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TO BIOLOGY
CHAPTER O U T L I N E
1.1 The Properties of Life: Past and Present
1.2 Biology as a Scientific Discipline
B
iology is the study of life. The diverse forms of life found breast cancer. These are but a few of the many discoveries that
on Earth provide biologists with an amazing array of make biology an intriguing discipline. The study of life not only
organisms to study. In many cases, the investigation of reveals the fascinating characteristics of living species but also
living things leads to unforeseen discoveries that no one would leads to the development of drugs and research tools that bene-
have imagined. For example, researchers determined that the fit the lives of people.
venom from certain poisonous snakes contains a chemical that To make new discoveries, biologists view life from many dif-
lowers blood pressure in humans (Figure 1.1a). By analyzing ferent perspectives. What is life made of? How is it organized?
that chemical, drugs were later developed to treat high blood How do organisms reproduce? Sometimes, the questions posed
pressure. Biologists also found that nine-banded armadillos usu- by biologists are fundamental and even philosophical in nature.
ally give birth to identical quadruplets (Figure 1.1b). Because Where did we come from? Can we live forever? What is the
of this unique way of producing young, nine-banded armadillos physical basis for memory? Can we save endangered species?
are studied to learn more about multiple births and other repro- Biologists are scientific explorers looking for answers to some of
ductive issues. The ancient Romans discovered that the bark of the world's most enduring mysteries. Unraveling these mys-
the white willow tree can be used to fight fever (Figure 1.1c). teries presents an exciting challenge to the best and brightest
Modern chemists determined that willow bark contains a sub- minds. Our society has been substantially impacted by discov-
stance called salicylic acid, which led to the development of the eries in biology, and future biologists will continue to make
related compound acetylsalicylic acid, more commonly known important advances. The rewards of a career in biology include
as aspirin. In the last century, biologists studied soil bacteria that the excitement of forging into uncharted territory, the thrill of
naturally produce "chemical weapons" to kill competing bacte- making discoveries that affect the health and lives of people,
ria in their native environment (Figure l.ld). These chemicals and the impact of biology on the preservation of the environ-
have been characterized and used to develop antibiotics such as ment and endangered species. For these and many other com-
streptomycin to treat bacterial infections. As you may have seen, pelling reasons, students seeking challenging and rewarding
jellyfish naturally produce a greenish glow (Figure L i e ) , which careers may wish to choose biology as a lifelong pursuit.
is due to a molecule they make called green fluorescent protein
In this chapter, we will begin our survey of biology by
(GFP). Scientists have been able to transfer GFP to other organ-
examining the basic features that are common to all living organ-
isms and use it as a research tool to study the functions of cells.
isms. We will consider how evolution has led to the development
GFP transferred to mice makes them glow in the dark! Finally,
of modern genomes—the entire genetic compositions of organ-
for many decades, biologists have known that the Pacific yew
isms—which can explain the unity and diversity that we observe
tree produces a toxin in its bark and needles that kills insects
among modern species. In the second section, we will explore
(Figure l . l f ) . Since the 1990s, this toxin, known by the drug
the general approaches that scientists follow when making new
name Taxol*, has been used to treat patients with ovarian and
discoveries.
2 CHAPTER 1
(a) A chemical in the venom of the Brazilian arrowhead viper (b) The nine-banded armadillo usually gives birth to identical
lowers blood pressure. Derivatives of this chemical, called quadruplets. Armadillos are studied by researchers to learn more
acetylcholinesterase (ACE) inhibitors, are now commonly about the mechanisms that cause multiple births,
used to treat high blood pressure In people.
Aspirin Streptomycin
(c) The bark of the white willow contains a chemical that is closely (d) This soil bacterium (Streptomycin griseus) naturally produces a
related to aspirin. Modern aspirin, acetytsalicyik: acid, was molecule called streptomycin, which it uses to kill competing
developed after analyzing this chemical In willow trees. bacteria in the soil. Doctors administer streptomycin to people as
an antibiotic to treat bacterial infections.
GFP Taxol*
(e) Jellyfish naturally produce a green glow caused by green (t) The bark and needles of the Pacific yew tree produce a toxin that
fluorescent protein (GFP). GFP can be transferred to other kills insects. This toxin, called Taxol, is effective in the treatment
organisms, such as mice, and used as a research tool to study of ovarian and breast cancer.
the functions of cells.
