, we will order the food.

UNIT 5: AN APPLE A DAY KEEPS THE DOCTOR AWAY

THE PASSIVE
Passive voice is used when the important information is on the action and not on the person
who does it.
How to transform a sentence into the passive?
Active form: subject + verb + object + complements
Passive form: subject + passive verb + complements + by + agent
How to turn a verb into the passive?
Active: the verb is written in the right verbal tense
Passive:to be (verbal tense of the active verb + past participle.
Example: The students finished the project on time.
The project was finished on time by the students

THE VERB: FROM ACTIVE TO PASSIVE

SIMPLE
TENSES
Present
Past
Future
Present Perfect
Past Perfect

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

Bill buys the dinner.

Bill bought the dinner.
Bill will buy the dinner.
Bill has bought the dinner.
Bill had bought the dinner.

The dimmer is bought by Bill.

The dinner was bought by Bill
The dinner will be bought by Bill.
The dinner has been bought by Bill.
The dinner had been bought by Bill.

CONTINUOUS
TENSES
Present

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

Bill is buying the dinner.

Past

Bill was buying the dinner.

Future

Bill will be buying the dinner.

The dimmer is being bought by

Bill.
The dinner was being bought by
Bill.
The dinner will be being bought by
Bill.

Present Perfect

Bill has been buying the dinner.

Past Perfect

Bill had been buying the dinner.

MODAL
Can
Could

ACTIVE
The boy can open the box.
The boy could open the box.

Might

The boy might open the box.

May
Have to

The boy may open the box.

The boy has to open the box.

Must

The boy must open the box.

Should

The boy should open the box.

Ought to

The boy ought to open the box.

MODAL
PERFECT
Can
Could
Might
May
Must
Should
Ought to

The dinner has been being bought

by Bill.
The dinner had been being bought
by Bill.
PASSIVE
The box can be opened by the boy.
The box could be opened by the
boy.
The box might be opened by the
boy.
The box may be opened by the boy.
The box has to be opened by the
boy.
The box must be opened by the
boy.
The box should be opened by the
boy.
The box ought to be opened by
the boy.

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

The boy can have opened the

box.
The boy could have opened the
box.
The boy might have opened the
box.
The boy may have opened the
box.
The boy must have opened the
box.
The boy should have opened the
box.
The boy ought to have opened
the box.

The box can have been opened by the

boy.
The box could have been opened by
the boy.
The box might have been opened by
the boy.
The box may have been opened by the
boy.
The box must have been opened by
the boy.
The box should have been opened by
the boy.
The box ought to have been opened
by the boy.

VERBS WITH PREPOSION IN PASSIVE

When a verb is followed by a preposition in the active, the preposition is put right behind
the verb in the passive.
Martin looked after the children yesterday.
The children were looked after yesterday by
Martin.

A burglar has brought into the house.

The house has been broken into by a
burglar.

PASSIVE WITH TWO OBJECTS

If there are two objects (direct and indirect) in the active sentence, each of them can be the
subject of the passive voice. An indirect object is usually a person and the direct object a
thing.
NOTE: when the indirect object (Paula) follows
Michael sent Paula a message yesterday.
the direct one (a message), the personal object is
preceded by to

Michael sent a message to Paula

Passive using indirect object as
subject:
Paula was sent a message by
Michael.

Passive using direct object as subject:

A message was sent to Paula by Michael.
(The indirect object is preceded by to)

IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
Intransitive verbs (verbs without an object) cannot usually form a passive sentence as there
is no object to be the subject, so if we want to do a passive construction, we need an
impersonal structure. This kind of sentence doesnt exist in other languages (Spanish,
German, etc)
STRUCTURE: There are two structures to make this kind of passive:
1. It + to be + past participle of the intransitive verb + by + agent + that +
subordinate clause.
2. Subject of the subordinate clause + to be + past participle of the intransitive
verb + to + infinitive clause+ by + the teacher
SOME INTRANSITIVE
VERBS
SAY
BELIEVE
THINK
CONSIDER
EXPECT
KNOW
HOPE

LETS SEE SOME EXAMPLES:

Active: 1.They say that Mary was in Rome.
2. The teacher considered Peter the smartest.
3. They knew that the picture had been stolen.
Passive: 1. It is said that Mary was in Rome. Mary is said to be in
Rome.
2. It was considered by the teacher that Peter was the
smartest.
Peter was considered to be the most intelligent by the
teacher.

