9/27/2016

LossesinTransformersandEfficiencyinTransformersElectricalEngineeringInfo

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LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS
AND EFFICIENCY IN
TRANSFORMERS
Posted by Amarnath Palakala in: Machines

Hello

Friends.We all know that all machines have

losses.Similarly a Transformer also have some losses.Its

losses are almost similar to that of d.c. machines except
transformersdonothavemechanicallossesbecauseallof
itspartsarestationary(nomovingparts).
Soalllossesintransformerareexplainedindetailbelow:
1.Primarycopperloss
2.Secondarycopperloss
3.Ironloss
4.Dielectricloss
5.Strayloadloss
1.Primary copper losses takes occur due to the flow of
current through the primary windings of transformer which
possessomeresistance.

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2.Secondarycopperlossestakesoccurduetotheflowof
current through the secondary windings of transformer
whichalsohasresistance.

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Theprimaryandsecondaryresistancesdierfromtheird.c.
values due to skin eect and the temperature rise of the
windings.While the average temperature rise can be
approximately used, the skin eect is harder to get
analytically.TheshortcircuittestgivesthevalueofRetaking
intoaccounttheskineect.
3.IronlossesorCorelosses:
These losses include Eddy current losses and Hysteresis
losses.They both depend upon the magnetic properties of
thematerialusedforconstructionofcore.
(i)Eddycurrentlosses:
When AC supply is given to primary windings of a
transformer , an alternating flux is developed.This
alternating magnetic flux links with secondary windings of
transformerandanemfisinducedinit.Asweareawarethat
,the core of transformer is made of steel or iron ,that
alternating flux also cuts this iron parts or core of
transformer , and emf is also induced in those parts which
causes some circulating currents to flow through it.These
circulatingcurrentsarealsocallededdycurrents.Duetothis
eddycurrentssomeamountofenergyislostintheformof
heat.Thepowerlossduetoeddycurrentsisgivenby

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As the lamination thickness is much smaller than the depth

of penetration of the eld, the eddy current loss can be
reducedbyreducingthethicknessofthelamination.Present
daylaminationsareof0.25mmthicknessandarecapableof
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operationat2Tesla.Thesereducetheeddycurrentlossesin
the core.This loss also remains constant due to constant
voltageandfrequencyofoperation.
(ii)Hysteresislosses:
Hysteresis loss is a heat loss caused by the magnetic
properties of the core.If the magnetic field applied to a
magnetic material is increased and then decreased back to
itsoriginalvalue,themagneticfieldinsidethematerialdoes
notreturntoitsoriginalvalue.Theinternalfieldlagsbehind
theexternalfield.Thisbehaviourresultsinalossofenergy,
called the hysteresis loss, when a sample is repeatedly
magnetized and demagnetized.It can simply stated that
losses occuring due to reversal of magnetization of
transformer.Hysteresis loss can be given by Steinmetz
formula:

Thislossdependsuponthevolumeofthetransformercore,
frequencyandfluxdensity.
Thesumofhysteresisandeddycurrentlossescan
beobtainedbytheopencircuittest.
4.Dielectricloss:
The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the
transformer due to the large electric stress.In the case of
low voltage transformers this can be neglected.For
constant voltage operation this can be assumed to be a
constant.
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5.Strayloadloss:
The stray load losses arise out of the leakage uxes of the
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transformer.These
leakage uxes

link

the metallic

structuralparts,tanketc.andproduceeddycurrentlossesin
them.Thus they take place all round the transformer
insteadofadeniteplace,hencethenamestray.Also the
leakageuxisdirectlyproportionaltotheloadcurrentunlike
the mutual ux which is proportional to the applied
voltage.Hence this loss is called stray load loss.This can
also be estimated experimentally.It can be modeled by
another resistance in the series branch in the equivalent
circuit.The stray load losses are very low in aircored
transformersduetotheabsenceofthemetallictank.
Thus,thedierentlossesfallintotwocategories
Constant losses (mainly voltage dependant) and Variable
losses (current dependant).The expression for the eciency
of the transformer operating at a fractional load x of its
rating,ataloadpowerfactorof2,canbewrittenas

HereSinthevoltampereratingofthetransformer(V2I2at
full load), Pconst being constant losses and Pvar the variable
lossesatfullload.
Foragivenpowerfactoranexpressionfor
in terms of the variable x is thus obtained.By dierentiating
with respect to x and equating the same to zero, the
condition for maximum eciency is obtained.In the present
casethatconditioncomesouttobe