They are primary producers of food on Earth. In contrast, some a specific amino acid sequence. This process is called molecular
organisms, such as animals and fungi, are consumers—they gene expression. Polypeptides are the structural units of func-
must eat other organisms as food to obtain energy. tional proteins. The functioning of proteins is largely responsi-
ble for the traits of living organisms.
Response to Environmental Changes To survive, living organ-
isms must be able to respond to environmental changes. For Biological Evolution The first six characteristics of life, which
example, bacterial cells have mechanisms to sense that certain we have just considered, apply to individual organisms over
nutrients in the environment are in short supply while others are the short run. Over the long run, another universal characteris-
readily available. Also, plants can respond to changes in the angle tic of life is biological evolution, which refers to the phenom-
of the sun. If you place a plant in a window, it will grow toward enon that populations of organisms change over the course of
the light (Figure 1.2c). In the winter, many species of mammals many generations. As a result of evolution, some organisms be-
develop a thicker coat of fur to protect them from the cold tern-' come more successful at survival and reproduction. Populations
peratures. Responses to environmental changes are examples of become better adapted to the environment in which they live.
adaptations—processes and structures by which organisms For example, the long snout of an anteater is an adaptation that
adjust to short-term or long-term changes in their environment. enhances its ability to obtain food, namely ants (Figure 1.2g).
The long snout occurred via biological evolution in which mod-
Regulation and Homeostasis As we have just seen, one way ern anteaters evolved from organisms that did not have such
that organisms can respond to environmental variation is to long snouts. Unit IV is devoted to the topic of evolution, while
change themselves. The growth of thick fur in the wintertime is Unit V surveys the evolutionary diversity among different forms
an example. A common reason for certain adaptations, includ- of life.
ing this example, is to maintain homeostasis (from the Greek
meaning "to stay the same"). Although life is a dynamic pro-
Living Organisms Can Be Viewed
cess, living cells and organisms regulate their cells and bodies
to maintain relatively stable internal conditions, a process called
at Different Levels of Organization
homeostasis. The degree to which homeostasis is achieved As we have just learned, life exhibits a set of characteristics, be-
varies among different organisms. For example, most mammals ginning with the concept of organization. The organization of
and birds maintain a relatively constant body temperature in living organisms can be analyzed in a hierarchical manner,
spite of changing environmental temperatures (Figure 1.2d), starting with the tiniest level of organization, and progressing to
while reptiles and amphibians do not. By comparison, all organ- levels that are physically much larger and more complex. Fig-
isms continually regulate their cellular metabolism so that nutri- ure 1.3 depicts a scientist's view of biological organization at
ent molecules are used at an appropriate rate, and new cellular different levels.
components are synthesized when they are needed.
1. Atoms: An atom is the smallest component of an element
Growth and Development All living things grow and develop; that has the chemical properties of the element. All matter
growth produces more or larger cells, while development pro- is composed of atoms.
duces organisms with a defined set of characteristics. Among 2. Molecules and macromolectiles: As discussed in Unit I.
unicellular organisms such as bacteria, new cells are relatively atoms bond with each other to form molecules. When
small, and they increase in volume by the synthesis of addi- many molecules bond together to form a polymer, this is
tional cellular components. Multicellular organisms, such as called a macromolecule. Carbohydrates, proteins, and
plants and animals, begin life at a single-cell stage (for example, nucleic acids (for example, DNA and RNA) are important
a fertilized egg) and then undergo multiple cell divisions to de- macromolecules found in living organisms.
velop inio a complete organism with many cells (Figure 1.2e). 3. Cells: Molecules and macromolecules associate with each
other to form larger structures such as membranes. A cell
Reproduction All living organisms have a finite life span and is formed from the association of these larger structures.
will eventually die. To sustain life over many generations, organ- 4. Tissues: In the case of multicellular organisms such as
isms must reproduce (Figure 1.2f). A key feature of reproduc- plants and animals, many cells of the same type associate
tion is that offspring tend to have characteristics that greatly with each other to form tissues. An example is muscle
resemble those of their parent(s). The reason for this is that all tissue.
living organisms contain genetic material composed of DNA 5. Organs: An organ is composed of two or more types of
(deoxyribonucleic acid), which provides a blueprint for the tissue. For example, the heart of a parrot is composed of
organization, development, and function of living things. As several types of tissues, including muscle, nervous, and
discussed in Unit III, DNA harbors genes, which contribute to connective tissue.
the characteristics or traits of organisms. During reproduction, a 6. Organism: All living things can be called organisms.
copy of this blueprint is transmitted from parents to offspring. A single organism possesses the set of characteristics that
The central dogma of genetics is that most genes are transcribed define life. Biologists classify organisms as belonging to a
into a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecule called messen- particular species, which is a related group of organisms
ger RNA (mRNA) that is then translated into a polypeptide with that share a distinctive form and set of attributes in nature.