THE CAUSATIVE (have / get something done)

It is a common structure in English which is linked to the passive voice because the main information
offered is not the person who carries out the action. It is used when one thing or person CAUSES
another thing or person to do something.
SUBJECT + CAUSATIVE VERB + OBJECT + ACTION VERB + by + AGENT (only when we
know by whom)
I had/got my hair cut by the hairdresser.
I had/ got the car fixed

UNIT 6: HIT THE BOOKS!

REPORTED SPEECH
When we want to quote somebody's words, we can use the REPORTED SPEECH, in which
we talk about the idea that was expressed without quoting the exact words that were used.

REPORTED STATEMENTS

If the reporting verb is in the Simple Present, Present Perfect or Future,

there is no change of tense in the words reported.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
"I can explain the
He says he can explain the
fact.
fact.
However,
when the
reporting verb is in the Simple Past or Past Perfect a number of changes
typically occur.

CHANGE OF THE VERB TENSES

CHANGE OF
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
PRONOUNS
/
SIMPLE PRESENT
SIMPLE PAST
DETERMINERS
I like oranges.
He said (that) he liked oranges.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
PAST CONTINUOUS
Reported
She is eating a cake.
He said she was Direct
eating a cake.
Speech
Speech
PRESENT PERFECT/SIMPLE PAST
PAST PERFECT
She has worked hard.
I / You
He / She
. He said she had
worked hard.
She went to London.
They
He said she hadWe
gone to London
My / your
His / Her /
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Our
/PAST CONTINUOUS
He said he hadOur
been writing.
Their
I have been writing.
He said he had been joking.
This /
That /
I was joking.
These
Those
FUTURE SHALL / WILL
CONDITIONAL SHOULD
/ WOULD
We will be late.
He said he would be late.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
CONDITIONAL CONTINUOUS
QUESTIONS
I will be using the car.
He said heREPORTED
would be using
the car.
The same
changes
of
CAN / MAY / MUST
COULD /MIGHT
/ HAD
TO
reported
statements;
I can swim.
She said she
could swim.
It may rain.
He said
itThe
might
interrogative
rain.
form
I must go.
She said she
had to
changes
togo.
the
affirmative;
CHANGE OF TIME EXPRESSION
The auxiliary verb to do is
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
not used (do,does,did);

The question mark is

Today
That day/the same day
eliminated ( ? );
Yesterday
The day before/the previous day

The introductory verbs

The day before
Two days before
are asked, wondered,
yesterday
enquired and wanted to
Tomorrow
The following day/the next day/the
know
day after
Ago
Before
Direct
Speech
Reported Speech
Now
Then/at that time
Where
does he live?
wanted
to know where he lived.
Last
week/year
The previous weekShe
/ The
week/year
Where is the station?
He
enquired
where the station was.
before
Why is my mother driving so
He asked why his mother was driving so
Next
The following week/month
fast?
fast.
week/month

If there is no question word, IF or WHETHER is placed after the introductory verb.

Direct Speech
Is anyone her?, he asked.
Can I help you?, she asked.
Did you buy this book?

Reported Speech
He asked if anyone was there.
She asked whether she could help me.
She enquired if I had bought that book.

REPORTED COMMANDS AND REQUESTS

The introductory verb expresses command or request: tell, order, command,

ask
The introductory verb must be followed by the person addressed and the
infinitive.
The auxiliary verb to do is not used.
Direct Speech

Reported Speech

 Be quiet!, the teacher told the

students.
Get your coat, Tom., he
ordered.
Close the door, please!
Dont do it!, his mother said.
Dont eat that chocolate, she
said.