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That is, when constant losses equal the variable

losses at any fractional load x the eciency reaches a
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maximumvalue.Themaximumvalueofthateciencyatany
givenpowerfactorisgivenby,

From the expression for the maximum eciency it can be

easily deduced that this maximum value increases with
increase in power factor and is zero at zero power factor
of the load.It may be considered a good practice to select
the operating load point to be at the maximum eciency
point.Thus if a transformer is on full load, for most part of
thetimethenthemax can be made to occur at full load by
properselectionofconstantandvariablelosses.However,in
themoderntransformerstheironlossesaresolowthatitis
practicallyimpossibletoreducethefullloadcopperlossesto
thatvalue.Suchadesignwasteslotofcopper.

EfficiencyofaTransformer:
As is the case with other types of electrical machines, the
efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power
factor is defined as the output divided by the input the two
being measured in the same units (either watts or
kilowatts).

But a transformer being a highly efficient piece of

equipment,hasverysmallloss,henceitisimpracticaltotry
to measure transformer,efficiency by measuring input and
output.Thesequantitiesarenearlyofthesamesize.Abetter
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methodistodeterminethelossesandthentocalculatethe
efficiencyfrom

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It may be noted here that efficiency is based on power

outputinwattsandnotinvoltamperes,althoughlossesare
proportional to VA.Hence, at any voltampere load, the
efficiency depends on power factor, being maximum at a
power factor of unity.Efficiency can be computed by
determining core loss from noload or opencircuit test and
Culossfromtheshortcircuittest.

All day eciency:

Large capacity transformers used in power systems are
classied broadly into Power transformers and Distribution
transformers.The former variety is seen in generating
stations and large substations.Distribution transformers are
seen at the distribution substations.The basic dierence
between the two types arise from the fact that the power
transformersareswitchedinoroutofthecircuitdepending
upon the load to be handled by them.Thus at 50% load on
the station only 50% of the transformers need to be
connected in the circuit.On the other hand a distribution
transformer is never switched o.It has to remain in the
circuit irrespective of the load connected.In such cases the
constant loss of the transformer continues to be
dissipated.Hence the concept of energy based eciency is
denedforsuchtransformers.Itiscalledalldayeciency.

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Thealldayeciencyisthustheratioofthe
energy output of the transformer over a day to the
corresponding energy input.One day is taken as a duration
of time over which the load pattern repeats itself.This
assumption, however, is far from being true.The power
output varies from zero to full load depending on the
requirement of the user and the load losses vary as the
squareofthefractionalloads.Thenoloadlossesorconstant
lossesoccurthroughoutthe24hours.Thus,thecomparison
of loads on dierent days becomes dicult. Even the load
factor, which is given by the ratio of the average load to
ratedload,doesnotgivesatisfactoryresults.Thecalculation
of the all day eciency is illustrated below with an
example.Thegraphofloadonthetransformer,expressedas
a fraction of the full load is plotted against time in Figure
below.In an actual situation the load on the transformer
continuouslychanges.Thishasbeenpresentedbyastepped
curve for convenience.The average load can be calculated
by

where Pi is the load during an interval i.n intervals are

assumed.xiisthefractionalload.Si=xiSnwhereSnisnominal
load.Theaveragelossduringthedayisgivenby
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This
is a nonlinear function.For the same load factor

dierent average loss can be there depending upon the

valuesofxiandti.Henceabetteroptionwouldbetokeepthe
constant losses very low to keep the all day eciency
high.Variable losses are related to load and are associated
with revenue earned.The constant losses on the other hand
hastobeincurredtomaketheserviceavailable.Theconcept
of all day eciency may therefore be more useful for
comparing two transformers subjected to the same load
cycle.
Theconceptofminimizingthelostenergy
comes into eect right from the time of procurement of the
transformer.The constant losses and variable losses are
capitalizedandaddedtothematerialcostofthetransformer
in order to select the most competitive one,which gives
minimum cost taking initial cost and running cost put
together.Obviously the iron losses are capitalized more in
the process to give an eect to the maximization of energy
eciency.If the load cycle is known at this stage,it can also
beincorporatedincomputationofthebesttransformer.

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