AN INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOCY 5
The members of the same species are closely related interactions of a community of organisms with their
genetically. In Units VI and VII, we will examine plants physical environment. Unit VIII considers biology from
and animals at the level of cells, tissues, organs, populations to ecosystems.
and complete organisms. 10. Biosphere: The biosphere includes all of the places on
7. Population: A group of organisms of the same species the Earth where living organisms exist, encompassing the
that occupy the same environment is called a population. air, water, and land.
8. Community: A biological community is an assemblage
of populations of different species. The types of species that Modern Forms of Life Are Connected
are found in a community are determined by the environ-
by an Evolutionary History
ment and by the interactions of species with each other.
9. Ecosystem: Researchers may extend their work beyond Life began on Earth as primitive cells about 3.5 to 4 billion years
living organisms and also study the environment. ago. Since that time, those primitive cells underwent evolution-
Ecologists analyze ecosystems, which are formed by ary changes that ultimately gave rise to the species we see today.
Figure 1.4 An example of modification of a structure for Figure 1.5 An example showing a modification that has
a new function. The bird shown in the photograph has used occurred as a result of biological evolution. The wing of a bat
a modified milk carton in which to build its nest. By analogy, and the flipper of a dolphin were modified from a limb that was
evolution also involves the modification of pre-existing structures used for walking in a pre-existing ancestor.
for a new function.
Biological inquiry: Among mammals, give two examples of how
the tail has been modified for different purposes.
Understanding the evolutionary history of species often pro- vertical diagram like the one shown in Figure 1.6. In this mech-
vides key insights regarding the structure and function of an anism of evolution, new species evolve from pre-exisring spe-
organism's body. As a metaphor to help you appreciate this idea, cies by the accumulation of mutations, which are changes in
Figure 1.4 shows a photograph of a bird that is using a milk the genetic material of organisms. But why would some muta-
carton in which to build a nest. If we did not know that the tions accumulate in a population and eventually change the
milk carton had served an earlier purpose, namely to contain characteristics of an entire species? One reason is that a muta-
milk, we might wonder why the bird had made a nesting site tion may alter the traits of organisms in a way that increases
that resembled a milk canon. Obviously, we do not worry about their chances of survival or reproduction. When a mutation
this because we immediately grasp that the milk carton had a causes such a beneficial change, the mutation is more likely to
previous history, and that it has been modified by a person to increase in a population over the course of many generations,
serve a new purpose—a nesting site for a bird. Understanding a process called natural selection, which is discussed in Units
history allows us to make sense out of this nest. IV and V. Evolution also involves the accumulation of neutral
Likewise, evolutionary change involves modifications of changes that do not benefit a species, and even rare changes
characteristics in pre-existing populations. Over long periods of that may be harmful.
time, populations may change such that structures with a par-
ticular function may become modified to serve a new function. Horizontal Gene Transfer In addition to vertical evolution,
For example, the wing of a bat is used for flying, while the flip- which produces a lineage, species also evolve by another pro-
per of a dolphin is used for swimming (Figure 1.5). Both struc- cess that involves genetic exchanges between different species.
tures were modified from a limb that was used for walking in a Sexually reproducing species usually mate with members of their
pre-existing ancestor. own species. Similarly, asexual species such as bacteria can
Evolutionary change occurs by two mechanisms, vertical occasionally transfer genetic material between cells, but again,
descent with mutation and horizontal gene transfer. Let's take a that tends to occur most readily between members of the same
brief look at each of these mechanisms. bacterial species. However, on relatively rare occasions, genetic
exchanges occur between different species. For example, you
Vertical Descent with Mutation The traditional way to view may have heard in the news media that resistance to antibiotics
evolution involves a progression of changes in a series of an- among bacteria is a growing medical problem. Genes that con-
cestors. Such a series is called a lineage. Figure 1.6 shows a fer antibiotic resistance are sometimes transferred between dif-
portion of the lineage that gave rise to modern horses. This ferent bacterial species (Figure 1.7).
type of evolution is called vertical evolution because biolo- When genes are transferred from one species to another,
gists have traditionally depicted such evolutionary change in a this event is called horizontal gene transfer. In a lineage in
AN INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY 7
01
5-
10
20 -
E
o
40
Paleotherium
;!
life, a more appropriate way to view the unity of living organ- AH forms of life can be placed into three large categories or
isms is to describe it as a "web of life," which accounts for both domains called Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya (Figure 1.9).
vertical evolution and horizontal gene transfer. Figure 1.8 illus- Bacteria and Archaea are microorganisms that are also termed
trates such a diagram. prokaryotic because their cell structure is relatively simple.