The teacher told the students to be

quiet.
He ordered Tom to get his coat.
His mother asked him to close the
door.
His mother ordered him not to do it.
She told him not to eat that
chocolate.

SUGGESTIONS
We can use the following reporting verbs: suggest, recommend, advise or invite, depending
on the speakers intentions. The structures used are:
A clause formed by that + subject + verb in the base form:
Lets watch the new film Mathew suggested
Mathew suggested that we watch the new film.
A gerund with no specified subject:
Buy the food in the new shop around the corner Molly recommended
Molly recommended buying the food in the new shop around the corner.

REPORTING VERBS
Statements: admit, announce, answer, apologize, boast, claim, complain, declare,
explain, inform, insist, mention, offer, remind, reply, state.
Questions: enquire, request, want to know, wonder.
Orders: demand, order, shout, warn.
Request: beg, ask
Suggestions: admire, invite, suggest, recommend

UNIT 7: YOU CAN`T TEACH A NEW DOG OLD TRICKS

RELATIVE CLAUSES

We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting
another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more
fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.

How to Form Relative Clauses

Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he
knows her. You could say:
A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?
That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you
put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing
you want to know who the girl is.
Do you know the girl
As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the
additional information the girl is talking to Tom. Use the girl only in the first part of the

sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the
relative pronoun who). So the final sentence is:
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
relative
use
pronoun

example

who

subject or object pronoun for people

I
told
you
about
the
woman who lives next door.

which

subject or object pronoun for animals and Do you see the cat which is
things
lying on the roof?

which

referring to a whole sentence

He
couldnt
read which surprised me.

whose

possession for people animals and things

Do
you
know
the
boy whose mother is a nurse?

whom

object pronoun for people, especially in non- I

was
invited
by
the
defining relative clauses (in defining relative professor whom I met at the
clauses we colloquially prefer who)
conference.

that

subject or object pronoun for people, animals I

dont
like
and things in defining relative clauses table that stands
in
(who or which are also possible)
kitchen.

the
the

Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?

Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms, who, which, that are
used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows:
If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun.
Subject pronouns must always be used.
The apple which is lying on the table

If the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun, the relative pronoun is an object
pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then
called Contact Clauses.
The apple (which) George lay on the table

RELATIVE ADVERBS
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often
makes the sentence easier to understand.
This is the shop in which I bought my bike. This is the shop where I bought my
bike.

relative
adverb

meaning

when

in/on which refers to a time expression

the day when we met him

where

in/at which

refers to a place

the place where we met

him

why

for which

refers to a reason

the reason why we

him

use

example

met

Defining Relative Clauses

Defining relative clauses give detailed information defining a general term or expression.
Defining relative clauses are not put in commas.
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
The relative clause is necessary to identify the girl, other way it is not possible to know
which girl we are referring to.
Defining relative clauses are also used in definitions.
A seaman is someone who works on a ship.
Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped.
The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Non-defining relative clauses give additional information on something, but do not define
it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.
Do you know Sarah, who won the first price in the competition?

In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.

Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.
Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.
How to Shorten Relative Clauses?
Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a ing
form. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
I told you about the woman who lives next door. I told you about the
woman living next door.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? Do you see the cat lying on the roof?

Formal / Informal Relative Clauses

When the relative pronoun is accompanied by a preposition, we can still use which if the
antecedent is refers to a thing; but if it refers to a person, we can use whom instead of
who. This use is very formal, so the preposition usually comes at the end of the sentence
and the pronoun can be omitted.
This is the house in which I lived. This is the house (which) I lived in.
The student to whom I talked was very mature. The student (who) I talked to was
very mature.

BOTHAND / EITHEROR / NEITHER NOR

We use bothand in order to express to possibilities.

Both your mother and I agree on this matter.
We use either or to talk about two alternatives when no other alternative is possible.
Either I get a rise or I resign.
We use neithernor in order to associate two elements and show that both of them are
excluded or impossible.
I am neither prepared nor willing.