At the molecular level, bacterial and archaeal cells show sig-
The Classification of Living Organisms nificant differences in their lipid composition, metabolic path-
Allows Biologists to Appreciate the Unity ways, and mechanisms of gene expression. By comparison,
organisms in domain Eukarya are eukaryotic and have larger
and Diversity of Life
cells with internal compartments that serve various functions.
As biologists discover new species, they try to place them in A defining distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
groups based on their evolutionary history. This is an arduous is that eukaryotic cells have a cell nucleus in which the genetic
task because researchers estimate that the Earth has between 10 material is surrounded by a membrane. The organisms in do-
and 100 million different species! The rationale for categoriza- main Eukarya have been further subdivided into four major
tion is usually based on vertical descent. Species with a recent categories or kingdoms called Animalia (animalsj, Plantae
common ancestor are grouped together, while species whose (plants), Protista (protists), and Fungi. However, as discussed
common ancestor is in the very distant past are placed into dif- in Chapter 26 and Unit V, the traditional view of four eukaryotic
ferent groups. The grouping of species is termed taxonomy. kingdoms is now under revision as biologists have gathered
Let's first consider taxonomy on a broad scale. You may have new information regarding the evolutionary relationships of
noticed that Figure 1.8 showed three main groups of organisms. these organisms.
-i—ii ii i
Y t~ r - r ~
•«- •
I — .v (.
i
i KEY
— Vertical evolution
Horizontal gene transfer !
(a) Domain Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotes that inhabit many diverse (b) Domain Archaea: Unicellular prokaryotes that are less common than
environments on Earth. bacteria. Some live in extreme environments such as hot springs.
Kingdom Animalia: Multicellular organisms that usually Kingdom Plantae: Multicellular organisms that can
have a nervous system and are capable of locomotion. cany out photosynthesis.
They must eat other organisms to live.
Kingdom Protista: Unicellular and small multicellular Kingdom Fungi: Unicellular and multicellular
organisms that are now subdivided into several different organisms that have a cell wall but cannot carry out
kingdoms based on their evolutionary relationships. photosynthesis. Fungi usually survive on decaying
organic material.
Figure 1.9 The three domains of life. Two of these domains, (a) Bacteria and (b) Archaea, are prokaryotes, while the third domain,
(c) Eukarya, comprises species that are eukaryotes.
10 . CHAPTER 1
Taxonomy involves multiple levels in which particular spe- family Felidae. The genus Panthera is the smallest group of dif-
cies are placed into progressively smaller and smaller groups of ferent species that contains the jaguar. As you can see in Fig-
organisms that are more closely related to each other evolution- ure 1.10, the genus contains only four modern species, the jag-
arily (Figure 1.10). Such an approach emphasizes the unity and uar and other types of large cats. Therefore, the genus has
diversity of different species. As an example, let's consider the species that are very similar to each other in form, and have
jaguars, shown on the cover of your textbook. The broadest evolved from a common (extinct) ancestor that lived relatively
grouping for the jaguar is the domain, namely Eukarya, fol- recently on an evolutionary timescale, approximately 5 million
lowed by progressively smaller divisions, from kingdom (Ani- years ago.
malia) to species. In the animal kingdom, jaguars are part of a Biologists use a two-part description, called a binomial, to
phylum, Chordata, which is subdivided into classes. Jaguars are provide each species with a unique scientific name. The scien-
in a class called Mammalia, which includes all mammals. The tific name of the jaguar is Panthera onca. The first pan is the
common ancestor that gave rise to mammals arose over 200 genus and the second part is the specific epithet or species
million years ago. Mammalia is subdivided into several smaller' descriptor. By convention, the genus name is capitalized, while
orders. The jaguar is in the order Carnivora. The order is in turn the specific epithet is not. Both names are italicized. All scien-
divided into families; the jaguar and all other cats belong to the tific names are Latinized.
DNA
Transport proteins:
Proteins facilitate the
uptake and export of Cell organization:
substances. Proteins organize the
components within
Extracellular
proteins:
Proteins hold cells
together in tissues.
Cytoskeleton:
Proteins are involved
in cell shape and
movement.
(b) The proteome
F i g u r e l . H Genomes and proteomes. (a) The genome, which is composed of DNA, is the entire genetic complement of an
organism. Most of the genetic material in eukaryotic cells is found in the cell nucleus. Its primary function is to encode the proteome.
(b) The proteome is the entire protein complement of a cell or entire organism. Proteins are largely responsible for the structure and
function of cells and complete organisms.
Biological inquiry: Biologists sometimes say that the genome is a storage unit, while the proteome is largeh :ne functional unit of life.
Explain this statement.
12 CHAPTER 1
• Acts as an instrument of evolutionary change: Every now Along these lines, the cover of your textbook provides food
and then, the genome undergoes a mutation that may alter for thought. The cats on the cover are jaguars. A black jaguar is
the characteristics of an organism. In addition, a genome sometimes called a panther, but it is still the same species, Pan-
may acquire new genes by horizontal gene transfer. The thera onca, as a spotted jaguar. How are the genomes of the
accumulation of such changes over the course of many spotted and black jaguars different? How are their proteomes
generations produces the evolutionary changes that alter different? Can this information tell us anything about the eco-
species and produce new species. system in which these animals live? Does this have anything to
do with evolutionary change? If we analyzed the genomes of
The evolutionary history and relatedness of all living organ- spotted and black jaguars, we would discover that they are over-
isms can be illuminated by genome analysis. The genome of whelmingly similar to each other (Figure 1.12aJ. Of the 20.000
every organism carries the results and the evidence of millions or so genes, the majority would be identical to each other or
of years of evolution. The genomes of prokaryotes usually con- nearly so. However, based on their differences in appearance,
tain a few thousand genes, while those of eukaryotes may con- we would expect the DNA sequence within one particular gene
tain tens of thousands. An exciting advance in biology over the to be different, namely a gene that plays a role in producing pig-
past couple of decades has been the ability to analyze the DNA ment in the fur. At the level of the proteome, this slight genome
sequence of genomes, a technology called genomics. For in- difference causes the spotted jaguar to make proteins (enzymes)
stance, we can compare the genomes of a frog, a giraffe, and that synthesize a background coat pigment that is tan, while a
a petunia and discover intriguing similarities and differences. black jaguar makes a background coat pigment that is black.
These comparisons help us to understand how new traits evolved. Under bright light, you can see that a black jaguar actually has
For example, all three types of organisms have the same kinds spots, but the dark background pigment greatly masks their
of genes that are needed for the breakdown of nutrients such as appearance [Figure 1.12b).
sugars,. In contrast, only the petunia carries genes that allow it Do spotted versus black coats have any impact on the life of
to carry out photosynthesis. these animals? The answer is yes. The spotted animals are
An extension of genome analysis is the study of proteomes, thought to be better hunters in lighter grassland environments.
which refers to the complete complement of proteins that a cell The black animals are more likely to survive in darker forests,
or organism can make. The function of most genes is to encode where they are less likely to be seen by their prey. In nature,
polypeptides that become units in proteins. As shown in Figure mixed populations of spotted and black jaguars are often ob-
1.11b, these include transport proteins; extracellular proteins; served on the edges of forests, where both light and dark envi-
proteins that function in cell organization, in cell signaling, and ronments exist. Therefore, biologists have speculated that this
as enzymes; and proteins that form a cytoskeletcn. Proteins are is an example of evolutionary change. Genetic mutations have
the key participants in maintaining cell structure and carrying occurred that promote the survival and reproductive success of
out most cell functions. Therefore, the genome of each species these animals, which vary in light and dark environments.
carries the information to make its proteome, the hundreds or
thousands of proteins that each cell of that species makes. Pro-
teins are largely responsible for the structures and functions of
cells and organisms. The technical approach called proteomics
involves the analysis of the proteome of a single species and the
comparison of the proteomes of different species. Proteomics 1.2 Biology as a Scientific
helps us to understand how the various levels of biology are Discipline
related to one another, from the molecular level—at the level of What is science? Surprisingly, the definition of science is not easy
protein molecules—to the higher levels, such as how the func- to state. Most people have an idea of what science is. but actu-
tioning of proteins produces the characteristics of cells and ally articulating that idea proves difficult. In biologv. we mkr.t
organisms, and the ability of populations of organisms to sur- define science as the observation, identification, experimental in-
vive in their natural environments. vestigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomena.
As a concrete way to understand the unifying theme of evo- Science is conducted in different ways and at different levels.
lution in biology, a recurring theme in the chapters that follow Some biologists study the molecules that compose life, while
is a brief topic called "Genomes & Proteomes" that will allow others try to understand how organisms survive in their natural
you to appreciate how evolution produced the characteristics of environments. In some cases, experiments are designed to test
modern species. These topics explore how the genomes of dif- validity of ideas that are suggested by researchers. In this seetior.,
ferent species are similar to each other, and how they are differ- we will examine how biologists follow a standard approach,
ent. You will learn how genome changes affect the proteome called the scientific method, to test their ideas. We will learn
and thereby control the traits of modern species. Ultimately, that scientific insight is not based on intuition. Instead, scientific
these concepts provide you with a way to relate information at knowledge makes predictions that can be experimentally tested.
the molecular level to the traits of organisms and their survival Even so. not all discoveries are the result of researchers fol-
within ecosystems. lowing the scientific method. Some discoveries are simply made
AN INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY 13
Figure 1.12 How the study of genomes and proteomes can provide us with
connections to different biological levels, (a) Spotted jaguars differ from panthers
because they make an enzyme that produces a tan pigment, while a mutation in the
same gene in panthers results in black pigment. With regard to hunting success, the
spotted jaguars are better in grasslands, while the panthers are better in the forest,
(b) A close-up view of a panther, showing its spots.
by gathering new information. As described earlier in Figure 1.1, cells. Cell biology, which is the study of cells, became an impor-
the characterization of many plants and animals has led to the tant branch of biology in the early 1900s and remains so today
development of many important medicines and research tools. In (Figure 1.13c). In the 1970s, genetic tools became available to
this section, we will also consider how researchers often set out study single genes and the proteins they encode. This genetic
on "fact-finding missions" that are aimed at uncovering new in- technology enabled researchers to study individual molecules,
formation that may eventually lead to new discoveries in biology. such as proteins, in living cells. Genetic technology spawned the
field of molecular biology. Together with the efforts of chem-
ists and biochemists, molecular biologists focus their efforts on
Biologists Investigate Life at Different
the structure and function of the molecules of life (Figure 1.13d).
Levels of Organization Such researchers want to understand how biology works at the
Earlier in Figure 1.3, we examined the various levels of biologi- molecular and even atomic levels. Overall, the 20th century saw
cal organization. The study of these different levels depends not a progressive increase in the number of biologists who used a
only on the scientific interests of biologists but also on the tools reductionist approach to understand biology. Reductionism in-
that are available to them. Prior to the development of high- volves reducing complex systems to simpler components as a
quality microscopes, biologists primarily focused their attention way to understand how the system works. In biology, reduc-
on characteristics thev could observe with their unaided eyes. tionists study the parts of a cell or organism as individual units.
They studied the activities of organisms in their natural envi- In the 1980s, the pendulum began to swing in the other
ronments, a branch of biology called ecology (Figure l . l S a j . In direction. Scientists have invented new tools that allow us to
addition, researchers have examined the structures and func- study groups of genes (genomic techniques) and groups of pro-
tions of plants and animals, which are disciplines called anatomy teins (proteomic techniques). Biologists now use the term sys-
and physiology (Figure 1.13b). As microscope technology im- tems biology to describe research that is aimed at understand-
proved, many researchers shifted their attention to the study of ing how the properties of life arise by complex interactions.
14 CHAPTER 1
Discovery-Based Science The collection and analysis of data Figure 1.14 Discovery-based science.
without the need for a preconceived hypothesis is called
discovery-based science or simply discovery science. The in-
formation gained from c.:scover\ -based science may have prac- ar.d biology. Another example involves the study of genomes
tical applications that benefit people. Drug companies, for (Figure 1.14b). Over the past few decades, researchers have
example, may test hundreds or even thousands of drugs to de- identified and begun to investigate newly discovered genes
termine if any of them are useful in the treatment of disease within the human genome without alreadv knowing the func-
(Figure 1.14a). Once a drug has been discovered that is effective tion of the gene they are studying. The goal is to gather ad-
in disease treatment, researchers may dig deeper and try to under- ditional clues that may eventually allow them to propose a
stand how the drug exerts its effects. In this way. discovery- hypothesis that explains the gene's function. Discovery-based
based science may help us learn about basic concepts in medicine science often leads to hypothesis testing.
16. CHAPTER 1
1 OBSERVATIONS The leaves on maple trees fall in autumn when the days get colder and shorter.
EXPERIMENTATION
Small maple trees are grown in
2 greenhouses where the only
variable is the length of I
> a
Control group: * - v!?5> Experimental group:
Amount of daily light remains Amount of daily light becomes
constant for 200 days. progressively shorter for 200 days.
•D
a.
200-
o. to A statistical analysis
can determine if
the control and the
f8 100- experimental data
are significantly
different. In this Figure 1.15 The steps of the scientific method,
case, they are. also known as hypothesis testing. In this example,
er Control Experimental
the goal is to test the hypothesis that maple trees drop
Z Q. their leaves in the autumn due to shortening length of
group group
daylight.
Hypothesis Testing In biological science, the scientific meth- ments is done on the control sample, while another set is con-
od, also known as hypothesis testing, is often followed to test ducted on the experimental sample. In an ideal experiment, the
the validity of a hypothesis. This strategy may be described as a control and experimental samples differ by only one factor. For
five-stage process: example, an experiment could be conducted in which two
groups of trees would be observed and the only difference be-
1. Observations are made regarding natural phenomena.
tween their environments would be the length of light each day.
2. These observations lead to a hypothesis that tries to
To conduct such an experiment, researchers would grow small
explain the phenomena. As mentioned, a useful hypothesis
trees in a greenhouse where they could keep factors such as
is one that is testable because it makes specific
temperature and water the same between the control and exper-
predictions.
imental samples, while providing them wiih different amounts
3. Experimentation is conducted to determine if the of daylight. In the control group, the number of hours of light pro-
predictions are correct. vided by light bulbs would be kept constant each daw while in
4. The data from the experiment are analyzed. the experimental group, the amount of light each day would be-
5. The hypothesis is accepted or rejected. come progressively shorter to mimic seasonal light changes.
The scientific method is intended to be an objective way to The researchers would then record the amount of leaves that were
gather knowledge. dropped by the two groups of trees over a certain period of time.
As an example, let's return to our scenario of maple trees Another key feature of hypothesis testing is data analysis.
dropping their leaves in autumn. By observing the length of day- The result of experimentation is a set of data from which a biol-
light throughout the year, and comparing that data with the ogist tries to draw conclusions. Biology is a quantitative science.
time of the year when leaves fall, one hypothesis might be that As such, data often come in the form of numbers that may or
shorter daylight causes the leaves to fall (Figure 1.15). This may not have important meaning. When experimentation in-
hypothesis makes a prediction—exposure of maple trees to volves a control and experimental sample, a common form of
shorter daylight will cause their leaves to fall. To test this pre- analysis is to determine if the data collected from the two sam-
diction, researchers would design and conduct an experiment. ples are significantly different from each other. In this regard,
Although hypothesis testing may follow many paths, certain the word significant means statistically significant. Biologists
experimental features are common to this approach. First, data apply statistical analyses to their data to determine it" the con-
are often collected in two parallel manners. One set of experi- trol and experimental samples are likely to be different from
AN INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY 17
The introduction of the normal CF gene into the cells from CF salt imbalance that affects water levels outside the cell, which
patients corrected the defect in chloride transport. Overall, the explains the thick and sticky mucus in CF patients. In this ex-
results showed that the CF gene encodes a protein that trans- ample, hypothesis testing has provided a way to accept or reject
ports Cl~ across the plasma membrane. A mutation in this gene an idea regarding how a disease is caused by a genetic change.
causes it to encode a defective transporter protein, leading to a
f Feature Investigation
Observation and Experimentation scientific theories over many years. As you develop your skills
Form the Core of Biology at scrutinizing experiments, it is satisfying to discuss your ideas
with ether people, including fellow students and faculty mem-
Because biology is the study of life, a biology textbook that fo- bers. Importantly, you do not need to "know all the answers"
cuses only on a description of living organisms would miss the before you enter into a scientific discussion. Instead, a more re-
main point. Biology is largely about the process of discovery. warding way to view science is as an ongoing and never-ending
Therefore, a recurring theme of this textbook is discovery-based series of questions.
science and hypothesis testing. While each chapter contains
many examples of data collection and experiments, a consistent
element is a "Feature Investigation"—an actual study by current 1
. ' ' •
or past researchers. Some of these involve discovery-based sci-
ence in which biologists collect and analyze data in an attempt ' '•" " DKObihtjiet
to make discoveries that are not hypothesis driven. Alterna- • iNCOOLncinkfMinouiWM
ran, this process alters species and may produce new species. 2. Populations of organisms change over the course of many
(Figure 1.6) generations. Many of these changes result in increased survival
• Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genes between and reproduction. This phenomenon is
different species. Along with vertical evolution, it is also an a. evolution.
important force in biological evolution. (Figures 1.7,1.8) b. homeostasis.
c. development.
• Taxonomy involves the grouping of species according to their
d. genetics.
evolutionary relatedness to other species. Going from broad
e. metabolism.
to narrow, each species is placed into a domain, kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, and genus. (Figures 1.9, 1.10) 3. AH of the places on Earth where living organisms are found is
a. the ecosystem.
• The genome is the genetic composition of a species. It provides
b. a community.
a blueprint for the traits of an organism, is transmitted from
c. the biosphere.
parents to offspring, and acts as an instrument for evolutionary
d. a viable land mass.
change. The proteome is the collection of proteins that a cell or
e. a population.
organism can make. Each chapter in this textbook has a brief
discussion of "Genomes & Proteomes" for you to understand 4. Horizontal evolution is the result of
this fundamental concept in biology. (Figure 1.11) a. accumulation of mutations over many generations.
b. transfer of genetic material between individuals of different
• An understanding of genomes and proteomes helps us to under-
species.
stand the characteristics of individuals and how they survive in
c. transfer of genetic material from parent to offspring.
their native environments. (Figure 1.12. and book cover)
d. all of the above.
e. a and c only.
1.2 Biology as a Scientific Discipline 5. The scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens. The name
Homo is the to which humans are classified.
• Biological science involves the observation, identification,
a. kingdom
experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of
b. phylum
natural phenomena.
c. order
• Biologists study life at different levels, ranging from ecosystems d. genus
to molecular components in cells. (Figure 1.13) e. species
• "A hypothesis is a proposal to explain a natural phenomenon. 6. The complete genetic makeup of an organism is called
A biological theory is a broad explanation that makes many a. the genus.
valid predictions. A theory is based on vast amounts of data. b. the genome.
• Discovery-based science is an approach in which researchers c. the proteome.
conduct experiments without a preconceived hypothesis. It is d. the genotype.
a fact-finding mission. (Figure 1.14) e. the phenotype.
• The scientific method, also called hypothesis testing, is a series 7. A proposed explanation for a natural phenomenon is
of steps to test the validity of a hypothesis. The experimentation a. a theory.
often involves a comparison between control and experimental b. a law.
samples. (Figure 1.15) c. a prediction.
• The study of cystic fibrosis is an interesting example in which d. a hypothesis.
both discovery-based science and hypothesis testing have e. an assay.
provided key insights regarding the nature of the disease. 8. in science, a theory should
(Figure 1.16) a. be equated with knowledge.
• Each chapter in this textbook has a "Feature Investigation" to b. be supported by a substantial body of evidence.
c. provide the ability to make m >nv correct predictions.
help you appreciate how science has led to key discoveries in
biology.
d. all of the above.
e. b and c only.
• Advances in science often occur when scientists gather together
9. Conducting research without a preconceived hypothesis is
and discuss their data. (Figure 1.17)
called
a. discovery-based science.
b. the scientific method.
TEST YOURSELF c. hypothesis testing.
d. a control experiment.
1. The process where living organisms maintain a relatively stable e. none of the above.
internal condition is 10. What is the purpose of using a control in scientific experiments'
a. adaptation. a. A control allows the researcher to practice the experiment first
b. evolution. before actually conducting it.
c. metabolism. b. A researcher can compare the results in the experimental
d. homeostasis. group and control group to determine if a single variable is
e. development. causing a particular outcome in the experimental group.
20 CHAPTER 1
c. A control provides the framework for the entire experiment ^ COLLABORATIVE QUESTIONS
so the researcher can recall the procedures that should be
conducted.
L D , s c u s s t h e t e r m s e n o m e s a n d
<L A control allows the researcher to conduct other experimental S P^teomes.
changes without disturbing the original experiment. 2. Discuss the levels of organization of life,
e. All of the above.
( EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONS