JRF

Prefa
ce
This book has been designed for the candidates offering Political Science as a subject
for the National
Eligibility Test (NET) and State Level Eligibility Test (SLET). The book covers both
papers II and III. \
Paper II comprises of objective Type Questions (Multiple Choice, Matching Type;
True/False; Assertion- j
Reasoning type). In this paper the candidates are expected to attempt 50 Questions
in all carrying 100 j
marks.
j
Paper III comprises of four sections. Section I, which carries 25 marks, contains a
passage or stanza from a known thinker/writer. Five specific questions are asked from
the given passage each to be answered in upto 30 words. Each question carries five
marks. Section II carries 75 marks. 15 questions, each carrying 5 marks, are to be
answered in upto 30 words. These questions are definitional in character and seek
particular information. There is no internal choice for these questions. Section III
carries 60 marks and contains 5 questions (each carrying 12 marks). These questions
are to be answered in upto 200 words. The questions in this sections are
analytical/evaluative in character and are to be asked on all ! major
specializations/electives. The candidates have to choose one specialization /elective
and answer five questions. The questions shall be set from the syllabus 'for Paper IIIB. There is no internal choice in the questions of this section. Section IV Carries 40
marks and comprises of one essay on general themes and contemporary theoretical
or disciplinary relevance. In all 15 questions are asked with an internal choice. The
essay has to be of upto 1000 words.
This book is the outcome of joint efforts of several specialists from different
fields of political Science. The main effort of these authors has been to consult the
various standard works in their respective spheres and present the matter in lucid
and critical form. They have tried to give the latest material. The authors are
greateful to the publisher Cosmos Bookhive Private Ltd for the pains taken in
bringing out this book with remarkable speed. It is hoped that the book shall be
found useful by the candidates taking up NET and SLET examination. The book shall
also be found useful by the candidates taking up the Indian Civil Services and State
Civil Services Examinations.
Suggestions for further improvement of the book are welcome and shall be
gratefully acknowledged.
AUTHO
RS
Contents
PAPER II
SECTION 1: POLITICAL THEORY AND THOUGHT
1. Ancient Indian Political Thought: Kautilya and Shanti Parva
2. Greek Political Thought: Plato and Aristotle
3. European Political Thought: Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke
and Rousseau
4. European Political Thought-II: Bentham, J.5. Mill, Hegel,
Marx and T.H. Green
5. Contemporary Political Thought: Lenin, Mao Tse Tung,
Antonic Gramsci and Communitarians
6. Modern Indian Political Thought: Mahatma Gandhi,
M.N. Roy, Aurobindo Ghose, Jai Prakash Narayan,
B.R. Ambedkar and Savarkar
7. Concepts and Issue-I: Medieval Political Thought Church
State Relationship and Theory of Two Swords
8. Concepts and Issues: Behavioural ism, Post-Behaviouralism,
Decline and Resurgence of Political Theory
9. Democracy, Liberty and Equality
3
12
28
44
66
77
105
116
122
SECTION 2: COMPARATIVE POLITICS AND POLITICAL ANALYSIS

10. Comparative Politics and Political Analysis Evolution,
Nature, Scope and Approaches to Study
11. Constitutionalism: Concepts Problems and Limitations
12. Forms of Government: Unitary and Federal; Parliamentary
and Presidential
13. Organs of Government: Legislature
14. Organs of Government: The Executive
10.
VI
Contents
141
149
155
172
188
15. Organs of Government: Judiciary

207
16. Party System and Pressure Groups
224
17. Electoral Systems 241
18. Political Development and Political Modernisation
19. Political Culture Political Socialisation a,nd Political
249
254 Communication
20. Political Elite and Elitist Theory of Democracy Political Elite
262
21. Power Authority and Legitimacy
267
22. Revolution-Theories and Types
273
23. Dependency: Development and Under Development
279
SECTION 3: MODERN INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
24. National Movement and Constitutional Development
289
25. Making of the Indian Constitution and Its Ideological Basis
321
26. Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive
328 Principles of State Policy
27. Constitution as Instrument of Socio-Economic Change
338 Constitutional Amendments and Review
28. Structure and Process-I; President, Prime Minister and
346 Council of Ministers
29. Working of Parliamentary Government
357
30. Structure and Process-II; Governor, Chief Minister,
363 Council of Ministers, State Legislature
31. Panchayati Raj Institutions: Rural and Urban and Their Working
372
32. Federalism: Theory and Practice in India Demands of
378 Autonomy and Separatist Movements Emerging Trends
in Centre-State Relations
33. Judiciary: Supreme Court, High Courts, Judicial Review,
385
Judicial Activism (Including Public Interest Litigation);
Judicial Reforms
34. Political Parties, Pressure Groups, Public Opinion and Media

394
35. Peasant Movements
403
36. Elections, Electoral Behaviour, Election Commission and
406 Electoral Reforms
SECTION 4: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
37. Development of Public Administration as a Discipline:
415 Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
38. Theories of Organisation
424
39. Principles of Organisation: Line and Staff, Unity of
430 Command, Hierarchy, Span of Control, Centralisation
and Decentralisation
Contents
VM
442
447
458
465 471
481
493
40. Chief Executive: Types, Functions and Roles
41. Personnel Administration: Recruitment, Training,
Promotion, Discipline, Morale, Employee-Employer
Relations
42. Bureaucracy: Theories, Types and Roles Max Weber
and His Critics Civil Servant-Minister Relationship
43. Leadership, Its Role in Decision Making; and Communication
44. Financial Administration: Budget, Audit, Control Over
Finance with Special Reference to India and U.K.
45. Good Governance: Problems of Administrative
Corruption, Transparency and Accountability, Right to
Information
46. Grievance Redressal Institutions: Ombudsman,
Lokpal and Lokayukta
*
SECTION 5: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
47. Theories and Approaches to the Study of International

Relations:-Idealist, Realist, Systems, Game, Communication
499
and Decision-Making
48.
Power, Interest and Ideology in International Relations
49. Arms and Wars: Nature, Causes and Types of War Conflicts
Including Ethnic Disputes Etc; Arms Race, Arms Control
and Disarmament
508
514
50. Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, Conflict Resolution, Diplomacy,

522
World Order and Peace Studies
51. Cold War, Alliances, Non-Alignment, End of Cold War
531 and
Globalization
52. Rights and Duties of States in International Law: Intervention,
541
Treaty Law, Prevention and Abolition of War
53. Political Economy of International Relations: New International
551
Economic Order, North-South Dialogue South-South
Cooperation, WTO, NeoColonialism and Dependency
54. Regional and Sub-Regional Organisations: Saarc,
563
Asean, Opec, Oas
55. United Nations: Aims, Objectives, Structure and Evaluation
571
of the Working of UN: Peace and Development Perspectives:
Charter Revision; Power Struggle and Diplomacy Within
UN, Financing and Peace-Keeping Operations
56. India's Role in International Affairs: India's Relations with
589
its Neighbours, War Security Concerns and Pacts, Mediatory
Role: Features of Indian Foreign Policy and Diplomacy
Vili
Contents
PAPER III
UNIT I: POLITICAL THEORY
1. Nature of Political Theory: Decline and Its Main Concerns; 3 Resurgence
since 1970's
2. Liberalism
7
3. Marxism
12
4. Individual and Social Justice
16
5. Role of Ideology
18
6. Theories of Change: Lenin
24
7. Mao Tse Tung
31
8. Gandhi
* 36
UNIT II: POLITICAL THOUGHT
9. Plato
10. Aristotle
11. Machiavelli
12. Hobbes
13. Locke
14. Rousseau
15. J.S.Mill
16. Karl Marx
158
18. Aurobindo Ghosh
51
75
99
108
119
130
138
146 17JVLN. Roy
UNIT III: COMPARATIVE POLITICS AND POLITICAL ANALYSIS
163
19. Approaches to the study of Comparative Politics

20. Constitutionalism in Theory and Practice
21. Legislature
22. Executive
23. Judiciary
24. Party System and Role of Opposition
25. Electoral Process
26. Separation of Powers
27. Rule of Law
28. Judicial Review
171
181
186
195
201
206
212
218
220
223
UNIT IV: POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

29. Political Modernisation
30.
233
31. Power and Authority
29.
229
Political Socialisation
237
Contents
32. Political Elite
241
UNIT V: INDIAN CONSTITUTION
33. Making of the Indian Constitution

34. Fundamental Rights and Duties and Directive Principles
35. The Union Executive
36. The Parliament
37. The Supreme CourtJudicial Activism
38. Indian Federalism: Theory Practice and Problems
UNIT VI: DYNAMICS OF STATE POLITICS
247
269
278
293
307
325
IX
39. Local GovernmentRural and Urban

40. Political Parties and Pressure Groups 354
41.
Public Opinion
360
42.
Elections and Electoral Reforms 363
43.
Class and Caste
366
44.
Gender Justice
372
45.
Dalit Movement
376
46.
Regional Issues
379
47.
Problem of Nation Building and Integration
339
404
UNIT VII: GROWTH OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A DISCPLINE

48. Growth of Public Administration as a discipline
49. New Public Administration
50. Theories of Organisation
51. Principles of Organisation
52. The Chief Executive
53. Control over AdministrationJudicial and Legislative
54. Bureaucracy
419
421
423
426
429
431
434
UNIT VII
55. Development Planning and Administration in India
56. Bureaucracy and Challenges of Development
57. Administrative Culture
58. Administrative Corruption
59. Administrative ReformsPanchayati Raj (See Unit VIII Chapter 40)
60. Impact of Liberalization on Public Administration
441
444
446
448
451
453
UNIT VIII: THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

61. Theories of International Relations
62. Ideology
61.
X
Contents
63. Power
475
64. National Interest
479
65. Conflict and Conflict Resolution
486
66. Changing Concept of National Security
489
67. Challenges to the Nation State System
492
68. Arms and Arms Control
495
UNIT IX: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
457
469
6
7
0
7
1
7
7
3
7
7
5
7
6
7
7
End of Cold War

Globalisation and Political Economy
Determinants and Compulsions of Indian Foreign
Policy
India's Nuclear Policy
India's Relations with Neighbours
India and Pakistan
India and China
India and Bangladesh
India and Sri Lanka
India and Nepal
India and Bhutan
India and Myanmar (Burma)
India's Relations with U.S.A.
India's Role in the United Nations
India and Regional Organisations-India and SAARC
India and ASEAN
Indian Ocean
5
5
2
5
3
5
5
4
5
5
5
6
5
5
8
5
5
9
5
6
0
6
0
6
6
UGC COMPULSORY PAPER

Practice set -1
The following question is based on the diagram given below. If the two
big circles represent animals living on soil and those living in water,
and the small circle stands
for the animals who both live on soil and in water, which figure
represents the relationships among them.
o
O
B.
o
C.
D.
Of the following statements there are two statements both of which
cannot be true but both can be false. Which are tese two statements ?
I. All machines make noise
II. Some machines are noisy
III. No machines makes noise IV Some machines are not noisy A. I and
II B. Ill and IV C. I and III
D. II and IV
In the following question a statement is followed by two assumptions
(i) and (ii). An assumption is something supposed or taken for
granted. Consider the statement and the following assumptions and
decide which of the following assumptions is implicit in the statement.
Statement
:
We
need
not
worry
about
er
rors
but
must
try
to
learn
from
out
errors.
Assumptions
:
(i)
Errors
may
take
place
when
we
are
carrying
out
certain
work,
(ii)
We
are
capa
ble
from
improve
the
of
past
benefiting
and
our
chances of error-free work.
A. Only assumption (i) is implicit
B. Only assumption (ii) is implicit
C. Either assumption (i) or (ii) is
implicit
D. Both the assumptions are im
plicit
The question below is followed by two arguments numbered (i) and (ii).
Decide which of the arguments is 'strong' and which is 'weak'. Choose
the correct answer form the given below :
(A) (B) (C) (D) Should the press exercise some self-restraint ?
Four students W, X, Y, Z appeared in four papers, I, II, III and

IV in a test. Their scores out of 100 are given
below :
Students
Paper
s
II
III
IV
W
X
Y
Z
60
59
74
72
81
43
A
76
45
51
71
A
55
A
65
68
Where 'A' Stands for absent

i)
ii)
A. B. C.
Yes, they should not publish news items which may incite the
readers to indulge in wrong practices.
D.
No, it is the responsibility of the press to present the truth irrespective
of the consequences. Only the argument (i) is strong Only the
argument (ii) is strong Neither argument (i) nor argument (ii) is strong
Both the arguments (i) and (ii) are strong 5.
Study the argument
and the inference drawn from that argument, given below carefully.
Argument :
Anything that goes up definitely falls down.
Helicopter goes up. Inference :
So the helicopter will definitely fall
down. What in your opinion is the inference drawn from the argument ?
A. Valid
B. Invalid
C. Doubtful
D. Long drawn one
Directions :
Read the above table and answer
below mentioned questions 6 to 10 :
6. Which
candidate
has
secured
be
tween
60-65
%
marks
in
aggregate
A. W
B. X
C. Y
D. Z
7. Who
has
obtained
the
lowest
aver
age in aggregate
A. W
B. X
C. Y
D. Z
8. Who
has
obtained
the
highest
av
erage
A. W
B. X
C. Y
D. Z
9. In which paper the lowest marks
were obtained by the candidates
A. I
B. II
C. Ill
D. IV
10. Which
candidate
highest
percentage
appeared
A. W
B. X
C. Y
D. Z
11. ICT stands for
A. Information common technol
ogy
B. Information and communica
tion technology
C. Information and computer
technology
D. Inter connected technology
has
in
secured
the
the
papers
2
12. Computer can
A. Process both quantitative and
qualitative information.
B. Store huge information
C. Process information and fast
accurately
D. All the above
13. Satellite
Communication
through
A. Radar
B. Transponder
C. Receptor
D. Transmitter
works
14. A
computer
is
that
machine
which
works
more
like
a
human
brain.
This definition of computer is
A. Correct
B. Incorrect
C. Partially correct
D. None of the above
15. Information
and
communication
technology includes
A. E-mail
B. Internet
C. Educational television
D. All the above
16. It
is
believed
that
our
globe
is
warming
progressively.
This
global
warming will eventually result in
A. increase in availability of us
able land.
B. uniformity of climate at equa
tor and poles
C. Fall in the sea level
D. melting of polar ice.
17. In
which
parts
of
India
ground
wa
ter
is
affected
with
arsenic
contami
nation ?
A. Haryana
B. Andhra Pradesh
C. Sikkim
D. West Bengal
18. Sunderban
in
Hooghly
delta
is
known for
A. Grasslands B. Conifers C. Mangroves D. Arid forests
19. Sardar
Sarover
dam
is
located
on
the river
A. Ganga
B. Godavari
C. Mahanadi D. Narmada
20. Which
one
of
the
following
trees
has medicinal value ?
A. Pine
B. Teak
C. Neam
D. Oak
21. Identify
the
main
principle
on
which
the
parliamentary
system
operates
A. Theory of sepration of power
B. Responsibility of executive to
ligislature
C. Supremacy of parliament
D. Supremacy of judiciary
22. Match
list
I
with
list
II
and
select
the
correct
answer
from
the
code
given below
List I
List II
(Institutions)
(Location)
1. Indian Veterinary
I. Pune Research Institute
2. Institute of Arma- II. Izat Nagar ment Technology
3. Indian Institure of III. Delhi science
4. National Institute TV. Bangalore for education
pannesi and Administrations
123
4
A.
II
I
IV
III
B.
II
IV
I
III
C.
II
III
I
IV
D.
IV
III
II
I
23. The
reservation
of
seats
for
in the Panchayat Raj institution is
A. 33 % of the total seats
B. 30% of the total seats
C. 33 % of the total population
D. In proportion to their population.
woman
3
>7î'^V^J'VMJfciSS<i^-i<Ki^*iyw.Ji.*.fcjL *&? t-*ir
24. Which one of the following is not

considered a part of technical edu
cation in India ?
A. Management
B. Medical
C. Aeronautical
D. Pharmaceutical
25. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
cen
tral university ?
A. L.N.M.U. Darbhanga
B. Mumbai University
C. J.N.U., New Delhi
D. Kolkata University
26. Effectiveness
of
teaching
depends
on
A. Handwriting of teacher
B. Subject understanding of
teacher
C. Qualification of teacher
D. Personality of teacher
27. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
characteristic
of
a
good
question
paper ?
A. Reliable
B. Objectivity
C. Subjectivity
D. No use of vague words
28. Which
of
the
following
is
the
main
objective of teaching ?
A. To prepare students to pass
the examination
B. To dictate notes to students
C. To give information related to
the syllabus
D. To develop thinking power of
students
29. Teacher uses teaching nids for
A. making teaching within under
standing level of students
B. the sake of its use
C. making teaching interesting
D. making students attentive
30. Which
of
the
following
is
a
good
method of teaching
A. Seminar and Dictation
B. Dictation and Assignment
C. Lecture and Dictation
D. Seminar and Project
31. An
academis
association
assembled
at
one
place
to
discuss
the
progress
of
its
work
and
future
plans.
Such
an assembly is known as a
A. Symposium
B. Conference
C. Seminar
D. Workshop
32. An
investigator
studied
the
consus
data
for
a
given
area
and
pupand
a
write
up
based
on
them.
Such
a
write-up is called
A. Thesis
B. Research paper
C. Research report
D. Article
33. A
researcher
is
generally
expected
to
'
A. Ganerate new principles and
theories
B. Synthesize the ideas given by
others
'
C. Evaluate the findings of a study
D. Study the existing literature in
a field
34. One
of
the
issential
characteristics
of research is
A. usability
B. generalizability
C. objectivity
D. Replicability
35. The Government of India conducts
census after every 10 years. The
method
of
process is
A. Survey
B. Experimental
C. Case study
D. Developmental
research
and
in
this
4
DIRECTIONS :
Read the following passage and answer the questions (3640)
An image in some way resembles the thing it stand for, whereas a
symbol is not like it but represents it arbitrarily. Works of art are
images, and a work of art is an image of feeling. Of course, a work
if art is not an image of feelings. Of course, a work of art is not an
image of feelings only, because we do not normally experience
feelings by themselves; we feel towards or about things or people
or ideas, so that a work of art, if it is to transmit feelings from the
artist to other people, must also represent the object towards
which the feelings are directed. A work of art comes into existence
in its simplest form in the visual arts. A work of art comes into
existence in the mind of the artist, when he puts colours on the
canvas. He is doing two things at one time, he is creating a new
subject in the physical world, but no purely physical account of it
can be adequate because it fails to take into account the colours
which exist only in the artist's mind. A work of art, therefore like
any other object which is perceived, is partly subjective and partly
objective, The artist places his colours or shapes his sculpture in
the way he does, because, to do so satisfies his feelings. Human
beings are fundamentally alike, so, when someone other than the
artist looks at a piece of sculpture, he will tend to experience in
some degree the feelings of the artist
embodied in it. This is a qualified statement. Although human
beings are fundamentally alike, they differ greatly in their natural
ability to appreciate art, as well as in the degree to which that has
been increased by education. The richer the experience of the
observer, and the more sensitive his receptivity, the more likely it
is that he will share, in part at least, the artist's feelings.
36. The prime objective of the author
is to ........
A. highlight
the
subtle
nuiance
of
difference
between
images
and
symbols.
B. bring
out
the
rapport
between
an
artist
and
likeminded
ad
mirers.
C. provide
a
basis
for
understand
ing art.
D. describe
the
'creative
process'
involved in a work of art.
E. state
that
true
art
is
essentially
a
harmonious
blend
of
the
sub
jective and the objective.
37. It is possible to infer that visual art
is the simplest form of art because
A. it
makes
the
least
demands
upon an artist's creative talent.
B. in
no
other
form
of
art
is
the
objective
element
of
art
so
clearly discernable.
C. objective
art
can
be
more
read
ily
appreciated
by
the
artloving
public.
D. in
this
form
of
art
the
artist
may
concentrate
on
the
visual
ignoring
the
complexities
of
subjective feelings
38. Which of the following statements
is true ?
5
A. Objective
art
is
duce than subjective art.
B. A
work
of
art
resentation
of
jective feelings
C.
Objective art produces prefect
communication between the
simpler
is
the
to
symbolic
artist's
pro
rep
sub
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
artist and the layman

D. A
work
of
art
is
the
expression
of
the
artist's
subjective
feel
ings
towards
and
object
in
the
material world.
What
kind
of
people,
according
to
author, appreciate art best ?
A. people
who
can
clearly
discern
the
difference
between
the
sub
jective and the objective.
B. those
who
can
clearly
differ
entiate
between
a
thing
and
its
image.
C. educated rich people in general
D. sensitive
people
with
exposure
and experience
Which
of
the
following
statements
is false ?
A. An
image
of
a
thing
is
not
an
exact replica of the thing
B. A symbol is not an image
C. A
symbol,
in
no
way
can
be
used to represent a thing
D. Works
of
art
are
images
of
feel
ings
Informal
communication
network
with
in
the
organization
is
known
as
A. Grapevine communication
B. Interpersonal communication
C. Mass communication
D. Intrapersonal communication
TV
channel
launched
for
covering
only
Engineering
and
Technology
subjects is known as
A. Eklavya
B. Kisan
C. Vyas
D. Gyan Darshan
In
which
state
the
maximum
number
of
pridicals
are
brought
out
for public information
A. Uttaranchal
B. Chattishgarh
C. Jharkhand
D. Kerala
The
main
objective
of
public
broad
casting system i.e. Prasar Bharti is
A. Intertain,
information
&
Inter
action
45.
46.
47.
48.
B. Information,
Intertainment
&
Education
C. Education and music
D. Interact,
Educate
&
Interac
tion
The
competerroy
of
an
effective
communicator
can
be
Judged
on
the basis of
A. Meeting
the
needs
of
target
audiencePusonality
of
commu
nicator
B. Personality of communication
C. Experience in the field
D. Interactivity
with
target
audi
ence
In
which
of
the
following
ways
a
theory
is
not
different
from
a
be
lief?
A. Demonstratability
B. Verifiability
C. Acceptability
D. Antecedent consequent
The
state
"Honesty
is
the
best
policy" is
A. An value
B. A fact
C. An opinion
D. A value judgement
Which one is like pillar, pole and
standard ?
A. Timber
B. Beam
C. Plank
D. Shaft
Following incomplete series is presented. Find out the number which
should come at the place of question mark which will complete the
series
4, 16, 36, 64, ?
A. 300
B. 200
C. 100
D. 150
Which one of the following belongs to the category of homogeneous
data :
A. Multi-storeged houses in a
colony
B. Vehicular traffic on a highway
C. Student population in a class
D. Trees in a garden
1
4
7
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
(D
(A
(B
(D
(B
(D
(D
(C
(C
(D
(B
(C
(B
(B
(D
(C
(A
ANSWE
2
(C)
5
(D)
8
(A)
11
(B)
14
(A)
17
(D)
20
(C)
23
(A)
26
(B)
29
(A)
32
(D)
35
(A)
38
(D)
41
(A)
44
(B)
47
(D)
50
(A)
3
6
9
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
-n^3al*i-'Hi
Practice
set - 2
1.
In
the
questions
below,
a
related
pair
of
words
in
capital
letters
is
followed
by
five
pair
of
words.
Se
lect
that
lettered
pair
that
ex
presses
the
relationship
that
is
most
similar
to
that
of
the
capital
ised pair
FURY: IRE::
:
A. Cry : whisper
B. Dispassion : emotion
C. Joke: laugh
D. Amusement : happiness
E. Convulsion : spasm
2. Code
for
'LATE"
is
'PEXI',
select
code for TRACE'
A. XVELI
B. XVEGI
C. XVFGI
D. XUEGH
3.
Study the diagram below and iden
tify the region representing youth
who
cated.
are
employed
Youth
but
not
edu
A __B
/T 7\
\ Educated
Ll
\^_^X Employed C
A. 4 Only
B. 1, 4, 7
C. 4,7
D. 4,5,6
4. Number
of
letters
skipped
in
be
tween
adjacent
letters
in
the
series
decreases
by
one.
Which
of
the
fol
lowing
series
is
observing
this
rule?
A. BGKNPR
B. CINRTU
C. EJNQST
D. LQUXAP DIRECTIONS (For Q. 5 and Q. 6)
Raman was driving in New Town, where all roads ran either
north-south or east-west forming a grid. Roads were at a
distance of 1 km from reach other in Parallel.
5. Raman
started
at
the
intersection
of
streets
no.
7
and
8.
He
drove
3
km
north
3
km
west
and
4
km
south,
which
further
route
could
bring
him
back
to
his
starting
point?
I. 3 km east, then 2 km south
II. 1 km north, then 3 km east
III. 1 km north, then 2 km west
A. I only
B. II only
C. I and II only
D. II and III only
E. I, II and III
6. After
driving
as
started
in
1
above,
Ram
did
not
return
to
his
starting
point,
but
instead
drove
4
km
east
and
1
km
north.
How
for
is
he
from
his starting point
A. 5 km
B. 4 km
C. 1km
D. 7 km
E. 3 km
7. How
many
pairs
of
letters
are
there
in
the
word
'CARROT'
which
have
as
many
letters
between
them
in
the word as in the alphabet?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. More than 4
8
8.
The
radius
of
the
wheel
of
a
bicycles
is
'X'
cm.
The
bicycle
makes
560
revolutions
in
order
to
cover
a
dis
tance of 1.1 kms. Find X.
A. 35.25
B. 30.25
C. 31.25
D. 33.25
9. The
average
of
the
First
5
prime
number greater than 60 is
A. 70
B. 70.2
C. 70.7
D. 70.24
10. If
3
men
or
4
women
can
reap
a
field
in
43
days,
how
long
will
7
men
and
5 women take to reap it
B. 12
A. 21C. 15
D.
10-
DIRECTIONS :
Read the following passage and answer the question Nos.
11 to 15.
It is time we looked at the latent causes. Where does the

strength of India lie? Not in numbers, not necessarily in our moral
stands on international issues. In modern times, the strength of a
nation lies in its achievements in science and technology. This is
not to say that other fields do not count. In the five decades after
independence, we have yet to demonstrate our originality in
applied science and technology. Though Japan also started like us,
by cultivating the technology of the West, the Japanese adapted,
improved end displayed originality in several areas of science end
technology. The generation which is at the helm of affairs in
science end technology in our country after independence, mostly
consisted of self-seekers. By
end large, with e few exceptions, the science end technology
managers in India concentrated in gaining power end influence. They
loved publicity. Most of them stopped doing science while they
managed science. Things would have seen better had they been
humble enough to acknowledge the difference between doing end
managing science. Instead, they claimed they were the foremost in
science and technology, simply because they were at the helm of
affairs. As a result, they ceased to inspire the younger lot. India
continues to be a borrower of science end technology, even though its
potential for originality is substantial.
Our achievements in nuclear science and technology may be
dazzling to our people. But in worth and originality, they are ordinary
end routine, while our own people remain ignorant, the peoples of
other countries know all about the pretensions to knowledge of our
nuclear science and technology managers. One subtle way of
sabotaging our nuclear goals is to help hollow persons reach and
remain at the helm of affairs. International bodies come in as handy
tools in that subtle process. The view of secrecy effectively protects
the mismanagement in our nuclear establishment. On nuclear metters,
the media in our country, by and large, avoid the investigative
approach. As a result, the mismatch between promise and
performance in the nuclear field does not get exposed as much as the
mismanagement in other fields.
11. What
does
the
author
mean
by
'do
ing' science?
A. Demonstrating
exaggerated
performance
without
achieving
the desired level.
B. Managing
effectively
the
ad
ministrative
functions
in
volved in the power game.
C. Concentrating
on
such
re
searches
which
have
very
low
practical utility.
D. Displaying
genuine
acumen
and
performance
in
scientific
studies.
E. None of these.
12. 'Doing
science'
and
'managing
sci
ence'
as
implied
by
the
author
is
analogous to
A. set target and achieving it
B. fact and fantasy
C. originality and adaptability
D. scientific
inventions
and
dis
covery of principles
E. inspiration and aspiration
13. The author of the passage has
A. criticised
the
power-hungry
In
dian technocrats
B. appreciated
the
Japanese
sci
entists
Unduly
and
exorbi
tantly
C. hailed
India's
technological
ad
vancements
in
the
past
five
de
cades.
D. underestimated
the
Japanese
and
Chinese
scientists
and
technologists.
E. unreasonably
criticised
the
In
dia politicians are their apathy.
14. Which
of
the
following
is
the
com
monality
between
the
Indian
and
the Japanese scientists?
Both have displayed
A. originality in applied sciences.
B. an
advancement
of
sub-stan
dard quality.
C. greed for influence and power.
D. remarkable lust for publicity.
E. None of these.
15. Which of the following is the cor
rect assessment of India's post-in
dependence
nuclear
and
scientific
advancements?
A. originality
and
adaptability
is
dully
displayed
in
the
field
of
applied science
B. our
achievements
in
nuclear
science
and
technology
are
daz
zling
C. our
achievements
are
of
a
very
ordinary
quality
and
routine
nature
D. our
scientists
have
given
full
justice
to
the
developmental
needs of nuclear science
E. None of these
16. Full form of DSS is
A. Data Structure Services
B. Data Secutity System
C. Data Secure Software
D. Decision Support System
E. Digital Service System
17. DSS includes
A. query languages
B. ad-hoc report generators
C. statistical analyse & graphics
D. All of above
E. None of the above
18
is a tool that can test the
what-if situations to pretest the potential outcome of different
decisions.
A. Electronic World Processor
B. DBMS
C. Electronic Spread Sheets
D. Image Processors
E. MS Power Point
10
19
help the bank management in

precisely generating the information for pricing their products and
services.
A. Word Processors
B. DBMS
C. CBTs
D. DSS
E. Outlook Express
20. By doing
analysis, the banks
can generate information pertaining to various parameters under

different conditions to facilitate decisions by the management.
A. DBMS
B. Pricing
C. What's on
D. What-if
D. What-next
21. Freedom in education means
A. The
wayward
behaviour
of
stu
dents
B. The
spirit
of
opposing
the
rules
of the schools regularly
C. The
spirit
of
unhealthy
and
foul
practice to compete others
D. One's
own
growth
freely
and
the
recognition
of
others
free
dom to grow similarly.
22. The aim of guidance-service in edu
cation and job-seeking is
A. To
impart
education
which
is
fit and according to the person
B. To
select
the
job
according
to
the merit of the person
C. To
solve
the
problem
which
is
in education and the job
D. To
create
the
insight
and
un
derstandings
in
the
person
in
such
a
way
that
he
may
himself
take decision
23. The good educational system is that
which
A. Gives opportunity to each boy of every class of society to study
together
24.
25.
26.
27.
B. Has
educational
institution
of
different
levels
for
the
manage
ment
of
education
for
the
boys
of different classes of society
C. Imparts
education
on
the
basis
of wealth
D. Does
not
function
properly
without tutions
Why
is
the
adult
education
neces
sary according to you
A. Because
there
is
a
sufficient
number of the adults
B. Because
if
the
adults
are
edu
cated
they
can
educate
their
children
C. Because
if
they
are
educated
they can stand on their legs
D. Because
if
they
are
educated
the
percentage
of
literacy
will
increase
Who
should
be
the
members
of
edu
cational commission?
A. President,
principal
and
sub
ject expert
B. President,
principal
and
teach
ers
C. President and subject experts
D. Special experts and principal
You
think
that
the
teacher
can
give
the
right
type
of
guidance
to
his
stu
dents because
A. he
is
the
teacher
of
this
stu
dents
B. students obey his commands
C. students are afraid of him
D. he
understands
the
psychology
of students
During
the
course
of
class
teach
ings,
you
ask
a
question
from
the
students
and
present
some
study
material before them. Why?
A. So that it has been described in
11
the lesson plan

B. So
that
students
are
able
to
un
derstand it thoroughly
C. So
that
students
are
able
to
complete
the
homework
given
to them later
D. In
order
to
motivate
them,
so
that
they
develop
interest
in
their
minds
and
solve
their
queries
with
free
and
open
minds.
28. What
type
of
questions
would
you
like to ask in the class?
A. The
ones
whose
answers
can
be
given by all the students
B. The
ones
whose
answers
can
not be given by all the students
C. The
ones
whose
answers
can
perhaps
be
given
by
none
of
the
students
D. The
ones
whose
answers
may
be
given
by
students
after
thinking about them.
29. The
best
system
of
class
teaching
is the one in which
A. there
is
no
need
for
the
ques
tion - answer session.
B. the
teacher
asks
questions
from
his students
C.
the students removes his
doubts after consulting his
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
teacher
D. both
the
teacher
and
student
ask questions
Which
one
of
the
followings
is
the
most
effective
element
for
making
class teachings interesting?
A. Lesson plan
B. Personality of the teacher
C. Teaching method
D. Study material
The
research
antagonistic
to
expost Facto research is
A. experimental studies
B. normative researches
C. library researches
D. all of the above
Who
is
regarded
the
Father
of
sci
entific Social Surveys?
A. Darwin
B. Best
C. Marx
D. Angels
Attributes
of
objects,
events
or
things
which
can
be
measured
are
called
A. qualitative measures
B. Data
C. variables
D. none of the above
The
process
not
needed
in
experi
mental research is
A. observation
B. controlling
C. manipulation and replication
D. reference collection
The
experimental
study
is
based
on
the law of
A. single variable
B. replication
C. occupation
D. interest of the subject
Pointing to a person, a man said to
a woman, "His mother is the only
daughter of your Father." How was
the woman related to the person?
A. Aunt
B. Mother
C. Wife
D. Daughter
In
a
certain
code,
COMPUTER
is
written
as
RFUVQNPC.
How
is
MEDICINE
written
in
the
same
code?
A. EOJDJEFM B. EOJDEJFM C. MFEJDJOE D. MFEDJJOE
38. If MOBILITY is coded as 46293927, then EXAMINATION is coded as

A. 45038401854 B. 56149512965 C. 57159413955 D.
67250623076
39. Choose the word which is least like the other words in the group:
38.
12
A. Axe
B. Sword
C. Knife
D. Showel
E. Saw 40. In the followings questions various terms of a letter series
and given with one term missing as shown. Choose the missing terms
out of the options.
OTE, PUF, QVG, RWH,
A. SYJ
B. TXI
C. SXJ
D. SXI
E. TYJ
DIRECTION :
Study the graph below and answer question 41 to 45.
1999 2000 2001 2002 200? 2004 Selling price per tonne
Manufacturing volumes
in tonnes o Manufacturing cost per tonne
41. In
which
year
was
the
tonnage
out
put
lowest,
but
turnover
in
rupees
the maximum?
A. 2003
B. 2002
C. 2001
D. 2004
42. In which year maximum profit was
generated vis-a-vis inputs used?
A. 2000
B. 2001
C. 1999
D. 2003
43. Which
of
the
following
years
had
the
maximum
negative
growth
in
tonnage
as
compared
to
its
earlier
years.
A. 2002
B. 2000
C. 2001
D. 2003
44. Which
year
registered
maximum
growth in tonnage turnover?
A. 2000
B. 1999
C. 2001
D. 2003
45. Calculate
gross
profit
in
rupees
gained during 2000?
A. Rs. 27,000
B. Rs. 10,800 C. Rs. 37,800
D. Rs. 15,000
46. In
which
state
the
maximum
num
ber
of
periodicals
are
brought
out
for public information
A. Punjab
B. Tamil Nadu
C. Uttar Pradesh
D. Kerala
47. The
main
objective
of
public
broadcastings
system
i.e.
Prasar
Bharti is
A. Entertain, information and in
teraction
B. Educate, interact and intertain
C. Entertainment only
D. Inform, entertainment and
education
48. The
competerry
of
an
effective
com
munication
can
be
judged
on
the
basis of
A. Meeting the needs of target audience
13
B. Personality of communicator
D. Interactivity with target audi
ence
49. Informal
communication
with
in
the
organization
as
B. Intrapersonal communication
C. Mass communication
D. Interpersonal communication
is
network
known
50. TV
channel
launched
only
engineering
A. Vyas
B. Kisan
C. Eklavya
,
D. Gyan Darshan
1 (E
)
4 (C
7 (A
1 (B
1 (A
1 (D
1 '(D
2 (D
2 (C
2 (D
3 (A
3 (D
3 (A
4 (D
4 (C
ANSWE
2
(B)
5
(B)
8
(C)
11
(D)
14
(E)
17
(D)
20
(D)
23
(A)
26
(D)
29
(D)
32
(B)
35
(A)
38
(B)
41
(D)
44
(D)
3
6
9
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
(
A
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
and
for
covering
Technology
(A
50
(
(C)
EXPLANATION
1.
2.
7.
8.
Furry means violent excitement (rage) and ire is anger. Difference

of degree or intensity exists in the question pair. Convulsion is
more violent muscular contraction as compared to spasm.
In question, codes are formed by skipping three letters, i.e.
A(BCD)E, B(CDE)F, and so on.
There is only two pairs namely RT as ROT EST
1.1 km = 1.1x1000x100 Distance in 1 revolution =
2 x xx 7
22 . 560x2x xx = 1.1x100x100
->-x = 31.25
9.
1
Average = t(61 + 67 + 71 + 73 + 79)
1 = 7 (351) = 70.20
36. Daughter of your Father -> your sister. So the person's mother is
woman's sister i.e. the women is person's aunt.
37. The letters are written in the reverse order first and then except
first and the last letter, each letter is moved one step forward.
38. LetA=l,B = 2, C = 3,
X = 24,
Y = 25, Z = 26
Then M = 13 =1 + 3 = 4 L= 12 = 1 + 2 = 3
Y=
25
=
2
+
5
=
7
0
=
15
=
1
+
5
=
6
T = 20 = 2 + 0 = 2
So, MOBILITY = 46293927
14
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
Similarly,
EXAMINATION = 56149512965
All except showel are tools used for cutting or chopping.
Earth letter of each term is in alphabetic order
In 2004, output was only 160 tonnes but due to higher selling price
of Rs. 240 per tonne, the turnover in rupees was maximum (Rs.
34,800) as compared to previous years.
In 1999, the difference between selling price p^r tonne (Rs. 200/-)
and manufacturing cost per tonne (Rs. 100/-) was the highest.
In 2000 output was 180 tonnes but in 2001 it was reduced to 160
tonnes. Hence, minus 20 tonnes growth.

44. Maximum growth in tonnage. Plus 50 tonnes, 210 tonnes in 2003
compared with 150 tonnes of 2002 = 50 tonnes plus.
50. Total output = 180 tonnes
Manufacturing cost Rs. 150 / tonnes
= 180 x 150 = 27,000 (a)
Sold @ Rs. 210 tonne = 180 x 210 =
37,800 (b)
b a = income Rs. 37,800 - Rs.
27,000
= Rs. 10,800
15.
Practice set - 3
In the question a related pair of words in capital letter is followed by

five pair of words (a - e). Select that lettered pair that expresses the
relationship that is most similar to that of the capitalised pair
VANDALISM : PROPERTY ::
5.
A. Implication : Crine
B. Embezzlement : Froud
C. Perjury : testimony
D. Malpracticing : cheating
E. testify : reputation
If Bus is coded as 'DWU', how will
you code 'ROBS' ?
A. SPCT
B. TQCV
C. TQBU
D. SPDU
6.
In the figure given below, triangle represents the healthy, square
represents the old and circle represents the men. Find out the area
of the figure which represents the men who are healthy but not old
?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 7
Number of letters skipped in between adjacent letters in the series
is two. Which of the following series observes this rule ?
A. MPSVBE
B. QSVYZCF
C. SVZCGJN
D. ZCGKMPR
Kavita walks 3 km northward and then she turns left and moves 2 km.
She again turns left and goes 3 km and turns her right and starts
walking straight. In which direction is she walking now ?
A. West
B. South
C.
North-West
D.
None of these
How many independent words can
'HEARTLESS' be devided into
without changing the order of the
letters and using each letter only
once ?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. can't be so divided
The radius of the circle is reduced by 50 %. Find the percentage of the
circumference by which it is reduced
A. 25
B. 50
C. 75
D. 100
The average age of 12 of a team is
25 years. If the age of the captain
is included, the average age is in
creased by one year is
A. 25
B. 38
C. 36
D. 26
16
9.
A
can
do
a
piece
of
work
in
4
hours,
B
and
C
can
do
it
in
3
hours;
A
and
C
can
do
it
in
2
hours.
How
long
will
B take to do it ?
A. 10 hours
B. 12 hours
C. 8 hours
D. 24 hours
10. A
sum
of
money
amounts
to
Rs.
1760
in
two
years
and
Rs.
2000
in
5
years
at
simple
interest.
Find
the
sum
A. Rs. 1575
B. Rs. 1600 C. Rs. 1625
D. Rs. 1650
DIRECTIONS :
Read the following passage and answer the question No. 11
to 15.
One could, in theory, conceive of a country "specialising" entirely
in agriculture and obtaining all its industrial requirements from
abroad. But it could never become a high income country simply
because technologically devepoped agriculture could never absorb
more than a fraction of the working population on the available
land. Though, in all under-developed countries the greater part of
the working pupolation is "occupied" in agriculture, most of this
represents disguised unemployment; a rural community maintains
all its members and expects everyone to share in the work. Much
the greater part of this labour could be with drawn from agriculture
if alternative employment opportunities were available without any
adverse effect, and probably with beneficial effect, on total
agricultural output. For the relief of the pressure of labour on the
land is itself a most potent factor in inducing improvements in technology which raise yields per
acre, as well as the yield per man. These iprovement normally
require an increase in the capital employed on the land; but the
savings necessary for the increase in the capital themselves a by
product of reduced population pressure. The reduction in the
agricultural population and the increased use of capital in
agriculture are thus different aspects of the same process. As there
are fewer mouths to feed, the "agricultural surplus" rises (the
excess of agricultural production over the self-consumption of
farming population). The rise in the "surplus" enables the farmers
to plough back a higher proportion of their output-in the form of
better tools, improved seeds, fertilisers, etc, and such
improvements tend to to be both "labour saving" and "land
saving"; they diminish the labour require-ments at the same time
as they increase the yield of the land.
11. What,
according
to
the
passage,
will
be
the
achievement
of
inducing
imporovement in technology ?
A. Higher specialisation in agri
culture
B. Better employment opportuni
ties
C. Beneficaial effects on quality of
life of people
D. Relieving the pressure of em
ployment in industry
E. None of these
12. According
to
the
passage,
retically possible to think of a coun-
it
is
theo
17
D&m&m*-
try
....
A. advanced
both
in
agriculture
and industry
B. specialised
in
industry
but
not
in agriculture
C. backward
both
in
agriculture
and industry
D. specialised
in
agriculture
but
riot in industry
E. borrowing
all
its
requirements
from abroad
13. What
could
be
done,
according
to
the
passage,
to
induce
improve
ment in agricultural technology ?
A. Import
of
better
agricultural
technology
B. Providing
better
weather
fore
casts
C. To
relieve
pressure
of
labour
on land
D. Providing irrigation facilities
E. None of these
14. According
to
the
passage,
in
under
developed countries
A. agriculture
is
in
a
primitive
stage
B. per acre yield is very high
C. land is available in plenty
D. alternative
employment
oppor
tunities
will
have
adverse
effect
on the lives of people.
E. significant
proportion
of
work
ing
population
works
in
agri
culture
15. Which
of
the
following
statements
is
TRUE
in
the
context
of
the
pas
sage ?
A. Underdeveloped
rapidly growing industrially
B. Technologically
riculture
solves
lems of unemployment.
16.
17.
countries
are
developed
all
ag
prob
the
18.
19.
20.
21.
C. Relief of the pressure of labour
on land raises yields peracre
D. Yield per acre and yield per
man are unrelated
E. Surplus in agriculture is spent
for domestic purposes
Which of the following is a way to get to a search tool ?
A. Enter the search tool's URL
B. Use a link to the tool, found on
another tool's page
C. Click your browser's search
button
D. All of the above
An FTP site is also known as
A. Protocol
B. FTP client
C. FTP server
D. None of the above
E. All of the above
Which of the following is a valid e-mail address ?
A. www.india.com
B. india@user.com
C. india.user.com
D. All of the above
Which one of the following is a popular mail client ?
A. Netscape Navigator
B. Microsoft Internet Explorer
C. Outlook Express
D. All of these
E. None of these
An
organization
responsible
providing
internet
services
to
tomer is commonly known as
A. GAI
B. ISP
C. TCP/IP
D. MIME
E. URL
Why is curriculum necessary in
18
school ?
A. The total work of school runs
properly by this
B. The class-education is control
led by this
C. The teacher does his work out
side the class properly by this
D. There is the possibility of all
the above
for
cus
22. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
considered
a
part
of
technical
edcation in India
A. Pharmaceutical
B. Aeronautical
C. Medical
D. Management
23. The
problems
of
which
level
in
edu
cation
are
the
most
important
ac
cording to you
A. of primary level
B. of higher secondary level
C. of higher education
D. of technical education
24. Who
should
be
authorised
to
deal
with the Ault education
A. Those who are educated
B. Government
C. Non-Governmental commit
tees
D. Governmental and private
committees both
25. Which
of
the
following
is
a
central
university
A. Chennai university
B. Delhi university
C. Mumbai university
D. Kolkata university
26. The
teacher
should
have
good
knowledge of psychology so that he
A. is able to maintain discipline in
the class
B. can know whether students are
concentrating on studies or not
C. is
able
to
present
the
study
meterial
before
the
students
in
such
a
manner
that
students
are able to understand it.
D. teaches
students
only
then,
when
they
are
willing
to
study
from their hearts.
27. What
type
of
question
would
you
ask
from
students
during
the
course of class teaching ?
A. Related
to
that
lesson
that
is
being taught in the class
B. Related
to
the
lesson
that
has
already been taught
C. Related
to
the
total
knowledge
of students
D. All of these
28. During
the
course
of
class
teaching,
the
teacher
has
to
take
complete
care that
A. students
study
in
a
happy
mood
B. no
student
pays
attention
hither and thither
C. lessons are objective-oriented
D. the
task
of
teaching
the
lesson
is
completed
during
the
period
itself
29. If
a
student
completes
his
home
work
with
the
help
of
his
students
or
Parents/guardians,
then
what
would be your reaction ?
A. you would have the satisfaction
that atleast, he completes his
thy. tie work. B you would incourage him to mplete his
homework on his
own C vou would tell him to complete
his home work ig trie classroom
-self
19
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
D. you would call his parents and talk to them in this cotext
The
secret
of
success
of
class
teach
ing is
A. complete discipline in the class
B. a
balanced
and
good
communi
cation
between
the
teacher
and
his students
C. presence of the visual material
D. abundant use of the blackboard
A
statistical
measure
based
upon
the
entire
population
is
called
pa
rameter
while
measure
based
upon
a sample is known as
A. sample parameter
B. inference
C. statistic
(D. none of these
Generalized
conclusion
on
the
basis
of a sample is technically known as
A. statistical
inference
of
external
validity of the research
B. data
analysis
and
interpreta
tion
C. parameter inference
D. all of the above
A
researcher
selects
a
probability
sample
of
100
out
of
the
total
popu
lation. It is
A. a cluster sample
B. a random sample
C. a stratified sample
D. a systematic sample
The
final
result
of
a
study
will
be
more
accurate
if
the
sample
drawn is
A. taken randomly
B. fixed by quota
C. representative
to
the
popula
tion
D. purpose
A researcher divides his population into certain groups and fixed the size of the sample from each
group. It is called
A. stratified sample
B. quota sample
C. cluster sample
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
D. all of the above

Find out the missing number
703, 665, 607, 559, 511, 463,
A. 413
B. 414
C. 415
D. 416
In
the
following
questions
various
terms
of
a
letter
series
are
given
with
one
term
missing
as
shown.
Choose
the
missing
terms
out
of
the
options
B. E, D, F, , H, J, , L
A. IM
B. M,I
C. I,N
D. J,M
E. K, T
In
a
code,
CORNER
is
written
as
GSVRIV
How
can
CENTRAL
be
written in that code ?
A. DFOUSBM B. GIRXVEP C. GJRYVEP D. GNFJKER
Choose
the
word
which
is
least
like
the other words in the group
A. Tiger
B. Lion
C. Fox
D. Leopard
E. Panther
Pointing
to
a
man,
a
woman
said,
"His
mother
is
the
only
daughter
of
my
mother.
"
How
is
the
woman
related to the man ?
A. Mother
B.
Daughter
C.
Sister
D.
Grand Mother
DIRECTION :
Study the data presented in the following graphs and answer the
questions (41-45).
20
y*
S\
20
04
20
03
20
02
CO
01 0)
a
&
o>
u
3
a
0)
324 318 312 306

300
0
41. What
is
the
total
expenditure
ing
the
period
under
review
months) in 2002.
A. Rs. 21,07,000
B. Rs. 21,96,000
C. Rs. 21,54,000
D. Rs. 21,24,000
42. What
total
expenditure
has
made
during
the
year
2002
2003
in
the
period
covered
in
dur
(7
been
and
the
graph ?
A. Rs. 42,87,000
B. Rs. 2,70,000
C. Rs. 4,827,000
D. Rs. 4,278,000
43. What
is
average
monthly
ture
during
the
year
2004
the period shown in the graph ?
A. Rs. 2,75,000
B. Rs. 2,70,000
C. Rs. 3,14,000
D. Rs. 2,47,000
44. Which
month
has
been
least
sive during 2004 ?
A. June
(B. April
C. May
D. July
45. The expenditure in April 2004 was
% higher than that of
coresponding period in 2003.
3
4
5
6
7
8
(Months)
A. 15%
B. 2%
C. 2.5%
D. 0.94%
46. The
competeroroyof
communication
can
the basis of
be
an
judged
expendi
covering
expen
effective
on
A. Meeting the needs of target

audience.
B. Interactivily with target audi
ence.
C.
Personality of communicator
D.
Experience in the field.
47. The
main
objective
of
public
broad
casting system i.e. Prasar Bharti is
A. Inform, Entertainment & Edu
cation
B. Educate, Interact & entertain
C. Entertainment only
D. Entertain, Information & In
teraction
48. In
which
state
the
maximum
number
of
periodicals
are
brought
out for public information
A. Tamil Nadu
B. Punjab
C. Kerala
D. Uttar Pradesh
49. TV
channel
launched
for
covering
only
Engineering
and
Technology
21
A. Kisan
B. Gyan Darshan
C. Vyas
D. Eklavya
50. Informal communication network within the organization is
known as
A. Mass communication
B. Grapevine communication
C. Interpersonal communication
D. Intrapersonal communication
ANSWER
1
4
7
1
1
1
1
'(C
(A
(B
(B
(C
(C
(E
2
5
8
11
14
17
20
(C)
(A
(B
(B
(E)
(B
(B
3
6
9
1
1
1
21
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
(C
(B
(C
(C
(C
(A
(A
(C
(A
(D
23
26
29
32
35
38
41
44
47
50
(A
(C
(B
(A
(B
(B
(B
(C
(A
(B
2
2
30
3
3
39
4
4
4
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
EXPLANATION
1. Vandalism is a malicious crime related with property. Persury
(False statement) is a crime connected with testimony.
2. In question codes are formed by skipping one letter, i.e. A(B)C,
B(C)D, and so on
6. The words He, ART, LESS
7. Circumference of the circle depends upon its radius.
36. Subtract 48 from each term to get the next, so 463-48 = 415
37. The letters are moving in the form + 2,1,+1.
38. Each letter of the word is moved four steps forward.
39. Al except Fox belong to the cat family.
15. Only daughter of my mother > Myself, So the women is the
man's mother.
40. Total of all monthes, i.e.
306 + 300 + 300 + 306 + 300 + 306 + 306 = 2124
41. Total of 2002 and 2003, i.e.
306 + 300 + 300 + 306 + 300 + 306 + 306 = 2124 (1983) 300
+ 306 + 306 + 312 + 318 + 300 + 312 = 2154(1984)
2124 + 2154 = 4278
42. Total of all months of 2004 divided by 7 = 314,000
43. Curve of 2004 going downward depicts this
318 - 312
44. x 100 = 1.92 or say 2 %
22
Practice set - 4
Educated
4.
In
the
question
a
related
pair
of
words
in
capital
letters
is
followed
by
five
pair
of
words
(a
e).
Select
that
lettered
pair
that
expresses
5.
the
relationship
that
is
most
simi
lar
to
that
of
the
capitalised
pair
REMORSE : ABSOLUTION ::
A. Evasion : Suspicion
B. Horror : Sympathy
C. Disdain : Corruption
D. Banter : Passion
E. Serious : Humour
If 'BEAT is coded as 'EHDW, how
will you code 'ROAD' ?
A. SQCF
B. URDG
C. TQCF
D. UREG
Read the figure and find the region representing persons who are
educated and employed but not confirmed
Employed
Confirmed in job
A. a, c
B. a, b, c
C. b, d
D. a, d, c
The letter skipped in between the
adjacent letters in the series are
followed by equal space. Which of
the following series observes this
rule ?
A. HKNGSW B. RVZDFG
C. RVZDHL
D. SUXADF
Sonia travels 7 km eastward and
then turns right and travels 3 km
and further turns right and trav
els 13 km. How far is Sonia now
from the starting point ?
A. 6 km
B. 7 km
C. 16 km
D. None of these
From the word 'LAPAROSCOPE
how many independent meaningful
words can be made without chang
ing the order of the letters and us
ing
each
letter
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3 D. 4
E. More than 4
The diagonal of a rectangle is 10
cms and is twice the length of one
of the sides. Find the area of the
rectangle in cm ?
A. 25
B. 100
D- lO-s/3"
C 25V3
One of the three numbers whose
average is 60, the first is one fourth
of the sum of the others. The first
is number is
A. 30
B. 36
C. 42
D. 45
A man buys land and gives for it 25
times the annual rent. What rate
of interest does he get for his
money
,1
6- % 4
B.
A.
only
once
12-%
23
C. 5%
D. 4%
10. A tap can empty a tank in one hour and another tap can empty in
30 minutes. If both the taps operate simultoneously, how much
time is needed to empty the tank A. 20 minute B. 30 minute C.
40 minute D. 45 minute
DIRECTIONS :
Read the following passage and answer the question No 11
to 15
The happy man is the man who lives objectively, who has free
affections and wide interest, who secure his happiness through
these interest and affection and through the fact that they, in turn,
make him an object of interest and affection to many others. To be
the recipient of affection is a potent cause of happiness, but the
man who demands affection is not the man upon whom it is
bestowed. The man who receives affection is, speaking broadly the
man who gives it. But it is useless the man who gives it. But it is
useless to attempt to give it as a calculation, in the way in which
one might lend money at interest, for a calculated affection is not
genuine and is not felt to be so by the recipient.
What then can a man do who is unhappy because he is encased in
self? So long as he continues to think about the causes of his un-
happiness, he continues to be self-centred and therefore, does not

got outside the vicious circle, if he is get outside it, it must be
genuine inteest, not by simulated interests adopted merely as a
medicine, although this difficulty is real, there is nevertheless
much that he can
do if he has rightly diagnosed his trouble, if, for example, his trouble is
due to a sense of sin, conscious or unconscious he can first persuade
his conscious mind that he has no reason to feel sinful, and then
proceed to plant his rational conviction in his conviction in his
unconscious mind, concerning himself meanwhile with some more or
less neutral activity. If he succeeds in dispelling the sense of sin, it is
possible that genuine objective interests will arise spontaneously, if his
trouble is self pity, he can deal with it in the same manner after first
persuading himself that there is nothing extraordinarily unfortunate in
his circumstances. If fear is his trouble, let him practice excercises
designed to give courage. Courage has been recognized from time
immemorial as an important virtue, and a great part of training of boys
and young men has been devoted to producing a type of character
capable of fearlessness in battle. But moral courage and intellectual
courage have been much less studied, they also, however, have their
technique. Admit to yourself every day atleast one painful truth, you
will find this quit useful. Teach yourself to feel that life still be worth
living even if you were not as of course you are, immeasurably superior
to all your friends in virtue and in intellgence. Exercises of this sort
prolonged through several years will at last enable you to admit facts
without flinching and will, in so doing ,free you from the empire of fear
over a very large field.
24
11. According
to
the,
lated affection
A. appears to be false and fabated
B. makes other person to love you
C.
turns into permanent affection
passage,
calcu
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
over a period of time

D.
leads to self pity
E.
gives a feeling of courage
Who
according
to
the
passage
is
the happy man?
A. who is encased in self
B. who
has
free
affection
and
wide
interests
C. who is free from wordly passions
D. who
has
externally
centred
pas
sions
E. none of these
Which
of
the
following
statements
is
NOT
TRUE
in
the
context
of
the
passage?
A. Happy man has wide interests.
B. Courage
has
been
recognized
as an important virtue
C. Unhappy
man
is
encreased
in
self
D. A
man
who
suffers
from
the
sense
of
sin
must
tell
himself
that he has no reason to be sinful
E. Issue
of
intellectual
courage
has been extensively studied
Which
of
the
following
virtue,
ac
cording
to
the
passage,
has
been
recognised
for
long
as
an
important
virtue?
A. Patriotism
B. sacrifice
C. courage
D. Self- consciousness
E. none of these
Which
of
the
following
words
is
SIMILAR
in
meaning
of
the
word
"bestowed" as used in the passage?
A. Conferred
B. Accommodated
C. Thrusted
D. Withdrawn
E. Directed
Which protocols are used to connect
to the internet over dial-up lines ?
A. SLIP
B. Token ring
C. SMTP
D. POP
E. FDDI
Your
outbox
or
unsent
messages
folder holds messages that
A. you've thrown out
B. you've composed but not yet sent

C. contain outrageous statements
D. contain ideas that are not "in"
E. All of the above
18. When
a
subject
line
in
a
message
you've
received
begins
with
RE:,
the message must be
A. a repulsive one
B. a recent one
C. a reply to a message you sent
to someone
D. a republican one
19. IRC stands for.
A. Internet Real-time Communi
cations
B. Internet Relay Chat
C. Internet Real-time Chat
D. All of the above
20. When
you
share
a
chat
room
with
members
using
chat
client
other
than Microsoft chat ?
A Everyone sees the session comics
B. Everyone sees the session as
text
C. You see the session as comics,
but they see it as text
D.
Chat users cannot share a room
with non-chat users

E.
None of the above
21. Match
list
I
with
the correct answer from the code
list
II
and
select
25
'3^j5fei^^S^^g^^tlS^Ste^^^to6^~ii- ^MM!^,*. -
1.
2.
3.
4.
22.
23.
24.
25.
given below
List I
List II
(Institutions)
(Location)
Indian Veterinary
I. Pune Research Institute
Institute of Arma- II. Izat Nagar ment Technology
Indian Institure of III. Delhi science
National Institute IV Bangalore for education
pannesi and Administrations
A. 1 (II), 2 (I), 3 (IV), 4 (III)
B. 1 (II), 2 (IV), 3 (II), 4 (III)
C. 1 (II), 2 (III), 3 (I), 4 (IV)
D. 1 (IV), 2 (III), 3 (II), 4 (I)
After
which
period
the
commissions
should
be
in your opinion
A. Every year
B. After ten years at least
C. After five years at least
D. Whenever necessity is felt
Why do you want to pass B.ed. ?
A.It is the easiest course for a
' graduate
B. It is easy to get success in it
C. I have interest in teaching
D. My parent want this
Why
are
commissions
from
time
to
time
in
the
education ?
A Needs of society remain changing
B. charges in education take place
C. New curriculum is required
D. To consider all the above issues
Why
is
Advisory
Committee
sary in schools
A. school work runs properly due
to this
B. It helps the principal in his work
C. It works in the interest of stu
educational
appointed
necessary
field
of
neces
dents
D. It looks after all the above
26. During
the
course
of
class
teaching,
students
put
their
queries
and
doubts
before
you.
What
would
you
do in such a situation ?
A. You
would
note
down
their
que
ries
and
doubts.
Later,
you
would
answer
the
queries
and
eliminate
the
doubts
of
stu
dents
B. you
would
tell
them
that
they
should
remove
their
doubts
at
a later stage
C. you
would
remove
their
doubts
and
answer
their
qeries
imme
diately
D. you
would
reprimand
those
stu
dents
who
raise
doubts
and
put
forth
queries
and
tell
them
to
sit down
27. What
is
the
loss
accuring
to
the
stu
dents
because
of
their
habit
of
cramming ?
A. Their
intelligence
is
not
devel
oped
B. They
are
not
able
to
genuine
contemptation
C. Their self-confidence is lost
D. They
are
cut-off
from
class
teaching
28. In
order
to
ensure
the
development
of a little child, you would
A. help
him
get
the
habit
of
cram
ming
B. lay
emphasis
on
his
self-activ
ity
C. Faciliate
his
tendency
for
sports/games
D. give
him
the
education
of
there
R'S
29. It
is
said
that
a
teacher
always
keeps
on
learning.
In
your
view,
he
learns
to
the
maximum
extent
from
his
26
A. friends/colleagues
B. Books
C. students
D. Principals
30. What is your opinion about giving
corporal punishment to students ?
A. It
is
necessary;
spoiled
in
the
poral punishment
B. The
result
of
punishment is always negative
C. Adminstration
of
ishment
is
not
for the teacher and student
D. Punishment
should
only if other means fail
31. A good hypothesis should be
A. precise,
specific
with most known facts
B. Formulated
in
such
it can be tested by the data
C. of
limited
scope
have global significance
D. all of these
32. Hypothesis can not stated in
A. null and question form terms
B. declaritive terms
C. general terns
D. directional terms
students
absence
of
giving
corporal
corporal
beneficial
pun
both
be
given
and
a
and
get
cor
consistent
way
that
should
not
33. Logic of induction is very close to

A. the logic of Sampling
B. the logic of observation
C. the
logic
of
the
controlled
able
D. none of the above
34. In order to augment the accuracy
of the study a researcher
A. sould
increase
the
size
of
sample
B. should be honest and unbiased
C. should keep the variance high
D. all of these
35. All causes non-sampling errors except
A. faulty toold of measurement
B. inadequate sample
C. non-response
D. defect in data collection
36. Pointing
to
a
lady,
a
man
said
son
of
her
only
brother
is
brother
of
my
wife".
How
is
the
related to man ?
A. Mother's sister
B. Grand Mother
C. Mother-in-law
D. Maternal aunt
E. Sister of the father-in-law
37. Choose the word which is least like
vari
the
"the
the
lady
the other words in the group

A. Reader
B. Writer
C. Printer
D. Publisher
E. Reporter
38. Find out the missing number
1,4,27,16,125,36,
A. 343
B. 64
C. 121
D. 216
39. In
each
of
the
following
questions
various-terms
of
a
letter
series
are
given
with
one
term
missing
as
shown.
Choose
the
missing
terms
out of the options.
CX, FU, IR, , OL, RI
A. LO
B. MN
C. NO
D. OP
E. OR
40. According
to
a
Military
code,
SYS
TEM
is
SYSMET
and
NEARER
is
AENRER.
What
is
the
code
for
FRACTION ?
A. CARFTINO B. FRACNOT C. CARFTION D. ARFCNOIT E.
CARFNOIT
DIRECTIONS :
For questiong 45-45 refer to the followong tabular statement which
records performance of department of surgery of a hospital for the
period January to July.
27
Mont
h
Jan
Feb
March
April
May
June
July
Total
successful
operations
E.N.T.
Eyes
2
3
3
1
3
2
4
22
2
1
2
0
2
Total
unsuccessful
operations
Total number
of operations
performed
3
4
2
3
2
3
4
8
16
23
32
38
44
50
41. How many successful operations

were performed upto July ?.
47.
A. 32
B. 29
C. 25
D. 21
42. What percentage of operations
were successful during the period
coverd in the statement above ?
A. 75%
B. 60%
C. 58%
D. 29%
43. Which month was worst as per data
given in the statement
48.
A. February
B. April
C. May
D. June
44. Operations performance of which
months can be termed the best
A. January
B. March
C. April
D. May
45. If there are 50 more operations left
to be performed, how many opera49.
tions must be successful in order
to make the over all percentage of
successful operations to 70 ?
A. 39
B. 35
C. 41
D. 34
46. Informal communication network
within the organization is known as
50.
B. Mass communication
C. Interpersonal communication
D. Intrapersonal communication The competerroy of an effective
communicater can be judged on the basis of
A. personality of communicator
B. meeting the needs of target
audience
C.
Experience in the field
D. Interactivity with target audi
ence
The main objective of public broadcasting system i.e. Prasar Bharti is
A. Entertainment only
B. Inform, Entertainment & edu
cation
C. Entertain, Information & In
teraction
D. Educate, Interact & entertain
TV channel launched for covering
only engineering and technology
A. Eklavya
B. Kisan
C. Vyas
D. Gyan Darshan
In which state the maximum number of periodicals are brought out for
public information A. Kerala
28
B. Uttar Pradesh
C. Tamil Nadu
D. Punjab
1
4
7
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
(A
)
(C
(C
(A
(E
(A
(B
(D
(D
(B
(D
(D
(A
(E
(C
(A
(A
ANSWE
2
(B)
5
(D)
8
(B)
11 (A)
14 (C)
17 (B)
20
(C)
23
(C)
26
(E)
29
(E)
32
(E)
35
(B)
38
(A)
41
(B)
44
(B)
47
(B)
50
(A)
3
6
9
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
(
C
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
1.
2.
6.
7.
EXPLANATION
To exilibit remorse may result in absolution (freedom from
consequence of a previous act) and to respond to questions with
evasion may evoke suspicion. Cause and effect relationship.
In question codes are formed by Skipping two letters, i.e. A (BC) D;
B (C D) E; and so on.
The words are LAP and COPY.
102= x2+ y2 and 10 = 2x or x =5
-> y2 = 75 or y = 5^3
/. Area of the rectangle = 5x 5v3cn2
= 25V3cm2
8.
9.
Some
3x60 = 180
of
three
First No = - of 180 =36 5

Let
the
annual
rent
The
investment
is,
Thus
the
interest
on
year Rs. Re. 1
int.xlOO _ 1 x 100
-> rate = ~ ~ ~Ê T ~
pxt
25 x 1
numbers
be
Rs.
therefore,
Rs
25
1
Rs.
(say).
25.
for
1
10. using short cut method

Both pipes will empty the tank in
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
18.
43.
60 x 30
min. i.e. in 20 min.
60 x 30
Brother of my wife -> My brother in law; Son of ladye's brother is
the brother in-law of the man. So lady's brother is man's father in
law i.e. the lady is the sister of man's father in law.
All except reader are persons involved in the preparation of the
book, newspaper etc.
The pattern of the series is l3, 23,
33, 42, 53, 62, 73
Thus the
next number be 343.
First letter of each group is +3 and second letter is - 3 steps.
Letters are divided into two halves and then reversed.
Add the number of successful operations given in the 4th column 5
+ 4 + 5 + 6 + 4 + 3 + 2 = 29
Out of the total operations performed, 29 were successful on 58
%.
In July the number of unsuccessful operations was more than
successful operations performed.
In
March
five
operations
were
suc
cessful
and
two
were
unsuccessful
or
say
70
%
compared
with
the
pre
vious month.
29
Practice set - 5
1.
In
the
question
below,
a
related
pair
of
words
in
capital
letters
is
followed
by
five
pair
of
words
(a
e).
Select
that
lettered
pair
that
expresses
the
relationship
that
is
most
similar
to
that
of
the
capital
ised pair :
INK : PAPER ::
:
A. pen : pencil
B. paint : painting
C. chalk : blackboard
D. feltboard : drawing pins
2.
3.
E. carbon paper : bollpoint pen

If
'ROAD'
is
coded
as
'WTFI',
select
appropriate code for BEAT
A. URDG
B. UREG
C. TQCF
D. GJFY
In
the
following
diagram,
parallelo
gram
represents
women,
triangle
represents
sub-inspectors
of
police
and
circle
represents
graduates.
Which
numbered
area
represents
women
graduate
sub-inspectors
of
police ?
A. 5
B. 3
C. 8
D. 13
4. Which of the following series observes the rule, Skip in between
adjacent letters, increasing one letter more each time to build a set of letters ?
A. ACFKLQ
B. BDGKPV C. CEHLQV
D. HILPUZ
5.
Sita and Ram both start from a
point towards north and walk
10km. Sita turns to her left and
Ram
turns
his
right.
Sita
waits
from
some
time
and
then
walks
another
5
km
in
the
same
direction
in
which
she
turned.
On
the
other
hand
Ram
walks
only
3
km.
Sita
then
turns
towards
her
left
and
Ram
turns
to
wards
his
right.
Both
now
walk
15
km
forward.
How
far
is
sita
from
Ram now ?
A. 15 km
B. 10 km
C. 8 km
D. 12 km
E. 7 km
6. From
the
word
'ASTOUNDER'
how
many
indepenent
words
can
be
made
without
changing
the
order
of
the
letters
and
using
each
letter
only once ?
A. Nil
B. One
C. Two
D. Three
E. four
7. Two cylinders have their heights in
the ratio 1 : 2. If their volumes are
equal, find the ratio of their radii
A. 1:2
B. 1:4
C. V21
D. 4:1
8. The
average
of
seven
consecutive
numbers
is
20.
The
largest
of
these
number is
A. 24
B. 23
C. 22
D 20
30
9.
A
is
twice
as
good
a
workman
as
B
and
Both
can
finish
a
job
in
14
days.
In
how
many
days
B
will
finish
it
alone ?
A. 12
B. 15
C. 21
D. 42
10. By
how
much
would
the
compound
interest
exceed
the
simple
interest
if
the
sum
of
Rs
8800
were
invested
at 5 % p.a. for 3 years
A. Rs 70.10
B. Rs. 67.10 C. Rs. 73.10
D. Rs. 65.10
DIRECTION :
Read the following passage and answar the question nos. 11 to
15
Even-minded endurance is called TITIKSHA in Sanskrit. I have practised

his mental neutrality. I have sat and meditated all night long in icy water in
bitterly cold weather. Similarly, I have sat from morning till evening on the
burning hot sands in India. I gained great mental strength by doing so. When
you have practised such self-discipline, your mind become impervious to all
disturbing circumstances. If you think you can't do something, your mind is a
slave. Free yourself.
I don't mean that you should be rash. Try to rise above disturbance
gradually. Endurance is what you must have. Whatever may be your trouble,
make a supreme effort to remedy it without worry; and until it is resolved
practise titiksha. Isn't this practical wisdow ? If you are young and strong,
then as you gradually strengthen your will and mind you can practise more
rigid methods of self-discipline as I did.
If you are thinking that the winter weather is coming and you are bound
to catch cold, you are not developing mental strength. You have already committed yourself to certain weakness. When
you feel you are susceptible to catching a cold menially resist it. This is the
right mental attitude. In your heart, sincerely do your best at all times , but
without anxiety. Worry only paralyses your efforts. If you do your best God will
reach down his hand to help you.
If you do not acknowledge weakness in the face of troubles and if you
refuse to worry about your problems, you will find out how much more
successful, peaceful and happy you are. Daily make this affirmations. I will
be neither lazy nor feverishly active in every challenge of life I shall do my
best without worry about the future.
Don't grieve for what you don't have. The most materially successful man
may have the greatest worries and unhappiness. In contrast I have seen in
humble little huts and caves in India men who were true monarches. The
earthly "throne" of one such saint was a dried grass mat. He wore only a little
loincloth. Such are the real kings of the earth. Some of them have no food,
nothing at all they are richer than the world's millionaires. In biting cold
weather, I saw one saint in the Himalayas who had nothing on. "Won't you
catch cold ?" I said, Sweetly he answered, "If I am warm with God's love, how
can I feel the cold"? Saints like him are greater than any crowned king. If
without food, without any visible
means of security, such men can be like kings, peaceful and without
worry, why can't you ? 11. What according to the passage,
materially successful men may
have ?
A. All comforts at the cost of others
31
12.
13.
14.
15.
(B. Facing odds with mental equlibrium

C. Self-discipline
of
body
as
well
as mind
D. Problem,
tension
and
sadness
of greater proportion
What
according
to
the
passage,
will
make you happy and successful ?
A. Not
grieving
over
what
you
have or don't have
B. Not being too rash in behaviour
C. Not
getting
too
much
con
cerned about your problems
D. Not
allowing
your
mind
to
withdraw in a shell
E. None of these
Which
of
the
following
is
SIMILAR
in
meaning
as
the
word
'affirma
tion' as used in the passage ?
A. proclamation
B. resolution
C. pretention
D. dedication
E. observation
Which of the following is OPPO
SITE in meaning of the word
'grieve as used in the passage ?
A. admire
B. criticise
C. rejoice
D. lament
E. Ignore
What
has
the
author
of
the
passage
practised in his life ?
A. Making
daily
affirmations
that
he
will
not
indulge
in
lazyness
or inactivity
B. Developing
a
positive
attitude
and supportive frame of mind
C. Living
in
huts
and
caves
in
In
dia
D. Self-discipline
to
attain
neu
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
trality
E. None of these
Which
dial
in
protocol
provides
error checking for frames ?
A. TFP/TP
B. LLC
C. Slip
D. PPP
E. None of these
In India
is responsible for
providing internet access.
A. MTNL
B. VSNL
C. Reliance
D. BSNL E. Both (A) and (B)
Internet
e-mail
is
based
on
stand
ards known as
A. Protocols
B. Networks C. Topology
D. Procedures E.
All these
Banks are using the web for.
A. Dissemination of Information
B. Financial Advices
C. To Highlight Non-Banking Ac
tivities
D. A node for commerce
E. All of above
The
banks
are
not
using
the
web
for.
A. Bill Payments
B. Balance Enquiry
C. Selling Financial Products
D. Account Services
E. None of above
Identify the main principle on
which
the
parliamentory
oprates
A. Responsibility of executive to
legislature
B. Supremacy of parliament
C. Supremacy of Judiciary
D. Theory of separation of power
22. Education
provides
the
help
A. In the social development of a
boy
B. In the integrated development
of the boys personality
C. In the mental development of
the boy
D. In the moral development of
system
greatest
32
the boy
23. The proper system for education is
A. The
present
examination
sys
tem
B. The
examination
system
with
books
C. Semester - system
D. Objective question paper
24. The truest education of the boy is
A. That
which
creates
global
atti
tude
B. That
which
creates
rigid
na
tional attitude
C. That
which
creates
institution
alised religious attitude.
D. That
which
creates
anti-reli
gious and scientific attitude.
25. Education at best is
A. The
emotional
development
of
boys
B. The
process
of
indoctrinating
the
religious
dogmas
among
students
C. The process of following of boys
D. The
intellectual
development
of boys
26. If
a
teacher
condemns
a
student
in
the class, what would be its effect ?
A. All
the
students
would
praise
the courage of the teacher
B. The
students
in
question
would
feel
insulted
hence,
discour
aged
C. The
teacher
has
the
right
to
condemn or praise any student
D. All
the
students
would
become
the opponents of that teacher
27. What
type
of
relations
would
you
like
to
maintain
with
other
teacher
of the school ?
A. Only stop-gap type
B. The
ones
is
which
teachers
praise one another
C. Those between competitors
D. Those
of
cooperation
and
col
laboration
28. During
the
course
of
class
teaching,
the
teacher
should
ask
such
ques
tions
A. as
have
already
been
crammed
by students
B. as
should
enhance
the
knowl
edge levels of students
C. as
should
be
answered
by
stu
dents
on
the
basis
of
previous
knowledge acquired by them
D. as
should
be
related
to
a
lesson
that
the
teacher
is
going
to
teach
29. The
class
teaching
work
would
not
be of good quality until and unless :
A. students are not disciplined
B. the
teacher
does
not
interest
in
teaching
C. the
student
does
not
take
inter
est in studies
D. there
is
not
enough
of
contact
between
the
students
and
the
teacher
(so
that
the
students
can
learn
and
the
teacher
can
tell)
30. The
proof
of
complete
expertise
in
knowledge
gained
by
a
student
is
that he :
A. has
acquired
that
knowledge
through tail
B. has
fully
understood
that
knowledge
C. can
successfully
use
that
knowledge
D. has
aequired
/
gained
knowl
edge theoretically
31. All
are
examples
of
qualitative
variables except
A. religion and caste
B. sex
C. observation
33
D. interest of the subject
32. An
example
of
seientific
edge is
A. Authority of the prophet or
great men
B. Social traditions and customs
C. religious scriptures
D. laboratory and field experi
ment
33. A
research
problem
is
feasible
when
A. it is researchable
B. it is new and adds something
to knowledge
C. it has utility and relevance
D. all of these
34. Formulation
of
hypothesis
may
be necessary in
knowl
only
not
35.
36.
37.
38.
A. survey studies
B. Fact finding (Historical stud
ies)
C. movemative studies
D. experimental studies
studying
the
social
status
of
a
popu
lation
a
researcher
concluded
that
Mr.
X
is
socially
backward.
His
con
clusion is
A. wrong
B. right
C. inaccurate D. biased
In
a
certain
language
CHAMPION
is
coded
as
HCMAIPNO,
how
is
NEGATIVE coded in that code ?
A. ENAGITEV
B. NEAGVEIT
C. MGAETVIE
D. EGAITEVN
E. NEGATIEV
If
'nitco
Sco
tingo'
stands
for
'softer
than
flower',
'tingo
rho
mst'
stands
for
'sweet
flower
fragrance"
and
'mst
sco
tmp.
stands
for
'Sweet
than
smile',
what
would
fragrance
statnd for ?
A. rho
B. mst
C. tmp
D. sco
Choose
the
word
which
is
least
like
the other words in the group-
A. Book
B. Paper
C. Pencil
D. Pen
E. Sharpener
39. Find out the missing number
73,71,67,61,59,
A. 57
B. 55
C. 53
D. 51
40. Pointing
to
an
old
man
in
the
pho
tograph,
Amit
said,
"His
son
is
my
son's
uncle."
How
is
the
old
man
related to Amit ?
A. Brother
B. uncle
C. father
D. Grand father
E. None of these
DIRECTIONS : (41-45) The following diagram showing
labour and amentities cost budget of various allocations study
and answer the following questions.
40%
E
8%
A = Canteen ex18% .
A
B
=
C
=
25% /
D
=
E
penses
Recreatio
n and
tainment
Health
accidents
Social
security
and
insurance
Contigen
41. If 50 % of contigencies funds are used towards health and

accidents, what will be the expenditure in rupees under this head,
keeping the total budget unchanged ? A. Rs 39 lac B. Rs 150 lac C.
Rs 174 lac D. Rs 51 lac
34
42. From
the
total
budget,
if
the
teen
and
social
security
heads
reduced
by
25
%
and
10
%
tively,
what
saving
could
achieved ?
A. Rs 170 lac
B. Rs 157. 71 lac
can
are
respec
be
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
C. Rs 37.55 lac
D. Nil
How
much
amount
is
saved
if
contigency
fund
is
not
utilized,
and
11.25%
of
recreation
budget
is
over
spent ?
A. Rs251ac
B. Rs 84 lac C. Rsl81ac
D. Nil
If
insurance
premiums
during
the
year
amount
to
6.8
%
of
the
social
security
and
insurance
budget,
how
much
amount
is
left
for
spending
on social security ?
A. Rs. 54 lac
B. Rs. 55 lac C. Rs. 75 lac
D. Rs. 20 lac
By increasing the total budget 3
times, how much amount will be
increased on canteen expenses ?
A. Rs. 360 lac B. Rs. 361 lac
C. Rs. 240 lac D. None of these
TV
channel
launched
for
covering
only
engineering
and
technology
A. Vyas
B. Eklavya
C. Kisan
D. Gyan Darshan
Informal
communication
network
within the organization is known as
B. Interpersonal communication
C.
Intrapersonal communication
D.
Mass communication
48. The
main
objective
of
public
broad
casting
system
i.e.
Prasar
Bharti
is
A. Inform, Entertainment & Education
B. Entertainment only
C. Entertainment, Information &
Intraction
D. Educate, Interact & Entertain
49. In
which
state
the
maximum
number
of
periodicals
are
brought
out for public information
A. Uttarpradesh
B. Kerala
C. Punjab
D. TamilNadu
50. The
competency
of
an
effective
com
municator
can
be
judged
on
the
ba
sis of
A. Meeting the needs of target
audience
B. Interactivity with target audi
ence
D. Personality of communicator
ANSWERS
1
4
7
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
(C
(B
(C
(B
(B
(D
(E
(B
(B
(C
(D
(B
(A
(E
(C
(B
(B
2
5
8
11
14
17
20
23
26
29
32
35
38
41
44
47
50
(D)
(C)
(B)
(D)
(C)
(E)
(C)
(C)
(B)
(D)
(D)
(C)
(A)
(A)
(B)
(A)
(A)
3
6
9
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
35
6.
EXPLANATION
ink is used to write on paper and chalk is used to write on
blackboard.
In question codes are formed by skipping four lettters, i.e. P
(BCDE) F; B (CDGF) G; and so on
The words are AS, TO UNDER,
7.
7tr2.x = 7tR2.2x
1.
2.
8.
.\^- =
>7t:R = V2:l
R2
1
Some
of
seven
bers is 7 x 20 = 140
The middle number i.e. 4th number
consecutive
num
= -xl40 = 20
7
Largest is the seventh number which will be Rs. 23.
9. A = 2B->A + B = 3B
Now A + B can do the job in 14 days -> 3 B can do it in 14 days or
B alone can do it in 42 days.
36. Letters are reversed in pairs.
37. In the first and second statements, the common code word code
word is 'tingo' and the common word is 'flower' So 'tingo' means
'flower : In the second and third statement the common code is
'mst' and the common word is 'sweet : so mst means 'sweet :
Hence in the second statement 'rho' stands bor 'fragrance :
38. All except book are stationary items
39. prime number in decreasing number series, next number is 53
40. Amit's son's uncle -> Amit's brother. So the old man's son is Amit's
brother i.e. the old man is Amit's father.
41. 9 % of Rs 300.4 lac = 27 lac + 50 % of contigencies fund (50 % of
8 % - 4 %) = 4%ofRs300.41ac
= 12 lac, 27 lac + 12 lac = 39 lac
42. Total budget for canteen = 120.16 lac. 25 % reduction (25 % of
120.16) = 30.04 (saving). Total budget for social security = 75.10
lac 10 % reduction (10% of 75.10) = 7.51 - 37.55 lac
43. Recreation fund over spent by 11.25 % = 6 lac (being 11.25 % of
54 lac, 54 lac is 18 % of Rs 300.4 lac earmarked for recreation)
Non-utilisation of contigency fund which is 8% of total budget of
300.4 = 24 lac saving
Hence, total saving = 24 lac - 6 lac = 18 lac
44. Total social security and insurance budget = 25 % of 300.4 lac = 75 lac less 6.8 % spent on insurence only = 20 lac 75 - 20 = 55 lac
of expence on health = 25 % - 6.8 % of total budget of 300.4 = 55
lac.
45. 3 times increase = 200 % increase 200 % increase on total budget
= 300.4 x 2 = 600.8
40 % (canteen expenses) of 600.8 lac = 240.32 or 240 lac.
36
Section 1 POLITICAL THEORY AND THOUGHT
1
Ancient Indian Political
Thought: Kautilya
and Shanti Parva
According to the Western scholar, the ancient Hindus made no contribution to the
science of Politics. The Indian sphere, where the Indian mind found itself at liberty to
act, to create and to worship was the sphere of religion and philosophy. However, this
view has been refuted by the Indian scholars like Dr. D.R. Bhandarkar and Dr. Beni
Prasad. According to Dr. Bhandarkar it is not correct to say that "the Hindu mind did
not conduce to the development of political theories, specially after Kautilya's
Arthashastra has come to light. In fact, Kautilya himself acknowledges that four
schools of polity and several treatises on statecraft existed before him. However, the
main themes of Indian political thought are not available in any single work and lie
scattered in various social, religious and other works. Various strings of Indian
political thought can be picked up from works like Vedas, Mahabharata, Smritis,
Kumandakiya Nitisara, and compilations of Hindu lawyers etc.
The ancient Indian political thought and institutions have some distinct features
which are as
under:
1. Firstly, the ancient Indian political thought and institutions have a continuity.
The ancient thinkers not only carefully maintained what their predecessors had
said but also recorded their divergent opinion, and thus added to the totality
and continuity of the subject.
2. Secondly, the ancient Indian political thought was in the main, developed in
Northern India and the races of South did not make any notable original
contribution.
3. Thirdly, the ancient thought was intimately linked with religion and ethics
and development of the normal standards
of the people.
4.
Fourthly, despite the religious and moral
undertone, the ancient Indian political
thought was intensely realistic in
character.
Fifthly, the political ideas were to a large
extent influenced by the monarchical
states which were predominant in
northern India.
was
6. Sixthly, politics in ancient India intimately linked with other subjects and was
not treated as an isolated or exclusive subject of study.
7. Seventhly, the priestly and ruling classes occupied a prominent position in the
society in the ancient times. However, later on the priestly class was deprived
of this important status.
KAUTILYA
Kautilya, the author of world reknowned treatise Arthashastra, was born in 350 B.C.
when the country was badly divided. Kautilya admits in the opening lines of his book,
that he summarised the views of earlier scholars on Arthashastra regarding the
acquisition and preservation of dominion. However, it would be wrong to assume that
Kautilya's work was merely an abstract of the earlier literature on the subject.
According to Prof. Ghoshal, the Arthashastra of Kautilya is much more than a
summary of the earlier literature on the subject; it involves, in the form of a closer
analysis of the earlier ideas and notions, a virtual reconstruction of the science."
4 UGCPolitical Science
#<Jx&,^*^
However, in one respect Kautilya failed because, he completely neglected

abstract speculation. His work deals with the art of government and kindred
topics and does not deal with the theory of state.
Kautilya, like his predecessors, believed in seven elements of state viz. Svamin,
Amatya, Janapada, Durga, Kosha, Bala and Mitra. He discussed the qualities and
functions of the King at considerable length. Kautilya says "The king should avoid
injuring the women and the property of others and should shun falsehood,
haughtiness and evil proclivities; he should-enjoy pleasure without disregarding
virtue and wealth or else enjoy this in an equal measure with the latter." A notable
feature of Kautilya's contribution to political theory was his emphasis on education

and self-control of the ruler. Kautilya did not favour the king to depend on the advice
of any single minister because such an advice could possibly be based on selfish
motives. He wanted the king to consult a number of ministers and then come to
conclusion. Regarding the qualities of the minister, Kautilya insisted that he should be
native, born of high ^ family, influential, well trained in arts, possessed $ of foresight,
wise, of strong arm, bold eloquent, jp skilful, intelligent, pure in character, firm in
loyal t- devotion, affectionate and free from such qualities as excite hatred and
enemity.
Kautilya attached great importance to state finances and advised the king to
keep the treasury full. Taxes should be levied on people in due consideration of
their difficulties, but no leniency should be shown in collection of taxes. Kautilya
stood for state control over trade and commerce. He favoured fixation of prices
of commodities of day-to-day use so that no hardship was caused to the people.
Kautilya wanted the state to regulate and control foreign trade so that the
traders and citizens did not smuggle the goods.
Kautilya wanted the ruler to work for the moral and social advancement of the
people and to develop healthy employer-employee relations. He also laid down
detailed rules for the treatment of the slaves. Kautilya was against territorial
aggrandisement. He cautioned the King against ^,1^ coveting the territory, wealth,
sons arid one who <^ was slain. Kautilya advised the conqueror king to accord kind
and considerate treatment to the people of the conquered territory.
Kautilya's views on foreign policy were designed to serve and promote the
interests of the state. The basic principle of his foreign policy was expediency. He
says "He, who is losing strength in comparison with another, shall make peace; he
who is growing strong shall make war; he who > thinks that neither can the enemy
hurt him nor he the enemy, shall observe neutrality; he who has an excess of
advantage shall march; he who is wanting in strength shall seek protection; he who
undertakes work requiring assistance shall adopt the dual policy."
Since the views of Kautilya are quite akin to Machiavelli, the great modern European
political thinkers, scholars have emphasised the following common points: (i) Both
favoured a strong ruler to overcome anarchical conditions prevailing in the society;
(ii) Both insisted on keeping keen observation about the conditions prevailing in the
neighbouring enemy states; (iii) both laid emphasis on the principle of political
expediency. However, Kautilya and Machiavelli also differ in several respects, (i)
Kautiliya's work is more extensive than that of Machiavelli; (ii) While Kautilya
concerned himself with security of state, Machiavelli stood for the ideal of territorial
aggrandisement; (iii) Kautilya's King was not absolute and Worked within limitations
of law or Dharma; Machiavelli favoured a monarch without any restrictions on his
authority; (iv) Kautilya permitted immoral statecraft only in extreme cases, while
Machiavelli fully sacrificed moral principles, to promote end of public good; (v)
Kautilya permitted the individual great amount of independence and autonomy, while
Machiaveli held that individual liberty, as permitted by state,
could be permitted.
SHANTI PARVA
It is a part of Mahabharata which throws useful light on the political philosophy and
administration of that time. It deals with different theories regarding the origin of
state as well as kingship. It also deals with other aspects of political life viz. duties
of the king, and the responsibilities of ministers. We learn from the Shanti Parva
that the King had assumed enormous powers and his advisers did not exercise any
effective control over him. Shanti Parva also provides useful information about the
various
Ancient Indian Political Thought: Kautilya and Shanti
Parva 5
political thinkers of the period and the school to which they belonged.
Shanti Parva gives a description of the state which quite resembles that of
Hobbes. It envisages a two-stage contract for the creation of state. During the first
stage, the state worked on the basis of reciprocity, love and peace. However, this
state did not last long because due to passion and greed people fell prey to selfaggrandisement. Tired of these conditions, people decided to enter into a pact that
none would injure others.
According to Shanti Parva, Brahma codified the laws and wrote first book on
polity. For the interpretation of these laws people approached God who sent Manu to
subdue anarchy and establish order. Thus, the King draws all authority from God. In
short, Shanti Parva holds that state is the creation of both human effort and divine
intervention. It is the duty of the King to protect the weak and prevent anarchy. If he
fails to do so the people are justified in devising the means to get rid of the king.
Another notable feature of Shanti Parva is that it draws a distinction between the
state and society. It considers King as an important element of state. The other
important elements listed by it are the people, the ministers, the army, the treasury,
the system of justice and friends of King. Shantiparva states that bodies like Sabha,
Samiti, Srenis etc existed but they failed to check the abuse of authority by the King.
The King was expected to act according to law and Dharma. A king who acted
contrary to these lost righteous. The king was expected to eschew evil passions,
practice charity and do good to the subjects. Mahabharata analysis the merits of
different forms of government and considered democracy as a better system of
government because it inspires all to work for the state.
Shantiparva made a departure from the current thinking and laid emphasis on
political realism. Though Mahabharata praises the truthful actions, it permitted the
use of all those means which would secure the end with minimum cost and hardship
to all concerned. The ruler was permitted to make use of even evil means to secure
the best results under exceptional circumstances.
Mahabharata paints the picture of an ideal state in which all castes perform their
functions and do
not meddle in the affairs of the state. On its part, the state was expected to maintain
the system, protect the family and property of all and provide security to weak,
aged, women, children, dumb, lame, poor and sanyasins. State was expected to help
cultivators, artisans, traders during normal times and provide relief during famines,
floods, epidemics etc. In fact, the state depicted in the Mahabharata was a welfare
state in which men lived fearlessly like sons living in the house of their father.
Mahabharata attached great importance to property and expected the state to
protect the same. The property of Bramanas in particular was not to be confiscated
even during the period of dire distress.
^'< *. ?/vjvjj\
In short it can be said that Shanti Parva contains several ideas which have
become part of the modern thinking. This includes the concept of equality and
provision of conditions which are helpful to the individual in realisation of his
potential.
Objective Type Questions

1. Though there is controversy regarding the
age of Kautilya, the most common view is
that he existed in
(a) 200 B.C.
(b) 300 B.C.
(c) 400 B.C.
(d) None of the above.
V^
^
T
2.
The
book
which
containes
Kautilya is titled
(a) Arthshastra
(b) Rajya
(c) Polity
(d) Nitisara
3. Kautilya's Arthshastra deals with
(a) art of government
(b) theory of stage
(c) both (a) and (b)
4. Which
one
of
the
following
wrongly
listed
by
Kautilya
as
of state?
(a) Swamin (sovereign)
(b) Durg(fort)
(c) Mitra(ally)
(a)
5. According to Kautilya there

(a) four elements of State
(b) five elements Of State
the
has
an
ideas
of
been
element
(c) six elements of State

(d) seven elements of State
6. Which
one
of
the
following
elements
of
state
has
been
described
by
Kautiliya
as
the soul of state?
(a) Swamin (sovereign)
(b) Amatya (minister)
(c) Kosha (Treasury)
(d) Bala (army)
7. Which
one
of
the
following
in
Kautilya
constituted
an
advance
in
political
theory
over earlier "writers?
(a) king's education
(b) control over six senses by the King
8. Consider the following statements.
1. Kautilya wanted the king to consult a number of ministers and .then
come to conclusion.
2. Kautilya wanted the state to promote education, fine arts etc.
3. Kautilya attached great importance to state finances and advised the
King to keep the treasury full.
4. Kautilya wanted the King to manage the affairs of the state with the
help of one or two trusted ministers only.
The correct answer is
(a) 1,2 and 3
(b) 1,3 and 4
(c) 1,2 and 4
(d) 2,3 and 4
9. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
has
been wrongly attributed to Kautilya
(a) Kautilya favoured state control over trade and commerce
(b) Kautilya believed in the policy of territorial aggrandisement
(c) Kautilya was opposed to severe punishments under all conditions.
(d) Kautilya advised the conqueror king to
accord
kind
and
considerate
treatment to the people of conquered territory.
10.
Kautilya's
foreign
policy
rested
on
the
principles of
(a) expediency
(b) territorial expansion
11.
Kautilya
is
often
described
by
scholars
as
Indian Machiavelli because both
(a) concentrated on
practical administration.
(b) favoured a strong ruler to overcome the anarchical conditions
prevailing in the society
(c) believed in the principle of political expediency.
(d) all the above.
12.
Though
often
Kautilya
is
described
as
Indian
Machavelli
he
differed
from
him
in
following respects
(a) Kautilya covered more extensive field ranging from civil law, public
administration and military science.
(b) Kautilya mainly concentrated on the problems of monarchiac states

(c) The authority of Kautilya's sovereign was limited by law (or Dharma)
(d) all the above
13.
Which
one
of
the
following
statement
of
Kautilya has been wrongly listed?
(a) Kautilya permitted immoral statecraft only in extreme cases.
(b) Kautilya permitted the individual great amount of independence and
autonomy
(c) Kautilya sacrificed the individual at the altar of the King.
14.
Swamin of Kautilya was
(a) a feudal chieftain
(b) an absolute ruler
(c) a servant of the people who received payment in the shape of taxes
(d) both (a) and (b)
(a)
Ancient Indian Political Thought: Kautilya and
Shanti Parva 7
15.
According
to
Kautilya
which
one
of
following
factors
could
contribute
to
growth of treasury
(a) opulence of industrial departments run by the state
(b) abundance of harvest
(c) prosperity of commerce
(d) all the above
16.
Kautilya
makes
a
mention
of
several
of
armies.
Which
one
of
the
following
been wrongly listed?
(a) hereditary forces
the
the
types
has
(b) soldiers of fighting corporations

(c) troops belonging to an enemy
(d)None of the above.
17.
According
to
Kautilya
there
are
seven
prakritis
or
limb-like
elements
state.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as an element of state?
(a) Janapada
(b) Kosha
(c) Mitra
(d) None of the above
18.
Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
state
finances
has
been
wrongly
attributed to Kautilya
(a) He wanted the people to make voluntary contributions to the finances
of the state
(b) He favoured severe punishments for those who evaded taxes
(c) Taxes should be levied after due consideration of the difficulties of the
people.
(d) The King must keep a proper account of the taxes received in the
treasury.
19.
According to Kautilya, Amatya was
(a) the Finance Minister of the State
(b) the Prime Minister of the State
(c) the Defence Minister of the State
20.
Shanti Parva is chapter of
(a) Arthashastra (b) Mahabharata
(c) Ramayana
(d) Sukraniti
21.Shanti Parva deals with
(a) the political philosophy and administration of the times
(b) Aims and objectives of the state
(c) Duties of the kings and responsibilities of ministers.
(d) all the above.
22.According to Shanti Parva before the
advent of the state
(a) people led a life of complete harmony
(b) there was complete anarchy
(c) there was dictatorship of the ruler
23.Consider the following statements.
1. Shanti Parva discusses different theories about the origin of the state
as well as kingship
2. Shanti Parva discusses the duties of kings and responsibilities of the
Ministers.
3. Shanti Parva provides an insight into the ideal system of
administration.
4. Shanti Parva contains detailed instructions regarding avoidance of war
and promotion of piece.
Of the above statements
(a) 1,2 and 3 are correct
(b) 1,3 and 4 are correct
(c) 2,3 and 4 are correct
(d) 1,2 and 4 are correct

24.On the testimony of the Shanti Parva it can
be said
(a) that the country was moving towards empire state and trying to
acquire more and more territories.
(b) The king was assuming more and more powers
(c) The advisors of the king enjoyed no effective control over him.
(d) all the above.
25.According to one theory expounded by the
Shanti Parva the state originated because
(a) the people became rights conscious
(b) the people grew greedy and selfish

(c) of the emergence of private property
26. How
many
theories
regarding
the
origin
of
the state are contained in Shanti Parva
(a) only one
(b) two
(c) three
(d) none
27. The
theories
of
origin
of
state
contained
in
Shanti Parva support the idea of
(a) social contract
(b) divine origin
(c) force theory
(d) none of the above
28. Though
the
two
theories
regarding
origin
of
state
propounded
by
Shanti
Parva
support
the
idea
of
social
contract,
yet
they
differ.
According
to
the
first
theory
(a) the contract was executed with the entire society
(b) the contract was executed with the King and his ministers.
(c) the contract was executed with the Brahmins
(d)Both (b) and (c)
29. According
to
the
Shanti
Parva
the
institution
of
Kingship
came
into
existence
because
(a) people wanted a king
(b) one person became so powerful that the rest of the people were forced to
accept his overlordship.
(c) of slow evolution.
(d) people approached Brahma who provided them with a king (Manu)
30. Manu
agreed
to
accept
the
Kingship
on
the
condition that
(a) people voluntarily pay him a share of their cattle, gold and grain.
(b) the subjects shall render military service, if need be.
31. The
theories
of
origin
of
state
propounded
in
the
Shanti
Parva
differ
from
the
theories
propounded by Kautilya in so far as
(a) they are based on economic principles
(b) they have a religious and supernatural bias
(c) they make provision for military service obligatory for the subjects
(d) both (b) and (c)
32. Which
one
of
the
following
according
to
Shanti Parva was the foremost duty
(a) Protection of sages from the devils
(b) maintenance of law and order
(c) Protection of country from foreign invasions
(d) collection of taxes.
33. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about Shanti Parva is not correct?
(a) The King had assumed extensive powers and his advisers did not enjoy any
effective control.
(b) A code of conduct for the wars had been evolved which was followed during
the wars
(c) A regular set of officers to collect taxes imposed by the state, existed
34. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
duty
of
the
King
by
the
Shanti Parva?
(a) To ensure that the strong did not pounce on the weak.
(b) That the subjets did not suffer due to lack of guidance
(c) To promote ethical values of the people.
(d) To provide military training to all able-bodied youth.
35. According to Shanti Parva,
(a) the people can disobey the King if he enacts unjust laws.
(b) the King was first among the equals.
(c) the King should be treated by subjects as Indira and Varuna
(a)
Ancient Indian Political Thought: Kautilya and Shanti
Parva 9
(d) the King was a mortal and should be treated as such by the subjects.
36. According
to
Shanti
Parva
the
subject
should
render
obedience
to
the
King
because
(a) he is the defender of their interests
(b) he is the promoter of dharma
(c) he is the chief source of all laws
(d) of all the above reasons.
37. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
kingship
as
given
in
the
Shanti
Parva
1. According to Manu the Kingship was created to save people from destruction
2. According to Prithu's theory the king is duty bound to maintain law the order
and cannot transgress the limitations imposed on him by the society.
3. The King was elected by the people
4. King is a divine creation and highest spiritual authority.
Whcih of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1,2 and 4
(b) 2,3, and 4
(c) 1,2, and 3
(d) 1,3, and 4
38. Mahabharat
highlights
several
qualities
of
a
King.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) He should enormous energy through which he can promote efficiency.
(b) He should trust his ministers and personally transact and dispose of all
important cases.
(c) He should subdue his senses and enjoy control over his soul.
39. Shanti
Parva
provides
for
a
council
of
ministers consisting of
(a) seven ministers
(b) five ministers
(c) nine ministers

(d)un-specified number of ministers.
40. The
Council
of
Ministers
according
to
Shanti Parva
(a) mainly comprised of Brahmins
(b) mainly comprised of Kshatriyas
(c) comprised
of
Brahmins
and Kshatriyas only
(d) comprised of representatives of all castes
41. Which
one
of
the
following
quality
of
a
minister is insisted by the Shanti Parva
(a) He should possess strong physique
(b) He should have sharp grasping power
(c) He should be loyal and devoted
(d) all the above
42. Which
one
of
the
following
was
regarded
by
Shanti
Parva
as
a
feature
of
good
taxation system?
(a) Taxes should be levied according to the paying capacity of the people
(b) People should not pay taxes to a tyrant ruler
(c) There should be uniform rates of taxes for all
(d) All the above
43. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
moral
code
of
war as prescribed by the Shanti Parva
(a) There should be no war after sun set
(b) Unarmed soldiers should not be attacked
(c) Impotent persons should not be attacked during the war
(d) Guerilla war should be given preference over open war.
44. Consider
the
following
statements
contained in the Shanti Parva
1. Apad diiarma deals with the duties of the king during emergency
2. The King must respect the prevailing customs even during emergency
3. The Ganas believed in the principle of sovereign equality.
4. The King should maintain a well developed spy system.
Of the above statements the following are correct
(a) 1,2, and 3
(b) 1,2, and 4
(c) 2,3, and 4
(d) 1,3, and 4
45. According
to
Shanti
Parva
of
the
Brahmins
can
perform
the
Sudres under distress
(a) True
(b) False
46. According
to
Shanti
Parva,
a
pretends
to
be
the
Protector
of
but
actually
does
not
protect
be slain
(a) True
(b) False
47. Shanti
Parva
favoured
imposition
Mahablwrata
duties
of
King
the
them
of
which
people
should
taxes
according to the capacity of the people

(a) True
(b) False
48. According
to
Shanti
Parva
the
institution
of
kingship
was
the
result
of
social
contract
among the people.
(a) True
(b) False
49. Kautilya
favoured
policy
of
territorial
aggrandisement
(a) True
(b) False
50. The
basic
principle
on
which
Kautilya's
foreign policy rested was 'expediency'
(a) True
(b) False
51. Kautilya considered law as a king of kings
(a) True
(b) False
52. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
Indian
political
thought
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Ancient Indian Political thought and institutions possess a continuity
(b) The ancient Indian political thought was in the main developed in Southern
India
(c) Ancient Indian political thought was intimately linked with religion and ethics
53. The
main
themes
of
Indian
political
thought
are
not
available
in
any
single
work
and
lie
scattered
in
various
social,
religious and other works.
(a) True
(b) False
54. Consider
,
the
following
statements
regarding
ancient
Indian
Political
Thought.
1. Ancient Indian Political Thought was in the main developed in Northern India
2. The ancient Indian Political ideas were in the main influenced by the
monarchical states.
3. The ancient Indian political ideas were in the main influenced by the
Republican States.
4. Politics in ancient India was intimately linked with other subjects and was not
treated as an isolated subject.
55. Kautilya
has
acknowledged
that
four
schools
of
policy
and
several
treatises
on
statecraft existed before him.
(a) True
(b) False
56. Given
below
are
two
statements
about
Kautilya;
one
is
Assertion
(A)
and
the
other is Reason (R).
Assertion (A) A King should normally consult his ministers both individually and
collectively.
Reason (R) A King should not depend on the advice of a single minister because
he could act selfishly.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) both (A) and (R) are right but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
(c) (A) is correct but (R) is not the correct explanation
(d) (R) is correct but (A) is not correct explanation.
(a)
(b) 9S
(B)
(b) is
(b)'OS
(q)
(b) -
O'tS
(q) -zs.
"6*
(B)-
(q)'
(b) 'Zfr
(b) 9fr
(b) -f
(P)
-8
f
(3)
(b)
-6E
(P)
W
-i*
(q) w
W "a
-Z
(b) "9
(P)
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(q)7
(P)
fc>)'S
(p) -w
-l
(3) -0
(3)
8Z
(P) 63
(q)'9z
(b) a
(q)
(P) 'W
() "Z
(b) '23
(p) iz
(P)
(q) oz
(e)
(P)
(b) '9
(P)Zl
(P)-ll
(p) -s
(P) 91
(b)OI
(P)'*
(P) SI
(q)6
(b) -e
(3) -w
(b)-8
(B) Z
(3)
1
W-
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_0
Greek Political
Thought: Plato
and Aristotle
According to Barker, political thought begins with the Greeks. Its origin is connected
with the calm and clear rationalism of the Greek mind. "This view has however, been
refuted to Maxey who says 'The closer and fuller acquaintance with the civilisation of
remote millenium which we now enjoy reveals, an astonishing abundance of political
ideas among the people of those vanquished areas and shows how both in thought
and practice they anticipated, paralleled and to some extent laid the foundations for
ideas which subsequently appeared in European political consciousness. "Despite
difference of opinion among scholars it is admitted at all hands that the Greek
political thought exercised profound influence on the political thought and institutions
of Europe.
FEATURES OF ANCIENT GREEK POLITICAL THOUGHT

Some of the important features of the Ancient Greek thought are as under.
1. Greek political thought is characterised by the presence of a number of
independent treatises which are exclusively concerned with the political
problems.
2. Greek political thought is concerned mainly with the nature of the state and
the concept that man is a political animal. The Greek writers did not concern
themselves with the problems relating to relations between the state and the
church or state and industry, which formed a part of thought of later thinkers.
3. The Greek thinkers were the first to lay emphasis on the social nature of man and
assert that man can attain perfection only in a healthy state. In short, they
considered the state as necessary both for the sake of life as well as good life.
4. Greek political thought in the main centered around the city states in which the
community of men shared a common life and purpose.
5. The Greek political thinkers attached great importance to education and
emphasised its importance in bringing the people at par with the spirit of the
constitution. The state was responsible for the promotion of education among
citizens and hence was considered a moral and political institution as well as an
educational institution.
6. Greek political thought was characterised by rationalism. The Greeks held that a
man was free only as long as he had freedom of reasoning. The Greeks assigned a
priviledged position to persons possessing rational faculty. They were willing to
accept only those things which were justified on ground of reason.
7. Greeks attached great importance to law and justice. They considered a thing as
just as long as it was in accordance with law. However, they believed that law
could always be improved.
8. The Greek thinkers considered justice as an important virtue which enabled a
citizen to discharge his duties properly
3.
Greek Political Thought: Plato and
Aristotle 13
and contribute towards the development of human faculties. 9. The meaning

assigned by the Greek thinkers to citizenship was quite different. It implied
direct participation in the management of the state through a soldier, a judge, a
legislator in person and not through elected representative. As citizenship
required active participation in the affairs of the state only persons with leisure,
who were free from economic worries, were given citizenship rights. In short, the
Greek concept of citizenship was quite restricted.
10. The
Greek
thinkers
considered
inequality
as natural and permitted the dominance of
^ \ the Greeks over barbarians; of freemen \ ,->/' ~ over slaves; of gentlemen over
artisans etc. .jy' "
They believed that equality was something
unatural and hence impracticable and
undesirable.
11.
Greek political thinkers assigned important position to the individual in
their thought. They wanted the individual to formulate his own thought,
express those thoughts publicly and to act in accordance with the dictates of
their conscience. In simple words, we can say that individualism constituted
an important feature of ancient Greek Political Thought.
12. The Greek thinkers attached great importance to discussion. They tried to
explain their ideas and philosophy through discussion. They held that truth
could be discovered only if there was proper reasoning and discussion.
The above ideas of political thought have exercised profound influence on the
political thinkers in the subsequent centuries.
PLATO
Plato is regarded as one of the great philosophers produced by ancient Greece.
Though myfch of what he said and wrote is no more available, yet the limited
material which has come down to us throws a flood of light on his work, philosophy
and time. Plato was born in 427 B.C. in a noble Athenian family. At the time of his
birth the
Athenian democracy was in crisis and his teacher Socrates had been executed by the
powerful Thirty. All these developments greatly disturbed Plato and he was convinced
that the only way out was to establish the rule of philosopher king. The main works
which contain the philbsophy of Plato are The Republic, The Statesman, The Laws.
The Dialogues of Plato also give us a fairly good idea about his philosophy.
Concept of Justice occupies an important position in the thought of Plato. Plato
himself attached great importance to the concept of justice. This is evident from the
fact that he subtitled his book Republic as 'Concerning Justice'. In fact the discovery
of the nature and habitation of justice is the fundamental issue of Republic. Plato
discusses the various prevailing theories of justice before putting forward his own
views. Plato's concept of justice is based on three principles viz. functional
specialisation; non-interference by various classes in each other's sphere of duty and
concentration on its own duties; and harmony between the three classes
representing wisdom, courage and temperance respectively. 3-j n ir-\
Intimately linked with Plato's theory of Justice is his theory of education. He held
that the three classes in the state must be properly trained and educated so that
they may be able to perform their duties efficiently and properly. The concept of Rule
of Philosopher King is also intimately linked with Plato's concept of justice. Plato held
that philosopher king possesses the qualities of selfless service and rationality and
could best protect and promote the welfare of the members of the community.
Another
important
feature
of
Plato's
political
thought,
which
is
intimately
connected
with
the
theory
of
justice,
is
communism
of
wives
and
property.
Plato
built
up
theory
of
communism
of
wives
and
property
on
political
and
psychological
basis.
He
wanted
that
the
guardian
class
should
be
free
from
material
worries
so
that
it
may
be
able
to
concentrate
entirely
on
public
service.
In
other
words
he
wanted
guardians
to
renounce
property
and
family
for
the
good
of
the
society.
Plato's
Communism
has
several
points
of
similarity
and
dissimilarity.
c^tTv
Plato greatly modified his ideas in his Politics or Statesman and concentrated on
pracitable issues.
14
UGCPolitical Science
We see a clear change in his notions towards democracy role of law etc.
Plato also discussed the problems of constitution and drew a distinction
between the law-abiding and law-less states. Development of Plato's political
thought finds culmination in The Laws, which he wrote in the later years of
his life. In The Laws Plato shows himself as a practical thinker and advocated
several ideas which left a deep impact on the later ages. Some of the ideas
which Plato contributed to political thought include his concept of justice;
functional specialisation, rule of wise and i virtuous, emancipation of women,
importance of ^' education, nationalism, Utilitarianism, Socialism, Organic
theory, Revolution and elements of Fascism. It is noteworthy that some of the
ideas of Plato were severely criticised by his disciple Aristotle.
ARISTOTLE
Aristotle, who is regarded as the father of political science was born in
384 B.C. in Stagira. He was a disciple of Plato and was greatly influenced
by his philosophy. However he also bitterly criticised his teacher and wrote
extensively on subjects like metaphysics, psychology, rhetoric, poetry,
biology, moral science and politics. Aristotle's main political ideas are
contained in his book Politics, which has been described by Max Lerner as
a "treatise on the science and art of government."
According to Aristotle the state is a natural institution which possessed
moral authority. It developed from the family to satisfy the needs and
desires of the people. He wanted the state to provide the necessary
conditions for development of a happy and honourable life. Plato did not
distinguish between the state and the constitution and took the
classification of constitution as classification of state. He based his
classification on two principle viz. quantitative and qualitative. On the
basis of these principles he talks of three pure forms of government and
three perverted forms of government. Aristotle paints a picture of an Ideal
State which is akin to Plato's second best state. While painting the picture
of his ideal state, Aristote knew that it was not easily realizable. The best
practicable state must avoid extremes of democracy and oligarchy. He
described such a
class.
state as polity. Aristotle asserted that power in the best practicable state
should vest in the middle
feS'siv Vv<t*01i
Aristotle justified the institution of slavery and considered it essential for

the proper working of the family. Aristotle justified slavery on three grounds
viz. its naturalness, usefulness and expediency. With regard to his views on
citizenship also Aristotle was quite conservative. He considered possession of
property and slaves as essential conditions for citizenship. However, he
excluded several categories of persons viz. producing class, slaves, resident
aliens, foreigners, mechanics, women etc from the class of citizens.
Aristotle's views on property were at complete variance with Plato.
Aristotle considered property as indispensable for the normal functioning of
the household and social progress. He considered the institution of property
as good for the individual as well as the society. Aristotle not only offered a
strong justification for the institution of property but also insisted that
endless accumulation of wealth is bad both for the individual and the society.
Aristotle, on the basis of the study of 158 constitutions, offered views on
Revolution. He not only offered the general and particular causes of
revolution but also outlined the causes of revolution in a particular kind of
state. He also outlined the measures for the prevention of the revolution.
Like other contemporaries, Aristotle also attached great importance to the

concept of justice. He made reference to two types of justice viz. complete
justice and particular justice. While the former was concerned with the
regulation of the public and social relations, the later was concerned with the
distribution of offices and observance of rules of proportionate equality. It
also implied distribution of wealth, honour and goods.
Aristotle's views on various issues exercised profound influence on the
thought of the subsequent political thinkers. Some of the important principles
advocated by Aristotle which have found wide acceptability are concepts of
rule of law and constitutional state; natural origin of state; reconciliation of
liberty and authority; principle of maximum happiness of maximum number
of people; importance of public opinion;
/K"
>K
xVô
^
Greek Political Thought: Plato and
Aristotle 15
principle of separation of powers; importance of middle class in preservation of

political institutions; justification of the institution of private property; realism;
separation of politics and ethics; individualism; close relationship between politics
and economics etc. Zeller has described Aristotle's Politics as "the richest treasure
that has come down to us from antiquity, it is, the greatest contribution to the field of
political science that we possess."

1.
Who said "Political thought begins with
the Greeks. Its origin is connected with the
calm
and
clear
rationalism
of
the
Greek
mind."
(a) Barker
(b) Maxey
(c) Sabine
2. Which
one
the
following
statements
about
the
Greek
Political
Thought
has
been
wrongly listed
(a) The political ideas of ancient Greek Thinkers were inter-mixed with
mythology and other religious literature.
(b) Greek Political Thought was mainly concerned with the nature of the state
(c) Greek Political thinkers were the first to lay emphasis on the social nature
of man and asserted that an individual could not be conceived as an
independent unit.
(d) The Greek Political Thought centred round the city states, in which the
community of men shared a common life and purpose.
3. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
Ancient
Greek
Political
Thought.
1. Greek Political Thought is characterised by the presence of a number of
independent treatir. which are exclusivly concerned with the political
problems.
2. Greek Political Thinkers attached great importance to education and
emphasised its importance in
bringing the people at par with the spirit of the Constitution.
3. Rationalism occupies an important position in the political thought of ancient
Greek thinkers.
4. Principle of Equality occupied an important position in the political thought of
ancient Greek thinkers.
4. The
Greek
Thinkers
considered
Law
and
Justice as two sides of the same coin.
(a) True
(b) False
5. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Ancient
Greek
Political
Thought
has
been
correctly listed?
(a) The Greek Political Thought mainly centered around city states.
(b) The Greeks considered the state as necessary both for the sake of life as well
as good life.
(c) The Greek thinkers attached great importance to reason and were against
accepting anything which was not justified on grounds of reason.
(d) All the above.
6. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about the Greek view of equality is wrong?
(a) The Greeks regarded equality as natural and opposed all types of inequalities.
(b) The Greek thinkers considered inequality as natural and permitted the
dominance of Greeks over barbarians.
(c) The Greeks permitted equality within a class.
7. Which
one
for
the
following
statements
correct.
(a) The Greek Political Thinkers attached great importance to discussion for
16
is
presenting
their
ideas
and philosophy
(b) Individualism constituted an important feature of ancient Greek Political
Thought.
(c) The Greek concept of citizenship was quite restricted.
(d) all the above
8. Who said "Justice was the virtue of soul
and injustice its vice."
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Socrates
9. Which one of the following statements is
correct?
(a) Plato was disciple of Socrates
(b) Plato was teacher of Aristotle
(c) Both (a) and ((b)
10. The philosophy of Plato is contained in
(a) The Republic
(b) The Statesman
(c) The Laws
(d) All the above
11. Plato was a prominent thinker from
(a) Rome
(b) Greece
(c) Macedonia
12. Plato propounded his philosophy
(a) in the form of dialogues
(b) in the form of lectures delivered at his Academy

(c) in his autobiography
(d)in all the above
13. Political Thought of Plato was greatly
influenced by
(a) Pythagoras
(b) Heraclitus
(c) Socrates
(d) all the above
14. Which one of the following works of Plato
represents his thought fully
(a) The Republic
(b) The Statesman
(c) The Laws
(d) Apology
15. Which one of the following work of Plato
is also sub-titled as Concerning Justice
(a) The Republic
(b) The Statesman
(c) The Laws
16. Consider the following statesman of Plato
1. Virtue is knowledge
2. Athenian Democracy is the worst type of democracy
3. Political is an art which few have capacity to acquire
4. Rule of a despotic intelect is worse than that of ignorants
(c) 1,2, and 4 are correct
17. According
to
Plato
a
good
state
must
have
a
philosopher
king
who
possesses
the
knowledge of good and reality
(a) True
(b) False
18. The
discovery
of
the
nature
and
habitation
of
justice
is
the
fundamental
issue
of
Plato's Republic
(a) True
(b) False
19. Given
below
are
two
statements
one
is
Assertion (A) and the other is Reason (R)
(A) In Republic starts with ethics and enters in the domain of politics, sociology,
metaphysics, education etc. (R)* During the Greek times no rigid division of
subjects was made
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are right but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
(c) (A) is correct but (R) is not the correct explanation.
(d) (R) is correct but (A) is not correct explanation.
20. Plato's
concept
of
justice
is
based
on
the
principle of
(a) allotment of specif ic functions to each according to capacity and merit
(b) non-interference in each other's sphere and concentration on its own duties.
(a)
Greek Political Thought: Plato and Aristotle
17
(c) harmony between the three classes of society representing wisdom, courage
and temperance.
(d) all the above.
21. Plato advocated
(a) a universal concept of justice
(b) a purely legal concept of justice
(c) a metaphysical concept of justice
(d) a concept of justice which combined all the above.
22. Consider the following statements
1. Plato's concept of justice lacks legal sanction in so far as it is not enforceable
2. Plato's concept of justice is based on self-control and self-abnegation in the
interest of the society.
3. Plato assigned absolute ruling power to one class viz. the philosophers
4. Plato assigned enormous powers to the Philosopher king but he was to rule in
accordance with the norms laid down by the laws.
23. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
has
been wrongly attributed to Plato?
(a) He subordinated the individual to the state
(b) Plato's concept of justice is based on moral principles and lacks legal
sanction.
(c) Plato's concept of justice is based on the principles of equality, freedom and
individualism.
(d) Plato pleads for communism of property and wives for the ruling classes.
24. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Plato's
System of education?
(a) Plato believed in state controlled education

(b) Plato favoured compulsory education for all citizens
(c) Plato favoured complete censorship of all literary and artistic works.
25. Plato's scheme of education aimed at
(a) moral development
(b) physical development
(c) promotion of respect for law
(d) Both (a) and (b)
26. The
chief
objective
of
Plato's
scheme
of
education
was
to
produce
the
philosopher
kings
(a) True
(b) False
27. Plato
favoured
exclusion
of
women
from
the scheme of education
(a) True
(b) False
28. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding Plato
1. Plato favoured democratic system of government in which every citizen has a
right to participate in the affairs of the state.
2. Rule of the philosopher king is in the interest of the society.
3. The interests of the Philosopher King and state are identical and there is no
clash between the two.
4. Plato's philosopher rulers are the product of comprehensive and rigorous
training and education.
29. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
levelled
against
Plato's
concept
of
philosopher ruler is not correct
(a) The concept neglect the great majority and reduces them to the status of
political robots.
(b) The collective wisdom is certainly superior to the individual wisdom of the
philosopher king.
(a)
-a^^sssftAvîs&^vl
(c) Plato's concept of philosopher king is in keeping with the principles of direct
as well as indirect democracy.
(d) Plato's concept of Philosopher King is highly Utopian and we do not have any
historical evidence to prove the same.
30. Plato believed in communism of
(a) property
(b) wives
31. The
concept
of
Communism
was
completely unknown to the Greeks
(a) True
(b) False
32. Plato's
Communism
was
meant
only
for
the guardian class
(a) True
(b) False
33. Aristotle
criticised
Plato's
concept
of
Communism
of
Property
on
several
grounds.
Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
has
been
wrongly
attributed
to
Aristotle?
(a) To deprive the guardian class of the right to property can prove deterimental
for the development of society.
(b) Abolition of institution of private property destroyes sentiments of charity,
benevolence etc.
(c) Plato's communism of property leads to enormous increase in production
because every body participates in it.
(d) Communism of property leads to over-centralisation and subordinates the
individual the state.
34. Plato's
concept
of
communism
of
wives
was a logical extension of his
(a) theory of justice
(b) scheme of communism of property
(c) scheme of education
(d) all the above.
35. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Plato
regarding Communism of wives
1. The scheme was meant only for the guardian class and the vast majority was
not covered by. it.
2. There was no provision under the scheme for permanent wedding among the
guardian class
3. All guardians (both men and women) were to live together in common
barracks
4. Plato's communism of wives insisted on common ownership of women by
guardian class.

(d)1,2 and 4 are correct
36. Which
one
of
the
following
consideration
prompted
Plato
to
advocate
communism
of wives.
(a) because he considered family affection as a potent rival of loyalty to the state
'(b): because he was quite perturbed by the deplorable plight of women in Athens
and wanted to utilise their talent for the benefit of society
(c) because he was convinced that through state regulated marriages a better
and more intelligent race could be raised.
(d) all the above considerations
37. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
levelled
by
Aristotle
against
Plato's
concept
of
communism
of
wives
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Plato wrongly treated state as an enlarged version of the family
(b) It was bound to lead to social disharmony and cause much harm to the
interests of the community
(c) The state controlled mating suggested by Plato is quite unworkable
38. Plato's
Communism
holds
similarity
with
the present Communism in so far as
(a) both want to evolve a society organised on basis of social service.
19
(b) both treat the individual as an intrument for the promotion of interest of the
community
(c) Both are opposed to the holding of private property
(d) All the above
39. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Plato's
Communism
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It holds faith in social service
(b) It believes in majority rule
(c) It believes in the rule by the elites
(d) It envisages the existence of three classes.
40. Plato's
Communism
differs
from
present
Communism in so far as
(a) It applies only to the guardian classes
(b) It is essentially political in nature and aims at unity of the state
(c) It does not seek to effect changes in the existing economic structure of the
society
(d) All the above
41. Plato's
Communism
is
ascetic
in
so
far
as
it
lays
emphasis
on
common
renunciation
of
all private property by the guardian class
(a) True
(b) False
42. Consider the following statements of Plato
1. Plato's Communism covered not only property but also the wives
2. Plato's communism lays emphasis on common renunciation of all private
property by guardian class.
3. Plato's Communism was essentially meant for the Greek city-states.
4. Plato's Communism stood for drastic changes for all sections fo society.
43. Plato is regarded as the first Facist because
(a) He believed in the equality of all
(b) He considered the individual as more important than the society
(c) He was opposed to the institution of democracy
(d) He laid greater emphasis on rights rather than duties.
44. Plato is regarded as fascist because
(a) He subordinated the individual to the state
(b) He favoured leadership of one man with unlimited power.
(c)
< He believed in the principle of basic
inequality among human beings.
45. According
to
Plato,
if
a
handful
of
people
run
the
government
in
accordance
with
law it is known as
(a) Aristocracy
(b) Oligarchy
(c) Good Democracy
46. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
incorrect?
(a) In Republic Plato subordinates every thing to the ideal of the Philosopher king
(b) In Laws Plato restores law to a prominent position because it represents the
collective experience of the community
(c) In Rq>ublic Plato glorified war and asserts that the state should try to get by
force what it can
1. The Republic of Plato does not represent his true philosophy and merely
constituted a state towards the evolution of his philosphy.
2. The Laws is the culmination of the development of Plato's political thought
3. In Republic Plato assigned important place to the Constitution.
4. In Republic Plato glorified force and war
1.
20
Of the above
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(b) 2, 3 and 4 are correct
(c) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
(d) 1, 2 and 4 are correct
48. Plato
depicted
the
second
best
ideal
state
in
(a) Republic
(b) Laws
(c) Statesman
49. Which
of
the
following
point
was
emphasised by Plato in the Laws?
(a) Both the ruler and the ruled were expected to obey the laws.
(b) Law is important because it enables a person to develop sufficient self control
which is vital for smooth social life.
(c) Laws are based on customs which are the accumulated wisdom of ages and
experience of generations
(d) all the above points
50. Which
work
of
Plato
exercised
maximum
influence on his disciple Aristotle
(a) The Republic (b) Statesman
(c) The Laws
(d) Both (b) and (c)
51. Which
one
of
the
following
ideas
of
Plato
left
deep
impact
on
the
thought
of
subsequent centuries?
(a) The concept of justice which emphasised that every member of society
should perform his duties to the best of his capacities.
(b) The concept of functional specialisation which emphasised that ever\
member of society should perform functions for which he was best suited by
aptitude and training.
(c) Only the wise and most vinous should rule the society.
(d) all the above
52. Plato's political thought contained the
(b) socialism
seeds of (a) utilitarinism
(c) Fascism
(d) all the above
53. Plato
emphasised
that
the
state
is
a
whole
and
the
individual
constitutes
a
part
of
this
whole
(a) True
(b) False
54. Aristotle was the disciple of
(a) Plato
(b) Socrates
55. The
political
ideas
of
Aristotle
are
contained in
(a) Statesman
(b) The Laws
(c) The Potitics
(d) all the above.
56. Aristotle was born in
(a) 384 B.C.
(b) 347 B.C.
(c) 335 B.C.
(d) 342 B.C.
57. The ideas of Aristotle
were
greatly
influenced by
(a) the prevailing anarchy in Athens
(b) Plato
(c) his preconceived notions about the superiority of Greek philosophy
(d) all the above.
58. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) Both Plato and Aristotle believed that man is a social animal and cannot live
without society.
(b) Both Plato and Aristotle held that state is indispensable for the development
of human faculties.
(c) Both Plato and Aristotle believed that all able bodied persons must render
manual service to society.
(d) Both Plato and Aristotle believed that state is a moral institution which stands
for the moral perfection of subjects.
59.
Who among the following is regarded as
father ot Political Science?

(a) Socrates
(W< liMo
(c) Aristotle
60. Aristotle
and
Plato
other in several respects. Which one of the
differed
from
each
Greek Political Thought: Plato and Aristotle 21
following differences has been wrongly listed

(a) Plato was idealist, while Aristotle was a realist
(b) Plato was in favour of abolition of institution of family, while Aristotle was
opposed to its abolition.
(c) Plato favoured slavery while Aristotle was opposed to it.
(d) Plato considered property and family as chief cause of social disharmony,
while Aristotle considered them essential for the fullest moral development of
the individual.
61. Which one of the following statements
about 'Politics' of Aristotle is not correct.
(a) It is a systematically developed treatise
(b) It is a collection of different essays
(c) It is a collection of notes prepared by Aristotle for his lectures
(d) It is a work compiled by the pupils and successors of Aristotle
62. Aristotle is considered as Father of
Political Science for following reasons
1. His method of study was most scientific
2. He used comparative method of study
3. He provided position of pride to politics in his writings
4. He used deductive method to draw conclusions of the above
Of the above
63. According to Aristotle state is
(a) family writ large
(b) a moral and natural institution
(c) result of a contract among people
(d) result of a contract between people and ruler
64. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Aristotle is correct?
(a) State developed from the family to satisfy the needs and desires of the
people
(b) State aims at perfection of man and there is no contradiction between the
individual and the state.
(c) Individual can achieve self-sufficiency only in state
(d) all the above
65. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
has
been wrongly attributed to Aristotle?
(a) State is a rational institution
(b) He emphasised the organic nature of the state

(c) State is a divine creation
(d) State is the highest of all the association.
66. Which
one
of
the
following
objectives
state was emphasised by Aristotle
(a) To promote perfect and self-sufficing life
(b) To preserve life and property of the members
(c) Both (a) and (b)
67. Aristotle
classified
the
governments
on
basis
of
several
principles.
Which
one
these was emphasised by him
(a) birth
(b) number
(c) religion
(d) wealth
68. Which
one
of
the
following
has
not
classified
by
Aristotle
as
normal
form
government?
(a) Democracy
(b) Monarchy
(c) Aristocracy
(d) Polity
69. Which
one
of
the
following
has
classified
by
Aristotle
as
a
perverted
of government?
(a) Democracy
(b) Oligarchy
(c) Tyranny
(d) all the above.
70. Which
form
of
government
according
Aristotle is best because it possess a
22
of
the
of
been
of
been
form
to
healthy combination of liberty and

wealth?
(a) Policy
(b) Aristocracy
(c) Democracy
(d) Oligarchy
71. The
classification
of
state
provided
by
Aristotle is defective because
(a) It is not applicable to the present times
(b) Aristotle considered democracy as a perverted form of government
(c) It is not based on any scientific principles
1. Aristotle's Idea State in Plato's second state
2. In Aristotle's Ideal state law occupies a predominant position
3. Aristle's Ideal State seeks to provide best of material facilities to all members
of society
4. Ideal State seeks to provide conditions under which an individual can achieve
highest type of moral development.
Of the above states
73. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Aristotle's
Ideal
State
has
been
wrongly
listed
(a) In his Ideal State education plays an important role in making the citizens
virtuous
(b) In Aristotle's Ideal state right to private property is conceded
(c) Aristotle's Ideal state is based on division of labour
74. The Ideal State of Aristotle
(a) lays emphasis on man's mental, moral and economic development.
(b) is self-sufficient and does not entertain any aggressive designs against other
countries.
(c) is neither too small not too big.
(d) all the above features.
75. Aristotle
justified
the
institution
of
slavery
and
insisted
that
only
the
leisured
classes
should
actively
participate
in
the
exercise
of sovereignty.
(a) True
(b) False
1. Aristotle's Ideal state is dominated by -middle class
2. Aristotle's Ideal state is dominated by rich classes
3. Aristotle's Ideal state is neither too small nor too big.
4. Aristotle's Ideal state is an ethical institution which seeks to bring about
moral improvement among the citizens.
77. Which
according
to
Aristotle
was
the
best
realizable or practicable state
(a) Democracy
(b) Oligarchy
(c) Aristocracy
(d) Polity
78. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Aristotle
1. Extreme richness breeds arrogance and disobedience of authority
2. There are greater chances of a stable government in a middle class
dominated society.
3. Extreme poverty leads to complete subjection of the people.
4. Democracy is the best form of government because it balances the principles
of wealth and number.
Of the above (a) 1,2 and 3 are correct
23

79. Aristotle
justified
institution
of
slavery
on
the ground that
(a) nature itself has ordained it
(b) it is useful for the community
(c) expediency demands the institution.
(d) all the above
80. Aristotle
did
not
offer
unqualified
justification
of
slavery
and
approved
it
under following conditions
(a) Only those persons should be made slaves who are mentally deficient.
(b) The masters should treat the slaves properly
(c)
There should be provisions for emancipation of slaves on the basis of good
conduct and
development of reason and virtue

(d)all the above
81. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
is
not
applicable to Aristotle's theory of slavery?
(a) It wrongly assumes that some are born to rule because they are intelligent
and virtous.
(b) It believes in the superiority of the Greeks and does not permit their
enslavement.
(c) It seeks to promote social justice by making provision for emancipation of
slaves.
(d) It treats slavery as a hereditary institution and asserts that some people are
by nature slave.
82. Aristotle
favoured
citizenship
only
for
the
selected aristocratic class and excluded
(a) Women
(b) Old men
(c) Manual workers (d) all the above
83. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
of
Aristotle regarding citizenship is correct?
(a) A person residing at a particular place becomes a citizen.
(b) A person enjoying legal right of suing and being sued is automatically treated
as a citizen.
(c) A person who participates in the administration of justice and in legislation as
a member of the deliberative assembly is treated as a citizen.
(d) Descent from a citizen entitles a person to become a citizen.
84. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Aristotle regarding citizenship
1. Only propertied persons should become citizens and act as legislators or
jurors.
2. Women, old men, manual workers etc are not treated as citizens.
3. His views on citizenship do not fit in with his belief in the organic nature of
the state.
4. His theory of citizenship seeks to promote the welfare of the majority of the
people.
Of the above
85. Plato
regarded
property
as
dangerous
for
the
unity
of
the
state
and
therefore
pleaded
for
it
a
abolition
so
far
as
the
guardian
class
was concerned.
(a) True
(b) False
86. Aristotle
justified
the
institution
of
private
property on the ground
(a) It provides an incentive to the individual to work hard and thereby contribute
to social progress.
(b) It is a source of self-respect, self-love and pleasure.
(c) It promotes qualities of generosity, liberality, hospitality and righteousness
which are so vital for the development of human personality.
(d) on all the above grounds.
87. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Aristotle
1. Ownership of private property gives rise to a sense of civic responsibility.

24
2. Possession of property is in keeping with the natural instinct of man

3. The experience of ages warrants the retention of the institution of private
property
4. All property is an evil because it promotes inequalities in society.
Of the above
88. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Aristotle has been wrongly listed
(a) Endless accumulation of wealth is bad both for the individual and the society.
(b) Inequalities of wealth in the society are a major cause of revolution.
(c) Property is indispensable for the normal functioning of the household as well
as social progress.
89. Aristotle
expressed
views
on
revolution
in
his
book
(Politics)
on
the
basis
of
the
study
of constitutions of
(a) 58 Greek city-states
*
(b) 158 Greek city-states
(c) 98 Greek city-states
(d) unspecified number of city-states
90. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
general
cause
of
revolution by Aristotle
(a) Natural desire of the people to be treated as equal.
(b) Resentment against grant of privileges and superior position of few
(c) There are less changes of revolution in a state dominated by a middle class
91.
Which of the following, according to
Aristotle, is the cause of revolution

(a) Grant of undue importance to some people
(b) Grant of absolute power to one or few individuals.
(c) Use of unscrupulous methods in elections for capturing power.
(d) all the above
92. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Aristotle regarding revolution.
1. Attitude of defame and disgrace adopted towards opponents promotes the
spirit of revolution. ' 2. Admission of corrupt and disloyal officers to civil and
military posts can generate revolution.
3. Use of excessive and irrational force prompts people to revolt against the
authority
4. Long period of peace and nonintervention in the affairs of other countries
also leads to revolutoion.
Of the above
93. According
to
Aristotle
in
democracy
revolutions are caused
(a) due to excessive use of power
(b) un-warranted condemnation of the rich by the demagogues
(c) due to oppressive and dictatorial natureof rule
94. According
to
Aristotle
revolution
can
be
prevented
(a) by eliminating all symbols of injustice and treating various classes with
consideration.
(b) by promoting spirit of law abidingness among the citizens.
(c) by imparting necessary education in the spirit of Constitution
(d) by all the above steps.
95. Arisotle
suggested
several
methods
for
the
prevention
of
revolution.
Which
one
of
the
following was not suggested by him?
25
(a) The government offices should not be permitted to become source of gain.
(b) Higher offices should be awarded only for short duration because retention of
power for a long period can prove dangerous to the interests of the country.
(c) Rewards and offices should be distributed among all sections of society
according to their numerical strength.
(d) Details of administration, particularly those of public finance should be open
to public scrutiny.
96. According to Aristotle under a tyranical
system revolution can be avoided by
(a) providing good espoinage system including women spies.
(b) following policy of aggression and expansion.
(c) keeping the people poor so that they are constantly faced with the economic
problems.
(d) all the above
97. With regard to his views on revolution,
Aristotle is often treated as a fore-runner of
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Hobbes
(c) Marx
(d) Locke
98. Consider the following statements of
Aristotle with regard to justice
1. Complete justice, was a moral virtue concerned with the regulation of public
and social relations.
2. Particular justice, was concerned with the distribution of officers and
observance of rules of proportionate equality.
3. Distributive justice, consists in proper allocation of rewards to each person
according to his worth.
4. Distributive justice is based on the principle of equality.
99. Which one of the following has been wrongly listed?
(a) Aristotle was a pragmatic thinker who based his conclusions on data, facts
and figures etc. and imparted a scientific outlook to the study of the subject.
(b) The concept of rule of law and constitutional state was the most important
legacy of Aristotle to posterity
(c) Aristotle assigned only negative functions to the state and wanted the
individual to be left free to develop his moral faculties.
(d) Aristotle was the first to emphasise the principle of maximum happiness of
the maximum number of people.
100. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
essential
of
an
ideal
state as propounded by Aristotle?
(a) Promotion of education
(b) Promotinon of morality
(c) Assignment of prominent position to the Philosopher King.

(d)
Control of marriages.
101. Aristotle
appreciated
the
importance
of
public
opinion
and
asserted
that
the
multitude
of
people
have
always
better
knowledge
and
judgement
than
a
single
or
a handful of persons.
(a) True
(b) False
1. Aristotle for the first time made a successful bid to reconcile the principles of
liberty and authority.
2. Aristotle was the forerunner of Utilitarian philosophy which emphasised the
principle of maximum happiness of the maximum number of people.
3. Aristotle insisted that the existing institutions must be preserved because
they represented the collective wisdom of the generations.
4. Aristotle's philosophy contains the seeds of modern communism.
1.
26

103. Aristotle
was
the
first
political
thinker
to
emphasise
the
importance
of
the
middleclass
as
a
balancing
force
for
the
preservation of the political institutions.
(a) True
(b) False
104. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
of
Aristotle is wrong
(a) He offered most effective justification for the institution of private property
and made a strong plea for its retention.
(b) He was the first realist who took note of things as they were rather than
concentrating on the things as they should be.
(c) He accepted the Ideal State of Plato but made some minor adjustments to
make it realisable.
(d) His thought contains terms of separation of politics and ethics.
105. Aristotle was a great individualist because
(a) he held that individual was prior to the state.
(b) he emphasised that the state exists for the moral development of the
individual.
(c) he held that the individual was a means to an end.
.(d) both (a) and ((b)
106. Aristotle's
emphasis
on
close
relations
between
economic
activities
and
political
actions is evident from his assertion
(a) In a state where there was concentration of wealth or power, political
stability could not be possible.
(b) Inequality in wealth was the main cause of revolution.
(c) Political stability is possible only in a state where there are no extremes of
wealth or povery
(d) alltheabove
107. Given below are two statements-one
Assertion (A) and the other Reason (R)
Assertion (A): Aristotle laid the foundations of
the comparative method of study of political
institutions.
Reason (R) His views were mainly based on the study of 158 constitutions of
Greek city-states. Which one of the following is correct
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) A is true but R is not correct
(c) A is correct but R is not the correct explanation of A
(d) R is true but A is not correct
108. Given below are two statements: one
Assertion (A) Plato held that there should
be communism of wives and children for
the Guardian class
Reason (R) Plato held that family affection was a potent rival of loyality to the
state Which one of the following is correct
(a) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) A is true but R is not correct
(c) Both A and R are correct and R is not the correct explanation
(d) R is correct but A is not correct
109. Given below are two statements- one
Assertion (A). Aristotle considered slavery essential for the proper functioning of
the family
Reasons (R) Aristotle believed in the racial superiority of the Greeks and would
not permit their enslavement. Which one of the following is correct
(a) Both A and R are correct but R is not the correct explanation of the A
(b) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A

(c)
A is correct but R is not correct
(d)
R is correct but A is not correct
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3European Political
Thought: Machiavelli, Hobbes,
Locke and Rousseau
The period between 500 A.D. and 1450 A.D. in Europe was essentially a period of
non-political activities. In view of this some scholars have expressed the view that
during this period political thought did not make any progress. However, this view is
not acceptable to Barker, who says that there was abundant political thought during
the above period. In fact, during this period lot of developments took place which
affected the attitudes, values, ideas and institutions. It is a different matter that
those ideas and institutions are no more acceptable to us. The European Political
Thought entered a new phase of development with the emergence of Machiavelli
(1469-1527), who was more of a practical politician rather than a political
philosopher.
MACHIAVELLI (1469-1527)
Machiavelli was born in Florence (Italy) in 1469. The contemporary conditions in Italy
left a deep impact on him and greatly influenced his thinking. The thinking and
philosophy of Machiavelli is contained in The Prince and the Discourses. The main
factors which influenced the thinking and philosophy of Machiavelli were (i) division
of Italy into a large number of states which were constantly at war with each other.
The conditions of uncertainty also posed a serious threat to states like France and
Spain, (ii) Impact of Renaissance; (iii) emergence of strong monarchs who could
ensure unification of Italy; (iv) influence of the writings of Aristotle and Marisglio; etc.
Machiavelli painted a very dark picture of human nature and asserted that for the
promotion of his interest he can resort to all types of methods. He further says that
human beings are by nature
jealous and cannot see other prosper. His views on relations between ethics and
politics also greatly differed from the earlier thinkers. He completely separated ethics
and politics and attached more importance to the reason of the state rather than the
principles of morality.
Machiavelli regarded the state as the highest association and expected the
individual to completely surrender himself before the state. He laid great emphasis
on the preservation and strengthening of the state. He said that a normal state was
expected to be self-sufficient. Though Machiavelli considered Republican state as the
best, but under the then prevailing conditions he favoured Monarchical state. His
state was secular in nature and he did not attribute any unearthly reason for its
existence.
As Machiavelli was mainly concerned with the art of government he dealt at lengthy
with the principles which the prince should observe to maintain himself in power.
Though the political thought of Machiavelli suffers from several serious shortcomings,
his contributions to the European political thought cannot be denied. Some of his
important contributions include rejection of feudal conception
of state and its replacement with state as a sovereign political body; freeing of
politics from the clutches of ethics; denouncement of the authority of the Church and
its subordination to government; nationalistic interpretation of the origin of the static;
principle of 'power politics' and theory of aggrandizement; pragmatism of political
thought; importance of the study of human psychology etc. In view of his numerous
contributions to the study of political thought Machiavelli has been described as the
first modern political thinker of Europe.
European Political Thought: Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke and
Rousseau 29
THOMAS HOBBES (1581-1679)

Hobbes was born in 1581 in the family of an Anglican clergyman. After his early
education he was sent to Oxford for higher education. He was witness to the civil war
in England between the Republicans and Monarchy. The civil war left a deep impact
on his thinking. He viewed man as an animal who was motivated by two
considerations viz. fear and self-interest. The war also convinced him that a strong
and stable government was the basic need for civilised life. This stability could be
provided only by an absolute monarchy. Apart from the civil war, Hobbes was also
influenced by ideas of other political thinkers like Plato, Hooker, Machiavelli, Grotius,
Bodin etc. The political philosophy of Hobbes is contained in De Cive, the Leviathan,
De Corpore, De Homine and numerous pamphlets.
Hobbes political philosophy rests on his views on human nature. He considered
individual as a rational creature, who was an embodiment of passions, emotions and
desires. Hobbes paints a picture of the state of nature which is largely based on his
view of human nature. According to Hobbes the state of nature was a state of war in
which there was no common superior who could hold the people in check. In short
the life of man was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. People were fed up with
the uncertainty prevailing in the state of nature and were keen to have a state for
self-preservation. For the attainment of the above objective they decided to set up a
common power which could defend them from the invasion of foreigners and injuries
of one other. For this purpose they entered into a contract, with each individual
saying to the other "I authorise and give up my right of governing myself to this man
or to this assembly of men, on the condition that thou give the right to him and
authorise all his actions in the like manner". It may be noted that the sovereign was
not a party to the contract and hence could not be held responsible for violating the
same.
According to Hobbes the sovereign was the result of the contract and enjoyed all
those powers which were surrendered by the people at the time of concluding the
contract. The authority of the sovereign could not be challenged by the people
because they voluntarily surrendered their rights
without any condition and could not claim them back. People had no right to revolt
against the authority of the sovereign.
Hobbes views on Law are intimately linked with his views on sovereignty. Hobbes
holds that the individual authorised the sovereign to make and enforce laws. The
authority of the sovereign to make laws was not restricted by natural law, divine law
or international law. The sovereign was himself above and beyond the law. The above
views of Hobbes should not give the impression that he was a supporter of naked
absolutism. In reality he was a great individualist. According to Prof. Wayper "Hobbes,
so frequently portrayed as the greatest absolutist is perhaps the greatest
individualist in the history of Political Thought."
Two extreme views have been expressed about Hobbes's contributions to political
thought. According to C.E. Vaughan "So far as the vital development of political
thought is concerned Leviathan has remained and deserves to remain, without
influence and without fruit; a fantastic hybrid incapable of propagating its kind." On
the other hand, Prof. Sabine describes Hobbes as "probably the greatest writer on
political philosophy that the English speaking people have produced." Despite
divergent views about assessment of Hobbes. It cannot be denied that he made
several contributions to the growth of European political thought. The prominent
among these include the theory of absolute sovereignty; state as a human institution;
state as an instrument for the promotion of interests of the individual; utilitarianism;
supremacy of matter, in relation to mind; application of scientific method for study of
political science; severance of ethics and politics; concept of positive law; concept of
contract among individuals to which the King or ruler was not a party; and the theory
of fictitious Corporation.
In conclusion with Prof. Wayper, we can say that the "succeeding generations had
usually disagreed with him (Hobbes), but it is no exaggeration to say that they have
found in him a mine well worth their while to work for the riches of the ore that it
yields."
JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)

John Locke was born in 1632 in a Puritan family. After completing his education he
took up an
appointment at Oxford. However, he did not like the job and devoted himself to the
study of medicine. Locke was a witness to the restoration of Charles II in 1660 and
the Bloodless Revolution of 1688. Locke was greatly influenced by the Bloodless
Revolution which resulted in replacement of absolute monarchy by a responsible
government. The political ideas of Locke are contained in his worksEssays
Concerning Human Understanding; Letters on Toleration; Two Treatises of
Government; Fundamental Constitution Concerning California etc. Apart from the
Bloodless Revolution, the views of Locke were also greatly influenced by the writings
of Hobbes, Filmer, Sydney, Hooker etc.
According to Locke human beings are basically decent and have been endowed
with a natural social intinct. He considers all human beings as equal and asserts that
every individual enjoys certain natural rights viz. right to life, liberty and property.
Locke's views on the state of nature are logical extension of his views of human
nature. / He does not consider the state of nature as the state of war of each against
all. On the other hand he considers it as an era of "peace, good will, mutual
assistance and preservation.". Locke conceives the state of nature as a pre-political
rather than a pre-social condition.
According to Locke the deficiencies of the law of nature made man leave the state of
nature and enter into a contract for the formation of the state. This contract of each
with all was a social contract under which each individual agreed to cede to the
community as a whole only those of his
natural rights whose exercised introduced an element of distraction in the state

of nature and made its peace insecure. Unlike the social contract of Hobbes, the
contract of Locke gives only limited powers to the community. In his contract the
sovereign is a party to the contract and is much bound by the interpretation of the
natural laws as other members. A notable feature of this contract was that it was
unanimous. It was also irrevocable in the sense that once the people entered into
contract they could not revert back to the state of nature, unless the government
was dissolved.
Locke's views on state also quite differed from Hobbes views on state. According
to him> the state was created only to remove certain inconveniences
of the law of nature. Locke's views on state can be summarised thus: It is composed
of three powersLegislative, executive and federative; Locke does not offer any
classification of government because probabably he was more interested in the
principles of government rather than its institutions. The state exists for the people;
the state rests on the consent of the people; his state is a constitutional state in
which government is carried on according to law; his state is not absolute as its
authority is limited by a number of factors; his state operates on the principle"6f
religious tolerance; he assigns purely-negative functions to the state; the state
transforms self-interest into public good.
Locke justified the right of the people to revolt against the government and
change it. Locke holds that the government was set up to fulfill certain objectives and
if it fails to carry out those objectives the people have the right to revolt against the
government and change it.
Locke expressed elaborate views on property. He uses the term 'property' in two
senses. In the broad sense it includes right to life, liberty and estate. In the narrow
sense, he uses it for the right to possess and retain one's estate. Locke considered
the institution of private property as a guarantee for individual liberties.
Locke was a thorough-going individualist because everything in his system
revolves around the individual. He not only states that the natural rights are prior to
the state but also holds that the state was created for the protection of the natural
rights and happiness of individual. Even the government rests on the consent of the
individual. He permits the individual to withdraw their consent if the state commits a
breach of its trust. Locke leaves the individual completely free to pursue his moral,
material and intellectual persuits. Another point which proves Locke a great
individualist was that he assigned only negative function to the state. Even his views
on property confirm that Locke was an out-and-out individualist. Locke's views on
revolution and division of power also confirm that he was a great individualist.
Locke's political philosophy has been critir cised on several grounds. Locke takes
a mechanistic view of the state and society, which is not
V^&dT*rV(A\,\
European Political Thought: Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau
31
correct. His thought suffers from logical inconsistencies. He refers to the original
contract but does not specify the outcome of this contract. He gives supreme power
to the majority and treats its act as acts of the community as a whole. Locke wrongly
assumes that natural rights could exist in pre-civil society. Locke fails to give
convincing argument why the people left the state of nature. His theory of natural
law is defective in so far as it fails to explain how and where from the law of nature
originated. Finally, Locke assigns to the state only negative functions and denies the
state all moral authority.
Despite numerous limitations and deficiencies, it cannot be denied that the
political thought of Locke exercised great influence on the subsequent thinkers. His
main achievements include drawing a distinction between state, government and
society; doctrine of natural rights; supremacy of community; right to revolt; people as
the main source of all authority; the concept of separation of powers; utilitarian
principles; constitutional government; principles of tolerance and secularism; the
labour theory; and death blow to the divine origin theory. All these ideas exercised
profound influence on the later political thinkers.
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU [1712-1778]

Rousseau, one of the most outstanding thinker produced by France, was born at
Geneva in 1712. He led a life of poverty and deprivation and could not receive proper
education. His political philosophy is contained in the Discourse on the Origin and
Foundation of Inequality, Social Contract or the Principles of Political Right; La
Nouvelle Heloise; the Entile, the Confessions, Dialogues and Reveries. The political
thought of Rousseau was greatly influenced by contemporary environments as well
as several philosophers who preceeded him. The prominent among these were Plato,
Locke, Montesquieu, Hobbes etc.
According to Rousseau, man is basically g< )d but his wrong social actions make
him wicked. Based on his views about human nature, Rousseau draws a picture of the
state of nature, which is quite different from the one painted by Hobbes and Locke.
According to Rousseau in the state of nature all men were equal and lived a peaceful
life.
There was no law, no morality. Man was leading a solitary, happy, free and
independent life. However, the social instinct of man ultimately compelled him to
give up solitary life and take to group life. Gradually the social institutions also
developed. The one institution which exercised profound influence on man was
property. According to Rousseau, "The first man, having enclosed a piece of ground
bethought himself of saying 'This is mine', and found other people simple enough to
believe him, was the first real founder of civil society. "In short it can be said that only
with the emergence of the institutions of private property the pre-civil state had to be
abandoned.
According to Rousseau, people entered into a social contract to get out of the
wretched and unbearable conditions of post-property stage of the state of nature.
The contract envisaged by Rousseau merged the individual completely in the state
and created a political society which is based on the consent of all the members.
The Theory of General Will, is another outstanding feature of the political thought of
Rousseau. The main problem which confronted man of Rousseau in the state of
nature was to find a form of association which would defend and protect with the
whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each,
while uniting with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before." For
the creation of this association each person put his person and all his power in
common under the supreme direction of the General Will, and received in corporate
capacity as an
indivisible part of the whole. As a result of this act to form association a moral,
collective entity having its own identity, life and will is created. Rousseau describes
this as General Will. The main attributes of General Will of Rousseau wereit is
indivisible; it cannot be represented by any body else; it is supreme; it is a single
unity and cannot be alienated; it is unrepresentable; it is always correct. Though
Rousseau's theory of General Will suffers from several shortcomings, yet it has been
regarded as his most profound contribution to political theory.
As noted above, Rousseau vested sovereignty in the community as a whole
through the medium of the General Will. As the General Will operates
32
for the general welfare, the people are morally committed to carry out its verdict. On
legal grounds also people are expected to render full obedience to the General will
because at the time of the contract they surrendered all their rights to the General
will. In short, the sovereign of Rousseau is vested with absolute powers and its
authority cannot be challenged. Rousseau believed in the supremacy of the state
over the individual and does not permit the individual to defy the authority of the
state.
Rousseau's political philosophy suffers from serious inconsistencies and
shortcomings. Though he makes a strong plea of democracy and maximum rights for
the people, but actually he creates an absolute sovereign with dictatorial power.
Rousseau's political thought also lacks proper logical development. Again, he
conceives the state in purely idealistic terms which does not go well with the instinct
and desires of human beings. Further Rousseau held faith in two contradictory
theories of state viz. organic and mechanic. If the state is man made it could not be
created by human beings.
Despite the above shortcomings and contradictions, Rousseau's writings have
exercised profound influence on the subsequent political thinkers. Some of his
outstanding contributions to the development of political thought include his
emphasis on the importance of state without which the individual cannot develop his
personality; his theory of popular sovereignty; the concept of nation state; his
concept of general will which left a deep impact on the idealist thinkers; his concept
of common good which was further developed by the utilitarians.

1. Which one of the following statements about Machiayeli is not correct?
(a) He was more of a practical politician rather than a political philosopher
(b) He was the first systematic political thinker of the modern times.
, (c)'He was the first political thinker who made a formal and conscious
separation between morality and politics, (d) None of the above.
2. Which
one
of
the
following
influenced
the
thinking and philosophy of Machiavelli?
(a) Conditions prevailing in Italy
(b) Renaissance Movement which stood for revival of ancient values and culture
(c) Emergence of strong monarchies
(d) all the above.
3.Which
one
of
the
following
work
outlines
the views of Machaivelli?
(a) Art of War
(b) The Discourses on hivy
(c) The Prince
(d) All the above.

1. Machiavelli pleaded for a strong ruler who could unite the country and expel
the foreign invaders.
2. Machiavelli considered Papacy as a great obstacle in the way of secular
integration
3. Machiavelli supported gradual transfer of power from the church to the
monarch
4. Machiavelli stood for peaceful coexistence of Church and Monarchy.
5. Which
one
of
tthe
following
ideas
of
Aristotle influenced Machiavelli
(a) Separation of ethics and politics
(b) State was the higest organisation of human beings
(c) Historical Method
(d) all the above.
6. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
Machiavelli's
method
is
correct?
"(a) His method was identical to the one
adopted by Aristotle, (b) His method was inductive rather than deductive.
European. Political Thought: Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke and Roussedu 33
(c) Machiavelli appealed to reason and history rather than the revealed will of
God
7. Machiavelli is regarded as a modern
political thinker because
(a) he discarded the idea of natural law
(b) he tried to base the state on human habit and fear
(c)
he emphasised the secular character of the state and completely ignored the
principle of
divine law.
(d) of all the above reasons
1. Machiavelli for the first time advocated the idea of a national and territorial
state which was completely independent of the Pope
2. Machiavelli justified the use of unfair means by the ruler for the security and
safety of the state.
3. Machiavelli discarded natural law and supported the principle of divine law.
4. Machiavelli considered the state as necessary in so far as it alone could
provide. security and peace to the people.
(a)1,2 and 3 are correct
9. Which one of the following separates
Machiavelli from the medieval thinkers?
(a) Utilitarian attitude towards politics and morality
(b) Study of state as a secular institution
(c) Emphasis on the importance of material motives
(d) all the above
10. According to Machiavelli
(a) human beings are by nature selfish, wicked and opportunist
(b) human beings are social by nature
(c) human beings are a mixture of good and evil,
11. According to Machaivelli men love their
property more than their kith and kin
(a) True
(b) False
correct?
(a) Machiavelli attempted a formal and conscious separation between politics
and morality.
(b) For the attainment of the unity of the country Machiavelli was willing to throw
the principles of morality to the winds.
(c) Machiavelli
attached
great importance to the principles of morality
(d) both (a) and ((a)
1. Machiavelli permitted the Prince to act in violation of the moral principles in
the interest of the state
2. Machiavelli proposed two different standards of mortalityone for the ruler
and the other for the private citizens
3. Machiavelli suggests that the Prince should appear to be the embodiment of
qualities which are held in esteem
4. Machiavelli did not believe in separation of politics and mortality.
14. According to Machiavelli
(a) state is the highest association to which subjects must completely surrender.
(b) state is an artificial creation.

(c) state is one of the many association
(a)
34
15. Machiavelli was in, favour of

(a) Aristocracy
(b) Monarchy
(c) Democracy
16. Consider
the
following
statemeents
of
Machaivelli regarding state
1. In a normal state the citizens are faithful and law abiding.
2. A normal state has a tendency to expand and grow
3. A normal state is expected to be self-sufficient.
4. A normal state believes in peaceful co-existence and is opposed to
expansion.
17. According
to
Machiavelli
for
the
preservation
and
strengthening
of
the
state
(a) it should have a reliable army composed of native troops
(b) it should have monarchical system with absolute powers.
(c) the ruler should make use of religion which is a powerful instrument to curb
the anti-social activities of the states
(d) all the above

18. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Machiavelli is correct?
(a) A state should have reliable army of native
(b) Machiavelli's state is completely secular in so far as he does not attribute any
unearthly reason to its existence.
(c) Machiavelli considered good laws as the foundation stones of the state
(d) all the above.
19. Machiavelli
made
several
suggestions
to
the
Prince.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
(a) Prince should suppress all opposition by use of ruthless force.
(b) Prince should take quick and firm decisions.
(c) Prince should try to provide peace and plenty in the country so that the
people can lead a comfortable and contented life.
20. Which one of the following has been
wrongly attributed to Machiavelli?
(a) Prince is above law of the land
(b) State has two code$ of conductone for the individual and the other for the
ruler
(c) A Prince need for bother about the morality or immorality of the means
(d) State knows no ethics
21. Which one of the following statement has
been wrongly attributed to Machiavelli
(a) A Prince should be better feared than loved.
(b) A Prince should not mind resorting to fraud and dishonest means if the
interests of the state so demand.
(c) A person will more readily forgive the murder of his father than the
confiscation of his patrimony.
Machiavelli
1. The Prince should not have permanent friends or enemies.
2. While embarking on conquest of new territories the Prince should completely
destroy the freedom of the people
3. Prince should follow expansionist policy because failure to expand to state
shall lead to its stagnation and ultimate decline
A. The Prince must always try to be honest Of the above statements
(a)
European Political Thought: Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau 35

23. Which
one
of
the
following
contribution
was
made
by
Machiavelli
to
the
modern
politcal thought
(a) He envisaged a territorial, national and sovereign state which enjoyed
supreme power over all the institutions in the society.
(b) He freed politics from the clutches of ethics

(c) He denounced the authority of the Church and tried to reduce it to a
subordinate position to the government.
(d) All the above.
24. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Machiavelli
1. He for the first time offered materialist interpretation of the origin of state
and ignored the metaphysical elements.
2. He was the first to expound the principle of 'power politics' and put forth
theory of aggrandisement.
3. He attached great importance to human psychology and advised the ruler to
formulate his policy keeping in view the wishes and sentiments of the people.
4. He was the first great idealist.
25. Hobbes was a contemporary of
(a) the civil war in England
(b) the Glorious Revolution of England
(c) the French Revolution
26. Hobbes was a strong supporter of
(a) Aristocracy
(b) Democracy
(c) Absolute Monarchy
(d) Republican system
27. Hobbes philosophy is contained in
(a) Leviathan
(b) DeCive
(c) DeCorpore
(d) All the above
28. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Hobbes is correct?
(a) He rejected the medieval conception of the existence of soul and tried to
interpret everything in materialist terms
(b) Hobbes was an individualist who began with the individuals and ended with
the individuals.
(c) He rejected the medieval theory that the state was the result of classical fall.
(d) AH the above.
29. Hobbes
made
individual
the
spring
board
of his thought
(a) True
(b) False
30. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Hobbes about human nature is correct?
(a) Individual is a rational creature
(b) Individual is the embodiment of passions, emotions and desires
(c) Both (a) and ((a)
31. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Hobbes.
1. Men by birth are equal
2. Every individual has a perpetual and restless desire for power which ceases
only in death
3. Individual is by nature rational.
4. Man is highly self-centred
32. The
state
of
nature
which
preceded
the
establishment
of
civil
state,
according
to
Hobbes was
(a) a period of peace and plenty
(b) a state of constant war
(a)
^SiiJ&wtoiLs^l&swrtAjfc^ûs^tjîf^îia.^.i^^. ,
36
...
(c) regulated by the religious laws

33. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
state
of
nature
as
depicted
by
Hobbes
1. Life was short, brutish and nasty
2. No distinction was made between the just and unjust
3. there was no right to private property in the state of nature
4. People were governed in accordance with law laid down by the sovereign.

34. According
to
Hobbes
people
left
the
state
of
nature
and
created
state
through
a
contract. This contract was concluded by
(a) the individuals
(b) the various groups of society
(c) the individual and the sovereign
35. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
Social
Contract
for
the
creation
of state as propounded by Hobbes
1. State is based on reason and not fear
2. The sovereign was not a party to the contract but the product of the contract
3. Any section of the society can object to the êlection of the sovereign by the
majority.
4. The people have to submit to the authority of the ruler and have no right
against the sovereign.
36. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
social
contract
theory
of
state,
as
given by Hobbes, is not correct
(a) Individuals are free to revoke the contract by majority vote
(b) The contract was concluded primarily for the protection of individual's life.
(c) The sovereign was not a party to the contract.
(d) People render obedience to the authority of the state because the end of selfpreservation is better served within the state.
37. Hobbes gives the individual the right to
disobey the authority of the Sovereign if
(a) he commands him to kill, wound or maim himself.
(b) he asks him to abstain from use of food, air, medicine or any other thing
without which he cannot live.
38. Which one of the following statements of
Hobbes regarding sovereign is correct
(a) the sovereign was created as a result of the contract
(b) the sovereign enjoys all those powers which were surrendered by the people
at the time of conlcluding the contract
(c) People cannot challenge sovereign's authority because they voluntarily
surrendered their rights to him.
(d) all the above
39. According to Hobbes the Sovereign is the
source of distinction between
(a) good and bad
(b) moral and immoral
(c) just and unjust
(d) all the above
* Hobbes is correct
(a) He does not concede to his subjects any right against the sovereign
(b) The people cannot depose the ruler and choose another ruler in his place
(c) He does not permit the sovereign to share his powers with others.
(a)
(d) all the above

41. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
levelled
against
Hobbes's
theory
of
sovereignty is not correct
(a) Hobbes conceded right of resistance to the individual in extreme cases, which
is inconsistent with his theory of absolute sovereignty.
(b) Hobbes theory is unreal in the sense that in actual practice no sovereign has
wielded such enormous powers as assigned by Hobbes to his sovereign.
(c) Hobbes theory leads to despotism pure and simple because it does not
concede the subject any right to defend themselves against oppression and
tyrannical rule.
(d) Hobbes theory of sovereignty openly supports people's right to revolt against
the sovereign at the slightest pretext.
42. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Hobbes
1. Power to make laws is one of the important attribute of sovereignty.
2. Law is an important instrument which regulates the behaviour of the
individual
3. There is no limitation on the laws enacted by the sovereign in the form of
natural law, divine law or international law.
4. The sovereign is not above law.
43. Hobbes
paved
the
way
for
the
development
of
Austin's
theory
of
positive
law
(a) True
(b) False
44. Hobbes
permitted
the
individual
the
following rights
(a) Right to disobey the state if he is asked to do something which endangers his
life or body.
(b) The rights which are not forbidden by the laws of the state
(c) Rights which the individual could not have surrendered under con-venant.
(d) All the above.
45. According to Hobbes which one of the
following acted as a limitation on laws
(a) natural law
(b) divine law
(c) international law

correct
(a) The liberty permitted by Hobbes was essentially negative in nature
(b) Hobbes did not find any contradiction between liberty and laws.
47. Hobbes has been criticised for
(a) his gross materialism, atheism and despotism which failed to appeal to his
contemporaries as well as succeeding generations
(b) insisting that the sole bond of union among the individuals is common terror.
(c) his illogical views regarding transformation of the individual from savage to
the civilized.
(d) all the above
48. Which one of the following contribution of
Hobbes has been wrongly listed
(a) He offered a theory of absolute sovereignty and freed his sovereign of all the
shackles
(b) He was the first thinker to conceive state as a human institution.
(c) He greaHy contributed to the popularisation of the doctrine of divine rights of
the kings.
(a)
-SgigSStes(|afip#g^
(d) None of the above. ^

1. Ultilitarianism, which was logical
,,
corollary of individualism, was an
important contribution of Hobbes to political thought.
2. Hobbes for the first time emphasised the supremacy of the matter in relation
to mind.
3. Hobbes brought morality at par with politics and effected a complete
separation between the two.
4. Hobbes greatly contributed to the popularisation of the law of nature.
50. John Locke was a contemporary of
(a) Civil War in England
(b) Glorious Revolution of England
(c) French Revolution
51. The political philosophy of John Locke is
contained in
(a) Two Treatises of Government
(b) Fundamental Constitution Concerning California

(c) Essays Concerning Human Understanding.
(d) All the above works.
52. Political thought of John Locke was greatly
influenced by
(a) Earl of Shaftbury (Lord Ashley)
(b) The Glorious Revolution of 1688
(c) Filmer
(d) all the above
53. John Locke was a great supporter of
(a) Absolute Monarchy
(b) Constitutional Monarchy
(c) Aristocracy
(d) Democracy
54. According to Locke men are basically
(a) selfish and self-centred
(b) decent and have been endowed with a natural social instinct.
(c) quarrelsome
(d) mixture of all the above.
55. According to John Locke the state of
nature was
(a) a state of war of each against all
(b) an era of peace, good-will, mutual assistance and preservation
(c) essentially a pre-social condition
Locke regarding law of nature
1. It governed the lives of men not only in the state of nature but also continued
to govern them in the civil society.
2. Every member has the right to punish the transgressor of the natural law and
maintain it.
3.Laws of nature assure to each individual certain in-alienable rights like right
to life, liberty and property etc.
4. These laws possess a divine character and their violation is a sin.

57. According to Locke the Law of Nature
suffered from the following defects
(a) It was not well-settled and each individual could interpret it as he liked,
leading to lot of confusion.
(b) Lack of an impartial judge who could interpret and execute the law of nature
without person stakes.
(c) Lack of an executive organ which could enforce a just decision.
(d) all the above.
Locke regarding Social Contract
1. People entered into social contract and created the state for the removal
Rousseau 39
the inconveniences and uncertainties of the law of nature

2. The individuals agreed to surrender only the rights to interpret the law of
nature for themselves.
3.The civil community which was to interpret and execute the law of nature was
itself not bound by it.
4. The contract of Locke granted only limited powers to the community.
(a) 1> 2 and 3 are correct
59. According
to
Locke
the
sovereign
was
a
party
to
the
Social
Contract
and
was
as
much
bound
by
the
interpretation
of
the
natural law as other members
(a) True
(b) False
60. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
Locke's
Social
Contract
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a)Sovereign was a party to the contract
(b) contract was unanimous
(c) The contract was based on the consent of the people.
(d) None
61.
According to Locke
(a) state was a necessity for the protection of the life of the individual
(b) state was created only to remove certain inconveniences of the law of nature
(c) state was assigned absolute powers
(d) all the above are correct
62. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Locke is wrong
(a) The Social Contract was irrevocable
(b) State exists for the people who constitute it.
(c) Locke's state is a constitutional state in which government is carried on
according to law.
(d) None
63.
Consider the following statements
1. Locke is regarded as the philosopher of the Parliamentary government
2. Locke's state operates on the principle of religious tolerance and is neutral in
religious matters.
3. Locke's state is not absolute
4. Locke's state is concerned with the moral and material development of the
individual.
64. The authority of the state, according to
Locke, is restricted by
(a) the purpose for which it was created
(b) limited by the laws of Nature
(c) the natural rights of the individual
(d) all the above
correct
(a) Locke assigned to the state purely negative functions
(b) Locke did not formulate a theory of government but the theory of rebellion.
(c) Locke's state is concerned with the moral and material development of the
individual.
(d) Both (a) and ((a)
66. According to Locke the decision regarding
revolt against the sovereign is to be taken
(a) majority of the legislators.

(b)by consensus
(c)the soceity as a whole
67. Of the three powers of state envisaged by
Locke,
(a) Legislative
(b) Executive
(c) Federative
68. According to Locke property comprises of
Aîsi*! **t! x: ._. ,
(a) life
(b) liberty
(c) estate
(d) All the above
69. The
Labour
Theory
regarding
private
property
which
became
the
basis
of
modern socialism is associated with
(a) Hobbes
(b) Locke
70. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
of
Locke
confirms
that
he
was
an
Individualist
(a) The natural rights are prior to the state
(b) He sought rights and freedom for all men without distinction
(c) He based the government on the consent of the individual.
(d) all the above
71. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
reflective
of individualism in Locke
(a) He assigns to the state purely negative functions
(b) A property is converted into private property only after an individual mixes his
labour with it
(c) He permits the individual to rise in revolt against the state if it fails to carry
out its part of obligation.
(d) The state is concerned with the moral and material development of the
individual.
72. Which
one
of
the
following
shortcoming
of
the
philosophy
of
Locke
has
been
wrongly
listed
(a) He takes a mechanistic view of the state and society
(b) His philosophy suffers from logical inconsistencies which makes it difficult to
make out what he actually wanted to convey
(c) There is a clear contradiction in his denial of innate ideas and belief in inborn
Natural Rights.
(d) He insisted that all decisions should be taken unanimously by the people to
check despotism of the sovereign.

1. Locke wrongly assumes that natural rights could exist in the pre^civil society
2. Locke painted a very bright picture of the state of nature but fails to give any
convincing argument as to why the people decided to leave it
3. The picture of individual painted by Locke is more of a civil man than the man
living in the primitive society.
4. Locke strained the state too much by insisting that it should not only protect
the life and liberty of the people but also promote their moral development.
(c) 1,3 and 4~are correct
74. Which one of the following was a
contribution of Locke to political thought
(a) He was the first to draw distinction between society, state and government.
(b) Locke contributed doctrine of natural rights to political theory.
(c) He emphasised the doctrine of supremacy of the community
(d) all the above
1.Locke for the first time emphasised that the people are the source of all
authority
2. Locke worked on the concept of separation of power and provided the basis
for Montesquieu's classical theory of separation of powers.
3. Locke emphasised the principle of general happiness of the people
1.
which was later on adopted by Bentham 4. Locke greatly contributed to the

popularisation of the principle of divine rights Of the above statements

76. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
contribution
of
Locke
to
political thought
(a) If the state goes beyond its jurisdiction its authority must be resisted.
(b) According to Locke the society existed in the state of nature and was followed
by the state and the government.
(c) Locke emphasised the principle of consent of the governed and majority rule
which form the basis of modern democratic institutions.
(d) None
77. Locke
laid
the
foundation
of
the
Labour
theory
which
not
only
influenced
the
classical
economists
but
also
greatly
influenced Marx's labour theory of value
(a) True
(b) False
78. The
political
thought
of
Rousseau
is
contained in
(a) The Social Contract or the Principles of Political Right
(b) Emile
(c) The Confessions
(d) all the above
79. Rousseau was greatly influenced by
(a) Plato
(b) Locke
(c) Hobbes
(d) all the above
80. Rousseau was greatly
influenced
by
Locke's
(a) concept of natural rights
(b) concept of the sovereignty of the community
(c) theory of natural rights
(d) all the above
81. Rousseau
borrowed
the
idea
of
constitutionalism from
(a) Hobbes
(b) Locke
(c) Montesquieu
82. Which
of
the
following
statements
of
Rousseau
regarding
state
of
nature
is
wrong
(a) In the state of nature all men were equal and lived peaceful life.
(b) There was joint ownership of all property and people led a very simple and
natural life
(c) Institution of private property had not yet come into existence
83. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
basic
feature of Rousseau's social contract
(a) The individual is made to surrender everything to the society but receives
back what he surrenders as a member of the society.
(b) The contract gives rise to an organic society
(c) The contract leads to material and moral transformation of the individual
(d) all the above
84. Consider
the
following
statements
about
General Will of Rousseau

1. General Will is indivisible
2. General Will cannot be represented by anybody else
3. General Will is supreme and no body can disobey it.
4. General Will is alienable
85. Rousseau's
concept
of
General
been criticised on the ground
Will
has
(a) that it is quite vague and confusing

(b) that though Rousseau talks of General Will as distinct from Will of All, but it is
almost impossible to draw a line of demarcation between two
(c) that Rousseau assigns absolute powers to the General Will which paves the
way for dictatorship.
(d) all the above grounds.
86. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Rousseau
1. Liberty for the individual is possible only if he obeys the General Will
2. General Will is not representable
3. Individual will is a corporate will and it is impossible to divide it into two parts.
4. The State is a super-entity distinct from the individuals.

87. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
against
Rousseau's
theory
of
General
Will
has been wrongly listed
(a) He gives theory of General Will without suggesting how the General Will is to
be put into actual practice.
(b) Rousseau's theory of General Will is not applicable to the prevelant system of
representative democracy.
(c) Theory of General Will is contrary to his theory of Social Contract
88. Rousseau's
theory
of
General
Will
is
his
most
profound
contribution
to
political
theory because
(a) it asserts the importance of human beings and need of their cooperation for
the smooth working of the state
(b) it emphasises the principle "will, not force, is the basis of state"
(c) it emphasised that social good must get precedence over individual interests
89. The
idea
of
Nation
State
was
largely
the
contribution of Rousseau.
(a) True
(b) False
90. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct
(a) The sovereign of Rousseau is as absolute as the sovereign of Hobbes
(b) Rousseau vests the sovereign power in the community or the General Will
(c) Rousseau advocated the principle of sovereignty of the ruling class
(d) both (a) and ((a)
91. There
are
several
inconsistencies
in
the
political
philosophy
of
Rousseau.
Which
one
of
the
following
inconsistency
has
(a) In some of his works he condemns private property but subsequently makes
it one of the duty of the state to defend private property
(b) He makes a strong plea for democracy and rights of people, but actually
creates an absolute sovereign.
1. Rousseau emphasised the importance of state and asserted that the fullest
development of individual's personality was possible only within the state.
2. Concept of popular sovereignty is an important contribution of Rousseau to
political theory.
3. Rousseau's concept of General Will greatly influenced idealist thinkers like
Kant and Hegel.
4. Rousseau was a great individualist who strongly opposed collectivism
Rousseau 43

93. Rousseau's views greatly influenced
(a) the Glorious Revolution
(b) the French Revolution
(c) the Russian Revolution
(d) all the above.
94. Rousseau advocated the concept of
(a) legal sovereignty
(b) popular sovereignty
(c) political sovereignty
(d) all the above.
95. According to Rousseau people were forced to leave the state of nature because of
(a) the quarels over the interpretation of laws
(b) absence of a sovereign who could punish the law violators.
(c) the rise of private property in the society.
(d) None of the above reasons.
(a)
ANSWERS
l.(b)
7. (d)
13. (a)
19. (d)
2.(d)
8.(c)
14. (d)
20. (a)
3.(b)
9.(d)
15. (b)
21. (d)
4. (a)
10. (a)
16. (a)
22. (a)
5.(b)
11. (a)
17. (d)
23. (d)
6.(c)
12. (d)
18. (d)
24. (a)
31.
37.
43.
49.
55.
61.
67.
73.
79.
85.
91.
25.
(d)
(c)
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(a)
(a)
(d)
(d)
(d)
26.
32. (b)
38. (d)
44. (d)
50. (b)
56. (a)
62. (d)
68. (d)
74. (d)
80. (d)
86. (c)
92. (a)
27.
33. (a)
39. (d)
45. (d)
51. (d)
57. (d)
63. (a)
69. (b)
75. (a)
81. (c)
87. (d)
93. (b)
34.
40.
46.
52.
58.
64.
70.
76.
82.
88.
94.
28.
(a)
(d)
(c)
(d)
(c)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(b)
29.
35. (d)
41. (d)
47. (d)
53. (b)
59. (a)
65. (d)
71. (d)
77. (a)
83. (d)
89. (a)
95. (c)
30.
36. (a)
42. (a)
48. (c)
54. (b)
60. (d)
66. (c)
72. (d)
78. (d)
84. (a)
90. (d)
4
European Political Thought-II:
Bentham, J.S. Mill, Hegel, Marx
and T.H. Green
JEREMY BENTHAM
Bentham,the father of utilitarian school of thought, was born in a well-to-do family of
England in 1748. After his early education he entered the Lincoln's Inn in 1763. In
1769 he was called to the Bar.
However, Bentham was more interested in problems of social welfare. Therefore
he gave up his practice of law and devoted himself to the study of the legal system
with a view to effect reforms in the system. Bentham was greatly influenced by the
American war of Independence and the French Revoloution. Amongst the political
thinkers he was influenced by Hume, Priestley etc. Bentham's ideas are contained in
his works Fragments of Government, Essays on Political Tactics; Discourses on Civil
and Penal Legislation; The Theory of Punishments and Reward, A Treatise on Judical
Evidence, Papers Upon Condification and Public Instruction; Catechism of
Parliamentary Reforms, Principles of International Law etc.
According to Bentham all the actions of man are motivated by the considerations
of 'pleasure' and ' pain'. Every man tries to get pleasure and avoid pain. Bentham
tried to judge the goodness or badness of human actions on the basis of the
pleasures and pains. An act was right if it produced a surplus of pleasure over pain
and bad or wrong if it produced more pain than pleasure. He held that all the actions
should be judged on the basis of the principle of utility. Bentham is generally given
the credit of being the first to emphasise the principle of utility. This theory of utility,
propounded by Bentham exercised profound influence on the legislators and
statesmen in the nineteenth century.
Bentham discarded the concepts of natural law and natural rights and perceived
law as an expression of the sovereign will. He regarded the concept of natural rights
as nonsense because rights are created by the law of the state and could not have
existed outside the state.
Bentham regarded the state as an instrument for the promotion of happiness and
pleasure of the members. He assigned only negative functions to the state and
permitted the people to disobey the state if it failed to promote general happiness. As
regards the form of Government, Bentham considered that government as best
government which promoted the greatest good of the greatest numbers. He
considered representative government as the best government because it promoted
greatest happiness of the greatest numbers.
Bentham attached more importance to security rather than individual liberty. He
held that security was necessary for social life and for moderate degree of human
happiness. According to Bentham, the chief aim of law was to promote happiness of
the greatest number. Therefore it was improtant that people must obey the laws.
Bentham was highly critical of the existing judicial administration, specially the
attitude and role of the Judges. He favoured the system of juries to check the
despotism of the judges. He also paid attention to the reform of the criminal
administration in England. He asserted that the purpose of punishment should be to
reform the criminal and not to eliminate him. He was opposed to capital punishment
and favoured the idea of puinishing the offenders in public. He
European Political Thought-ll (Bentham, J.S. Mill, Hegel, Marx and T.H.
Green 45
pleaded for humane treatment of prisoners and suggested numerous prison reforms.
Bentham attached great importance to education to effect improvement in mankind.
The main purpose of education, according to Bentham, was to widen the knowledge
of the pupil and to enable him to get the best out of life. Though critics of Bentham
have alleged that he was essentially a legal reformer and hardly made any valuable
contribution to political thought. However, other scholars would like to assign him a
unique position among the European political thinkers. They regard him as top realist
thinker who highlighted the glaring defects in the English society and made valuble
suggestions for the removal of those defects. His theories of state and law were
put-forth with a view to their practical application. He tried to transform the existing
institutions into instruments of general good. Though initially Bentham's ideas did not
evoke much favour with authorities, but with the passasge of time their wisdom has
been established and most of the legal and parliamentary reforms advocated by
them have since been carried out in England and other countries.
JOHN STUART MILL (1806-1878)

J.S.Mill, who is considered as the last of the utilitarians and the foremost of the
individualists, was born in 1806. As a child he spent most of his time with his books.
He was greatly influenced by the dialogue and direct methods of Plato. History of
Roman government also greatly influenced him. But the maximum influence on him
was exercised by the utilitarian philosophy of Bentham. He wrote large number of
books and pamphlets. His important works include System of Logic; Principles of
Political Economy; Enfranchisement of Women; On Liberty; Dissertations and
Discussions; Thoughts on Parliamentary Reforms; Considerations on Representative
Government; Utilitarianism; Women Sufrage; Subjection of Women; Three Essays on
Religion etc. Though Mill was greatly influenced by the utilitarian philosojphy of
Bentham, he Made several modifications in his philosophy. Some of the points where
Mill differed from Bentham were distinction between higher and lower pleasure;
pleasure was not the only cause and motive for individual's actions. Mill believed that
pleasure
comes from outside and not from within; Mill believed in good life rather than life
devoted to pleasure; Mill considered liberty as essential for the attainment of the
principle of utility; Mill stood for public voting as against secret voting advocated by
Bentham. He stood for special treatment of women and was more concerned with the
social and economic problems facing the society.
Mill was a great champion of individual liberty and stood for least iaterference by
the government in the affairs of the individual. He asserted that so long as the
actions of the individual concerned him alone and did not go against the interests of
the others, he should be free and there should be no limitation on him. He permitted
the state to impose restrictions on the liberty of the individual only if it caused injury
to the interests of other members of the community. Mill also made a forceful plea for
freedom of thought and asserted that the state had no justification to suppress the
independent thinking of an individual. However, Mill's views on liberty have been
severely criticised by Barker. He describes Mill as prophet of empty liberty because
Mill hedged his doctrine of liberty with so many restrictions.
Mill considered the state as the product of the will of the people who compose it.
He thus rejected mechanistic theories of state. He did not emphasise the negative
character of the state like Bentham and asserted that state interference is
indispensable for the development of individual's personality.
Mill considered representative government as the best form of government
because it brings out the general standard of intelligence and honesty existing in the
community. However, he was quite aware of the shortcomings of the representative
government prevailing in England and suggested several reforms to improve its
working. Mill advocted restricted adult franchise and weightage in voting for the
educated and propertied classes. This has made some critics remark that Mill was not
a true democrat. However, this charge is not fair. In fact Mill was an ardent follower of
democracy and held that democracy alone could give pleasure and happiness to the
people. Mill tried to draw a distinction between the true and
46
false democracy and the democracy which gave weightage to all the different
elements of society. Mill made several suggestions to make democracy more
effective.
Mill is regarded as a great individualist who strongly opposed state interference
because it led to curtailment of individual liberty. He defended the institution of
private property because it contributed to the progress of the mankind. However, Mill
permitted the state to deal with the land in the general interest of the community.
Mill also fully sympathised with the labouring classes and favoured partnership of the
labourers either among themselves or with the capitalists. His sympathy with the
labouring classes gives the impression of Mill being a socialist. Though Mill saw in the
socialist system the best possibility to effect improvement in the existing economic
system, he was not willing to sacrifice the individual for the sake of social good.
Though
the
political
thought
of
Mill
suffers
from
several
inconsistencies
and
logical
contradictions
he
has
been
assigned
an
important
position
among
the
political
philosophers
by
scholars
like
Maxey,
Bowel,
Wayper
etc.
The
main
contributions
of
Mill,
as
highlighted
by
these
scholars
include
his
analytical
rather
than
synthetical
approach;
emphasis
on
the
principle
of
human
progress
as
goal
of
civilization;
remedial
measures
to
check
the
tyranny
of
the
majority
over
minority;
opposition
to
the
government
interference
in
the
economic
sphere
beyond
a
particular
limit;
advocacy
of
women
rights
etc.
Mill
exercised
profound
influence
on
the
contemporary
intellectuals
as
well
as
those
who
followed him.
i, > ui~j
GEORGE WITHELM FRIEDRICH

HEGEL (1770-1831) ^ftP"
Hegel, who has been described as the most outstanding advocate of the organic
theory of state, was born in 1770 at Wurthemberg (Germany). After his early
education he joined University of Tubingen. Subsequently he moved to Jena
University. The French Revolution also exercised profound influence on him and made
him conservative. The political philosophers who influenced Hegel's thought include
Aristotle,
Plato, Hume, Rousseau, Kant etc. Hegel held that man is social by nature and
necessary. He attains his best only with the assistance of others.
Hegel considered state as a divine institution and described it as the March of God on
this earth.
He considered the state as the handiwork of God and an embodiment of reason. It

possesses a will and personality of its own, which is quite different from the wills and
personalities of the individuals which compose it. It is a moral agency which works for
the moral upliftment of mankind. Hegel did not give any right to the individual
against the state. According to him, the freedom for the individual consisted in blind
obedience to the dictates of the state.
Hegel considered the state as the creator of all individual rights and does not
permit the individual any right against the state. He treates the state as an end the
individual as a means for the realisation of that end. He considered state as more
important than the society. In short it can be said that Hegel's views about state
show a clear tendency towards autocracy.
Hegel equated freedom with law. However, he did not take freedom in the
negative, limited and subjective sense and offered a positive and objective
conception of freedom. According to Hegel, freedom could be possible only within the
state. It implies total obedience to the state and performance of one's duties. Hegel
supported constitutional monarchy because under it perfect rationality could be
achieved. Hegel considered constitutional monarchy as the best form of government
because it combines in itself the best elements of monarchy, aristocracy and
democracy. Hegel considered constitutional monarchy as the best because under it
alone true fereedom was possible.
Hegel held that state can attain uniqueness and perfection only in relation to
other states. He regarded war as an instrument for the march of spirit. He considered
war as a virtuous activity. Hegel held that prolonged or perpetual peace lead to
corruption of the nation. It is war alone which demonstrates as to which state is true
embodiment of world spirit.
The most outstanding feature of Hegel's philosophy was Dialectical Method. He
looked upon dialectic as not merely a process by which
EuropBon Political Thought-ll (Bentham, J.S. Mill, Hegel, Marx and T.H.
Green 47
*
*.
<
logical ideas developed, but the process by which

all ideas in the world developed. Hegel saw three
definite stages through which the entire progress
of civilization has taken place. These there
|.
principles are named as thesis, antithesis and
,
synthesis. According to Hegel the whole process of
%
evolution started with abstract universal concept
1
called the thesis. The concept gave rise to
contradictions
known
as
anti-thesis.
The
thesis
and
anti-thesis, though contradictory concepts, are
reconciled in a third concept which combines the
good points of both and is called synthesis.
Through the above p-^cess the development
continues tiu all the contradictions are removed.
Hegel's political philosophy suffers from several shortcomings. First, he
raised the state to mystical heights which led to worst type of absolutism.
Secondly he treats state as an end in itself and completely sacrificed the
individual. Third, he identifies state and society which lead to
worst
type
of
state
despotism.
Fourthly,
he
openly
advocated
principle
of
expediency
and
completely
neglected
the
moral
principles;
Fifthly,
he
held
that
the
state
is
moving
towards
a
pre-determined
goal.
Sixthly,
he
glorified
state
which
produced
dangerous
consequences
in
Germany.
Seventhly,
State
as
chosen
representative
of
God
has
played
a
vital
role
in
the
progress
of
history.
Eighthly,
Hegel's
concept
of
dialectic
is
defective
in
so
far
as
he
treates
all
defects
as
beginning
of
victory.
Finally, he identifies freedom with obedience.
Despite the above shortcomings of Hegel's philosophy he made valuable
contributions to the development of political thought. He grasped the
connection between the morals and politics; he propounded a theory of
state which paved the way for the worst type of absolutism, etc.
KARL MARX (1818-1883)

Karl Marx, who is revered by half of the world as a god, while the other half
condemns him as devil, was born in 1818 in Rhineland (Germany). After his
early education he joined law, and bee- ne a journalist. His newspaper was
banned by the Government and he was thrown on the road. He moved to
France where got an opportunity to come in contact with eminent scholars,
including Fredrich Engles, with whom he subsequently
collaborated. In 1848 the two drafted the famous Communist Manifesto, which
contains clearest and most compact statement of Marx's philosophy. The other
important writings of Karl Marx include The Poverty of Philosophy; the Critique of
Political Economy; Inaugural Address of the International Workingmen's Association;
Value, Prince and Profit; Das Capital; and the Civil War in France. Marx was greatly
influenced by Hegel's dialectic which explained the progress through the process of
'thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis'. However, he replaced Hegel's idealism with
materialism. Marx himself said my dialectic method is not only different from the
Hegelian, but is its direct opposite. Marx was also greatly influenced by the classical
school of British Political Economy. He borrowed the idea of theory of value and
surplus from them. The French socialist philosophy of Cabet also greatly influenced
him.
The first important idea of Marx's political thought as dialectical materialism.
According to Marx the chief force which determines the physiognomy of society and
the character of social being at any particular time was method of procuring the
means of life necessary and human existence, the mode of production of material
values such as were necessary for life and development of society. The history of
development of society followed the same process of thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis
which Hegel had applied to his philosophy of spirit.
Marx offered an economic interpretation of the various phenomena of history.
According to him the history passes through four phases viz. primitive communism,
ancient, feudal and capitalist. In all
these stages the class which controls the force of production controls the rest.
This domination of one class over others naturally gave rise to tensions and strains.
This resulted in clashes between the two opposites. In the final stage of this clash
between the capitalist and the proletariat, a class-less society shall emerge.
Intimately connected with Marx's theory of economic interpretation of history, is
his theory of class-war. According to Marx, the history of all hitherto existing society
is the history of class struggles. Free man and slave; patrician and plebian; lord and
oppressed. The modern society is
S
j^fcti^t ^^SjgswsSj
48
also divided into two hostile camps the bourgeois and the proletatariat. This hostility
would ultimately end with the victory of the proletariat.
According to Marx the value of each commodity is determined by the quantity of
labour expended on and material used in it, by the working time necessary, under
given social conditions for its production. As the capitalist does not pay the whole of
the price to the labour or pays him much less than what he actually produces, the
capitalist pockets the rest. This difference between the exchange value of
manufactured commodity and the amount paid to the workman for his labour is
called surplus value. The appropriation of the surplus value by the capitalist,
according to Marx, constitutes injustice. But as the workman does not possess any
means of production he has no alternative but to sell the labour to the capitalist.
Marx considered state as a class institution which reflects the interests and ideas
of the dominant class. This dominant class makes use of the agency of government
to maintain its privileged position in economic matter. As the ruling class control the
government it makes its will into law and enforces it over all. They makes use of
power to resist all kinds of changes. Hence this change can be brought about only by
the working classes by organising themselves, and by revolving against the ruling
class. Marx envisaged two stages of the revolution. During the first stage the
bourgeoisie would be engaged in struggle with Feudalism. During the second phase
of revolution the proletariat in alliance with the left-wing bourgeoisie elements.
Dictatorship of the Proletariat was envisaged by Marx as a transitional stage.
During this period the state was to be retained, but during this stage the dominant
class would be proletariat. It was expected the proletariat shall gradually socialise the
natural resources and destroy the last remnants of capitalism. With the extinction of
the classes the state shall automatically wither away.
Marx believed in international brotherhood of workers. He held that once the
bourgeoisie at the sational level had settled the matters they could think of
promoting an international movement.
The critics have noted several shortcomings in the philosophy of Marx viz. Marx is
a dogmatic philosopher who completely relaxed the logical rigidity of the theory; he
wrongly emphasised that economic forces operate independent of the will of man; his
contention that the economic position always determines the social eiminence is not
supported even by history; he wrongly assumed that in course of time the capitalists
and the proletariat shall be pitched in opposite camps; the state shall ultimately
wither away; social change can be effected only through revolution; the
establishment of the class-less society will be marked by an end to all violence; the
division of history into four phases has been done in arbitrary manner; he completely
ignored the psychological aspect of politics. However, the above shortcomings of

Marx's philosophy do not undermine the valuable contributions made by Karl Marx to
political thought. His main contributions were his emphasis that economic factors
had been ignored by the historians and should be given due importance; his idea of
interdependence of political and legal institutions; Marx found Communism a chaos
and left it a movement; he provided international outlook to his workers movement
and tried to unify the interests of working classes of all countries.
In conclusion, we can say with Wayper "For the power of his message, for the
inspiration of his teaching, and for his effect upon future development, Marx can be
sure of his place in any collection of world's greatest masters of political thought."
THOMAS HILL GREEN (1836-1882)

T.H. Green was not only a philosopher but also a practical politician who took keen
interest in the politics of England. He was born in Yorkshire in 1836 in the family of a
clergyman. After completing his education Green took up teaching assignment and
ultimately became Professor of Philosophy in 1878. He also took keen interest in
active politics. Some of the important works which contain political philosophy of T.H.
Green are Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation; Lectures on Liberal
Legislation and Freedom of
Green 49
Contract; Lectures on the English Revolution; and Prolegomena to Ethics. T.H. Green
in the main drew inspiration from four sources viz. the Greek Tradition, Philosphy of
Rousseau, German Idealism and Non-Conformism.
Green does not consider state as an end in itself but a means for the moral
development of the individual. He says the aim of man is self-realisation and freedom
is the primary means to this end. But when the self-consciousness postulates liberty
it not only knows itself but also identified itself with others. The individual self is the
social-self. It not only wills the good of itself but also wills the goodness in relation to
others which gives rise to the system of rights. According to Green the rights inhere
in the individual and are not a product of any contract. However, these rights
inherent in the individual only as members of society which gives recognition to
these rights. According to Green, people obey the laws of the state because it
appears to them that these laws promote common good. Green's ideas about state
can be summed up thus: State is a natural institution necessary for the moral
realization of the individual; if the rights are not enforceable they are meaningless;
Green justifies the use of force by the state because it represents the general will of
the people the authority of the state is limited from within as well as without.
Green expressed views on Sovereignty which constitutes a compromise between

the views of Rousseau and Austin. He uses the term 'sovereign' for the legal
sovereign who enforces the laws, but at the same time regards him rarely as an
agent of the general will. Green also examines the issue why the people obey the
state. He says that man renders obedience to the state only because it is a natural
instinct of man but also because he realises that his best self or moral development
can be possible only by rendering obedience to the similar good of others. Green
asserts that an individual has a duty to obey the law of the state and other civil
institutions because through these institutions alone he gets the hindrances removed
which stand in the way of his perfection.
Green also developed the concept of General Will which is fundamentally different
from Rousseau's concept of general will. Green implies by general will the common
consciousness of a
common good and asserts that all rights, duties and institutions of society is the
product of general will.
Green's views on freedom were greatly influenced by the Greek political thinkers,
Hegel and Kant. According to Green, freedom is the greatest of all the blessings and
a vital condition for the moral development of the individual. Green offered a positive
concept of freedom and described it as the power of doing or enjoying something
worth doing or enjoying in common with others. Further, it does not include freedom
to do anything and everything. It includes the pursuit of only those objects which
make our lives better.
Green defined right as 'the claim on an individual to will his own. ideal objects and
developing his capacities of reason and will. According to Green the basis of rights
was not legal recognition but common moral consciousness. Green rejected the
concept of natural rights in so far as it implied the existence of certain rights in the
pre-social state. According to him there would be no rights without recognition. Green
concedes to the individual the right to resist the state but his treatment of this
question is very sober and cautious. He permits the individual to resist the authority
of the state but only under certain exceptional circumstances.
Green's views on property represent a pleasant mixture of idealism, individualism
and liberalism. He neither fully supported the institution of property nor criticised it
out and out.
The concept of universal brotherhood is probably one of the most distinctive
contribution of Green political thought. To ensure that all men are able to enjoy their
natural rights and attain their growth, Green pleads for an International Court of Law
which could adjust the relations among the smaller groups of nation states. He, in
fact assumes, that the good of the individual was implicit in the good of the
humanity. Intimately linked with this are Green's views on war. He asserts that war
can never be an absolute right, it can be at best a relative right. He opposed war
because it violates the right of the man to life. Green did not accept the principle if
inevitability of war among states. He says that wars do not exist because the states
exist, but because the states do
50
not fulfil their duty of maintaining the general rights.

Like other political thinkers Green also has his critics who have found faults with
his theory of sovereignty, his views on property etc on the ground that these are not
logical and satisfactory.

1. Jeremy
of
Bentham
is
regarded
as
the
father
(a) Idealism
(b) Utilitarianism
(c) Individualism
(d) all the above.
2. Bentham was greatly influenced by
(a) Hume
(b) Priestley
(c) Adam Smith
3. The
philosphy
of
Bentham
was
greatly
influenced by
(a) the American War of Independence
(b) the French Revolution
4. According
to
Bentham
Nature
has
placed
mankind
under
the
governance
of
two
sovereign masterspain and pleasure
(a) True
(b) False
5.. Which one of the following works has been wrongly attributed to Jeremy
Bentham
(a) Fragments of Government
(b) Fly from the Revolution
(c) Catechism of Parliamentary Reforms
(d) The Theory of Punishments and Rewards 6. Bentham's theory of utility
has been
criticised on the ground that
(a) it does not attach any importance to the moral immoral actions of a
person and judges these actions purely on materialistic grounds.
(b) it is based on wrong premises in so far as it treats the individual as the
centre of all actions and completely ignores the importance of the society.
(c) it is impracticable because it is well nigh impossible to achieve greatest
happiness of the greatest number of people.
(d) all the above grounds.
7. Which one of the following statements has
been wrongly attributed to Bentham
(a) He discarded the concept of natural law
(b) He conceived of law as an expression of the sovereign will
(c) There can be only two types of laws viz. the divine law and the human law
(d) The natural law is superior to all other laws because it has divine element.
8. According to Bentham, the state was

created
(a) for the promotion of pleasure and happiness of men
(b) for the protection of life, liberty and property
(c) for the moral upliftment of men
(d) for all the above reasons
9. According to Bentham people obey the
authority of the state
(a) because of its utility
(b) due to fear of punishment
(c) due to its divine character
(d) due to all the above reasons 10. Consider the following statements
1. Bentham rejected theory of natural rights
2. Bentham propounded an individualistic conception of state
3. Bentham favoured grant of only negative functions to the state
4. Bentham held that people have no moral right to resist the state
(a)
European Political Thought-!! (Bentham, J.S. Mill, Hegel, Marx and T.H.
Green 51
11. Which
form
of
government
was
preferred
by Bentham
(a) Aristocracy
(b) Representative Democracy
(c) Monarchy
12.
Bentham
suggested
several
reforms
in
the
British
constitution.
Which
one
of
these
has been wrongly listed?
(a) Doing away of House of Lords
(b) Annual Parliamentary elections on the basis of universal adult franchise
(c) Equal electoral districts
(d) None
13. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Bentham
1. Bentham had no love for individual liberty
2. Bentham looked at each law as a restraint on individual liberty
3. Bentham did not consider liberty important for the happiness of the largest
number of people.
4. Bentham was a great advocate of individual liberty.
14. Which
one
of
the
following
views
of
Bentham
regarding
law
has
been
wrongly
listed
(a) Law should be in the knowledge of every one
(b) laws should be plain and simple
(c) laws should be flexible and should not be codified.
(d) Bentham strongly favoured codification of laws.
15. Which
one
of
the
following
shortcoming
of
Judicial
Administration
of
England
was
highlighted by Bentham.
(a) It involved unnecessary expenses and delays
(b) People could not have direct access to judges and had to approach them
through attorneys and barristers
(c) Justice is being sold and denied to those who cannot disburse the price at
which it is purchased.
(d) All the above
1. According to Bentham the purpose of punishment should be to reform the
criminal and not to eliminate him.
2. Bentham did not favour any punishment when there was no evil to be
prevented.
3. According to Bentham welfare of the society should be the chief criteria to
determine the punishment.
4. Bentham favoured capital punishment because it acted as a deterrent.
17. Which one of the following prison reforms
was advocated by Bentham
(a) Criminals should be treated kindly and effort be made to improve them.
(b)Effort should be made to improve the prisoners by imparting them proper

training during imprisonment.
(c) Effort be made to improve their moral by imparting them necessary
education.
(d)All the above
18. Which one of the following statement
represents Bentham's views on education
(a) He suggested a scheme of National Education
(b) Bentham suggested two systems of educationone for the pauper children
and the other for the upper class children.
(c) Bentham's scheme of education paid due regard to the capacity of the
learner.
(a)
(d) all the above

19. Which one of the following statement is
correct
(a) According to Bentham it is the duty of the state to look after the education of
the poor children.
(b) According to Bentham the state should have nothing to do with education and
the same should be left in private hands.
(c) According to Bentham the state should be concerned only with technical and
higher education
(d) Bentham's scheme of education paid equal attention to physical and
intellectual development of the individual.
1. Bentham was highly critical of the English Church and its sincure offices.
2. According to Bentham the clergymen were the enemies of progress
3. Bentham wanted the clergy to be under the control of the state and to be
paid like policemen and judges.
4. Bentham wanted the priests and bishops to be left free and permitted them
to accumulate property
21. On what ground Bentham has been
criticised
(a) He did not fully understand the human nature and tried to interpret it in
terms of 'pleasure' and 'pain' motives.
(b) Bentham's utilitarianism was a materialist concept which completely ignored
the moral considerations
(c) Bentham ignored man's relations with physical environment as well as his
past.
(d) All the above
22. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding Bentham is correct?
(a) Bentham emphasised the need of reforming the existing institutions to
transform them into instruments of general good.
(b) Most of the legal and parliamentary reforms advocated by Bentham have
since been carried out in England and other countries.
(c) Bentham emphasised that the goverment must justify itself before the bar of
public opinion to command their obedience.
(d) all the above.
1. With Bentham the old era of legislative stagnation came to an end and the
period of increased legislative activity commenced.
2. Bentham was an inductive scientist who drew conclusions from his laboriously
collected data.
3. Bentham instead of treating the law as a mystic mandate treated it as an
expression of the will of the authority expressed through the legislature
4. Bentham held that people render obedience to the government because of
the past contract.
24. Who
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
last
of
the
utilitarian
and
foremost
of
the
individualist
(a) John Stuart Mill
(b) James Mill
(c) Montesuieu
(d) Bentham
25. John Stuart was greatly influenced by
(a) Plato
(b) Bentham
(c) his wife Mrs. Taylor
(d) all the above.
26. Which
one
of
the
following
work
has
been
wrongly attributed to John Stuart Mill
Green 53
(a) Principles of Political Economy

(b) Enfranchisement of Women
(c) Subjection of Women
27. J.S.
Mill
made
several
modifications
in
the
doctrine
of
utilitarianism.
Which
one
of
the
following
modification
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) He drew a distinction between higher and lower pleasure.
(b) He did not agree with Bentham that pleasure was the only cause and motive
for individual's actions.
(c) Mill placed the moral ends above the individual happiness and tried to
promote virtuous life.
(d) Mill considered security essential for the promotion of greatest good of the
greatest number.
28. Consider
the
following
statements
of
J.S.
Mill
1. Mill considered liberty essential for the attainment of the principle of utility
and asserted that minority rights could be protected only when all enjoyed
liberty.
2. J.S. Mill stood for public voting
3. Mill placed the moral ends above the individual happiness and thus tried to
promote virtuous life.
4. Mill, like Bentham, held that pleasure was the only cause and motive for
individual's action
29. Who made the following statement?
"It is better to be human being dissatisfied
than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates
dissatisfied than a fool satisfied"
(a) Bentham
(b) J.S. Mill
(c) Plato
(d) T.H.Green
30. John
Stuart
is
regarded
as
the
greatest
champion of the individual liberty
(a) True
(b) False
31. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
of
J.S. Mill is correct?
(a) Mill stood for restricting government interference in the life of the individual
to the minimum possible.
(b) Mill held that democracy, public opinion and collectivism were dangerous to
individual liberty and must be kept within their sphere of activity.
(c) Mill believed that if every individual was allowed to develop his personality as
he liked, it would enrich the world by providing a variety of characters.
(d) all the above
32. Which
one
of
the
following
thinker
has
been
described
by
Barker
as
"the
prophet
of
an
empty
liberty
and
abstract
individualism"?
(a) Bentham
(b) John Locke
(c) J.S.Mill
(d) T.H. Green
33. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
of
J.S. mill regarding state is correct?
(a) He considered state as a product of the will of the people who compose it
rather than an instrument for the promotion of their interests.
(b) State's interference is indispensable for the development of the individual's
personality.
(c) The state should be so regulated that the best intellectual and moral qualities
of the citizens could be stimulated and utilized for the service of the society.
(d) All the above.
34. According
to
J.S.
Mill
the
best
form
of
government
(a) is one which is most efficient
(b) is one which promotes the virtue and intelligence of the people
(c) is one which promotes the maximum good of the maximum number of
people.
(d) is one which works for all the above
(a)
54
35. J.S. Mill was a strong advocate of

representative government and
(a) favoured it only for the advanced nations
(b) favoured it only for the backward countries.
(c) favoured its adoption in all countries
(d) favoured its adoption only in small sized countries.
36. Consider the following statements about
J.S. Mill
1. He advocated the system of Proportional Representation to ensure that each
section of the society gets representation in proportion to its voting strength.
2. Mill pleaded for greater weightage in voting for persons with better abilities
and capabilities.
3. Mill insisted on - property and educational qualifications for the voters.
4. Mill favoured reservation of seats for certain sections of society
(d) 1/3 and 4 are correct
37. Which one of the following was insisted by
J.S. Mill for voters?
(a) Property qualification
(b) Open Public Voting
(c) Secret ballot
wrongly attributed to J.S. Mill?
(a) He stood for equal treatment of
women (b)-He was against payment to the
members of Parliament
(c) He favoured annual elections to the Parliament
39. Given
below
are
two
statements
about
J.S.
Mill;
One
Assertion
(A)
and
the
other
Reason (R)
Assertion (A) Mill insisted on property
qualifications for the voters
Reason(R) It is important that the
Assembly which votes taxes should be
elected by those who pay something
towards the taxes imposed
State which one of the following is true
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not correct explanation of A
(c) A is correct but R is incorrect
(d) R is correct but A is incorrect
40. Given
below
are
two
statements
about
J.S.
Mill;
One
Assertion
(A)
and
the
other
Reason (R)
Assertion (A) Mill was against payment to
the members of the Parliament
Reason (R) The membership of Parliament
was an honour and service for which
members need no payment.
State which one of the following is true
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not correct explanation of A
41. According
to
critics
Mill
was
not
a
true
democrat because,
(a) He advocated only restrict adult franchise
(b) He provided special weightage in voting to the educated and propertied

classes.
(c) He held that democracy Was not suited to all societies and excluded
backward societies from democracy
42. Mill
is
regarded
as
a
great
individualist
because
(a) he strongly opposed all state interference on the ground that it led to
infringement of individual liberty.
Green 55
(b) He defended the institution of private property and considered it necessary

for the good and progress of the mankind.
(c) He favoured partnership of the labourers with the capitalists.
43. J.S. Mill is often described as a socialist
because
(a) He favoured partnership of the labourers either among themselves or with
the capitalists.
(b) he disliked competition.
(c) he approved of trade unionism and the socialist idea of voluntary
cooperation.
(d) Both (a) and ((c)
44. Which one of the following contribution of
J.S. Mill has been wrongly listed?
(a) He offered one of the best vindication of the liberty of thought and
expression.
(b) He strongly advocated women rights
(c) He highlighted the evils of bureaucracy and opposed government interference
in the economic life of community beyond a set limit
45. Consider the following statements of J.S.

Mill
1. He was one of the foremost individualists who emphasised the principles of
human progress as the goal of civilization.
2. He realised the danger to society from tyranny of majority over the minority
and suggested necessary remedial measures.
3. Mill considered the right to private property in land as sacred, on the ground
that no man made the land and it is the original inheritance of the whole
species.
4. Mill was one of the bigoted individualists because he strongly opposed all
state interference on the
ground that it led to infringement of individual liberty. Of the above statements
46. Hegel was an important political thinker
of
(a) France
(b) Germany
(c) England
(d) Spain
47. Hegel was greatly influenced by
(a) the French Revolution
(b) the Industrial Reviolution
(c) the Glorious Revolution
48. Which one of the following political
thinker profoundly influenced Hegel
(a) Hume
(b) Kant
(c) Rousseau
(d) all the above
49. Which one of the following works has
been wrongly attributed to Hegel
(a) Philosophy of Right
(b) Philosophy of History
(c) A Critique of Reason
(d) Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences.
50. Which one of the ancient Greek Thinkers
greatly influenced Hegel?
(a) Plato
(b) Aristotle
1. According to Hegel man is social by nature as well as necessity
2. Man created family because it served his sensual needs and offered him
protection.
3. State is the March of God on this earth
4. State possesses will and personality like an individual
(a)
56

Hegel is correct
(a) The state possesses a will and personality of its own which is quite distinct
from the wills and personalities of the individuals which compose it.
(b) State is an organism with a natural growth
(c) State contains within itself and represents the social morality of all its citizens
but is itself above it
(d) all the above.
Hegel is correct?
(a) Individual freedom consisted in blind obedience to the dictates of the state.
(b) Freedom is not individualistic in character but a social phenomenon
(c) Freedom implies the absence of all laws
54. Hegel classified the government powers as
(a) Legislative, Administrative and Monarchic
(b) Legislative, Executive and Judicial
(c) Legislative, Federative, and Monarchic
(d) Legislative, Aristocratic and Judicial.
55. Hegel supported constitutional monarchy
because
(a) under it perfect rationality could be achieved
(b) it combined the best elements of monarchy,
aristocracy
and
democracy
(c) The monarch supervises the other two branches of government and brings
about necessary harmony in the state

Hegel is correct?
(a) Hegel considered war as an absolute evil
(b) Hegel considered war as a virtuous activity
(c) According to Hegel war helps in the discovery of the World spirit
57. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Hegel
1. Hegel's firm faith in war hardly left any scope for international law and
international order.
2. Hegel considered the state as omnipotent and the international law in no way
restricted its authority.
3. Hegel conceived international law as a collection of fair usages which are
observed by the states as long as they do not conflict with their national
interests.
4. Hegel favoured conduct of war in accordance with established rules of
international law.

58. The
Dialectical
method,
which
is
considered
as
the
most
outstanding
contri
bution
of
Hegel
to
political
philosophy,
was inspired by
(a) the Greek Thinkers
(b) Fitche
(c) Bentham
59. According
to
Hegel,
dialectic
was
a
process
by
which
all
ideas
in
the
world
developed
(a) True
(b) False
60. Which
one
f
o
the
shortcoming
of
Hegel
has
been wrongly listed
(a) He treated the state as embodiment of reason and march of God on earth.
(b) Hegel held faith in the principle of divine rights of the king
(a)
European Political Thought-ll (Bentham, J.S. Mill, Hegel, Marx and T.H. Green 57
(c) Hegal treated the state as an end in itself and completely sacrificed the
individual at the altar of the state.
(d) hegel failed a draw a distinction between state and society
1. Hegel openly advocated the principle of expediency and neglected the moral
principles.
2. According to Hegel all actions of state proceed according to a divine plan
3. Hegel advocated the theory of state with a view to glorify the German state.
4. Hegel was the first to draw a clear distinction between state and society

62. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
contribution
of
Hegel
to political thought
(a) He asserted that there was no cleavage between the individual and the state
(b) Hegel exercised profound influence on Bismarck who actually tried to
translate his ideas into action.
(c) Marx borrowed ideas of class struggle, absoluteness of the state etc. from
Hegel
63. Which
one
of
the
following
political
thinker
is
revered
by
half
of
the
world
as
a
god
and
condemned
by
the
other
half
as
a
devil.
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Hegel
(c) T.H. Green
(d) J.S. Mill
64. Karl Marx was born in
(a) England
(b) France
(c) Germany
(d) Russia
65. Communist
Manifesto
which
contains
the
philosophy of Marxism was written by
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Engles
(c) Both (a) and (b) jointly
66. Marx's philosophy is contained in
(a) Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy
(b) Das Capital
(c) Civil War in France
(d) all the above
67. Marx was greatly inspired by
(a) German classical philosophy
(b) The classical school of British economy

(c) French Revolutionary tradition
(d)all the above.
68. Which
idea
of
Marx
was
inspired
by
the
classical English school
(a) Labour Theory
(b) Doctrine of Surplus Value
69. Marx's
theory
of
state
and
revolution
was
greatly inspired by
(a) the French Revolution
(b) The American War of Independence
(c) The German Classical Philosophy
(d) all the above
70. Marx
boasted
that
he
turned
Hegel's
dialectic upside down
(a) True
(b) False
71. Marx's
materialistic
interpretation
of
History
(a) is nothing but the actual application of the principle of dialectical materialism
(b) is an economic interpretation of the various phenomena of history
(c) production is the most important of all the human activities.
(d) includes all the above.
72. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
against
Marx's
materialistic
interpretation
of history has been wrongly listed.
58
(a) Marx's materialistic interpretation of history is defective in so far as it ignores

the part played by the non-economic factors in the shaping of history.
(b) Marx does not attach any importance to human passions, sentiments,
emotions, religion etc.
(c) Marx attached great importance to the moral principles for the development
of individual's personality.
73. According
to
Marx's
theory
of
class-war
the
hitherto
existing
society
has
been
divided
into
two
hostile
classes.
Which
one
of
these
hostile
classes
have
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Free man and slave
(b) Patrican and plebian
(c) guild master and journeyman
74. Marx's
theory
of
class
struggle
has
been
criticised
on
various
grounds.
Which
one
of these has been wrongly listed?
(a) He does not offer any clear conception of class
(b) He wrongly assumes that the society is divided into two sharp classes.
(c) His concept of class struggle is harmful in so far as it encourages hatred and
violence
75. According
to
Marx
capitalism
will
ultimately disappear because
(a) of concentration of wealth in the hands of fewer and fewer persons
(b) of decline in the number of capitalists and increase in the number of
proletariat.
(c) of concentration of industries at one place which would encourage the
labourers to come closer and organise themselves.
(d) all of the above reasons.
1. According to Marx concentration of labour in one place leads to development
of class consciousness.
2. The increasing exploitation of the workers compells them to revolt and
overthrow the capitalists system
3. According to Marx capitalism leads to misery and dependence of workers.
4. With the improvement in the standards of the people the hostility towards
capitalism would gradually dispappear.
77. According
to
Marx
the
value
of
a
commodity is determined by
(a) the quantity of labour expended
(b) the material used in its production
(c) demand and supply
(d) both (a) and ((b))
78.
Marx's theory of value has been criticised
on
several
grounds.
Which
one
of
the
following has been wrongly listed?
(a) Marx wrongly asserts that labour alone determines the cost of production
(b) Marx's theory does not take into account factors like capital and
organisation
(c) The theory is defective because it does not take into consideration the factor
of demand
79. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Marx's theory of surplus value was an extension of his labour theory
(b) Marx holds that the value of commodity is produced by the labour and the
whole price should be paid to him.
(a)
Green 59

80. Consider the following statements of Marx
1. State is a class institution which reflects the interests and ideas of the
dominant class.
2. Democratic state is a contradiction in terms because democracy cannot exist
in a society which is divided.
3. With the disappearance of capital the state shall also disappear and a
classless and stateless society shall emerge.
4. State is a necessary evil and should be strengthened
81. According to Marx,
(a) government is an obstructive rathar than a creative force in social evolution
(b) government is an agency through which the ruling class imposes its will upon
the subject classes and maintains its privileged position.
82. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The ultimate purpose of Marx's revolution was to abolish the state and
establish a state-less and classless society
(b) According to Marx the phase of Dictatorship of Proletariat was only a
transitionstage.
(c) The Marxian concept of revolution was essentiality evolutionary in character.
83. According
to
Marx
during
the
dictatorship
of
Proletariat
the
means
of
production
shall be used for
(a) the benefit of workers
(b) social good
(c) the benefit of ruling classes

84. Consider the following statements of Marx
1. The dictatorship of the proletariat shall be as repressive and ruthless as the
capitalist system.
2. The dictatorship of the proletariat shall aim at the abolition of all the classes.
3. During the period of dictatorship of proletariat the majority shall resort to
oppression of the former exploitors.
4. The period of dictatorship of proletariat shall follow the abolition of the state.
Of the above statements,,,
85. According to Marx the dictatorship of the
proletariat was only a transitional period
(a) True
(b) False
86. Which one of the following statement of
Marx has been wrongly listed
(a) He treated the state as an instrument of oppression against the weaker
classes.
(b) He treated the state as an instrument for the promotion of the interests of
weaker and deprived sections of the society
(c) Marx held that the interests of the working classes and capitalists were quite
antagonistic to each other.
(d) Marx held that changes could be brought about only through revolution.
correct?
(a) Marx condemned capitalism on the ground that it was based on exploitation
60
(b) According to Marx the state shall ultimately wither away and a classless
society shall emerge
(c) According to Marx the dictatorship of proletariat was only a transitional
period.
(d) all the above
88. Who of the following considered religion
as the opium of the people?
(a) Hebel
(b) Marx
(c) Green
(d) all the above.
89. According to Marx men's ideas of good
and bad were determined by
(a) the prevailing moral notions
(b) the economic structure of the social organism.
(c) the welfare of the proletariat
(d) all the above.
correct
(a) Marx treated religion as a part of the superstructure created by the conditions
of production.
(b) Marx's morality was positive and he laid emphasis on practical ethics.
(c) Marx was opposed to all types of religions.
91. Who of the following made an appeal to
the workers of the world to unite?
(a) Marx
(b) Bentham
(c) J.S. Mill
92. Which one of the following shortcoming of
Marx has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is alleged that Marx is a dogmatic philosopher who completely relaxed the
logical rigidity of the theory.
(b) Marx wrongly emphasised that the economic forces operate independent of
the will of man and economic factor is the only factor which moves the whole
world.
(c) Marx's thesis that economic position always determines the social eminence
is not supported by history.
(d) Marx assumed that ultimately the capitalists and the Proletariat shall
patch-up and a classless society shall emerge.
1. Marx believed that social changes can be effected only through revolution.
2. Marx assumed that the establishment of the classless society will be
marked by an end to all violence.
3. Marx maintained that the emancipation of the workers would come only
through complete political and economic transformation of the existing
national societies.
4. Marx attached too much importance to the psychological aspects of
politics
94. Match
the
names
of
Authors
contained
in
column
A
with
the
name
of
the
books
contained in column (B)
Column A
Column (B)
1. Bentham
A Lectures on Principles
of Political Obligation
2. J.S. Mill
B Philosophy of Rights
3. Hegel
C Principles of Political
Economy
4. T.H.Green
D Fragments ofGovernment Select the correct answer with the help of following
codes:
12
3
4
(a) A
C
B
A
(b) B
C
A
D
(c) B
A
DC
(d) A
B
CD
95. Green drew inspiration from
(a) the Greek tradition
(b) the philosophy of Rousseau
(c) German Idealism
(d) all the above.
(a)
European Political Thought-ll (Bentham, J.S. Mill, Hegel, Marx and T.H. Green 61
96. T.H. Green was

(a) main a political philosopher
(b) a practical politician
97. Which
of
the
borrowed
by
Green
thinkers Plato and Aristotle
following
from
ideas
the
were
Greek
(a) State is a natural and necessary institution.

(b) Ethics and politics are one and the same thing but approached from different
point of view
(c) The sovereign represented the general will and as such should be obeyed by
all the citizens
98. Which
one
of
the
following
German
thinkers influenced Green's thought
(a) Hegel
(b) Kant
(c) Fichte
(d) all the above.
99. Which
one
of
the
following
works
has
been wrongly attributed to Green.
(a) Lectures on the English Revolution.
(b) Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation
(c) Lectures on Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract
(d) None
100.Which
one
of
the
following
statement
of
Green is wrong
(a) State is an end in itself
(b) State is a means for the moral development
(c)State is the product of human consciousness
(d) State is both natural and necessary.
101.Consider
the
following
statements
of
Green:
1. State is a natural institution neces iry for the moral realization of the
individual.
2. State must enforce rights, even by compulsion, if necessary
3. The
authority
of
the
state
is
limited
both from within and without
4. The state has a divine element
been wrongly attributed to Green?
(a) He justified the use of force by the state because it represented the general
will of the people.
(b) Green considered the state as absolute and omnipoent.
(c) According to Green the authority of the state was limited both from within
and without.
(d) The state can contribute to the moral development of the individual only
'sby removing the hindances in the way of the development of individual's
personality.
correct?
(a) Green's views on sovereignty are a compromise between the views of
Rousseau and Austin.
(b) Green's views on sovereignty are a combination of views of Hobbes and
Locke on sovereignty.
(c) Green's views on sovereignty are virtually a reproduction of views of Locke
on sovereignty.
(d) all the above.

104. According to Green an individual obeys
the orders of the state because
(a) it is in keeping with his natural instinct.
(b) he realises that his best self or moral development can be possible only by
rendering obedience to the state
(a)
105.According
to
Green
an
individual
can
defy
the state
(a) if his rights are infringed
(b) if a particular law does not suit his convenience
(c) If the state fails to promote social good
(d) in all the above cases
106.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Green's concept of general will fundamentally differs from Rousseau's
concept of General Will.
(b) According to Green all rights, duties and institutions of society are the
product of the General Will
(c) According to Green the General Will is not of the state but for the state to
maintain it.
(d) All the above
107.Green
considers
freedom
as
the
greatest
of
all
the
blessings
and
a
vital
condition
for
the moral development of the individual.
(a) True
(b) False
108.Green's
views
on
freedom
were
greatly
influenced by
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Hegel
(d) all the above.
rightly attributed to T.H. Green.

(a) Freedom is something positive
(b) Freedom is the power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or
enjoying in common with others.
(c) Freedom is determinate and does not include freedom to do anything and
everything.
(d) All the above.
110.Consider
the
following
statements
of
Green:
1. Legal recognition was the basis of rights
2. Rights are more relative to morality than law.
3. No body can have right except as a member of the society
4. He rejected the concept of natural rights in so far as it implied the existence of
certain rights in the pre-social state. Of the above statements
111. Given
below
are
two
statements
regarding
Green;
one
Assertion
(A)
and
the
other
Reason (R)
Assertion (A) There cannot be any reasonable right to disobey the state
Reason (A) the State alone is the originator of rights.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
112. Green
permits
an
individual
to
disobey
the
command of the sovereignty
(a) if legality of a given command is doubtful
(b) if the system of government is tyrannical and opposed to public interests.
(c) there is no means of agitation for the repeal or amendment of a bad law.
(d) in all the above conditions.
113. Green
permits
the
individual
to
legitimately resort to resistance.
(a) under no condition
(b) if he makes sure that a definite social good shall be ensured through
successful opposition
(c) if the individual is backed by the support of a substantial part of his fellow
beings.
(d) both (b) and ((c)
114. Green's
views
on
property
bear
an
imprint
of
(a) Idealism
(b) Individualism
(a)
Green 63
(c) Liberalism
(d) all the above

Green regarding property
(a) He neither fully supported the institution of private property nor criticised it
out and out
(b) He considers property as indispensable for the development of man's
personality.
(c) Green considered private property as an evil
(d) According to Green as all persons do not possess equal capacities there is
bound to exist inequality in the field of property.
been wrongly attributed to Green
(a) The individual's right to property should not be allowed to interfere with the
good of the society and the right of self-realisation of others.
(b) Green favoured possession of small land-holdings with small proprietors
tilling their own land.
(c) Green stood for apportionment of unearned increment by the state.
1. Green conceived natural law as something existing independently of social
consiousness
2. Green distinguished natural law from the positive law
3. Green accorded predominant position to natural law and ass* :ed that any
rule or institution which is inconsistent with law should be rejected.
4. According to Green natural law is what it should be and is essentially
enforceable
Green is correct?
(a)Natural law is a growing and developing thing
(b) Natural law is not the same at all times and places
(c) Natural law differs from generation to generation and from people to people.
(d) all the above
119. According to Green state is a society of
societies'
(a) True
(b) False
Green has been wrongly listed?
(a) state is a society of societies'
(b) Green is a Pluralist
(c) According to Green state is the ultimate source of all rights and adjustments
and hence supreme over all other societies.
(d) According to Green the supremacy of the state is limited by nature of the
state and by the nature of the association.
121. Which one of the following statement of
Green is correct?
(a) war is an inherent right of an individual
(b) war is an essential attribute of a state
(c) war is wrong because it means destruction of human life.
Green
1. War can never be an absolute right, it can be at best a relative right
2. War is an essnential attribute of the state
3. War develops virtues like patriotism, self-sacrifice and heroism
1.
4. Green
does
not accept the invitability of war among the states. Of the
above statements
123. According to Green the primary objective
of punishment is
(a) to maintain rights and duties in the state
(b) to secure freedom of action for the moral development of all the members of
the community
(c) to inflict pain on the criminal
correct
(a) Although Green greatly felt the impact of Hegel he continued to be an
individualist
(b) Green regarded the state as a means to the attainment of the end of formal
moral development of the individuals living within the state.
(c) Green's individualism is evident from his concept of freedom which states
that man has a right to make the best of himself

(d) All the above
125. Which one of the following criticism of
Green has been wrongly listed?
(a) Green fails to take into account the sub-conscious
factors
which
influence the action of men in the state.
(b) Green's views on property are defective in so far he only opposes the
concentration of landed property and not concentration of capital.
(c) Green treats the state as an end in itself
126. Which
one
of
the
following
contribution
of
Green
to
political
thought
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Green added the concept of collective well-being to the liberal theory
(b) Green tried to combine morality and politics by preaching that it was the
moral duty of the state to develop social instinct of man.
(c) Green beautifully combined the negative and the positive functions of the
state
127. Green
has
been
criticised
on
the
ground
that
(a) his theory of private property is self-contractory
(b) he held that war promotes nationalism and patriotism
(c) people render obedience to the state on account of fear of punishment.
(d) he gives blank authority to the individual to defy the authority of the state.
(a)
(b)
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5Contemporary Political
Thought:
Lenin, Mao Tse Tung,
Antonic Gramsci and
Communitarians
LENIN (1870-1924)
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, popularly known as Lenin, was born in April 1870. After his
early education he obtained degree in law and started his career as barrister.
However soon he gave up his profession and devoted himself to the study of Marxism
and indulged in revolutionary activities. His profession and devoted himself to the
study of Marxism and indulged in revolutionary activities. His philosophy is mainly
contained in What is to be done? : Two Tactics of Social Democracy in the Democratic
Revolution; Materialism and Impirio Criticism; Imperialism, the Final State of
Capitalism; State and Revolution. Though Lenin was a faithful disciple of Marx he
played fast and loose with Marxist theory at every turn. He tried to bring Marxism upto-date by making use of theory of imperialism and arrived at conclusion which were
very reverse of Marxian concept. In fact he adapted Marxism according to the
practical needs of the time and made Marxism applicable even to the country which
was not industrially advanced. In fact, Lenin revised Marxism in the light of the latest
developments.
Lenin regarded imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. According to him
as capitalism developed, the units of industrial production grow bigger and combine
in trusts and cartels to produce monopoly capitalism. The same process takes place
in the financial world. According to
Lenin Imperialism is capitalism in that stage of development in which the domination
of monopoly and finance capital.
Lenin regarded state as a capitalist organisation which was used by the capitalists
to crush the workers and peasants. It was also used by the capitalists to control the
means of production and distribution and to create monopoly conditions so that they
may be able to exploit the workers. Lenin pleaded for the abolition of the state.
Another notable contribution of Lenin was his theory of party. He considered party
organisation as most vital for the overthrow of the existing capitalist system. Lenin
held that party was needed not only before the revolution to arouse the revolutionary
spirit of the proletariat but also after the revolution to annihilate the capitalist state
and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat. As regards the organisation of the
party, Lenin insisted that all the party bodies from bottom to top should be elected;
the party bodies should be periodically accountable to the party organisation; there
should be strict party discipline; and the lower bodies must carry out the orders of
the higher bodies. Lenin stood for restricting the membership of party and wanted
only those persons to be admitted as members who were devoted to the cause of
Marxism-Leninism and were willing to make any sacrifice for this purpose.
Contemporary Political Thought: Lenin, Mao Tse Tung Antohic Gramsci and
Communitarians 67
Lenin laid great emphasis on revolution to bringing about Communism. He

assigned as important role of the Communist Party in bringing about the revolution.
Once the revolution had been brought about, Lenin favoured quick action to get hold
over the private means of production and their replacement by collective methods.
Lenin accepted Marx's concept of dictatorship of proletariat but converted it into
dictatorship of the Communist Party. This dictatorship of the party was to be a
temporary phase because the ultimate objective of Lenin was to establish a
communist state or society in which all public offices shall be elective and the
administrators shall have experience to solve all practical problems.
Lenin, like Marx, considered religion as a big obstacle in the way of progress and
an instrument of exploitation of the poor. He wanted the government to treat religion
as a private matter.
Lenin has been given credit for giving practical outlook to the theoretical dogmas
of Marx and updating his philosophy. Another notable contribution of Lenin was his
concept of professional revolutionary. He stressed the necessity of creating a
homogeneous group of disciplined professional revolutionaries. He laid stress on the
selection of the right persons for the party officers and asserted that only persons of
high integrity and character should be permitted to become members of the party.
Lenin also laid great emphasis on the need and importance of a theory. In fact he
insisted that the theory should precede the action because a sound action can be
taken only if there is a sound theory. Above all, Lenin assigned important role to the
peasants in bringing about the revolution.
MAO TSE TUNG (1893-1977)

Mao Tse Tung, the father of modern Communist China, was born in 1893 in the family
of a poor peasant. His early years were a period of great hardship. He joined the
revolutionary army of Dr. Sun Yat Sen at the age of 16 but left the same after some
time. Under the impact of the Russian revolution Mao started organising the
labourers and students. In 1921 he founded the Communist Party of China along with
some other top leaders. Mao Was not a systematic political thinker. His political ideas
lie scattered in works like On
Contradiction and On Practice, New Democracy. It may be noted that Mao did not
provide any comprehensive philosophy or political theory. He was mainly concerned
with the popularisation of Communist tenents. Mao modified Marxism according to
the conditions prevailing in China. Mao held that leadership of the revolution in China
would be provided by the peasants. He did not accept the view of Marx and Lenin
that dictatorship of the proletariat shall be a transitory stage and the state would
ultimately wither away. Instead Mao asserted that the phase of dictatorship of the
proletariat would last over many decades because the socialist revolution on the
economic front must be accompanied by the political and ideological revolution. In
short Mao believed in the perpetual character of the revolution.
Mao strongly opposed capitalism and asserted that there could not be any peace
or accomodation with the capitalism because the two systems were opposed to each
other. Mao also put forth the idea of People's War. He wanted to bring about two
revolutions simultaneouslyone against the imperial and colonial rule and the other
against the feudal lords. Mao considered the people as more important instrument of
war than weapons. In short he laid emphasisis on the theory of total revolution by the
totality of the people.
Mao also put forth a theory of guerilla warfare. Mao stood for avoiding a battle in
which victory was not sure. Instead he favoured guerilla war, which would destroy the
enemy and preserve self. As Mao put it "When guerillas engage a stronger enemy,
they withdraw when he advances; harass him when he stops; strike when he is
weary, pursue him when he withdraws."
Mao was a strong advocate of the philosophy of power. He asserted 'political
power grows out of the barrel of gun'. He said that whosoever wanted to seize the
political power and maintain it must have a strong army'.
He was also a strong advocate of war and was convinced that war alone could
bring an end to the capitalism and install communism.
In 1965-66 Mao launched a Cultural Revolution to downgrade the role of the party
and upgrade the role of masses. After accomplishing the Cultural Revolution he set
up Revolutionary Committees, which took over the powers of the
68
state as well as the party in different areas. Intimately connected with Map's views
on Cultural Revolution was his theory of knowledge. Mao, instead of laying emphasis
on rational knowledge, laid emphasis on practical knowledge. He held that maximum
knowledge could be obtained through personal participation rather than through
rational faculty. In simple words Mao held that the best way to acquire knowledge
was through personal participation in the activities.
Marx adopted a tolerant attitude towards the bourgeoisie class on pragmatic
grounds. This attitude was also in keeping with Mao's theory of non-antagonistic
contradictions among the four classesproletariat, peasantry, petty bourgeoisie and
national bourgeoisieof the Chinese society. Mao believed that these diverse classes
could coexist in peace because their interests did not necessarily conflict with each
other.
A look at the above ideas of Mao Tse Tung shows that he greatly modified Marxism
in the light of China's rural oriental charcter and realities of the situation.
ANTONIO GRAMSCI
Gramsci was another important political thinkers whose name is associated with the
Marxist philosophy. He criticised Marxism for its dogmatic belief in mechanical
development and closely associated himself the the Factory Council Movement of
Turin. This drew him closer to the Council Communism in which the workers own
mass organisation and carried on struggle against the bourgeois as well as the new
socialist society. In contract to the democratic socialism of the Bolshiveks, Gramsci
laid stress on organic centralism which implied that a dialogue must go on between
the leaders and the followers. He has been described as super-structure theorist
because he appreciated the role of ideology and politics in the development of
society. He wanted the intellectuals to play an important role in the development of
the society. He insisted that the ideology to be developed by the intellectual should
be capable of challenging the existing bourgeois ideology. Another notable feature of
Gramsci's thought was that he strongly rejected
both positivistic and evolutionistic view of Marxism.
COMMUNITARIANISM
Communitarinism is a school of thought associated with writers like Charles

Taylor, Michael Sandal, Walzer etc. This school rose as a reaction to the resurgence of
the libertarian politics. The Communitarians hold that the value of the community is
not sufficiently recognized in the liberal individualistic theories of politics. They assert
that the community which already exists in the form of social practices, cultural
traditions, and shared social understandings, need respect and protection. It is
noteworthy that unlike Marxists, who want to rebuild a new community by
overthrowing capitalism, the Communitarians want to protect what is already
existing.
According to the Communitarians the individual freedom and well-being is
possible only within the community. Once the dependence of human beings on
society is conceded, the task of politics becomes the good of the society as a whole
and not mere protection of the rights of the individual. The Common good demands
that the politics of individual rights should be replaced by the politics of common
good. In other words it can be said that the individual rights are important only to the
extent that they conform to the notion of public good.
Communitarians identify common good with the overall good of the society and
not merely an aspect of it. They argue that the community can be sustained only by
a notion of good which has three features viz. the need to sustain a cultural structure
that provides people with meaningful options; a shared forum in which these options
can be evaluated and the pre-condition of the political legitimacy.

1. Which one of the following work contains the political philosophy of Vladimir
Illyich Ulyanov, popularly known as Lenin?
(a) Two Tactics of Social Democracy in the Democratic Revolution
(b) Imperialism, the Final Stage of Capitalism
(a)
Contemporary Political Thought: Lenin, Mao Tse Tung Antonic Gramsci and Communitarians
69
(c) State and Revolution.

(d) All the above.
2. Lenin was a political thinker of
(a) Germany
(b) Russia
(c) France
(d) None of the above countries.
1. Lenin played fast and loose with Marxist theory at every turn
2. Lenin claimed that his mission was to rescue the true revolutionary Marxism
which was being misrepresented by the revisionists
3. Lenin adopted Marxism with great skill according to the practical needs of the
time
4. Lenin was essentially a political theorist
correct?
(a) Lenin brought Marxian philosophy up-to-date
5.
6.
7.
8.
(b) Lenin's philosophy has been described as Marxism of the era of imperialism
and of the proletarian revolution.
(c) Lenin regarded Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism
(d) All the above
1. Lenin held that state was a capitalist organisation which was used by the
capitalists to crush the workers and peasants.
2. Lenin pleaded for the abolition of the state.
3. Lenin held that the state was exploited by the capitalists to control the means
of production and distribution and create monopoly conditions.
4. Lenin stood for the expansion of state's role. Of the above statements
Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about Lenin is correct
(a) Theory of party is probably the greatest contribution of Lenin to Communist
philosophy.
(b) According to Lenin it was the party which provides ideology to the proletariat
and acts as their vanguard
(c) Lenin assigned an omnipotent position to the party and asserted it was
impossible to carry out the dictatorship of the proletariat without it.
(d) All the above.
Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Lenin
regarding
party
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Lenin favoured grant of membership of party only to the elites.
(b) Lenin wanted to grant membership of the party only to those who were
devoted to the cause of Marxism-Leninism
(c) He wanted the party members to guide the masses and create among them a
sense of disciplined life.
(d) Party members were expected to look after the welfare of the people and
chalk out necessary programme for this purpose.
Which one of the following statements of
Lenin
regarding
party
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He was in favour of organising the party on the principle of Democratic
Centralism
(b) He wanted the Party not only to work for the good of the party members but
non party-men too.
(a)
70
(c) He favoured a strong party organisation which was capable of bringing about
the revolution as well as maintaining its fruits.
1. Lenin laid great emphasis on revolution to bring about communism.
2. Lenin was fully convinced that socialism could not be brought about through
Parliamentary methods.
3. According to Lenin the revolution will come only when the lower classes do
not want the old system and the upper classes cannot continue in the old
way.
4. Revolution could be brought about through peaceful methods in countries
where Parliamentary system is well entrenched.
10. Which one of the following statements is correct.
(a) Lenin assigned very significant role to the Communist Party in bringing about
the revolution.
(b) Lenin instead that the Communist Party should consist of only professional
revolutionaries, organised as secretly as possible
(c) After the revolution, Lenin favoured collective control over the means of
production and distribution
(d) All the above
1'.. Consider the following statements
1. Lenin converted the dictatorship of the proletariat into dictatorship of the
Communist Party
2. Lenin held that the workers by themselves are capable of developing
revolutionary consciousness.
3. Lenin held that once the revolution was brought about the private means of
production must be taken over and replaced by collective methods.
4. Lenin transformed the dictatorship of the proletariat into dictatorship of One
party state.
12. Lenin's
ultimate
objective
was
to
establish
a Communist state or society in which
(a) all public offices shall be elective

(b) the administrators shall have experience to solve all practical problems
13. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Lenin is correct?
(a) Religion is an obstacle in the way of progress and an instrument of
exploitation of the poor.
(b) Our morality is wholly subordinate to the interests of the class struggle of the
proletariat
(c) Lenin held that the state should consider religion as a private matter.
(d) Alltheabove
14. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
contribution
of
Lenin
to Political Thought?
(a) Lenin made Marx's philosophy up-to-date and provided it a practical outlook
(b) He emphasised that the Marxian doctrines could not be implemented without
an effective Communist Party
(c) Lenin laid great stress on the selection of the right persons for the party
offices so that they can inspire the confidence of the people.
(a)
Contemporary Political Thought: Lenin, Mao Tse Tung Antonic Gramsci and
Communitarians 71

1. Lenin laid great emphasis on the need and importance of a theory
2. Lenin emphasised the importance of role which the peasantry could play in
bringing about revolution in predominantly agricultural societies.
3. Lenin stressed the necessity of creating a homogeneous group of disciplined
professional revolutionaries.
4. According to Lenin the revolution shall be spontaneously organised by the
Proletariat

Lenin has been wrongly listed?
(a) The peasants can play an important role in bringing about the revolution.
(b) Lenin laid emphasis on revolutionary rather than revolutionary aspects of
Marxian philosophy.
(c) Lenin was in favour of throwing the membership of the Communist Party open
to all the workers.
(d) All the above
17. Nao Tse Tung was
(a) the father of modern Communist China
(b) the Marxian philosopher who gave Marxism its Asiatic form
(c) a political leader who tried to cultivate relations with non-communist
countries.
18. Mao Tse Tung was greatly influenced by
(a) George Washington
(b) Rousseau
(c) Gladstone
(d) all the above
19. Mao Tse Tung was greatly influenced by
(a) The Russian Revolution
(b) The French Revolution
(c) The American War of Independence
(d) all the above.
20. Who of the following formed the Red
Army
(a) SunYatSen
(b) Mao Tse Tung
(c) Chiang Kai Shek
21. Which one of the following work contains
the ideas of Mao Tse Tung
(a). On Contradiction
(b) On Practice
(c) New Democracy
(d) all the above.
1. Mao Tse Tung provided a comprehensive philosophy which inspired later
Marxists
2. Mao Tse Tung mainly tried to popularise the Communist tenets and deal with
a given situation.
3. Mao tried to adjust Marxism-Leninism to the Asian culture
4. Mao held that leadership of revolution should be provided by the peasants.
wrong?
72
(a) Mao held that the leadership of revolution shall be provided by the workers
and peasants jointly.
(b) Mao did not agree with Marx and Lenin that dictatorship of the proletariat
shall be only a statutory stage and the state would ultimately wither away.
(c) Mao believed in the perpetual character of the revolution.
(a)
(d) According to Mao revolution was a means by which the people achieve their
goal.
24. Consider the following statements of Mao
1. Mao strongly opposed capitalism and asserted there could be no peace or
accommodation with it.
2. Violent struggle between Capitalism and Communism is inevitable.
3.Mao's ideas about the inevitability of conflict between the capitalist and
socialist societies were not rigid and in course of time he adopted a more
flexible attitude on this issue.
4. Initially Mao believed in violent methods to bring about change, but finally he
realised that changes could be brought about through persuasion.
25. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Mao's
concept
of
'People's
War'
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Mao wanted to bring about two revolutionsone against the imperial and
colonial rule, and the other against the feudal lords.
(b) Mao held that people are more important than the weapons
(c) Mao believed in the theory of total revolution by the totality of the people.
(d) People's war would succeed only if it is fully backed by the military power.
26. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
not correct?
(a) Mao Tse Tung was opposed to imperialism
(b) Mao believed in people's democratic dictatorship
(c) Like Marx and Lenin, Mao also believed in dictatorship off the
- proletariat.
(d) According to Mao, People's Dictatorship shall be led by the workers and
peasants.
1. Like Marx and Lenin, Mao believed that power could be seized by a violent
revolution of a short duration.
2. Mao sought to achieve the revolution through Guerilla warfare
3. Mao believed that revolution in the less developed world would be spread
over a long period.
4. Mao attached more importance to the political activities of the guerilla forces
than their military operations.
28. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
wrong
(a) In the guerilla warfare Mao expected the soldiers to do more teaching than
fighting.
(b) According to Mao the war could be won by convincing the peasants of the
Tightness of the cause rather than by defeating the enemy military.
(c) Mao insisted that the troops should respect the local people to win their
confidence with a view to weaken their loyality to the enemy.
29. Mao
was
a
staunch
advocate
of
the
philosophy
of
power
and
asserted
that
political
power
grows
out
of
the
barrel
of
gun
(a) True
(b) False
1. Mao was a staunch advocate of the philosophy of Power
2. Mao believed that whosoever wanted to seize the political power and
maintain it must have a strong army.
1.
Communitarians 73
3. According to Mao the Russian Revolution was the outcome of the First World
War and the Chinese Revolution was the result of the Second World War.
4. According to Mao ideology was more powerful than the military power.
31. In 1965-66 Mao Tse Tung launched a

Grand Proltarian Cultural Revolution
(a) Because he did not want the Chinese society to deviate from his teachings
(b) To downgrade the role of the Party and upgrade the role of the masses
1. Mao's theory of knowledge was intimately linked with his view on Cultural
Revolution.
2. According to Mao Tse Tung the best method to acquire knowledge was
through personal participation in the activities.
3. Mao Tse Tung laid great emphasis on development of rational faculties
4. Mao held that coercion should not be used in ideological matters.
incorrect!
(a) After the Communist Revolution of 1948-49 in China, Mao resorted to
socialization of economy in accordance with the principles of Marxism.
(b) After the Chinese Revolution Mao decided to tolerate the bourgeoisie class.
(c) According to Mao the four classes (the proletariat, peasantry, petty
bourgeoisie
and
national bourgeoisie) could coexist as their interests
do not necessarily conflict with each other.
(d) All the above.
34. The New Democracy of Mao Tse Tung
(a) was virtually a replica of the Soviet Democracy
(b) left the ruling power in the hands of the workers.
(c) left the trade and industry in the hands of the people.
(d) stood for confiscation of property of the capitalists and its equitable
distribution among the workers.
35.
Which one of the following feature of
Mao's
New
Democracy
has
been
wrongly
listed.
(a) All the means of production and distribution were to be in the hands of the
state.
(b) The entire land was to be cultivated through cooperatives
(c) The entire land was to be confiscated and distributed among the actual
cultivators.
(d) All the above.
36. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
contribution
of
Mao
Tse Tung
(a) Mao modified Marxism in the light of China's rural character and realities of
the situation.
(b) Mao tried to improve the living standard of the people of China
(c) Mao Tse Tung tried to change Marxism from a European to an Asiatic form.
(a)
37. Antonio
Gramsci,
who
bitterly
criticised
Marxism
at
the
Second
International,
hailed from
(a) Germany
(b) France
(c) Italy
(d) Russia
38. Gramsci criticised Marxism for
(a) ignoring the problems of the developing countries.
(b) giving too much attention to the problems of the third world countries.
(c) its dogmatic belief in mechanical development.
(d) all the above.
39. The
principle
of
Organic
Centralism
propounded by Gramsci implied
(a) All major decisions should be taken by the leaders in consultation with the
workers
(b) The leaders should take all decisions in national interest without indulging in
any dialogue with the workers.
(c) A constant dialogue must continue between the leaders and the followers.
(d) Leaders may take decisions without consulting the workers, but must try to
convince the workers about the wisdom of their decisions.
40. Gramsci's
party
organisation
had
several
levels.
Which
one
of
these
levels
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Soldiers
(b) Corporals
(c) Captains
(d) Advisers
41. The
ideas
of
Gramsci
are
contained
in
the
33 Note Books which he
(a) wrote while he was in prison
(b) prepared for his class lectures
(c) prepared for his lectures during foreign tour
(d) he contributed to various news papers.
42. The
Council
Movement
of
1919-1920
to
which Gramsci contributed held
(a) the workers should forcibly capture the organisations.

(b) the workers should be associated with the working of the organisation.
(c) the workers should cooperate with the Owners for the smooth working of the
organisation.
(d) The Mass organisations should be owned by the workers.
43. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Gramsci has been wrongly listed
(a) He strongly supported the positi-vistic view of Marxism
(b) He strongly supported the evolu-tionistic view of Marxism
(c) He strongly supported the positi-vistic as well as evolutionistic view of
Marxism
(d) All the above.
44. Gramsci
has
been
described
as
a
superstructure theorist because
(a) He appreciated the role of ideology in the development of the society
(b) He tried to combine the dialectics and historical materialism.
(c) He opposed Plechanov's concept of vulgar materialism.
45. Which
one
of
the
following,
according
to
Gramsci
falls
in
the
category
of
organic
intellectual
(a) Writers
(b) Artists
(c) Those who express collective consciousness
(d) Philosophers
46. Which
one
of
the
following
role
was
assigned
by
Gramsci
to
the
intellectuals
in
the society.
(a) To update the Marxian philosophy
(b) To develop an ideology which can challenge existing bourgeois ideology
(c) To update the bourgeois ideology
(d) To expose the weaknesses of Marxian philosophy.
47. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as Communitarian?
Communitarians 75
(a) Michael Sandal

(b) Charles Taylor
(c) Walzer
48. The Communitarian theory
(a) emerged as a reaction against the liberal-individualist theory
(b) accorded central position to the individual and completely ignored the idea of
community of society
(c) assigned important position to the community and regarded it as the source
of all values
(d) (a)and(c)
49. The
Communitarian
Theory
gained
currency
(a) towards the close of the nineteenth century
(b) during the inter-war period viz. between first and second world war
(c) In the 1980's and 1990's
(d) during the medieval times
50. Communitarian Theory seeks
(a) to highlight the role of the individual in the society.
(b) to restore broken relationship between the individual and the society
(c) to promote community living to ensure greatest good of the greatest number
51. The
Communitarians
hold
an
individual
can
attain
highest
level
of
citizenship
only
in the state
(a) True
(b) False
52. The
traces
of
the
communitarian
theory
are found in the writings of
(a) Rousseau
(b) Hegel
(c) T.H.Green
(d) all the above
53. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Com
munitarian Theory?
(a) It holds that individual is not an independent entity
(b) The Rights did not exist prior to the state
(c) It attaches more importance to the duties and obligations of the citizens than
their rights.
1. According to the Communitarians the common interest consists in the
protection of cultural, traditional and shared practices of the community
through the state
2. According to Communitarian the individuals are intimately linked with each
other and can lead meaningful life only if they remain linked with each other,
3. Genuine interests of the individual can be attained only if the citizens
contribute to the promotion of common good.
4. According to Communitarians the pursuit of self-interest by various
individuals automatically leads to the promotion of common interests.

wrong?
(a) According to Communitarians the community is the basis of common good
and the individual interest springs out of it.
(b) The Communitarians regard politics as a necessity
(c) The Communitarians show a tilt towards new Left rather than the New Right.
correct?
(a) The Communitarians believe in rebuilding a new community by overthrowing
capitalism
76
(b) The Communitarians want to protect the existing social practices, cultural
traditions and shared social understandings.
(c) The Communitarians are in favour of updating the existing social practices,
cultural traditions and social understandings.
(d) All the above.
57. Consider the following statements of Communitarians
1. Freedom and well being of the individual is possible only in the community
2. Political legitimacy can be secured by
encouraging
everyone
to
participate in the politics of common good.
3. Communitarins held that the state should try to improve the quality of the
people's options by encouraging replacement of less valuable aspects of
community's way of life by more valuable one
4. The Communitarians expected the state to play a neutral role in politics.

(b)
2,3 and 4 are correct
(c)
(a)
l.(d)
7. (a)
13. (d)
19. (a)
25. (d)
31. (c)
37. (c)
43. (d)
49. (c)
55. (d)
2.(b)
3. (a)
4. (d)
5. (a)
6,(d)
8. (d)
14. (d)
20. (b)
26. (c)
32. (c)
38. (c)
44. (a)
50. (b)
56. (b)
9. (a)
15. (a)
21. (d)
27. (b)
33. (a)
39. (c)
45. (c)
51. (a)
57. (a)
10. (d)
16. (d)
22. (b)
28. (d)
34. (c)
40. (d)
46. (b)
52. (d)
11. (d)
17. (d)
23. (a)
29. (a)
35. (d)
41. (a)
47. (d)
53. (d)
12. (c)
18. (d)
24. (a)
30. (a)
36. (d)
42. (d)
48. (d)
54. (a)
6
Modern Indian Political Thought:
Mahatma Gandhi, M.N. Roy,
Aurobindo
Ghosh, Jai Prakash Narayan, B.R.
Ambedkar and Savarkar
MAHATMA GANDHI (1869-1948)

Mahatma Gandhi was not a political thinker in the true sense of the term. He was
essentially a moral reformist and did not expouse any new principle or doctrine. His
ideas are contained in his autobiography 'The Study of my Experiments with Truth,
Hind Swaraj, Young India, Harijan and Navjivan. Mahatma Gandhi (Mohandas
Karamchand) was born on 2 October, 1869. After his early education in India he went
to England where he obtained degree in Law. On return to India he started his
practice as lawyer. Subsequently he took up a job with a firm having business in
South Africa, where he saw the worst type of racial discrimination being practised
against the non-whites.
Mahatma Gandhi was greatly influenced by various religious works like
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bible as well as western philosophers like Ruskin, David,

Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy etc. Gandhi saw a very close relationship between religion and
politics and tried to spiritualize politics. He laid great emphasis on non-v. lence or
Ahimsa. By Ahimsa he did not mean only avoidance of violence but also avoidance of
injury through thought, words of deeds. The nonviolence advocated by Gandhi was
positive in character and was based on goodwill towards all. It implied absence of
malice towards the opponent and hate of the evil without hating the evil doer.
The principle of Satyagraha or holding on to the truth was another outstanding
feature of Gandhi's thought. The principle of Satyagraha was based on soul force and
stood for the vindication of truth not by inflicting suffering on the opponent but on
one's own self. Gandhi suggested four techniques of Satyagraha viz. non-cooperation; civil-disobedience; fasting and Hijarat.
Gandhi regarded the means as more important than the end. He said, if we take
care of the means the end will take care of itself. He likened the means to a seed and
the end to a tree. They are in separable and constitute an organic whole. The concept
of Swadeshi was another notable contribution of Gandhi. He applied this concept to
religions, economic and political sphere. In religious sphere, Swadeshi meant
following one's hereditary religion. In the economic sphere, Swadeshi meant use of
only those goods which were produced by one's immediate neighbour. In the political
sphere Swadeshi meant adoption of traditional Indian Political institutions in
preference to the western political institutions. In other spheres also he advocated
Swadeshi.
Gandhi was strongly opposed to English system of education and favoured its
replacement by an indigenous scheme. His scheme of education laid emphasis on the
all-round development of the child. It stood for development of his body, mind and
spirit. He also attached great importance to
78
moral development. He also laid great emphasis on basic education which was
economically self-supporting. The expenses for the maintenance of the scheme were
to be met from the income from handicrafts produced by the students.
Gandhi was opposed to present state because it was based on force and
centralisation of authority, which was harmful for the individual freedom. Gandhi
stood for replacement of the existing state by an ideal state based on nonviolence, in
which individual would have maximum independence. The ideal state of Gandhi's
concept was predominantly non-violent which could be achieved only
through moral evolution of the individual. Another notable feature of the ideal
state contemplated by Gandhi was that it would be governed by voluntary efforts of
the individual and would be conducted in accordance with ethical ideals. Gandhi held
that submission to immoral laws tantamounted to participation in evil. He therefore
insisted that the citizen should refuse to cooperate with the laws which were immoral
and not good for the common people. Another feature of ideal state of Gandhi was
that it laid more emphasis on duties rather than rights. The only right conceded by
Gandhi to the citizens an ideal state was right to perform their duties property.
Gandhi pleaded for decentralisation of authority both in the political and
economic spheres. The decentralised society of Gandhi's concept was non-violent in
nature and there was no place for military, police or law courts in such a society. In
the economic sphere decentralisation implied replacement of large scale industry by
cottage industry.
Gandhi insisted that a person should posses only as much property which was
essential for his day-to-day life and attainment of self realisation. He was against
unnecessary accumulation of wealth or goods. Gandhi did not favour use of force for
taking away surplus wealth from the rich fdr the benefit of the poor. On the other
hand, he held that the rich should be made to realise that they hold surplus wealth as
trustees of the society and should make available the same for the benefit of the
community. Intimately linked with his views on trusteeship in his concept of bread
labour Gandhi held that in an ideal society every one
should put in physical labour and the needs of the body should be supplied by the
body.
In the Ideal State of Gandhi's concept there was no room for police and military.
The police would have arms but these would be rarely used. On the other hand, the
police would act as reformer and try to curb the disturbances with the help and cooperation of the people. Similarly the military force would be also retained even
though it was expected to be non-violent in character and would constantly engage
in constructive activities. Even in a non-violent state of Gandhi's concept some sort of
anti-social elements would exist which would commit crime. These criminals should
be reformed rather than eliminated through capital punishment. Gandhi favoured
retention of the prisons but insisted on transforming them into reformatories. He
wanted to make the jail financially self-supporting.
Gandhi was highly critical of the existing judicial administration. He favoured
decentralisation of judicial administration and insisted on the transfer of judicial work
to the village panchayats. He wanted the judges and lawyers to perform their judicial
duties without any payment.
Gandhi was a great nationalist and intensely loved his country. However, he also
believed in the principle of brotherhood of man and was willing to sacrifice his
country for the good of human race. In fact Gandhi found no contradiction between
nationalism and internationalism.
Gandhi, like the Communists, was opposed to the exploitation of the poor by the
rich and pleaded for better deal to the weaker sections of society. However, he
insisted on spiritualisation of politics, while Marxism insisted on discarding religions.
Further, Gandhi treated man as an end in itself, while Marx considered the individual
as a means to an end. Again while Gandhi favoured decentralisation and cottage
industries, Marx stood for large-scale industrialisation Gandhi attached great
importance to Ahimsa (nonviolence) . Thus we can say that sharp difference exist
between Gandhi and Marx with regard to the ends as well as the means to achieve
these ends.
Gandhi has been criticised because he did not provide any systematic political
philosophy. He merely made empirical suggestions to deal with
Modern Indian Political

Thought: 79
the various social, economic and political philosophy. However, his contributions to
the Indian Political thought cannot be denied. He tried to blend politics with ethics
and emphasised the value of truth and non-violence for the solution of the national
and international problems. Critics have noted several shortcomings in Gandhi viz.
his stateless and classless society is quite impracticable; his preference for cottage
industries was a retrograde step; his views regarding the primacy of means over ends
is also not in keeping with the modern trend. Despite the above shortcomings and
criticism it cannot be denied that the ideals advocated by Gandhi are worthy of
emulation and can greatly contribute to the saving of the civilization from its
complete eclipse.
SRI AUROBINDO GHOSE (1872-1950)

Aurobindo, described by Romain Rolland as the 'prince of Indian thinkers' was born in
August 1872. He spent his child-hood in England and received his education at
Manchester, London and Cambridge. His stay in England greatly shattered his faith in
the European civilization. He returned to India in 1893 and served in various
capacities. While he was in service with Gaekward of Baroda, he studied Indian
languages and Sanskrit. This provided Aurobindo an opportunity to know about the
ancient Indian culture.
The ideas of Sri Aurobindo greatly differ from other political leaders. He saw a
very close relationship between spirituality and politics. He believed that India could
not deliver the message of spirituality to the world unless it shook off bondage to the
foreign yoke and become independent. In simple words, Aurobindo treated national
independence not as an end in itself but as a means to a higher end viz. to provide
spiritual leadership to the world.
Aurobindo adopted highly critical attitude towards the Indian National Congress,
which believed in getting certain concessions by convincing the Government of
British India and British Parliament about the justness of their demand. Aurobindo on
the other hand pleaded for self-help for the realization of national independence. It
goes to his credit that he placed
before the people of India the ideal of complete national independence and made
them conscious of the moral degradation involved in subjection to foreign rule.
Aurobindo criticised Congress on another ground too. It was essentially a middleclass organisation which was completely neglecting the interests of the proletariat.
Aurobindo emphasised the need of educating and enlightening the masses.
Aurobindo was also highly critical of the British government and the British
institutions. This critical attitude was on two counts. First, he wanted to undermine
the faith of the Indians in the superiority of the British institutions. Second, he wanted
to assert that the British administrative system was not suitable for the Indian
conditions. Aurobindo also criticised the British system of education because it killed
the very soul of the Indian people.
Aurobindo rejected the liberal methods of prayer, petitions and protests adopted by
the moderates and advocated the method of passive resistance. However, he was
not opposed to the method of violence to win freedom if it could not be achieved
through other ways. However, Aurobindo
considered passive resistance as the most suitable method to dislodge the

English. He insisted on the boycott of British goods and adoption of Swadeshi. He also
advocated boycott of government educational institutions and establishment of
national schools. The people were also asked to boycott courts of justice and settle
their disputes outside. Aurobindo said that if the government tried to suppress the
passive resistance of the people by use of force, the people could use violence.
Aurobindo advocated a new type of nationalism which was quite independent of
the nationalism of moderate Congress leaders. He provided an element of
spiritualism to nationalism. Aurobindo wanted India to be free so that he could serve
the cause of humanity and carry the will of God.
Aurobindo represented the synthesis between the genius of the West and of the
East. His outstanding contributions to Indian political thought include placing of the
ideal of complete independence before his countrymen; imparting of a new direction
to the nationalist movement by
80
lifting it from the low material plane to the higher spiritual level; emphasis on the
involvement of the masses in the national movement; advocacy of the doctrine of
passive resistance long before Gandhi started his non-violent, non-cooperation and
civil disobedience movement; inspired the revolutionary movement in Bengal by
asserting that every nation has a right to resert to violence to attain independence if
other methods fail; and the concept of human unity.
M.N. ROY (1893-1954)

M.N. Roy, considered as the most systematic thinker of modern India, was born in
1893. He took keen interest in the revolutionary activities and visited countries like
Japan, China, Mexico, Germany, USSR, USA etc. to carry out national struggle. He
organised the first Communist Party outside Russian in Mexico. He also took steps to
propagate Communism in India. On his return to India he tried to activate the Indian
revolutionaries and was arrested and sentenced to six years imprisonment. In 1939
he formed League of Radical Congressmen which continued to work for
decentralization of authority and freedom from British imperialism. During the second
world war Roy developed sharp differences with Congress and formed the Radical
Democratic Party. Roy challenged the right of Congress to succeed the Brtish. He also
condemned the Quit India movement.
The political philosophy of M.N. Roy is contained in his works India in transition;
Revolution and counter-Revolution in China; Materialism; Science and Philosophy. On
the Congress Constitution; People's Plan, National Government; Rise of Romanticism
and Revolution etc.
M.N. Roy considered the individual as an end in itself and the other organisations
of the society were merely means to that end. He attached great importance to
individual freedom and was not willing to subordinate it to any other factor viz
religion, morality or even super-natural power.
Roy was opposed to the western type of democracy because it did not ensure
economic, social or political freedom. He favoured a democracy based on
decentralization built up from below. He also opposed the political parties because
their leaders try to impose their will on the
member. In a democratic system based on principle of decentralization, the political
parties do not yield any real power which rests with the masses. Roy stood for
provision of adequate representation to the minorities. For this purpose he favoured
separate electorates. To make democracy real, Roy favoured introduction of
institutions of referendum, initiative etc.
M.N. Roy also made a strong plea for economic democracy. He insisted that the
industry should be controlled by the people and there should be no exploitation of
the poor by the rich. Economic democracy would lead to production being geared
according to the social needs and ensure equitable distribution of goods.
M.N. Roy was not opposed to private property, provided it did not lead to
exploitation.
Even though M.N. Roy was greatly influenced by Karl Marx, he turned his bitter
critic, due to denial of liberty to the individual. He also strongly criticised the
regimentation which left no scope for individual freedom. On the other hand, Roy was
a great admirer of Gandhi, specially on account of association of masses with the
national movement. He also greatly liked Gandhi's programme of civil disobedience
and endorsed his ideas of attaining independence through non-violent methods.
M.N. Roy's views on Revolution fundamentally differ from views of Marx. He did
not share Marx's view that revolution can be brought about only by the middle
classes. On the other hand, he held that the revolutionary forces must include
representatives of all shades and opinions. Roy laid emphasis on certain prerequisites
of revolution which included educating the people, wiping out mass illiteracy,
creating consciousness about political rights among people, highlighting the high
handedness of those in power etc.
M.N Roy considered nationalism as an evil because it is based on hatred. He said
that once the borders of the states were abolished most of the social economic and
political problems would be automatically resolved.
The main contributions of M.N. Roy to political thought were emphasis on
individual freedom; advocacy of democracy even though he pleaded for replacement
of existing democratic system by organisational democracy; his ideas on
Modem Indian Political Thought:
81
decentralisation of authority; his ideas on economic planning; social changes through

nonviolent and peaceful methods.
J AYAPR AKASH N AR AYAN (1902-1979)
Jayaprakash Narayan, popoularly known as Loknayak, was born in 1902 in Bihar. After
pursuing his studies in India he went ot USA to pursue his higher studies. He was
greatly influenced by Marx, Engles, Lovestone and M.N. Roy and turned Marxist. On
his return to India he was greatly inspired by Jawaharlal Nehru and joined the Indian
National Congress. Subsequently in cooperation with other socialists J.P. Narayan
founded the Congress Socialist Party(CSP) as an integral part of the Indian National
Congress. JP was totally committed to the economic reorganization of the society on
Marxist lines through democratic and constitutional means. He sought to achieve this
through self-suffering rather than by causing hardship to his opponents. He tried to
strike terror in the minds of the English so that they may loose the will to govern
India. However, in 1946 after his release from the Hazari Bagh Jail J.P. took a
voluntary pledge not to have recourse to violence or accept any
political office during his life. Thereafter he devoted himself to bring about social,
economic and political changes so the existing gulf between the haves and have-nots
could be narrowed down.
The political ideas of JP are contained his books and pamphlets. The prominent
amongst these being Why Socialism; Democratic Socialism; Our Ideal and our
Method; Towards a New Society; A Plea for Reconstruction of Indian Polity; From
Socialism to Sarvodaya; a picture of Sarvodaya Social Order; Socialism, Sarvodaya
and Democracy; Prison diary; Towards Total Revolution.
JP regarded man as a political animal because he possessed reason and was
capable of distinguishing between just and unjust, good and bad, fair and foul etc. He
regarded man as 'essentially good' and possessed innate capacity to improve the
quality of his own life as well as of tnose who came in contact with him. J.P regarded
Parliamentary democracy as the best system of human tolerance because it can
maintain a balance between agriculture and industry; rural and urban
areas and between various institutions of local self-government. He did not favour
periodical elections on party lines Instead he wanted the elections and the process of
formation of legislatures to be above party politics. J.P. was in favour of having a
legislature which was constituted on permanent basis, with a fixed percentage of the
members retiring periodically and being replaced through process of by-elections.
JP stood for decentralisation of political as well as economic resources. He wanted
that the power should shoot up from the grass root level to the national level, rather
than flow from centre to the provinces and from provinces to the lower units of
goveranance. J.P. wanted the Panchayats to be the nerve centre of politics. He
wanted the panchayats to meet the needs of food, shelter, clother and primary
education. The various levels of government identified by JP were Panchayats,
Panchayat Samitis, Zila Parishad, provincial government; national level government;
and the international level, which was to be merely a deliberative agency.
JP wanted to restructure the economic system to do away with the system of
competition and exploitation. It was to work for the equal welfare of all persons and
groups. He stood for planned development of the society starting from the village.
This would enable every adult to earn his livelihood. It would provide every one a
piece of land which would be sufficient to meet the residential and agricultural
requirements.
Sarvodaya was another important idea of JP. This meant the welfare of each and
every one in each and every field of human activity. JP believed that the ideals of
justice, equality, freedom peace and welfare could be attained only through
sarvodaya. In the economic sphere JP wanted the society to own all the means of
agriculture, irrigation, small and big industries. He wanted the peasants and workers
to have a share in the management of these. JP believed that the ideal of Sarvodaya
could be achieved only by transforming the human nature. JP put forth the concepts
of certain other types of daans as well. These included Bhoodan, Gramdaan,
Sadhandaan, Buddhi daan, Shramdaan, Premdaan. The various types of daans
ensured sharing of mental moral and material resources.
The concept of Total Revolution was another important contribution of J.P. to the
Indian political thought. He formally launched 'total revolution' in June 1974 with a
view to achieve balanced development of the society and to revolutionise the entire
social, economic, and political system. He wanted to establish a secular democratic
system in the country. He wanted to replace the existing electoral system by a new
system which would be free from corruption and would encourage the voters to vote
according to their conscience. In the economic sphere he stood for mixed economy
which would provide everyone food, clothing and shelter. He wanted the existing
legislative assemblies dissolved because they were corrupt and were indulging in the
politics of defections. Another objective of the total revolution was check the fast
growing prices of essential goods. The Total Revolution also sought to combat the
growing discrimination on grounds of caste and religion. As regards the means for the
attainment of the objectives of total revolution, JP wanted to bring about the same
through non-violence and reaffirmation of ethical values. Decentralization of
administration and curtailment of the powers of the bureaucratic were also to play an
important role in the success of the revolution.
B.R. AMBEDKAR (1891-1956)

B.R. Ambedkar, the leader of the down-trodden, was born at Mhow (MP.) in April
1891. After receiving his early education at stana and Bombay he went for higher
studies to USA and UK. He obtained his D. Sc in Economics and Commerce from
London University. His chief ideas are contained in his works-Problems of Rupee,
Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India, Caste in India, Small Holdings and
their Remedies etc. As Bhim Rao Ambedkar had suffered lot of indignities at the
hands of the so-called upper castes, he was keen to bring about a change in the
traditional social system. Ambedkar rejected the hypothesis of the invasion of India
by the Aryans and asserted that there was reference to it in the Vedic and Sanskrit
literature. Ambedkar took the stand that the Shudras were not dark-skinned
aboriginals enslaved or subordinated by the Aryan invaders.
B.R. Ambedkar was very critical of the existing Hindu social system based on four
Varnas because it promoted inequality. He asserted that the problem of untouchables
could not be solved unless radical changes were introduced in the social system,
Ambedkar held the bureaucracy responsible for the miserable plight of the
untouchables and insisted on the reservation of higher posts for the untouchables.
Ambedkar considered the untouchables as a separate entitity and put forth demand
for separate electorates for them. He tried to push up the cause of the revival of the
depressed classes and tried to secure for them an equal status with the Hindus.
Ambedkar fully supported for demand for separate state of Pakistan on the plea
that the Muslims were a separate nation. He argued that the creation of Pakistan
would liberate both the Hindus and Muslims from the fear of enslavement and
encroachment. However, he stood for orderly exchange of populationHindus from
Pakistan and Muslims from India.
As Chairman of the drafting Committee of the Indian Constituent Assembly,
Ambedkar played an important role in the amelioration of the condition of the
untouchables but also took special steps to abolish untouchability. .
VINAYAK DAMODAR SAVARKAR (1883-1966)

V.D. Savarkar, an ardent nationalist and revolutionary, was born in May 1883. After
his early education he went to England where he carried on revolutionary activities
and developed intimate relations with other Indian revolutionaries like Madame
Cama, Lala Hara Dayal and Madanlal Dhingra. He spent several years in Andamans
jail. After his release from internment Savarkar joined Tilak's Swaraj Party. Later on he
joined the Hindu Mahasabha. The idea of Savarkar are contained in 'My
Transportation for life, Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History, Hindu Pad-Padshahi,
The Indian War of Independence of 1857, Hindutva etc.
According to Savarkar the first war of Indian Independence which covered far
flung areas from Peshwar to Calcutta was inspired by the concepts
83
of Swadharma and Swaraj. The real motivating force of the great struggle was the
wrath at the destruction of God-given liberty and the imposition of political slavery.
The Independence War received blessings from the Hindus as well as the Muslims
because it was motivated by the consideration of saving the religions as well as the
motherland.
Savarkar believed in the cultural superiority of the Hinduism and supported the
ideal of Hindu resurrection. Emphasising the cultural superiority of Hinduism,
Savarkar said "Let Hinduism concern itself with the salvation of life after death, the
concept of God, and the universe. But so far as the materialistic secular aspect is
concerned, the Hindus are a nation bound by a common culture, a common history, a
common language, a common country and a common religion. According to Savarkar
by Hindu we mean a person who regards this land of Bharatvarsha, from the Indus to
the Seas, as his Fatherland as well as his Holyland, that is the cradle land of his
religion". Savarkar mentions three criterias of Hindutva or for being a Hindu. First,
Hindu is one who feels attached to the area extending from Indus to Brahmaputra
and from the Himalayas to the Cape Comorin (Kanya Kumari). Second, Hindu is one
who inherits the blood of the race. Third, a Hindu feels pride in the Hindu culture and
civilization represented in the common historical memories of achievements and
failures, in common artistic, literacy and juristic creations and in common rituals or
festivals, or other media of collective expression. It may be observed that Savarkar's
Hindutva is not a narrow creed. It is claimed to be rationalistic and scientific it is not
opposed to humanism and universalism.
Savarkar made a distinction between Hinduism and Hindutva. He viewed
Hinduism as a religious and theological concept. On the other hand he regarded
Hindutva as a political concept which comprehends social, educational, economic,
political and cultural matters as well.
Objective Type Question

1. Mahatma Gandhi's thinking was greatly influenced by
(a) BhagwatGita
(b) New Testament
(c) His nurse Ramba
(d) All the above
2. The
concept
of
'Satyagraha'
which
forms
an
important
part
of
Gandhian
political
thought,
was
borrowed
by
Mahatma
Gandhi from
(a) Gita
(b) New Testament
(c) Quran
3. Who
expressed
the
view
that
Gandhi
did
not advocate any new philosophy?
(a) Gandhi himself
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru

(c) Gopal Krishan Gokhale
4. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Gandhi saw a very close relationship between religion and politics.
(b) Gandhi firmly believed that religion should have nothing to do with politics.
(c) According to Gandhi, politics separated from religion was politics of force and
fraud.
(d) Both (a) and (c)
5. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
correct?
(a) The concept of Ahinsa or Nonviolence was an original contribution of Mahatma
Gandhi.
(b) Gandhi lifted the concept of Ahinsa from individual plane and applied it to
various walks of life.
(c) Gandhi's concept of Ahimsa laid emphasis on avoidance of injury through
words or deeds.
6. Gandhi's
concept
of
Ahimsa
was
positive
in character and included the following
(a) goodwill towards all
(b) love for the evil doer
(c) conscious suffering by a person practising Ahimsa
(d) all the above
(a)
7. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
Gandhi's
concept
of
Satyagraha
is wrong?
(a) Gandhi evolved the principle of Satyagraha even before its name was
coined.
(b) Satyagraha was based on the principle of expediency.
(c) Initially Gandhi used the term 'passive resistance' for Satyagraha.
(d) Satyagraha is a technique of resisting all that is evil, unjust, impure or
untrue by love, suffering and self-purification.
8.
Which one of the following has been
wrongly
listed
as
a
technique
of
Satyagraha
advocated
by
Mahatma
Gandhi?
(a) Non-cooperation
(b) Fasting
(c) Hijarat
9. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
noncooperation,
a
technique
of
Gandhian
Satyagraha, has been wrongly listed?
(a) Swadeshi
(b) Strike
(c) Picketing
(d) Social Boycott
10.
Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
use
of
strike
as
a
method
of
noncooperation
with
the
government
has
been
wrongly attributed to Mahatma Gandhi?
(a) Strike was the first and basic step for the launch of non-cooperation.
(b) Strike was to be resorted to only sparingly.
(c) Strike was to be voluntary and nonviolent.
11.
Which
one
of
the
following
techniques
of
Satyagraha
was
regarded
by
Gandhi
as
"most effective and fiery"?
(a) Strike
(b) Fasting
(c) Hijarat
(d) Civil-Disobedience
12.
According
to
Gandhi
civil
disobedience
could be resorted to
(a) only on individual basis
(b) only on collective basis
(c) on both individual and collective basis
(d) only after giving sufficient notice to the government
13.
The
main
purpose
of
fasting,
according
to
Gandhi, was
(a) to purify one's soul
(b) to suffer with a view to appealing to the heart of the wrong-doer
(c) to coerce the opponent to accept the view point of Satyagrahi
14.
Which
one
of
the
following
techniques
of
Satyagraha,
according
to
Gandhi
was
to
be
resorted to as a last resort?
(a) Strike
(b) Social Boycott
(c) Fasting
(d) Civil-Disobedience
15.
Hijarat,
which
was
one
of
the
methods
of
Satyagraha
advoccated
by
Mahatma
Gandhi, implied
(a) voluntary migration of permanent residents as a protest against
injustice of oppressor
(b) use of force to compel the oppressor to concede the demands
(c) refusal to pay taxes unless the demands are conceded

16.
Which
one
of
the
following
statements
correct?
(a) Gandhi regarded means as more important than the end
(b) Gandhi regarded the means and end as equally important
(c) Gandhi believed that end justifies the means
17.
Which
one
of
the
following
aspect
was
covered by Swadeshi of Gandhi?
is
not
85
(a) religious
(b) economic
(c) political
(d) all the above aspects were covered
18. Which
of
the
following
formed
part
of
Swadeshi
in
the
economic
sphere
accor
ding to Gandhi?
(a) Use of only those goods which are produced by one's immediate neighbours
(b) It meant boycott of foreign goods
19. As
a
part
of
programme
of
Swadeshi
Gandhi
(a) stood for boycott of all foreign
(b) boycott of all those foreign goods injured the indigenous industry
(c) permitted use of foreign goods which could not be manufactured in the
country
(d) stood for (b) and (c)
20. Gandhi
pleaded
for
Swadeshi
in
different
spheres with a view to
(a) promote spirit of self-confidence
(b) promote courage and self-reliance among people
(c) promote self government
(d) promote (a) and (b)
21. To
Gandhi
Swadeshi
in
political
sphere
implied
(a) adoption of traditional Indian political institutions
(b) adoption of western political institutions after necessary modifications to suit
Indian conditions
22. Gandhi
opposed
English
system
of
education because
(a) it was based on foreign culture and completely excluded the indigenous
culture
(b) it ignored the culture of heart and hand and confined itself only to the head
(c) it was imparted through foreign medium
23. Gandhi's scheme of education laid
emphasis on
(a) development of body
(b) development of spirit
(c) development of mind
(d) all the above
24. Gandhi was in favour of replacing the
existing educational system by
(a) Vocational Education
(b) Basic Education
(c) Socialist Education
(d) Liberal Education
25. Gandhi's scheme of Basic education
covered period from
(a) 7 to 14 years of age
(b) 5 to 12 years of age
(c) 7 to 15 years of age
(d) 5 to 15 years of age
26. Gandhi's scheme of basic education laid
emphasis on
(a) physical drill
(b) drawing
(c) handicrafts
(d) all the above
27. One of the basic feature of Gandhi's basic
education was
(a) it was economically self-supporting
(b) it attached great importance to reading and writing to sharpen the minds of
the students
(c) in this scheme of education handicrafts were taught along with the liberal
education
(d) all the above
correct?
86
(a) Gandhi was opposed to the existing state because it was based on force and
centralisation of authority.
(b) Gandhi considered enormous power of the state as a threat to individual
progress.
(a)
(c) Gandhi held that the state represents violence in concentrated and organised
form.
(d) All the above
29. Mahatma
Gandhi
was
in
favour
of
replacing the existing state by
(a) an ideal state
(b) a class-less society
(c) a stateless authority
30. The
ideal
state
envisaged
by
Mahatma
Gandhi
was
characterised
by
the
following
feature
(a) It was prominently non-violent.
(b) It was to be conducted in accordance with ethical ideals.
(c) It laid more emphasis on performance of duties rather than insistence of
rights.
(d) All the above
31. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
has
been
wrongly
attributed
to
Mahatma
Gandhi?
(a) Even the most despotic government can not stand except for the consent of
the governed.
(b) Submission to immoral laws tanta-mounts to participation in evil.
(c) The nearest approach to the purest anarchy would be democracy based on
non-violence.
32. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
not correct?
(a) Gandhi laid great stress on the performance of duties than insistence on
rights.
(b) The citizens should perform their duties either willingly or through persuasion.
(c) If need be, force may be used for the enforcement of duties.
33. Mahatma
Gandhi
stood
for
decen
tralisation of Authority which implies
(a) grant of more autonomy to the village community
(b) delegation of greater power by the centre to the states.
(c) grant of greater power of taxation to the states and local bodies.
(d) all the above
34. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
Decentralised
Society
envisaged
by
Gandhi has been wrongly listed?
(a) In this society the individual enjoys complete freedom.
(b) Such a society is non-violent in nature.
(c) There is no scope for military, police or law courts in such a society.
35. Gandhi
favoured
decentralisation
in
the
economic field which implies
(a) replacement of large scale industry by cottage industry
(b) freedom to adopt development plans at various levels without the
interference of the centre
(c) allocation of independent sources of revenue to the various local bodies to
make them fully independent
(d) all the above things
36. Which
one
of
the
Gandhi's
following
statement regarding property is incorrect?
(a) A person should possess only what was absolutely essential for his day-today life and attainment of self realisation.
(b) A person should have private property to the extent, it is necessary for his
moral, mental and physical well-being.
(c) Force can be used for taking away surplus wealth from the rich for the benefit
of the poor and deserving.
37. The
Principle
of
Trusteeship
advocated
by
Mahatma Gandhi implied
(a) The state is the trustee of all the property and must ensure its equal
distribution among all people.
(b) The holders of the surplus wealth should realise that they are trustees of
(a)
87
the society and should devote the same for the benefit of the community.
(c) The wealth of the country be entrusted to the care of various Trusts who
should regulate it in the larger interest of the society.
(d) All the above things
38. The
theory
of
'bread
labour'
advocated
by
Mahatma Gandhi held
(a) in an ideal society every one should put in physical labour.
(b) in an ideal state the wages shall be done away with and labourers shall be
paid in the form of food.
(c) the labourers should be paid salary on the basis of what they actually
produce.
(d) all the above things.
39. Varna
System,
which
is
a
basic
feature
of
the ideal state envisaged by Gandhi holds
(a) a man shall follow the profession of his ancestors for earning his livelihood.
(b) the growing poverty and unemployment in the existing society was due to the
abandonment of the Varna System.
(c) in the interest of society a person may be compelled to follow parental
occupation against his wishes.
(d) both (a) and (b).
40. According
to
Gandhi,
in
an
ideal
state
the
police shall
(a) consist of believers in non-violence.
(b) treat itself as servants of the people rather than their masters.
(c) try to deal with disturbances with the help and co-operation of people.
(d) have all the above features.
41. In
the
ideal
state
envisaged
by
Mahatma
Gandhi
the
military
shall
have
several
features.
Which
one
of
the
feature
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The military force in the ideal state would be non-violent in character.
(b) Military forces would constantly engage in constructive activities and keep in
touch with every individual.
(c) In the event of foreign attack the military would either yield possession and
non-cooperate with the aggressor; or offer non-violent resistance and offer
themselves as fodder for the aggressor's canons.
42. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
crime
and
punishment
has
been
wrongly attributed to Gandhi?
(a) In the ideal state based on nonviolence there will be no room for retention of
punishments.
(b) Gandhi believed in preventive and deterrent punishments.
(c) Crime is a disease like any other malady and is a product of the prevalent
social system.
(d) The punishment should aim at reformation of the criminal.
43. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
does
not
fully
reflect
the
views
of
Mahatma
Gandhi on jails and prisons?
(a) Prisons be transformed into reformatories where education and training can
be provided to the criminals.
(b) Jails should be financially self-sufficient, they should be turned into handspinning and hand-weaving institutions.
(c) State should provide basic necessities to the dependents of prisoners, this
would help in restoring confidence in society in the minds of prisoners.
(d) Jail staff should not harass the prisoners and try to help them regain their
mental health.
44. Gandhi
made
several
suggestions
for
the
improvement
of
judicial
administration.
Which
one
of
the
following
suggestion
has
been wrongly attributed to him?
(a) He favoured decentralisation of judicial administration and insisted on the
transfer of judicial work to the village Panchayats.
88
(b) To cheapen the administration of justice the parties to civil suits be compelled
to refer their disputes to arbitration.
(c)The judges and lawyers should perform their judical duties without any
payment.
45. There
are
several
similarities
between
Communism
and
Gandhism.
Which
one
of
the
following
similarity
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Both Gandhism and Communism were opposed to the existing system which
was based on exploitation of the poor by the rich.
(b) Both held that capital which was not used for the welfare of the people was
an evil
(c) Both pleaded for better deal to the weaker sections of the society with a view
to ensure social equality.
(d) Both attached great importance to spiritualisation of politics.
46. Gandhism
and
Communism
differ
from
each
other
in
several
respects,
which
one
of
these differences has been wrongly stated?
(a) While Gandhian philosophy is based on spiritualism, the Communist
philosophy is based on materialism.
(b) Gandhism considers man as an end in itself, while Communism regards man
as a means to an end.
(c) Gandhism attaches more importance to the means, while Communism
attaches more importance to the end.
47. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
the
achievements
of
Gandhi
has
(a) Mahatma Gandhi provided a systematic and well-worked out political
philosophy.
(b) Gandhi provided empirical suggestions to deal with the various social,
economic and political issues.
(c) Gandhi tried to blend politics with ethics, and emphasised the value of
truth and non-violence for the solution of the national and international
problems, (d) None of the above.
48. Gandhism
has
been
criticised
on
various
grounds.
Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
a correct charge?
(a) The concept of stateless and classless society put forth by Gandhi is highly
impracticable.
(b) Gandhi's opposition to the modern industries and preference for the cottage
industries was a retrograde step.
(c) Gandhi failed to provide a systematic and well worked out political philosophy
and merely provided empirical suggestions to deal with various social,
economic and political issues.
49. The original name of M.N. Roy was
(a) Girija Shankar Roy
(b) Narendra Nath Bhattacharya
(c) RabindraNath
50. Who
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
most systematic thinker of Modern India?
(a) M.N.Roy
(b) Aurobindo Ghosh
(c) VeerSavarkar
(d) Rabindra Nath Tagore
51. M.N.
Roy
founded
the
League
of
the
Radical Congressmen in
(a) 1939
(b) 1942
(c) 1945
(d) 1941
52.
Which one of the following statements
about M.N. Roy has been wrongly listed

(a) M.N. Roy favoured full support to the British Government in their struggle
against Nazism and Fascism
(b) M.N. Roy condemned Quit India Movement of Gandhi
(c) M.N. Roy formed the Radical Democratic Party in 1940
(a)
89
53. M.N. Roy was greatly influenced by

(a) Marx
(b) Bankim Chandra Chatterji
(c) Vivekanand
(d) all the above
54. Which
one
of
the
following
international
events
left
profound
impact
on
the
mind
of
M.N. Roy?
(a)Russian Revolution of 1917
(b) Japan's victory over Russia in 1905
(c) American War of Independence
(d) French Revolution.
55. The
political
philosophy
of
M.N.
Roy
is
contained in
(a) India in Transition
(b) Revolution and Counter Revolution in China
(c) National Government
(d) all the above
56. The
ideology
developed
by
M.N.
Roy
is
known as
(a) Radical Humanism
(b) Democratic Humanism
(c) Democratic Communism
(d) Democratic Socialism
57. Which
of
the
following
statement
of
M.N.
Roy is incorrect?
(a) He considered individual as an end in itself
(b) He attached great importance to the individual freedom and was not willing
to subordinate it to religion, morality or even super natural power.
(c) According to M.N. Roy the state was created to check the impediments and
hindrances in the way of the growth of man.
1. M.N. Roy was opposed to western type of democracy because it did not grant
economic, social or political freedom
2. M.N. Roy liked Western Democracy because it promoted collective good.
3. M.N. Roy favoured a democracy built up from below rather than imposed from
above.
4. M.N. roy pleaded for replacement of existing democracy by the system of
oorganized democracy in which individual freedom shall be better protected.

59. M.N. Roy disliked political parties because
(a) the party leaders expected the members to blindly carry out their commands.
(b) they indulge in scrable for power for party benefits.
(c) they tended to ignore the national interests and tended to promote sectional
interests.
60. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Organised
Democracy
of
M.N.
Roy
has
(a) It was to be based on the principle of decentralisation.
(b) In this system the individual freedom would be better protected.
(c) There were to be no political parties in the Organised Democracy and the real
power was to rest with the masses.
61. In
the
Organised
Democracy
of
M.N.
Roy's
concept
the
ultimate
power
was
to
rest with
(a) the political parties
(b) the people
(c) the popularly elected local committee
(d) the elites
62. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
of
M.N.
Roy's
concept
of
Organised
Democracy is wrong?
(a) Roy failed to appreciate the proper relationship between the individual and
the society
(b) Roy discarded religion and considered it as contrary to reason.
(c) Roy emphasised the importance of outer freedom only and completely
ignored the inner freedom
1. According to M.N. Roy man is a social animal and society is necessary both
for the existence as well as development of man
2. M.N. Roy discarded religion and considered it as contrary to reason
3. M.N. Roy believed that the party system should be completely discarded
4. According to M.N. Roy the bondages of society are a penalty which the
individual had to pay for agreeing to join the civil state.
64. M.N. Roy pleaded for economic
democracy in which
(a) industry would be controlled by the people and there would be no exploitation
of the poor by the rich.
(b) co-operative economy would be adopted and the various sections shall work
in cooperation with each other.
(c) production shall be geared according to the social needs and shall ensure
equitable distribution of goods.
(d) all the above features shall be present.
correct?
(a) M.N. Roy was opposed to private property
(b) M.N. Roy was not opposed to private property provided it did not lead to
exploitation
(c) M.N. Roy was a strong supporter of private sector.
(d) M.N. Roy was opposed to cooperative economy
66. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
the
economic
set
up
proposed
by
M.N.
Roy
(a) network of consumers and producer cooperatives
(b) a planning body which was to allocate priorities to the national resources and
plan social utility services.
(c) large-scale industrialisation of underdeveloped countries like India
67. M.N.
Roy
conceded
the
following
powers
to
the
state
with
regard
to
the
economic
life
of the society
(a) Fixation of prices of goods produced and exchanged
(b) Regulation of remuneration and working conditions of wage earners and
salaried employees
(c) Taking over of private enterprises under state ownership by paying fair
compensation to the owners.
(d) all the above
68. Which
one
of
the
criticism
of
M.N.
Roy's
co-operative
economic
theory
has
been
wrongly listed
(a) He assumed that the cooperatives will work as independent bodies and did
not pay any attention to the problem of coordination.
(b) Roy did not provide any organisation to settle the disputes between various
functional groups.
(c) Roy's concept of co-operative enterprises at the national level was quite
impracticable.
69. Though
M.N.
Roy
was
greatly
influenced
by Marxian philosophy he criticised it for
(a) denial of individual liberty and complete regimentation
(b) holding that history was merely a record of class struggle
(a)
91
(c) overstressing the role of the working class in the future set up of the society
(d) all the above reasons.
70. M.N.
Roy
greatly
admired
Mahatma
Gandhi
(a) for his role in the national movement
(b) for the association of masses with the national movement
(c) for his efforts to raise the standard of the down trodden and poor people.
(d) all the above
1. M.N. Roy fully endorsed Gandhi's programme of civil disobedience, specially
non-payment of taxes.
2. M.N. Roy endorse Gandhi's ideas for achievement of independence through
non-violent methods.
3. M.N. Roy greatly admired Gandhi for his coordinated thought
4. M.N. Roy criticised Gandhi for his failure to offer a solution for the economic
problems of India.
72. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
wrong
(a) M.N. Roy's views on revolution closely resemble those of Marx
(b) According to Roy revolution was not the sole method to bring about radical
social changes.
(c) Roy did not agree with Marx that revolution could be brought about only by
middle classes.
(d) According to Roy, a revolution could be brought about by appealing to the
good sense of the rulers.
73. M.N.
Roy
considered
nationalism
as
an
evil
because
it
was
based
on
hatred
and
created unnecessary problems.
(a) True
(b) False
74. Consider
the
following
views
of
M.N.
Roy
on nationalism.
1. Roy considered nationalism as an evil
2. According to Roy if the national borders among the various states were
abolished most of the social, economic and political problems would be
automatically resolved.
3. Roy was strongly opposed to narrow nationalism
4. Roy did not show much interest in the national movement because it went
against his views on nationalism
75. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
has
(a) M.N. Roy was a great proponent of individual freedom
(b)
M.N. Roy withdrew from the Communist Organization only because it
was opposed to individual liberty
(c) M.N. Roy stood for the replacement of the existing democratic system by
organisational democracy
(d) M.N. Roy was opposed to decentralization of authority.
76. Which
one
of
the
following
idea
of
M.N.
Roy
left
a
deep
impact
on
the
national
leaders
(a) decentralization of authority
(b) his ideas on economic planning
(c) his idea of peaceful revolution or social change through non-violent and
peaceful methods.
(d) all the above
77. M.N.
Roy's
ideas
could
not
gain
popularity
(a) on account of lack of mass appeal
(b) because his ideas were far removed from realities and possessed an Utopian
character
(c) on account of both (a) and (b)
(a)
(d) because of open condemnation of his ideas by leaders like Gandhi and
Nehru
78. Sri Aurobindo Ghosh was
(a) a great metaphysician
(b) a great poet
(c) a great systematic thinker
(d) all rolled into one
79.
Sri Aurobindo was greatly inspired by
(a) Irish freedom fighter Parnell
(b) writings of Mazzini of Italy
(c) Mahatma Gandhi
80.
Consider the following statements about
Aurobindo
1. He became a member of Indian Majlis and acted as its Secretary
2. Aurobindo joined a secret revolutionary society known as The Lotus
and Dagger
3. Aurobindo saw a very intimate relationship between spirituality and
politcs.
4. Aurobindo demanded self-government of the colonial type.
81.
Aurobindo was highly critical of Congress
because
(a) of its faith in the British sense of justice and fair play
(b) of its belief in the efficacy of constitutional methods.

(c) of its hope that the British would be willing to share power with the
Indians
(d)
of all the above reasons.
82.
Aurobindo bitterly criticised the British
Government because
(a) he wanted to undermine the faith of the Indians in the supsriority of
the British institutions.
(b) he wanted to assert that the British administrative system was not
suitable for the Indian conditions
(c) he wanted to infuse a new spirit into the nationalist movement
83.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Aurobindo rejected the liberal methods of prayer, petition and
protests.
(b) Aurobindo favoured adoption of method of passive resistance
(c) Aurobindo emphasised the need of secret revolutionary propaganda
and organisation of armed insurrection against the British
(d) All the above
84.Aurobindo favoured
(a) boycott of British goods and adoption of Swadeshi
(b) boycott of government educational institutions.
(c) boycott of courts of justice
(d) all the above
85.The
nationalism
advocated
by
Aurobindo
was similar to the nationalism advocated
by
(a) Dababhai Naoroji
(b) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
(c) Surendernath Banerjee
86.The nationalism advocated by Aurobindo
(a) was essentially a political programme.
(b) contained an element of socialism
(c) contained an element of spiritualism
(d) none of the above.
87.Which
one
of
the
following
Indian
political
thinker
realized
the
most
complete
synthesis
between
the
genius
of
the
West
and of the East.
(a) Aurobindo Ghosh
(b) MN.Roy
(c) B.R.Ambedkar
(a)
93
88.Which
of
the
following
contribution
of
Aurobindo
to
political
thought
has
been
wrongly listed
(a) He played before his countrymen the ideal of complete independence
(b) Aurobindo lifted nationalism from the low material plane to higher
spiritual level.
(c) Aurobindo was the first to emphasise the need of involving the masses
in the national movement.
89.Consider the following statements
1. Aurobindo advocated the doctrine of passive resistance long before
Gandhi.
2.
Aurobindo borrowed the doctrine of passive resistance from
Mahatma Gandhi
3. Aurobindo provided inspiration to the revolutionary movements in
Bengal.
4. Aurobindo advocated the concept of human unity.
90.Aurobindo
placed
before
the
people
of
India
the
ideal
of
complete
national
independence
and
made
them
conscious
of
the
moral
degradation
involved
in
subjection to foreign rule.
(a) True
(b) False
91.According
to
Aurobindo
if
the
instruments
of
executive
choose
to
disperse
our
meetings
by
breaking
the
heads
of
those
present,
the
right
of
self-defence
entitles
us
not
merely
to
defend
our
heads
but
to
retaliate on those of the head-breakers.
(a) True
(b) False
92.B.R. Ambedkar belonged to
(a) Mahar community
(b) Bhumiya community
(c) Brahmin community

93.The political ideas of B.R. Ambedkar are
contained in
(a) Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India
(b) Castes in India
(c) Small Holdings
(d) all the above works
1. B.R. Ambedkar founded Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sablta (Untouchable
Classes Welfare League)
2. Ambedkar rejected the hypothesis of the invasion of India by the
Aryans
3. According to Ambedkar the Brahmins were responsible for the
degradation of the Shudras because they denied them yajnapavita
4. According to Ambedkar the Shudras were dark skinned aboriginals
who were enslaved by the Aryan invaders.
95.According to B.R. Ambedkar the evil of
untouchability could be eliminated.
(a) only by introducing radical changes in existing social system
(b) only by making the public services more responsive to the needs of
untouchables
(c) only by recruiting more members of the untouchable communities in
the higher posts.
96.Consider the following statements of B.R.
Ambedkar
1. The Brahmins were responsible for the degradation of shudras.
2. The Untouchables are a separate entity outside the broad stream of
Hindu society
1.
3. B.R. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the untouchables.

4. According to B.R. Ambedkar the Congress could best protect the interests of
the untouchables.
97. Ambedkar
supported
the
demand
for
Pakistan
and
asserted
that
its
creation
will
not render India weak.
(a) True
(b) False
98. Ambedkar
supported
the
demand
for
Pakistan on the ground
(a) that the Muslims were a separate nation
(b) that creation of Pakistan would liberate both the Hindus and the Muslims
from fear of enslavement
99. B.R.
Ambedkar
played
an
important
role
in
the
formulation
of
the
Indian
Constitution as
(a) Legal Advisor of the Constituent Assembly
(b) Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution.
(c) coordinator of the various subcommittees set up by the Constituent
Assembly
100. Which one of the following contribution of B.R. Ambedkar has been wrongly
listed?
(a) He worked for the liberation of the Untouchables from the opposition of the
High Caste Hindus.
(b) He focussed the attention of the Hindus on social problems which generated
social tension and urged them to resolve the same in the interest of Hindu
society.
(c) B.R. Ambedkar did not favour legal action for the uplift of the Untouchables.
101.Dr.
B.R.
Ambedkar
took
part
in
the
Round
Table
Conference
in
England
as
representative of
(a) Indian National Congress
(b) Depressed Classes
(c) Scheduled Caste Federation
102.B.R.
Ambedkar
made
a
plea
for
reservation
of
seats
for
the
depressed
classes before
(a) Simon Commission
(b) Muddiman Commission
(c) Southborough Commision

(d)
None of the above
103.B.R.
Ambedkar
founded
the
All
India
Untouchable League in
(a) 1930
(b) 1932
(c) 1933
(d) 1934
104.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a work of B.R. Ambedkar
(a) Caste in India
(b) Buddlw and his Dlwrma
(c) Modern India
(d) Evolution of Provincial Finances in British India
105.B.R.
Ambedkar
signed
the
Poona
Pact
which nullified the Communal award in
(a) 1939
(b) 1936
(c) 1935
(d) 1933
106.B.R. Ambedkar was in favour of
(a) a strong central government
(b) strong states
(c) granting co-equal powers to the centre and states
(d) a loose confederation
107.Which
one
of
the
following
statement
of
B.R. Ambedkar is correct
(a) Ambedkar favoured separate state of Pakistan
(b) Ambedkar strongly opposed Hindu Code Bill
(c) Ambedkar showed preference to Presidential System of government over
Parliamentary government.
(a)
95

108.B.R. Ambedkar was in favour of
(a) monogamy ancestral
(b) granting share in ancestral property to the girls
(c) grant of right to divorce to Hindu women
(d) all the above
109.Match
the
authors
given
in
the title of the book given in Column 2
Column 1
Column 2
1.AurobindoGhosh
A. People's Plan
2.V.D. Savarkar
B. Problem of Rupee
3.M.N. Roy
C. The Indian War of
Independence 1857
4.B.R. Ambedkar
D. Life Divine
Select the correct answer with the following code
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b) D
C
A
B
(c) A
B
C
D
(d) B
C
D
A
Column
with
(e) C
B
A
D
110.Dr.
B.R.
Ambedkar
was
in
favour
of
reorganisation
of
the
Indian
provinces
on
linguistic basis.
(a) True
(b) False
111.Given below are two statements: one
Assertion(A) and the other Reason (R)
Assertion (A) Traditional caste system was
India's greatest enemy
Reason (R) The caste system is based on
exploitation of depressed classes
Of the above statements which one is true
(b) Both A and R are correct but R is not the correct explanation of A
(d) A is incorrect but R is correct
112.Vinayak Damodar was essentially an
(a) ardent nationalist
(b) a revolutionary
(c) a terrorist
(d) all the above
113. Which
of
the
following
revolutionaries
exercised in a uence in V.D. Savarkar
(a) Madame Cama
(b) Lala Hardayal
(c) Mr Ian Lai Dhingra
(d) All the above
114. Savarkar was associated with
(a) the Democratic Swaraj Party of Tilak
(b) the Hindu Mahasabha

(d)
None of the above
115. While
offering
interpretation
of
Indian
History Savarkar identified
(a) six glorious epochs
(b) four glorious epochs
(c) three glorious epochs
(d) five glorious epochs
116. Savarkar
described
the
Sepoy
Mutiny
of
1857
as
the
first
War
of
Independence
because
(a) it was spread over vast areas from Peshawar to Calcutta.
(b) the people were unhappy with the destruction of God-given liberty and
imposition of political slavery
(c) it was supported by the Hindus as well as the Muslims.
1. Savarkar was a bitter critic of the cult of absolute non-violence
2. According to Savarkar in this imperfect world full of contradictions and
maladies, righteous violence is justified.
3. According to Savarkar with the arrival of the divine age use of violence would
be considered heinous crime and grave sin.
4. According to Savarkar for the protection of national interests all sorts of
violence is justified.
(a)

118. Savarkar's book
(a) 1923
(b) 1931
(c) 1933
(d) 1939
119. According
to
Savarkar
person
who
regards
Bharatvarsha,
from
the
as
his
Fatherland
as
that is the cradle land of his religion
(a) True
(b) False
120. Which
one
of
the
Savarkar
is
a
criteria
under Hindutva
(a) Territorial bond
(b) Racial or blood bond or jati.
(c) Pride in Hindu culture and civilization
(d) all the above
121. Which
one
of
the
correct
Hindu
this
Indus
to
well
as
following
for
following
means
a
land
of
the
Seas,
his
Holyland,
according
to
being
included
statements
is
(a) According to Savarkar Hindutva is broader and more comprehensive than

Hinduism.
(b) According to Savarkar the Muslims and Christians who have been converts
from Hinduism cannot claim to be Hindu because they do not subscribe to
Hindu culture.
(c) According to Savarkar the three bonds of Hindutva are Rashtra, Jati and
Sanskriti.
(d) all the above.
122. Savarkar was associated with
(b) Independant Labour Party
(c) Hindu Mahasabha
123. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Hindutva,
as
propounded by V.D. Savarkar?
(a) Love for territorial integrity of India
(b) No extra-territorial loyalties
(c)Acceptance of the superiority of ancient Indian culture
(d) Faith in Caste system
correct?
(a) Savarkar accepted violence as a creed
(b) Savarkar preferred violence over non-violence
(c) Savarkar preferred non-violence over violence
(d) Savarkar held that violence and nonviolence should be used according to the
requirements of the situation.
Savarkar is correct?
(a) The partition of India was inevitable
(b) Savarkar extended whole-hearted support to the Quit India Movement.
(c) The British could not be pushed out of India through non-violent methods
alone
(d) Congress was not the proper forum for expression of national viewpoint.
126.
Savarkar stood for

(a) full support to the British in their war efforts
(b) supporting the British war efforts if they promised independence to India
after the war.
(c) boycotting the war and creating problems for the British
(d) providing only material support to the British in their war efforts.
1. Savarkar did not believe in the policy of appeasement.
2. Savarkar had full confidence that Swaraj could be won without the
collaboration of the Muslims
3. Savarkar stood for immediate and absolute independence of the country
4. According to Savarkar Hindutva and nationalism were contradictory and
could not co-exist.
(a)
97
128.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Savarkar is correct?
(a) Savarkar favoured intermarriages between all sections of Hindus
(b) Savarkar did not see any conflict between Hindutva and nationalism.
(c) Savarkar was opposed to inter-caste marriages
129.The ultimate political goal of Savarkar was
(a) establishment
of
Human Government based on equality of rights and
duties.
(b) establishment of a government based on the principle of Hindutva
(c) establishment of a government based on the principles of nationalism and
federalism.
(d) All the above
130.Savarkar
categorically
told
the
Muslims
"If
you
come,
with
you;
if
you
do
not,
without
you;
and
if
you
oppose,
in
spite
of
you,
the
Hindus
will
continue
to
fight
for
their national freedom as best as they can."
(a) True
(b) False
1. Savarkar opposed India's help to Egypt on the question of the Suez crisis
2. Savarkar saw in the so-called Mutiny of 1857 the potent seeds and
manifestations of a national struggle for liberation
3. Savarkar held that Hinduism is a religious concept while Hindutva is a
political concept and comprehends social, educational, economic, political
and cultural matters as well.
4. Savarkar held that in the West Asian affairs India should support the Arabs to
protect its own national interests.

132. Jaya
Prakash
Narayan,
popularly
known
as JP, was greatly influenced by
(a) Congress Socialist Party
(b) Indian National Congress
(c) the Communist Party
(d) all the above political parties
133. Which
one
of
the
following
political
parties was founded by JP?
(a) Revolutionary Party of India
(b) All India Congress Socialist Party
(c) Republican Party of India
(d) Congress Socialist Party
134. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
programme
of
JP's
All
India Congress Socialist Party?
(a) It favoured transfer of all power to producing masses
(b) It stood for election of representatives of people on the basis of adult
franchise.
(c) It favoured socialisation- of all key industries
(d) It stood for state monopoly over foreign trades.
135. Which
one
of
the
following
was
a
programme
of
JPs
All
India
Congress
Socialist Party?
(a) Abolition of landlordship by payment of compensation
(b) All production and distribution to be carried out through cooperative system
(c) Land to be provided according to the needs
(d) All political power to be vested in producing masses.
136. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) JP wanted to make village a self-governing unit
(b) JP held that land should belong to the cultivators
(c) JP stood for liquidation of all agrarian debts

(d) J.P. wanted to keep workers out of management of industries.
(a)
137.At
the
Ramgarh
Session
of
Congress
held
in
1940
J
P.
submitted
several
proposals.
Which
one
of
the
following
proposal
was
not submitted by him
(a) There should be collective ownership of the sources of production
(b) No distinction should be made between citizens
(c) All citizens should be guaranteed civil liberty
(d) Participation in the management of affairs of the state be encouraged by
promoting Panchayat System.
138.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
JP's
concept
of
Gram Swaraj
(a) Removal of untouchability
(b) Setting up of Grain Banks
(c) Women participation in Panchayat elections
(d) Prohibition
139.Consider the following statements of JP
1. Fragmentation of land should be checked.
2. The country should be developed on socialist principles.
3. The map of India should be redrawn on Linguistic basis.
4. the Privileges of the princes as guaranteed by the Constitution should not be
infringed.
140.Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
JP's
philosophy has been wrongly listed
(a) J.P. stood for state controlled banking system
(b) J.P. favoured promotion of spirit of Swadeshi.
(c) Entrusting of education to private bodies.
(d) Socially responsible trade unions.
141. JP gave a call for total revolution in
(a) 1974
(b) 1975
(c) 1953
(d) 1976
142. JP
did
not
like
Communist
philosophy
because
(a) of its opposition to Gandhi's leadership during the nationalist movement
(b) of the regimental approach of the Party
(c) of the party's approach towards the exploited
(d) of its open advocacy of revolution and bloodshed
143. J.P. advocated Sarvodaya which
(a) aimed bringing about political revolution through peaceful means.
(b) was based on decentralisation of authority
(c) was essentially a non-political programme

(d) stood for leaving all the means of production and distribution in private
hands.
144. The total Revolution of JP sought to check
(a) autocratic and oppressive rule of India Gandhi
(b) increasing criminalization of politics
(c) discrimination on the basis of caste and religion
(d) all the above
145. Which
one
of
the
following
works
has
been
wrongly
attributed
to
Jaya
Prakash
Narayan?
(a) From Socialism to Sarvodaya
(b) Towards Total Revolution
(c) A Plea for the Reconstruction of Indian Polity
146. J.P.
put
forth
a
plan
for
the
Reconstruction
of
Indian
Polity
in
1959.
One
of
the
following
feature
of
this
plan
has
been
wrongly listed. Identify the same.
(a) He looked forward to have a political system which would be immune from
political corruption
99
(b) He looked forward to have a democratic system which should be based on

human values which governed our political system in ancient India.
(c) He favoured democracy based on the rule of law which could protect life,
liberty and property of the people.
147. According
to
JP
for
the
success
of
a
true
democracy
a
citizen
must
reflect
the
following values in his public conduct
(a) Faith in Non-violence
(b) Readiness to keep national interest above personal interest
(c) Respect and tolerance towards the opinions of others.
(d) all the above
148. Consider the following statements of JP
1. According to JP spiritualism and Gram Panchayats are the twin basis of man's
social and political system.
2. According to JP man is born, lives and dies in society.
3. According to JP the village remains the foundation on which the entire
political structure is erected.
4. Man is essentially selfish but has the inherent quality to become good and
self-sacrificing.
149. According
to
JP,
Parliamentary
Democracy
was
probably
the
best
system
of human governance because
(a) This is the only system which can be decentralised and multi-faceted
(b) This system can maintain a balance between agriculture and industry, rural
and urban areas and between various institutions of local self-government
(c) It is established and sustained by majority.
(d) of all the above.
150. J.P. was opposed to political parties
because
(a) they deprive the individuals of their right of initiative
(b) they promote politics of defection and coalitions.
(c) they strike at the very soul of democracy and encourage the dictatorship of
bureaucracy, which functions in the name of democracy.
151. Consider the following statements of JP:
1. In a party-based government the political power and econnomic resources
tend to get centralised.
2. Party Politics strikes at the very soul of democracy and encourages the
dictatorship of bureaucracy
3. In JPs order of things the Gram Sabha in the village and its counterparts in
the cities would have all the adult within its territorial limits, as ex-officio
members.
4. JP favoured nominatioin of a certain percentage of members of the elected
bodies to make them more effective.
correct?
(a) JP wanted the Panchayat to be the nerve centre of politics
(b) JP wanted the Panchayats to be free to establish Committees

subcommittees and discharge their functions through them.
(a)
or
153.In the ideal society envisaged by JP there

would be
(a) centralisation of authority
(b) economic decentralisation
(c) clear-cut distribution of powers between the centre and lower units
(d) the state would perform minimum functions
154.Which one of the following statements is
correct?
(a) JP liked democracy and democratic institutions.
(b) JP was not in favour of strengthening party system
(c) JP held that in the present day democracy the real power vests with the
minority
(d) All the above.
155.The Economic System envisaged by JP
(a) was to work for the welfare of each and every one in the society
(b) was neither to be competitive nor exploitative.
(c) was to operate on the principles of cooperation in the society
(d) stood for all the above
1. The restructured economic system of JP aimed at promotion of welfare of
every one in the society
2.
The restructured economic system of JP was based on principles of
cooperation and
co-sharing.
3. The restructured economic system of JP was directed towards planned
development of the society which would begin with the village.
4. The restructured economic system of JP was just the opposite of the
prevailing economic system.
157. Which one of the following was not
favoured by JP
(a)Collective ownership of large-scale industries
(b) Economic rehabilitation of the people
(c) Increase in land revenue
(d) Agrarian Reconstruction.
158. The re-structured economic system of JP
(a) would be in consonance with the restructured political system.
(b) would establish and maintain a balance between agriculture and industry
(c) would establish and maintain a balance between villages and cities.
(d) would lead to all the above
159. JP borrowed the concept of Sarvodaya
from
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Vinoba Bhave
1. According to JP Sarvodaya means welfare of each and everyone in each and
every field of human activity.
2. JP held that only by pursuing the ideal of Sarvodaya the high ideals of
Justice, Equality, Freedom, Peace and Welfare can be attained.
3. In a society based on Sarvodaya there would be total decentraisation of
political power and economic resources.
4. According to JP in the successful implementation of Sarvodaya the centre
was expected to play an active role.
101
(a) JP held that in the Sarvodaya society the ownership of the means of
agriculture, irrigation and small and big industries and their management
would be in the hands of the peasants and workers.
(b) JP believed that the organisation of society on the principles of Sarvodaya
would be possible neither through violence nor through state laws.

(c) According to JP the objective of Sarvodaya can be achieved only through
transformation of human nature.
(d) According to JP though man is essentially selfish, the society can gradually
transform him through persuasion.
162. J.P.
started
a
movement
of
Daans
and
advocated
several
types
of
daans.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed as a daan preached by JP?
(a) Sadhan Daan
(b) Buddhi daan
(c) Premdaan
163. Which
one
of
the
following
concept
was
borrowed by JP from Vinoba Bhave?
(a) Bhoodaan
(b) Gramdaan
(c) Jeevandaan
164. According
to
JP
every
Jeevandaani
was
expected
to
follow
certain
guidelines.
Which
one
of
these
guidelines
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) To dedicate himself for bringing about social revolution based on Bhoodan
and village industries.
(b) To devote himself to the constructive programmes based on the principle of
sharing together.
(c) To keep himself away from family responsibilities to the extent possible.
1. JP was in favour of partyless politics
2. JP stood for maximum decentralisation of political power and economic
resources
3. J.P. Stood for independent, equal and stateless society
4. JP favoured state regulated education

(a)
(b)
(c)
1, 2 and 4 are correct
166. The
Total
Revolution
advocated
by
JP
in
1974
sought
to
achieve
the
following
objectives
(a) Balanced development of the society
(b) Transformation of the entire system which included social, economic,
political, spiritual or educational
(c) Awaken mass consciousness by laying emphasis on the restoration of India's
fundamental spiritual values.
(d) all the above
167. J.P.
was
in
favour
of
partyless
democracy
in which
(a) each individual would speak for himself
(b) there would be no electoral college for the election of people's
representatives.
(c) village mandal would act as electoral college for the election of the
representatives of people.
(d) authority would flow from centre to the villages
168. How
many
areas
were
identified
by
JP
for
his total revolution
(a) 4
(b) 5
(c) 6
(d) 7
169. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
JP's
total
economic
revolution
has
been
wrongly listed
(a) reduction of inequalities in economic field
(b) protection of village from urban exploitation
(a)
102
(c) right to work to all able bodied citizens

(d) worker's participation in the management
170. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
JPs
total
political
revolution
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) selection of candidates for various elected bodies by the people's committee
(b) direct election of candidates of various elected bodies by the people
(c) disobedience of government orders by police and military which were not in
keeping with democratic culture
(d) Enactment of a comprehensive law to check defection
171. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
total
revolution
in
the
field
of
education
as
suggested by JP?
(a) Economic planning and educational planning should be separated
(b) All need not pursue university education.
(c) Science teaching be humanised

(d) Efforts to be made for inculcation of habit to resist tyranny.
172. For
the
achievement
of
the
objective
of
total
revolution
JP
suggested
several
methods.
Which
one
of
the
following
method was not suggested by him.
(a) Resort to Satyagraha
(b) Countering of Bureaucratic pressure
(c) Use of violence
(d) Civil Resistance and Civil Disobedience
173. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) JP emphasised the restoration of India's fundamental spiritual values.

(b) JP favoured Indianisation of British system of education so that it could
comes upto the expectations of the people.
(c) JP wanted to establish in India a democratic system which was totally secular
(d) All the above
174.According
to
JP
the
electoral
system
of
India was polluted because
(a) under this system the votes were given and taken on the basis of money
and muscle power
(b) the entire electoral process was under the influence of political parties and
personalities
(c) the voters vote on the basis of religion, caste, region or language etc
1. JP was in favour of recreation of a social order which would be casteless,
classless and religionless.
2. The ideal society of JP's concept was to work for the equal welfare of all,
giving priority to the lowest strata of society like landless peasants,
agricultural labour, Harijans, tribals and muslims etc.
3.
JP pleaded for an electoral system which would be free of corruption and
encourage voters
to vote according to their conscience.

4. JP was in favour a capitalist economy which provided equal opportunity to
all.
176.In the economic field JP faovured
(a) a socialist economy
(b) a mixed economy
(c) a decentralised economy
177.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
objective
of
the
Total
Revolution of JP?
103
(a) To combat the unacceptable policies and programmes of Prime Minister India
Gandhi.
(b) To have legislative assemblies dissolved as they had become corrupt and
were indulging in politics to defection.
(c) To check price rise.
1. The total revolution of JPs concept was to combat increasing discrimination
on grounds of caste and religion
2. JP wanted to bring about total revolution through peaceful means without
disturbing the democratic system
3. According to JP the revolution can be brought about only by those youth
organisations which can keep themselves away from the politics of
caste, class, religion and political parties. 4. According to JP the total revolution
could be brought about by mixing persuasion and force in appropriate
proportions. Of the above statements
171. What was the immediate impact of JP's call for total revoltuion
(a) India Gandhi Government lost people's confidence and was forced to impose
national emergency.
(b) JP and other leaders were immediately arrested
(c) It led to the formation of a new political party named Janata Party.
(d) All the above.
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7
Concepts
and
Issue-I:
Medieval Political ThoughtChurch State Relationship and
Theory of Two Swords
The period from about 500 to 1450 A.D. is known as medieval period in Europe.
During this period the non-political activities predominated. As a result not much of
new ideas emerged in the political field. However, this view is not acceptable to
Barker, who says that there was abundant political thought in this period. Some of
the important ideas which dominated the medieval political thought were that the
Church fathers tried to present the state as a contemptible institutions which
originated in the sin or fall of man. In addition to this, three other theories regarding
origin of state also prevailed during this period. These were the divine origin theory,
the contractual theory and theory of natural origin of state.
The medieval thinkers preferred monarchy over democracy because it ensured
efficient and strict government. The concept of law also occupied an important
position in the medieval political thought. However the concept of law during this
period differed from the concept of law in modern times. The law was considered as
superior to king who was expected to fully abide by law.
The concept of sovereignty was completely unknown during the medieval times.
The medieval thinkers did not conceive sovereignty in absolute terms and considered
divine reason and moral order as serious check on the political authority. The laws of
nature and Church also acted as a check on the authority of the sovereign. In short
the concept of sovereignty in the sense in
which we understand it in our times was fully unknown to the medieval political
thinkers.
Medieval thinkers held faith in universalism. They considered the church and the
state as indivisible parts of the society and worked for the good of the man. However,
they accorded preeminent position to the Church. This pre-eminent position of the
Church is evident from the fact that the Pope was invited at all coronation ceremonies
of kings. The rise of Feudalism also greatly contributed to the rise of the church.
A notable feature of medieval thought was Papal Theory. This theory treated the
Empire as the secular arm of the Church, which was set up by the Pope for its own
purpose and was therefore answerable to the Pope alone. The Church as the
custodian of the spiritual authority was regarded as superior to the state which
represented the secular authority. The state was responsible to God through the
Pope, who could depose the unholy kings and princes. In short the Papal theory
asserted that papal authority was supreme in ecclesiastical as well as secular matter.
Church also used the instrument of ex-communication to assert its superiority.
During the medieval period three theories were propounded regarding supremacy
of Church of State. The first theory subordinated the Church to the King and treated
religion as a department of the state. The second theory accorded position of
supremacy to the Church and stood for hegemony of Pope over Emperor. The third
theory treated the Pope and Emperor as co-equals with each having
106
its own sphere and duties. It wanted that the Church should concern itself only with
the spiritual matters and leave the secular affairs to the state. This theory is
popularly known as the theory of Two Swords. It was propounded to assert the
independence of the state from the Church.
The seeds of the institution of representation can also be found in the medieval
political thought. The emergence of three estatesthe people, the noble and the
clergy, with each sending representatives to the Council, can be traced to the
medieval period.
The institution of feudalism also emerged during the medieval period. As Sabine
has put it 'Feudal institutions dominated the Middle Ages as completely as the city
state dominated antiquity'. The Feudal lords asserted that they were not the agent of
King and did not enjoy any delegated powers. On the other hand they enjoyed their
own powers. The powers which the king was able to wield depended on his ability to
limit the authority of the feudal lords.

1. Which
one
of
the
following
theory
of
the
origin
of
state
was
most
popular
during
the medieval period?
(a) Divine Origin
(b) Force
(c) Social Contract
2. During
the
medieval
period
four
theories
regarding
the
origin
of
the
state
were
in
vogue. These four theories were
(a) Divine Origin, Sin Origin, Contractual Origin and Natural Origin
(b) Divine Origin, Force Origin, Contractual Origin, and Evolutionary
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
(c) Divine origin, force origin, Expansion of Population, Contract Origin

(d)
None of the above
1. During medieval period monarchy was considered as the best and normal
form of government
2. The Medieval thinkers exalted the institution of Monarchy to a very high
position and attributed infallibility ot it.
3. During the medieval period the people could disobey and resist the unjust
monarch
4. During the medieval period King was considered above law and customs.
Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
correct?
(a) During the medieval times the King was subject to limitations of law of nature
and community.
(b) During medieval period the thinkers preferred Monarchy over democracy
because it ensured efficient and strict government.
(c) The medieval thinkers held that one man rule was better equipped to deal with
contingencies
(d) all the above
The
medieval
thinkers
drew
a
distinction
between
the
Monarchy
as
an
institution
and Monarch as an individual.
(a) True
(b) False
During the medieval period the King was
(a) considered as representative of God on earth
(b) accountable to the community for his actions
(c) regarded as superior to the customs and law of nature.
(d) a puppet in the hand of the Pope
During
the
Medieval
times
the
concept
of
law was quite wide and included in its fold
(a) positive law
(b) natural law
(c) customary laws
(d) all the above
Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
correct?
(a) During medieval period the law was considered as superior to the king and he
was expected to obey the same.
Concepts and lssue-1
107
(b) According to Acquinas the law was the expression of Reason and no willdivine or human could source of law.
(c) During medieval times the natural law was considered superior to all other
laws.
(d) Both (a) and (b) are correct
9. The concept of sovereignty was unknown
to the medieval political thinkers

(a) True
(b) False
10. During the medieval times the political
authority was restricted by
(a) divine reason and moral orders
(b) laws of nature and the Church
(c) the feudal lords
(d) all the above
1. Medieval political thinkers held faith in the existence of a cosmopolitan
society
2. Medieval thinkers held that Church and State were indivisible parts of soceity.
3. Medieval thinkers held that Church and State were headed by the Pope and
King respectively and the two worked in complete cooperation for the spiritual
salvation of man
4. Medieval thinkers assigned superior position to the King, over the Church
correct?
(a) Medieval political thinkers regarded Pope as the Deputy of God on this earth
(b) During the medieval times the Pope enjoyed a pre-eminent position which is
evident from the fact that he was invited to all the coronation ceremonies by
the kings.
(c) The decline of the Holy Roman Empire greatly weakened the temporal
authority and enhanced.the powers of the Church
(d) All the above
13. According to the Papal Theory
(a) Empire was the secular arm of the Church and was set up by the Papacy for
its own purposes
(b) The King was answerable to the Pope alone
(c) The Church as the custodian of spiritual authority was superior to the state,
which represented the secular authority.
(d) All the above.

14.
Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Papal Theory has been wrongly listed?
(a) The Papal Theory held that the King was responsible to God only through the
Church.
(b) The Church could depose the unholy kings and princes.
(c) God had sent churchmen as his messengers to the earth to punish bad,
unjust and heretical rulers
15. During
the
medieval
times
Pope
could
ex
communicate any ruler
(a) who refused to submit to the authority of the Church
(b) who indulged in non-Christian activities
(c) who married without taking prior approval of Pope
16. Who
of
the
following
advocated
the
theory
that
the
secular
ruler,
whether
he
derives
his
authority
from
the
people
or
God,
was
supreme
both
with
regard
to
temporal
and
spiritual matters?
(a) Dante
(b) Marsilio of Padua
(a)
17. The
theory
of
two
swords
advocated
during the medieval age held that
(a) State was as divine as the Church
(b) Rulers were no less important than the priests and the Church
(c) Church should concern itself only with spiritual mattes and leave the secular
affairs to the state.
(d) All the above.
18. The
theory
of
two
swords
was
propounded
(a) by the Emperors to assert the independence of state
(b) by the Church to assert its superiority
(c) to put an end to the on-going conflict between the King and the Church
19. Which
one
of
the
following
arguments
was
advanced
in
favour
of
supremacy
of
Church during the medieval age?
(a) Just as soul is superior to body, Pope is superior to the King.
(b) As the Pope is the representative of God on this earth he is superior to the
King.
(c) State is a divine institution and hence superior to the Church
(d) As the Church is a permanent institution it is superior to the state.
20. The
theory
of
representation,
which
was
an
outstanding
feature
of
medieval
political thought, developed because of
(a) fall of Roman Empire and consequent disintegration of the state

(b) the growing power of the Church
(c) separation of secular and religious authorities
(d) All the above reasons.
1. The supremacy of the Pope was asseted through the Papal Theory
2. During medieval times the Church Councils began to exercise state power
even for the purpose of taxation.
3. The Church Councils which emerged during the medieval times contained
representatives of people, nobles and clergy 4. The Church Councils which
emerged during the medieval times contained representatives of clergy alone. Of
the above statements
22.
Which
one
of
the
following
political
thinker
made
valuable
contribution
to
the
growth
of
Scholasticism,
during
the
medieval times?
(a) Thomas Acquinas
(b) Albortus Magnus
(c) Dante
23.
"Scholasticism
was
a
system
of
thought
in
which
Philosophy
in
purely
rational
sense
was
subordinated
to
the
established
theological doctrines."
(a) True
(b) False
24. Medieval scholasticism
(a) strongly supported the two sword theory
(b) was a staunch opponent of two sword theory
(c) was in no way related to the two sword theory

(d) provided philosophical basis to the two sword theory.
25. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
Feudalism
during
the
medieval
period is not correct?
(a) The Feudal lord held his position not as an agent of the King but on account
of his prescriptive right
(b) The Feudal Lords enjoyed only those powers which were delegated to them
by the King.
(c) The Feudal Lords did not enjoy the delegated powers but their own powers.
(d) The powers of the king depended largely on his ability to limit the feudal
lords.
(a)
109
26. The
political
philosophy
of
Thomas
Acquinas is contained in
(a) Against the Errors of Greeks
(b) Rule of Prince
(c) Summa Theologica
(d) All the above works.
27. Which
one
of
the
following
arguments
was
not
advanced
by
the
Papalists
to
assert
the
supremacy of the Church
(a) Church is concerned with development of soul, which is superior to body.
(b) Church has greater responsibility in matters of salvation than the state
(c) As against state which believes in wars the Church believes in peace
(d) In religious matters the state is member of Church
28. Who of the following was a Papist?
(a) Gregory VII
(b) John of Salisbury
(c) Thomas Acquinas
(d) all the above
29. Who of the following was a secularist?
(a) John of Paris
(b) Marsiglio of Padua
(c) William of Ockam
(d) all the above
30. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Gregory VII is not correct?
(a) Pope is the supreme arbitrator in all disputes relating to war and peace
(b) Institution of kingship is the product of the awakening of the people.
(c) The Pope should work according to the directions of the secular authorites.
(d) All the above
31. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Gregory VII is correct?

(a) Pope should be completely free from the influence of the secular authorities.
(b) the state should be fully subordinate to Church
32. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
John of Salisbury is correct?
(a) The state should be subordinated to Church
(b) No ruler has a right against the people
(c) The State is not an organic entity
33. According
to
Theory
of
Tyrannicide
propounded by Salisbury?
(a) The King enjoys unlimited powers
(b) No ruler has any right against the people
(c) The ruler has to act according to the prevailing law and natural law.
(d) The People have no right to kill a tyrannt ruler.
34. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
ideal
state
conceived by John Salisbury?
(a) The religious authority is subordinate to secular authority.
(b) The King is expected to develop his people morally and ethically.
(c) The King is not above law
(d) The King is lover of justice.
35. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Thomas Acquinas
1. The State is the result of fall and sins of men.
2. The State seeks to make people virtous and moral.
3. Man is by nature and necessity a social animal and the state is natural.
4. State was created by God in so far as political society results from the social
instincts that God has implanted in man.

(a)
36. Acquinas
has
been
described
as
representative of the medieval age because
(a) He supported the theory of two swords
(b) He regarded monarchy as the best form of government.
(c) He believed in one universal society with Pope at its head.
37. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
were
assigned by Acquinas to the state
(a) Making the citizens virtous and moral
(b) Provisions of order and peace without which virtue was not possible.
(c) Formulation and enforcement of laws.
(d) All the above.
38. Which
one
of
the
following
were
insisted
by
Acquinas
for
the
development
of
virtuous life
(a) Just wages and just prices
(b) Education of the people
39. Acquinas
considered
monarchy
as
the
best
form of government
(a) because the scriptures described it so
(b) because it alone can establish unity which no other form of government can
achieve
(c) because it ensures continuity of experience.
(d) on account of all the above reasons.
40. Which
one
of
the
following,
according
to
Acquinas,
was
a
perverted
form
of
government?
(a) Monarchy
(b) Democracy
(c) Aristocracy
(d) Polity.
41. According to Acquinas the King was
(a)responsible to God alone
(b) accountable to the multitude
(c) responsible to the Pope
42. Acquinas
did
not
entrust
arbitrary
powers
to
the
King
and
sought
to
restrict
his
authority by
(a) asking him to act in accordance with law.
(b) treating rulership as an office of trust for the whole community
(c) insisting on the ruler that he should perform certain functions and duties to
justify his office.

(d) all the above measures.
43. Acquinas showed preference for
(b) Constitutional Monarchy
(c) Aristocracy
(d) Polity
44.
Consider
the
following
statements
of
Acquinas regarding sovereignty.
1. Acquinas did not directly deal with the problem of sovereignty and expressed
only indirect ideas about the same.
2. According to Acquinas from the theological point of view the sovereignty is
derived from one source i.e. God.
3. According to Acquinas from political point of view, sovereignty is drawn from
one source viz., people.
4. Acquinas is absolutely silent about the concept of sovereignty.
45. According
to
Acquinas
the
positive
law
must
(a)be derived from natural law
(b) be ordained for the common good
(c) be framed and promulgated by the government.
(d) fulfill all the above requirements
1. Acquinas permitted disobedience of a bad law
111
2. According to Acquinas the positive law drives its authority not from the divine
or natural law, but from the enactment by the ruling authority
3. Acquinas did not permit disobedience of any law without the prior approval of
the Church
4. Law, according to Acquinas, is an ordinance of reason for the common good,
promulgated by him who has the care of the community.
47. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct
(a) Acquinas's views on law are his most lasting contribution to the political
thought.
(b) Acquinas conceived state in terms of law and not law in terms of the state
(c) According to Acquinas law is an ordinance of reason for the common good,
promulgated by him who has the care of community in mind.
(d) All the above
48. Acquinas
classified
the
law
into
several
categories.
Which
one
of
the
following
kinds of law has been wrongly listed?
(a) Eternal Law
(b) Natural Law
(c) Divine law
49. According to Acquinas, Eternal Law
(a) eminates from the divine reason.
(b) exists entirely in the mind of God and man with limited sense of reason
cannot comprehend it in full.
(c) governs both animate and inanimate kingdoms and governs the whole
universe
(d) all the above
50. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Acquinas
1. Natural Law represents the reflection of divine reason in human beings.
2. Natural Law helps the man to distinguish between the good and evil and seek
good and avoid evil.
3. Natural Law regulates the behaviour of non-rational part of the nature such as
animals, plants etc.
4. Natural Law is eternal in the sense that it is coeval with the mind of God and
the created universe and has always been in existence.
51. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Acquinas defines divine law as command of God communicated to man by
revelation.
(b) According to Acquina the divine law, is concerned with the spiritual aspects
and not secular activities.

1. As a convinced Papalist Acquinas took the side of Pope and subordinated the
state to the Church
2. Acquinas imposed explicit limitations on the Papal jurisdiction over the
secular rulers.
3. Acquinas opposed the idea of Pope's power to interfere in all temporal
matters.
4. Though initially Acquinas favoured Church domination over state, but later on
he accorded superior position to the state.
53. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
contribution
of
Acquinas
to medieval political thought?
112
(a) He synthesize theology and philosophy

(b) He revived the philosophy of Aristotle and accepted it as long as it did not
conflict with the Church ideals.
(c) He tried to reconcile reason and faith by advocating theory of law
1. Thomas Acquinas considered the monarchical system as ideal, but did not
favour grant of absolute powers to the King.
2. Acquinas attached great importance to the interests of the masses and
welfare of the common people.
3. Acquinas permitted the masses to see that the laws of the state were not
violated by the ruler and he did not turn tyrant.
4. Acquinas was a staunch supporter of absolute monarchy.
55. Which
one
of
the
following
was
a
contribution
of
Acquinas
to
political
thought
(a) Concept of Natural law
(b) Concept of constitutional govrnment
(c) Concept of welfare state
(d) All the above
56. In Defensor Pads, Marsiglio of Padua
(a) strongly supported the imperial authority
(b) strongly supported the Church
(c) did not discuss about the State-Church relations
(d) made a strong plea for promotion of cordial relations between the Church and
the State
57. Which
one
of
the
following
idea
was
borrowed
by
Marsiglio
of
Padua
from
Aristotle?
(a) State is a living organism composed of various parts whose function is to
work for good life.
(b) The state originates in the natural social instinct implanted in the human
beings.
(c) The classification of governments on the basis of their normal or perverted
nature
(d) All the above
1.Marsiglio showed preference for city state
2. Marsiglio asserted that the reason for the existence of the state was to be
found in the welfare of the ruled and not the rulers.
3. Marsiglio held that Politics must be founded on reason, not on theology or
Faith
4. Marsiglio held that rule by elites was far superior to the rule by the multitude.
59. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Marsiglio is correct?
(a) man is a social animal and the state was natural outcome of this instinct.
(b) men evolved state so that they may be able to live and live well.
(c) a state is needed to settle disputes and to provide security against natural
elements and enemies as well as supply of necessities of life.
(d) All the above
(a)
113

1. According to Marsiglio a law which cannot be enforced coercively is not law at
all.
2. Law is essentially a dictate of reason
3. According to Marsiglio law is an enactment by a duly constituted authority.
4. Marsiglio considered Human Law as superior to the Divine law because it
possessed coercive power.
61. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Law,
as
given
by
marisiglio,
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Law is a coercive command of the legislator enforceable in the courts
(b) Will of the community rather than divine providence or natural reason, is the
source of law.
(c) The source of all legal authority is always the people or its prevailing part
1. According to Marsiglio the law emanates from Human Will as a kind of
command to the subjects.
2. Marsiglio was the extreme secularist among the medieval thinkers. He
subordinated the Divine Law to the Human Law.
3. Marsiglio showed preference to Rule of law over rule of Men.
4. Marsiglio considered the law as a command of God and insisted that human
law must be in keeping with the divine law.
63. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Marsiglio developed the concept of popular sovereignty.
(b) Marsiglio held that Monarchy owed its power to the people and the monarch
should be responsible to the community as a whole.
(c) Marsiglio not only provided control to the people over the King but also
assigned them many functions.
(d) all the above.
64. According
to
Marsiglio
the
people
are
the
source of all
(a) political authority
(b) legal authority
(c) ecclesiastical authority
(d) all the above
65. According
to
Marsiglio
the
chief
sanction
behind the government is
(a) knowledge of law
(b) moral virtue
(c) election by the whole body of citizens
66. According
to
Marsiglio
a
ruler
who
is
elected
without
hereditary
succession
is
greatly
to
be
preferred
to
rulers
who
are
hereditary.
(a) True
(b) False
1. Marsiglio considered the Church as a part of the social community
2. Marsiglio tried to destroy the concept of Papal sovereignty
3. Marsiglio held the Papal Imperialism responsible for the disorder, chaos arid
anarchy prevailing in Europe and sought to curb its power.
4. According to Marsiglio the Church and State operate in two independent fields
and were not subordinate to each other.
1.

68. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
has
been wrongly attributed to Marsiglio?
(a) He held that the present life is in no way inferior to the life beyond the grave
(b) He considered the world life as more true and superior
(c) He held that secularism and Christianity were incompatible and the priests
should not have any thing to do with the temporal things.
69. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
were
assigned
by
Marsiglio
to
the
Church
and
Priests?
(a) They should concern themselves only with external kingdom and theological
virtues
(b) They should perform only those functions which seek to cure the souls and
promote in men the faith that leads to salvation in the next line.
(c) They should try to promote happiness in this life so that people can
concentrate on measurers for salvation.
70. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Marsiglio is wrong?
(a) Marsiglio tried to restrict the authority of the Pope by asserting that the real
power rests with the General Council
(b) The General Council, the whole body of faithful, enjoyed the power to
interpret the scriptures and regulate ceremonials of Christian worship etc.
(c) The Church exists for all faithful and is subject to their control and not merely
to the control of the clergy or the Pope
71. Which
one
of
the
following
function
was
assigned
by
Marsiglio
to
the
General
Council?
(a) Interpretation of the scriptures
(b) regulation or ceremonials of Christian worship
(c) passing of sentence of ex-communication
(d) all the above.
72. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) According to Marsiglio the priests and Pope draw their authority from the
General Council, which reserves the right to depose them.
(b) According to Marsiglio the General Council is subject to the whole body of
faithful which enjoys supreme and unlimited authority.
(c) Marsiglio considers the Church as purely spiritual congregation of believers
connected by their common faith.
(d) All the above.

1. Marsiglio assigned subordinate position to the Church
2. Marsiglio refused to accept the divine origin and divine rights of the Pope
3 According to Marsiglio the priests supplement the police and judges in
preventing people from committing crimes.
4. Marsiglio assigned to the Church a co-equal position with the State Of the
above statements
74. Which one of the following statements is not correct?
(a) Marsiglio reduced the Church to the position of a department of the state
(b) Marsiglio treated the clergy merely as a class set apart to perform religious
services
(a)
115
(c) Marsiglio wanted the church to be subordinate to the secular government in

the interest of unity and peace of the civil society.
(d) Marsiglio considered the Church as superior to the state because it rested on
spiritual power.
1. According to Marsiglio, since the divine law did not possess any coercive
power, it could only be described as Divine Doctrine.
2. Marsiglio described the Clergyman as physician
3. Marsiglio allowed the Church the power to issue decrees of excommunication
and interdiction but asserted that these punishments can be given effective
shape only by civil authority.
4. Marsiglio conceded coercive power to the Church only in spiritual matters
wrongly listed as a contribution of
77.
Marsiglio to the medieval political thought?
(a) Marsiglio imparted to the concept of law an element of coercision and command
(b) Marsiglio completely freed the medieval law from the limitations of natural law,
reason, common good and divine law.
(c) Marsiglio advocated the concept of popular sovereignty and asserted that the
people were the final source of law.
(d) Marsiglio in his thought assigned more prominent position to faith than
rationalism.
Which one of the following statements has been wrongly listed?
(a) Marsiglio emphasised the principle of accountability of the rulers to the people.
(b) Marsiglio advocated the concept of popular sovereignty and asserted that people
are the source of law
(c) Marsiglio asserted the superiority of the state over the Church by denying it
coercive power.
(a)
l.(c)
7.(d)
13. (d)
19. (a)
25. (b)
31. (c)
37. (d)
43. (b)
49. (d)
ANSWERS
2. (a)
3. (a)
4.(d)
5. (a)
8. (d)
14. (d)
20. (a)
26. (d)
32. (d)
38. (c)
44. (a)
9. (a)
15. (d)
21. (a)
27. (c)
33. (b)
39. (d)
45. (d)
10. (d)
16. (c)
22. (d)
28. (d)
34. (b)
40. (b)
46. (c)
11. (a)
17. (d)
23. (a)
29. (d)
35. (b)
41. (d)
47. (d)
6. (a)
12.
18.
24.
30.
36.
42.
48.
(d)
(d)
(a)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
55.
61.
67.
73.
(d)
(d)
(a)
(a)
56.
62.
68.
74.
50.
(a)
(a)
(d)
(d)
57.
63.
69.
75.
51.
(d)
(d)
(d)
(a)
58.
64.
70.
76.
52.
(a)
(d)
(d)
(d)
59.
65.
71.
77.
53.
(d)
(c)
(d)
(d)
54.
60. (c)
66. (a)
72. (b)
8
Concepts and Issues:
Behaviouralism,
Post-Behaviouralism, Decline and
Resurgence of Political Theory
BEHAVIOURALISM
The behavioursalist approach for the study of political science was developed by the
American political scientists after the first world war, although it gained popularity
only after the second world war. This approach originated with Arthur F. Bentley,
Graham Wallace, Charles B. Merrian, Stuart A. Rice, Harold D. Lasswell, Herman C.
Beyle. These writers made use of empirical data with a view to reconstruct and
explain the political phenomena. In latter years valuable contributions to this
approach were made by David B. Truman, Herbert Simon, G.A. Almond, George E.
Catlin, Myron Weiner, David Apter, Edward Shils, Robert Dahl etc.
The main features of the behavioural approach in politics are (i) it specifies the
behaviour of persons or social groups rather than events, structures, institutions or
ideologies; (ii) it is essentially an inter-disciplinary approach; (iii) it is theory oriented
and lays great stress on interdependence of theory and research; (iv) it focusses
attention on the behaviour of individuals or their groups; (v) it seeks to construct a
systematic empirical theory of politics which is based on facts only; (vi) it believes in
the unity of social sciences; (vii) It tries to develop a rigorous research design and to
apply precise methods of analysis in political behaviour.
The behaviouralist approach constitutes a sharp break with the traditional view of
politics in so far as it lays great emphasis on empirical research rather then the study
of the history of
political philosophy. Scholars have criticised the behavioural approach on various
grounds viz., it fails to distinguish between social and natural sciences; it sacrifices
the value at the altar of facts; it attaches more importance to methodology and
neglect the task of building up of theory it has introduced several jargons which make
confusion worse confounded; it avoids the hard problems which face the people and
nation on political front; it is reactionary in so far it does not make any effort to
analyse the forces of social change; it is confined to the academic world and runs
away from policy making. Despite the above shortcomings it cannot be denied that
behaviouralist theory has made valuable contributions to the development of the
subject by making valuable contributions about the likely or unlikely acts of man.
POST-BEHAVIOURALISM
Post-Behaviouralism made its appearance in the mid-sixties as a reaction against
behaviouralism. The lead in this regard was taken by David Easton, who put forth
seven traits of post-behaviouralism. These traits were (i) the substance must come
before technique; (ii) Empirical political science should lend its support to the
maintenance of factual conditions it explores; (iii) It aims at reaching out to the real
needs of the mankind in a time of crisis; (iv) we should be aware of the value
premises on which the system stands; (v) the political scientists should face the
social problem even if it inolves deviation from objectivity; (vi) the political research
must be carried out with a sense
Concepts and Issues
117
of commitment; (vii) politicisation of the professions.

Though the post-behaviouralists attach importance to the technical proficiency,
they are not in favour of cutting themselves from the social realities. They want the
research to be purposive and related to the study of social problems. But postbehavioural approach has been criticised on several ground. In the first place it does
not give any importance to the norms and values which occupied prominent position
in the classical theory. Secondly, this approach has not been able to overcome the
mad craze for scientism. Thirdly the post behaviouralist thinkers completely refute
the Marxian theory. Despite the above shortcomings, it cannot be denied that the
pos-behaviouralist approach has ratified the wrongs of the behavioural tradition by
ending the dichotomy of facts and values and insisting on linkage of science with
social purpose and action.
DECLINE AND RESURGENCE OF POLITICAL THEORY
Political Theory is a body of knowledge related to the phenomenon of the state. It is a

network of concepts and generalizations about political life involving ideas,
assumptions and statements about the nature, purpose and key features of
government, state and society and about the political capabilities of human beings.
It's significance lies in the fact that it provides systematic thinking about the nature
and purpose of state and government. It helps us to establish co-relation between the
ideals and the sociopolitical phenomena. According to Arnold Brecht the basic
components of political theory are (i) it is concerned with the group and not the
individual; (ii) as clash of interests
among the groups are inevitable, the reconciliation of opposing interests has to
serve other component of political theory; (iii) As group life lies at the heart of
political theory it is concerned with power, influence, control, legitimacy, justice etc.
(iv) it is philosophy coupled with action; (v) the elites constitute another component
of political theory. Choice and decision-making are also units of Political Theory.
According to some scholars the political theory is on the decline. Some even go to the
extent of saying that it is dead. In support of their
contention they argue that after Mill and Laski on political theorists of world wide
eminence has emerged. This view is however refuted by other scholars.
They argue that political theory has not died down and still exists. In fact the
political theory in modern times is emerging stronger. The modern scholars have tried
to liberalise political theory from its descriptive-interpretative stackles. The
contemporary political theory is not condemning all empiricism. Its science element
is being retained to point beneficial in social sciences as its philosophical content
useful for understanding sciences related to society. There has been no break in the
development of political theory but a constant continuity.

1. The
credit
for
developing
behaviourial
approach
for
the
study
of
political
science
goes to
(a) The American Political Scientists
(b) The British Political Scientists
(c) The German Political Scientists
(d) The Political Scientists of the Third World.
2. Though
the
behaviouralist
approach
for
study
of
political
science
was
developed
after
the
first
world
war
it
gained
popularity only
(a) in the thirties of the 20th century
(b) after the second world war
(c) in the sixties of the 20th century
(d) in the eighties of the 20th century
3. The
behaviouralist
approach
to
the
study
of
political
science
was
developed
as
a
protest against
(a) the historical approach
(b) the philosophical approach
(c) descriptive-institutional approach
(d) all the above
4. The
behaviouralist
approach
differs
from
the
traditional
approach
for
the
study
of
political science in so far as
(a) it is analytical
(b) it is general rather than particular
(a)
(c) it is explanatory rather than ethical

(d) it has all the above features
wrongly listed as a behaviouralist?
(a) Robert A. Dahl

(b) Charlesworth
(c) G.A. Almond
(d) George E. Catlin
6. Who of the following authored the book
'Human Nature of Polities'?
(a) Graham Wallas
(b) Arthur F. Bentley
(c) Harold D. Lasswell
(d) RohertDahl
7. Which one of the following features of
behaviouralism has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is concerned with scientific understanding of man in society
(b) It seeks to study human behaviour
(c) It tries to develop empirical theory
correct
(a) Behaviouralism lays stress on interdisciplinary approach
(b) It borrows research techniques from other disciplines
(c) Behaviouralism rose as a protest against the existing traditional approach.
(d) All the above
9. Which one of the following feature of
behaviouralism has been wrongly listed?
(a) It lays emphasis on ethical values
(b) It lays emphasis on the study of human behaviour
(c) It lays emphasis on the study of individual groups
(d) It lays emphasis on objectivity.
10. Which one of the following has been wrongly listed as the basis of behaviouralist
movement by David Easton? (a) Quantifications
(b) Values
(c) Systematisation
(d)None of the above
11. According
to
David
Easton
quantification
in behavioural research implies
(a) regularities which can lead to some generalisations
(b) adoption of vigorous measurement and data manipulation procedures
(c) The data for research should be quantified so that conclusions may be
verified on the basis of quantified evidence
12. According
to
David
Easton
the
political
behaviour
of
man
can
be
understood
only
in
the
context
of
his
social,
cultural
and
economic behaviour.
(a) True
(b) False
13. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
behaviourial
research
has
been
emph
asised
by
Heinz
Eulau
but
not
by
David
Easton?
(a) Relationship of theory and research
(b) Inter-disciplinary approach
(c) Prediction through quantification
(d) Research design
14. Which
one
of
the
following
difference
between
behaviourialist
and
traditiona
lists has been wrongly listed?
(a) behaviouralism lays great emphasis on empirical research, while
traditionalists lay emphasis on study of history of political philosophy
(b) Behaviouralists try to make a value neutral study while the traditionalists
give an ethical orientation to study.
(c) None of the above
15. Which
one
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
most
important
contribution
of
Behaviouralism to Political Science
(a) It greatly helped in theory building
(b) It developed several new concepts
(c) It developed several new tools of research
(d) It emphasised the important role which history can play in research
(a)
Concepts and Issues
119
16. Which
one
of
the
following
shortcomings
of
Behavioural!
sm
has
been
highlighted
by
the traditionalists?
(a) Political phenomena is not amenable to experimental enquiry
(b) Human behaviour cannot be studied with the objectivity which is necessary in
the acquisition of scientific knowledge
(c) Behaviouralists lay too much emphasis on value free studies.
(d) All the above
17. Which
one
of
the
following
points
of
criticism
against
the
behaviouralist
theory
have been wrongly listed?

(a) It fails to distinguish between social and natural sciences and assumes that
the two have similar values.
(b) The behaviouralists sacrifice the values at the altar of facts and thus present
a barren political theory.
(c) The behaviouralists confine themselves to academic world and try to run
away from the policy making task.
18. Who
of
the
following
put
forth
principles
of
post-behaviouralism
in
his
Presidential
Address in 1969?
(a) David Easton . (b) Christian Bay
(c) Mulford Q. Sibley
19. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
trait
of
postbehaviouralism?
(a) It insists that substance must come before technique.
(b) It holds that reliance on description and analysis of facts hampers
understanding of the facts in their broadest context
(c) The value plays an important role in the social system and must not be
completely ignored.
20. Post-behaviouralism was
(a) essentially a new movement
(b) merely a reform movement
(c) a movement to prevent resurgence of traditionalism.
1.
The behaviouralist political scientists in the name of detachment and
objectivity kept
themelves away from the social problems and thus failed to protect human
values of civilisation.
2. The post-behaviouralists want the political scientists to face the social
.problems even if it involves deviation from objectivity.
3. The behaviourists showed escapist tendencies and avoided the hard
problems which faced the people and the nation on the political front.
4. Post-behaviouralists political scientist were more close to the traditionalists
than the behaviouralists.
(d) 1,2 and 4 are correct.
22. The
similarities
between
the
Behaviouralists
and
post-behaviouralists
have
been
listed
below.
Which
one
of
these
similarities is not correct?
(a) Both laid emphasis on objective studies
(b) Both based their studies on human behaviour
(c) Both laid emphasis on model building
(d) Both laid emphasi$ on rationality.
23. Several
factors
contributed
to
the
rapid
spread
of
post-behaviouralism.
Which
one
of
the
following
factor
for
this
popularity
(a) People were not happy with too much of model building
120
(b) people were unhappy with the behaviouralists for too much neglect of
Political realities.
(c) people were unhappy with the behaviouralists because they merged political
science with history.
(d) people were unhappy with the problems created by modernisation.
24. The post-behaviouralists believed that
(a) the research should be relevant to society
(b) the research should provide objective solution of all human problems
(c) the research should be detached from society
25. David
Easton
in
his
Presidential
Address
highlighted
seven
features
of
postbehavioural
movement.
Which
one
of
the
following
feature
was
not
emphasised
by
him
(a) Substance must come before technique
(b) The value play an important role in the social system and must not be
completely ignored.
(c) The political scientists should face the social problems without deviating from
objectivity.
(d) It is desirable that the professions should be politicised.
26. By
the
value
loaded
social
science,
David
Easton implied
(a) value neutral research

(b) uni-disciplinary research
(c) multi-disciplinary research
(d) value- centred research
27. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
was
common
to
the
behaviouralists
and
postbehavariouralists?
(a) Both believed in objectivity in research
(b) Both stood for value free investigation
(c) Both laid stress on sophisticated research tools
(d) all the above.
:...-.28. According
to
David
Easton
politicisation
of profession implied that
(a) the politicians must keep away from political process.
(b) politics and proession should not be mixed
(c) the intellectuals should not remain non-politicised.
(d) only
professionals
should
be permitted to take part in politics.
29. The
criticised
the
behaviouralists
on
the
ground
that
they
were
(a) paying too much attention to the problems of the third world.
(b) spending too much of time on irrelevant research
(c) motivated by the consideration of maintenance of the existing system.
(d) determinated to bring about social change.
1. The post-behaviouralists did not insist so much on the negation of
behaviouralism as on its improvement.
2. An outstanding feature of post-behaviour development has been
abandonment of mad craze for scientism and its linkage with social purpose
and action.
3. The post-behaviouralists see policy engagement as a social responsibility of
the intellectual.
4. The post-behaviouralists attached great importance to the existing values
and wanted the policy makers to pursue them faithfully.

31. The
criticised
on
several
of
the
following
criticism
them?
grounds.
does
have
Which
not
apply
been
one
to
Concepts and Issues

121
(a) The post-behaviouralists did not attach much importance to the norms and
values which occupied a prominent position in the classical theory.
(b) The post-behaviouralists were not able to fully overcome the mad craze for
scientism.
(c) The post-behaviouralists completely refute the Marxian theory which not only
insists on unity between theory and practice but also lays down definite laws
for social change.
32. It
has
been
alleged
by
certain
scholars
that
there
has
been
decline
of
political
theory
in
recent years. This opinion exists because
(a) the Political Scientists have failed to produce an eminent political theorists for
long.
(b) more importance is being attached to the practical politics at the cost of the
theory.
(c) the political scientists are busy analysing the existing political theories rather
than propounding any new theory.
(d) All of the above reasons.
33. According
to
David
Easton,
the
main
cause for the decline of political theory is
(a) indifferent attitude of the present day political scientists towards theory.
(b) political theory has already reached its saturation point and there is no scope
for its further development.
(c) Absence of latest research tools and
techniques for the development of political theory (d) All the above
34. According
to
Alfred
Cobban,
which
one
of
the
following
is
responsible
for
the
decline
of political theory
(a) Close interaction between ideas and institutions
(b) Lack of interest among political theorists regarding recasting of democracy
according to changing times.
(c) Lack of concern about stagnancy of political theory in modern times.
(d) All the above
35. Germino
has
attributed
the
decline
of
political theory in modern times to
(a) lack of ideology or political doctrines
(b) Absence of influence of intellectuals on political theorists.
(c) Lack of interest among modern political theorists to learn from science.
(d) all the above factors.

36. Behaviouralism
arose
as
a
reaction
traditionalism.
(a) True
(b) False
37. According
to
David
Easton
in
times
political
theory
is
emerging
and
several
new
philosophies
developed.
(a) True
(b) False
38. The
behaviouralists
sacrifice
the
values
the
altar
of
facts
and
thus
present
a
political theory
(a) True
(b) False
Ma)
7.(d)
13. (d)
19. (d)
25. (c)
31. (d)
37. (b)
ANSWERS
2. (b)
3.(d)
4.(d)
8.(d)
14. (c)
20. (b)
26. (d)
32. (a)
38. (a)
9. (a)
15. (c)
21. (a)
27. (a)
33. (a)
10. (d)
16. (d)
22. (c)
28. (c)
34. (b)
5.(b)
11.
17.
23.
29.
35.
(d)
(d)
(c)
(b)
(a)
against
modern
strong
have
at
barren
6. (a)
12.
18.
24.
30.
36.
Democracy, Liberty and

Equality
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
The term 'democracy' is drawn from two Greek words demos and cratia
meaning people and power respectively. Thus, literally democracy means the
system of government in which the power rests with the people. In the past
when the population was small and the problems of the state were few,
people directly participated in the management of their common affairs. This
was known as direct democracy. This type of democracy is not possible in
modern nation states. Therefore an indirect democracy has been evolved.
Under this system people elect their representatives, who are expected to act
and speak on their behalf. This type of democracy is also known as
Various theories of democracy have been put forward which need
consideration:
1. Classical or Liberal Theory of

Democracy
The traces of this theory are found in the writings of Greek philosophers, even
though the basic principles of the theory assumed a concrete shape in the
seventeenth century in the writing of philosophers like Hobbes, Locke,
Rousseau, Bentham, J.S.Mill, etc. The classical theory of democracy insists on
active participation of the people in the political process, grant of universal
suffrage, existence of representative government-periodical and free
elections, existence of certain fundamental rights, independence of judiciary,
rule of law, etc.
2. The Elitist Theory of Democracy

In the present century a new theory of democracy was popularised by
scholars like Pareto, Mosca, Michels and Burham. They argued that in every
society there is a small group of elites, who rule a
given political society. This group of elites exclusively enjoys all the power
and influence. Pareto talks of two types of elites-the social elite and the
governing elite. By the social elite he means a small number of individuals,
who in each sphere of activity have succeeded and arrived at a higher
echelon in the professional hierarchy. On the other hand the political or
governing elite consists of that small group of persons who exercise the
ruling power.
3. Pluralist Theory of Democracy

The Pluralist theory of democracy is comparatively of recent origin and is
associated with scholars like Robert Dahl Barelson, Sartori, H. Eckstein,
Presthus, Hunter, Agger etc. This theory holds that the power in a society is
shared by the government and a large number of leaders, groups and
associations. The Pluralist theory of democracy is largely based on the
principle that the society is plural and the state is only one of the many
associations within the society. It holds that the political power is divided
among various groups, classes, associations and organisations which exist
within a particular society. It is opposed to concentration for power at one
centre because it is likely to give rise to totalitarianism and destroy the
democratic values like liberty, freedom etc. All important decisions should be
taken by the state in consultation with the other organised groups and due
defence should be given to their views. Such decisions shall be readily
obeyed by the people because they know that their organisations have
already been consulted.
4. Marxian Theory of Democracy

The Marxists talk in terms of democratic state rather than democratic
government. They imply
Democracy, Liberty and Equality

123
by a democratic state a socialist state in which there is no exploitation and conditions

for free development of all exists. They hold that democratic ideals like justice,
freedom, equality, etc. cannot be attained so long as economic exploitation exists in
the society. Thus the Marxists offered a new meaning and interpretation of
democracy. It is intimately linked with the abolition of classes. It envisages abolition
of private property, ending of exploitation in society through social ownership of
means of production. The ultimate objective of Marxist democracy is establishment of
a Community society or a stateless society.
A study of the various theories of democracy shows that they have emphasised
either the political or the socio-economic aspects. While the Liberal Theory of
Democracy lays emphasis on the political freedom, the Marxian theory consider the
economic and social equality more significant. In other words, while the former looks
to democracy as a mechanism of choosing and authorising the government, the
latter looks as it as a kind of society. A genuine democracy shall be possible only if
the two are combined. Hence, democracy not only means provision of political rights
to the people so that they may be able to effectively influence the policies of the
government, but also removal of discriminations based on caste, creed, class, colour
and sex as well as equitable distribution of wealth and abolition of glaring disparities
among the people on the basis of wealth.
Merits of Democracy
Democracy has following merits:
1. It promotes the interests of the common people better than any other form of
government.
2. It provides an efficient system of government and induces the people to
become more disciplined citizens.
3. Democracy has great moral and educative value.
4. Democracy by making peaceful and constitutional changes possible averts
revolution.
5. Democracy promotes the spirit of patriotism among the people by making
them feel that they are an integral part of the government.
6. The laws under democracy are readily obeyed by the people because they feel
that these laws have been enacted by their own elected representatives.
7. Democracy combines the advantages of a specialist and representative
government.
Demerits of Democracy
Democracy also suffers from following shortcomings:
1. Democracy is described as a government by incompetent people because the
general people, in whom the power is vested, are not competent to elect the
right type of representatives.
2.
Democracy is a slow government because the issues are discussed in leisurely
manner
before any decisionis arrived at.

3. Democracy is very expensive government. It entails frequent electrons which
involve huge expenditure on propaganda, electioneering etc. In addition huge
expenditure is incurred in the shape of allowances and other facilities to the
members of the legislature.
4. Democracy breeds corruption, favouritism and nepotism
5. Democracy encourages party loyality at the cost of national interests.
6. No consistent policy is possible under democracy because the. change of
government usually leeds to a change in the policy of the government.
7. Despite these shortcomings it cannot be denied that the democracy is
probably the best form of government.
LIBERTY
The term 'liberty' has been taken from the Latin world 'liber' which means freedom. In
this sense the term liberty is interpreted as freedom of a person to do whatever he
likes without any restraint. However, liberty in this sense is neither practicable nor
desirable in any civilised society. In the larger interest of the community certain
restraints must be imposed on the individual
124
liberty so that it can be enjoyed by all the members. In the absence of such
restrictions it shall indeed be difficult to maintain order and harmony in the society.
On the other hand certain other scholars have emphasised the positive aspect of
liberty.
According to Prof. Laski "Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in
which men have the option to be their best selves.
The main characteristics of Liberty are as under:
First, liberty does not mean absence of restraints, on the other hand it means the
presence of those conditions which are essential for the development of an
individual's personality. Second, absolute liberty is neither practicable nor desirable.
Third, liberty and law are not antithesis. On the other hand, law helps in the
promotion of liberty by regulating the actions of the members and laying down norms
to be observed by the members in the larger interests of the community. There are
several variants of liberty which are as under.
Natural Liberty The concept of natural liberty is mainly associated with
Rousseau. He implied by it a complete freedom from interfer-ence or from social
conventions. This type of liberty existed in the pre-social or pre-civil society.
Civil liberty refers to the liberty available to all persons residing in a state viz.,
the citizens as well as the aliens. It includes certain privileges and facilities which are
essential for the full development of the individual's personality.
Political liberty is available only to the citizens and provides them an
opportunity to actively participate in the affairs of the state.
Economic liberty means the security and the opportunity to find reasonable
significance in the earning of one's daily bread. This can be secured through grant of
right to work, provision of minimum wages, regulation of working hours and provision
of social security against unemployment, sickness, old age etc.
National liberty denotes national independence which ensures to the citizens
right to influence the decisions of the government.
Liberty can be ensured through following measures denial of special privileges to
members
of society; establishment of democratic government which acts according to the
wishes and interests of people; incorporation of fundamental rights in the

constitution; establishment of rule of law so that the citizens may be able to
approach the courts for the protion and enforcement of their rights; separation of
power; independence of judiciary; independence of Press; a well organised party
system; decentralisation of power; economic equality and eternal vigilance.
As regards the relations between law and liberty, two opposite views have been
expressed. According to one view the laws not only protect the rights and liberties of
the people but also provide conditions for the development of human faculties. The
second view, expressed by the individalists and anharchists, Law and Liberty are antithesis to each other. Law and Liberty are always in inverse ratio. None of the above
two views is wholly correct. It would indeed be wrong to say that all laws promote
liberty or curtail liberty. Much depends on the nature and the contents of the laws.
Generally laws made by democratic bodies promote liberty. Further these laws
provide positive conditions which are vital for the development of individual's
personality. On the other hand the arbitrary and unjust laws not only curtail individual
liberty, but also, sometimes completely negate it.
EQUALITY
Equality, like liberty, is an important pillar of democracy. In common parlance the
term 'equality' is used for identity of treatment and identity of rewards. However, this
is not a correct use of the term because absolute equality is not possible. Equality
has been assigned both negative as well as positive meanings. In the negative sense
equality means the absence of special privileges. In the positive sense equality
means provision of adequate opportunities for all members of the society. In short,
equality implies the following things. First, all persons should be provided with
adequate opportunities for the development of personality. Secondly, no class or
caste or group should enjoy special privileges. Thirdly, there should not be any
discrimination among members of society. Fourthly, rights are equally distributed
among all and all have equal access to the opportunities leading to authority.
125
DIMENSIONS OF EQUALITY
The concept of equality is dynamic one and has kept on changing according to times.
Accordingly different scholars have suggested different dimensions or kinds of
equality.
The various kinds or dimension of equality are as follows:
Civil (or Legal) Equality

Civil equality implies equality of all before law. All citizens irrespective of their
status and position should be treated at par and no distinction should be made on the
basis of v_;te, creed, sex, political opinion, social status, place of birth etc. Equal
rights should be available to all the persons and no body should be denied enjoyment
of any right.
Political Equality
Political equality means that all the citizen should have the right to participate in
the affairs of caste, colour, creed, sex, status, etc. All the avenues of authority should
be open equally to all the citizens and they should enjoy right to vote, right to contest
election, right to criticise the government, right to hold public office, etc.
Social Equality
Social equality, assumed that there should not be any discrimination among
various citizens on the basis of social status, caste, colour, creed, rank, etc. It is
opposed to the grant of special privileges to any person on the basis of his social
status, caste, religion, etc.
Economic Equality
In modern times, scholars have attached greater importance to economic equality
and consider it as vital to the existence of other types of equality. "Economic equality
does not imply that there should be equal distribution of wealth, because this sort of
equality is incapable of realisation. On the other hand, it means that there should not
be concentration of wealth in few hands only and certain minimum standards of
income shoui be assured to all.
Natural Equality
The concept of natural equality rests on the principle that nature has created
every one as
equal. However, in the wider context it implies that all inequalities are manmade
and artificial. The law should treat all at par and provide equal facilities to all without
distinction.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EQUALITY AND LIBERTY

Scholars have expressed divergent views regarding the relationship of Liberty and
Equality. On the other hand, scholars like Lord Action and De Tocqueville hold that
liberty and equality are antagonistic and cannot co-exist. However, the view of Lord
Action and De Tocqueville does not seem to be correct in so far it is based on wrong
notions of liberty and equality. They take liberty as the absence of all restraints the
interpret equality in mathematical terms.
On the other hand scholars like Laski, Maclver and Tawney consider liberty and
equality as complementary to each other and hold that one cannot be possible
without the other.
The intimate connection between liberty and equality has been brought out by
Salvadori thus "There is an intimate connection between the two because all
individual liberties are related to the basic equality of all men, and because
historically the aspiration for liberty becomes in practice the destruction of privilege
of inequality.
Political Liberty without Economic Equality is a Myth

A very intimate relationship exists between political liberty and economic equality. It
has been asserted that there cannot be any political liberty without economic
equality. This assertion contains a great amount of truth because the political liberties
like right to vote, right to contest election, right to hold public office etc., cannot be
genuine unless there is rough economic equality in the state. It is accepted at all
hands that only when the people have reasonable economic opportunities viz.
employment, reasonable wages, adequate leisure, etc. they can develop themselves
properly. For an effective use of political liberty it is desirable that the economic
inequality should be removed.
126

1. Democracy
is
a
system
of
government
in
which the final power rests with
(a) The mob
(b) The people
(c) The politicians
(d) The civil servants
2. Democracy rose as a reaction against
(a) domination of religion
(b) Arbitrary government
(c) Evil of majority rule
(d) Socialist ideology
3. Direct
democracy
is
a
system
of
govern
ment in which
(a) People directly elect their representatives
(b) People take direct part in the administration of the country
(c) People appoint the civil servants
(d) All government officials are appointed subject to the final approval of the
people
4. Direct
democracy
is
commonly
associated
with
(a) Russia
(b) Britain
(c) India
(d) Greece
5. The modern democracy is known as
(a) Direct democracy
(b) People's democracy
(c) Representative democracy
(d) Socialist democracy
6. In democracy the final authority rests with
(a) Parliament
(b) People
(c) Council of Ministers
(d) Civil servants

7. The
classical
theory
of
democracy
can
be
traced back to the writings of:
(a) Ancient Greek philosophers
(b) Ancient Chinese philosophers
(c) Proudhon
(d) French philosophers of the seventeenth century
8. Who
of
the
following
philosophers
was
not
associated
with
the
Liberal
Theory
of
Democracy?
(a) Locke
(b) Hobbes
(c) Karl Marx
(d) J.S.Mill
9. The basic principle of liberal democracy
that the sovereign drew his authority from
the people was first developed by
(a) J.S.Mill
(b) Hobbes
(c) Locke
10. Who
of
the
following
thinkers
asserted
the
principle
that
'consent
of
the
people'
is
the
basics of state?
(a) Adam Smith
(b) Herbert Spencer
(c) Bentham
(d) Locke
11. The
two
basic
principles
of
liberal
theory
of
democracy
which
were
emphasised
by
Locke were
(a) Universal adult franchise and right to property
(b) Woman suffrage and secret ballot
(c) Popular sovereignty and constitutional government
(d) Natural Rights and Representative Democracy
12. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
contribution
of
Rousseau
to the Liberal theory of democracy?
(a) General Welfare
(b) Natural Equality
(c) Consent of people as basis of state
(d) Inalienable right of individual to determine their affairs
13. Which
one
of
the
following
thinkers
emphasised
the
principles
of
adult
franchise,
representative
government,
freedom
of
press
and
frequent
elections,
which
form
the
cornerstone
of
Liberal
theory of democracy?
(a) J.S.Mill
(b) Locke
(c) Rousseau
(d) All of the given
14. The
chief
contribution
of
Green
to
the
Liberal theory of democracy was
(a) Emphasis on collective well-being as condition of individual freedom
Democracy, Liberty and Equality 127
(b) Emphasis on absolute freedom of individual

(c) Absolute powers for the state
15. Which
one
of
the
following
is
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Liberal
theory
of
democracy?
(a) It emphasis that the power rests with the people
(b) It holds mat common interest can be realised only through democratic
government
(c) It concedes to the people the right to oppose the state
(d) It does not give any power to the people to oppose the authority of the state
16. Which
one
of
the
following
thinkers
is
connected with the Elitist theory?
(a) Vilfredo Pareto
(b) Mosca
(c) Robert Michels
(d) All the three
17. The
concept
of
'power
elite'
is
connected
with
(a) Pareto
(b) Mosca
(c) C.Wright Mills
(d) James Burham
18. Who
of
the
following
thinkers
tried
to
combine the elitist theory with Marxism?
(a) Robert Michels
(b) James Burham
(c) Vilfredo Pareto
19.
The Elitist theory holds that the power is
always concentrated in the hands of

(a) Priestly class
(b) Military class
(c) Civil Servants
(d) A small group of elites
20. The exponents of elitist theory
(a) Believe in political equality
(b) Believe in equality between ru! : and ruled
(c) Do not believe in equality between ruler and ruled
(d) Believe in all the above three principles
21. The
elitist
theory
believes
in
leaving
the
formulation
and
implementation
of
policy
in the hands of
(a) Elected representatives of the people
(b) Permanent civil servants
(c) An elite class
(d) A body composed of all the above three
22. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
Elitist
theory of democracy?
(a) The positions of control and decisionmaking mechanism in the political
system are always occupied by a small group of individuals
(b) There is no competition and adjustment among the various elite groups
existing in a society
(c) The elite groups are well-organised
(d) The elite group generally tries to protect its own interests
23. The
Pluralist
theory
of
democracy
is
associated with
(a) Barelson
(b) Sartori
(c) Presthus
(d) All the above three
24. The
Pluralist
theory
of
democracy
holds
that
(a) The state is the source of all authority and al! groups draw from it
(b) The power in society is shared by government and other groups
(c) Political power cannot be divided among various groups, associations etc.
25. The Pluralist theory of democracy is
(a) Against separation of powers
(b) Against periodical elections
(c) In favour of elections because they help in gauging public opinion
(d) Against decentralisation of authority
26. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) Pluralist theory of democracy insists on separation of powers
128
(b) Pluralist theory of democracy emphasises need of territorial decentralisation

of authority
(c) Pluralist theory of democracy favours introduction of self-government
institutions
(d)Pluralist
theory
of
democracy
is
% opposed to frequent elections
27. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Marxian
democracy?
(a) It stands for popular control over the means of production and distribution
(b) It lays emphasis on economic freedom
(c) It shall work on the basis of decisions taken through consensus.
(d) It should work through representative Parliament
28. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Marxian
democracy?
(a) Provision for recall of the representatives
(b) Elected Judiciary
(c) Dominant role of leaders in preserving the system
(d) Emphasis on political freedom
29. The
Economic
aspects
of
democracy
have
been emphasised by
(a) Liberal Theory of Democracy
(b) Marxian Theory of Democracy
(c) Both Marxian and Liberal Theories of Democracy
(d) Neither of two
30. There
are
a
number
of
devices
of
direct
democracy.
The
two
most
popular
of
these
devices are
(a) Referendum and Initiative
(b) Elections and Political Parties
(c) Political Parties and Press
(d) Landsgemeinde and Parliament
31., Landsgemeinde is a device which enables (a) The people to recall their
representatives if they do not act according to their wishes
(b) The adult citizens to take direct part in the solution to the affairs facing their
area
(c) The local self-government institutions to work efficiently
(d) The people to remove the corrupt judges
32. Referendum is a device of direct demo
cracy which authorises the people
(a) To direct the Legislature to enact laws desired by them
(b) To demand reference of laws passed by the Legislature to people for their
approval
(c) To refer the bill to the Court to ascertain its constitutional validity
(d) To request the head of the state to with hold signatures on the bill passed by
the legislature
33. Initiative is a device of direct democracy
which confers a right on the people
(a) To suggest candidates for appointment to various offices
(b) To suggest legislative measures which the legislature is not enacting
(c) To reject the laws passed by the legislature
(d) To seek judicial opinion regarding the constitutionality of laws enacted by the
legislature
correct?
(a) The press in democracy must be free and impartial
(b) The press in democracy must be committed to the policies of the government
(c) The press in democracy must highlight the achievements of the government,
without criticising its policies
(d) The press in democracy must criticise the policies of the government
35. Plebiscite is a device of democracy used
for
(a) Enactment of laws
(b) Ascertaining the views of people on a policy matter of public importance

(c) Appointment of civil servants
(d) Appointment of judges
36. Who
of
the
following
philosophers
champ
ioned the cause of direct democracy?
(a) Hobbes
(b) Rousseau
(c) Marx
(d) Hegel
37. Direct
democracy
is
not
possible
in
modern times because
(a) People are indifferent towards the affairs of state
(b) Political parties are opposed to it
(c) Propertied classes are opposed to it
(d) Of the practical difficulties posed by the size and population of modern states
38. Which
one
of
the
following
conditions
essential
for
the
smooth
working
of
democracy has been wrongly listed?
(a) Universal suffrage
(b) Free elections
(c) Minority rule
(d) Presence of opposition

39. Which
one
of
the
following
points
below
as
merits
of
democracy
has
wrongly listed?
(a) Democracy promotes general welfare
(b) Democracy averts revolutions
(c) Democracy leads to frequent changes in the policy of government
(d) Democracy promotes patriotism
40. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
not
correct?
The
successful
working
democracy depends on
(a) Presence of political parties based on political and economic principles
(b) Presence of educated electorate
(c) Presence of a strong propertied class
(d) Presence of a vigorous system of local government
41. Democracy as a system of government
(a) Is a panacea for all the political evils
(b) Is a perfect government
(c) Has its merits as well as demerits
(d)Is fast declining
42. Democracy
as
a
system
of
government
based on the principle of
(a) Majority rule
(b) Absolute liberty
(c) End justifies the means
(d) Quality rule
43. Democracy is rule of
(a) Voters
(b) People
(c) Members of Parliament
(d) Political
44.
Who defined democracy as "Government
of the people, by the people, for the
given
been
is
of
is
people"?
(a)Woodrow Wilson
(b) Lord Bryce
(c) Abraham Lincoln
(d) Laski
45. Which
of
the
following
statements
provides support for democracy?
I. Governments are formed by popular support and are sustained by consent
II. Men are not equipped intellectually to recognize their rights and lack the
power to ensure them
III. Governments perform their functions in full view of public scrutiny and
cannot violate rights
IV. Rights are not isolated from requisites of civic responsibilities
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
Codes:
(a) II, III and IV
(b) I, III and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) I, II and III
46. Which
of
the
followings
are
necessary
conditions for democracy?
I. The majority respects the rights of minorities
II. People have the freedom to oppose and replace the government of the day
III. The dignity of the individual is respected
130
IV. The judiciary has the power to review the Acts of Parliament Select the correct
answer using the codes given below: Codes:
(a) II, III and IV
(b) I, III and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) I, II and III
47. What are the merits of democracy?
I. It promotes general welfare II. It averts revolution
III. It leads to frequent changes in the policy of government
IV. It promotes patriotism
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, III and IV
(d) I, II and IV
48. To a socialist, democracy means a society
in which
(a) Inequalities of wealth should be removed by state action
(b) All the means of production and distribution are owned by the state
(c) Free enterprise and state enterprise exist side by side
(d) Nobody is without work
49. Which one of the followings has been
wrongly listed as a critic of democracy?
(a) Locke
(b) Lecky
(c) Maine
(d) Leveleye
50. Lord Bryce defines democracy as:
(a) "A form of government in which the will of majority of qualified rules."
(b) "The progress of all, through all under the leadership of the best and the
wisest."
(c) "Government by the freely chosen representatives of the people and not
by the people themselves."
(d) "Nothing more than an experiment in government."
51. Which of the following are the essential
elements of political democracy?
I. Every adult has the right to take part in the election of the rulers
II. Every adult citizen can contest election for the highest political office in the
country
III. Every
citizen
has
the
right
to
criticise
the acts of the government
IV. Every citizen enjoys right to work
Select the right answer using the codes given
below:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) I, III and IV
52. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
essential
attribute
of
democracy?
(a) Freedom of speech
(b) Freedom of religion
(c) Equality before law
(d) Equality of property
53. Lord
Bryce
has
written
"That
form
of
government
in
which
the
ruling
power
of
a
state
is
legally
vested,
not
in
any
particular
class,
but
in
the
members
of
the
community
as
a
whole."
Which
form
of
government he is referring to?
(a) Democracy
(b) Parliamentary government
(c) Federal government
(d) Unitary government
54.
Which one of the following criticism holds
good for Western democracy?

(a) It promotes apathy towards politics
(b) It is characterised by vast socioeconomic inequalities
(c) It leads to monopoly over the means of communications
(d) All the above
55. The
two
words
'demos'
and
'cratia'
from
which
democracy
draws
its
origin
belong
to
(a) Latin language
(b) Greek language
(c) French language
(d) Spanish language
56. Who
defined
democracy
as
"a
government
in which every one has a share"?
(a) Rousseau
(b) Bryce
131
(c) Seeley
(d) Abraham Lincoln
57. The two forms of democracy are:
(a) Parliamentary and Presidential
(b) Direct and Indirect
(c) Monarchical and Republican
58. Which
one
of
the
following
ancient
thinkers
regarded
democracy
as
a
perverted form of government?
(a) Plato
(b) Socrates
(c) Aristotle
(d) Cicaro
59. Who
said
"Democracy
is
merely
a
mechanism
for
choosing
and
authorising
governments
or
in
some
other
way
getting
laws and political decision made?'
(a) Macpherson
(b) J.S. Mill
(c) Joseph Schumpeter
(d) Lipset
60. The
concept
of
tyranny
of
majority
in
democracy is advocated by
(a) Green
(b) J.S. Mill
(c) Thomas Paine
(d) De Tocqueville
61. Democracy
is
distinguished
from
dictatorship by the fact that
(a) It aims at the material good of the people
(b) It ensures social justice
(c) It guarantees civil and political rights
(d) It is responsive to the will of the people.
62. Which
one
of
the
following
theories
of
democracy
accords
high
priority
to
the
political rights of citizens?

(a) Pluralist Theory of Democracy
(b) Etilist Theory of Democracy
(c) Marxist Theory of Democracy
(d) Liberal Theory of Democracy
(e) All the above
63. Which
one
of
wrongly
listed
as
Democracy?
(a) Party system
(b) Periodic Elections
the
following
feature
has
of
(c) Fundamental Rights

(d) Democratic Centralism
64. Which
theory
of
democracy
attaches
importance to economic rights of citizens?
(a) Marxist Theory
(b) Etilist Theory
(c) Pluralist Theory
(d) All the above
65. The
term
liberty
has
been
drawn
from
latin term
(a) Libel
(b) Lingua
(c) Labour
(d) Liber
66. Who
said
that
"Liberty
is
the
maintenance
of
that
atmosphere
in
men
have
the
opportunity
to
be
their
self"?
(a) Laski
(b) Green
(c) Marx
(d) Hobbes
been
Liberal
great
the
eager
which
best
67. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Liberty means absence of all restraints
(b) Liberty means power to do whatever one pleases
(c) Liberty means absence of oppression
(d) Liberty is not total absence of restraints but the existence of socially
acceptable restraints
68. Who
said
the
liberty
consists
in
following
the moral law?
(a) Cole
(b) Spinoza
(c) Marx
(d) Barker
69. The
view
that
"Liberty
consists
in
following
the
moral
law"
is
associated
with
(a) Individualists
(b) Idealists
(c) Utilitarian
(d) Socialists
70. Who
of
the
followings
was
an
advocate
of
positive liberty?
(a) Marx
(b) Green
(c) Bentham
(d) J.S. Mill
71. Who
of
the
following
is
considered
the
chief advocate of negative liberty?
(a) T.H.Green
(b) Laski
(c) Barker
(d) Bentham
132
72. Who said that 'liberty is the absence of all

restraints'?
(a) Laski
(b) Hegel
(c) Kant
(d) Seeley
73. According to the individualists the people
have maximum liberty if
(a) The state performs maximum functions
(b) The state performs minimum functions
(c) The state is abolished
74. Liberty in negative sense means
(a) Liberty granted by the laws of the land
(b) Right to do whatever one likes
(c) Right to do what is acceptable to majority of the people in a society
(d) Imposition of maximum restraints
75. Liberty in positive sense means
(a) Liberty granted under the Law
(b) Liberty which people have enjoyed from earliest times
(c) Provision of conditions which are conducive to human development
(d) Provision of basic necessities of life to every member of society
76. The concept of natural liberty is associated
with
(a) Hegal
(b) Rousseau
(c) Hobbes
(d) Laski
wrongly listed as civil liberty?
(a) Right to choose government
(b) Freedom from threat to life
(c) Freedom of thought and belief
(d) Freedom to exercise in general field of contractual actions
78. The concept of natural liberty is associated
with
(a) Divine Origin Theory
(b) Social Contract Theory
:
(c) Force Theory
(d) Evolutionary Theory
79. Who of the followings was the chief
exponent of natural liberty?
(a) Rousseau
(b) Laski
(c) Maclver
(d) Herbert Spencer
80. Which one of the following does not fall in
the category of civil liberty?
(a) Right to life
(b) Right to move freely
(c) Right to enter into contract with others
(d) Right to criticise the government
81. Political liberty is often taken as
synonymous with
(a) Democracy
(b) Majority rule
(c) Freedom
(d) Independence of judiciary
82.
Which one of the following statements is
not correct?
(a) Civil liberty is basic to other kinds of liberties
(b) Civil liberty is granted only to the citizens
(c) Civil liberty is available to both citizens and non-citizens
(d) Civil liberty exists only in a civil society
83. Political liberty ensures
(a) Protection against oppressive rule
(b) Economic equality
(c) Basic amenities of life
not correct?
(a) Political liberty is granted only to the citizens
(b) Political liberty is available to citizens as well as non-citizens
(c) Political liberty means the right of the people to choose their government
(d) Political
liberty
is
practically synonymous with democracy
not correct?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Economic liberty means freedom from fear and starvation

Self-government in industry is important feature of economic liberty
Economic liberty aims at establishing a self-sufficient society
Economic liberty means common ownership of the means of production and
distribution
86. Which of the following does not fall within
the purview of the political liberty?
(a) Right to vote
(b) Right to contest elections
(c) Right to criticise the government
(d) Right to move the court for the enforcement of rights
87. Which one of the followings does not
constitute economic liberty?
(a) Right to work
(b) Right to Social Security
(c) Self-government in industry
(d) Right to participate in the formulation of national plans
88. The view that law and liberty are opposed
to each other has been expressed by
(a) Idealists
(b) Anarchist
(c) Marxists
(d) Socialists
89. The view that every state law enlarges
individual freedom is associated with
(a) Marxists
(b) Idealists
(c) Syndicalists
(d) Individualists
90. Who said: "Where there is no law there is
no freedom"?
(a) T.H.Green
(b) Locke
(c) Hobbes
(d) Maclver
correct?
(a) All laws protect liberty
(b) Laws enacted by a King always promote liberty
(c) Generally the laws enacted with popular consent promote liberty
(d) Only laws based on conventions promote liberty
92. Which
one
of
the
following
safeguards
of
liberty has been wrongly listed?
(a) Independent and impartial judiciary
(b) Fundamental Rights
(c) Free Press
(d) Compulsory Military Training
93. In
order
to
determine
the
proper
role
of
government
in
a
society
it
is
useful
to
distinguish
between
"the
part
of
a
person's
life
which
concerns
only
himself
and
that
which concerns others" according to:
(a) J.S.Mill
(b) Locke
(c) Godwin
(d) Bentham
94. Who
said
that
"Liberty
itself
is
not
one
but
manifold"?
(a) Cole
(b) Green
(c) Maclver
(d) Laski
95. "Economic
liberty
means
security
and
the
opportunity
to
find
reasonable
significance
in
the
earning
of
one's
daily
bread"? Whose words are these?
(a) Adam Smith
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Laski
(d) Green
96. Which
one
of
the
following
considered
liberty
and
equality
complementary?
(a) Lord Acton
(b) Machiavelli
(c) Maclver
97. "The
passion
for
equality
made
vain
hope for liberty". Who said this?
(a) Lord Acton
(b) Austin
(c) Polland
(d) LordBryce
98. Civil liberty is inherent in the laws of
(a) State
(b) Nature
(c) Society
(d) All the above
99. A
country
is
said
to
be
enjoying
liberty if
(a) It has adopted a democratic system of government
(b) It enjoys a favourable balance of trade
(c) It is free from economic control of other powers
(d) It is free from foreign rule and enjoys self-government
(a)
134
thinkers
as
the
national
100.Which
of
the
following
conditions
safeguard liberty?
I. A written Constitution
II. Eternal Vigilance
III. Bill of Fundamental Rights
IV. Independence of Judiciary
Select the correct answer from the following codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, III and IV
(d) I, II and IV
101.According to the Idealists:
I. The laws of state enlarge individual liberty
II. There is no conflict between law and liberty
III. Law and liberty are antithesis to each other
IV. The state protects the liberty of individual because it is embodiment of all
reasons and justice
Select the correct answer from the following codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) I, III and IV
(c) II, HI and IV
(d) I, II and IV
102.Who
of
the
following
holds
that
that
law
restraints liberty?
(a) Idealists and Anarchists
(b) Individualists and Anarchists
(c) Idealists and Socialists
(d) Anarchists and Socialists
103."Freedom
is
the
positive
power
or
capacity
of
doing
or
enjoying
something
worth
doing
or
enjoying".
This
view
of
liberty
was expressed by
(a) Green
(b) Kant
(c) Laski
(d) Spencer
104."Liberty
therefore,
is
never
real
unless
the
Government
can
be
called
to
account
when it invades rights." (Laski)
Which one of the following is the just justification to the above statement?
(a) In the realisation of that the government can be brought to book in a court
of law
(b) In identifying a man as a political unit
in a way which distinguishes him from other citizens
(c) In a decentralized society wherein the basic needs of men can find
satisfaction
(d) In the understanding that liberty and restraints are complementary
105. Which
one
of
the
following
thinkers
emphasised
the
negative
concept
of
liberty?
(a) Marx
(b) Lenin
(c) Spencer
(d) Aristotle
(e) None of the above
106. Who
opposed
state
interference
in
the
selfregarding actions of the individual?
(a) Marx
(b) Hobbes
(c) T.H. Green
(d) J.S. Mill
107. Who was the author of'On Liberty'?
(a) J.S. Mill
(b) Bentham
(c) T.H.Green
(d) Laski
108. National Liberty implies
(a) All citizens residing in a state must be granted liberty
(b) The country is independent and sovereign
109. In
most
of
the
modern
states
individuals enjoy
(a) Absolute liberty
(b) Liberty with reasonable restrictions
(c) No liberty
110. Economic
liberty
can
be
ensured
citizens through
(a) Grant of right to work
(b) Provision of minimum wages
(c) Regulation of working hours
(d) All the above
111. "If
all
the
mankind
minus
one
were
of
opinion
and
only
one
person
was
of
contrary
opinion,
the
mankind
would
no
more
justified
in
silencing
that
person,
than
he,
if
he
had
the
would be justified in silencing the
the
to
one
the
be
one
power,
Democracy, Liberty and Equalir
mankind." Who among the following

made the above statement
(a) T.H. Green
(b) J.S.Mill
(c) Mahatma Gandhi (d) H. J. Laski
correct?
(a) Equality means identity of treatment and identity of rewards
(b) Equality means equality of income
(c) Equality means nature has made all men equal
(d) Provision of adequate opportunities to all persons for the development of
their personalities
not correct?
(a) Equality means absence of special privileges
(b) Equality means absence of discrimination on the basis of caste, colour, creed
and sex
(c) Equality means provision of adequate opportunities to all individuals so that
they may develop creative faculties
(d) Equality means identity of treatment and identity of reward
wrongly listed as constituting equality?
(a) Provision of adequate opportunities for all
(b) Absence of distinctions based on class, caste, etc.
(c) Provision of equal pay for all
(d) Absence of discrimination
115. Which one of the following events was a
protest against the prevailing inequalities?
(a) Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England
(b) The French Revolution of 1789
(c) the American War of Independence
(d) All the three

116. The philosophers of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries emphasised
(a) Economic equality only
(b) Social and economic equality only
(c) Social and political equality or
(d) Social, economic as well as pc equality
117. In the twentieth century greater emp
was laid on
(a) Political equality
(b) Civil equality
(c) Social and economic equality
v
(d) Political and economic equality
\
118. Civil or legal equality is a feature of
(a) All democratic governments
(b) All types of governments
(c) Only dictatorial governments
(d) Countries which possess written constitution
119. Equality before law falls in the category of
(a) Political equality
(b) Social equality
(c) Civil equality
(d) Economic equality
120. The
grant
of
franchise
to
women
terms
with
men
is
assertion
principle of
(a) Political Equality
(b) Civil Equality
(c) Natural Equality
(d) Social Equality
on
of
equal
the
121. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Economic equality means equal distribution of wealth
(b) Economic equality means equal wages for all the workers irrespective of the
job performed by them.
(c)Economic equality means satisfaction of certain basic needs of all citizens
before special facilities are provided to few
(d) Economic equality means guarantee of employment and equal wages for all
122. Who
said
"Political
Liberty
without
economic equality is a myth"?
(a) T.H.Green
(b) J.S.Mill
(c) G.D.H.Cole
(d) H.J. Laski
123.The view that 'Liberty and Equality are

incompatible' was expressed by
(a) Marx
(b) Hobbes
(c) Adam Smith
(d) De Tocqueville
124.Liberty and equality are
(a) Complementary to each other
(b) Contradictory to each other
(c) Unrelated to each other
125.Which one of the following statement is
correct?
(a) Absolute equality is impossible
(b) Absolute equality is possible only under democracy
(c) Absolute equality is possible only under dictatorship
(d) Absolute equality is possible only in advanced countries
126.Equality in the negative sense means
(a) Absence of special privileges
(b) Provision of special facilities for weaker sections
(c) Provision of special facilities to the ruling class
127.Equality in the positive sense means
(a) Provisions of basic necessities to all members of society
(b) Provision of adequate opportunities to all
(c) Equality which is backed by the force of law
(d) Equality bestowed by nature
128.Which one of the following statement is
correct?
(a) Legal equality is imperfect until there is economic equality
(b) Legal equality is possible only if there is natural equality
(c) Legal equality is nothing but a mere extension of natural equality
(d) Legal equality is not possible without social equality
129. Social equality means
(a) Each persons should perform the functions according to his status
(b) No effort should be made to modify the existing social system
(c) No persons should be made to suffer a position of relative inferiority in

relation to other men due to difference in caste, race, religion, etc.
(d) Special effort to improve the lot of weaker sections
130. Which
one
of
the
following
thinkers
considered
liberty
and
equality
as
complementary?
(a) Lord Acton
(b) Maclver
(c) Machiavelli
(d) De Tocqueville.
131. Economic equality means that
(a) Every citizen be able to satisfy his primary needs before aspiring for luxuries
(b) All should be subjected to an equal degree of taxation
(c) There should be economic equality between men and women
(d) There should be equal distribution of wealth among all citizens of the world
132. Which
one
of
the
followings
is
the
most
appropriate
meaning
of
the
concept
of
'protective discrimination'?
(a) Unequal treatment against the privileged sections of the society
(b) Discrimination in favour of the underprivileged to raise them to the level of
the other sections of the society
(c) Preferential treatment for the weaker sections
(d) Discrimination against the privileged sections of the society
133. Which
one
of
the
following
thinkers
considered
liberty
and
equality
as
complementary?
(a) Lord Acton
(b) Maclver
(c) Marx
(d) Rousseau
137
134. "The passion for equality made vain the

hope for liberty", who said this?
(a) Bentham
(b) J.S. Mill
(c) Karl Marx
(d) Lord Acton
135. Equality in true and positive sense means
(a) Every one should get equal opportunity for the development of his
personality and all should be equal before law
(b)Every one should get equal wages
(c) Every one should get same type of education
(d) Every body should follow the same religion
136. Which one of the following two types of
equalities were emphasised by Barker?
(a) Political and economic
(b) Legal and political
(c) Social and economic
(d) Legal and social
137. There are two pillars of democracy viz.
liberty and
(a) Law
(b) Equality
(c) Fraternity
138. The main features of equality are
I. Absence of special privileges
II. Provision of adequate opportunities to all individuals for development of
their creative faculties
III. Non-discrimination on grounds of race, colour, religion, etc.
IV. Equal distribution of wealth and resources
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, III and IV
(d) I, II and IV
139.Who
of
the
following
thinkers
maintain
that
liberty
and
equality
are
antagonistic
to each other
(a) Plato and Marx
(b) Aristotle and Montesquie
(c) Lord Acton and De Tocqueville
(d) Laski and Green
140.Who
said
"Political
liberty
without
econo
mic equality is a myth".
(a) Green
(b) Laski
(c) Marx
(d) Cole
141.Who
said
"There
can
be
no
identity
of
treatment
and
identity
of
reward
so
long
as
men
differ
in
their
needs
and
capacities"?
(a) Lord Acton
(b) Aristotle
(c) Marx
(d) Laski
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Section 2
COMPARATIVE POLITICS AND POLITICAL ANALYSIS
..10.
Comparative Politics and
Political Analysis Evolution,
Nature, Scope and
Approaches to Study
Comparative Politics as a subject developed only in the 1950's when the American
political scientists took to the study of political systems in place of foreign
governments. They took to the study of the political organisations or political systems
of different countries with a view to identify the similarities and dis-similarities.
Comparative politics helps the citizens to gain knowledge about the various political
systems and develop their own institutions in the light of experience of other
countries. The study of comparative politics is also important because it helps us to
classify and interpret the data at our disposal and to draw generalisations.
The study of comparative politics is often traced to the times of Plato and
Aristotle. In fact it was Aristo?^ who first of all adopted certain methods of
comparative study which were identical to the present day political studies. After
Aristotle, philosophers like Cicero, Polybious, Machiavelli, Montesquieu, J.S. Mill, Laski
etc also made comparative study of governments and tried to classify and analyse
the political institutions. But the credit for making a systematic analysis of the
political institutions goes to writers like Finer, Fredrich, Bryce etc. These writers
shifted emphasis from structure and power of government to comparative study of
the present role and theoretical analysis for the future. However, the most significant
contribution to development of comparative politics was made by scholars like David
Easton, G.A. Almond, Karl Deutsch, Harold Lasswell, Robert Dahal, Jean Blondel etc.
They
developed new methods for the study of politics because they were disappointed and
dissatisfied with the traditional methods of the study of comparative politics.
Comparative politics differs from comparative government in several respect.
First, it takes into account the various factors which influence the working of political
institutions. Secondly, comparative politics encompasses the political institutions of
all the countries of the world. Third, comparative politics makes analytical study of
the political institution. Finally comparative politics take into account the economic,
cultural and social aspects of the various institutions.
The study of comparative politics has great value. It helps us to understand the
actual working of the political institutions of various countries and helps us to
comprehend why certain institutions work successfully in some countries and not in
other countries.
Further it helps us to understand why political institutions of the same type do not
work in identical manner in all countries. This approach helps us to comprehend how
the working of political institutions is influenced by the social, economic and cultural
factors.
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Scholars have adopted different approaches for the study of comparative politics.
One of the earliest
approach for the study of comparative politics was Historical or Traditional approach.
Scholars adopting this approach tried to study political institutions of various states
separately and tried to compare them with the political institutions of the countries. It
mainly concentrated on the study of political institutions of western world, and
completely neglected the study of political institutions of developing and underdeveloped countries. It laid emphasis on legal and formal institutions. It was
descriptive and not analytical. The traditional approach adopted numerous methods
viz. philosophical, historical, formal and legal, configurative method, Area Studies,
Problem Methods, and Institutional Functional Approach. Though the traditional
approach suffered from several shortcomings, it played an important role in the
development of comparative government and politics.
Modern Approaches for the study of comparative politics refer to the approaches
developed by the scholars in the present century. This approach not only
concentrates on the study of political institutions but also takes into account the
informal process of politics which greatly influence the working of these institutions.
Modern approach was adopted due to emergence of large number of independent
countries in Asia and Africa. The main features of modern approach are (i) it does not
confine to the study of legal institutions alone but also takes into account the political
process and the various factors which influence this political process, (ii) It lays great
stress on theory building and
is not merely descriptive, (iii) It is inter-disciplinary; (iv) It envisages a close

relationship between the structure and functions of these institutions.
Structural Function Approach is one of the prominent modern approach for the
study of comparative politics. This approach is mainly associated with Marion Levy,
Robert Merton, Talcott Parson, Apter, David Easton etc. This approach assumes that
political system is merely a sub-system of the main social system which performs the
function of making legitimate policy decisions. This theory rests on three
assumptions. First, society is a single inter-connected system in which each element
performs a specific function. Second, the various parts of the main system are interrelated. Third, there are certain broad aims
and principles of the system which are observed by the members. Though the
structural functional approach proved very popular, it suffers from several
shortcomings. First, it is primarily concerned with the present and has no perspective
of the future. Second, it is not helpful in understanding the political systems of the
developing countries. Thirdly, it leads to an unwarranted twisting and distorting of
empirical realities in the interests of conceptual and theoretical neatness.
Systems approach is another important modern approach for the study of political
system. This approach envisages the political system as a sub-system of the larger
social system which is constantly engaged in communication with entities and
systems outside its own boundaries. This approach, however, suffers from several
shortcomings. First, it is not helpful in the study of political aspects of such matters
as a perception, exception, formation cognition. Second, it concentrates only on the
present and does not view the social reality in historical terms. Third, this approach is
not helpful for the study of political systems of the third world countries. Despite
these shortcomings, it cannot be denied that the approach has opened up new
questions and carved new dimension for investigations into the political process.
The third variant of the modern approach is the Decision Making approach. It
involves selection of a problem, followed by search for full information and
consideration of various alternatives before a final decision emerges. According to
Lasswell there are seven functional stages in the decision making process. The
decision-making approach suffers from several defects. First, there is no unanimity
among scholars regarding the methods and techniques of decision-making. Second, it
wrongly assumes that the decision-makers act only in a rational manner. Third, there
is a possibility that the decision makers may delegate their authority to subordinates
who may act on their behalf.
The last variant of the modern approach is the Marxist approach. This approach
examines the political system with reference to the economic system. It holds that
changes in the economic system automatically lead to change in the political system.
Comparative Politics and Political Analysis Evolution Nature, Scope and Approaches
to Study 143
Though the modern approaches suffer from numerous defects, they have greatly
contributed to the growth of systematic and scientific study of the political systems.

1. Comparative
Politics
developed
(a) after World War I
(b) inthel950's
(c) in the inter-war period
(d) in the seventies of the 20th century
2. Comparative
Politics
as
seeks
discipline
to
study
political
reality
through
new
techniques
and approaches
(a) True
(b) False
3. The
Political
Scientists
of
which
of
the
following
country
initiated
the
study
of
comparative politics in the present sense.
(a) U.S.A.
(b) U.K.
(c) Germany
(d) Japan
4. The
modern
scholars
of
comparative
politics
concentrated
on
the
study
of
political
systems
rather
than
foreign
governments.
(a) True
(b) False
5. Which
one
of
the
following
ancient
thinker
made a study of comparative government.
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Cicero
(d) all the above
6. In
modern
times
which
one
of
the
following
writers
made
a
comparative
study
of
government
and
tried
to
classify
and analyse the political institutions.
(a) Herman Finer
(b) LordBryce
(c) Fredrich
(d) all the above
7. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
among
the
scholars
who
initiated
study
of
comparative
politics
in
the post World War II period
(a) Robert A. Dahal
(b) David Easton
(c) KarlDeutsch
(d) Herman Finer
8. The
modern
scholars
of
comparative
politics
discarded
traditional
methods
of
study because they were
(a) theoretical rather than practical
(b) essentially descriptive
(c) parochial
(d) all the above

9. Which one of the following does not fall within the scope of comparative politics?
(a) Use of authority
(b) Decision making process
(c) Extra-constitutional agencies
(d) History of political authority.
10. During
the
first
phase
of
the
study
of
comparative politics scholars
(a) tried to collect basic data for better
/
understanding of the working of
political institutions.
(b) made deep study of the political institutions
(c) made rigorous comparison of the political institutions.
(d) concentrated
on
methodology problems.
11. During
the
second
phase
of
the
study
of
comparative
politics
the
scholars
laid
emphasis on
(a) area studies
(b) the study of the working of political institutions.
(c) functional comparison
(d) the development of strategies of comparison
12. During
the
third
phase
of
the
study
of
comparative
politics
the
scholars
laid
emphasis on
(a) methodological problems
(b) area studies
(c) comparative analysis of structures
(d) all the above
13. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
comparative politics
(a) Study of Developing Societies
(b) Analytical investigation
(c) Inter-disciplinary approach
(d) Study of infra-structure
14. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
comparative
politics?
(a) Uni-disciplinary approach
(b) Stress on study of political modernisation

(c) Use of input-output system
(d) Linkage of political system with social structure
15. Which
one
of
the
following
wrongly listed as a traditional approach?
(a) Historical Approach
(b) Legal Approach
(c) Philosophical Approach
(d) Behaviourial Approach
has
been
16. The
traditional
approach,
apart
from
history, made use of
(a) ethics
(b) philosophy
(c) law
(d) all the above
17. The
philosophical
approach
is
also
known
as
(a) speculative approach
(b) ethical and metaphysical approach
18. Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
make
use
of
historical
approach
for
the
study
of
politics
(a) T.H.Green
(b) Aristotle
(c) Karl Marx
(d) Sir Henry Maine
19. Which
one
cff
the
following
approaches
is
highly
abstract
and
tried
to
comprehend
reality
hidden
behind
the
apparent
reality?
(a) Historical approach
(b) Philosophical Approach
(c) Institutional Approach
20. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
traditional
approach
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It studied the political institutions of various states and tried to compare them
with the political institutions of other states
(b) It mainly concentrated on the study of the political institutions of the western
countries
(c) It laid more emphasis on legal and formal institutional studies.

1. Traditional approach made formal study of formal institutions.
2. Traditional approach was descriptive rather than analytical.
3. Traditional approach was more studied to the study of political institutions in
developing countries.
4. Traditional approach was used for the formal study of formal institutions.
22. Which
one
of
the
following
traditional
approach
for
the
study
of
politics
has
been
described as 'speculative and abstract'?
(b) Philosophical Approach
(c) Behaviourial Approach
(d) Structural Functional Approach
23. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
defect
of
the
historical
approach for the study of politics?
(a) It attached too much importance to the past incidents and experiences.
(b) It is not helpful in finding reasoned solutions to the problems of practical
politics.
(c) This approach is highly abstract and speculative
24. Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
adopt
legal approach for the study of politics?
(a) Herman Finer
(b) A.V. Dicey
(c) Jean Bodin
(d) Thomas Hobbes
25. The
Legal
approach
for
the
study
of
politics was defective in so far as
Comparative Politics and Political Analysis Evolution Nature, Scope and Approaches to
Study 145
(a) it attached too much importance to the study of formal institutional law and
constitutions.
(b) it was descriptive rather than analytical
(c) it mainly concentrated on the study of western political systems
(d) in all the above respects
26. The
Legal
approach
to
the
study
of
politics
gained popularity in
(a) the seventeenth century
(b) the eighteenth century
(c) the nineteenth century
(d) the twentieth century
27. The
Institutional
Approach
of
politics
mainly concentrated on study of

(a) political institutions
(b) economic institutions
(c) social institutions
(d) all the above
28. The
Institutional
Approach
to
the
study
of
politics was defective in so far as
(a) it completely ignored the role of individuals in the operation of formal as well
as informal structures
(b) it tried to study various institutions by removing them from their natural
context
29. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
traditional
approach?
(a) It concentrated on the study of political institutional of the western model
only.
(b) It laid emphasis on study of legal and formal institutions.
(c) Traditional approach is descriptive and lacks qualities of explanation and
analytical study.
30. The
traditional
approach
was
defective
in
so far as
(a) it concentrated on the study of political institutions without taking
into account the non-political factors which influence their working.
(b) it is essentially descriptive and lacks analytical character
(c) it concentrated on the study of western political systems alone and paid no
attention to the political systems of the third world.
(d) in all the above respects.
31. The
utility
of
the
traditional
approach
for
the study of politics lays in the fact that
(a) it helped in preserving the glories of the past
(b) it helped in the understanding of the nature of various political institutions by
examining their working in various countries.
(c) it concentrated on the study of political institutions of the third world

countries.
(d) it laid great stress on the study of the non-political factors which influence the
working of the political institutions.
32. Modern
approach
for
the
study
of
politics
differs
from
the
traditional
approach
in
so
far as
(a) it concentrates on the study of western as well the non-western political
institutions.
(b) it concentrates only on the study of western political system
(c) it concentrates only on the study of the political systems of the third world
countries.
(d) it concentrates on the study of the political systems of the Communist
countries.
33. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
Modern
or
Contemporary
approaches
has
(a) It is inter-disciplinary in character
(b) It tries to arrive at conclusions on the basis of truths discovered through
general principles
(c) It is more analytical and expla-natory than descriptive.
(a)
34.Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
traditional
approach
for
the
study
of
comparative
politics
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It did not take into consideration the informal arrangements of society.
(b)It laid emphasis on formulation of hypothesis
(c) It was used only for the study of political institutions of eastern world.
(d) It was incenstive towards the study of the institutions.
35. Which
one
of
the
following
was
associated
with
the
Structural
Functional
approach
for the study of political system
(a) David Easton
(b) Michel
(c) Apter
(d) all the above
36. The
Structural
functional
approach
tried
to
study the political systems on the basis of
(a) their structure
(b) their structure as well as actual operation
(c) their actual operation
37. The
Structural
Functional
approach
was
developed by
(a) the social scientists
(b) the economists
(c) the historians
(d) the anthropologists
38. Who
of
the
following
is
associated
with
the
Structural Functional approach

(a) David Easton
(b) Talcot Parson
(c) G.A. Almond
(d) all the above
39. Which
one
of
the
following
characteristic
of
the
structural
functional
approach
has
(a) It lays stress on the study of the structures of political institutions
(b) It held that every system has a structure
(c) It dealt with the structure as well as the functions of the political systems
40. Which
one
of
the
following
defect
of
the
Structural
Functional
Approach
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It primarily concerned itself with the present and failed to take proper
perspective of the future.
(b) The approach was not helpful in understanding the political systems of the
(c) It tried to explain the origins of a condition or pattern of action in terms of its
being a functional necessity for the survival of the system.
41. Who
was
the
author
of
book
'Political
System',
with
which
the
Systems
Analysis
Approach originated
(a) David Easton
(b) G.A. Almond
(c) Robert Merton
(d) Oran Young
42. Who
of
the
following
deserves
the
credit
for
developing
model
of
input-output
analysis?
(a) G.A. Almond
(b) David Easton
(c) Robert Merton
43. The
Marxian
Approach
to
political
analysis is mainly associated with
(a) Malthus
(b) Ricardo
(c) Karl Marx

(d) all the above
44. The Marxian approach
(a) completely discarded all the liberal tenets
(b) tried to improve on the existing liberal tenets
(c) attached great importance to the material conditions of life, specially the
mode of production.
(d) did not believe in any one of the above
45. According
to
the
Marxian
approach
the
political
systems
cannot
understood
independent
of
the
economic
system
in
so
far
as
the
political
systems
are
merely
an
expression
of
the
economic
requirements
of the society and social groups.
(a) True
(b) False
Comparative Politics and Political Analysis Evolution Nature, Scope and Approaches to
Study 147
46.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
Marxian
approach?
(a) The mode of production contains within it the elements of class
struggle
(b) The mode of production and the class struggle are the basis of all
changes and play a dominant role in the development of a system.
(c) The society does not consist of individuals but expresses the sum of
inter-relations within which these individuals stand
47.Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Marxian approach:
1. It holds that the mode of production contains within it the elements of
class struggle.
2. It holds that the society does not consist of individuals, but expresses
the sum of inter-relations within which these individuals stand.
3. It holds that the law, institutions, religious precepts, moral values etc.
are adjusted to suit the interests of the economically dominant class.
4. The dominant class of the society always tries to perpetuate its control
over the political system.
48.Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
Marxian
approach
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It holds that no scientific study of politics is possible unless both the
social and political institutions are regarded as the outgrowth of the
material conditions.
(b) It supports the conflict model and the political system cannot resolve
the conflict
(c) It holds that the political system can help in resolving the conflict and
promoting the common interests of the members of the community
49.Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
against
the
Marxian
approach
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It pays very little and superficial attention to psychological analysis
and attaches more importance to objective factors.
(b) It attaches undue importance to economic structure which is not of a
fixed nature and assumes different forms according to the changed
conditions.
(c) Marxian approach takes into account only observable influences or
tendencies
50.In
recent
years
the
Marxian
approach
to
the
study
of
political
systems
has
received
a setback due to
(a) end of cold war
(b) emergence of a strong non-aligned movement
(c) disintegration of Soviet Union
(d) emergence of bi-polar world.
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11Constitutionalism: Concepts
Problems
and Limitations
Constitutionalism means exercising all power in accordance with the provision of the
constitution and procedures laid down in the laws of the land by a legitimate
authority. It is a government by law rather than men. Naturally this type of
government is carried on for the good of the public or general good, as distinguished
from the good of a particular person or group. A constitutional government is based
on willing support of the subjects rather than force. According to Prof. Wheare
'Constitutional government means something more than government according to
the terms of the constitution. It means government according to rule as opposed to
arbitrary government; it means government limited by desires and capacities of
those who exercise power'. Constitutional government has three basic postulates.
First, the electorate participates in the selection of the rulers. Second, there is
division of power between the executive and the legislature. Third, the legislature is
not inferior to the executive in respect of its powers.
The origin of the constitutional government is generally traced back to the times
of early Greek city states but the most significant contribution to the development of
constitutionalism was made by Aristotle. He considered the observance of the laws or
the constitution as the test of good citizenship. The Romans also contributed to the
development of constitutional rule by emphasising the principle that the people alone
are the source of all laws and the king ultimately derives his authority from the
people. The others who made valuable contribution to the development of
constitutionalism were Marsiglio,
William of Ockham etc. However, constitutionalism suffered a set back during the
renaissance period.
Constitutional government received a new fillip with the Glorious Revolution of
1688 in England. With this revolution the sovereignty shifted from King to the King-inParliament. Though the King still continued to enjoy extensive executive power, there
was a decline in the powers of the king with enhancement of Parliament's control
over executive. The establishment of rule of law also strengthened constitutionalism.
The American War of Independence and the French Revolution of 1789 also greatly
contributed to the growth of constitutional government. The Industrial Revolution in
England and the emergence of a new middle class necessitated reforms which were
carried out through Acts of 1832, 1867 and 1884. These reform acts greatly extended
the franchise and strengthened constitutional government. However, the rise of
dictatorship in the wake of the first world war, provided a setback to the
constitutional government. In the post world war II period the decline of dictatorship
in Germany and Italy provided a fillip to the rise of constitutional governments were
not successful in all the countries and some of the countries and reverted back to
authoritarian rules.
Constitutional government protects the liberties of the citizens by putting certain
restrictions on the authority of the government viz. the desire to preserve the
stability of the political community; desire for liberty combined with limitation of
authority; and desire for justice
through general and equal application of laws to everybody and presence of

procedural safeguards.

1. The
concept
of
constitutionalism
in
modern sense first originated in
(a) England
(b) Greece
(c) France
(d) U.S.A.
2. In
England
Constitutionalism
received
a
fillip with
(a) the War of Roses
(b) the Glorious Revolution
(c) Restoration
3. The
term
constitution
in
the
modern
sense
of the term was first used during the
(a) eighteenth century
(b) nineteenth century
(c) fifteenth century
(d) twentieth century
4. The
term
Constitutional
government
implies
(a) an arbitrary government with a despotic ruler
(b) a government limited by the terms of the Constitution.
(c) a government in which the head of the state enjoys only nominal powers.
(d) a government which is not subject to any restraint.
5. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
consti
tutional government.
(a) Limited Government
(b) Supremacy of the Individual
(c) Supremacy of law
(d) division of power.
6. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a feature of Constitution?
(a) It is a collection of principles or laws which enjoy special sanctity.
(b) It determines the structure of the main organs of government and
distribution of sovereign power between various authorities.
(c) It generally contains a statement of objectives.
7. The
earliest
traces
of
the
concept
of
constitutional
government
are
to
be
found
in the writings of
(a) Greek thinkers
(b) Roman thinkers
(c) the Chinese thinkers
8. Which
one
of
the
following
was
the
main
contribution
of
the
Romans
to
the
concept
of constitutional rule?
(a) The principle of divine rights of the King
(b) Independence of Judiciary
(c) People alone are the source of all laws
9. Which
one
of
the
following
medieval
movement
contributed
to
the
growth
of
constitutional government
(a) the Chrtist Movement
(b) The Conciliar Movement
(c) The Trade Union Movement
(d) all the above.
10. Constitutionalism
suffered
a
great
setback
as a result of
(a) Glorious Revolution
(b) Renaissance Movement
(c) American war of Independence
(d) the French Revolution of 1789
11. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
pre
requisite of constitutional government?
(a) desire to preserve stability of political community
(b) desire for liberty combined with limitation of authority
(c) desire for justice through general and equal application of laws.
(d) all the above.
12. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
complete
definition of the constitution?
(a) The rules and procedures concerning the relationship among the structure
Constitutionalism: Concepts Problems and Limitations 151
of Government and their principal powers and functions.

(b) A fundamental statement of laws governing the citizens political rights, the
political institutions, their functions and their relationships within a particular
political community
(c) A primary source of constitutional law which serves as a guide for the
decisions of the courts of law which interpret the rules.
(d) The ordering of political process and institutions on the basis of a document
that lays down the pattern of formal political institutions and embodies the
basic norms of a society
13. Supremacy of the Constitution implies
(a) the Constitution is above the states
(b) the Constitution is above the Centre
(c) the Constitution is above the ordinary laws
(d) The constitution is above all institutions, civil servants and citizens.
14. Consider the following features of
Constitutional Government
1. Fundamental Rights
2. Limited Government
3. Rule of Law
4. Strong Centre Of the above features
15. Constitutional Government is often
regarded as synonymous with
(b) Military Dictatorship
(c) Republican System of Government
(d) Democracy
16.
A constitutional government is one which
(a) adheres strictly to the constitutional provisions
(b) does not have a monarch as head of the state
(c) places effective restrictions on the authority of the state in the interest of
individual liberty.
(d) places effective restrictions on individual liberty in the interest of the state
authority.
17. In
which
of
the
following
country
the
constitution
can
be
amended
only
through
popular vote?
(a) U.K.
(b) U.S.A.
(c) Switzerland
18. Which
one
of
the
following
is
an
essential
feature of constitutionalism?
(a) Universal Adult Franchise
(c) Freedom of Press
19. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
is
conducive
to
the
development
of
constitutional government?
(a) freedom of press
(b) spread of education
(c) concentration of powers
20. Given
below
are
the
factors
which
regarded
as
essential
for
the
success
constitutional
government.
Which
one
these factors has been wrongly listed?
(a) democratic system of government
(b) guarantee of certain basic rights
(c) freedom of speech and expression
21. Constitutionalism
is
intimately
with
(a) the party system
(b) the form of government
(c) separation of powers
(d) the importance of Law
22.
Constitutionalism
is
a
system
in
which
governmental
powers
are
exercised
accordance
with
the
procedure
laid
in the Constitution.
are
of
of
related
the
in
down
(a) True
(b) False
23. Which
one
of
the
following
a
stumbling
block
in
constitutionalism?
(a) emergency powers of the government
(b) war conditions
(c) financial crisis
(d) all the above
24.
Which one of the following is not
conducive to the growth of Constitu
is
the
regarded
way
as
of
tionalism?
(a) Fundamental Rights
(c) Judicial Review
(d) Strong Bureaucracy
25. In
the
developing
societies
Constitutiona
lism generally implies
(a) right to participate in the political process.
(b) right to acquire and hold private property
(c) Freedom from arrest
(d) All the above
26. Who
of
the
following
regarded
Rule
of
Law
as
the
basis
of
constitutional
government.
(a) Lord Bryce
(b) Jean Bodin
(c) A.V. Dicey
(d) all the above
27. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
possesses an evolved constitution?
(a) U.K.
(b) Switzerland
(c) U.S.A.
(d) all the above countries.
28. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
pre
requisite of constitutional government
(a) Desire to preserve stability of the political community
(b) Desire for liberty combined with limitation of authority.
(c) Desire for justice through general and equal application of law.
(d) All the above
29. Which
one
of
the
following
was
the
main
contribution
of
the
Romans
towards
the
development of constitutional rule?
(a) Divine Right of the King
(c) the principle that people are the source of all authority
30. Who
of
the
following
philosophers
made
valuable
contributions
to
the
development
of concept of constitutionalism?
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Marsiglio of Padua
(d) all the above
31. A constitutional government implies
(a) an arbitrary government with a despotic ruler
(b) a government limited by the terms of the constitution
(c) a government whose head enjoys very nominal powers.
(d) an elected government with unrestrained powers.
32.
A
Constitution
can
develop
in
several
ways.
Which
one
of
these
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Through amendment
(b) through conventions
(c) through judicial interpretations
33. In
which
one
of
the
follwing
countries
the
amendment
to
the
constitution
is
subject
to
referendum
(a) Switzerland
(b) U.K.
(c) U.S.A.
34. A
constitution
is
regarded
as
'dispersed
constitution' if
(a) it is not available in a single document
(b) if its provisions are not pieced together and lie scattered throughout the
constitution
(a)
Constitutionalism: Concepts Problems and Limitations 153
(c) its various parts were enacted at different times

35. An
evolved
constitution
implies
a
constitution
(a) which was enacted by a properly constituted Constituent Assembly
(b) which is enacted by the popularly elected Assembly and approved by the
people.
(c) which has grown imperceptibly over the years
36. A codified constitution is
(a) contained in a single written document
(b) one in which all the customs and conventions have been reduced to writing.
(c) one in which all the provisions have been pieced together in one or more
documents
37.
Who of the following offered a systematic
classification of governments
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Montesquieu
(d) Machiavelli
38. The
two
principles
on
which
Aristotle
based
his
classification
of
governments
(states) were
(a) number and wealth
(b) religion and power
(c) population and wealth
(d) number of rulers and quality of rule
39. The
earliest
known
form
of
government
was
(a) Monarchy
(b) Aristocracy
(c) Democracy
(d) Polity
40. In
a
monarchical
system
the
power
rests
with
(a) the elected head of the state
(b) the military leaders
(c) the elected head of the state
(d) a hereditary ruler
41. Under an absolute monarchy
(a) the ruler enjoys unlimited powers
(b) the ruler enjoys only those powers which are granted to him by the elected
Legislature
(c) the ruler enjoys only those powers which are permitted by the religious laws
42. In
a
constitutional
monarchy
the
real
power is enjoyed by
(a) the King
(b) the Council of Ministers.
(c) the majority party
(d) the Parliament
43. The
concept
of
constitution
in
the
modern
sense originated in
(a) Switzerland
(b) Britain (U.K.)
(c) U.S.A.
(d) Japan
44. In
France
the
concept
of
constitutionalism
first gained currency with
(a) the assumption of power by Napoleon
(b) the flight of Napoleon from France
(c) the French Revolution which gave slogans of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
45. In USA constitutionalism gained currency
(a) after the Declaration of Independence (1776)
(b) after the adoption of a Constitution based on the principle of separation of
powers.
(c) after the Boston Tea Party
46. A
constitutional
government
is
a
govern
ment by law rather than men.
(a) True
(b) False
47. Constitutional
Government
is
carried
on
through
general
through arbitrary decrees.
(a) True
(b) False
154
regulations
rather
than
48. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
constitutional
government by Verney?
(a) The electorate participates in the selection of the rulers
(b) Therre is division of powers between the Executive and the Legislature even
though it does not mean separation of powers.
(c) The legislature must not be inferior to the executive in respect to their
powers.
49. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Constitutional Government
1. It is a government by law rather than men.
2. It is carried on for the general good rather than good of a particular person,
section or group.
3. It is based on the willing support of the subjects rather than force
4. It undertakes even such activities which may tantamount to interference in
the private activity.
50. Which
one
of
the
following
provided
fillip
to Constitutional Government
(a) Glorious Revolution of England
(b) The American War of Independence
(c) The French Revolution

(d)All the above
51. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
pre-requisite
of
a
constitutional government?
(a) desire to preserve the stability of the political community
(b) desire for liberty combined with limitation of authority
(c) desire for justice through general and equal application of law to everybody.
(a)
l.(d)
7. (a)
13. (d)
19. (d)
25. (a)
31. (b)
37. (a)
43. (c)
49. (a)
ANSWERS
2. (b)
3. (a)
4.(b)
5.(b)
8. (c)
14. (a)
20. (d)
26. (c)
32. (d)
38. (d)
44. (c)
50. (d)
9. (b)
15. (d)
21. (d)
27. (a)
33. (a)
39. (a)
45. (a)
51. (d)
10. (b)
16. (c)
22. (a)
28. (d)
34. (b)
40. (d)
46. (a)
11. (d)
17. (c)
23. (d)
29. (c)
35. (c)
41. (d)
47. (a)
6.(d)
12. (b)
18. (c)
24. (d)
30. (d)
36. (c)
42. (b)
48. (d)
JLMm
Forms of Government:
Unitary and Federal;
Parliamentary and Presidential
On the basis of relations between the centre and states the governments are
classified as unitary and federal. In a unitary government all the powers are vested in
the centre. All the powers enjoyed by the units are given to them by the central
government for the sake of administrative convenience and can be taken back from
them. On the other hand in a federal government the powers are divided between
the centre and states by a constitution and both are autonomous within their allotted
sphere.
The basic features of a unitary government are:
(i) All the powers are concentrated in the central government. The provincial or
local units draw their power and authority from the central government and are
responsible to it for the exercise of that authority; (ii) The constitution of a country
with unitary government may be written or unwritten, (iii) A unitary government
generally possesses
a flexible constitution, (iv) In a unitary system the units do not
possess a separate entity.

(v) Under a unitary system there need not
exist an independent judiciary as there is
no possibility of conflict of jurisdiction
between the centre and the units.
The Unitary system of government has several
merits. It provides a strong government because
all powers are concentrated with the centre; it
ensures uniformity of law and administration; it is less expensive; it renders quick
decisions possible; it is very effective during times of war and other national
emergencies; it possesses greater flexibility. However, it also suffers from several
defects viz. there are greater chances of authoritarian rule under this system; it tends
to make administration bureaucratic; under this system people tend to lose interest
in national policies and decisions; it crushes initiative and renders effective working
of democracy doubtful.
In a federal government on the other hand, the powers are clearly divided
between the centre and the units by the constitution. The main features of federal
system are supremacy of constitution; division of powers between the centre and
units; existence of an independent judiciary which resolves the conflicts between the
centre and the units; existence of a bi-cameral legislature; and double citizenship.
Federal system possess several merits viz. it reconciles national unity with
autonomy; division of power between centre and states leads to administrative
efficiency; it checks despotism of the central government; it is best suited to
countries with vast territories; it is economically beneficial; it serves as a model for
world government; it imparts greater political education to the people; it enables
state to experiment with different methods of administration. The Federal system
also suffers from numerous defects viz., it is a weak government as it is based on
division of powers; it is weak in foreign sphere; there are
156
possibilities of conflict between centre and states; it is more expensive; there are
greater chances of
conflict between the laws passed by the centre and various states.
PARLIAMENTARY AND PRESIDENTIAL GOVERNMENT

On the basis of the relations between the legislature and the executive,
governments are classified as Parliamentary and Presidential. In a Parliamentary
system of government, the executive is taken out of the legislature and is
accountable to It. On the other hand, under the Presidential system of government
the executive is completely independent of the legislature. It is not accountable to
the legislature and enjoys a fixed tenure.
The main features of Parliamentary government are presence of a nominal
executive head in whose name the entire administration is carried on; this
government operates on the principle of fusion of legislative and executive powers;
the ministers are accountable to the legislature and can be ousted from their office
through a vote of no-confidence; it operates under the leadership of the Prime
Minister; all the members of the Cabinet are taken from the same political party; the
deliberations of the Cabinet are kept secret; the Cabinet reserves the right to
recommend dissolution of legislature in the event of the no-confidence being passed
against the Cabinet.
The Parliamentary government has several merits viz. it ensures close cooperation between the legislature and the executive; it is a responsible government;
it is flexible and can deal with emergencies effectively constant criticism keeps the
government vigilant; it checks the depotism of the government; it ensures smooth
change of government in the event of a government being out-voted.
The Parliamentary system also suffers from several shortcomings. It promotes
partisan spirit; under this system there is always apprehension of dictatorship of
Cabinet; it leads to neglect of government because the ministers cannot pay full
attention to administration; it enhances the influence of bureaucracy because the
ministers are greatly dependent on them; it is instable because it
can be ousted from office anytime through a vote of no confidence; it is unsuited to
deal with emergencies; the political parties tend to ignore the national interests and
are motivated by the consideration of capture of power. Despite these defects, it has
been observed that the system works quite smoothly on account of co-operation
between the legislature and executive.
Presidential system of government, on the other hand, operates on the principle
of separation of powers. The main features of Presidential system of government are
the head of the state enjoys real powers; it operates on the principle of separation of
powers; the Cabinet under this system is accountable to President; the head enjoys a
fixed tenure and cannot be removed from office before the expiry of this term; the
head cannot dissolve the legislature befor expiry of its term.
The Presidential system has several merits which includeit is more democratic
because there is no concentration of executive and legislative powers in the same
hands; it is stable because it enjoys fixed tenure; it promotes administrative
efficiency; it is in a better position to deal with emergencies; it ensures a government
by experts; this system of government is immune from party spirit; it is best suited
for countries with multiple party system. However, this government also suffers from
several defects viz. there are greater choices of government becoming despotic,
there is lack of co-operation between the legislature and the executive; it is weak in
external affairs; under this system the executive is not responsible.

1. Governments are classified as unitary and
federal on the basis of
(a) relationship between the legislatures
(b) relationship between the centre and states
(c) relationship between executive and judiciary
(d) relationship between legislature and judiciary

2. In a unitary government
(a) all powers are vested in the centre
(b) powers are divided between centre and states under a constitution
(a)
Forms of Goverment: Unitary and Federal; Parliamentary and Presidential
157
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
(c) powers are divided by mutual consent of the centre and states through
Parliamentary statute
(d) the judiciary must be independent
In a unitary system of government
(a) the centre is all powerful
(b) the centre is weaker than the states
(c) the centre and states stand at par
(d) the states and centre are supreme in their respective spheres
Which
one
of
the
following
countries
does
not have unitary system of government?
(a) France
(b) Japan
(c) China
(d) Australia
The units under unitary government enjoy
(a) original powers
(b) only those powers which are entrusted
(c) draw their powers from the constitution
(d) do not enjoy any powers of the above nature
Which
one
of
the
following
countries
has
a
unitary system of government?
(a) U.S.A.
(b) U.S.S.R.
(c) Switzerland
(d) Britain
Which
one
of
the
following
countries
possesses a federal government?
(a) China
(b) Britain
(c) France
(d) U.S.A.
A unitary government
(a) must have a written constitution
(b) must have an unwritten constitution

(c) may have either written or an unwritten constitution
(d) need not have any constitution
9. A unitary government has
(a) a single citizenship
(b) a double citizenship
(c) an independent judiciary
(d) division of powers
10. A country with a unitary government generally does not have an independent
judiciary because
(a) it is very expensive
(b) all powers are vested in the centre and there is no possibility of any disputes
with units
(c) powers of centre as well as states are clearly laid down by the constitution
(d) it poses a threat to the unity of the country
11. One of the chief merits of unitary
government is that
(a) it promotes local entity
(b) there are no conflicts of jurisdiction.
(c) the centre is very powerful
(d) it is best suited for big countries
12. One of the chief defects of unitary
government is
(a) it crushes local initiative
(b) it is very expensive
(c) it encourages conflicts of jurisdiction between the centre and states
(d) it is very rigid
correct?
(a) unitary system of government promotes feeling of regionalism
(b) unitary government leads to unnecessary delay in decisions
(c) a unitary government ensures greater autonomy for the states and other local
self government
(d) a unitary government ensures a strong central government
14. The term federation is drawn from the
term 'foedus' taken from
(a) Latin
(b) English
(c) French
(d) Spanish
15. A federation can come into existence
through the process of
(a) Integration only
(b) Disintegration only
(c) Integration as well as disintegration
16. In a federation the units
(a) Are created by the Central Government
158
(b) Are agent of the central government
(c) Possess an independent entity of their own

correct?
(a) Confederation and federation are one and the same thing
(b) Members of a confederation are non-sovereign states
(c) Members of a federation are free to withdraw from its membership
(d) Members of a confederation are free to withdraw from its membership
18. A confederation differs from a federation
in so far as
(a) It is an alliance between independent and sovereign states
(b) It has a common centre
(c) Its member cannot withdraw from the confederation
(d) Its members retain sovereign authority
19. A confederation differs from a federation
in so far as
(a) It provides for only single citizenship
(b) It creates a new state
(c) It has a separate body of laws
(d) It does not permit its member to withdraw at will
not correct?
(a) Unitary government ensures uniformity of law and administration
(b) Quick decisions are possible under unitary government
(c) Unitary government is flexible and can mould itself according to changed
circumstances
(d) Unitary government is an ideal system for large countries
21. In a federal government
(a) All powers are vested in the central government
(b) All powers are vested in the units and the centre merely acts as a coordinator
(c) Powers are divided between the centre and states
22. In
a
federal
government
the
powers
divided between the centre and states by
(a) The Parliament
(b) The Constitution
(c) The states by majority decision
(d) The central government
23. With a federal system
(a) Must have a written constitution
(b) Must have an unwritten constitution
(c) May have either written or unwritten constitution
(d) May not have any constitution
24. Supremacy
of
Constitution
which
is
one
the
essential
features
of
a
government means
(a) Constitution is above parliament
(b) Constitution is above states
(c) Constitution is above centre
(d) Constitution is above all institutions, civil servant and citizens
25. The
central
government
under
system has grown powerful on account of
(a) Conversion of state into a welfare state
(b) Intimate relations between various sovereign states
(c) Dependence of states on central government in financial matters
(d) All the above factors
26. Generally
in
a
federation
one
of
following
subjects
is
not
entrusted
to
centre
(a) External affairs
(b) Police
(c) Currency and banking
(d) Defence
27. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
an
essential
condition
the formation of a federation?
(a) Desire for unity and autonomy
(b) Community of language and culture
(c) Inequality of economic resources
(d) Politically enlightened citizens
(a)
are
of
federal
federal
the
the
been
for
Forms of Goverment: Unitary and Federal; Parliamentary and Presidential 159
28. Which
one
of
generally
not
left
federation?
(a) Inter-state commerce
(b) Agriculture
(c) Education
(d) Local self-government
29. In
a
federal
subjects
of
in
the
the
system
national
following
hands
of
of
subjects
units
in
government
importance
is
a
the
are
entrusted to
(a) The units
(b) The centre
(c) Jointly to units and centre
30. In a federal government the states enjoy
(a) Original powers
(b) Powers delegated by centre
(c) Powers given by the constitution
(d) Powers given by the people
31. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) Federation is based on the principle of 'union without unity'
(b) A federal system gives complete autonomy to the centre and states within
their respective spheres
(c) Distribution of powers is essential feature of a federation
(d) Centre is omnipotent under a federal system
32. The
Constitution
in
a
federation
can
be
amended
(a) by the centre alone
(b) by the centre with the consent of the states
(c) by the states alone
(d) by the judiciary
33. A federation
(a) must have an independent judiciary
(b) need not have an independent judiciary
(c) has a judiciary which is a handmaid of the central government
(d) has a judiciary which is subservient to the state government
34. An independent judiciary is essential in a
federation
(a) to keep the central government under check
(b) to keep the state government under check

(c) to settle disputes between centre and states
(d)to protect the liberties of the people
35.
In a federation the distribution of powers
(a) Can be modified at the will of the centre
(b) Can be modified at the will of the state
(c) Can be modified with the consent of the centre as well as state
(d) Cannot be modified at all
36. Generally a federation has
(a) A single judiciary
(b) A double judiciary
(c) No judiciary
(d) Three types of courts
37. Usually the upper house in a federation
provides
(a) Equal representation to all the units
(b) Representation on the basis of the population of the units
(c) Representation on the basis of financial status of the units
(d) No representation to the units
38. A federal government should have
(a)Flexible constitution
(b) A rigid constitution
(c) A constitution which is neither very rigid nor very flexible
39. A federal country grants
(a) Single citizenship
(b) Double citizenship
(c) No citizenship
(d) Triple citizenship
40. The upper house of the Central Legislature
in a federation provides representation to
(a) Minorities
160
(b) Local government institution

(c) General public
(d) Units of federation
41. In
which
one
of
the
following
federations,
the
units
have
not
been
provided
equal
representations, in the Upper House
(a) U.S.A.
(b) Australia
(c) Switzerland
(d) Canada
42. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) A federal government provides uniformity of administration
(b) A federal government promotes national unity
(c) A federal government gives rise to feeling of groupism amongst states
(d)
A federal government is very strong in external affairs
43. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Federal system of government gives rise to despotism
(b) A federal system is economically useful for small states
(c) A federal system of government is best suited to small states
(d) A federal system cuts at the root of self-government
44. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) A federal government reconciles national unity and local autonomy
(b) The division of powers between the centre and states in a federal system
leads to administrative efficiency
(c) A federal government provides prestige and security to smaller states
(d) No experiments at local level are possible under federal government
45. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) In comparison to a unitary government the federal government is a weak
government
(b) A federal government is comparatively an expensive government
(c) In a federal system the responsibility for all lapses can be easily fixed
(d) A federal government cannot adapt itself according to changed
circumstances in view of the rigidity of constitution
46. One
of
the
chief
merits
of
federal
form
of
government is that
(a) It provides strong central government
(b) It ensures a vigorous foreign policy
(c) It promotes uniformity of legislation and administration
(d) It reconciles national unity with regional autonomy
47. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
merit
of
federal
government?
(a) It adds to the international prestige of the states
(b) It is economically advantageous to the members

(c) It stimulates political education among people
(d) It provides diversity of legislation and administration
48. A federal government is best suited for
(a) A small country
(b) A large country
(c) A medium sized country
49. Which
one
of
the
conditions
mentioned
below
is
not
an
essential
condition
for
the
formation of a federation?
(a) Desire for union
(b) An independent judicialy
(c) Geographical contiguity
(d) Linguistic, religious and cultural affinity
50. A federal government envisages a
(a) Strong centre
(b) Weak centre
(a)
Forms of Goverment: Unitary and Federal; Parliamentary and
Presidential 161
(c) Neither weak nor strong centre

51. In
recent
years
in
most
of
the
federal
countries
(a) The centre has become very powerful
(b) The states have become very powerful
(c) The centre has become very weak
(d) The states as well as centre have become powerful
52. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
has
not
contributed
to
strengthening
of
the
centre
under federal government?
(a) Emergence of political parties
(b) National planning
(c) Grants-in-aid by the central government
(d) International rivalry and friction
53. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) A Confederation is a union of two or more states formed for some specific
objective
(b) A common authority is set up by the Confederation to look after certain
common matters
(c) The members of a Confederation give up their sovereignty
(d) The members of a Confederation can withdraw from its membership
54. The
Common
Authority
of
Confederation
deals only with
(a) Citizens of member states
(b) Governments of member states
(c) Parliaments of the member states
(d) King of the member states

55. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) In a federation the states do not surrender their sovereignty
(b) In a confederation the central authority possesses independent lawmaking
power
(c) A federation is an international person
(d) A federation is more stable than a confederation
56. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
defect
of
federal
government?
(a) Rigidity of constitution blocks national progress
(b) It is unsuited for vast countries
(c) It is an expensive system of government
(d) It encourages spirit of succession and dis-integration among units
57. The
feeling
that
the
federations
are
on
way
to extinction exists because of the
(a) Decline in the powers of the central government
(b) Increase in the powers of the units
(c) Increase in the powers of the central government
(d) Spread of democracy
58. Judicial Review is a feature of
(a) Parliamentary government
(b) Presidential government
(c) Unitary government
(d) Federal government
59. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Generally a federation follows the confederation
(b) Generally a confederation follows the federation
(c) The confederation and federation follows each other alternatively
(d) The confederation and federation have no relationship with each other
60.
The central organ of a confederation
enjoys
(a) Independent law-making powers
(b) No law-making powers
(c) Only military powers
(d) Only judicial powers
61. Which
one
of
the
differences
between
federation
and
confederation
given
below
is not correct?
(a) In a federation the member states give up sovereignty while the members of
confederation do not give up their sovereignty
(b) The members of both federation and confederation are free to leave
membership
(c) In a federation the central government possesses independent law-making
power, which is not available to the central authority of a confederation
(d) A federation is permanent while a confederation is temporary
62. The
growing
popularity
of
federal
government is on account of
(a) Emergence of strong central government
(b) Reconciliation between the principles of regional autonomy and national unity
(c) Emergence of communist governments in number of countries
(d) None of the above reasons
63. The
present
day
federations
have
been
described as 'Co-operative Federations'
(a) Because states have to co-operate with the centre on account of their
dependence on the centre for finances
(b) Because of the growing co-operation between the states and the centre
(c) Because the centre has started delegating more and more functions to the
states
64. Which
one
of
the
followings
is
not
an
essential
condition
for
the
successful
working of federal system?
(a) Geographical continuity of the units
(b) High degree of intelligence and political consciousness of people
(c) Willingness of the states to merge themselves with other states for the sake
of national unity
(d) Community of language, culture, religion, etc.
65. Which
one
of
the
following
forms
of
government
can
serve
as
a
model
for
world state?
(a) Unitary government (bX Federal government
(c) Both federal and unitary
(d) Neither of the above
66. "The
States
are
like
pearls
and
the
Centre
is
the
thread
which
turns
them
into
a
necklace;
if
the
thread
snaps,
the
pearls
are
scattered."
Which one of the following views corroborates the above statement?
(a) A strong Centre is a binding force for national integrity

(b) A strong Centre is a hindrance to state autonomy
(c) State autonomy is a pre-requisite for a federation
(d) A strong Centre and strong States make the federation strong
67. Which
one
of
the
following
practices
is
likely
to
strengthen
the
structure
of
federalism?
(a) The central government seeks to strengthen national unity by minimising the
autonomy of the states which are made to be more and more dependent
upon it
(b) The constituent communities or states do not desire to be under a single
independent government for any common purpose, but at any rate seek to
function as autonomous unit
(c) Dividing the powers of government for a community substantially according
to the principle that there is a single independent authority for the whole area
in respect of some matters and that there are independent regional
authorities for other matters
(d) The central government follows a financial policy whereby all the major
sources of revenue are retained by it leaving only minor ones for the states so
that they will be forced to turn to the centre for help and thus, contribute to
national unity
68. All
the
following
countries
with
federal
constitutions
have
provisions
for
review
of
federal
laws
by
some
organ
or
other
except:
Presidential 163
(a) India
(b) U.S.A.
(c) U.S.S.R.
(d) Switzerland
69. In
recent
times
in
most
countries
(a) The centre has become very powerful
(b) The units have become very powerful
of
the
federal
(c) The centre and units have come to occupy supreme position within their
respective spheres
(d) Both the centre and the states have become very powerful
70. Judicial Review is an important feature of:
(a) Parliamentary System of Government
(b) Federal System of Government
(c) Unitary System of Government
(d) All forms of democratic governments
71. Which
of
the
following
countries
possess
unitary system of government?
I. Britain
II. Pakistan
III. India
IV. Japan
Select the right answer using the following codes:
Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) I, III and IV
72. Generally,
the
principle
of
separation
of
powers operate in countries with:
(a) Unitary system of government
(b) Federal system of government
(c) Presidential system of government
(d) Parliamentary system of government
73. In
a
federal
system
of
government
the
federating units draw their authority from:
(a) The central government
(b) The central legislature
(c) The constitution
(d) All the above
74. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
possesses
a
unitary
system
of
Govern
ment?
(a) India
(b) Australia
(c) Canada
75. Which
of
the
following
are
merits
of
federal system of government?
I. It is useful for big countries having diversities of religion, language, etc.
II. It provides effective solutions to local needs
III. It is stronger and stable than unitary system of government
IV. It checks the despotism of the central government
Codes:
(a) II, III and IV
(b) I, II and III
(c) I, III and IV
(d) I, II and IV
76. In
which
of
the
following
federal
countries
the
residuary
powers
are
vested
with
Central or Union Government?
I. U.S.A.
II. Canada
III. India
IV. Switzerland
Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and TV
(c) n and III only

(d) III and IV only
77. In
which
of
the
following
countries
federal
system
of
government
residuary
powers
rest
with
the
States
Units
I. India
II. U.S.A.
ffl. U.S.S.R.
IV. Switzerland
Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) n, III and IV
(c) I and III only
(d) II and IV only
78. The
following
factors
have
contributed
centralising
trends
of
federal
system
modern times
I. The growing dependence of the states on the Centre for finance
II. Adoption of centralised planning
III. Emergence of political parties
IV. Independence of judiciary
III.
164

Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, III and IV
(d) I, II and IV
79.
Which one of the following states created
with
the
of
to
in
federation
through
the
operation
of
centripetal forces?
(a) Canada
(b) India
(c) U.S.A.
(d) All the above
80. Under
federal
system
of
government
the
units (states) derive their powers from:
(a) The head of the state
(b) The Parliamentary Statutes
(c) The Constitution
(d) All the above sources
I. The strength of unitary government lies in its simple organisation and
effective government II. In the unitary government the local units of
administration are the creation of the Central government
III. The unitary government allows the flowering of diverse cultures in the
country by giving them autonomy
IV. Which of the above correctly describe the nature of unitary constitution?
Select
the
answer
from
the
codes
given
below:
(a) I, II and III
(b) I and II
(c) II and III
(d) 1 and III
82. Governments
are
classified
as
Parliamentary
and
Presidential
on
the
basis of
(a) Relations between the legislature and the executive
(b) Relations between the politicians and civil servants
(c) Written and unwritten constitutions
(d) Rigid and flexible constitutions
83. In a parliamentary form of a government
(a) The legislature is responsible to Judiciary
(b) The legislature is responsible to the executive
(c) The executive is responsible to the legislature
(d) The Judiciary is responsible to the legislature
84. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) Parliamentary Governments is also known as Cabinet Government
(b) Parliamentary Government is also known as Responsible Government
(c) Parliamentary Government is also known as Irresponsible Government?
85. The
Parliamentary
government
first
developed in
(a) Britain
(b) France
(c) Greece
(d) Switzerland
86. The
head
of
state
under
a
Parliamentary
government enjoys
(a) Absolute powers
(b) Limited powers
(c) Nominal powers
(d) No powers
87. The
head
of
the
state
under
a
Parliamentary government
(a) Is an elected representative
(b) Is a hereditary person
(c) Is a nominated person

(d) May be elected, hereditary or nominated person
88. The
real
executive
power
under
a
entary government rests with
(a) The Parliament
(b) The King
(d) The Civil Servants
89. The Cabinet under Parliamentary govern- _
ment is accountable to
(a) The Council of Ministers
(b) The Prime Minister
(c) The Legislature
(d) The President
90. Parliamentary
government
is
based
On
principle
of
collective
responsibility
means
Parliam
the
which
(a) The minister is accountable to the Cabinet

(b) The minister is accountable for everything done by him to the Parliament as
well as Cabinet
(c) All the ministers are collectively responsible to the legislature
(d) The ministers are directly accountable to parliament as well as the electorate
91. The Parliamentary Government is often
described as government by
(a) Experts
(b) Technocrats
(c) Specialists
(d) Amateurs
92. Parliamentary government is based on

(a) Independence of Judiciary
(b) Fusion of legislature and executive
(c) Separation of legislature and executive
(d) Separation of the three organs of government
93. In a Parliamentary system of government
(a) The members of Cabinet cannot be members of Parliament
(b) Members of the Cabinet are appointed for a fixed term and cannot be
removed before the expiry of that term
(c) The members of Cabinet hold office during the pleasure of the Parliament
(d) The members of the Cabinet are not accountable to the Parliament
94. In a Parliamentary form of government
the members of the Council of Ministers
(a) Are always taken from the Parliament
(b) Are never taken from the Parliament
(c) May be taken from Parliament but have to resign their seats as soon as they
assume charge as Ministers
95. Under a Parliament system of government
the ministers hold office
(a) For a fixed term and cannot be removed before the expiry of that term
(b) During the pleasure of the head of state
(c) As long as they enjoy the confidence of majority of the members of the
legislature
(d) As long as they enjoy the confidence of at least two-thirds of the members of
legislature
96. In
a
Parliamentary
system
of
government
the Prime Minister is generally
(a) A member of the popular house
(b) A member of the upper house
(c) Not a member of either houses of Parliament
(d) An experienced civil servant
97. The
government
under
Parliamentary
system is headed by
(a) The King
(c) The President
(d) The Cabinet
98. The
leader
of
government
under
Parliam
entary system is
(a) Elected by all the members of the legislature
(b) Always the leader of the majority party in the popular house
(c) Nominated by the President keeping in view the interests of the country
(d) Selected in due consultation with the different political parties
99. The
meetings
of
the
Cabinet
under
Parliamentary
government
are
presided
over by
(a) The President
(b) The Speaker
(c) The ministers in rotation
(d) The Prime Minister
100. Under the Parliamentary system the departments are allocated to the various
ministers by
(a) The President

(c) By draw of lots
(d) On the basis of the preference indicated by ministers
(a)
101.Generally the members of the Cabinet

under a Parliamentary system are
(a) Taken from the same political party
(b) Taken from various political parties according to their strength in the
legislature
(c) Taken on the basis of merit
(d) Taken from amongst persons who are not members of legislature
102.The Cabinet under the Parliamentary
system of government
(a) Can get the legislature dissolved before the expiry of its normal term
(b) Cannot get the legislature dissolved before normal term
(c) Can get the legislature dissolved after seeking advice from the Judiciary.
(d) Can get the legislature dissolved with the consent of all political parties
not correct?
(a) Parliamentary government provides a responsible government
(b) Parliamentary system provides political education to people
(c) Parliamentary government ensures close cooperation between executive and
legislature
(d) Parliamentary government prevents dictatorship of Cabinet
correct?
(a) Parliamentary government promotes despotism of government
(b) An alternative government is not possible under Parliamentary government
(c) Parliamentary government encourages partisan feeling
(d) The civil servants are rendered ineffective under Parliamentary government
correct?
(a) Under parliamentary government the national interests are given priority
over party interests
(b) Parliamentary government is based on theory of separation of powers
(c) Parliamentary government provides a stable government
(d) Parliamentary government is not suitable for dealing with emergencies
106. A Parliamentary government cannot
operate without
(a) A written constitution
(b) An independent judiciary
(c) Political parties
(d) A rigid constitution
107. The Parliamentary government
(a) Leads to frequent conflicts between the Legislature and the executive
(b) Secures swiftness in decision and vigour in action
(c) Encourages despotic tendencies of government
(d) Is not able to adopt itself according to changing requirements.
correct?
(a) Parliamentary government leads to neglect of administration by the minister
(b) The parliamentary system of government is very rigid
(c) The head of state under a parliamentary government is a prominent leader
of the majority party and tries to protect the party interests
(d) In a parliamentary government the judiciary must be independent
109. The Parliamentary system of government
is good because
(a) It ensures continuity and consistency of policy
(b) It makes the opposition behave in a responsible manner
(c) It provides autocratic powers to the executive
(d) It provides a flexible form of government.
110. The Presidential system of government
first originated in
(a) U.K.
(b) U.S.A.
(c) France
(d) Australia
111. The
head
of
the
executive
under
a
Presidential
system
is
representative
in
so
far as
(a) He is an elected representative of the people
(b) He can address the people whenever he chooses
(c) People can approach him any time
(d) He consults the elected representatives of the people on all important
national issues
112. In Presidential Government
(a) President is the head of state
(b) The executive is subordinate to the legislature
(c) The legislature is subordinate to the executive

(d) The legislature and executive are independent of each other
113. The
head
of
the
state
under
Presidential
system enjoys
(a) Nominal powers
(b) Real powers
(c) Dictatorial powers
(d) No powers
114. President
under
Presidential
system
is
head of
(a) State
(b) Government
(c) State as well as government
115. In
Presidential
system
of
government,
the
head of the state
(a) Cannot be removed by the Legislature
(b) Can be easily removed by the Legislature
(c) Can be removed by the legislature through a very difficult process
116. The
members
of
the
Cabinet
under
Presidential System
(a) Play an important role in initiating legislation
(b) Do not play any role in legislation because they are not members of
legislature
(c) Can play an effective role in legislation only when the same Party enjoys
majority in the Legislature to which the President belongs
117. The Presidential government operates on
the principle of
(a) Separation of powers
(b) Division of powers
(c) Fusion of powers
(d) Centralisation of powers

118. The members of the cabinet under a
Presidential system of government
(a) Are taken from the two houses of Parliament
(b) Are taken from amongst persons who are not members of Parliament
(c) May be taken from the popular house
(d) Are nominated by the head of state on the advice of Supreme Court
119. The executive under Presidential govern
ment
(a) Enjoys a fixed tenure
(b) Holds office during pleasure of the legislature
(c) Holds office during the pleasure of the King
(d) Holds office during tbe pleasure of party bosses
120. Under the President government
(a) The executive head can dissolve the legislature before its normal term
(b) The legislature can oust the President by a vote of no confidence
(c)The legislature can be dissolved by the President with the consent of the
judiciary
(d) Neither the executive can dissolve the legislature nor the legislature can
remove the executive before its term.
121. Which one of the following countries
possesses Presidential government?
(a) India
(b) Switzerland
168
(c) U.S.A.
(d) U.S.S.R.
122.The members of the Cabinet under
Presidential system are
(a) Accountable to the President
(b) Individually accountable to legislature
(c) Collectively accountable to legislation
(d) Accountable to the electorate
123.The members of the Cabinet under
Presidential government are
(a) Taken from all political parties in proportion to their strength in the
legislature
(b) Are taken from the Party to which the President belongs
(c) Are not taken from any particular party
(d) Are taken from amongst the nonpartisan persons
124.Which one of the followings is a feature of
Presidential government?
(a) Instability
(b) Irresponsibility
(c) Inalienability
(d) Stability
125.Presidential system of government is
(a) Representative without being responsible
(b) Responsible without being representative
(c) Neither responsible nor representative

not correct?
(a) Presidential government ensures a stable government
(b) Presidential government is more suited to deal with emergencies
(c) Presidential government enables the country to avail of the services of
experts
(d) Presidential government cannot work properly in a country with multiple
party system
127.
One of the chief merits of Presidential
(b) (c) (d)
system of government is that (a) It enables the country to avail the services of
experts
It provides autocratic power to the executive
The executive can easily shift its responsibility to the Legislature The
executive is accountable to the elected representatives of the people
128.
One of the chief defects of the Presidential
system of government is
(a) No continuous and consistent policy can be followed
(b) It leads to instability of government
(c) It lacks the representative character
(d) It leads to frequent conflicts between Legislature and executive
129.
Which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) Presidential government ensure complete co-operation between
legislature and executive
(b) Presidential government ensures proper accountability of the executive to
the legislature
(c) There is greater possibility of a despotic rule under Presidential
government
(d) Presidential government encourages party spirit
130.
Match List 1 with List 2 and select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
L
A
.
B.
C.
Lis
t1
2.
2
3..
4.
Co
deA
(a)
Civil Service
Presidential
Executive
Ceremonial
Executive
Nominal Executive
Permanent
Executive
Real
Executive
Decentralization
B
C
3
Presidential 169
(b) 2
3
1
(c) 3
2
1
(d) 4
3
1
131.In a Parliamentary form of government:
(a) The legislature is responsible to the executive
(b) The executive is responsible to the legislature
(c) The legislature is responsible to the judiciary
(d) The legislature controls the executive as well as the judiciary
132.Who
of
the
following
occupies
a
key
position
under
Parliamentary
system
of
government?
(a) The head of the state
(c) The Vice-President
(d) The Speaker
133.To
which
form
of
government
the
principle
of
'separation
of
powers'
is
applicable?
(a) Parliamentary
(b) Presidential
(c) Unitary
(d) Federal
134.Which
one
of
the
following
government
operates
on
the
principle
of
collective
responsibility?
(a) Parliamentary
(b) Presidential
(c) Unitary
(d) Federal
135.Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Parlia
mentary form of government?
(a) Presence of a nominal or titular head of state
(b) Separation of powers

(c) Collective responsibility of Cabinet
(d) Accountability of executive to the legislature
136.The
basic
principles
on
which
the
presidential
system
of
government
operates are:
I. Separation of powers II. Head of state enjoys real executive authority
III. Non-accountability of the President to the Legislature
IV. Accountability of the President to the Legislature
Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) I, III and IV
137.In
Presidential
system
of
government
the
president is dependent on:
(a) The council of ministers
(b) The legislature
(c) The political parties
138."The
President
of
the
U.S.A.
is
both
more
and
less
than
a
king.
He
is
also
both
more
and less than a Prime Minister?"
Who among the following commentators had made the above statement.
(a) H.J.Laski
(b) Charles Beard
(c) W.B.Munro
(d) C.F. Strong
139. "The execuive is crippled by not getting
the
laws
it
needs,
and
the
legislature
is
spoiled
by
having
to
act
without
responsibility,
the
Executive
becomes
unfit
for
its
name,
since
it
cannot
execute
what
it
decides
on;
the
legislature
is
demoralised
by
liberty,
by
taking
decisions
for
which
others
(and
not
itself)
will suffer the effects."
About which form of government has
Bagehot talked in the above statement?
(a) Parliamentary
(b) Presidential
(c) Unitary
(d) Federal
140.Match
List
1
with
List
2
and
select
the
correct
answer
using
the
codes
given
below the lists
List 1 (Form of Government)
A. Federal Government
B. Unitary Government
170
C. Confederation
D. Union of States
List 2 (Names of Countries)
1. England
2. U.S.A.
3. Switzerland
4. Unitary
5. India
Codes:
(a)A
B
C
D
3
4
2
1
(b) A
B
C
D2 1
3
(c) A
B
C
D1 2
4
(d) A
B
C
D
4
3
5
2
141. Match List 1 with List 2 and select the
correct answer using the codes given
below the lists
List 1 (Characteristics of Executive)
A. Parliamentary executive not based on
separation of powers
B. Presidential executive based on
separation of powers
5
3
Codes:
(a) A 1
(b)
A4
(c) A 2
(d) A 3
C. Parliamentary
appearance
but
of functions
D. Semi-presidential
partly on separation of powers
List 2 (Names of countries having such
Executive)
1. France
2. England
3. U.S.A.
4. Russia (USSR)
5. Switzerland
B3B1B3B2
C5C3C5C1
D
4
D
5
D
1
D
4
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13Organs of Government:
Legislature
Government is a machinery of the state which consists of three organs or branches

the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. Of these three organs the legislature
is the most important because it alone knows the hopes and aspirations of the people
and expresses them in the form of laws. It may be noted that making of laws is not
the only function of the legislature. It also performs several other functions. Thus, it
controls the finances of the state and determines the ways and means of raising the
revenue and spending it. In a Parliamentary system of government the legislature
control the executive and lays down the policy to be followed by it. Under Presidential
system where the executive is not accountable to the legislature, the legislature
exercised indirect control over executive. Legislature also enjoys important judicial
powers and can impeach political officials. The legislature also plays an important
role in the amendment of the constitution and performs some electoral functions as
well. In short, the legislature apart from its basic function of enactment and
amendment of law also performs several other functions.
The legislature can be either single chambered or bicameral. By and large
countries have favoured bi-cameral legislature, even though some regard the second
chamber as superflous. The arguments advanced in favour of bicameral legislature
includeit prevents the undue concentration of political power in a single chamber; it
acts as a check on hasty and rash legislation; it is essential in a country with federal
system of government; it provides representation to special interests; eminent
persons, scholars, etc, can be nominated to upper house. However, the opponents of
second chamber have argued that the second chamber cannot exercise any effective
control over the popular house; to reconsider laws passed by the popular house
constitutes waste of time and energy; its utility under a federal system is doubtful
because the members of upper house are always elected on party lines; the second
house tends to act as a stronghold of vested interests; economically also it is not
desirable to have a second chamber; there is no unanimity regarding satisfactory
method of constituting second chamber. Despite the above shortcomings of the
upper house, it serves a useful purpose. It can initiate non-controversial bills and thus
save the, variable time of the popular house. Further it can, revise the bills passed by
the popular house and remove the shortcomings which might have been
inadvertently been left.

1. Legislature,
which
is
one
of
the
three
organs
of
the
government
is
most
important of the three because
(a) it alone knows the hopes and aspirations of the people.
(b)
The laws made by it are enforced by the executive and applied to given cases
by the
judiciary
(c)
Both (a) and (b)
(d)
None of the above.
2. Most
of
the
important
posses bi-cameral legislature
(a) True
(b) False
3. Which
one
of
the
unicameral
system
(A
single house)?
(a) Switzerland
(b) France
(c) China
(d) USA
countries
following
legislature
at
countries
with
Organs of Government: Legislature
present
has
a
173
4. Which
country
of
the
world
has
the
largest
National Legislature
(a) Russia
(b) Ghina
(c) Switzerland
5. In
which
of
the
following
countries
the
national
legislature
is
not
directly
elected
by the people
(a) Switzerland
(b) U.S.A.
(c) China
(d) France
6. In
modern
times
in
most
of
the
countries
the
Legislature
c.part
from
making
laws
performs the following functions
(a) Control over public pursue
(b) Direct or indirect control over executive
(c) Amendment of the Constitution
(d) all the above functions.
7. The basic function of the legislature is
(a) to make laws according to changing needs of society
(b) to amend or repeal the existing laws according to the circumstances.
(c) to deliberate on public affairs and embody its decisions in proper language.
(d) all the above
8. A
Legislature
is
a
deliberative
body
which
discusses
various
matters
of
public
concern
and
formulates
domestic,
foreign
and fiscal policies
(a) True
(b) False
9. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
financial
powers
of
the
Legislature has been wrongly listed
(a) It holds the strings of the pursue
(b) It proposes the annual budget for the country.
(c) It passes the annual budget and earmarks funds for various dt xart-ments.
10. Consider the following statements in a Democratic country
1. Legislature in a Democratic country exercises control over political executive
2. Under a Parliamentary form of government the legislature exercises direct

control over the executive and no Cabinet can afford to ignore the views of
the legislature.
3. In USA all the appointments and treaties concluded by President are subject
to ratification by the Senate, the upper house of the American Federal
Legislature
4. In all democratic countries the executive remains in office as long as it enjoys
the confidence of the Legislature.
11. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
wrong
(a) The Legislature generally enjoys the power to dismiss the judges for
misconduct
(b) In USA the Congress (Federal Legislature enjoys the power to impeach the
President and certain other officers of the state
(c) House of Lords, the upper house of the British Parliament, is the highest court
of appeal
12. In
some
states
the
legislature
has
the
power
to
amend
the
Constitution
wholly
or in part.
(a) True
(b) False
13. The
popular
house
of
the
French
National
Legislature is known as
(a) House of Representatives
(b) House of People
(c) National Assembly
(d) Federal Assembly
(a)
14. What
is
the
common
point
between
the
U.S.
Senate
and
the
Swiss
Council
of
States?
(a) Both represent federal units
(b) Both accord equal representation to the units
(c) In both the countries the upper house enjoy co-equal powers with the popular
house.
15. Which
one
of
the
following
argument
in
favour
of
Bicameralism
has
been
wrongly
listed.
(a) It prevents undue concentration of political power in a single body which may
become arbitrary or despotic.
(b) It serves as a check on hasty and rash legislation.
(c) It is essential in a federal system, to provide representation to the units of
federation.
16. Second
chamber
has
been
justified
on
the
ground
(a) that it provides a guarantee against the despotism of the popular chamber.
(b) that it provides protection to the minorities and is an essential security of
freedom.
(c) that it provides representation to the special interests like education,
industry, art, etc.
(d) all the above grounds
17. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a defect of bi-cameralism
(a) It cannot effectively check the despotic tendencies of the popular house.
(b) Reconsideration of the bill already passed by the popular house leads to
wastage of time and energy.
(c) The second house often becomes a strong hold of the vested interests and
reactionary and conservative forces in society.
18. Consider
the
following
statements
against
second chamber
1. Second chamber is an expensive luxury
2. There is no satisfactory method for the constitution of the second chamber
3. The second chamber blocks the passage of progressive laws passed by the
popular house.
4. Second chamber is the Assembly of disgruntled and defeated politicians, who
are generally nominated to this house
19. Consider
the
following
statements
of
Abbe
Sieyes
"If a second chamber dissents from the
first, it is mischievour; if it agrees with it, it

is superflous."
(a) True
(b) False
20. In
a
Parliamentary
system
of
government,
as
exists
in
India,
the
Legislature
exercises
most effective control over executive by
(a) putting
questions
during the Question Hour
(b) holding debate on important issues during the zero hour
(c) moving vote of no confidence against the government.
(d) all the above
21. In
which
country
the
upper
house
is
more
powerful than the popular house
(a) U.S.A.
(b) France
(c) Britain
22. In
which
country
the
Legislature
plays
an
important
role
in
the
election
of
the
head
of
the state.
(a) U.S.A.
(b) India
175
(c) Switzerland
23. In
which
country
the
name
of
Minister
is
approved
by
the
after his nomination
(a) Switzerland
(b) Canada
(c) France
24. How
many
member
are
nominated
President to the Rajya Sabha in India
the
Prime
Legislature
by
the
(a) 12
(b) 25
(c) 20
(d) 22
25. In
the
Rajya
Sabha
the
states
have
been
provided
(a) equal representation
(b) representation on the basis of population
(c) representation on the basis of the size of the state
(d) on the basis of population and territory.
26. Who
presides
over
the
meetings
of
the
Lok
Sabha
(a) the senior-most member
(b) the Speaker
(c) a member selected out of the panel by rotation
(d) Vice-President.
27. Which
one
of
the
following
duty
of
Speaker
of
Lok
Sabha
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He maintains proper decorum in the House
(b) He recognises the members on the floor of the House
(c) He decides whether a bill is a money bill or not.
28. Consider
the
following
statments
about
Speaker of Lok Sabha
1. Speaker is nominated by the head of the state
2. Speaker permits the members to speak in the house
3. Speaker becomes politically neutral after his election.
4. The Speaker continues in office even after the dissolution of the House till a
new speaker is elected. Of the above statements
29. Who summons the sessions of the Lok
Sabha in India?
(a) The Prime Minister
(b) The Speaker
(c) The President
30. The minimum age to contest election for
Lok Sabha in India is
(a) 21 years
(b) 25 years
(c) 18 years
(d) 30 years
Senate in France
1. Finance bill cannot be introduced in the Senate in the first instance
2. The Senate in France has no control over the executive
3. The members of the Senate in France are directly elected by the people
4. The members of Senate in France are elected for a term of nine years.

about the Senate in France is correct?
(a) It elects the members of the Constitutional Council.
(b) It elects half of the judges of the French Supreme Court
(c) It can censure the government and bring its fall
33. The popular House in France is known as
(a) National Assembly
(b) Federal Assembly
(a)
(c) House of Commons

(d) House of People
34. Which
one
of
the
following
is
true
about
the National Assembly of France?
(a) It enjoys a term of five years and cannot be dissolved earlier.
(b) It can be dissolved before the expiry of its normal term only during
emergency
(c) It cannot be dissolved twice in the same year
35. The
Federal
legislature
in
Switzerland
is
known as
(a) National Assembly
(c) House of People
(d) Supreme Council
36. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Swiss
Legislature?
(a) It is a bi-cameral legislature
(b) The two houses enjoy co-equal powers
(c) The cantons have been given equal representation in the Council of States
(d) National Council enjoys more powers than the Council of States in
Switzerland.
37. The
members
of
the
National
Council
of
Switzerland are elected
(a) through single member constituencies
(b) on the basis of proportional representation
(c) through List System and each party gets seats in proportion to the votes
polled by it.
38. In
Switzerland
women
did
not
enjoy
right
to vote till
(a) 1971
(b) 1980
(c) 1989
(d) 1997
39. In
Switzerland
the
National
Council
elects
a
President
from
amongst
its
members
for
a term of
(a) one year
(b) two years
(c) three years
(d) four years
40. In
which
country
the
sessions
of
the
two
houses
of
national
legislature
are
held
simultaneously
(a) France
(b) Switzerland
(c) Germany
41. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Council
of
States,
the
upper
house of the Swiss legislature.
1. There is no uniformity regarding the method of election of members of
Council of States
2. In some cantons they are elected directly by the people, while in the others
they are elected by the Cantonal legislature.
3. The term of the members of Council of States varies from one to four years in
different Cantons.
4. In none of the Cantons there is provision for the recall of the members before
the expiry of their term.
42. Which
statement
about
the
President
of
the
Swiss
Council
of
States
has
been
wrongly listed
(a) He is elected for a term of one year
(b) He is not eligible for immediate reelection
(c) He has a casting vote in case of a tie
(d) None
43. Generally
the
holds
(a) only one session in a year
Swiss
Federal
Assembly

177
(b) two sessions in a year

(c) three sessions in a year
(d) four sessions in a year
44. The
legislative
powers
of
the
Swiss
Federal
Assembly
are
indeed
very
extensive
because
they
are
neither
subject
to
executive veto nor judicial review.
(a) True
(b) False
45. The
Federal
Assembly
or
Switzerland
enjoys
extensive
executive
powers
which
include
(a) Control over federal army and right to declare war and make peace
(b) Determination of salaries and allowances of members of the Federal
Department
(c) Settlement of administrative disputes between federal officials.
(d) all the above
46. Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
Federal
Assembly
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It appoints the Commander-in-Chief of the Swiss army in the event of war or
threat of war.
(b) It approves all treaties and alliances concluded between Switzerland and
foreign countries as well as treaties between Cantons and foreign states.
(c) It can take necessary action against Cantons which fail to execute federal
laws or discharge federal obligations.

47. The
judicial
powers
of
the
Federal
Assembly of Switzerland include
(a) Right to elect judges of the Federal Tribunal
(b) Decide all the conflicts regarding jurisdiction between the various federal
authorities
(c) To grant pardon or a general amnesty
(d) All the above
48. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Federal
Assembly
of
Switzer
land is not correct?
(a) It operates on the principle of separation of powers.
(b) Only a fter the two houses of the Swiss Federal Assembly agree to revise the
Constitution the proposed revision is referred to the voters for their approval.
(c) The federal Assembly, in the absence of judicial review with regard to federal
laws, exercises considerable control and influence over Federal Council.
(d) In Switzerland with the increase in the powers of Federal Council, there has
been correspondent decline in the powers and position of the Assembly.
49. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
legislative
process in Switzerland?
(a) Both the houses of Federal Assembly enjoy equal powers.
(b) In Switzerland the Cantons cannot initiate legislative proposals.
(c) Majority of the bills are introduced by the Federal Councillors, even though
they are not members of the Federal Assembly
(d) In Switzerland the bills are simultaneously introduced in the two houses of the
Federal Assembly
1. The members of Council of States in Switzerland are elected for a term
ranging from one to four years.
2. The Council of States in Switzerland generally holds four sessions in a year
3. The qualifications and procedure of election of members of Council of States
is determined by the concerned Cantons
4. Council of states in Switzerland is a much larger body than the Senate of
U.S.A.
(a)
178
51. Which
one
of
the
similarity
between
the
US
Senate
and
the
Swiss
Council
of
States
(a) Both are representatives of the units of their respective federations.
(b) The qualifications for the members of US Senate as well as Swiss are Council
of States determined by concerned units.
(c) Majority of the members of Senate as well as the Council of the State
constitute quorum.
(d) Both enjoy important powers regarding amendment of Constitution.

1. The qualifications and procedure of election for the members of Swiss Council
of States are determined by the concerned Cantons.
2. The members of the Council of States do not draw equal sala ries. The salary
differs because they are paid out of cantonal revenues
3. Financial measures can originate in either House of Swiss Federal Assembly.
4. The Council of State enjoys exclusive executive power with regard to
ratification of treaties and approval of appointments.
53. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
popular
House of the Swiss Legislature?
(a) Federal Assembly
(b) The National Council
(c) Council of States
(d) House of Commons
54. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The US Senate and the Swiss Council of States enjoy co-equal powers with
the popular house
(b) In Switzerland the financial proposals are simultaneously taken up for
consideration the two houses of the Federal Assembly
(c) Both the US Senate and the Swiss National Council enjoy important powers
with regard to amendment of the Constitution.
(d) all the above
55. Which
one
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
most
powerful
second
chamber
in
the
world?
(a) U.S. Senate

(b)Canadian Senate
(c) Swiss Council of States
(d)House of Lords in UK
56. The federal legislature in USA is known as
(a) Congress
(c) National Assembly
(d) House of People
57. The
American
federal
legislature
is
bi
cameral and its houses as known as
(a) House of Representative and Senate
(b) Senate and Council of States
(c) Senate and the House of Commons
(d) Federal Assembly and Senate
58. The
members
of
House
of
Representatives
in
USA
are
directly
elected
by
the
people
for a term of
(a) two years
(b) three years
(c) four years
(d) five years
59. Consider
the
following
statements
with
regard to the U.S. House of Representative
1. It enjoys co-equal powers with the Senate in the matter of legislation.
2. It has exclusive power to introduce money bills
3. The Senate of USA enjoys equal powers with the House of Representatives
with regard to the passage or rejection of a money bill.
4. The House of Representatives cannot propose amendments to the
constitution, a power exclusively vested in the Senate
1.
Organs of Government: Legislature 179

60. In
case
of
differences
between
the
House
of
Representatives
and
Senate
over
a
parti
cular bill the same is resolved by
(a) the Vice-President
(b) the Speaker of House of Representatives
(c) a Conference Committee consisting of three or four members from each
house.
61. The
House
of
Representatives
exercises
control over the executive
(a) through its power of sanction of expenditure from the public money
(b) through its power of declaring war, a power which it shares with the Senate
(c) by looking into the working of declaring war, a power which it shares with the
Senate
(d) by looking into the working of the various departments through its
committees.
(e) through all the above methods
62. Though
the
framers
of
the
US
Constitution
intended
the
House
of
Representatives
to
be
a
powerful
house,
it
has
actually
emerged as a weak chamber, on account of
(a) short tenure of the House (2 years)
(b) grant of certain exclusive powers to the Senate
(c) direct election of the Senate has undermined the position of the House of
Representatives.
(d) all the above factors
63. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the
Speaker
of
US
House
of
Represen
tatives
1. He is the presiding officer of the House of Representative
2. He is elected along party lines and generally belongs to the majority part.
3. After his election the speaker continues to be active party member and tries
to promote his party interests
4. The Speaker after his election becomes neutral
64. Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
the
Speaker
of
House
of
Representatives
has
(a) He maintains order and decorum in the house.
(b) He interprets and applies rules concerning procedure
(c) He puts the questions to vote and announces decisions.
65.
Originally the members of the Senate were
indirectly elected (by the state legislatures)
but
through
an
amendment
in
1913
their
election was made direct.
(a) True
(b) False
66. Which
one
of
the
following
qualification
for
membership
of
Senate
has
been
wrongly listed
(a) He must have been resident of USA for at least nine years
(b) He must have attained the age of 30 years
(c) He must be inhabitant of the state which he wishes to represent.
67. Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
US
Senate has been wrongly listed?
(a) For the passage of a money bill the concurrence of Senate is vital
(b) Senate shares with the President the power to make all important
appointments.
(c) Senate approves all the treaties and agreements concluded by the President
with foreign powers.
(a)
180 UGCPblitical Science
(d) Senate sits as a court of investigation in the impeachment proceedings

against the President, Vice-President and other Civil Officers.
(e) Senate alone enjoys powers to amend the Constitution.
68. 'Senatorial
Courtesy'
implies
that
the
President
consults
the
senators
of
the
state
in
which
the
appointment
is
to
be
made.
Thereafter
the
appointment
is
approved
by the Senate as a matter of routine.
(a) True
(b) False
69. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about the US Senate is correct?
(a) It is a permanent House
(b) It enjoys exclusively powers to amend the constitution.
(c) It is the weakest second chamber in the world.
(d) It can be dissolved by the President during emergency with the consent of
House of Representatives.
1. On account of the longer tenure of Senate more ambitious and outstanding
persons prefer to become members of Senate
2. Members of Senate are more experienced and knowledgeable persons and
usually enter the Senate after serving as members of House of
Representatives.
3. Senate alone exercises control over the executive in matters of appointment
and ratification of treaties.
4. Senate alone has the power to pass a vote of no confidence against the
ministry and oust it.
(b) 2,3 and 4 are-correct
71. Fillibustering
is
a
device
found
in
USA
whereby
(a) members of the Senate can block the enactment of a measure by misusing
the privilege of unrestricted debate.
(b) the members of the Congress in USA can initiate laws and insist on
continuous deliberation on these laws.
(c) the members of Congress are permitted to raise unlimited number of
questions.
72. Gerrymandering is a device
(a) whereby the constituencies are delimited in such a manner that the ruling
party should win the maximum number of seats, while the opposition should
gain minimum number of seats.
(b) of uniform election process used for the election of the members of Senate
(c) for the election of the President of USA
73. Lobbying is the process
(a) of influencing the members of the Legislature to vote for or against a
particular bill.
(b) of bribing the members of Congress and seek their vote in favour of a
legislative measure.
(c) which seeks to promote the public interest by blocking the passage of a bill
which is likely to prove injurious to common interest
74. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
power
of
Speaker
of
the
House of Representatives?
(a) The Speaker makes use of his right to vote in case of a tie
(b) The Speaker regulates the entry of the visitors to the House
(c) The Speaker applies the rules concerning the procedure of the house and his
ruling is final.
(d) He protects the rights and privileges of the members of the House and dignity
and prestige of the House.
(a)
75. Which
one
of
the
following
similarity
between
the
Speaker
of
House
of
Representatives
and
House
of
Commons
(a) Both are elected by the members of the respective Houses.
(b) Both try to protect the interests of their respective parties in the House
(c) Both preside over the meetings of the House
(d) Both maintain order and recognise members on the floor of the House.
76. The
Speakers
of
House
of
Representatives
and
the
House
of
Commons
differs
in
the
following respect
(a) The Speaker of House of Representatives is an active party leader, while the
Speaker of House of Commons is not.
(b) In case of tie, the Speaker of House of Representative makes use of his vote
in favour of his party, while the Speaker of House of Commons casts his vote
to maintain the status quo.
(c) The Speaker of House of Representatives does not enjoy any power to decide
whether a particular bill is a money bill or not, but the Speaker of House of
Representative has final authority in this regard and his ruling cannot be
contested.
(d) All the above
77. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Both the British Parliament and the U.S. Congress are bi-cameral legislatures
(b) The American Congress is a much smaller body than the British Parliament.
(c) The members of Senate as well as the House of Lords are indirectly elected.
(d) The Congress in USA operates on the principle of separation of powers, while
the British Parliament works on the principle of close cooperation between
the Legislature and the Executive.
78. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
has
a
hereditary upper house
(a) Switzerland
(b) U.K.
(c) Canada
1. The American system is based on the principle of separation of power.
2. In U.S.A. no distribution is made between the public and private bills and the
procedure for their enactment is identical.
3. In USA the procedure for enactment of government and non-government bills
differs.
4. In USA the Committee stage precedes the discussions of general principles of
the bill.
80. In
USA
after
the
first
reading
the
bill
is
referred
to
an
appropriate
Committee
which can
(a) recommend that the bill be passed in its original form.
(b) re-draft the bill
(c) kill the bill by not taking any action on it.
(d) do any of the above things.

81. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
regarding
law-making
procedure
in
USA
has been wrongly lifted?
(a) A bill can be introduced in the House of Representatives by any member.
(b) Ordinary bills can be introduced in either House of the congress
(c) Money bill can be introduced in either house of Congress but the approval of
the Senate is essential for its final passage.
(d) Money bill can be introduced only in the House of Representatives
(a)
82. After
a
bill
has
been
passed
by
both
the
Houses
of
the
Congress
it
is
sent
to
the
President
(a) who has to take some action within ten days
(b) who has to take some action within one month
(c) who can sleep over the bill and kill it.
(d) who can send back the bill for reconsideration by the originating house.
83. If
the
President
of
USA
makes
use
of
his
veto on a bill referred to him
(a) the bill shall be permanently killed
(b) the Congress can overcome the veto by repassing the bill by two-thirds
majority
(c) the Congress can overcome the veto by repassing the bill by simple
majority
(d) the Congress can overcome the veto by repassing the bill in a joint
meeting of the two-houses of Congress by three-fourth majority
84. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) No
financial
bill
can
be
passed
in
USA without the consent of the
,
Senate
(b)
The Senate can delay the enactment of a financial bill for a maximum period
of six
months.
(c) There is uniform system of election for the members of Senate and they all
represent their respective states.
(d) Both the House of Lords and the Senate can undertake impeachment
proceedings against certain officials.
1. While the members of Committees in Britain are elected by Committee of
Selection, the members of Committees in USA are selected by party
leaders.
2. The Chairman of Committees in England are neutral persons but the
Chairman of Committees in USA are
partisan and try to promote interests of their parties.
3. In addition to normal committees, sessional committees exist both in UK and
USA
4. In UK the Committee has to return the bill referred to it by the House, while
the Committees in USA are not bound to return the bills to the house.
correct?
(a) The Committees in United States play more effective role than the
Committees in Britain.
(b) In USA the Committees are under the influence of the vested interests, while
it is not so in Britain.
(c) The Committees in USA are bound to return the bills referred to them by the
house.
87. The Central Legislature in India is known
as Parliament which consists of
(a) Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
(b) Lok Sabha and Senate
(c) House of Commons and Rajya Sabha
(d) the President, the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
88. The maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha
is
(a) 200
(b) 250
(c) 280
(d) 300
89. In the Rajya Sabha the various states have
been provided
(a) equal representation
(b) representation on the basis of their population
(c) representation on the basis of their size
(a)
90. Which
maximum
one
of
number
the
of
following
members
states
of
sends
the
Rajya Sabha
(a) Uttar Pradesh
(b) West Bengal
(c) Madhya Pradesh
(d) Maharashtra
91. In
addition
to
the
representatives
of
the
states the Rajya Sabha contains
(a) 10 nominated members
(b) 12 nominated members
(c) 2 nominated members
(d) 20 nominated members
92. Who
nominates
the
members
of
the
Rajya
Sabha?
(a) the Speaker
(b) the Vice President of India
(c) the President of India
93. The Rajya Sabha
(a) is a permanent house
(b) has a tenure of 6 years
(c) has a tenure of 5 years
(d) a tenure which is co-terminus with Lok Sabha
94. The
Rajya
Sabha
can
be
dissolved
before
the expiry of its term
(a) if the Lok Sabha passes a resolution to this effect
(b) by the President on the recommendation of the Lok Sabha
(c) by the Vice-President of India, who is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
(d) The Minister for Parliamentary Affairs
95. Who
of
the
following
is
the
ex-officio
Chairman of the Rajya Sabha?
(a) the Vice-President of India
(b) the leader of the majority party in Rajya Sabha
(c) the Secretary of the Lok Sabha

(d) The Minister for Parliamentary Affairs.
96. In
addition
to
the
Chairman,
the
Rajya
Sabha has a Deputy Chairman who is
(a) elected by the members of Rajya Sabha from amongst themselves.
(b) nominated by the President
(c) appointed by the Chairman of Rajya Sabha
(d) elected by the members of Rajya Sabha for amongst persons who are not
members of Rajya Sabha
97. In
what
proportion
the
members
of
the
Rajya Sabha retire?
(a) All the members retire on completion of six years retire?
(b) one half of the members retire every three years.
(c) one-third members retire every two years
(d) One-sixth members retire every year.
98. The
maximum
strength
of
the
Lok
Sabha
in India is
(a) 500
(b) 550
(c) 545
(d) 525
99. How
many
seats
have
been
reserved
for
the Union Territories in the Lok Sabha
(a) 20
(b) 25
(c) 35
(d) 50
100. The
various
states
have
been
provided
representation
in
the
Lok
Sabha
on
the
basis of their
(a) population
(b) population and territory
(c) financial resources
(d) financial resources and strategic importance
101. Which
one
of
the
following
states
has
been
allotted
maximum
number
of
seats
in
Lok
Sabha
(a) U.P.
(b) Maharashtra
(c) Madhya Pradesh (d) West Bengal
102. The
term
of
the
Lok
Sabha
was
originally
fixed by the Constitution as
(a) 4 years
(b) 5 years
(c) 6 years
(d) 7 years
103. The
Forty
Second
Amendment
carried
out
during
the
emergency
raised
the
term
of
Lok Sabha to
(a) 5 years
(b) 6 years
(c) 7 years
104. The term Lok Sabha can
(a) be extended by two years at a time by the Parliament by two-thirds majority
(b) not be extended under any circumstances
(c) be extended by one year at a time during proclamation of emergency

(d) be extended by the President when he deems it necessary
105. The
Speaker,
who
is
the
presiding
officer
of the Lok Sabha, is
(a) appointed by the President
(b) appointed by the Prime Minister
(c) elected by the two houses of the Parliament in a joint sitting
(d) elected by the members of Lok Sabha from amongst themselves.
106. In
addition
to
the
speaker,
the
Lok
Sabha
has a Deputy Speaker who is
(a) nominated by the Speaker from amongst the members of Lok Sabha
(b) elected by the members of Lok Sabha from amongst themselves
(c) appointed by the President in consultation with the Speaker
(d) appointed by the Prime Minister in consultation with the Speaker.
107. The Speaker of Lok Sabha enjoys
(a) right to vote only in case of a tie
(b) two votes-one in ordinary course and the other in case of a tie
(c) no right to vote
(d) right to vote like any other member of the house
108. Normally
the
Parliament
can
legislate
on
the subjects listed in
(a) the Union List
(b) the State List
(c) the Concurrent List
(d) Both Union List and Concurrent List
109. The
Parliament
can
legislate
on
a
subject
in
the State List
(a) if the President authorises it to do so
(b) if the Supreme Court of India gives authority to Parliament to do so.

(c) if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by two third majority of its members
declaring it expedient to do so in the national interest.
(d)
None of the above
110. The
Indian
Parliament
can
legislate
on
a
subject in the State List only
(a) if the legislatures of two or more states recommend that the Parliament
should do so.
(b) for the implementation of international treaties, agreements and conventions
(c) during national emergency
(d) in all the above cases.
111. In India, in matters of ordinary legislation
(a) Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha have been given co-equal powers.
(b) The Lok Sabha has been given more powers
(c) The Rajya Sabha has been given more powers
112. In
case
of
differences
between
the
two
houses
of
Parliament
on
ordinary
bill
the
same is noted by
(a) the President
(b) the Speaker of Lok Sabha
(c) Convening a joint sitting of the two houses
(d) through a Joint Committee of the two houses
113. The
Rajya
Sabha
can
delay
the
enactment
of a money bill for a maximum period of
(a) one month
(b) three month
(c) six months
(d) fourteen days
114. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
with
regard
to
financial
powers
of
the
Indian Parliament is correct?
185
(a) It can propose taxes

(b) It prepares the budget
(c) It sanctions expenditure and imposes taxes
(d) All the above
115. With
regard
to
amendment
of
Constitution the Rajya Sabha
(a) enjoys co-equal powers with the Lok Sabha
(b) has very limited role
(c) is placed on a higher pedestral.
(d) has no power.
116. The Rajya Sabha has exclusive power
(a) to initiate proceedings for the removal of the President
(b) to initiate proceedings for the removal of judges of Supreme Court
(c) to recommend creation of new All-India Services
(d) with regard to all the above matters
117. The
maximum
gap
between
the
the
two
sessions
of
Indian
Parliament
should
not
exceed
(a) three months (b) six months
(c) one year
(d) nine months
118. Generally
the
first
session
of
the
Parliament
in
India
starts
with
an
address
by the President in which he
(a) makes a survey of the achievements of the government during the previous
year
(b) makes suggestions to the government and outlines the policy which it should
follow in the interest of the country.
(c) outlines the policy and programme of the government during the ensuring
year
(d) does none of the above things
119. Who
is
responsible
for
the
preparation
of
the Presidential address in India?
(a) the President's House
(b) the Prime Minister and his Cabinet
(c) the Speaker of Lok Sabha
(d) Minister for Parliamentary Affairs
120.In India a money bill can originate
(a) only in the Lok Sabha
(b) only in the Rajya Sabha
(c) in either of the two houses
(d) in a joint sitting of the two houses.
121.The
Indian
President
can
veto
a
bill
passed
by
the
Parliament
but
the
veto
can
be
over
ruled if
(a) the Parliament declares the bill to be of national importance
(b) the bill is re-passed by the two houses of the Parliament
(c) the Supreme Court declares the veto ultra vires
122. The Indian Parliament works through
Committees.
The
members
of
these
Committee are
(a) nominated by the Prime Minister
(b) nominated by the leaders of various political parties in proportion to their
strength in the house.
(c) appointed by the Speaker or elected by the House from amongst its own
members
(d) Elected by the House from amongst persons who are not members of
Parliament, and have excelled in the financial field.
123.Which
one
of
the
following
Committees
of
Indian
Parliament
contains
represen
tatives of both the houses?
(a) Public Account Committee , (b) The Rules Committee
(c) Business Advisory Committee
(d) all the above committees
124.The
Speaker
of
Lok
Sabha
is
the
ex-officio
the Chairman of
(a) The Rules Committee
(b) The Committee on Privileges
(c) The Committee on Private Members Bills and Resolutions
(d) all the above committees
125.A
Minister
can
be
a
member
of
which
one
of the following Committees
(a) The Committee on Subordinate Legislation

(b) The Committee on Petitions
(c) The Committee on Government Assurances
(d) The Committee on absence of members from sittings of the House.
126. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
largest
Committee of Indian Parliament?
(a) The Public Accounts Committee
(b) The Estimates Committee
(c) The Committee on Public Undertakings
(d) The Committee on Petitions.
127. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Estimates
Committee
of
Indian
1. It prepares the estimates of government expenditure during the ensuing
year
2. It suggests the form in which the estimates are to be prepared and
presented to the Parliament.
3. It suggests alternative policies with a view to bring about efficiency and
economy in administration.
4. It examines whether the money is well laid out within the limit of the policy
implied in the estimates.

128. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
the
Public
Accounts
Committee
of India is correct?
(a) It sees that the expenditure does not exceed the grants made by the
Parliament
(b) It ensures that the money has been spent for the purpose for which it was
sanctioned by the Parliament.
(c) It sees that the executive has observed the financial rules and regulations
(d) All the above are correct
129. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India has been described as the
friend, philosopher and guide of
(a) all the Parliamentary Committees
(b) the Public Accounts Committee
(c) the Estimates Committee
(d) the Committee on Public Undertakings
130. At a joint sitting of Lok Sabha and Rajya
Sabha can be convened
(a) if a bill passed by one house is rejected by the other house
(b) if an amendment proposed to bill by one house are not acceptable to the
other house.
(c) if the house does not take any action on a bill remitted to it for six months
131. Who presides over the joint session of the
two houses of Indian Parliament?
(a) the Speaker
(b) the Vice-President
(c) the President
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Chapter
.14
Organs of Government: The
Executive
This is the second organ of the government which is responsible for the
enforcement of laws as well as general administration. The executive also
puts into practice the decisions taken by the judiciary. The executive can be
hereditary as in Britain or elected as in India. Again a distinction is drawn
between the nominal and the real executive. In Britain the Queen is the
nominal executive head of the state, and the real executive authority is
exercised by the Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. On the other hand
USA has an executive who wields real powers.
Apart from the enforcement of the laws passed by the legislature, the
executive also performs several functions. Thus, it is responsible for the
maintenance of peace; it undertakes several activities of public utility; the
executive represents the country in foreign countries it appoints diplomatic
representatives to other countries and receives their diplomatic
representatives; it concludes treaties with foreign countries. In the military
field it is responsible for the prosecution of war. During such an eventuality
the executive assumes enormous powers, including the power to suspend the
fundamental rights of the citizens. It can also suspend ordinary laws and
promulgate martial law, during the war or even when there is a threat of war.
In the legislative field the executive enjoys the power to summon, prorogue
and dissolve the legislature. Most of the importants bills are piloted by the
Ministers in the Parliament. The laws passed by the legislature can be vetoed
by the executive. In the financial sphere also the executive plays a vital role.
It submits budget proposals and ensures that the money is spent for the
purpose for which it is voted by the legislature. Above all the executive
enjoys the power to grant
pardon and reprieve. In most of the countries the executive is concerned with
the appointment of judges.

1. In
the
broad
sense
the
term
'executive',
denotes
all
the
state
functionaries
who
are
concerned
with
the
execution
of
the
laws
and
carrying
on
of
the
general
admini
stration
(a) True
(b) False
2. In
which
one
of
the
following
countries
the
executive
power
is
shared
by
several
persons
and
none
of
them
is
superior
to
others
(a) Switzerland (b) U.S.A.
(c) Canada
3. If
the
real
executive
is
independent
of
the
control of the legislature it is known as
(a) Non-Parliamentary executive
(b) Despotic Executive
(c) Parliamentary Executive
4. Which
one
of
the
following
is
an
important
function of the Executive
(a) Execution of laws enacted by the Legislature
(b) Maintenance of peace and order
(c) Implementation of the decisions of the court
(d) all the above
5. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
of
the executive has been wrongly listed?
(a) It opens schools and hospitals
Organs of Government: The Executive
189
(b) It undertakes several activities of public utility and welfare

(c) It is responsible for the enforcement of laws

6. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
diplomatic
function
of
the executive?
(a) Executive represents the state in relation with foreign countries
(b) It appoints Ambassadors, Consuls and other diplomatic representatives to
foreign countries.
(c) It negotiates and concludes treaties and agreements with foreign countries.
7. Which
one
of
the
following
legislative
function
is
performed
by
the
Executive
under Parliamentary system
(a) It summons and prorogues the Legislature
(b) It can dissolve the legislature and order fresh elections
(c) It introduces and pilots most of the bills
(d) All the above
8. Which
one
of
the
following
legislative
powers
is
not
enjoyed
by
the
executive
under Presidential system?
(a) It introduces most of the important bills in the legislature
(b) The Executive head can veto the bills passed by the legislature
(c) It can dissolve the legislature before the expiry of its term
1. The proposals regarding taxes and expenditure are made by the executive
2. The responsibility for realisation of taxes and incurring of expenditure rests
with the Executive.
3. The Executive enjoys the power to grant pardon and reprieve.
4. The executive can appoint and dismiss the judges at will. Of the above
statements
10. Which
one
of
the
following
steps
can
ensure
efficent
discharge
to
its
duties
by
the executive
(a) It should not be permitted to ignore the wishes of the people as expressed
through legislature
(b) It should not be permitted to meddle with the administration of justice
(c) It should not be permitted to deprive the people of their rights.
(d) All the above
11. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
has
a
plural executive?
(a) Switzerland
(b) U.K.
(c) U.S.A.
(d) All the above
12. The
Federal
Council,
which
is
the
plural
executive of Switzerland, consists of
(a) five members (b) six members
(c) seven members
(d) eleven members
13. Which
one
of
the
following
defect
of
plural
executive has been wrongly listed?

(a) It leads to division of responsibility
(b) It promotes mutual rivalary among the various departments
(c) It is an expensive system which is unsuited for poor countries.
14. The
main
advantage
of
the
executive is
(a) It prevents dictatorship of the executive
(b) The members of the executive act as a check on each other
(c) The rights of the people cannot be easily encroached.
(d) All the above
(a)
15. The
civil
servants,
who
permanent executive
(a) are experts in their respective fields.
(b) are expected to serve the party in power impartially
(c) remain in office till they reach age of retirement
(d) all the above
16. The term 'permanent executive' is used for
(a) the President
(b) the Bureaucracy
(c) the popularly elected executive
17. With
which
country
the
nomination of civil servants is associated
(a) U.S.A.
(b) Switzerland
(c) U.K.
18.
Which one of the following statements is
plural
constitute
system
of
related to the Spoils System in USA?

(a) Under this system the administrative official could be dismissed after the new
election.
(b) The President distributed government officers among the party supporters
(c) People were admitted to the Civil Services because they had rendered service
to the party in power during the elections.
(d) all the above
19. In
recent
years
the
powers
of
the
permanent
civil
servants
have
considerably increased
(a) because the state has been transformed into a welfare state
(b) because several functions which were earlier performed by the individuals are
being performed by the state.
(c) growing dependence of the popular ministers on the permanent civil
servants.
(d) because of all the above reasons.
20.
The
increasing
influence
of
the
civil
servants
is
not
in
the
interest
of
democracy
on account of the following reason
(a) The civil servants are generally narrow minded
(b) The civil servants are guided by rigid rules
(c) They are unable to appreciate the difficulties of the people because they are
not in touch with them.
21. Which one of the following function of
civil servants has been wrongly listed?
(a)They execute the laws of the state and carry out the policies of the
government.
(b) They are responsible for the formulation of country's policy
(c) They are in a better position to appreciate whether a particular policy would
be practicable or not.
(d) The civil servants exercise considerable influence in the formulation of
government policy, by presenting the facts.
22. Which one of the following countries has a
hereditary executive?
(a) Britain
(b) France
(c) Switzerland
23. Which one of the following countries has
an elective executive?
(a) Britain
(b) France
(c) India
24. Which one of the following statement with
regard to the British Queen is correct?
(a) The government is carried in the name of the Queen
(b) The Queen of Britain enjoys only nominal executive powers.
(c) The British Queen reigns, but does not rule.
(d) all the above
25. The real executive authority in Britain
rests with
(a) the Cabinet
(b) the Queen
(c) the Speaker
(d) all the above

191

1. The Cabinet consists of Prime Minister and other ministers
2. The Cabinet is formed after the general election.
3. The leader of the majority party is appointed as Prime Minister and the other
ministers are appointed on his advice.
4. The Prime Minister can include any person in his Cabinet and there is no
restriction on his authority in this regard.
27.
Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
British
Cabinet
System
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) The Queen stands outside the Cabinet
(b) The Prime Minister occupies a prominent position in the Cabinet.
(c) The British Cabinet operates on the principle of collective responsibility.
1. The British Cabinet operates on the principle of collective responsibility.
2. The Cabinet Ministers are expected to maintain complete secrecy
3. Members of the Cabinet are selected on the basis of their expert knowledge
without taking into account their political affiliation.
4. The British Cabinet operates on the principle of close cooperation between
Parliament and Cabinet.

29. Which
one
of
the
following
Executive
Power
of
the
British
Cabinet
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It determines the domestic as well as foreign policy of the country
(b) It makes recommendations regarding important appointments.
(c) It plays an important role in the recruitment of civil servants.
(d) It enforces laws made by the Parliament.
30. Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
the
British Cabinet has been wrongly listed?
(a) It initiates most of the important bills
(b) It controls the time-table and agenda of the Parliament
(c) The Speech from Throne is prepared by the British Cabinet.
31. In
Britain
the
budget
of
the
country
is
prepared by
(a) the Chancellor of Exchequer
(b) the Lord Chancellor
(c) a Special Committee set up by the Cabinet
32. Which
one
of
the
following
judicial
power
of
the
British
Cabinet
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) The Queen appoints all judges on the advice of the Lord Chancellor
(b) The Cabinet helps the Queen in the exercise her power regarding grant of
pardon, amnesty reprieve etc.
(c) The British Cabinet enjoys certain quasi-judicial powers and its decision in this
regard is final.
33. "Today
it
is
not
the
House
of
Commons
which
controls
the
Cabinet
but
the
Cabinet
which controls the House."
(a) True
(b) False
34. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
has
contributed
to
the
increases
in
the
powers
of the British Cabinet?
(a) Bi-Party system which ensures majority support to the Cabinet in the House
of Commons.
(b) Cabinet's power to seek dissolution of the House of Commons before the
expiry of its term.
(c) Solidarity of the ministers on account of principle of collective responsibility
35. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the British Prime Minister.
1. He appoints the ministers but the portfolios are allocated to them by the
Queen
2. He convenes the meetings of the Cabinet and presides over these meetings.
3. The death or resignation of the Prime Minister automatically leads to the
dissolution of Cabinet
4. He can advise the Queen regarding dissolution of the House of Commons.
36. Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
the
Prime
Minister
of
Britain
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He is the leader of the House of Commons
(b) He decides when the House is to be convened or prorogued.
(c) He can dissolve the House of Commons
37. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the British Prime Minister
1. He is the chief link between the Queen and the Cabinet.
2. He is the chief advisor to the Queen with regard to appointments, conferment
of title and honour, etc.
3. He represents the country at various international conferences, etc, and
concludes treaties with foreign powers on behalf of his country.
4. He can dissolve the House of Commons at his sweet will.
38. In
Britain
the
Prime
Minister
has
to
relinquish his office
(a) if the Queen so directs him
(b) if the Lord Chancellor asks him to do so
(c) if the House of Commons passes a vote of no-confidence against the Council
of Ministers
(d)
if he loses the confidence of his party
39. Who
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
most
powerful
elected
executive
head
of
the world?
(a) the British Prime Minister
(b) the U.S. President
(c) the President of Russia
(d) the Chairman of the Federal Council of Switzerland.
40. The
President
of
USA
is
elected
for
a
term
of
(a) four years
(b) five years
(c) six years
(d) 2 years
41. A
candidate
for
Presidentship
of
USA
should
possess
the
following
qualifi
cations.
Which
one
of
these
qualifications
(a) He must be a natural born citizen
(b) He must have attained the age of 35 years
(c) He must have been a resident of USA for at least fourteen years
(d) He should possess the qualification for the membership of Congress
42. In
case
the
office
of
the
President
of
USA
falls
vacant
on
account
of
death,
resignation etc.
Organs of Government: The Executive 193
(a) the Vice-President succeeds him for the un-expired term

(b) the Vice-President succeeds him for six months and in the meanwhile fresh
elections must be held.
(c) the Speaker of the House of Representatives discharges the duties of the
office of President.
(d) the Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court assumes charge for the unexpired
term.
43. The
President
of
US
can
be
removed
from
his
office
before
the
expiry
of
his
normal
term of four years
(a) if the two houses of the Congress pass a vote of no-confidence against him.
(b) through impeachment proceedings which are instituted against the President
on grounds of treason, bribery or others crimes.
(c) by the Chief Justice of USA on the recommendation of the US congress.
(d) There is no provision for his removal
44. Though
the
original
US
constitution
provided
for
an
indirect
election
for
the
President
his
election
has
virtually
become
direct due to
(a) growth of political parties

(b) growth of faster means of transport and communication
45. The
President
of
USA
is
elected
through
an
electoral college to which each state
(a) sends 10 members
(b) sends members equal to its members in both the Houses of the Congress
(c) sends 25 members
(d) sends 50 members
46. To
get
elected
as
President,
a
candidate
must
secure
clear
cut
majority
of
the
electoral
votes.
However,
if
none
of
the
candidate
receives
a
clear
cut
majority
of
electoral
votes
the
candidate
is
chosen
from amongst first three candidates by
(a) the Senate
(b) the House of Representatives
(c) the two chambers of the Congress
(d) the Chief Justice of U.S.A.
47. Before
entering
upon
his
office
as
President, he is administered on oath by
(a) the Vice-President
(b) the Chief Justice of Supreme Court
(c) the Speaker of the House of Representatives
(d) the outgoing President
48. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The powers of the President have tremendously increased in recent years.
(b) No change has taken place in the powers of the US President since the
inauguration of the Constitution.
(c) No change has taken place in the powers of the US President since the
inauguration of the Constitution.
49. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
has
contributed
to
the
increase
in
the
powers
of the American President in recent times
(a) Growing trend of centralisation of administration in U.S.A.
(b) Transformation of the state into a welfare state.
(c) Growth of Delegated Legislation which has obliged Congress to pass only
general and skelton laws
(d) all the above
1. The Supreme Court of USA has considerably curtailed the powers oi the US
President
2. Emergence of US as a super power has greatly enhanced the importance of
the US president
3. The important role played by the political parties in the American system has
enhanced the importance of the President.
4. Virtual direct election of the US President has greatly enhanced his prestige
and power
1.

(a) The US President draws his powers from the Constitution
(b) The US President is the Supreme Commander of the armed forces and can
order general mobilisation.
(c) The US President is the boss of his Cabinet which acts merely as an advisory
body.
(d) The American President can be removed from his office before the expiry of
his term by the House of Representatives.
52. The British Prime Minister is superior to
the American President because
(a) He is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons and enjoys
extensive legislative powers.
(b) In Britain all important appointments are made by the Queen on the
recommendation of the Prime Minister and there is no need of ratification of
these appointments by Parliament
(c) He can conclude treaties with foreign powers and get these treaties ratified
bythe Parliament without any difficulty.
(d) All of the above reasons.
53. The American President is superior to the
British Queen because
(a) He is head of the state as well as government
(b)
He is the boss of the Cabinet and presides over its meetings
(c) He makes use of powers which have been bestowed on him by the
Constitution.
(d) All of the above reasons
1. The British Queen holds office on hereditary basis and holds office for life.
2. the British Queen stands above party politics and is regarded as
representative of the entire nation
3. The British Queen is the head of the official Church
4. The British Queen enjoys extensive legislative, financial and judicial powers
the Cabinet in USA
1. Cabinet in USA is not known to the law and is an extra-constitutional growth
2. The member of US cabinet are nominees of President and hold office during
his pleasure
3. The advice of the Cabinet is binding on the President
4. The members of the Cabinet are appointed by the President with the approval
of the Senate.
not correct?
(a) In British the members of the Cabinet are taken from the same political party
(b) In Britain the members of the Cabinet cannot be members of either house of
Parliament
(c) In Britain the members of the Cabinet are collectively responsible to the
Parliament
(a)
(d) In Britain the Cabinet operates on the principle of collective responsibility.

57. Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
Vice-President
of
USA
has
been
wrongly
listed
(a) He is the ex-officio Chairman of the Senate
(b) The Vice-President discharges the functions of the President in the event of
his death or resignation.
(c) The Vice-President succeeds the President for the un-expired term
(d) The Vice-President discharges the functions of the office of president for a
maximum period of six months, in the event of his death or resignation.
1. In Switzerland the executive authority is vested in the Federal Council
consisting of seven members.
2. All the members of the Federal Council of Switzerland enjoy coequal powers.
3. The Swiss executive bears close resemblance with the executive in USA
4.In Switzerland the office of the President of Federal Council rotates amongst
the members of the Federal Council.
59. The
President
of
the
Federal
Council
also
acts as
(a) President of Switzerland
(b) the Chief Justice of the country
(c) the titular head of the Confederation
60. The
members
of
Federal
Council
of
Switzerland are
(a) nominated by the President of Switzerland
(b) elected by the two houses of the Federal Legislature at a joint sitting
(c) directly elected by the people
(d) elected through an electoral college containing representatives of all the
Cantons.
61. The
members
of
the
Federal
Council
of
Switzerland are elected for a term of
(a) four years
(b) three years
(c) five years
(d) seven years
62. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Federal Council of Swtizerland.
1. In case of emergency it can raise necessary troops if the Federal Assembly is
not in session.
2. It maintains neutrality of the country and ensures external safety of the
country
3. It supervises the work of the federal officials
4. The members of Federal Council are also members of the Federal Assembly.

63. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
Federal
Council
of
Switzerland
is wrong
(a) The members of the Federal Council are not members of the Federal
Assembly
(b) Almost 95 per cent of the bills are drafted and introduced in the Federal
Assembly by the members of the Federal Council
(c)The Federal Council can issue ordinances which have the force of law
64. The
financial
powers
of
the
Swiss
Federal
Council include
(a) preparation of budget
(b) collection of revenues
(c) getting the budget approved from the Federal Assembly
(d) all the above
(a)
65. Which
one
of
the
following
judicial
powers
of
the
Federal
Council
of
Switzerland
has
(a) Appointment of the judges of the Federal Tribunal
(b) Enforcement of the decisions of Federal Tribunal
(c) Enforcement of agreements concluded by the Cantons among themselves or
with foreign governments
(d) Hearing of appeals of private individuals against decisions of various
departments of Federal Government.
66.
Though the Swiss Federal Council was
designed to be a subordinate agency of the
Federal
Assembly,
it
has
acquired
position
of
great
prestige
and
importance
because
of
(a) introduction of the system of propotional representation.
(b) delegation of certain authorities to the Federal Council by the Federal
Assembly for the sake of security integrity and neutrality of Switzerland
67. The
French
Constitution
of
Fifth
Republic
provides
an
executive
which
is
neither
Presidential
nor
Parliamentary.
It
is
a
mixture of the two.
(a) True
(b) False
68. The
French
Executive
under
the
Fifth
Republic
has
several
Parliamentary
features.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
(a) The President appoints the Prime Minister
(b) The President performs most of his functions on the advice of the Council of
Ministers.
(c) The French President can dissolve the National Assembly, the popular house
of French Parliament.
69. The
French
Executive
under
the
constitution
of
Fifth
Republic
possesses
certain
features
of
Presidential
system.
Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Presidential
system
has
been
wrongly
listed
(a) The French President acts both as head of the state as well as the
government.
(b) The French President presides over the meeting of the council of ministers.
(c) The French President can dissolve the National Assembly without consulting
the Prime Minister.
(d) The members of the French Council of Ministers are taken from the French
Parliament and work in close co-operation with it.
1. The French President is free to appoint any persons as Prime Minister
2. The French President performs most of the functions on the advice of the
Council of Ministers.
3. Though the members of French Council of Ministers are not members of
Parliament they can participate in its proceedings.
4. The meetings of the Council of Ministers in France are presided over the
President.
71. The
President
of
French
Republic
is
elected
for a term of
(a) three years
(b) four years
(c) five years
(d) seven years.
72. Under
the
new
President is
(a) eligible for re-election
(b) not eligible for re-election
(a)
French
Constitutions
the
(c) eligible for re-election only once

73. Which
one
of
the
following
executives
power
of
the
French
President
that
been
wrongly listed
(a) President is the executive head of France and all actions are taken in his
name
(b) He has lot of discretion in the appointment of the Prime Minister
(c) He presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers and vitally
influences its decisions.
74. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
President
of
French
Re
public.
1. He
can
ask
the
Parliament
to
reconsider
a
bill
in
part
or
the
whole
of it and the Parliament has to do so.
2. The President can dissolve the
* National Assembly in consultation
with the Prime Minister and the presiding officers of the two houses of
Parliament.
3. All extraordinary sessions of Parliament begin and end with the decree of
President.
4. It is upto the President whether a bill passed by the Parliament should be
submitted to referendum or not.

75. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
wrong.
(a) The French President can grant pardon and reprieves
(b) The President presides over the Supreme Council of Justice
(c) The President nominates nine members of the Supreme Council of Justice in
accordance with the organic law.
76. The
President
of
France
can
be
removed
from his office before the expiry of his term
(a) by the two houses of the Parliament by passing a resolution by two-thirds
majority
(b) by the two houses of Parliament and the High Court of Justice
(c) the High Court of Justice
(d) by none of the above
1. The members of the Council of Ministers in France cannot be members of
Parliament
2. There is no fixed term for the Council of Ministers and it stays in office as long
as it enjoys the confidence of the majority of the members of National
Assembly.
3. The President can remove the Prime Minister and other ministers from office
at his sweet will.
4. The President cannot remove the Prime Minister or other ministers from office
78. Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
of
France
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The Council of Ministers determines and directs the policy of the nation
(b) It enjoys control over administrative machinery as well as defence forces
(c) If the Parliament passes a vote of no confidence against the Council of
Ministers, it need not tender resignation
(d) If the French Parliament passes a vote of no-confidence against the Council of
Ministers, it has to tender its resignation.
79. The
ultimate
responsibility
for
ensuring
constitutional
government
in
France
rests
with
198
(a) the President

(b) the Prime Minister
(c) the Supreme Council of Justice
(d) all the above
80. The
Constitution
of
tried to ensure stability of cabinet by
the
Fifth
Republic
has
(a) denying membership of Parliament to the members of Cabinet.

(b) increasing the powers of the President
(c) resorting to division of powers between the President and the Prime Minister
(d) all the above steps
81. The
Constitution
of
Fifth
Republic
has
sought
to
check
despotism
of
the
President
by
(a) dividing executive powers between the President and the Prime Minister
(b) considerably increasing the powers of the Prime Minister with regard to
defence of the country and enforcement of laws
(c) by insisting that some of the orders should be counter-signed by the minister
incharge of department
82. Under
the
Constitution
of
the
Fifth
Republic the Prime Minister
(a) has been accorded a somewhat subordinate position to the President
(b) is appointed by the President who has great discretion in this regard
(c) can be picked up by the President from the Parliament or outside
(d) all the above
83. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
the
French
Prime
Minister
is
correct?
(a) He does not enjoy any fixed term
(b) He holds office as long as he enjoys the confidence of the National Assembly.
(c) He cannot be removed from his office by the President.
(d) All the above.
84. Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
the
French
Prime
Minister
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He is reponsible for the determination and conduct of policy of the nation.
(b) The Prime Minister of France presides over the meetings of the National
Defence Council in the absence of the President
(c) The Prime Minister can call a joint session of the two houses of the Parliament
in case of disagreement between the two houses on a government bill.

1. Even though the Prime Minister of France is not a member of Parliament he
can address both the houses.
2. The French Prime Minister can submit proposals for amendment of
Constitution to the President.
3. All the meetings of the Council of Ministers in France presided over by the
Prime Minister.
4. The Prime Minister of France can advise the President regarding declaration of
emergency. Of the above statements
86. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
wrong?
(a) In France the Prime Minister is a nominee of the President and is only a senior
member of the Cabinet.
(b) In France the Ministers look to the President rather than the Prime Minister, as
their leader.
(c)The Prime Minister of France is the leader of the nation.
(d) The French Prime Minister is responsible for the defence of the country and
directs the works of administration.
(a)
199
87. The
President
of
people's
Republic
of
China is
(a) elected by the National People's Congress
(b) directly elected by the people
(c) elected through a specially constituted electoral college
(d) nominated by the Chairman of the Communist Party of China
88. The President of People's Republic is
(a) elected for a term of 5 years
(b) elected for a term of 7 years
(c) appointed for a term of ten years
(d) appointed for life
89. What
is
the
minimum
age
to
contest
for
the
office of President in China?
(a) 35 years
(b) 40 years
(c) 45 years
(d) 50 years
90. What
is
the
maximum
term
for
which
the
President of China can hold office?.
(a) 5 years
(b) 10 years
(c) 15 years
(d) for life
91. Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
the
Chinese
President
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He promulgates the statutes and enforces the decisions of the National
People's Congress and its Standing Committee.
(b) He can order mobilisation of militia in case of war.

(c) He concludes treaties and agreements with foreign countries.
92. The
President
of
the
People's
Republic
of
China is
(a) merely a constitutional ruler
(b) the real executive head of the country
(c) as powerful as the President of USA
93. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the State Council of China?
1. The State Council of China bears close resemblance with the Council of
Ministers in several other countries.
2. The State Council of China is a peculiar institution which is not found
anywhere else
3. The Chinese Constitution describes the State Council of China as the highest
organ of state administration.
4. The strength of the State Council of China has not been fixed by the
Constitution.
94. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) The "meetings of the Chinese State Council are held at the discretion of the
Prime Minister
(b) The meetings of the Chinese State Council are presided over by the Prime
Minister
(c) The meetings of the Chinese State Council are presided over by the President
(d) The Chinese State Council is responsible to the National People's Congress
and do its Standing Committee when the National People's Congress is not in
session.
95. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
has
(a)
China's State Council is a supreme body and its decisions cannot be annulled
by the
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.

(b) The members of the State Council of China are collectively responsible and
act as a team
(c) The Prime Minister of China plays an important and effective role in the
working of the State Council.
(d)all the above
96. The
Chinese
State
Council
differs
from
a
traditional
Council
of
Ministers
on
account
of
(a) lack of final authority to take decisions
200
(b) lack of principle of collective responsibility of members.

(c) dominance of polity by the Communist Party
97. The
Governments
of
England
and
India
are
sometime
described
as
Prime
Minis
terial
governments
on
account
of
reasons
listed
below.
Which
one
of
these
reasons
(a) The Prime Minister can recommend the dissolution of popular house to the
head of state.
(b) Resignation of the Prime Minister is treated resignation of the entire Council
of Ministers.
(c) The Prime Minister can recommend the abolition of the upper house
(d) The Prime Minister has full freedom to reshuffle the Council of Ministers at
will.
98. The President of India is
(a) the constitutional head of the state
(b) the real ruler of India
(c) head of the state as well as government
(d) is the leader of the majority party
99. The President of India is
(a) appointed by the Chief Justice of India in consultation with the Prime Minister
(b) elected by the members of Parliament at a joint meeting of the two houses.
(c) elected through an electoral college consisting of members of Parliament
and State Legislatures.
(d) Elected by the Chief Ministers of States
100. Which one of the following qualification for the office of the President has been
wrongly listed?
(a) He must be a citizen of India
(b) He must be more than thirty-five years of age
(c) He must possess qualifications laid down for election as member of the Lok
Sabha
(d) He must be member of either House of Parliament
101. The
Electoral
College
for
the
election
of
the
President consists of
(a) Elected members of the two houses of Parliament
(b) All the members of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.
(c) Elected members of both House of Parliament
(d) The elected members of all the state legislatures.

In the election of the President of India
(a) the members of State Legislative Assemblies have been given more votes
(b) the members of the Parliament have been given more votes
(c) the members of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies have equal
votes.
(d) none of each above
103. A
candidate
for
the
office
of
the
President
of India must be sponsored by
(a) 20 members of the electoral college
(b) 50 members of the electoral college
(c) 25 members of the electoral college
104. The President of India is elected for a term
- of
(a) 4 years
(b) 5 years
(c) 6 years
105. What
is
the
maximum
number
of
terms
for
which
the
President
of
India
can
hold
office?
(a) one
(b) two
(c) three
(d) No limit prescribed by the Constitution.
106. The
President
of
India
is
conducted
on
oath of office by
(a) the Chief Justice of India
(a)
201
102.
107. If
the
President
wishes
to
vacate
his
office
before
the
expiry
of
his
term
he
has
to
address his resignation to
(a) the Speaker of Lok Sabha
(c) the Secretary General of Lok Sabha
(d) the Minister for Parliamentary Affairs
108. The
vacancy
in
the
office
of
the
President
of India has to be filled within
(a) three months (b) six months
(c) nine months
(d) one year
109. The
President
of
India
can
be
removed
from
his
office
before
the
expiry
of
his
term
by
(b) the Parliament and State Legislatures jointly
(c) the two houses of the Parliament
(d) the Supreme Court of India
110. Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
President
of
India
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He is the Supreme Commander of the Armed forces of India.
(b) He makes all major executive appointments of the Union Government.
(c) He can declare and make peace
(d) He presents the Union budget before the Indian Parliament.
111. Under the Indian Constitution it is
(a) obligatory for the President to seek advice of the Council of Ministers even
though he may not follow it.
(b) obligatory for the President to act on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
(c) not obligatory for the President to seek or accept the advice of the Council of
Ministers.
(d) obligatory for the President to seek advice of the Council of Ministers if his
own party is in power.
1. The President of India is an integral part of the Parliament
2. The President of India is not a part of the Indian Parliament
3. The President of India can dissolve the Lok Sabha
4. The President can summon each House of Parliament.
113. How
many
members
of
Rajya
Sabha
can
be nominated by the President of India
(a) two
(b) five
(c) Twelve
(d) None
114. The President of India can veto
(a) only money bills
(b) only non-money bills
(c) both money and non-money bills
(d) all bills except those relating to defence of the country.
115. During
the
recess
of
the
Parliament
the
President
of
India
can
promulgate
ordinances with
(a) the consent of the Council of Ministers
(b) the prior approval of the Supreme Court
(c) the prior approval ofthe Chief Justice of India
(d) the prior approval of the Speaker of Lok Sabha
1. The President of India can raise extra funds without the consent of
Parliament during emergency
2. No money bill can be introduced in the Indian Parliament without the
recommendation of the President.
3. The Contingency Fund of India has been placed at the disposal of the
President and he can make advances out of it to meet unforeseen
expenditure.
4. The President appoints a Finance Commission for the division of taxes
1.
between the Union and the States every five years. Of the above statements
117. Which
one
of
the
following
judicial
powers
of
the
President
of
India
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He appoints the Chief Justice of India and other judges of the Supreme Court
(b) He can remove the judges of Supreme Court on grounds of misconduct
(c) He can grant pardon, reprieve and respite to persons punished under the
Union Law
(d) He can consult the Supreme Court on any question of law or fact which is of
public importance
118. The
President
of
Indian
can
declare
emergency on account of
(a) threat of war, external aggression or armed rebellion
(b) break down of constitutional machinery in a state
(c) threat to the financial credit of India
(d) all the above
119. The
President
of
India
can
declare
national
emergency
(a) only in the event of foreign attack
(b) only in the event of armed rebellion
(c) if he is satisfied that a grave threat exists to the security of India either due
to war of external aggression or armed rebellion.
120. The
President
of
India
can
declare
emergency
on
the
ground
of
break
down
of constitutional machinery in a state
(a) only on receipt of a report to this effect from the Governor of the state.
(b) even without receipt of a report from the Governor if he is satisfied that a
situation has arisen in which the government of the state cannot be
carried on in accordance with the provisions of the constitution.
(c) if the Council of Ministers of the state makes a recommendation to the
President
(d) if the Speaker of the State Legislative Assembly makes such a
recommendation to the President.
121.The
Proclamation
of
emergency
must
be
placed
before
the
Parliament
for
its
approval within
(a) one month
(b) two months
(c) three months (d) six months
122.Consider
the
following
statements
regard
ing the impact of national emergency.
1. The Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended.
2. The distribution of revenue between the Union and the States can be
modified
3. The President can issue directions to the states with regard to the exercise of
their executive powers
4. The President can act in his discretion without the advice of the Council of
Ministers.
123.Which
one
of
the
following
emergency
has
been declared maximum number of times
(a) National Emergency
(b) Emergency due to break down of constitutional machinery
(c) Financial Emergency
(d) All the three have been declared equal number of times.
124.Which
one
of
the
following
emergency
been never declared so far
(a) National Emergency
(b) Emergency due to break down of constitutional machinery in a state
(c) Financial Emergency
(a)
has

203
125.
The Vice-President of India is

(a) directly elected by the people
(b) elected by the two houses of Parliament at a joint-sitting
(c) elected the members of the Rajya Sabha
(d). elected by the members of state Legislative Assemblies.
126. Which
one
of
the
following
qualification
for
the
office
of
the
Vice-President
of
India
(b) He must have completed age of 35 years.
(c) He should be a member of Rajya Sabha
(d) He should not hold any office of profit under Government of India or state
government.
127. The Vice-President of India holds office
(a) during the pleasure of the President
(b) for a term of five years
(c) for a term of four years
(d) for a term fixed by the Parliament
128. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
the
Vice-President has been wrongly listed?
(a) He presides over the meetings of the Rajya Sabha and conducts its business.
(b) He protects the privileges of the members of Rajya Sabha
(c) He can dissolve the Rajya Sabha

(d) He acts as the spokesman of Rajya Sabha before the President and Lok
Sabha
129. When
the
Vice-President
of
India
discharges
the
functions
of
the
office
of
the
President he
(a) ceases to act in his capacity as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha
(b) ceases to act in his capacity as the Vice-President of India.
(c) also continues to discharge his duties as Vice-President and Chairman of the
Rajya Sabha
(d) he ceases to act as Vice-President but continues to act as the Chairman of
Rajya Sabha.
130. In
the
event
of
the
death
or
resignation
of
the
President
the
Vice
President
succeeds
him as President for
(a) the un-expired term
(b) a maximum period of six months
(c) a maximum period of one year
(d) a maximum period of nine months.
131. Who
discharges
the
duties
of
the
office
of
the
President
in
the
event
of
President
as
well
as
the
Vice-President
being
not
available?
(d) the Attorney General of India.
132. The
President
can
declare
national
emergency
(a) only on the advice of the Prime Minister
(b) only after the Cabinet makes a recommendation to him in writing, to this
effect
(c) only after the Parliament passes a resolution to this effect
(d) in his discretion.
133. In
India
the
real
executive
authority
rests
with
(a) the President
(c) the Council of Ministers
(d) the Civil Servants.
134. The
Prime
Minister,
who
heads
the
Council of Ministers in India
(a) must be a member of either house of Parliament
(b) must be leader of the majority party in the Parliament
(c) cannot be member of either house of Indian Parliament
(d) is generally the leader of the majority party in the Rajya Sabha
135. The
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
in India are appointed by the President
204 UGCPoliticdScience
(a) in his discretion

(b) on the advice of the Prime Minister
(c) on the advice of the Speaker of Lok Sabha
(d) on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Speaker of Lok Sabha
136. According
to
the
Indian
Constitution
the
Council of Ministers holds office
(a) for a fixed term of five years
(b) during the pleasure of the President
(c) during the pleasure of the Prime Minister
(d) during the pleasure of the Speaker
137. In
reality
the
Council
of
Ministers
in
India
remains
in
office
as
long
as
it
enjoys
the
confidence of
(a) the President
(c) the Lok Sabha
(d) the Rajya Sabha
138. A
member
of
a
Council
of
Ministers
in
India
must
be
member
of
either
House
of
Parliament.
However
a
non-member
can
be
appointed
as
a
member
of
Council,
but
he
must
acquire
membership
of
Parlia
ment
(a) within three months
(b) within six months
(c) nine months
(d) one year
139. The
Council
of
Ministers
in
India
can
be
removed from office
(a) by the President
(b) by the Prime Minister
(c) by the Lok Sabha by passing a vote of no-confidence against it
(d) by the two houses of the Parliament by passing a vote of no-confidence
against it.
140. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
functions
of
the
Council
of
Ministers in India
1. It formulates the executive policy of the country
2. It coordinates the policies, programmes and activities of various
departments
3. It plays an important role in filling up various political, judicial and
ambassadorial assignments.
4. It plays an important role in the election of the President.
141.Which
one
of
the
following
legislative
function
is
performed
by
the
Council
of
Minister in India?
(a) It summons and prorogues the two houses of Parliament
(b) It nominates two Anglo-Indian members to the Rajya Sabha
(c) It can nominate certain members of Rajya Sabha
(d) It introduces important bills and resolutions in the Parliament.
142.Which
one
of
the
following
financial
power
is
exercised
by
the
Council
of
Ministers in India?
(a) It certifies whether a bill is a money bill or not
(b) It prepares and introduces the budget in the Parliament.
(c) It exercises complete control over the Contingency Fund of India.
(d) It appoints a Finance Commission every five years.
143.The
Constitution
of
India
provides
for
a
Council
of
Ministers
to
aid
and
advice
the
President
in
the
exercise
of
his
functions.
The President is
(a) free to accept or refect this advice
(b) bound to act on this advice
(c) free to seek its advice and bypass it
(d) however free to accept or reject this advice
144.The
meetings
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
in
India are presided over by
(a) the Prime Minister
(b) the President
(c) the Minister for Parliamentary Affairs
(d) the Speaker
(a)
205
145. Who allocates,the portfolios to the various

members of Council of Ministers in India?
(a) the President
(c) the Minister for Parliamentary Affairs
(d) on the basis of preference indicated by the various members of the Council.
146. A member of Council of Ministers in India

can be removed from his office by
(a) the President in his discretion
(b) the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
(c) the Prime Minister in consultation with the Cabinet.
147. The office of the Prime Minister of India
(a) has been created by the Constitution
(b) rests on conventions
(c) has been created through a Parliamentary Statute
(d) rests on all the above three
148. The Indian Prime Minister is
(a) the head of the government
(b) the head of the state
(c) the head of government as well as state
(d) head of neither the government nor the state.
149. The Indian Prime Minister is
(a) appointed by the President
(b) elected by the Lok Sabha
(c) elected by both the houses of Indian Parliament
(d) elected through a specially constituted electoral college
150. Generally the Prime Minister of India is
(a) not a member of either house of Parliament
(b) leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha
(c) leader of the majority party in both the houses of the Indian Parliament
(d) a trusted friend of the President
151. The Prime Minister of India holds office
(a) for a fixed term of 5 years
(b) as long as he enjoys the confidence of the President
(c) as long as his party enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha
(d) as long as his party enjoys the confidence of both the houses of Parliament
152. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Indian Prime Minister.
(a) The President appoints the members of the Council of Ministers on the
advice of the Prime Minister.
(b) The Prime Minister allocates the portfolios among the members of Council of
Ministers.
(c) the Prime Minister presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers.
(d) The Prime Minister can dismiss the Council of Ministers if he finds it is not cooperating with him.
153. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
powers
of
the
Indian
Prime
Minister.
1. He assists the President in making all appointments.
2. The Prime Minister communicates all the decisions of the Council of Ministers
to the President
3. He supplies to the President such information regarding proposals of
legislation and administration as the President may need.
4. The Prime Minister appends his signatures to the bills passed by the
Parliament on behalf of the President when he is not available.
(a)
206

154.Which
one
of
the
following
official
is
not
appointed
by
the
President
of
India
on
the
advice of the Prime Minister?
(a) Chief Justice of India
(b) Governors of the State
(c) Speaker of Lok Sabha
(d) Chairman and members of UPSC
155.Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
the
Indian
Prime
Minister
with
regard
to
Parliament has been wrongly listed
(a) Prime Minister has to justify the policy and programme of his government on
the floor of the house.
156.
(b) All important policy announcement are made by the Prime Minister on the floor of
the house
(c) The Prime Minister can recommend the dissolution of the Lok Sabha to the
President
(d) The Prime Minister can summon and prorpgue the sessions of the Parliament.
The position ef the Prime Minister of India is superior to the British Prime Minister
because of
(a) the presence of a written constitution
(b) the multiparty system
(c) the constitutional status of the office of Pfime Minister
(d) all the above reasons
(a)
1. (a)
7.(d)
13. (c)
19. (d)
25. (a)
31. (a)
37. (a)
43. (b)
49. (d)
55. (c)
61. (a)
67. (a)
2. (a)
8.(d)
14. (d)
20. (d)
26. (a)
32. (d)
38. (c)
44. (c)
50. (b)
56. (b)
62. (a)
68. (d)
3. (a)
9. (a)
15. (d)
21. (b)
27. (d)
33. (a)
39. (b)
45. (d)
51. (d)
57. (d)
63. (d)
69. (d)
4.(d)
10. (d)
16. (b)
22. (a)
28. (d)
34. (d)
40. (a)
46. (b)
52. (d)
58. (c)
64. (d)
70. (b)
5.(d)
11. (a)
17. (a)
23. (d)
29. (c)
35. (b)
41. (d)
47. (b)
53. (d)
59. (d)
65. (a)
71. (d)
6.(d)
12. (c)
18. (d)
24. (d)
30. (d)
36. (c)
42. (a)
48. (a)
54. (a)
60. (b)
66. (c)
72. (a)
73.
79. (a)
85. (c)
91. (d)
97. (c)
103. (b)
109. (c)
115. (a)
121. (a)
127. (b)
133. (c)
139. (c)
145. (b)
151. (c)
74.
80. (d)
86. (c)
92. (a)
98. (a)
104. (b)
110. (d)
116. (b)
122. (a)
128. (c)
134. (b)
140. (a)
146. (b)
152. (a)
75.
81. (d)
87. (a)
93. (d)
99. (c)
105. (d)
111. (b)
117. (b)
123. (b)
129. (a)
135. (b)
141. (d)
147. (a)
153. (a)
76.
82. (d)
88. (a)
94. (c)
100. (d)
106. (a)
112. (c)
118. (d)
124. (c)
130. (b)
136. (b)
142. (b)
148. (a)
154. (c)
77.
83. (d)
89. (c)
95. (d)
101. (c)
107. (b)
113. (c)
119. (c)
125. (b)
131. (a)
137. (c)
143. (b)
149. (a)
155. (d)
78.
84. (d)
90. (b)
96. (d)
102. (c)
108. (b)
114. (b)
120. (b)
126. (c)
132. (b)
138. (b)
144. (a)
150. (b)
156. (c)
Organs of Government:
Judiciary
Judiciary is the third organ of the government. Though this branch of the government
does not occupy as prominent position as the other two organs viz. the legislature
and the executive. However, in a democratic system it occupies a preeminent
position and dispenses justice to the citizens. In this process it protects the rights and
liberties of the people and punishes those who are found guilty of violating the laws.
In short it can be said that it acts as the guardian of the rights of the people and
shields the innocent. In the absence of an efficient judiciary the rights and liberties of
the people would be jeopardized. Delay in imparting justice can pose a serious threat
to the life, liberty and property of the people.
The judiciary also performs important legislative functions. It imparts meaning to
a law which is not clear and thus contributes to the making of the laws. Sometimes a
case may not be covered by an existing law. In such cases the judges decide the
cases on the basis of their common sense. Such decisions serve as precedents for
similar cases in future. The laws thus enacted by the judiciary are known as 'judge
made laws' or 'case laws'. The judiciary also contributes to the growth of the laws by
imparting new meanings to the existing laws in accordance with the changed
conditions.
The judiciary exercises control over legislature and executive through its power of
judicial review. It can pronounce upon the constitutionality of a law and set aside
executive actions which are unconstitutional. The judiciary also tenders advice to the
executive regarding the constitutionality of a law. It also appoints certain officials to
administer estates and decide cases of bankruptcy etc. Above all it issues writs for
the protection of citizens rights.
1. The main function of the judiciary is

(a) to dispense justice
(b) to ensurge rule of law
(c) to suggest to the Parliament as to what type of laws are needed by the
country
(d)
All the above
2. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
judiciary
under
a
democratic
state
has
(a) It protects the liberties of the common people
(b) It operates on the principle of open trial
(c) It operates within the norms laid down by the Parliament
(d) It impartially interprets the laws passed by the legislature
3. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding judiciary
(a) It protects the rights and liberties of the people and punishes those guilty
under the law
(b) It protects the individual against the executive as well as other members
of the society
(c) The judiciary interprets the law and imparts meaning to a law which is
vague
(d) The judiciary provides the broad guidelines on the basis of which the
legislature enacts laws.
Of the above statements (a) 1,2 and 3 are correct

4. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
the
legislative
functions
of
judiciary
under
a
liberal
democracy
has
(a) It interprets the law and fixes its meaning when the law is not clear
(b) If the law is silent on a particular point, the judges can use their common
sense and clarify the meaning of law for the future.
5.
6.
7.
8.
(c) The broad principles of certain types of laws are laid down by the judiciary.
(d) The judiciary contributes a great deal to the growth of the laws of the country
through its interpretations
Which
of
the
following
functions
are
performed
by
the
judiciary
even
though
they are not strictly judicial in nature?
(a) appointment of receivers for bankruptcy business
(b) issue of injunctions and other writs
(c) administration of estates
(d) all the above
The 'case law' or 'judge made' law refers to
(a) a law based on the decision of the judiciary
(b) the law which is enacted on the recommendation of the judiciary
(c) a law based on judicial decision and endorsed by the legislature
(d) All the above
Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
pre
requisite of an independent judiciary?
(a) The judges must possess sound knowledge of law and enjoy independence
(b) The judges should be able to perform their functions without fear or favour
(c) The judges should be protected from political influence or other pressures
which affect their decisions.
(d) All the above
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
judiciary
under dictatorial regime?
(a) The judges are the nominees of the party

(b) The judges decide the cases keeping in view the wishes of the party bosses
(c) The judges under dictatorship try to advance the ends of the ruling group
rather than the common people
9. The method of elected judges is defective because
(a) the ordinary voters are not qualified to choose the right type of persons for
the job
(b) there is every possibility that persons of inferior calibre may be elected while
persons with superior judicial knowledge may be defeated in elections.
(c) the judges are likely to be elected on party lines and cannot act
independently.
(d) All of the above reasons
10. In
which
one
of
the
following
countries
the
judges are elected by the legislature
(a) Switzerland
(b) France
(c) U.S.A.
11. Which
of
the
following
is
the
most
popular
method for the appointment of judges?
(a) election by the people
(b) election by the legislature
(c) appointment by the Executive head
(d) all are equally popular
12. Different
countries
have
tried
to
ensure
the
independence
of
judges
by
taking
the
following
steps.
Which
one
of
these
steps
(a) Judges are appointed for a fixed tenure

(b) The salaries and service conditions of judges cannot be changed to their
disadvantage during their tenure.
(c) The judges can be removed from their office through difficult process of
impeachment.
(d) The judges are appointed for life and cannot be removed.
(a)
Organs of Government: Judiciary 209
13. Which
one
of
the
following
is
helpful
in
ensuring independence of Judiciary?
(a) Long tenure
(b) Security of office
(c) Handsome salary
(d) All the above
14. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
the
organisation
of
the
judiciary
(a) Courts are generally organised on hierarchical basis.
(b) The judicial work is generally divided into two parts- civil and criminal.
(c) Special courts such as military courts, industrial courts etc. can be set up to
handle special type of cases.
15. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding judiciary under a federal system
1. The judiciary acts as the defender of the constitution.
2. The judiciary acts as the protector of fundamental rights of citizens
3. The judiciary enjoys the final authority to interpret the laws hY accordance
with the Constitution.
4. The judiciary always tries to protect and promote the federal system

16. Judicial Review implies
(a) review of the existing laws with a view to update them.
(b) the right of the judiciary to examine whether the laws passed by the
legislature and orders issued by the executive are in keeping with the
provisions of the constitution or not.
(c) review of the laws in operation with a view to weed out the out-dated laws
(d) All the above things
17. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
is
not
performed
by
the
judiciary
under
a
Federal System?
(a) to maintain balance between centre and federating units.
(b) to protect the rights of citizens
(c) to act as guardian of the constitution
(d)to periodically review the working of the federal system and suggest
measures for its effective working.
18. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the British judiciary
1. Judiciary occupies a position of pride in the British political system
2. The British judiciary acts as the custodian of the liberties of the people and
ensures rule of law.
3. The British judiciary serves as a model for the judicial systems of numerous
other countries.
4. The British judiciary has become a plaything in the hand of the ruling party.
19. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
division
of
the
British
High Court?
(a) Chancery Division
(b) The Queen Bench Divsion
(c) The Family Division
20. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
highest
civil court in Britain?
(a) the High Court
(b) House of Lords
(c) the Supreme Court
21. The
British
House
of
Lords
is
not
the
final
criminal court with regard to
(a) England
(b) Wales
(c) North Ireland
(d) Scotland
210
22. Though
Britain
has
one
of
the
advanced
judicial
system
it
comprehensive legal code.
(a) True
(b) False
23. Which
type
of
law
is
applied
by
the
Courts?
(a) the common law (b) the equity
(c) the statutes
(d) all the above
24. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
court of appeal in England?
(a) the Supreme Court of England
(b) Lord Chancellor
(c) the House of Lords
25. Which is the lowest civil court in England?
(a) Magistrate's Court
(b) The Country Court
(c) The High Court
26. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
criminal court in England?
(b) Crown Courts
(c) High Court
(d) The Country Court
27. The Crown Court in England enjoys
(a) only original powers
most
lacks
British
highest
lowest
(b) only appellate powers

(c)both original and appellate powers
28. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
judicial
system in England?
(a) It is based on the principle of rule of law
(b) The Courts can declare any law passed by the Parliament as unconstitutional
(c) The Courts act as the guardians of the liberties of people.
(d) The judges in England are expected to be politically neutral.
29. Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding the British judicial system
1. Britain possesses a single judicial system
2. England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own legal system
and law courts
3. Rule of Law is an outstanding feature of the British judicial system
4. There is no comprehensive legal code in Britain
30. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Rule
of
law,
as
it
obtains
in
Britain,
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It assures equality to all citizens before law.
(b) No person can be punished except for the breach of the law
(c) All persons are subject to the same law, irrespective of their status
31. In
Britain
the
independence
of
judiciary
has been ensured by
(a) providing that the judges can be removed from office only if the Parliament
passes a resolution to this effect.
(b) providing handsome salaries to the judges, out of the consolidated fund.
(c) providing judicial immunity with regard to their actions taken in their official
capacity.
(d) All the above measures
32. Consider
the
following
statements
with
regard to the jury system in England
1. In England the judges decide the criminal cases with the help of the jury
2. The members of the jury in England are elected from among persons of
eminence and experience.
3. In England all civil and criminal cases are decide by the judges with the help
of the jury
1.
4. The members of the jury view the cases not only from legal point but also take
into accont the social and economic background of the defendant. Of the above
statements

33. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
judicial
administration
in
Britain is correct?
(a) The Courts in Britain enjoy power of judicial review
(b) The Courts in England can declare the laws passed by Parliament and orders
issued by Crown as unconstitutional.
(c) The Courts have to accept the laws by the British Parliament
(d) The Courts in England enjoy only limited power of judicial review.
34. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
wrong?
(a) In Britain there are two types of lawyersBarristers and Solicitors.
(b) The Barristers generally practice before the High Court.
(c) The Solicitors are lawyers of inferior class and assist the Barristers in the
preparation of documents of the case
35. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
British
judicial
system
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) The British judicial system operates on the principle that unless the guilt is
proved the accused is innocent.
(b) The criminal proceedings are generally held in public and the rules of
evidence are strictly applied.
(c) The accused can call his own witnesses and defend himself either in person
or through a lawyer of his choice.
(d) The proceedings in all serious criminal cases are held in camera
36. Habeas
Corpus,
which
is
an
important
feature
of
the
British
judicial
administration ensures that
(a) any person unduly detained can < approach the court and seek orders ~ for
his release
(b) the individual liberty is protected
(c) there is rule of law in the country
(d) all the above

37. Who
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
exponent
of
the
classical
concept
of
Rule
of
law?
(a) A.V. Dicey
(b) Jean Bodin
(c) Hobbes
(d) Jennings
38. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Rule
of
law,
as
expounded
by
A.V.
Dicey,
has
(a) no person can be punished except for violation of law
(b) no person is above law and every person is subject to the ordinary law of
the realm
(c) the principles of the constitution are the result of judicial decisions
determining the rights of private persons in particular cases brought before
the courts
39. In
recent
years
the
concept
of
'rule
of
law'
in
England
has
been
subjected
to
several
limitations.
Which
one
of
these
limitation
has been wrongly listed.
(a) the judges enjoy immunity from personal responsibility for all their official
acts.
(b) The rise of delegated legislation has greatly undermined the rule of law
(c)The foreign diplomats and rulers are not subject to British Law and no
proceedings can be instituted against them.
40. An
independent
judiciary
was
necessi
tated in USA on account of
(a) adoption of a federal structure based on division of powers between the
Union and the States
(b) a written constitution
(a)
212
(c) the presence of a very powerful President in the country.

41. The Constitution of USA vests the judicial
powers of the United States in
(a) the Supreme Court
(b) the Supreme Court and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to
time ordain or establish
(c) the Supreme Court and other subordinate federal courts which have been set
up under the Constitution.
42. The number of judges of Supreme Court of
USA
(a) has been fixed by the Constitution
(b) is determined by the Congress
(c) is determined by the President in consultation with the Senate
(d) is determined by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of USA.
43. At present at the Supreme Court of USA
consists of a Chief Justice and

(a) 9 associated judges
(b) 8 associate judges
(c) 11 associate judges
44. The judges of the Supreme Court of USA
are
(a) appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate
(b) appointed by the President of USA in consultation with the Chief Justice of
USA
(c) elected by the two houses of the US congress at its joint sitting
45. The judges of US Supreme Court are
appointed
(a) for a term of 9 years
(b) for life
(c) till they attain the age of 75 years
(d) for a term of seven years
46. The
judges
of
the
Supreme
Court
of
USA
can be removed from their office
(a) by the President with the consent of the Chief Justice of USA
(b) through impeachment on grounds of proved misbehaviour or in capacity
(c) only on health ground
(d) cannot be removed
47. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Supreme Court of USA
1. The judges of the Supreme Court are paid sufficiently high salaries so that
they do not fall prey to temptation of bribes etc.
2. The Supreme Court determines its own rules and procedure
3. The quorum of the Supreme Court of USA is six and it takes all decisions by
majority vote
4. The Supreme Court of USA takes all decisions by unanimity

(c)1, 2 and 4 are correct
(d)
48. Which
one
of
the
following
categories
of
cases
fall
within
the
original
jurisdiction
of
the Supreme Court of USA
(a) cases involving ministers and ambassadors of foreign countries
(b) disputes in which the Federal Government is a party
(c) disputes between two or more states
(d) all the above
49. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Supreme
Court
of
USA
is
not
correct?
(a) Very few cases come before the Supreme Court under the original jurisdiction
(b) Maximum number of cases come before the Supreme Court under the
original jurisdiction
(c) The cases which come before the Supreme Court in the form of
(a)
appeals against the decisions of the highest state courts or from the lower
federal courts, fall in the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, (d) The
Supreme Court can hear appeals against the decisions of the Court of Claims,
Customs Court, etc
wrong?
(a) The Supreme Court of USA enjoys both original and appellate jurisdiction
(b) The emoluments of the judges cannot be changed to their disadvantage
during their tenure
(c) In USA the judges of Supreme Court can opt retirement with full pay at the
age of 70 years provided they have served for at least ten years.
(d) The judges of Supreme Court of USA are entitled to a handsome pension after
serving for at least 5 years
correct"?
(a) The Supreme Court of USA has been granted extensive Advisory Powers.
(b) The President of USA can seek opinion from the Supreme Court on any
question of law or fact.
(c) The Supreme Court of USA does not possess any advisory powers.
(d) The Supreme Court of USA has very limited Advisory powers
1. The Supreme Court of USA has played a significant role as the guardian of the
Constitution and ensured constitutional government in the country.
2. The Supreme Court has played an important role in the evolution and
development of the American Constitution.
3. The Supreme Court tries to prevent encroachments by the Federal and State
governments in each other's sphere.
4. The Supreme Court of USA has tried to ensure greater autonomy to the states.

53. As
guardian
of
the
constitution
the
American Supreme Court ensures
(a) that the laws enacted by the legislature and the actions taken by the
Executive do not infringe the provisions of the constitution
(b) that the Federal and the State governments do not encroach in each other's
jurisdiction.
(c) that the Constitution is not changed conditions.
54. The
US
Supreme
Court
acts
as
the
guardian
of
the
rights
and
liberties
of
US
citizens by
(a) knocking down the laws and actions which lead to denial or abridgement of
the civil liberties.
(b) issuing various types of writs like Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Quo-Warranto
etc.
(c) imparting new meaning to these rights to make them more meaningful.
55. The
Supreme
Court
of
USA
has
greatly
contributed
to
the
development
of
the
US
Constitution
(a) by liberal interpretation of the provisions of the constitution.
(b) by assigning certain powrs to the centre which were never intended by the
framers of the constitution and, thus, made the Centre strong.
(c) by advoca ting the doctrine of implied power.
(d) by all the above measures.
(a)
56. The
growing
of
USA
following grounds.
powers
have
of
been
the
Supreme
criticised
on
Court
the
(a) It has greatly undermined the prestige of the U.S. Congress

(b) The Congress is reluctant to undertake certain legislation due to fear of
Supreme Court striking down.
(c) It is difficult to understand how the judges are more competent to understand
the needs of the people than the popularly elected representatives.
(d)On all the above grounds.
57. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
against
the
US
Supreme
Court
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The Supreme Court has tried to be orthodox and reactionary in its conduct.
(b) It has tried to protect the rights of the rich and propertied classes and
completely ignored the interests of the common people.
(c) The Supreme Court of USA has struck down a large number of social and
economic laws on the ground that they contravene the due process of law.
(d) The Supreme Court takes all decisions by two-thirds majority, which is not
always easy to secure.
58. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Supreme
Court
of
USA
is
correct?
(a) It has played a vital role as the guardian of the Constitution.
(b) It has acted as protector of the fundamental rights of the citizens
(c) It has moulded the constitution according to the requirements of the changed
conditions.
(d) All the above
59. The
Soviet
Constitution
provided
for
a
judiciary
which
was
fundamentally
diffe
rent
from
the
judiciary
in
other
countries
and acted as a wing of administration.
(a) True
(b) False
the judiciary of erstwhile Soviet Union
1. As in most of the other countries in Soviet Union the judiciary was
independent of the other two organs of government.
2. In Soviet Union the judiciary acted as instrument for the advancement of the
general policy of the government and guardian of the socialist regime
3. The judges of the Soviet Supreme Court were elected
4. Soviet Union had uniform system of judiciary.
61. Which one of the following feature of the
Soviet Judiciary has been wrongly listed?
(a) The judiciary acts as a wing of the administration
(b) in Soviet Union the judges of the courts were elected by the elected bodies at
various levels.
(c) The judges could be recalled before the expiry of their normal term
the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union
1. Supreme Court is the highest court of land
2. The Members of the Supreme Court are elected by the Supreme Soviet for a
term of 5 years.
3. The Supreme Court works through three separate divisions which hear civil,
criminal and military cases.
4. Cases come to the Supreme Court of Soviet Union only in the form of appeals
against the decisions of lower courts.

(c) 1,2 and 4 are correct (a) 1,3 and 4 are correct
63. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
judicial
system
of
Soviet
Union
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The proceedings of the court are held in public
(b) Legal assistance is provided to the defendants in criminal cases
(c) The proceedings are held in the language of the majority of the people of the
area in which the proceedings are conducted.
64. The
judicial
system
of
USSR
had
several
peculiar
features.
Which
one
of
the
following
peculiar
feature
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The judges could be recalled by the electors in case of dissatisfaction
(b) The judges were appointed for life and held office during good behaviour.
(c) There was no system of private or paid layers in USSR
(d) Majority of the judges of the USSR were amateurs.
65. Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding
the
judicial
administration
under
the
Soviet Union?
1. The Supreme Court of USSR did not enjoy any power of judicial review
2. In USSR the right to pronounce upon the constitutionality of a law rested with
the Presidium of The Supreme Soviet.
3. Judiciary in the Svoiet Union was politically committed to protect the socialist
order of the country.
4. Under the Soviet judicial system capital punishment was a common feature.
66. The
western
scholars
have
criticised
the
Soviet
Judicial
system
on
the
following
grounds.
(a) As the judges are committed to preserve the socialist system they cannot
give fair justice.
(b) The Soviet judiciary did not act as the guardian of the constitution or
fundamental liberties of the people.
(c) The judiciary was unable to protect the units of the Soviet federation
(d) All the above grounds
67. On
what
grounds
the
Soviet
scholars
treated
their
judicial
system
as
superior
to
the
system
prevailing
in
western
countries.
(a) People had a final say in the selection of the judges.
(b) There was a provision for the recall of the judges if they behaved in an
irresponsible manner
(c) Provision of free services of lawyers by the state ensured free and fair justice
to the Soviet citizens
(d) on all the above grounds
68. Procurator
General,
who
occupied
an
important
position
in
the
judicial
system
of
the Soviet Union acted as
(a) a policeman
(b) an executive officer
(c) a judge
(d) in all the above capacities.
69. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Procurator General of Soviet Union.
1. The office of the Procurator-General of Soviet Union was a peculiar one not
found in any other country
2. The Procurator General of Soviet Union was appointed by the Chairman of the
Supreme Soviet
3. The Procurator General of Soviet Union was elected by the two houses of the
Supreme Soviet on the recommendations of the Chairman of the Supreme
Soviet.
1.
216
4. The Procurator General of the Soviet Union combined in his office the functions
of a policeman, the executive head and public prosecutor. Of the above
statements

70. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
the
Procurator
General
of
Soviet
Union
has
been wrongly listed
(a) He ensured that those who were illegally held were immediately released
(b) He ensured that the prisoners were properly treated
(c) He acted as the protector of the social and legal system of Soviet Union.
71. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the
Constitutional
Inspection
Committee
set up in USSR
1. Constitutional Inspection Committee was created as a result of constitutional
changes introduced in 1988.
2. The members of the Constitutional Inspection Committee were elected by the
Congress of the People's Deputies.
3. The members of the Constitutional Inspection Committee were picked up
from amongst persons who were specialists in politics and laws.
4. Only the Constitutional Inspection Committee enjoyed power of judicial
review.
72. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
the
Constitutional
Inspection
Committee
of
Soviet Union has been wrongly listed?
(a) It reviewed the draft legislative proposals to ensure that they conformed with
the Constitution of Soviet Union.
(b) It could look into the constitutionality of laws after they had been enacted and
promulgated
(c)
It tried to ensure that all the draft acts of the Union Republics were in keeping
with the
provisions and spirit of the constitution of the country

(d) The Constitutional Inspection Committee submitted its findings to the
Supreme Soviet.
73. The
Constitutional
Inspection
Committee
played
a
vital
role
in
ensuring
constitutional
government
in
Soviet
Union.
(a) True
(b) False
74. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Constitutional
Inspection
Committee of USSR is correct?
(a) The Constitutional Inspection Committee could examine the decrees and
orders of the executive authorities.
(b) The Constitutional Inspection Committee ensured that the constitution and
laws of the Union Republic conformed to the constitution and laws of the
USSR
(c) The Constitutional Inspection Committee played a vital role in ensuring
constitutional government in the country.
(d) All the above statements are correct
75. The
Federal
Court
in
Switzerland
is
known as
(a) the Supreme Court
(b) the Federal Tribunal
(c) the Federal Council
(d) the Central Court
76. Federal
Tribunal
is
the
only
Federal
Court
in
Switzerland
and
there
are
no
subordinate federal courts.
(a) True
(b) False
77. The
composition
and
organisation
of
the
Federal Tribunal of Switzerland
(a) has been provided in the Constitution
(b) is determined by federal law
(c) is determined by a convention specially called for this purpose
(d) is determined by Swiss cantons.
78. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Swiss Federal Tribunal.
1. The Constitution provides that while formulating the Federal Tribunal care
should be taken to ensure that all the three languages find representation in
it.
2. The judges of the Federal Tribunal should not hold any office of profit or follow
any other vocation.
3. The judges and alternate judges of the Federal Tribunal are elected by the
Federal Assembly for six years
4. Only those persons are eligible to contest the election as judges who possess
the qualifications prescribed by the Constitution

79. For
effective
discharge
of
its
duties
the
Swiss Federal Tribunal is divided into
(a) three divisions
c
(b) four divisions
(c) five divisions
(d) two divisions
80. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
division
of
the
Federal
Tribunal of Switzerland?
(a) Constitutional and Administrative Law Courts
(b) Civil Law Courts
(c) Criminal Appellate Court
81. The
Federal
Assembly
of
Switzerland
elects
a
President
and
a
Vice
President
of
Federal
Tribunal
who
hold
office
for
a
term of
(a) one years
(b) two years
(c) three years
(d) four years
82. Which
one
of
the
following
civil
cases
fall
under
the
original
jurisdiction
of
the
Swiss
Federal Tribunal?
(a) Conflicts between confederation and Canton or between Canton themselves.
(b) Conflicts between the Confederation or Cantons and private persons or
corporations involving a sum of at least 10,000 Francs
(c) Cases relating to citizenship rights of a commune
(d) All the above
83. Which
of
the
following
criminal
cases
fall
within
the
original
jurisdiction
of
the
Federal Tribunal of Switzerland?
(a) cases of treason against the Confederation

(b) cases of revolt against the federal authorities
(c)offences against International Law
(d)all the above
84. In
Switzerland
the
Federal
Tribunal
is
helped by a jury in
(a) all civil cases
(b) in all criminal cases
(c) in all administrative cases
(d) in all constitutional cases
85. In
the
Administrative
cases
the
Federal
Tribunal
enjoys
original
jurisdiction
in
disputes
(a) regarding the legal competence of the federal officials
(b) relating to fundamental rights
(c) between the officials and citizens relating to railway administration and
taxes
(d) involving all the above
86. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Swiss Federal Tribunal.
1. The Swiss Federal Tribunal plays a very limited role in the political system of
Switzerland
2. It is sole federal court and hardly exercises any authority over the Cantonal
Courts
1.
3. It does not enjoy any power to declare a law passed by the Federal Assembly
as invalid even if it contravenes any provision of the Federal Constitution.
4. It acts as the guardian of the constitution and protector of the fundamental
freedoms of citizens
87. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The Swiss Federal Tribunal enjoys only limited power of judicial review
(b) The Swiss Federal Tribunal has extensive powers of judicial review and acts as
guardian of the constitution.
(c) The Swiss Federal Tribunal acts as the protector of the fundamental freedoms
of citizens
(d) The Swiss Federal Tribunal can nullify only the federal laws if they violate the
provisions of the Federal Constitution.
88. The
final
authority
to
pronounce
upon
the
constitutionality
of
a
federal
law
in
Switzerland rests with
(a) The Federal Tribunal
(b) Council of States
(c) the Federal Assembly

89. The
Federal
Tribunal
of
Switzerland
differs
from
the
US
Supreme
Court
in
following respects
(a) Federal Tribunal has no subordinate federal courts under it, while US Supreme
Court has subordinate federal courts under it.
(b) Judges of Swiss Federal Tribunal are elected, while the judges of US Supreme
Court are appointed by the President.
(c) Judges of Federal Tribunal are elected for six years, while judges of Supreme
Court are appointed for life.
(d) In all the above respects
90. The
French
Judicial
system
has
been
greatly influenced by the
(a) Roman Judicial System
(b) The British Judicial System
(c) American Judicial System
91. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
French
Judicial system?
(a) France possesses extensive law codes
(b) There are separate courts to hear cases against government servants and
officials in France
(c) In France cases are heard by more than one judge
92. How many types of codes exist in France?
(a) three
(b) four
(c) five
(d) only single
93. In
France
the
judges
decide
the
cases
in
accordance
with
the
existing
codes
and
hardly
possesses
any
discretion
to
decide
the cases according to their wishes.
(a) True
(b) False
94.
Consider the following statements regar
ding the judicial administration in France.

1. Most of the courts in France have atleast three judges.
2. In some of the subordinate courts in France the cases are heard by single
judges.
3. In France the judges are appointed by the President on the advice of the
Superior Council of Judiciary
4. In France the judges enjoy lot of discretion in deciding the cases.
(a)
95. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
correct?
(a) There are two types of courts in France which try cases involving government
servants and ordinary citizens.
(b) Administrative Law is an outstanding feature of the judicial administration in
France
(c) In France the executive enjoys strict control over judiciary
(d) all the above
1. The judicial system of France makes provision for Special Courts which try to
settle the disputes through mediation and agreements.
2. Only able and competent people are appointed as Judges in France
3. The same courts try civil as well as criminal cases in France
4. In France the judiciary is not independent and works under strict control of
the executive.
97. In
France
the
authority
to
pronounce
upon
the
constitutional
validity
of
laws
passed
by the Parliament rests with
(a) the President of the Senate
(b) the President of Republic
(c) the President of the National Assembly
(d) the Constitutional Council,
98. In
France
the
Constitutional
Council,
which
enjoys
final
authority
to
pronounce
upon
the
constitutional
validity
of
laws
passed by Parliament consists of
(a) 3 members
(b) 5 members
(c) 9 members
(d) 7 members
99. The
members
of
the
Constitutional
Council in France are appointed by
(a) the President of the Republic
(b) the President of the Senate

(c) the President of the National Assembly
(d) all the above in equal numbers
100. In
France
the
judges
are
far
less
competent
than
the
judges
in
Britain
and
USA
because
(a) of the low salaries paid to them
(b) most of the outstanding persons prefer to join the profession
(c) only persons who are desirous of honour and respect take up assignment as
judges
101. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
has
(a) In France the same courts try the civil as well as the criminal cases
(b) France has a double set of courtsthe ordinary courts and the
administrative courts
(c) The Courts in France enjoy power of judicial review and can declare the laws
passed by the Parliament as unconstitutional
(d) The Administrative Courts in France try to redress the grievances of the
citizens against the administrative authorities.
1. The Courts in France do not enjoy any power of judicial review
2. In France the constitutionality of law is determined before its promulgation
by the Constitutional Council.
3.In France the constitutional validity of a law cannot be challenged after it has
been promulgated
4. The final authority to pronounce upon the constitutional validity of a law
passed by the Pariament in France rests with the President of the Republic
(a)
103. In
France
independence
of
judiciary
has
been ensured
(a) by making the removal of the judges from office difficult
(b) by keeping the appointment of superior judges outside the purview of the
executive
(c) through availability of competent and high calibre judges.
(d) through all the above steps.
104. The
Procurator,
who
heads
the
institution
of Parcuet in France
(a) tries to ensure fair justice to the people who are not able to prosecute their
own cases
(b) ensures that the judgements and decrees of the courts are faithfully
executed
105. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
highest
court of appeal in civil cases in France?
(a) Justice of Peace
(b) District Court
(c) Court of Cessation
(d) Correctional Courts
106. Which
one
of
the
following
civil
court
of
France
tries
to
settle
the
cases
through
compromise?
(a) Correctional Court
(b) Justice of Peace
(c) Courts of Cessation
107. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
highest
administrative court of France?
(a) Regional Administrative Courts
(b) Council of States
(c) Inter-Departmental Prefectual Council
108. Consider
the
following
statements
with
regard to the Cessation Court in France
1. Court of Cessation is the highest court of appeal in civil cases in France
2. The Court of Cessation does not enjoy any original jurisdiction and most of
the cases come to it in the form of appeals.
3. The Court of Cessation has three sections-civil, criminal and petition
4. The Court of Cessation can amend the appeals coming from the lower
courts.
109.Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
correct?
(a) The Council of States, which is the highest administrative court, also
performs certain other functions.
(b) The French Minister of Justice acts as the ex-officio President of the Court of
Conflict
110.Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
French
High
Court
of
Justice
is
correct?
(a) It undertakes impeachment proceedings against the President of Republic on
grounds of high treason.
(b) The High Court of Justice holds trial against the President for treason only
when the two houses of the French Parliament have levelled charges of
indictment against the President.
(c) The members of the High Court of Justice are elected by the members of two
houses of French Parliament from amongst themselves.
(d)
All the above
111.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
the
French
Constitutional
Council is correct?
(a) The Constitutional Council looks after semi-judicial and semi-legislative
problems.
(b) The Constitutional Council was set up to protect the national interests
against partisan passions and to moralise politics.
(a)
(c) The Constitutional Council can more appropriately be regarded as a part of

the executive because it assists the Cabinet and the President.
(d) All the above
112. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
Constitutional
Council
of
France
1. All ex-Presidents of the French Republic are ex-officio members of the

Constitutional Council.
2. The ordinary members of the Constitutional Council of France are appointed
for a term of 9 years.
3. The President of the Constitutional Council is appointed by the President of
the French Republic
4. The members of the Constitutional Council are picked up from among the
members of the French Parliament
113. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
the
French
Constitutional
Council
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It ensures that the election of the President of the Republic is held at fixed
time.
(b) It organises referendums and announces its results.
(c) The provisions declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Council cannot
be promulgated or implemented.
114. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
French
Constitutional
Council
(a) The Constitutional Council can pronounce on the constitutionality of an
Organic law within three months of its promulgation.
(b) The provisions declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Council cannot
be promulgated or implemented.
(c) The Constitutional Council decides whether the President of the Republic is
incapable of discharging his duties or not.
'(d) The Constitutional Council advises the President of the Republic regarding
declaration of emergency
115.Which
one
of
the
following
is
an
outstan
ding feature of the French Judicial System?
(a) Rule of Law
(b) Administrative Law
(c) Judicial Review
(d) All the above
116.Administrative
Law
is
a
body
of
rules
which
regulate
the
relations
of
adminis
tration
or
the
administrative
authority
towards private citizens.
(a) True
(b) False
117.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Adminis
trative Law, as it exists in France?
(a) It draws a distinction between the official and personal acts of the officials
(b) It exempts the public officials from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts
(c) It provides for special tribunals to try officials when they are sued by private
individuals for their wrongful acts
118.Consider
the
following
statements
regarding Administrative Law in France

1. It determines the position of.the state, the officials and the rights as well as
liabilities of private citizens.
2. It ensures compensation to the individuals for the injuries sustained at the
hands of arbitrary state authorities.
3. It lays down the procedure for the enforcement of the rights of. the citizens
1.
4. It assures equal treatment to all the citizens. Of the above statements

119. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
highest
appeallate
court
in
France
as
far
as
Administrative Law is concerned?
(a) The Council of State
(b) The Regional Council
(c) The Constitutional Court
120. Who
appoints
the
members
of
the
Council
of State in France?
(a) President of the Republic in his discretion
(b) President of the Republic on the recommendation of the Council of ministers
(c) The Council of Ministers
121. Which one of the following statement with
regard
to
judiciary
in
People's
Republic
of
China is not correct?
(a) Judiciary in China is one of the state organs
(b) The judiciary in China is expected to inculcate amongst citizens a sense of
love and respect for socialist system
(c) The details about the organisation of the Chinese judiciary have been
provided in the constitution.
122. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Chinese judiciary
1.Different types of courts exist in China
2. The judes in China are elected by the People's Congress at various levels
3. The judges in China are assured security of office which enables them to
work independently.
4. Generally the proceedings of the courts in China are conducted in public.
123.Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about the Chinese judiciary is correct!
(a) Though generally the proceedings of courts in China are held in public, the
courts can decide to hold these meetings in camera also
(b) Generally the proceedings of the Court are held in the language of the area
(c) The various courts in China are accountable to the People's Congresses at
the relevant levels.
124.Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
correct?
(a) The Chinese courts do not protect the rights of the citizens.
(b) In China in case of conflict between the state and the individual, the courts
give preference to the individual.
125.In
China
no
distinction
is
drawn
between
the
civil
and
the
criminal
courts
and
both
type of cases are tried by the same court.
(a) True
(b) False
126. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
Chinese judiciary has been wrongly listed?
(a)The judiciary in China works in cooperation with the other two organs of
government
(b) The judges of various courts in China are elected by respective Congresses
and can be recalled by them.
(c) The judiciary in China is committed to recalled by them.
127.Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Chinese Judiciary.
1. In China the proceedings of the court are held in public and the accused
persons are given appropriate chance to defend themselves.

2. The Chinese judiciary deals with the political crimes very severely
3. All citizens in China are treated as equal by law irrespective of their sex,
nationality, language etc.
4. The Chinese judiciary acts as the guardian of the fundamental rights and liberties
of its citizens.
128. Which one of the following statement is incorrect?
(a)In China certain types of cases are tried by the Administrative Courts
(b) In China the final authority to interpret and protect the constitution of the
country rests with the Supreme People's Court
(c) In China the judges are not elected on the basis of their qualifications and
knowledge of law but from amongst outstanding members of the Communist
Party
(a)
ANSWERSl.(a)2.(03. (a)4. (c)5.(d)6. (a)7.(d)8. (d)9. (d)10. (a)11. (c)12. (d)13.

(d)14. (d)15. (a)16. (b)17. (d)18. (a)19. (d)20. (b)21. (d)22. (a)23. (d)24. (c)25. (a)26.
(a)27. (c)28. (b)29. (b)30. (d)31. (d)32. (c)33. (c)34. (d)35. (d)36. (d)
37.
43. (b)
49. (b)
55. (d)
61. (d)
67. (d)
73. (a)
79. (a)
85. (d)
91. (d)
97. (d)
103. (d)
109. (c)
115. (b)
121. (c)
127. (a)
38.
44. (a)
50. (d)
56. (d)
62. (a)
68. (d)
74. (d)
80. (d)
86. (a)
92. (c)
98. (c)
104. (c)
110. (d)
116. (a)
122. (b)
128. (d)
39.
45. (b)
51. (c)
57. (d)
63. (d)
69. (c)
75. (b)
81. (b)
87. (a)
93. (a)
99. (d)
105. (c)
111- (d)
117. (d)
123. (d)
40.
46. (b)
52. (a)
58. (d)
64. (b)
70. (d)
76. (a)
82. (d)
88. (d)
94. (a)
100. (d)
106. (b)
112. (a)
118. (a)
124. (c)
41.
47. (a)
53. (d)
59. (a)
65. (a)
71. (a)
77. (b)
83. (d)
89. (d)
95. (d)
101. (c)
107. (d)
113. (d)
119. (a)
125. (a)
42.
48. (d)
54. (d)
60. (b)
66. (d)
72. (b)
78. (a)
84. (b)
90. (a)
96. (c)
102.
(a)
108.
(a)
114.
(a)
120.
(b)
126. (d)
16-
Party System and Pressure

Groups
Political parties are indispensable for the proper functioning of all kinds of
governments, but they have a special role under Parliamentary democracy. According
to Maclver a political party is an association organised in support of some principles
or policy which by constitutional means it endeavours to make the determinant of the
government. "Thus we see that a political party is a voluntary association; its
members hold common views on certain basic matters; they work according to well
laid down rules and regulations; they believe in peaceful and constitutional methods;
they aim to capture political power to promote public interests.
The Political parties perform several functions which include formulation of a
policy on the basis of which they contest elections; they aim to capture power by
putting up candidates for election; they campaign in favour of their candidates; they
seek to secure majority and form government so that they can implement their
policies; minority party plays important role as opposition; they impart political
education to people; and serve as a useful link between the government and the
people.
Though political parties are indispensable for the working of democracy, they also
suffer from several shortcomings viz. they divide the people in opposing groups; they
promote nepotism and favouritism; they encourage sectional interests at the cost of
national interests; they curb the individuality of the members. Despite the above
shortcomings the political parties are indispensable for the smooth working of
democracy.
PRESSURE GROUPS
Pressure group is a group of people which tries to
exert pressure on the administration to get those laws passed which do not go
against their interests. They also use persuasive methods to get favourable
decisions. However, they do not aim at capturing political power. The main features
of pressure groups include a group of people with common interests which fights for
the protection of its members; they have no alignment with the political parties;
pressure groups can be bother permanent as well as temporary.'
The pressure groups play an important role both in democratic and totalitarian
systems. They try to exert pressure on the political leaders and decision makes to
protect promote their own interests. They provide financial support to the political
parties to ensure that only those candidates are elected who shall protect their
interests both as legislatures and ministers. The Pressure groups also try to influence
the executive by making available necessary information or data, on the basis of
which decisions are taken. Above all, they try to influence the public opinion through
reports, books, pamphlets, press conferences etc. In short, it can be said that the
pressure groups play an important role in the working of the democratic
governments.

1. Political Parties are
(a) Essential for democracy
(b) Not essential for democracy
(c) Essential for totalitarian government
(d) Not essential either for democracy or totalitarian government
correct?
(a) Political party is a natural association
Party System and Pressure Groups
225
(b) The members of political parties may not hold identical views on political,
social and economic issues facing the country
(c) Members of political party aim at capturing power through any method
(d) The political parties try to promote national interests
3. Which one of the following features of a
political party has been wrongly listed?
(a) Political party is a voluntary association
(b) Members of political parties hold identical views on basic political, economic
and other matters
(c) Political parties aim at capturing power through any method
(d) Once the political party comes to power it tries to promote national rather than
sectarian interests
4. A reactionary political party is one which
(a) Clings to the old institutions
(b) Wants to abolish the present institutions and establish absolutely new
institutions in their place
(c) Believes in reforming the old institutions and retaining them
(d) Believes in conserving the present institutions as they are
5. A conservative party believes in
(a) Conserving the old institutions
(b) Conserving the status quo
(c) Reforming the present institutions
(d) Establishing new institutions in place of present ones
6. A liberal party believes in
(a) Retaining the present institutions
(b) Retaining the present institutions by new and radical institutions
(c) Making reforms in the existing institutions
(d) Conserving the old institutions
7. A radical political party believes in
(a) Maintaining old institutions
(b) Maintaining present institutions with modifications
(c) In doing away with the present institutions and replacing them with new ones
(d) Bringing changes through revolutionary methods
8. A
political
party
has
been
defined
as
"an
association
organised
in
support
of
some
principles
or
policy
which
by
constitutional
means
endeavours
to
make
the determinant of government" by
(a) Maclver
(b) Burke
(c) Bryce
(d) Machivelli
9. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
is
performed by political parties?
(a) They render help to poor people
(b) They run hospitals
(c) They manage newspapers
(d) They assist candidates in contesting elections
10. Political
parties
have
been
described
as
power behind the throne by
(a) Herman Finel
(b) Sabine
(c) Maclver
(d) Burke
11. One
of
the
chief
merits
of
political
parties
is
(a) They promote national unity
(b) They encourage the 'spoils system'

(c) They give complete freedom to members to express their views without any
fear
(d) They rouse interest of people in questions of public importance
12. Which
one
of
the
following
merits
of
political parties has been wrongly listed?
(a) Political parties impart political education to people
(b) Political parties eliminate nepotism and favouritism
(c) Political parties are essential for the successful working of Cabinet system of
government
(d) Political parties check nepotism
13. Which
one
of
the
following
demerits
of
political
parties
has
been
wrongly
indicated?
(a) Political parties divide the people and disrupt national unity
(b) Political parties break the rigidity of the separation of power

(c) Political parties deny freedom of speech and expression to an individual and
he becomes a mere cog in the party machinery
(d) Political parties encourage political favouritism
14. Political parties are indispensable in
(a) A parliamentary system of government
(b) A presidential system of government
(c) Monarchical system of government
(d) Dictatorial regime
15. The political parties are helpful to poor
people insofar as they
(a) Provide them the basic amenities of life

(b) Provide free education to their children
(c) Render them legal assistance
(d)Help them to contest elections
16. Political parties contribute to the proper
working of parliamentary government by
(a) Assisting poor candidates with financers to contest the election
(b) By providing organised majority to back the Council of ministers
(c) By maintaining peace in the country
(d) By educating the public about the various problems facing the country
17. Political parties are undemocratic insofar
as
(a) They try to contest elections and capture power
(b) They criticise the policies of the government
(c) They try to implement their programme once they come into power
(d) They do not permit their members to express their views independently
18. 'Spoils system' which one of the defects of
party system, means
(a) Giving tickets for election to party supporters without due regard to their
merit
(b) Allocation of offices to the people from the locality even though they do not
deserve the same on merit
(c) Distribution of jobs to the supporters of the party in power
(d) None of the above things
19. Two-Party system means
(a) There are only two political parties in the country
(b) There are only two major political parties which share power
(c) There is only one political party but its followers are divided into two partsthose who form the government and those who form opposition
20. Two-Party system is found in
(a) India
(b) France
(c) USSR
(d) U.S.A
21. Britain possesses
(a) Single-Party system
(b) Bi-party System
(c) Multi-Party system
(d) No Party system
22. The names of the two major political
parties in Britain are
(a) Labour and Conservative
(b) Labour and Liberal
(c) Conservative and Socialists
(d) Conservative and Liberals
23. The two major political parties of U.S.A.
are
(a) Independent and Democratic
(b) Republican and Democratic
(c) Democratic and Socialist
(d) Republican and Communist
24. Two-Party system is better because
(a) It gives despotic powers to the Cabinet

227
(b) It gives an opportunity to the opposition party to indulge in an irresponsible

criticism of government
(c) It makes smooth changes in government possible
(d) It leads to the formation of coalition governments
25. Multi-Party system means
(a) Government is formed by all the political parties present in the country
(b) There are number of political parties but the government is formed by that
single party which secures largest number of seats
(c) That the country has more than two political parties which aim at capturing
power
(d) There is one dominant party which keeps the other political parties under its
umbrella
26. Multi-Party system is found in
(a) France
(b) China
(c) Britain
(d) U.S.A.
27. One of the chief merits of multi-party
system is
(a) It leads to formation of stable governments
(b) Change in government is very convenient
(c) It is convenient for the voters to elect their representatives
(d) People have wider choice in the selection of their representatives
28. The chief defect of the multi-party system
is
(a) It leads to cabinet dictatorship
(b) People have very limited choice in the selection of their representatives
(c) The opposition cannot freely criticise the policies of the government
(d) It leads to frequent constitutional crisis
29. A totalitarian state has generally

(a) Single party system
(b) A bi-party system
(c) A multi-party system
(d) No political parties
30. One-Party system means
(a) There is one dominant party, while the other parties occupy an insignificant
position
(b) There may be number of political parties, but the government is formed by
only one party viz., the party securing maximum of votes
(c) There is only one political party and no other political party is permitted to
come into existence
31. One-Party system is generally found in
(a) Democratic countries
(b) Countries with constitutional monarchy
(c) Totalitarian states
(d) Can exist in any country
32.
One-Party system is found in
(a) China
(b) Switzerland
(c) Britain
(d) West Germany
33. Under a single party system the member
ship is
(a) Open to all citizens
(b) Given only to trusted workers
(c) Compulsory for all
(d) Given on hereditary basis
34. One of the outstanding characteristics of
One Party system is that
(a) The people can easily influence the political decisions
(b) Large number of people can be admitted as its members
(c) Elections are free
(d) Members have to abide by iron discipline of the party
35. Political parties are generally formed on
the basis of
(a) Religious principles
(b) Common interests
(c) Economic and political principles
(d) Caste
(a)
(a) The Socialist Party

(b) The Bolsheveik Party
(c) The Communist Party
(d) The Revolutionary Party
58. Which
of
the
followings
are
the
main
features of the pressure groups?
I. They try to protect the interests of their members by influencing the
government II. The Pressure groups try to capture political power by mobilizing
public support
III. The pressure groups do not contest the elections
IV. The pressure groups do not aim at capturing political power.
Give your answer using the following codes:
Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) 1,111 and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) II, III and IV
59. The
Pressure
groups
try
to
achieve
their
objectives through
(a) Violent methods
(b) Persuasive methods
(c) Agitational methods
(d) All the above methods
60. Pressure groups first of all originated in
(a) Switzerland
(b) Britain
(c) U.S.A.
(d) France
61. Pressure groups first of all originated in
(a) Switizerland
(b) Britain
(c) U.S.S.R.
(d) U.S.A.
62. In
which
of
the
following
countries
the
pressure
groups
are
not
permitted
to
function?
(a) Britain
(b) Switzerland
(c) U.S.S.R
63.
"Where political parties are weak in
principle and organisation, the pressure
groups will flourish; where political
parties are strong, pressure groups will be
curbed". Who made the above
observation?
(a) Barker
(b) Bryce
(c) Herman Finer
(d) Harold Laski
64. Who
describes
the
pressure
groups
as
the
Third House of the Legislature?
(a) Bryce
(b) Finer
(c) G.D.H.Code
(d) A.V. Dicey
65. Which
of
the
following
methods
are
adopted
by
the
pressure
groups
for
the
attainment of their objectives?
I. They put up candidates for elections who take care of their interests in the
legislature II. They patronise members of legislature so that they may take up
their cause in the legislature
III. They influence the executive policies by providing necessary information and
data on the basis of which decisions are taken
IV. They influence the views of judges through articles, reviews, etc, published in
their papers and journals
Give your answer using the following codes:
Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) I, III and IV
66. A
conservative
party
anywhere
would
stand for
(a) Private ownership
(b) Public ownership
(c) Mixed economy
(d) Gradual nationalisation of means of production
67. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
most
suitable
expression
of
the
role
of
pressure
groups?
(a) They exercise undue pressure on politicians
(b) They function mainly by bribing officials
(c) They voice the interests of particular sections
(d) They come into being to agitate and then go into liquidation
68. The
function
of
associational
pressure
groups is to
231
(a) Articulate the demands

(b) Aggregate the demands
(c) Regulate the demands
(d) Communicate the demands
69. The
political
parties
are
on the basis of
(a) Common interests
(b) Common economic and political principles
(c) Common group interests
(d) All the above
70. Political
parties
render
great
generally
service
formed
to
the
poor people by
(a) Taking up their cause with the government
(b) Providing free legal assistance to needy persons
(c) Providing them necessary funds to contest elections
(d) All the above measures
71. Who
described
political
parties
as
'power
behind the throne'?
(a) Maclver
(b) LordBryce
(c) Burke
(d) Herman Finer
72. "Parties
are
inevitable.
No
free
country
has
been
without
them".
The
above
statement
was made by
(a) Herman Finer
(b) Lord Bryce (c) Harold J. Laski
(d) Maclver
73. The political parties impart to the citizens
(a) Political education
(b) Political as well as legal education
(c) Political as well as general education
(d) No education
74. A pressure group is
(a) A group formed to protect the interests of members of a group by contesting
elections
(b) A group of people which tries to capture power with the help of money
(c) A group of people with common objectives which tries to promote the
interests of its members by influencing the government policies (d) A military
group which comes to the assistance of the state when the police force is unable
to maintain law and order
75. The
pressure
groups
try
to
protect
the
interests of its members through
(a) Constitutional methods
(b) Peaceful as well as violent methods
(c) Violent methods
(d) Violent and deceitful methods alone
76. The pressure groups are

(a) Political organisations
(b) Economic organisation
(c) Organisations of universal character
(d) Moral organisations
77. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
pressure groups has been wrongly listed?
(a) The pressure groups try to promote the interests of its members
(b) The pressure groups can be both temporary as well as permanent
(c) The pressure groups generally do not have any political alignment
78. The
pressure
groups
try
to
promote
interests
of
their
members
by
pressure on
(a) The legislature
(b) The executive
(c) The judicial
(d) All the above
79. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
party
in England?
(a) England has bi-party system
(b) The British party system is evolutionary in nature
(c) The political parties in Britain do not have any roots in masses
(d) The British political parties are well organised.
80. Consider
the
following
statements
the British Political Parties
234
of
the
exerting
been
system
about
2. Membership of political parties in USA is largely determined by the

attachment of the ancestors to a particular party
3. U.S. political parties are dominated by the local bosses
4. The U.S. political parties are dominated by the national party leaders
99. The members of the Republic an Party of USA are drawn from the following
sections. Which one of these has been wrongly listed?
(a) Industrialists
(b) Financial Magnates
(c) Commerce Magnates
(d) Planters
100. The
political
parties
in
USA
have
provided
an elaborate organisation due to
(a) frequent elections
(b) separation of powers
(c) the enormous size of the country

101. What
is
the
most
outstanding
contribution
of
the
political
parties
in
the
working
of
the
political system in USA?
(a) They have greatly helped in reducing the rigours of the theory of separation
of powers.
(b) They have contributed to the success of federal system in USA and promoted
cordial relations between the Centre and the states.
102. The Political Parties in USA are
(a) the creation of the Constitution
(b) an extra-constitutional growth
(c) the result of gradual evolution
103. Which
one
of
the
following
unit
of
party
oprganisation in USA is the lowest?
(a) award
(b) precincts
(c) city
104. At
the
apex
of
the
party
organisation
in
USA stands
(a) All State Committee
(b) Country Central Committee
(c) National Committee
105. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
Communist
Party
of
erstwhile
Soviet Union is correct.
(a) It is the only political party which existed in the country
(b) The USSR constitution recognised the dominant and monopolistic position of
the party
(c) The Party played significant role not only in the government but also in the
social, economic and cultural life of the country
(d)
All the above
106. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
organisation
of
the
Communist
Party of USSR is correct?
(a) It was highly organised political party
(b) It had a pyramidical character
(c) Its primary organ was known as cell or nuclei
(d) all the above
107. Which
one
of
the
following
was
the
main
function
of
the
primary
organisation
of
the
Communist Party of Soviet Union?
(a) To establish contact with general public and propagate communist ideology
(b) To strengthen labour discipline and inspire the workers to give their best to
attain the targets of plans
(c) To help the higher organs of the party in the implementation of their
decisions.
(d) All the above
(a)
Party System and Pressure
Groups 235
108. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
erstwhile
USSR
Communist
Party
has
(a) It worked in close co-operation with the government
(b) It did not permit any criticism of the party leadership
(c) It believed in mass enrollment of members
(d) It worked in complete secrecy
109. Which
one
of
the
following
was
the
highest
policy
making
organ
of
the
erstwhile USSR Communist Party?
(a) All Union Congress
(b) Presidium
(c) Politbureau
(d) Republican Conference
110. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
All
Union
Congress
of
the
Communist
Party
of
erstwhile
USSR
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It was the central organisation of the party
(b) It met once a year and took stock of the activities of the party and planned
its future programme
(c) All major party decisions were taken by this organisation
111. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
Communist Party of Soviet Union?
(a) The party enjoyed a constitutional status
(b) It was characterised by rigid party discipline
(c) The party represented only the workers and peasants

(d) The party operated on the principle of collective leadership.
112. The
principle
of
democratic
centralism
on
the
basis
of
which
the
Communist
Party
of
USSR operated implied
(a) all the members of the party were elected
(b) the decisions of the party were taken by the higher organisation and the
lower organisation faithfully carried them out
(c) In the Communist Party the power was concentrated in the hands of the top
party leaders and the ordinary members could not raise voice against their
decisions.
(d) All the above things.
113. Which
one
of
the
following
organ
of
the
Communist
Party
of
erstwhile
Soviet
Union
has
been
described
as
'the
keystone
of
the
entire
party
structure,
and
indeed
of
the USSR'?
(a) Polit Bureau
(b) Central Committee
(c) the Secretariat
114. The
Party
Control
Committee
of
the
Communist
Party
in
the
erstwhile
USSR
was concerned with
(a) the maintenance of discipline in the party
(b) the enrollment of the members of the party
(c) punishment of members of the party who violated the party discipline or
worked against the directives of the party
115. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
Youth
Organisation
of
the
Communist
Party
of
erstwhile
Soviet
Union?
(a) Polit Bureau

(b) Komsomols
(c) Young Pioneers
(d) Little Octoberist
116. The
main
function
of
the
Youth
Organisation
of
the
Communist
Party
of
Soviet Union was
(a) to co-operate with the government in the formulation and implementation of
policies
(b) to popularise the ideology of Marx and Lenin among the youth
(c) to enroll new members to the party
(a)
117.What
changes
have
taken
place
in
the
role
of
the
Communist
Party
of
Russia
since
the
adoption
of
policy
of
perestroika
(reconstruction)
and
glasnost
(openness)
by
Gorbachev
(a) Efforts were made to separate the party from state.
(b) Party's working was made more democratic and greater freedom of internal
criticism was permitted
(d) Membership of the party was thrown open to all.
118.The
political
parties
in
Switzerland
play
a
far
inferior
role
than
the
political
parties
in
UK or USA
(a) True
(b) False
119.Switzerland possesses
(a) a party-less system of government
(b) single party dominated system
(c) bi-party system
(d) multi-party system
120.Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the party system in Switzerland
1. Political parties in Switzerland are not organised on the basis of social,
political and economic principles.
2. There is no opposition party in Switzerland because all the parties are
provided proportional representation in the government.
3. The political parties in Switzerland are an extra-constitutional growth.
4. The political parties in Switzerland possess an elaborate organisation
121.Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
political
parties
in
Switzerland
is correct?
(a) The political parties in Switzerland are organised on Cantonal basis
(b) The political parties in Switzerland do not follow any rigid party programme
(c) The political parties in Switzerland are moderate and conservative

(d) all the above
122.What
are
the
reasons
for
the
absence
of
spirit
of
strife
among
the
political
parties
in
Switzerland?
(a) absence of religious antagonism
(b) absence of economic disparities
(c) absence of class conflict among the various sections of society
(d) all the above
123.The
political
parties
in
Switzerland
play
quite an ineffective role because of
(a) the short duration of the sessions of legislature
(b) lack of patronage with the political parties
(c) their loose organisation and lack of necessary funds
124.Consider
the
following
statements
about
the political parties in Switzerland.
1. There are no basic issues which divide the political parties in Switzerland
2. The presence of various devices of direct democracy in Switzerland has
made the political parties less active.
3. Dominance of government by a single party has rendered the other political
parties ineffective
4. The executive in Switzerland does not need the support of the majority party
to keep itself in power.
125.The Liberal Party of Switzerland is
(a) in favour of laissezfaire

(b)
the youngest party of the country
(a)
237
(c) opposed to the Republican System

(d) all the above
126. Radical Democratic Party of Switzerland is
(a) supporter of devices of direct democracy
(b) against state intervention in economic affairs
(c) a supporter of the cause of church
127. The
Catholic
Conservative
party
of
Switzerland is
(a) in favour of protecting the interests of the Chuch
(b)opposed to Corporate state
(c) against the protection of the interests of propertied classes
(d) opposed to all the above
128. The
Socialist
Democratic
Party
of
Switzerland stands for
(a) bringing about socialism without using revolutionary methods.
(b) doing away with the devices of direct democracy
(c) merger of various like-minded political parties to achieve political stability
(d) all the above
129. France is known for
(a) single Party dominance
(b) bi-party system
(c) multi-party system
(d) party-less system
130. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
French
Party
system
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Lack of rigid party discipline
(b) Majority of the parties in France are organised on regional rather than
national basis
(c) Wide differences in ideology of various political parties
(d) Complete harmony between members of the party inside and outside the
legislature.
131. Consider the following statements:
1. Leadership plays a dominant role in the formation and working of the
political parties in France
2. There exist wide differences in the ideology of the political parties in France
3. In France a large number of parliamentary groups exist in the Parliament
which have no relationship with the parties outside.
4. In France the political parties are organised on national basis.

132. In
France
most
of
the
members
of
the
National
Assembly
win
elections
on
the
basis
of
their
personal
popularity
and
influence
rather
than
the
programme
of
the party.
(a) True
(b) False
133. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) In France the members of the party contest elections on the basis of their
personal popularity and influence rather than the programme of the party.
(b) In France the members change their party loyalties quite frequently to
promote their selfish interests.
(c) In France Parliamentary groups are an important feature of parties. These
groups have no links with the political parties outside the parliament and
contribute to political indiscipline.
(d) all the above
134. The
Union
for
the
New
Republic
(UNR)
Party of France
(a) favours a strong government with a view to restore greatness of France
(b) is opposed to increase in the powers of the Parliament at the cost of the
Executive
135. The Socialist Party of France
(a) stands for establishment of a welfare state
(b) stands for abolition of indirect taxes on consumer goods
(c)favours agrarian legislation to benefit the small owners, tenants and farm
labours
(d) all the above
136. Consider
the
following
statements
about
Popular
Republican
Movement
(M.R.P.)
of
France
1. This party is the descendent of the People's Democratic Party and was
formed during the Second World War.
2. The Party played a leading role in the Resistance Movement against the
Fascist forces
3. The Party seeks to bring about reconciliation between the interests of the
employers and employees on the basis of justice and fair play
4. The Party is opposed to capitalism and is in favour of abolishing the same.
137. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about M.R.P. of France is correct?
(a) It stands for individual freedom
(b) It is opposed to class struggle and seeks to bring about reconciliation
between interests of the employers and employees
(c) It wishes to promote unity among the French community and create a strong
international organisation
(d) All the above
138. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Communist
Party
of
France
is
correct?
(a) The Party has an elaborate organisation of a pyramidical nature
(b) The National Congress of the Party stands at the top of the organisation of
Communist Party
(c) the party is opposed to western military alliances
(d) AH the above
139. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
Radical
Socialist
Party
of
France
is correct?
(a) It is the oldest political party of France
(b) The organisation of the Radical Socialists Party closely resembles the
organisation of the Socialist Party.
(c) The Party draws support mainly from the workers and peasants,
140. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Radical Socialist Party of France:
1. The party is neither radical nor socialist and its programme is a strange
mixture of socialist and capitalist programmes.
2. The party does not claim to represent any particular section of society rather
it promises all things to all men.
3. It is opposed to wide-spread industrialisation and substantial welfare of the
industrial workers.
4. The party is in favour of association of workers with the management of the
industry

141. The
Communist
Party
country and controls the society
(a) True
(b) False
of
China
rules
the

239
142. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
Communist
Party
of
China
is
correct
(a) The Communist Party of China is organised on the principle of 'democratic
centralism'
(b) The membership of the Communist Party of China is available to all those
persons who hold faith in Marxist ideology and are willing to pay the
prescribed subscription.
(c) The strength of the members of Communist Party of China is constantly
increasing
(d) All the above
143. The
Principle
of
'democratic
centralism'
on
which
the
Communist
Party
of
China
is
organised implies
(a) all higher organs of the party are elected by the lower organs of the party
(b) all decisions of the party are taken at the highest level and the lower levels
are expected to faithfully carry out those decisions.
144. Which
one
of
the
following
organisation
of
the
Communist
Party
of
China
stands
at
the top.
(a) Standing Committee of the Communist Party
(b) The Central Committee
(c) The Secretariat of the Party
(d) Na ti ona 1 Pa rty Congress

145. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
the
role
of
the
Communist
Party
of China has been wrongly listed?
(a) It has acted as the defender and preserver of the revolution.
(b) It has played an important role in imparting knowledge about the teachings
of Marxism and Maoism amongst the people of China
(c)Ft fully controls the government and determines its policies
146.Consider the following statements about
the Communist Party of China:
1. The Communist Party forms the pivot around which the entire government
machinery resolves.
2. The Communist Party controls the judiciary as well as the armed forces
3. All the judges and other high judicial officers are picked up from amongt the
leading members of the party
4. The responsibility for the implementation of the policy of the party rests with
the National Party Congress
147.Who is responsible for the execution of the
policies of the Communist Party of China?
(a) The Standing Committee
(b) The Secretariat
(c) The Central Committee
(d) All the above
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Electoral
Systems
In the modern democratic system of government the people do not directly

participate in the affairs of the government. Instead they elect their representatives
at regular intervals. These representatives look after the legislative and executive
functions of the government and try to protect the interests of the people. This
system of electing the representatives by the people is popularly known as electoral
system.
There are a variety of electoral systems viz Universal Adult franchise, which
grants franchise to all adults without discrimination. This system of election is widely
prevalent, and is regarded as the best. Then there is the system of open election
versus secret election. As there are practical difficulties in implementing the open
elections, by and large the opinion is in favour of secret ballot. As universal adult
franchise does not ensure representation to all sections of society, certain methods of
minority representation have also been adopted. The first such method is
proportional representation which provides representation to various groups and
parties in proportion to their voting strength. The other schemes to ensure
representation to the minorities include the Hare Scheme, List System, Limited Vote
Plan, Cummulative Vote Plan, reservation of seats; communal representation and
functional representation.

1. Franchise means
(a) Vote
(b) Right to vote
(c) Right to vote granted to women
(d) Right to vote granted to men
2. Electorate means
(a) The body of voters
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
(b) The elected representatives of people

(c) The
nominated
members
of Parliament
(d) The candidates who actually contest the elections
Suffrage means
(a) Enactment of bad laws which cause suffering to common people
(b) The right to vote
(c) Right to vote granted to people with property
(d) Right to vote granted to all without discrimination
Universal Adult Franchise means
(a) Right to vote granted to all University graduates
(b) Right to vote granted to all adult citizens
(c) Right to vote granted to all men
(d) Right to vote granted to citizens who pay taxes
One of the strong opponents of the
universal adult franchise was
(a) Marx
(b) Laski
(c) Rousseau
(d) J.S. Mill
Who said that universal adult franchise is
not really universal?
(a) Laski
(b) Gilchrist
(c) Gettell
(d) Garner
The Universal Adult Franchise is a feature
of
(a) Democratic system
(b) Totalitarian system

(c) All systems
8. The Universal Adult Franchise is an
indication of the principle of the
(a) Legal sovereignty
(b) Political sovereignty
(c) Popular sovereignty

(d) National sovereignty
9. Universal Adult Franchise is justified on
the ground that
(a) It leads to rule by ignorants
(b) It makes the Parliament very powerful
(c) It gives power to the elected representatives of people
(d) It gives practical shape to the principle of popular sovereignty
10. One of the chief defects of Universal Adult
Franchise is
(a) It gives chance to a common man to be associated with the decisions of the
government
(b) It protects the rights of minorities
(c)It lays emphasis on the principle of equality
(d) It leads to rule by ignorants
11. Women suffrage means
(a) Right to vote granted to all adult women
(b) Right to vote granted to adult married women
(c) Right to vote granted to graduate women
(d) Right to vote granted to those women who have undergone political suffering
12. One of the arguments in favour of women
suffrage is
(a) It destroys the feminine qualities
(b) Women learn the art of government which proves helpful in the management
of family affairs
(c) Political alertness leads to better understanding between husband and wife
(d) Women require greater protection and safeguards
13. Women
in
England
got
franchise
on
equal
terms with men in
(a) 1688
(b) 1911
(c) 1928
(d) 1950
14. One
of
the
arguments
advanced
against
Women suffrage is
(a) Menfolk can represent the interests of women better
(b) Their participation in the political life would lead to corruption
(c) Women are ill-fitted to represent their own interests
(d) Women would lose many of their feminine qualities
15. Who
pleaded
that
there
should
be
two
Parliaments
to
deal
with
the
economic
and
political problems
(a) Henry Webbs
(b) G.D.H.Cole
(c) J.S. Mill
(d) Marx
16. Joint Electorate is a system in which
(a) Seats are reserved for various interests
(b) There is no reservation of seats for any one
(c) Elections are held simultaneously for the central and state legislatures
(d) Seats are allotted to various communities in proportion to their strength
17. Direct election means
(a) People assemble at one place and elect their representatives by voice vote
(b) People can suggest the name of their representative on their own
(c) People cannot authorise their representatives to caste vote on their behalf
(d) The voters directly take part in the election of their representatives
18. Indirect election means

(a) People can participate in election through proxy
Electoral Systems
243
(b) People elect their representatives through postal ballots

(c) People elect the intermediate electors who finally elect their representatives
(d) The representatives are elected by the general body of people
19. The chief defect of direct election is
(a) It promotes aversion towards public affairs
(b) It is not in keeping with democratic principles
(c) It has no educative value
(d) Representatives are responsive to public opinion
20. Constituency means
(a) A law according to which the territory is divided into a number of units for the
purpose of elections
(b) The division of the country into electoral areas for the purpose of conducting
the elections
(c) The areas of the country as defined in the constitution
21. A single-member constituency means
(a) A constituency from which only one candidate contests the election
(b) A constituency from which a candidate is returned unopposed
(c) A constituency from which a number of candidates may contest but only one
member is elected
22. One of the chief merits of single member
constituencies is
(a) People have a very limited choice in the selection of their representatives
(b) Intimate relationship is possible between the electors and the representative
(c) Local interests are given precedence over national interests

(d)Minority may get over representation
23. One of the main defects of the singlemember constituencies is
(a) Intimate
relationship
is
not
possible
between
the
elector
and
*->
representative
(b) Intimate relations are possible between the electors and the representative
(c) Every region gets adequate representation in the Parliament
(d) People's
choice
regarding representative is narrowed
24. Multi-member constituency means
(a) Constituency from which a number of candidates contest but only one of
them is finally elected
(b) Constituency from which a number of candidates contest but only two of
them are finally elected
(c) When several members are elected from the same constituency
25. A Multi-member constituency is better
than single-member constituency because
(a) It provides greater freedom to the people in selecting their representatives
(b) It encourages the growth of a number of political parties
(c) It is easy for the poor man to contest elections
(d)It ensures more stable ministries
26. Minority representation means
(a) Representation to persons below the age of adulthood, so that they may be
able to protect the interests of the minors
(b) Representation to the various minorities present in a state
(c) Representation to propertied classes which form a minority of the total
community
27. Proportional Representation is a method
of representation which
(a) Provides votes to the people keeping in view their property
244
(b) Provides extra votes to the educated people

(c) Provides representation to all the political parties
(d) Provides representation to each group of party in proportion to its voting
strength
28. The
two
prominent
schemes
of
proportional representation are
(a) Hare Scheme and List System
(b) Universal Adult Franchise and Direct Elections
(c) Reservation of Seats and Direct Election
(d) Direct Election and Communal Representation
29. Under the Hare Scheme every voter enjoys
(a) One effective role
(b) As many votes as there are seats to be filled
(c) One vote less than the number of seats to be filled up
(d) Only two votes
30. The Quota under the Hare Scheme is

determined by
(a) Dividing the total number of votes by two
(b) Dividing the total number of valid polled votes by the number of seats to be
filled up plus one and by adding one to the quotient
(c) The number of votes is fixed by law before the election is held
(d) The number of votes is decided by all the contesting candidates before the
election
31. Under single transferable vote system each
voter can
(a) Indicate only two preferences
(b) Indicate only one preference
(c) Indicate one preference less than the seats to be filled up
(d) Indicate as many preferences as there are candidates to be elected
3.2. Under the List System there are (a) Single-member constituencies
(b) Two member constituencies
(c) Multi-member constituencies
33. Under the List System each voter enjoys
(a) Only one vote
(b) As many votes as there are seats to be filled up
(c) One vote less than total number of seats to be filled up
(d) Two votes
34. Under the List System each voter
(a) Votes for the list as a whole
(b) Can pick up candidates from various lists
(c) Can indicate preference for candidates in the list for which he votes
(d) Can prepare his own list from amongst the candidates
35. Under
the
List
System
the
list
of
contesting candidates is prepared by
(a) Each political party
(b) The voters
the
(c) The Election Commissioner

(d) Mutual consent of the political parties contesting elections
36. The
Limited
Vote
Plan,
which
is
a
scheme
for
minority
representation,
entitles
each
voter to cast
(a) Only one vote
(b) As many votes as there are candidates to be elected
(c) One vote less than the seats to be filled up
(d) Cast all his votes in favour of any single candidate
37. The
Limited
Vote
Plan
is
defective
insofar
as it
(a) Provides representation to small minorities alone
(b) Provides representation to the majorities alone
(c) Provides representation to large minorities only
(d) Provides no representation to the minorities
(a)
Electoral Systems
245
38. The
three
important
schemes
for
representation of minorities are
(a) Limited Vote plan, Cumulative Vote Plan and Reservation of Seats
(b) Proportional Representation, Territorial Representation and Communal
Representation
(c) Universal Adult Franchise, Secret Ballot and Functional Representation
39. The
Cumulative
Voting
Plan,
which
gives
to
each
voter
as
many
votes
as
there
are
seats to be filled up, requires the voter
(a) To cast all his votes in favour of one candidate
(b) Not to cast all his votes in favour of any one candidate
(c) To divide the votes amongst the candidates
(d) Give all votes to one candidate or divide them between two or more
candidates according to his choice
40. Communal Representation means
(a) Representation on the basis of ideology
(b) Representation on the basis of caste
(c) Representation on the basis of religion
(d) Representation on the basis of profession
41. Communal
representation
pre-supposes
the existence of
(a)A Joint electorate
(b) Separate electorates
(c) Reservation of seats
(d) There can be both joint as well as separate electorates
42. Limited Vote Plan is a scheme of
(a) Minority representation
(b) Proportional representation
(c) Majority rule
(d) Free and fair elections
43. Territorial Representation means.
(a) Election of representatives on the basis of an area or locality

(b) Election of the representatives on the basis of their profession
(c) Election of the representatives by various local government institutions
(d) Election of representatives who own land
44. Functional Representation means
(a) Representation of government functionaries
(b) Representation on vocational basis
(c) The functions of the representatives are well defined
(d) The representatives are free to function as they like
45. One of the strong advocates of Functional
Representation was
(a) Rousseau
(b) Mirabeau
(c) Marx
(d) Engels
46. One of he chief merits of functional
representation is
(a) It encourages people to think in terms of their class interests
(b) It ensures equitable representation to the various professions
(c) It promotes national unity
(d) It secures representation to various interests and makes the Parliament a
truly representative body
47. Second Ballot system, another method for
minority representation, implies
(a) Each voter has two votes
(b) Voting is held as many times as necessary until a candidate is elected with an
absolute majority of votes
(c) Voting is held at the most for three times
(d) Voting is held twice, and in the second voting the contest is held between the
two candidates who secure maximum votes in the first voting
48. One of the chief merits of second ballot
system is
(a) Poor candidates are deterred from contesting the election
246
(b) There is no scope for corruption

(c) It gives satisfaction to people that they are being governed by a
(a)
representative elected by absolute majority (d) The political parties come to

play a dominant role
49. "Really
I
think
that
the
poorest
he
that
is
in
England
hath
a
life,
as
the
greatest
he,
and
therefore
truly,
sir,
I
think
it
is
clear
that
every
man
that
is
to
live
under
a
government
ought
first
by
his
own
consent
to
put
himself
under
the
government,
and
I
do
think
that
the
poorest
man
in
England
is
not
at
all
bound
in
a
strict
sense
to
the
Government
that
he
hath
not
had
a
voice
to put himself under".
The above statement argues for
(a) Rule according to the consent of the governed
(b) Rule of the poor
(c) Expropriation of the rich
(d) Distribution of wealth equally to all
50. Which
one
of
the
followings
is
the
most
important feature of elections?
(a) Elimination of multi-party system
(b) Helping citizens maintain their rights
(c) Peaceful change of government
(d) Removal of bottlenecks in the working of democracy
51. Four
members
are
to
be
elected
from
a
multi-member
constituency
having
an
electorate
of
30325.
The
total
number
of
valid
votes
cast
during
the
polling
is
20220.
The
quota
required
for
the
election
of
a
candidate,
according
to
the
Hare
Plan
would be
(a) 4044
(b) 4045
(c) 5055
(d) 6065
52. Some
of
the
following
qualifications
were
earlier
considered
essential
for
parti
cipation in the electoral process
I. Ownership of property II. Attainment of minimum age
III. Citizenship
IV. Literacy
Among these, modern adult suffrage does not include
(a) I and IV
(b) I, II and III
(c) II and III
(d) III and IV
53. The
preferences
of
the
largest
number
of
participants
in
the
liberal
democratic
electoral
process
are
identified
as
'majority
will'.
Which
of
the
following
views
are
correct explanations of 'majority will'?
I. Every member of the organization expresses his preference for one of the
alternatives
II. Expression of each alternative is treated as identical in weight
III. The alternative with the greatest number of preferences is accepted by all
IV. The preferred alternative, with the sanction and support of the greatest
number is automatically accepted as the alternative of the minority
V. The preferred alternative becomes operational and is executed by those in
authority Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Codes:
(a) I, II, IV and V
(b) II, III, IV and V
(c) I, III, IV and V
(d) I, II, III and V
54. Who
said
"Voice
of
the
people
may
be
the
voice of God"?
(a) Montesquieu
(b) Rousseau
(c) Thomas Jefferson
(d) Sir Henry Maine
55. What is meant by the electorate?
(a) The collective word used for areas into which the whole state is divided for
purpose of elections
(b) The whole body of people who are elected by the people as their
representatives to govern the state
(c) The various methods of election used to elect representatives
(d) The body of citizens who elect those who govern
56. Which
one
of
the
following
was
a
strong
supporter of proportional representation?
Electoral Systems
247
(a) Bentham
(b) Laski
(c) J.S. Mill
(d) Marx
57. The proportional representation seeks to
(a) Secure representation to various groups in the national and local bodies in
proportion to their voting strength
(b) Ensure direct participation of people in the affairs of the government
(c) Ensure right to work to every able-bodied citizen
(d) Ensure equal division of property among the citizens
58. Universal
Adult
Franchise
implies
a
right
to vote to all
(a) Residents of the state
(b) Adult residents of the state
(c) Adult citizens of the state
(d) Adult male citizens of the state
59. When
the
voters
take
part
in
the
elections
of
representative
bodies
themselves
and
elect the members, the system is known as
(a) Representative democracy
(b) Direct election
(c) Universal adult suffrage
(d) Direct democracy
60. In
which
one
of
the
following
countries
the
women
were
granted
franchise
very
recently?
(a) Britain
(b) France
(c) U.S.A.
(d) Switzerland
61. Which
one
of
the
following
categories
of
persons are generally denied franchise?
(a) Old men
(b) Poor people
(c) Illiterate persons (d) Aliens
62. In
which
of
the
following
Countries
the
citizens
are
permitted
to
exercise
their
franchise at the age of 18 years?
(a) U.S.S.R.
(b) U.S.A.
(c) Britain
(d) All the above
63. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
was
the
first
to
grant
franchise
to
all
citizens
at
the age of 18 years?
(a) Britain
(b) France
(c) Soviet Union
(d) India
64. Who
said
"I
regard
it
as
wholly
inadmissible
that
any
person
should
participate
in
the
suffrage
without
being
able
to
read...and
perform
the
common
operations of arithmetic?"
(a) J.S. Mill
(b) Laski
(c) Marx
(d) Bentham
65. Who
said,
"It
is
important
that
the
assembly
which
votes
the
taxes,
either
general
or
local,
should
be
elected
exclusively
by
those
who
pay
something
towards the taxes imposed?"
(a) Adam Smith

(b) J.S. Mill
(c) Laski
(d) Aristotle
66. The
main
merits
of
universal
adult
franchise are:
I. It ensures success of democracy
II. It promotes feeling of nationalism
and patriotism
III. It ensures political equality to all citizens
IV. It ensures social, economic and political equality
Choose the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, HI and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) I, III and IV
67. "If
there
be
any
difference,
women
require
it
more
than
men,
since
being
physically
weaker
they
are
more
dependent
on\
law
and
society
for
protection".
The
above
statement
which
makes
out
a
case
for
grant of franchise to women was made by:
(a) Herbert Spencer
(b) Laski*
(c) J.S. Mill
(d) Marx
68. Who
of
the
following
was
a
great
sup
porter of Plural voting?
(a) Green
(b) Laski
(c) J.S. Mill
(d) Bentham
69. The
main
advantages
of
single-member
constituency are:
I. It is very simple method of election
II.
Intimate relationship between the
representatives and electorate is
possible
248
III. The representatives are able to represent

local
interest
more
71. effectively
IV. Each part of the country gets adequately represented
Give answer, using the following codes: Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, III and IV
(d) 1, II and IV
72.
70. The main advantages of direct election are I. It is very simple
II. The voters directly cast their.vote in favour of candidates of their
choice
III. The candidate enjoying support of maximum number of voters is
73. declared elected
IV. The influence of political parties is greatly curtailed
Give the Correct answer using the following codes:
Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, III and IV
(d) I, II and IV
In the List System of voting, the voter indicates his
(a) Choice for a candidate
(b) Choice for a political party
(c) Like or dislike for the ruling party
(d) Preferential
order
among
the candidates
"The
electorate
in
modern
times
has
virtually
become
an
organ
of
the
government",
with
which
of
the
following
writers
the
above
statement
is
associated?
(a) Garner
(b) Lenin
(c) Laski
(d) Bryce
Which one of the following was in favour of grant of right to vote only to the educated
people?
(a) Jawaharlal Nehru (b) Bentham
(c) J.S.Mill
(d) Marx
l.(b) 7. (a) 13. (c) 19. (d) 25. (a) 31. (d) 37. (c) 43. (a) 49. (a) 55. (d) 61. (d) 67. (c)
73. (c)
2. (a) 8. (c) 14. (d) 20. (b) 26. (b) 32. (c) 38. (a) 44. (b) 50. (c) 56. (c) 62. (d) 68. (c)
ANSWERS
3.(b)
9.(d)
15. (a)
21. (c)
27. (d)
4.(b)
10.
16.
22.
28.
(d)
(b)
(b)
(a)
33.
39.
45.
51.
57.
63.
69.
(b)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(d)
(d)
34. (a)
40. (c)
46. (d)
52. (a)
58. (c)
64. (a)
70. (a)
5.(b) 11. (a) 17. (d) 23. (d) 29. (a) 35. (a) 41. (b) 47. (d) 53. (c) 59. (b) 65. (b) 71.
(b)
6.(b) 12. (d) 18. (c) 24. (c) 30. (b) 36. (c) 42. (a) 48. (c) 54. (d) 60. (d) 66. (a) 72.
(a)
Chaptek
-18
Political Development and
Political
Modernisation
The term 'development' has been used differently by scholars of various

disciplines. While the economist identify it with economic productivity; the sociologist
with social change or social differentiation; still others would like to equate
development with modernisation. According to Esman 'development is the rational
process of organising an dx carrying out prudently conceived and staffed programmes
or projects. Weidner on the other hand says that when a process is directed towards
nation-building and socio-economic progress, the process of growth is described as
development. In fact development is a multidimensional process involving changes in
the structures, attitudes and institutions. The political dimension of development
includes among other things, rationalism, secularisation, participation etc. It is
noteworthy that the various dimensions of development are closely related to one
another and it is rather difficult to separate them. The main features of development
areit is an ever changing and ever-evolving concept; it is a multidimensional
process which is not confined to social and economic changes but also covers the
politicalchanges; the society is always in the process of change and it differs from
one country to another country; it is closely related to technology; the society stands
for reason and rationalism, it involves change with growth, etc.
POLITICAL MODERNISATION
If we view development as a process of change with growth, we will find that
development and modernisation are intimately linked. Quite often the two terms are
used interchangeably for each
other. Lerner defines modernisation as "a systematic process involving
complementary changes in the demographic, economic, political, communication and
cultural sectors of a society." According to Lucian Pye the concept of political
modernisation is closely linked with the concept of nation state. Generally only those
political systems are considered as modern which are based on the western pattern
of democracy. This explains why the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America are
not considered as modern. They want their countries to advance in the various fields
so that their system is regarded as modernised. In short, it can be said that
modernisation implies approaching every issue with rational background and
scientific outlook.

1. Who
defined
'political
development'
as
basic
concept
which
supports
the
diffusion
throughout
all
societies
or
we might call a world culture?"
(a) Lucian Pye
(b) G.A. Almond
(c) Robert Dahl
2. According
to
Wasby
during
the
stages of development the society
(a) was trying to involve itself in the political process
(b) had local concentration of power
(c) was involved in the political process
"a
gradual
what
initial

3. The
organisation
of
development,
according
implies
250
4.
5.
6.
7.
polity
to
in
the
Lucian
political
Py
(a) involvement of the masses in political development.

(b) the capacity of the political system to manage public affairs
(c) functional
capacity
of
the participating institutions
(d) all the above
According
to
Lucian
Pye,
the
development
always
facilitates
the
task
economic development
(a) True
(b) False
Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
an
indicator
modernisation?
(a) openness of society
(b) degree of urbanization
(c) form of government
Who
of
the
following
held
that
the
of
political
modernisation
should
closely
linked
with
the
concept
of
state.
(a) Huntington
(b) David Apter
(c) Lucian Pye
(d) J.S. Coleman
According
to
Huntington
modernisation
a
process
which
involves
changes
in
areas of human thought and society
(a) True
(b) False
political
of
been
of
concept
be
nation
is
all
8. According
to
Karr
Deutch
and
J.S.
Coleman
the
political
development
should
be measured on the basis of
(a) urbanisation
(b) modernisation
(c) industrialisation
(d) all the above
9. Which
one
of
the
following
characteristics
of
the
process
of
modernisation
has
been
wrongly listed
(a) Differentiation
(b) Equality
(c) Capacity
10. Political capacity, which is a characteristic of modernity includes (a) increase in
the functions of the polity
(b) efficacy of implementation of political and administrative decisions
(c) penetrative power of central government institutions and comprehensiveness
of
the aggregation of interests by political
associations.
(d) all the above
11.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
indicator
of
political
modernisation?
(a) Healthy growth of party system
(b) close relationship between political and social mobility
(c) strong trade union movement
12.
-Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding modernity is correct.
(a) Only those political systems are modern which are based on western pattern
of democracy
(b) Nation-state is an important condition of modernity
(c) Nation building is an essential condition of political modernity
(d) All the above
13.
According
to
Edward
Shills
the
political
development
should
be
measured
on
the
basis of
(a) political institutions of a country
(b) the international status of a country
(c) the economic development of a country
(d) the economic as well as social development of a country.
14.
According
to
Max
Weber
the
political
development
of
a
country
should
be
measured on the basis of
(a) democratic institutions existing in a state
(b) the administrative development of a country
(c) its economic development
(d) all the above
i
Political Development and Political Modernisation 251
15. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Vf.Yf.
Rostow
with
regard
to
political
development is correct?
(a) There is no link between the
,; ,
industrial development and political
development
(b) Political and industrial development are closely linked
(c) There are separate criterias for measurement of political and economic
development.
(d) All the above.
16. Who
of
the
following
scholars
put
forth
the
concept of 'political trap'?
(a) J.P.Nettie
(b) Talcot Parson
(c) Almond and Powell
(d) Riggs
17. Who
authored
the
book
'Politics
of
Modernisation'?
(a) Max Weber
(b) James S. Coleman
(c) David Apter
(d) S.P.Huntington
18. According
to
Organski
the
study
of
political
development
is
possible
only
through
(a) inter-disciplinary approach
(b) with the help of economic development
(c) under a democratic state
(d) All the above
19. The
Marxists
try
to
study
political
development in the context of
(a) ownership of the means of production and distribution
(b) social and economic conditions prevailing in the country
(c) the system of government existing in the country.
(d) All the above
20. Lucian
Pye
studies
political
development
on
the
basis
of
several
factors.
Which
one
of
the
following
factor
has
not
been
taken
into account by him?
(a) population
(b) organisation of the polity
(c) bureaucracy
(d) performance of the government
21. Who
of
the
following
linked
political
development
with
administrative
deve
lopment?
(a) Max Weber
(b) James S. Coleman
(c) David Apter
(d) all the above

22. Who
of
the
following
favoured
inter
disciplinary
approach
for
the
study
of
political development?
(a) James S. Coleman
Is"
(b) Samuel P. Huntington
(c) David Apter
(d) J.P.Nettie
23. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
modernisation
has
not
been
listed
by
Robert Edward?
(a) It is based on rational distribution of resources
(b) It aims at establishing a modern society
(c) Modernisation and traditionality go hand in hand
(d) It involves complete transformation of political culture
24. Which
one
of
the
following
approaches
to
the
study
of
process
of
modernization
has
(a) Descriptive trait lists approach
(b) Single Dimension reductionalist approach
(c) Ideal Type Continua Approach
25. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
political
modernisation?
(a) political stability
(b) political participation
(c) political mobility

(a)
26. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
feature
of
political
modernisation?
(a) organised party system
(b) political elites
(c) voluntary political organisations
(d) military
27. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
problem
of
the
developing
nations
for
political
modernisation?
(a) political instability
(b) poverty
(c) slow process of industrialisation
28. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the patterns of modernisation
1. There is no universal pattern of modernisation.
2. Each country has tried to evolve its own process of modernisation and tried to
skip the stages and preconditions of modernisation through which other
countries passed
3. Britain and France were early modernisers and provided model for
modernisers.
4. The Communist states have evolved their own model of political
modernisation which was adopted by most of the developing countries.
29. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
contributing
factor
for
moderation of different societies?
(a) Tradition of society
(b) Timing of modernisation
(c) Role of leadership in the process of modernisation.
30. Timing
is
an
importatn
contributory
factor
for modernisation. This in turn depends on
(a) international environment
(b) political manipulation
(c) social and political mobilisation of the population.
(d) All the above
31. The
third
world
countries
have
found
the
task
of
modernisation
quite
difficult,
and
encountered
several
problems.
Which
one
of these problems has been wrongly listed?

(a) Lack of geographical and social unity
(b) lack of stable and effective government machinery
(c) Selfish attitude of the political leaders
(d) Lack of communication between the leaders and the masses.
32. Lack
of
communication
between
leadership
and
masses
in
the
third
world
countries,
which
hampers
the
process
of
modernisation,
manifests
itself
in
the
form
of
(a) Lack of adequate tools for the transmission of demands and grievances of the
masses to the leaders.
(b) The leaders in these countries chiefly come from the urban elites who have
no link with the illiterate peasant masses.
(c) Due to lack of communication between the leader and the masses, the
leaders cannot fully reflect the popular aspirations
(d) All the above
33. Political
development
and
political
modernisation are essentially identical.
(a) True
(b) False
34. "Political
modernization
refers
to
those
processes
of
differentiation
of
political
structure
and
secularization
of
the
political
culture
which
enhances
the
capability
the
effectiveness
and
efficiency
of
performanceof
society's
political
system". The above statement was made
by
Political Development and Political Modernisation
253
(a) James S. Coleman

(b)Almond and Powell
(c) Lucian Pye
(d)Samuel P. Huntington
35. Consider the following statements regarding political development
1. In political development societies have moved from agrarian to industrialised
economies.
2. Modernisation is an indicator of political development and vice versa
3. Political modernisation means weakening of traditional authorities in political
structure
4. there is no difference between political development and political modernisation.
(a)
1(a)
7. (a)
13. (a)
19. (a)
25. (d)
31. (c)
2.(b)
8. (b)
14. (b)
20. (c)
26. (c)
32. (d)
ANSWERS
3. (c)
9.(d)
15. (b)
21. (a)
27. (d)
33. (b)
4.(b)
10. (d)
16. (d)
22. (b)
28. (a)
34. (b)
5.(c)
11. (c)
17. (c)
23. (c)
29. (d)
35. (a)
6.(c)
12. (d)
18. (b)
24. (d)
30. (d)
Political Culture Political

Socialisation and Political
Communication
POLITICAL CULTURE
The concept of political culture is comparatively of recent origion. It is primarily
concerned with the study of political attitudes, behaviours and thinking of the people
in their actual cultural working. According to Allan R. Ball "Political culture is
composed of attitudes, beliefs, emotions and values of society that relate to the
political system and political issues." The political culture is dependent on the
attitudes and beliefs of the people towards the political system. It is the product of
several inter-related factors viz. history, geography and socio-economic conditions. It
may be noted that political culture is not static. It is rather dynamic and responds to
the needs generated from within the political system or imposed from outside. The
political culture of a society is symbolised by its national flag and national anthem.
POLITICAL SOCIALISATION
The term 'political socialisation' is generally used to describe the process of formation
of political values, attitudes and beliefs. It is a continous process which starts in the
childhood and ends only with the death of an individual. One of the basic objective of
the process of political socialisation is to transmit political values from one generation
to another and to bring about political stability. The process of political socialisation is
identical under all the systems and the chief objective is maintenance of the existing
political system or status quo.
The process of political socialisation takes place through several agencies viz. the
family,
which exercises both latent and manifest influence on the child; school which
exercises profound influence on the process of political socialisation; the peer groups
which the child may join the school or college; rich experience gained during
employment contributes to the process of political socialisation. In addition to the
above agencies mass medial, political parties and the political system also exercise a
profound influence on the process of political socialisation.
POLITICAL COMMUNICATION
Communication plays an important role in political process. In fact most of the
functions performed by political system are possible only on account of
communication. In this regard the media plays an important role. It facilitates a
possible free flow of information from the society to the polity and ensures the
possibility of an open feedback from output to input again. It totalitarian political
system, the media of communication is monopolised by the state and, hence plays,
only very limited role. On the other hand under a democratic system, it greatly
contributes to the creation of an informed public opinion. The Communication system
is of immense importance for the successful working and cohesion of political system.

1. "Political culture is composed of attitudes, beliefs, emotions and values of
society that relate to the political system and political issues."
The above definition of political culture was given by
Political Culture Political Socialisation and Political Communication
255
(a) LucianPye
(b) Allan R. Ball
(c) Robert Dahl
2. Who
authored
the
book
"Modern
Government
and
Politics"
which
deals
with political culture?
(a) David Apter
(b) David Easton
(c) Allan R. Ball
(d) G.A. Almond
3. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
political culture?
(a) It insists on the study of the past culture for understanding the present society
(b) It helps in understanding the political values of the people
(c) It helps in understanding the operation of the different forms of governments
4. The
main
objective
of
political
culture
is
to
study
(a) rule making process
(b) rule adjudication system
(c) political input functions of a system
(d) all the above
5. The political culture consists of
(a) attitudes
(b) beliefs
(c) values and skills
(d) all the above
6. Consider
the
following
statements
about
political culture
1. A political culture hinges on people's attitudes and beliefs towards the political
system
2. Political culture is the product of several inter-related factors viz., historical,
geographical and socioeconomic.
3. Political culture is dynamic and responds to the needs generated from within
the political system or imposed from outside.
4. Political culture is static and differs in different political systems
7. The
political
culture
of
a
country
is
moulded by its
(a) historical factors
(b) geographical factors
(c) socio-economic factors
(d) all the above
8. Who
of
the
following
was
the
chief
exponent
of
the
concept
of
political
culture
in the field of political science?
(a) Robert Dahl
(b) Almond and Powell
(c) Lucian Pye
(d) Apter
9. The
political
culture
of
a
society
is
symbolised by its
(a) National Flag
(b) National Anthem
(c) by its constitution
10. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
political
participant culture?
(a) In this culture individuals are aware of political structures
(b) In this culture individuals are indifferent about their political structures and
system
(c) In this system people are concerned with the input-output aspects of political
system
11. Almond
and
Verba
have
listed
three
ideal
types
of
political
cultures.
Which
one
of
the following has not been listed by them?
(a) Parochial political Culture
(b) Industrial Political Culture
(c) Subject Political Culture
(d) Participant political culture
12. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Parochial
Political Culture
3.
13.
14.
15.
(a) In this culture people have no understanding of the national political system
not possess
(b)
(c) (d)
In this culture people do i any tendency to participate in the input processes
This type of culture is found in subject countries and monarchies. None of the above
Which one of the following statements is correct about the Subject Political Culture?
1. It is found in the subject countries and monarchies.
2. The people have no understanding of the national political system. People are
aware of the governthe country
mental system in whether they like it or ndt
4. In this type of culture people are not
taught to participate in the input
functions
of the
wrongly listed as a feature
Participant Political Culture?
participate in influence its
(a) People are quite keen to | the political system and working
(b) People are always busy making reasonable demands on the political system and
are involve i in decision making.
(c) In this type of culture people are not taught to participate n the input functions
Who of the following has been wrongly listed as an embodiment of the elite political
culture?
(a) Political leaders
(b) Bureaucrats
i
16. Which one of the following is a feature of
secular political culture?
(a) It is based on ideology
(b) This type of culture is generally found in developed countries
(c) This culture is opposed to ideological political culture
homogenous political culture?
(a) In this kind of culture vast majority of people hold identical political views on
major issues.
(b) All the groups hold faith in identical ideology.
(c) Existence of different ideologies in the country is discouraged.
(d) All the above
ideological political culture?
(a) In this culture the people are oriented towards a single political ideology
(b) This type of culture is characterised by a strong party leadership
(c) It encourages identical political activity
(d) All the above
Political Culture
1. Political culture is the pattern of individual attitudes and orientations towards
politics.
2. Political culture is shaped by the general historical experience of a country as
also by the private and personal experiences of the individuals
3. Political Culture consists of the system of empirical beliefs, expressive
symbols and values which define the situation in which political action takes
place.
4. The type of culture in which all individuals are fully well aware of the
structures and processes of political system is known as elite political culture.
1.
257
Of the above statements (a) 1,2 and 3 are correct ..(b) 2,3 and 4 are
correct
20. Match
the
names
of
author
given
in
column
'A'
with
the
title
of
the
book
given
column 'B'
Col. A
Col.B
1. LucianPye
A- Modern Governments
and Politics
2. B.E.Brown
B- Aspects of Political
Development.
3. A.R. Ball
C- The Civil Cultures:
Political Attitude in Live Democracy
4. G.A. Almond and D- New Directions in
Sidney Verba
Comparative Politics.
Give answer with the help of following codes
1
2
3
4
(a) B
D
A
C
(b) C
D
B
A
(c) D
B
A
C
(d) B
A
C
D
21. Which
one
of
the
following
contribution
of
political
culture
to
Political
Science
has
(a) It has focused our attention on the study of political community as distinct
from the individual
(b) It has encouraged political scientists to taken up the study of social and
cultural factors which give the culture of a country a broad shape.
(c) It has helped us to understand why different political societies moved in
different directions of political development
22. Who
has
defined
political
socialisation
as
"the
process
whereby
the
individual
learns
about
and
develops
orientation
to
politics"?
(a) Almond
(b) Dennis Kavanagh
(c) Roberta Sigel
(d) Michael Rush
23. Which
one
of
the
following
has
Jjeen
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
political
socialisation?
(a) It is essentially a political concept
(b) It helps in maintaining political culture
(c) It is confined to the years of early childhood only
(d) It helps in the development of beliefs about political culture
24. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding political socialisation
1. The process of political socialisation deals with all sections of society
2. It is not a static concept
3. It changes with the change in the attitude
4. It develops under the care of nature.
(a) 1,2 and 3 are correct (,, K

,,-,
25. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
process
of
political
socialisation
is correct?
(a) The process of political socialisation i&a continuous process
(b) The process of political socialisation starts in the childhood and comes to an
end only with the death of an individual
(c) The basic objective of the process of political socialisation is to transmit
political values frdm one generation to another with a view to bring about
political stability.
(d) all the above
26. Who
of
the
following
said
that
political
socialisation
is
a
process
by
which
political
cultures are maintained and changed.
(a) Almond and Powell
(b) David Easton
(c) Verba
(a)
27.Which
one
of
wrongly
listed
as
socialisation?
(a) Family
(b) School
(c) Political Parties
the
an
following
agent
has
of
been
political
28.Consider
the
following
statements
regarding political socialisation
1. Family is the first important agency of political socialisation
2. Family exercises both latent and manifest influence on the child from
the beginning of his life.
3. As the basic and innate requirements of the child are satisfied by the
family he tends to identity himself with Ms parents
4. The child learns the first lesson of political socialisation only in school.
29.The family is
(a) child's first window on the world outside
(b) child's first contact with the authority
(c) the forum where the first differences in the role expectations between
the sexes are implanted.
(d) characterised by all the above.
30.Manifest socialisation implies
(a) explicit communication of information
(b) that instructuions are indirectly imparted
(c) it functions in a hidden way
31.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
method
of
manifest
socialist?
(a)
Mass
(b)Education imparted in school
(c) Study of the actual working of political structures
(d) Learning through self-experience
32.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
stage
of
the
process
of
political socialisation?
(a) Recognition of authority through particular individuals such as
parents, policemen, etc.
(b) Distinction between public and private authority
(c) Recognition of impersonal political institutions like legislature,
judiciary, voting behaviour etc.
33.
The
objective
of
political
socialisation
under
different
political
system
is
the
same
viz.
maintenance
of
existing
political
system
(a) True
(b) False
34.
School
exercises
profound
influence
on
the
process of political socialisation by
(a) influencing the attitude of the child towards a system
(b) inculcating moral values and spirit of co-operation
(c) providing them an insight into the working of the political institutions.
(d) all the above steps
35.
Particularistic Socialisation implies
(a) socialisation towards a particular value
(b) promotion of cosmopolitan outlook towards development

(c) socialisation through political parties
36.
Universalistic socialisation means
(a) socialisation on the basis of universally acknowledge principles
(b) development of a universal political outlook.
(c) development of a political system on the basis of universal adult
franchise
(d) development of emotional values and loyalities.
37.
Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
most
important
agent
of
political
socialisation
in
a democratic country?
259
(a) educational institutions

(b) peer groups
(c) political parties
(d) legislature
38. The main advantage of the study of
political socialisation is
(a) It helps in the understanding of the different types of political cultures
(b) It helps in understanding different types of political systems and institutions.
(c) It promotes political consciousness
(d) All the above
political socialisation
1. The membership of various peer groups greatly influences the process of
political socialisation
2.
Employment provides a rich experience in the process of political socialisation,
by bringing people
with different attitudes and approaches in contact with each other.

3. Various channels of mass communication are a powerful media of political
socialisation and exercise a deep impact on the personality of the individual
4. Religion plays an important role in political socialisation by laying emphasis
on universal principles.
40. The political parties influence the process
of political socialisation by
(a) criticising the working of the government and converting people to their view
point.
(b) controlling newspapers and other mass medias.
41. In
a
free
society
where
the
means
of
mass
media
are
comparatively
free
the
individual
develops
different
sets
of
values
in
contract
to
a
system
with
controlled mass media
(a) True
(b) False
42. The
concept
of
political
communication
is
intimately linked with
(a) political socialisation
(b) political modernisation
(c) political decision making
(d) electoral process
43. Who
of
the
following
was
a
leading
exponent of political communication?
(a) Robert C. North
(b) Arthur Bentley
(c) Karl Deutsche
(d) Merton Kaplan
44. Theory
of
Political
Communication
is
based
on
the
principle
of
cybernetics,
which
has
several
feature.
Which
one
of
these features has been wrongly listed?
(a) It refers to the principles on which the machines work.
(b) It holds that the individuals do not act or react like machines
(c) It holds that a political system is influenced by the communication it receives
from the environments.
45. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
political
communication
is
correct?
(a) Communication is an effective means in the hands of modern governments.
(b) Most of the functions transacted in the present day political system are
performed by means of comm-unicatoin.
(c) Communications help the interest group leaders and representatives and
party leaders to manifest their aggregation function by community demands
and policy recommendation.
(d) all the above

(a)
46.Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
communication
under
Totalitarian
political system has been ivrongly listed?
(a) The media of communication is monopolised by the state
(b) The communication system directs the inflow of information to a
single political structure
(c) The out flow of the communication is limited only to the communist
elite.
47. What
distinguishes
a
modern
political
system
from
a
traditional
or
primitive
one
is
the
fact
that
in
the
modern
system
the
specialised
communication
structure
is
more
elaborate,
and
that
it
penetrates
the
unspecialised
or
intermittent
structure
of
political communication.
(a) True
(b) False
48.The
term
'Lead'
in
Communication
system
implies
(a) information provided to the communication system
(b) promptness with which the system starts working after receipt of
information
(c) the feedback provided to the system
49.The
term
'Gain'
in
communication
system
implies
(a) acting in anticipation of receipt of communication.
(b) promptness with which information is communicated.
(c) study of the impact of communication on decision making
(d) delay in acting on the information communicated to the system.

50.The
term
'Lag'
in
communication
system
implies
(a) Selection of proper information before taking action
(b)Delay in reporting and acting on the information communicated.
(c) The speed with which the system functions
(d) The impact of communication on decision making.
51.Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
'feed
back'
in
communication
system
1. This process helps the decision makers to know the reaction of the
people on their decisions.
2. This process helps in getting information regarding actual working of
the system
3. It helps in achieving the goals of the system
4. It provides dependable information for the decision makers.
(a)
52.The
main
purpose
of
feedback
in
the
communication system is
(a) to provide dependable information to the decision makers
(b) to provide information as per the needs of the system
(c) to provide favourable support to the system
53.Karl
Deutsche
in
his
communication
theory
has
given
the
concept
of
'innovation', by which he means
(a) proper and effective use of information by the system
(b) ability of the system to generate and sustain processes of change
(c) to make adjustments in the existing system on the basis of
information received
(d) ability of the system to react in the light of the information
communicated.
54.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
contribution
of
Deutsche
to communication theory?
Political Culture Political Socialisation and Political Communication 261
(a) He offers a model which is quite easy
55. Deutsch's concept of learning
implies
to understand.
(a) trie ability of the political system to
(b) He insists that the factors which
readjust itself on the basis of
influence the decisions making
ir>' /rmation received.
process should be given proper
(b) proper use of information commattention.
unicated to the system
(c) His model is helpful in studying
(c) the ability of the system to accept
dynamics of a political system
drastic changes.
(d) communication of effective information to the system
ANSWERS
l.(b)
7.(d)
13. (d)
19. (a)
25. (d)
31. (d)
37. (c)
43. (c)
49. (a)
55. (a)
2. (c)
8. (c)
14. (c)
20. (a)
26. (c)
32. (d)
38. (d)
44. (b)
50. (b)
3. (b)
9.(d)
15. (c)
21. (d)
27. (d)
33. (a)
39. (a)
45. (d)
51. (a)
4.(d)
10. (b)
16. (c)
22. (b)
28. (a)
34. (a)
40. (c)
46. (d)
52. (a)
5.(d)
11. (b)
17. (a)
23. (c)
29. (d)
35. (a)
41. (a)
47. (a)
53. (b)
6. (a)
12. (c)
18. (d)
24. (a)
30. (a)
36. (b)
42. (d)
48. (b)
54. (a)
20Political Elite and Elitist

Theory of
Democracy
POLITICAL ELITE
In every society there is a small group of elites, who can be separated from the
rest of the society by their pre-eminence, who rule a given political society. This
group of elites enjoys all the power and influence and share the same among
themselves. The political elite, which is also some time described as governing
elite, consists of that small group of persons who exercise the ruling power.
According to Lasswell 'the political elite comprises of the power holders of the
body politic. The power holders include the leadership and social formation from
which leaders typically come and to which accountability is maintained during a
given period." Presthus defines political elite as a minority of specialised leaders
who enjoy a disproportionate amount of power in community's affairs'. In simple
words we can say that elite is a group of people who hold political power because
of their higher ability and provide leadership in all affairs of the society.
ELITIST THEORY OF DEMOCRACY

Even though the elitist theory can be traced back from the times of Plato, but the
credit for popularising this theory in recent years goes to scholars like Pareto, Mosca,
Michels and Burnham etc. According to some scholars the concepts of elitism and
democracy are opposite concepts and cannot co-exist simultaneously. While
democracy implies popular exercise of power and people's participation in the public
affairs, but in actual practice this is not realised. The power is, and has always
remained, the privilege of the dominating few. The most prominent proponent of the
elitist
theory has been Joseph Schumpeter. He attacked democracy and said that there is
no such thing as the will of the people and the masses do not formulate the agenda
of politics. These issues are raised, articulated and debated by the leaders. In such a
situation the democratic element is preserved through periodic election of the
leaders by masses; and the accountability of the leaders towards the electorate.
The main features of the elitist theory of democracy are (1) Elite's unflinching
faith in the democratic norms; (ii) establishment of elite-masses contact; (iii) noninterference of masses in the business of elites; (iv) admittance of the capabilities
and experience of elites in political and public matters; (v) Constant and Continuous
competition among groups; and (vi) circulation of elite from among the masses.
The elitist theory of democracy has been criticised on numerous grounds. First, it
is pointed out that democracy cannot co-exist with elitism because elitist theory does
not believe in equality and insists that ruling power should always rest with the elites.
Secondly, democracy implies a government by the people, whereas the elitist theory
believes in the principle of government by a handful of outstanding persons known as
elites. Thirdly, the cohesion of elites is difficult to attain in a democratic society which
is highly pluralistic.

1. By political elite we mean
(a) the persons who hold leading positions in the political hierarchy
(b) the persons who possess qualities of head and heart
(a)
Political Elite and Elitist Theory of Democracy 263
(c) the persons who are successful in political life.

(d) all the above.
2. Which
one
of
the
following
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
elite?
(a) They are strong champions of democratic principles.
has
of
been
political
(b) They hold that some are more equal than others.
(c) They usually hail from the upper sections of society
(d) They try to control maximum sources of authority at every level.
3. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the political elite
1. It consists of a minority which governs the vast majority
2. All major political decisions are taken by this ruling minority
3. Political elite combines the characteristics of Oligarchy and Aristocracy
4. It believes in display of pomp and show.
4. Which
one
of
the
following
constitute
political elite
(a) All those who hold high political offices at a given time.
(b) Leaders of the opposition political parties
(c) All those who have held political offices in the past and are capable of
influencing the political decisions.
(d) All the above
5. Political elite
(a) always welcomes new members to its ranks
(b) is opposed to entry of new members in its ranks
(c) stands for old and tested ideas.
(d) is in favour of new and modern ideas.
6. The
emerging
political
elites
in
developing
societies are
(a) modern in outlook
(b) supporters of liberal ideology
(c) the product of the national movements
(d) All the above
7. The
political
elite
consists
of
that
small
group
of
persons
who
exercise
the
ruling
power.
(a) True
(b) False
8. Who
of
the
following
is
associated
with
the
Elitist Theory?
(a) Pareto
(b) Mosca
(c) C.Wright Mills
(d) James Burham
9. Who
of
the
following
tried
to
combine
the
elitist theory with Marxism?
(a) Robert Michels
(b) James Burham
(c) Pareto
10. The
exponents
of
elitist
theory
hold
that
the
power
is
always
concentrated
in
the
hands of
(a) Military
(b) Bureaucracy
(c) Priestly Class
(d) A small group of elites
11. The exponents of elitist theory believe in
(a) political equality
(b) equality between ruler and ruled
(c) the superiority of the rulers
(d) all the above
12. Who
of
the
following
advocated
the
concept of circulation of elites?
(a) Robert Michels
(b) Pareto
(c) Burnham
13. Which
one
of
the
following
viewpoint
regarding
elites
has
been
wrongly
attributed to Pareto?
(a) Elite comprises of a minority group of successful persons
(b) The elite group uses only logical method for the achievement of its ends.
(a)
(c) It tries to justify its action with the help of derivations

(d) The elite group covers the high military officers as well.
14. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
has
been
wrongly
attributed
to
Vilfredo
Pareto?
(a) The governing elite possesses the qualities of a lion and a fox.
(b) The elites are able to exercise power and rule because they possess certain
extra-ordinary qualities like intellectual ability, administrative acumen,
military power etc.
(c) The existing elite is frequently replaced by a new governing elite which arises
from the people.
(d) As the masses are generally passive, the party leaders tend to dominate the
system.
15. The
process
of
circulation
of
elite,
as
advocated by Pareto, implies
(a) replacement of the existing political elite through periodical elections
(b) replacement of the existing elite which is replaced by a new governing elite
which arises from the people.
(c) selection of political elite for a fixed tenure to prevent it from assuming
dictatorial powers.
(d) all the above things.
16. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
elite
theory
as
advocated
by
Mosca
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The society is always divided into two classes-the governors and the
governed.
(b) The governors are always in minority and are highly organised.
(c) There is a dominance of the organised minority over the unorganised
majority.
17. According to Robert Michels
(a) As the democratic system works through political parties, it inevitably
leads to domination by a group of party leaders oVer masses.
(b) The masses are generally passive and are unable to exercise any effective
control over the leaders.
(c) Being unorganised the people cannot exercise any control over their leaders.
(d) Both (a) and (b) are correct.
18. Who
of
the
following
introduced
the
concept of 'power elite'
(a) Robert Michels
(b) Vilfredo Pareto
(c) C. Wright Mills
(d) James Burham
19. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
by
Mosca
as
a
cause
for
the
rise of political elites?
(a) Absence of internal bickerings
(b) Presence of organised groups
(c) High intelect
(d) Capacity to plan and execute plans
20.
regarding common view point of Pareto
and Mosca.
1. Both hold that society is divided between rulers and ruled
2. Both agree that elite group consists of minority of society
3. Both hold that minority rules over majority
4. Both lay emphasis on the study of sub-groups within the political elite.
21. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
of
Michel about political elite is not correct?
(a) Once the leaders come to power the people cannot remove them.
(b) The people being unorganised cannot control their leaders
(a)
Political Elite and Elitist Theory of Democracy Political Elite
265
(c) Majority of the people have slavish mentality.

(d) All the above
22. According
to
James
Burham,
the
reason
why some become political elite is
(a) that they are more intelligent than common people.
(b) that they are economically powerful and control means of production.
(c) their popularity with the people who elect them.
(d) All the above
23. According
to
Lasswell
the
strength
and
weakness
of
a
political
elite
group
is
measured on the basis of
(a) their economic position.
(b) intelligence of its members
(c) obedience of its decisions by the masses
24. Which
one
of
the
following
characteristic
of
political
elite
has
been
wrongly
given
by
Wright Mills?
(a)They hold top positions in the hierarchy
(b) They control important organisations
(c) The political elites blindly support each other
25. Which
is
the
best
form
of
government,
according to Michels
(a) Democracy
(b) Oligarchy
(c) Aristocracy
26. Who
tried
to
reconcile
the
theory
of
political
elite
with
classical
theory
of
democracy?
(a)Mosca
(b) Harold Lasswell
(c) Schumpeter
(d) All the above
27. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
elitist
theory
of democracy?
(a) All the position of power in the society are open to everyone and there is
competition for power.
(b) The power always gets concentrated in the hands of a small group of elites.
(c) The elite theory hold faith in the principle of political equality.
(d) The elitist theory insists on people's participation in the political process
through 'voting'.
28. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
etilist theory of democracy?
(a) The position of control and decisionmaking mechanism in the political system
are occupied by a small group of individuals.
(b) The elite groups are well organised and the members of this group try to
protect each other's interests.
(c) The actual political decisions are taken by the elite group and not the
common people.
(d) All the above.
29. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
against
the
elitist
theory
of
democracy
has
been wrongly listed.
(a) Democracy cannot co-exist with elitism because elitist theory does not
believe in the equality among the people.
(b) The theory insists that the ruling power should always rests with the elites
and it shall be wrong to treat the ruler and the ruled at par.
(c) Cohesion of the elite, which is a prominent feature of the elite theory, is
difficult to attain in a democratic society which is highly pluralistic.
(d) In democracy the best persons get elected and manage the affairs of the
government.
30. The
non-elites
can
play
a
vital
role
in
making
the
elites
adapt
according
to
the
requirements
of
the
democratic
society
by
constant vigilance.
(a) True
(b) False
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omul 21
Power Authority and
Legitimacy
POWER
Power is an important concept of politics. Its origin can be traced back to the times of
Aristotle who classified the consititutions on the basis of the location of power. After
him the concept was further developed by Machiavelli, Hobbes and Hegel. In recent
times Max Weber, Lasswell, Marrian, Shils, Morgenthau etc. further elaborated the
concept. However, it is not easy to offer a universally acceptable definition of power
because different scholars have offered different definitions of power. According to
Tawney power means the capacity of an individual or a group of individuals to modify
the conduct of others in the manner which one desires. Webster Dictionary defines
power as the possession of control, authority or influence over others.
Power can emanate from several sources viz. (i) it can emanate from a formal
authority such as constitution, charters, statutes, regulations etc. (ii) it can emanate
from wealth; (iii) it can emanate from the people; and finally it can emanate from the
organisations which enable an individual to do certain things which they cannot do by
themselves. There are two methods for the use of power viz. persuasion and
pressure.
The exercise of poweer is influenced byu several factors. Firstly, it has been
argued that power depends on the resources. Greater one's resources the greater is
one's power. Secondly, the political skills play a vital role and contributes to their
power. Thirdly, the motives of the controlling person as well as the respondent
determine the power.
AUTHORITY
The concept of authority is intimately linked with power, influence and leadership.
According to
T.D. Weldon, by authority we mean 'force exercised or capable of being exercises with
the general approval of those concerned'. We get the earliest reference about this
concept in Plato's Dialogues. Thereafter several philosophers like Aristotle, Augustine,
Aquinas, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke Rousseau etc also dicussed this issue. However
the credit for offering a systematic treatment to this concept in the present times
goes to Max Weber. Weber distinguished between various types of authority viz.
legal, traditional, charismatic. According ta Weber the legal or rational authority
refers to the authority inherent in office and authority based on techinical knowledge.
The traditional and charismatic authority, on the other hand owes obligation to the
traditional chief or heroic leader. It may be observed that authority differs from
coercion, force and power, because it rests on legitimacy which gives a feeling to the
superior that they have a right to command and makes the subordinate perceive that
they have an obligation to obey. Secondly, authority is exercises within the
parametres of defined hierarchical roles. Thirdly, authorities implies resort to threat
or use of physical force to ensure compliance.
LEGITIMACY
The term legitimacy has carried different meanings at different times, plato linked it
with justice.Aristotle used it with reference to the nature of rule; Marisiglio regarded
the constitution of human society and consent of people as basis of legitimacy. Locke
built up a theory of government according to which kingship was an office created by
human agreement and served the common good of those who agreed to create it. In
modern times Max Weber, Carl Schsmitt and Guglielmo Ferroro dealt with the notion
of legitimacy but
268
each gave a different meaning to the concept. Weber implied by it a belief in the
legal patterns of normative rules and the rights of those elevated to the authority
under such rules to issue commands. Carl Schmitt asserted that laws made by
parliament lack legitimacy because they represent only the views of the majority
and not that of the minority. He on the other hand considered the principle of
plebiscite as a basic pre-requisite of any constitutional system. Guglielmo Ferroro
did not agree with Weber and Schmitt and asserted that democratic legitimacy
rested on two pillars of majority and minority or government and opposition.
Despite differences regarding the concept of legtimacy, it is admitted at all
hands that a legitimate rule is more effective rule and the rulers try to attain
legitimacy through different methods. In modern times the two instruments viz.
popular elections and constitutional government, are regarded as the chief
instruments of legitimacy.

1. Who
of
the
following
was
the
first
to
explain politics in terms of 'Power'?
(a) Aristotle
(b) Machiavelli
(c) Marx
(d) Rousseau
2. Who
of
the
following
elaborated
the
concept of power?
(a) Hobbes
(b) Locke
(c) Rousseau
(d) all the above
3. Who
of
the
following
is
connected
with
the
elaboration of concept of power?
(a) Hegel
(b) Nietzsche
(c) Bernhardi
(d) all the above
4. Who
defined
power
as
"the
capacity
to
centralise,
regulate
and
direct
the
behaviour of persons or things."
(a) Maclver
(b) JeanBodin
(c) Robert Dahl
(d) Shils
5. Who
defined
power
as
"the
ability
to
make
and
enforce
decisions
about
matters
of
major political importance."
(a) Lasswell
(b) Robert Dahl
(c) Maclver
6. Which
one
of
the
following
made
valuable
contribution
to
the
development
of
concept of power
(a) Catlin
(b) Marrian
(c) Lasswell
(d) all the above
7. Who
of
the
following
extended
the
concept
of power to international politics.
(a) Palmer and Perkins
(b) Morgenthau
(c) Goldhamer
8. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a feature of power
(a) Capability to influence substantially the policies of others.
(b) Willingness of the people to obey the command of the powerful.
(c) It is used in relation to someone else.

9. Who
of
the
following
identified
power
with
the
capacity
of
an
individual
or
a
group
of
individuals
to
modify
the
conduct
of
others
in
the
manner
which
one
desires."?
(a) Lasswell
(b) Tawney
(c) Robert Dahl
(d) Catlin
10. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
'Power' has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is a relationship among men and not a quality possessed by them.
(b) It is issue based and cannot be evaluated as indivisible unit.
(c) It is unevenly distributed among all the member of the society and all men do
not essentially enjoy equal amount of power over others.
11. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
power?
(a) It is situational in asfaras its exercise is greatly influenced by the surrounding
circumstances.
(b) It is based to some extent on the acquiescence of the influenced power
(a)
Power Authority and Legitimacy
269
(c) Unless compliance is secured without use of physical violence no power

exists.
(d) all the above
about 'power' is correct?
(a) According to traditional view the power generally rests with the few at the
top, while the many at the bottom have little power.
(b)
Due to introduction of democratic process and wider participation of the
people in all organised life,
this power relationship has greatly changed

(c) Both (a) and (bj
wrongly listed as a source of power?
(a) Formal authority
(b) Wealth
(c) Human Resources.
14. The formal authority from which the
power emanates includes
(a) the Constitution
(b) Charters and statutes
(c) Official decisions
(d) all the above
the sources of power
1. Power must be accepted by those who are subject to the influence of the
authority of the holders.
2. Power can also be acquired by usurping authority through unauthorized acts
and seeking its legitimatisation subsequently
3. Power is generally enjoyed by persons who control the wealth.
4. Power usually rests with those who control the media.
(a)1, 2 and 3 are correct
16. People
are
an
important
source
of
power
because
they
convert
the
physical
resources
to
wealth
by
developing
them
and fruitfully utilising them.
(a) True
(b) False
17. Organistation
is
an
important
source
of
power because
(a) it exploits the special capacities and knowledge of its members
(b) the major actors in political process always devote great attention to the
maintenance, expansion and reorganisation of the exsting organization
(c) of both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the avove
18. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
a
source
of power in a developed society
(a) Economic Resources
(b) Personality of leaders
(c) Control overmedia
(d) Caste of the leaders
19. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
method
of
use
of
powerthrough persuasion
(a) Self-example
(b) education
(c) propaganda

20. Use of power through pressure implies
(a) promise of reward
(b) threat of punishment
(c) withdrawal of anticipatory rewards, etc.
(d) All the above
21. The
power
which
is
linked
personality of power-holder is known as
(a) Personal power
(b) Charismatic power
(c) Manifest power
22. Which
one
of
the
following
has
listed by Robert Dahl for seeking power?
270
with
the
not
been
(a) desire to serve others

(b) desire to promote self-interest
(c) desire to take revenge
(d) all the above
23. Which
one
of
wrongly
listed
as
the use of power?
(a) Command
(b) manipulation
(c) bargaining
(d) all the above
the
a
following
persuasive
has
method
been
for
24. Which
one
of
the
following
criteria
for
measurement
of
power
has
been
suggested?
(a) measurement of power through committee system in which votes are the
chief determining factor.
(b) Measurement of power with reference to the change in the respondent which
the controlling person is able to bring about.
(c) measure of power in economic terms
(d) all the above
25. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
influences the exercise of power?
(a) the distribution of resources or base values among the individuals, strata,
classes and groups in different countries, communities etc.
(b) display of the political skills
(c) motivations of both the controlling person and respondent.
(d) all the above
26. The
concept
of
Authority
is
generally
associated with
(a) power
(b) influence
(c) leadership d) all the above
27. The
earliest
traces
of
the
concept
of
authority are found in the works of
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Bodin
(d) Hobbes
28. Who
of
the
following
was
the
first
to
offer
a
systematic
treatment
of
the
concept
of
authority in modern times?
(a) Rousseau
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Max Weber
29. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Authority has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is intimately related to power but is not power itself.
(b) It is exercised within certain limits.
(c) It is based on superior reasoning
30. Who
said
that
"authority
is
not
power
but
something
that
accompanies
power.
It
is
a
quality
in
men
and
things
which
enhances
their power but it is not power in itself"?
(a) Robert Dahl
(b) Carl J. Fredrick
(c) Harold Lasswell
31. If
a
person
enjoys
authority
by
virtue
of
holding
a
particular
position,
the
authority
is known as
(a) authority of status
(b) legitimate authority
(c) legal authority
(d) constitutional authority
32. A
superior
can
make
use
of
his
authority
effectively only if
(a) he takes along his subordinates with him
(b) he has the means to know the reaction towards his authority
(c) he can issue clear cut orders
(d) all the above
33. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
authority?
(a) It flows from top to bottom
(b) It is accepted by the society at large
(c) It possesses coercive power to enforce its decision
34. What
is
the
real
force
behind
an
authority
in a country?
(a) faith in the authority
(b) laws of the land
(a)
Power Authority and
Legitimacy 271
(c) will of the people to obey

(d) force of society
35.Who
defined
authority
as
order and power to extract obedience"
(a) C. J. Friedrick (b) Robert Dahl
(c) Henri Fayol
(d) Harold Lasswell
36.What
are
the
conditions
satisfied before an authority is accepted
"the
right
to
which
must
be
(a) It should not be inconsistent with the objectives of the organisation

(b) It orders should be clearly under-stanable
(c) It should be in keeping with his personal interests
(d)
All the above
37.Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
common
point between power and authority?
(a) both are charaterised by compulsion
(b) both are backed by leagal authority
(c) both need second party
(d) all the above
38.Legitimacy means
(a) lawful or in accordance with law
(b) in accordance with the well-established customs
(c) voluntary acceptance of authority by the people
(d) all the above
39.In
modern
times
the
popular
consent
is
considered
as
one
of
the
important
criteria
of legitimacy.
(a) True
(b) False
40.Who
of
the
following
used
the
term
legitimacy for hereditary succession?
(a) Cicero
(b) Thomas Aquinas
(c) John Locke
41.Consider
the
following
statements
regarding legitimacy.
1. In modern times the popular consent is considered as one of the
important criteria of legitimacy
2. Plato linked the problem of legitimacy with justice
3. Aristotle tried to explain the concept of legitimacy with reference to
the nature of the rule. (Normal or abnormal)
4. Locke defined legitimacy as a divine feature
42.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
amongst
the
writers
who
dealt with the notion of 'legitimacy'?
(a) Max Weber
(b) CarlSchmitt
(c) Guglielmo Forroro
(d) None of jlthe above
43.Who
of
the
following
talked
of
three
types
of
legitimacies-traditional,
charismatic
and rational?
(a) Max Weber
(b) CarlSchmitt
(c) Guglielmo Forroro
44.A
legitimacy
based
on
some
legislative
measure
or
provision
of
the
constitution
is
known as
(a) Traditional legitimacy
(b) Legal Legitimacy
(c) Structural Legitimacy
45.The
concept
of
religious
legitimacy,
which
was
very
popular
during
the
ancient
times
implied
(a) that the King was regarded as son of god and it was obligatory to obey
him
(b) the authority of the King was treated as legitimate only if he was
accorded recognition.
(c) the King was a vice-regent of the God and it was sin to disobey his
authority.
46.When
a
political
system
is
dominated
by
an
individual,
the
type
of
legitimacy
is
known as
(a) Structural Legitimacy
(b) Personal Legitimacy

(c) Legal Legitimacy
(d) Fabricated political Legitimacy
47.
If
the
political
leader
and
yet
people
accept
it is known as
(a) Personal Legitimacy
(b) Behavioural Legitimacy
(c) Fabricated Political Legitimacy
has
him
no
as
intrinsic
their
value
leader,
(d) None of above

48.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
factor
responsible
for
crisis of legitimacy?
(a) lag between assesment of political situation by the leader and ground
realities.
(b) Slackness in handling the political crisis sitution
(c) Anti-propaganda against the leadership
49. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
reason
for
crisis
in
legitimacy of a political leader?
(a) revolt by the party members against the leader
(b) differences between the values of leaders and his followers
(c) growing influence of the conservative institutions
(d) sudden radical political changes
50. Which
one
of
the
following
contributes
to
crisis in legitimacy?
(a) Deliberate neglect of the demands of opposition by the ruling group.
(b) Utopian promises by the ruling group which remain un-imple-mented.
(c) Prevention of entry of new persons in the group by the existing members.
(d) All the above
51. Which
one
of
the
following
are
generally
accepted
as
instruments
of
legitimacy
in
modern times?
(a) constitutional government
(b) popular elections
(c) political parties
(a)
1. (a)
7.(b)
13. (d)
19. (d)
25. (d)
31. (a)
37. (c)
43. (a)
49. (c)
2. (a)
8.(d)
14. (d)
20. (d)
26. (d)
32. (d)
38. (a)
44. (b)
50. (d)
Revolution
ANSWERS
3.(d)
9. (b)
15. (a)
21. (b)
27. (b)
33. (a)
39. (a)
45. (a)
51. (d)
4. (a)
10. (d)
16. (a)
22. (c)
28. (c)
34. (b)
40. (a)
46. (b)
5.(b)
11. (d)
17. (c)
23. (d)
29. (d)
35. (c)
41. (a)
47. (c)
6.(d)
12. (c)
18. (d)
24. (d)
30. (b)
36. (d)
42. (d)
48. (d)
Theories and Types
The term 'revolution' is often used loosely to describe all changesboth peaceful and
violent. However in the field of social science the term revolution has come to mean
a sudden, fundamental and major transformation in the existing social, economic and
cultural life of the people. In the political field, however, revolution is described as a
challenge to the established political order and the eventual establishment of new
order, radically different from the preceding one. According to Huntington, revolution
is "a rapid, fundamental and violent domestic change in the dominant values and
myths of a society. The main characteristics of Revolution are as follows: (i) It implies
replacement of the existing 'unjust' authority by a new and more jusst authority; (ii) It
leads to profound changes rather than minor reforms; (iii) It can be both violent and
non-violent; (iv) It is not only concerned with overthrow of existing order but also
implies establishment of a new order in its place.
Scholars have identified following kinds of revolutionLiberal Revolution;
Communist Revolution; Limited and Unlimited Revolution; Quasi-Revolution; SubRevolution; and Negative and Positive Revolutions.
In the main five theories regarding revolution have been propounded. These
include the Liberal Theory; Marxian Theory of Revolution; Neo-Liberal Theory of
Revolution; Revolution as a Moral and Cultural upheaval; and Ideologial Revolution

1. Who of the following defined revolution as a "challenge to the established
political order and the eventual establishment of a new order radically different
from the preceding one."
(a) Maclver
(b) Carl J. Fredrick
(c) Huntington
(d) Cohn
2. Consider
the
following
statements
about
Revolution
1. It implies the use of open force and generally leads to far reaching social and
political changes in the existing system
2. A revolution can be brought about even while observing the existing legal
norms
3. A revolution does not necessarily involve disobedience of all the existing laws
4. A revolution is always directed against the existing legal system and seeks to
replace it.
3. Violent
disobedience
or
revolution
is
justifiable
only
in
non-democratic
systems,
under
which
peaceful
and
constitutional
changes are difficult to attain.
(a) True
(b) False
4. Who
of
the
following
believed
that
revolution
is
the
only
way
for
the
overthrow of existing political system?
(a) Laski
(b) Hegel
(c) Karl Marx
(d) all the above
5. According to Mounier a revolution:

(a)
aims at erasing the real ills of the society
(b) is always violent because the existing authorities shall naturally resist these
changes
6. Who
defined
revolution
as
"a
rapid,
fundamental
and
violent
domestic
change
in
the
dominant
values
and
myths
of
a
society".
(a) Cohan
(b) Huntington
(c) Mounier
(d) Moore
7. Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding revolution
1. It is more than a political activity in so far as it influences the social, economic
as well as cultural life.
2. Revolution signifies change of the existing 'unjust' authority with a new and
more just society.
3. Revolution is not merely concerned with the overthrow of the established
order. It is equally concerned with the establishment of a new order in its
place.
4. Revolution leads to both big as well as small changes

8. Revolution
has
several
implications.
Which
one
of
the
following
implication
has
(a) Both violent and non-violent methods can be applied for the attainment of the
objectives of the revolution.
(b) Revolution need not lead to replacement of the existing system. It may involve
only little tempering with the existing system.
(c) Revolution involves establishment of a new order in place of the existing one.
9. A Revolution which leads to victory of the democratic forces over despotic forces
is known as
(a) Liberal Revolution.
(b) a Limited Revolution
(c) un-Limited Revolution
10. If
a
revolution
is
brought
about
by
an
ambitious
leader
with
a
view
to
promote
his own interests it is known as
(a) Quasi-Revolution
(b) Limited Revolution
(c) Political Revolution
11. A Sub-Revolution is
(a) an unsuccessful attempt at change
(b) a revolution which seeks to bring about only economic changes
(c) a revolution which seeks to bring about only social changes
(d) a revolution which seeks to bring about change only through constitutional
methods.
12. A Communist Revolution
(a) seeks to overthrow the established regime and establish dictatorship of
proletariat
(b) seeks to usher in a classless society

(c) can be brought about only use of violence
(d)includes all the above
13. The
rise
of
Fascism
in
Nazism in Germany in 1933 is described as
(a) a negative revolution
(b) a positive revolution
(c) sub-Revolution
(d) a proper revolution
14. Who
of
the
following
the Liberal Theory of Revolution?
(a) Plato
(b) Aristotle
(c) Locke
(d) all the above
15. Who
of
the
following
preservation
of
polity
principles
of
division
specialisation of functions
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
Italy
in
was
associated
with
for
on
labour
the
the
and
stood
based
of
1922
and
Revolution-Theories and Types

275
(c) Marx
16.
Aristotle,
who
made
a
detailed
study
of
the
causes
of
revolution
viewed
a
change
in
form
of
government
or
constitution
as
revolution.
(a) True
(b) False
17.
Who
used
revolution
as
an
instrument
to
protect the rights of the people?
(a) John Locke
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Machiavelli
18.
Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Marxian
Theory
of
Revolution
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Marx used the term revolution not only for political change but also for
the social and economic changes.
(b)Marx held that a major change in the means of production and
consequent change in the relations of production constitute a
revolution
(c) Marx believed that the present capitalist system will not persist for
long because it contains seeds of self-destruction.
19.
Consider
the
following
statements
regarding Marxian Theory of Revolution?
1. Marx used the term revolution not only for political change but also for
the social and economic changes.
2. According to Marx the overthrow of the Capitalists society and the
institutions which had been evolved by the capitalists and their
replacement by the proletariat institutions, constitutes revolution.

3. According to Marx changes can be brought about only through
violence because the capitalists are not likely to abandon their
privileged position.
4. In no country the revolution can be brought about through ballot
boxes.
(a) 1,2 and 3 are correct ,
20.Marx
believed
that
in
some
of
the
democratically
advanced
countries
the
revolution
may
be
brought
about
through
ballot boxes.
(a) True
(b) False
21.Marxian theory of revolution
(a) did not stand for alteration of private property but only its annihilation
(b) did not stand for smoothening of class antagonism, but the abolition
of classes
(c) did not stand for improvement of the existing society but the
foundation of a new one.
22.Lenin,
who
further
developed
Marxian
Theory of Revolution, held
(a) it was possible to bring about revolution in any country
(b) no revolutionary movement could be durable without stable
organisation of leaders.
(c) that the Communist Party is expected to act as vanguard of the
proletariat
(d) faith in all the above principles
23.The
main
contributions
of
Mao
Tse
Tung
to the Marxian Theory of Revolution were
(a) Revolution could be brought about even in backward countries
through proper guidance of the Communist Party
(b) He favoured use of guerilla methods of warfare to achieve the
objectives
(c) He believed in the on-going character of the revolution.
(d) All the above

24. Which
one
of
the
following
was
the
main
contribution
of
the
Marxian
Theory
of
Revolution?
(a) It sought to transfer state power from one class to another
(b) To gradually convert the society into a classless society and ultimately
into a stateless society
(a)
276
(c) It considered revolution as a permanent process for the consolidation of

socialism and ultimate emancipation of man all over the world.
(d) All the above.
25. Neo-Liberal Theory of Revolution
(a) is opposed to use of force for capturing power
(b) is in favour of use of force for capturing power.
(c) holds faith in theory of class-war as advocated by Marx
26. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
Neo-Liberal
Theory
of
Revolution.
1. Neo-Liberals believe in use of force for the capture of power.
2. Neo-Liberals believe in the theory of class-war as advocated by Marx
3. Neo-Liberals regard revolution as a sort of violent change in place of a
constitutional change which is the outcome of the ballot boxes
4. Revolution is not merely a process in which one class dislodges another and
captures power, rather it is a process which is marked by major social and
ideological change.
27.
Who
of
the
following
held
that
revolution
is
a
spiritual
or
cultural
upheaval
through
which
a
group
of
persons
seeks
to
establish
a new basis of existence?
(a) Kant
(b) Hegel
(c) Laski
28. Hegel
tried
to
explain
revolution
with
the
help
of
dialectical
process
and
asserted
that
spirit
played
a
decisive
role
in
the
revolution.
(a) True
(b) False
29. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
cause
of
revolution
in
democratic countries?
(a) favouritism and nepotism.
(b) self-centred leaders
(c) freedom of press
(d) wide-spread corruption

30. If
a
revolution
takes
place
on
account
of
wide
gap
between
the
rich
and
the
poor
it
is known as
(a) Total Revolution
(b) Economic Revolution
(c) Social Revolution
(d) Pure Revolution
31. Who
of
the
following
attached
great
importance to the doctrine of Liberty?
(a) Marxists
(b) Neo-Liberals
(c) Idealists
32. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
revolution?
(a) It leads to replacement of the existing order with a new order.
(b) Revolution is a blessing insofar as it helps in eliminating the deep-rooted evils
in the social system and transforms it into an instrument of social good.
33. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Revolution
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Revolution is more than a political activity insofar as it influences the social,
economic and cultural life.
(b) Revolution invariably leads to profound changes.
(c) Revolution is only concerned with the overthrow of an established order and
is not expected to establish a new order in its place.
(d) Both violent and non-violent methods can be used for the attainment of the
objectives of the revolution.
(a)
Revolution-Theories and Types 277
34. Match
List
I
and
List
If
and
select
the
correct
answer
by
using
the
codes
given
below
LIST I
LIST II
A. A revolution brought
1. Communist Theory
about by an ambitious
of Revolution
leader with a view
to promote his own interests
B. Overthrow of colonial 2. Liberal Theory of
system by American Revolution,
colonies in 1776
C.
Overthrow of the estab- 3. Quasi-Revolution
lished regime and usher
in a classless society
D. A revolution which
4. Limited Revolution
effects only certain as
pects of political sys
tem and does not lead
to its replacement by a different systems Codes
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
2
1
4
(b) 4
2
3
1
(c) 2
3
1
4
(d) 1
4
2
3
35. According
to
Aristotle
a
revolution
could
take place on account of
(a) un-even distribution of wealth between the rich and the poor.
(b) division based on ideas of justice
(c) role of leaders in seeking powers
36. Marx used the term revolution for
(a) political changes
(b) economic changes
(c) social changes
(d) all the above changes
37. The
ultimate
objective
of
revolution,
accor
ding to Marx, was
(a) annihilation of property
(b) abolition of classes
(c) foundation of a new society
(d) all the above
38. Which
one
of
the
following
leaders
emphasised
the
on
going
nature
of
the
revolution
and
said
that
Revolutionary
era
does not become part of the dimmer past?
(a) Marx
(b) Lenin
(c) Mao Tse Tung
(d) All the above
39. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
against
Marxian
concept
of
'permanent
revolution' has been wrongly listed?
(a) The revolution comes to a stop after the establishment of a 'socialist state'
(b) All class rule and exploitation comes to an end after the dictatorship of
proletariat is established.
(c) With the end of class struggle there is no scope for revolutionary upheavals.
40. Who
of
the
following
thinkers
is
associated
with Neo-Liberty Theory of Revolution?
(a) Max Weber
(b) Harold Laski
(c) T.H.Green
(d) all the above
41. The
Neo-Liberal
Theory
of
Revolution
differs
from
the
Liberal
Theory
of
Revolution insofar as
(a) it accepts the theory of class war as advocated by Marx
(b) it supports the use of force for capture of power.
(c) it seeks to bring about changes through use of pressure tactics against the
legitimate government.
(d) in all above respects
42. Who
of
the
folllowing
thinkers
considered
revolution
as
a
moral
and
cultural
upheaval?
(a) Hegel
(b) Kant
(c) Laski
(d) T.E.Green
43. Which
Indian
thinker
described
revolution
as
a
subversion
of
the
status
quo
and
reorganisation
of
society
on
the
basis
of
freedom and equality?
(a) M.N. Roy
(b) Vivekananda
278
(c) Dadabhai Naoroji

(d) Mahatma Gandhi
44. Who of the following held that ideas and ideology play an important role in the
revolution?
(a) Marxists
(b) Liberals
(c)
ANSWERS
l.(b)
7. (a)
13. (a)
19. (a)
25. (b)
31. (b)
37. (d)
43. (a)
2. (a)
8. (b)
14. (d)
20. (a)
26. (d)
32. (c)
38. (c)
44. (c)
3. (a)
9. (a)
15. (b)
21. (d)
27. (d)
33. (c)
39. (d)
4.(c)
10. (a)
16. (a)
22. (d)
28. (a)
34. (a)
40. (b)
5.(c)
11. (a)
17. (a)
23. (d)
29. (c)
35. (d)
41. (a)
6.(b)
12. (d)
18. (d)
24. (d)
30. (b)
36. (d)
42. (b)
Dependency: Development
and
Under Development
The second half of the twentieth century witnessed the emergence of large number
of independent countries. As these countries were subjected to long period of colonial
exploitation, they were naturally very poor and lacked behind industrially, socially
and economically. As these countries did not possess the necessary infrastructure
and resources for development, they were forced to look towards the former colonial
powers and other developed countries for active co-operation and assistance. This
naturally made these countries dependent on the developed nations. No doubt the
developed countries extended military, technical and economic aid to the developing
nations, but while doing so they tried to protect their own interests. Despite the
assistance rendered by the developed countries the under-developed countries of
Asia, Africa and Latin America were faced with the problem of declining living
standards and curtailment of development projects due to faulty policies of
international trade and foreign investments. While the prices of raw materials
continued to decline, the prices of industrial goods rose sharply. The high profits and
returns on investments greatly contributed to the miseries of the under-developed
countries. Thus, despite their independence the countries of Asia and Africa
continued to be dependent on the developed countries.
Development Theories
Before dealing with the theories of development it shall be desirable to understand
the meaning of development. According to International Encyclopedia of Social
Sciences any change in real per capita income over time connotes economic
development. It is a process through which a country increases its capacity to meet
the basic human needs and raise their standard of living.
Several theories regarding development have been advocated. The first theory
regarding development was Liberal or Classical theory of development, which is
associated with scholars like Adam Smith, Ricardo, Malthus, Mill etc. They held that
the development of a country depends on three factors viz., land, labour and capital.
They presented an outstanding example of 'dynamic aggregative theory of
development, according to which capital formation is fundamental basis of economic
development.
Marxian Theory of development was another important theory of development.
He propounded this theory in Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Marx
expounded theory of surplus value. According to this theory the labour produces
much more than what he is paid in the form of wages. This difference between' the
real value and wages is termed as surplus value by Marx. This surplus value is
pocketed by the capitalists which results in accumulation.of new capital. This is
reflected in the increase in per capita income. The capitalist, in order to increase his
profits, resorts to sophisticated and costly technology. This renders the workers
unemployed and poor. According to Marx the miseries of the workers would increase
so much that they would overthrow the capitalist system.
The Neo Classical Theory of Development, differs from the classical theory of
development in so far as its advocates preferred the existing order and struck and
optimistic note for the working
280
class. They assured the labour class that they shall have employment and also
increase in wages. The neo classical thinkers believed that development is a gradual
and continuous process under which continued economic progress is possible. This
process of gradual and continuous development would be beneficial for all sections of
society.
In addition to the above theories of development certain other theories of
development were also propounded. These include the Entrepreneur Theory of
Development expounded by Schumpeter and the Theory of Economic Maturity
propounded by Alven Hansen. These theories, however, could not gain much
popularity.
Theories of Under-Development
Before examining Theories of Underdevelopment, it shall be desirable to
understand the meaning of under-development. According to Jacob Vinarthe term
'under-developed' is applied for a country which has good potential prospects for
using more capital or more labour or more available natural resources, or all of
these, to support its present population on a higher level of living, or if its per
capita income level is already fairly high, to support a large population on a lot
lower level of living."
No universally acceptable theory of underdevelopment has been offered. In
the main two views have been expressed. First, capitalism has been responsible
for under-development. Second, those who hold that capitalism is not responsible
for under-development.
The concept of under-development was virtually unknown during the times of
Karl Marx. This problem was discussed by Lenin. He argued that the export of
capital accelerated the development of capitalism in the countries to which it was
exported. This export of capital was likely to arrest the development in the capital
exporting countries and ultimately contribute to the overthrow of the capitalist
system.
The Radical Theory of Underdevelopment is associated with scholars like Rhodes,
Paul, A. Baran and Furtado. They try to find out the exact relationship between
expansion of capitalism and under-development. This theory holds that the
underdeveloped countries import goods which they need and export raw materials.
They use only
those goods which they do not produce and produce goods which they do not use.
This makes the economy stagnant and backward. The problem can be solved by
moving towards socialism. The Radicals even favour revolution for the removal of
obstacles in the way of development.

1. Development means:
(a) Increase in national income from one year to another
(b) Increase in real per capita income over an extended period of time
(c) Increase in real investment over a period of time
(d) The national income should keep pace with the increase in population
2. A short term development
(a) Does not constitute development
(b) Constitutes development provided there is steep rise in the living standard
(c) Is development if there is increase in aggregate output
3. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
a
contributory factor for development?
(a) Abundance of national resources
(b) Character of people
(c) Frequent and free elections
(d) Level of technology
4. Population
contributes
to
the
develop
ment by
(a) Providing labour force
(b) Consuming the products
(c) Neither of the above
(d) Providing labour force as well as consuming products
5. Those
who
view
development
not
in
purely
economic
terms
but
in
social
cultural
matrix
at
tribute
the
development
to
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
The form of government

The legal system
Standards of education and health
All the above
Dependency: Development and Under

Development 281
6. Which
one
of
the
following
writer
was
not
associated
with
the
classical
theory
of
development?
(a) Adam Smith (b) Ricardo
(c) Malthus
(d) Marshall
7. Which
one
of
the
following
writers
attributed
the
growth
of
social
products
to
division of labour?
(a) Adam Smith
(b) Herbert Spencer
(c) Karl Marx
(d) All the above
8. According
to
the
Classical
theory
of
development
the
development
of
a
country depends on
(a) Land, labour and capital
(b) Labour, capital and technology
(c) Technology and capital
(d) Labour and technology
9. Which
of
following
thinkers
built
up
theory
of
development
around
theory
of
wages and rent?
(a) Marx
(b) Ricardo
(c) Adam Smith
10.
Which one of the following classical
thinkers
based
the
development
theory
on
the principle of population?
(a) Malthus
(b) Adam Smith
(c) J.S.Mill
(d) All the above
11.
Who
offered
the
argument
that
the
population
grows
whenever
workers
wages rise above subsistence level?
(a) Adam Smith (b) Malthus
(c) Ricardo
12.
According
to
Adam
Smith
the
division
of
labour
contributes
to
development
because
(a) It leads to an increase in dexterity among workers
(b) It leads to reduction in production time
(c) It leads to invention of better machines and equipment
13.
Who
considered
saving
as
a
necessary
condition for economic development?
(a) Adam Smith (b) Marx
(c) Marshall
(d) All the above
14.
According
to
Adam
Smith
the
division
of
labour contributes to development
(a) When the market demand is sufficiently large
(b) When the market is small
(c) When the market is neither too small nor too large
(d) Under all types of markets
15.
According
to
Adam
Smith
the
wage
rates
fall to the subsistence level
(a) Under stationary conditions
(b) During periods of capital accumulation
(c) Under both the above stated conditions
(d) Under none of the above stated conditions
16.
The
classical
thinkers
envisaged
devel
opment
(a) With the assistance of the government
(b) Without interference by the government
(c) Under the guidance of the government
(d) Through the combination of all the above methods
17.
The
most
elaborate
exposition
of
classical
theory of development was offered by
(a) Adam Smith (b) Ricardo
(c) J.S.Mill
(d) Malthus
18.
The
Principles
of
Political
Economy
and
Taxation
(1817)
which
deals
with
the
classical
theory
of
development
was
written by
(a) Ricardo
(b) Adam Smith
(c) J.S.Mill
(d) Malthus
282
19. According
to
Ricardo
the
key
role
in
economic development is played by
(a) The labourers
(b) The landlords
(c) The capitalists
(d) The scientists
20. The
labour
theory
of
value
which
formed
one
of
the
features
of
theory
of
develop
ment offered by Ricardo was
(a) His original idea
T>) Borrowed from Adam Smith
(c) Borrowed from Marx
21. The
classical
economists
opposed
govern
ment interference because:
(a) It keeps prices of food high by levying high tariffs
(b) It subsidized the poor
(c) It encouraged overpopulation
(d) It appropriated a part of purposes
(e) On account of all the above reasons
22. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
levelled
against
the
classical
theory
of
development is not correct?
(a) It underestimated the possibility of technological progress
(b) It failed to adequately analyse the problem of maintaining aggregate demand
(c) It attached too much importance to the role of technology in development

23. Marxian theory of development
(a) Was essentially an economic theory
(b) Was essentially a political theory
(c) Was essentially a socia-economic theory
(d) Was a blend of economic, sociological, political factors
24. The
capital
accumulation
which
according
to
Marx,
contributes
to
development
is
rendered possible by:
(a) Technological improvement
(b) Reduction of wages
(c) Increase in working hours
25. Which
one
of
the
following
features
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
one
of
the
ingradient of Marxian theory of development?
(a) Class-struggle
(b) Theory of surplus value
(c) Centralisation of capital
26.
The
Marxian
theory
of
development
was
greatly influenced by
(a) The English classical school
(b) The German historical school
(c) By both the above schools
(d) By none of the above two schools
27. Which
one
of
the
following
points
of
criticism
levelled
against
Marx's
theory
of
development is wrong?
(a) Marx wrongly argued that it is in capitalist's interest to maintain part of labour
force permanently unemployed to keep wages low
(b) Marxian theory finds a contradiction in the retention of surplus value by the
capitalist and increase in the real wages
(c) It wrongly assumes that the wages of workers under capitalism remain near
subsistence level, and there is no scope for their increase
28. Neo-classical
theory
of
development
became necessary
(a) Due to technological and resource discoveries of the nineteenth century
(b) Due to fast deteriorating condition of the workers in Europe
(c) Due to fear of revolution created by the preachings of Marx
(d) Due to all the above reasons
29. The neo-classical thinkers
(a) Reiterated their faith in the people that wages are determined by supply and
demand
(b) Asserted that the wages are determined by the productivity of the last worker
employed
(a)
Dependency: Development and Under

Development 283
(c) Asserted that the wages of workers had consistently increased

30.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Neo-classical thinkers were against existing privileges
(b) Neo-classical thinkers justified the existing social order
(c) Neo classical thinkers were revolutionaries
31.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
model
of
development
offered
by
neo-classical
thinkers?
(a) Development is a gradual and continuous process
(b) The process of development has harmonious and cumulative nature
(c) They are quite optimistic about the possibilities of continued economic
progress
32.The
neo-classical
writers
believed
that
economic development benefits
(a) All the major income groups
(b) Only the capitalists
(c) Only the workers
33.Who
looked
upon
economic
development
as
a
race
between
capital
accumulation
and population growth?
(a) Marxian writers
(b) Classical writers
(c) Neo-classical writers
(d) All the three
34.
The chief defect of the neo-classical theory
of development is
(a) It attaches too much importance to factors like political stability and
attitude of the people
(b) It completely ignores factors like political stability and attitudes of
people
(c) It refused to consider development as a gradual and continuous
process
(d) It completely ignores the importance of interest as a factor in
establishing equilibrium between supply of savings and demand for
capital
35.Schumpeter is associated with
(a) Neo-classical theory of development
(b) Marxian theory of development
(c) Theory of entrepreneur
(d) None of the above theories
36.Schumpeter
held
that
significant
advances
in
national
production
occur
by
dishar
monious leaps and spurts. This idea was
(a) His original contribution
(b) Borrowed by him from Marx
(c) Borrowed by Schumpeter from neoclassical thinkers
37.The
Entrepreneur
theory
of
development
holds that
(a) Talented type of individuals play an important role in development
(b) Rich capitalists play an important role in development
(c) Rich people with the help of some enterprising persons contribute to
development
38.According
to
Schumpeter
the
entre
preneurs contribute to development by
(a) Quickly catering to the tastes of the consumers
(b) Bringing about changes in the tastes of consumers
(c) Providing the existing goods at the lowest price
(d) All the above actions
39.The
entrepreneurs
undertake
new
devel
opment activities
(a) By investing their savings
(b) By roping in rich capitalists
(c) By securing credit from the banks
(d) By securing grants from the government
(a)
40. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
defect
of
Schumpeter's
theory?
(a) He wrongly asserts that capitalism is crumbling and socialism is likely to
replace it
(b) His theory is defective in so far as it tries to present the spirit of enterprise as
a phenomenon common to all social organisations
(c) His assumption that all innovations are financed by borrowings is not correct
because banks generally provide only short-term loans
41. Theory
of
Economic
Maturity
regarding
development is associated with
(a) Schumpeter
(b) Keynes
(c) Alvin Hansen
(d) All the above
42. The
Theory
of
Economic
Maturity
carried
forward
the
ideas
worked
in
The
General
Theory
of
Employment,
Interest
and
Money
by:
(a) Adam Smith
(b) Keynes
(c) Ricardo
(d) Marshall
43. Hansen
used
the
theory
of
Economic
Maturity to examine the problems arising
(a) In the wake of World War I
(b) In the wake of World War II
(c) In the wake of economic crisis of thirties
(d) In the sixties
44. Hansen
argued
that
as
compared
to
the
nineteenth
century
the
development
at
present suffered from two limitations viz.,
(a) Shifting frontiers and growing population
(b) Decline in purchasing capacity and growing unemployment
(c) Technological changes and presence of large labour force
(d) Growing population and prevailing un-employment
45. Who
expressed
the
opinion
that
"the
developed
countries
were
never
under
developed
though
they
may
have
been
under-developed?
(a) Marx
(b) A.C.Frank
(c) Lenin
46. An
underdeveloped
country
is
one
which
has good potential prospects for using
(a) More capital

(b) More labour
(c) More available natural resources
(d) All the above
47. Generally
the
periphery
countries
are
dependent on the centre for
(a) Raw materials
(b) Minerals
(c) Manufactured goods
(d) All the above
48. Who
saw
a
close
relationship
between
under-development
and
expansion
of
capitalism?
(a) Radical structuralists
(b) Marxists
(c) None of the two
(d) Both of the above
49. Marx in his writings
(a) Paid no attention to the issue of under-development
(b) Paid great attention to the issue of underdevelopment
(c) Emphasised that capitalism was responsible for underdevelopment
50. Marx
believed
that
spread
of
capitalism
throughout the world had led to
(a) Underdevelopment
(b) Development
(c) Development in some parts and underdevelopment in other parts
51. Lenin
held
that
the
export
of
capital
tends
to
(a) Arrest development in capital importing countries
(b) Arrest development in capital exporting countries
(c) Arrest development in capital importing as well as capital exporting countries
(a)
Dependency: Development and Under Development
285
52. Radical underdevelopment theory

(a) Opposed traditional Marxism
(b) Supported the stand of traditional Marxists
(c) Effect some modifications in the stand of traditional Marxists
(d) All the above
53. "If
political
leadership
fails
to
there
is
likelihood
of
military
taking
power
in
developing
countries.
student
groups
or
labour
may
try
to
revolution
but
they
are
not
likely
compete
with
the
military.
intervention,
rule
and
withdrawal
politics
is
clearly
related
to
a
society's
of political development."
emerge,
over
Radical
raise
to
Military
from
level
In the context of Political Development the assumption in the above passage is

that
(a) Political leadership is not an effective instrument
(b) Military intervention is inevitable for development
(c) National integration results from military intervention
(d) Military is an agent of social change
54. Marxian
theory
depicts
the
development
of human society on the basis of
(a) Historical materialism
(b) Social engineering
(c) Natural holding
(d) Unfolding of natural laws
55. Marxian
theory
of
development
was
essentially
(a) An economic theory
(b) A political theory
(c) A socio-economic theory
(d) A blend of socio-economic and political factors
56. Which
one
of
the
following
put
forth
classical theory of development?
(a) Ricardo
(b) Keynes
(c) Marx
(d) Marshall
57. Which
one
of
the
following
is
regarded
by
Gustav
Ranis
as
an
important
indicator
of
development?
(a) Growth of trade unions
(b) Extent to which the social and political institutions are reorganised
(c) The growth of bureaucracy
58.
Which one of the following group of
writers looked upon economic deve
lopment
as
a
accumulation growth.
(a) Marxists
(b) Classical writers
(c) Neo-classical writers
(d) All the above
(a)
l.(b)
7. (a)
13. (a)
19. (c)
25. (d)
31. (d)
37. (a)
43. (c)
49. (a)
55. (d)
2. (a)
8. (a)
14. (a)
20. (b)
26. (c)
32. (c)
38. (b)
44. (a)
50. (b)
56. (a)
race
3.(c)
9.(b)
15. (a)
21. (e)
27. (d)
33. (c)
39. (c)
45. (b)
51. (b)
57. (b)
between
4.(d)
10. (a)
16. (b)
22. (c)
28. (a)
34. (b)
40. (d)
46. (d)
52. (a)
58. (c)
capital
5.(d)
11. (b)
17. (b)
23. (d)
29. (b)
35. (c)
41. (c)
47. (c)
53. (d)
and
6.(d)
12. (d)
18. (a)
24. (a)
30. (b)
36. (b)
42. (d)
48. (a)
54. (a)
Section 3 MODERN INDIAN GOVERNMENT

AND POLITICS
24National Movement and

Constitutional
Development
Nationalism in India had its beginning in the nineteenth century and culminated in
the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885, Several factors contributed to
the rise of nationalism in India. The prominent among these were the Socio-Cultural
Renaissance; Impact of Western Culture; new means of transport and
communication; role of press and literature; policy of economic exploitation pursued
by the English; policy of discrimination towards Indians; repressive policy of Lord
Lytton; Ilbert Bill Controversy; impact of foreign events like American war of
Independence, French Revolution etc.
The National Movement in India passed through four phases viz. Moderate
Nationalism (1855-1905); Extremist Nationalism (1905-1919), Era of Mass Struggle
(1919-1939) and the Final Phase (1939-1947). Moderate phase was dominated by
leaders of middle and merchant classes. These leaders believed in liberal principles
and favoured western institutions for India. This phase infused sense of national
consciousness among people. The Extremist Era was dominated by extremist leaders
who favoured revival of ancient Indian institutions and ideas. They encouraged the
middle classes to take part in national movement. During the third phase of Mass
Struggle, Gandhi tried to involve the people of rural as well as urban areas in national
movement. Attention was paid to improvement of social and economic condition of
the people. In the final stage of national movement the British initiated a number of
moves to find a solution of Indian problem and Congress stepped up struggle
which ultimately culminated in the independence of the country.
CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Constitutional Development during the British rule is intimately linked with national
movement. The English came to India in 1600 with a view to carry on trade. They
continued their activities to expand trade and political influence till about the middle
of the eighteenth century. In 1773 the British Parliament passed regulating Act to
regulate the affairs of the Company. Thereafter the British Government continued to
extend the Charter of the Company every twenty years and passed Charter Acts in
1793,1813,1833 and 1853 to consolidate the hold of British Government over the
Company. After the revolt of 1857 the British decided to take over the administration
of India in their own hands and enacted Government of India Act 1858. This was
followed by the Indian Councils Act of 1861 which failed to satisfy the aspirations of
the Indian people. Therefore the Indian people started demanding expansion of the
Councils and enhancement of their powers. This demand grew strong after the
founding of Indian National Congress in 1885. Certain concessions were made to the
Indians under Act of 1892. However these concessions failed to satisfy the aspirations
of the Indians and they stepped up their demand for Swaraj. The rise of extremists
within the ranks of Indian National Congress compelled the British to concede certain
concessions to India under the Act of 1909. The strength of the additional members
of Imperial Legislative Council was increased from 16 to 60
290
and the size of Provincial Legislative Councils was also considerably enlarged.
Though the Act of 1909 suffered from several shortcomings, it definitely
constituted an improvement over the existing conditions.
The next important step towards constitutional development was taken in the
form of Montague Chelmsford Reform Act 1919. This Act introduced important
changes at home, at the Centre as well as in the provinces. Though the Act of
1919 suffered from several shortcomings it cannot be denied that it was an
improvement over the earlier Acts. Highlighting the importance of the Act of
1919 Prof. Gurmukh Nihal Singh says "the Reforms of 1919 will remain famous in
British Indian history for making a beginning in responsible government, for
associating the Princes with the administration of India, especially in matters
affecting the Indian States and for introducing the dyarchical form of
government."
The next important milestone in the constitutional development in India was
Government of India Act 1935 which introduced far reaching changes in India. The
Act provided for an All India Federation and vested the federal executive authority in
the Governor-General. It vested the federal legislative authority in a bicameral
legislature consisting of Council of States and Federal Assembly. The Act provided ah
independent court known as Federal Court which enjoyed jurisdiction over states as
well as provinces. It provided for a Federal Railway Authority for establishment of
Public Service Commission for Federal and provinces. However, the Act was severely
criticised by various sections of Indian society because it hardly conceded any
effective power to the Indians. Despite its shortcomings it cannot be denied that the
Act was a step forward in the right direction and provided an opportunity to Congress
to acquire some experience in the art of administration.
With the outbreak of second world war the British Government in 1939 declared
India a party to the war without consulting them. This was strongly resented by the
Congress, which wanted the British Government to declare its war aims and assure
India that it would be treated as a free nation and its policy would be guided in
accordance with the wishes of the people. As the
British Government refused to meet the above demands of Congress, the Congress
ministries in all provinces tendered their resignation. In August 1940 the British
Government announced that the goal of British policy in India was the attainment of
Dominion Status as soon, after the war, as possible. It conceded that the
responsibility for the framing of new constitution was primarily that of the people of
India. As the August Offer was not acceptable to Congress or Muslim League, nothing
came out of it.
After Japan's victory in South East Asia, the British Government showed keenness
to secure the whole-hearted co-operation of the Indian people for the successful
prosecution of war. British sent a mission under Sir Stafford Cripps to hold
discussions with the leaders of various political parties, groups and communities.
The Mission made several suggestions which were turned down by the Congress, the
Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Sikhs, Scheduled castes etc. Thereafter, a
demand was made for immediate withdrawal of British from India and a Quit India
Movement was launched.
In 1943 British made another bid to resolve the constitutional tangle and
suggested Wavell plan which was turned down by the Muslim League. After the
victory of Labour Party in the elections of 1945, the British government stepped up
efforts to resolve the Indian problem. It sent a Cabinet Mission consisting of three
Cabinet Members to work out an agreement with the Indian leaders. The Cabinet
Mission put forth a plan to resolve the Indian problem. This plan was accepted by the
Congress as well as the Muslim League even though they nourished certain
reservations about the plan. Under this plan an Interim Government was formed in
September 1946 under. In the meanwhile elections were held to the Constituent"
Assembly under the Cabinet Mission Plan. However, the Muslim League refused to
take part in the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly. At this juncture the British
Government made an announcement regarding their intentions to quit India by the
end of June 1948 and expressed the hope that the main political parties would settle
their differences. In March 1947 Lord Mountbatten assumed office as Viceroy and
started exploring the possibilities of some settlement. He proposed
National Movement and Constitutional
Development 291
the partition of the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. Both the states were promised
status of dominion and were to be given liberty to leave the Commonwealth. The
Indian states were given the freedom to join either of the two dominions or proclaim
their independence.
The national movement and constitutional development culminated in the
enactment of the Indian Independence Act 1947. This Act brought British rule to an
end and established two dominions of India and Pakistan with right to secede from
the British Commonwealth. The enactment of the Indian Independence in Act 1947
was an event of great constitutional importance in so far as it closed the chapter of
British rule in India and ushered the dawn of free India.

1. The British came to India as:
(a) explorers
(b) traders
(c) missionaries
2. The
English
merchants
were
granted
a
charter
to
carry
on
trade
with
East
Indies
in:
(a) 1599
(b) 1688
(c) 1600
(d) 1773
3. The
initial
charter
was
granted
to
the
English Company for a period of:
(a) 15 years
(b) 20 years
(c) 100 years
(d) indefinite period
4. The
first
attempt
to
regulate
the
affairs
of
the
English
East
India
Company
was
made
by:
(a) The Regulating Act 1773
(b) Pitt's India Act of 1784
(c) Charter Act of 1861
(d) Dundas Bill of 1783
5. The
English
procured
the
Diwani
of
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1765 from:
(a) theMarathas
(b)
the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam
(c)
Mirjaffar
(d) Mughal Emperor and Mir Jaffar jointly
6. The
Office
of
the
Governor-General
was
for the first time created under:
(a) The Regulating Act of 1773
(b) The Pitt's India Act of 1784
(c) Indian Councils Act, 1861
(d) The Act of 1909
7. The
Supreme
Court
of
Judicature
was
created at Fort William under:
(a) Regulating Act of 1773
(b) Minto-Morley Reforms Act, 1909
(c) Montagu-Chelmsford Reform Act, 1909
8. For
the
first
time
a
bid
to
check
the
practice
of
receiving
presents
and
bribes
by
the
servants of the Company was made under:
(a) Indian Councils Act, 1861
(b) Pitt's India Act, of 1884
(c) Regulating Act, of 1773
(d) Indian Councils Act, 1892
9. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
Amending
Act
of
1781
is
not
correct?
(a) it provided that persons acting under the orders of the Governor General were
immune from civil or criminal proceedings in the Supreme Court
(b) the Act made a bid to settle the controversy regarding the law to be
administered by the Supreme Court
(c) the Act recognised the appellate jurisdiction of the Governor-General in
Council
(d) the Act deprived the Governor-General-in-Council of the powers to frame
regulations for the Provincial Court and Councils
10. The
Pitt's
India
Act
of
1784
was
largely
based on:
(a) Dundas Bill of 1783
(b) Fox India Bill of 1783
(c) Regulating Act of 1773
11, The Pitt's India Act:
(a) increased the strength of the Governor-General's Council from four to five
(b) reduced the strength of Governor-General Council from five to four

(c) reduced the strength of Governor-General's Council from four to three
(d) did not make any change in the strength of the Governor-General's Council
12. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Pitt's India Act made no changes in the Home Government of the Company
(b) Pitt's India Act envisaged the appointment of six Commissioners for the
Affairs of India
(c) Pitt's India Act provided for appointment of Ten Commissioners for the Affairs
of India
(d)
None of the above
13. Under the Pitt's India Act:
(a) no change was effected in the position of the Governor-General
(b) the position of the Governor-General vis-a-vis his Council was made weak
(c) the position of the Governor-General vis a vis his Council was made strong
14.
The Pitt's India Act:
(a) deprived the Governor-General as well as Governors of the right to vote in the
Council
(b) gave the Governor-General the right to vote but gave no corresponding right
to the Governors
(c) gave casting vote to the Governor-General but not to the Governors
(d) gave casting vote to the Governor-General as well as the Governors
15. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
with
regard
to
the
Charter
Act
of
1793
is
not correct?
(a) it extended the privileges of the Company for a further period of twenty years
(b) it provided for the payment of salaries and other expenses of the
members and staff of the Board of Control out of Indian revenues
(c) it reasserted the predominant position of the Governor-General over the
Presidencies of Bombay and Madras
(d) it permitted the servants of the Company to accept gifts and presents
16. The Act of 1793 declared that:
(a) the policy of conquest and extension was repugnant to the wish, honour and
policy of the nation
(b) the policy of conquest and extension of dominion should be vigorously
pursued in India
(c) the Company should pursue policy of extention of dominions with the prior
approval of home authorities
(d) contained no reference regarding policy of conquest and extension
17.
Which one of the following Charter Acts
deprived
the
Company
of
monopoly
of
trade with India except for tea?
(a) the Charter Act of 1793
(b) the Charter Act of 1813
(c) the Charter Act of 1833
(d) the Charter Act of 1853
18. The
general
Indian
trade
was
thrown
open
to
the
British
subjects
by
the
Charter
Act
of:
(a) 1793
(b) 1813
(c) 1853
19. The
British
missionaries
were
permitted
to
go and settle in India under:
(a) Regulating Act of 1773
(b) Pitt's India Act of 1784
(d) Charter Act of 1813
20. An
amount
of
Rs.
1,00,000
for
the
promotion
of
knowledge
of
sciences
amongst
the
inhabitants
of
British
territories
in
India
was
for
the
first
time
ear-marked under:
(a) Charter Act 1813
(b) Charter Act 1793
(a)
National Movement and Constitutional Development 293
(c) Charter Act 1853

(d) None of the above Charter Acts
21.
Which
one
of
the
following
Acts
directed
the
company
to
maintain
two
separate
accounts
for
its
commercial
transactions
and territorial possessions?
(a) Regulating Act 1773
(b) Indian Councils Act 1861
22. The
President
of
the
Board
of
Control
was
made the Minister for Indian Affairs by:
(c) the Indian Councils Act of 1861
(d) the Charter Act of 1853
23. Which
Act
redesignated
the
GovernorGeneral
of
Fort
William
(Bengal)
as
the
Governor-General of India?
(c) the Indian Councils Act 1861
(d) the Act of 1858
24. A
Law
member
was
added
to
Governor-General's Council by:
(a) the Government of India Act 1935
25. For
the
first
time
a
bid
to
bring
centralisation
in
legislative
field
was
under:
(a) The Act of 1909
(b) Act of 1919
(c) Indian Councils Act 1861
26. The
offices
or
employment
under
Company
was
thrown
open
to
all
and
subjects
of
His
Majesty
without
distinction
of
religion,
place
of
descent, colour, etc. by:
(a) the Act of 1909
(b) the Act of 1858
(c) the Act of 1861
27. A
separation
in
the
commercial
political
functions
of
the
company
effected under the:
(a) Indian Councils Act 1861
(b) Charter Act of 1813
the
about
made
the
residents
any
birth,
and
was
28. Which
one
of
the
following
Charter
Acts
had
to
encounter
stiff
opposition
from
the
Indians at the time of its passage?
(a) Charter Act of 1833
(d) All the three
29. The
Charter
Act
of
1853
extended
the
lease
of the Company:
(a) for 20 years
(b) for 10 years
(c) for 5 years
(d) for an unspecified period
30. All
the
services
Were
thrown
open
to
the
competitive examination under:
(a) the Act of 1858
(d) none of the above Acts
31. The
Governor-General's
Council
was
enlarged
for
the
purpose
of
legislation
by
addition
of
six
new
legislative
members
under:
(a) the Act of 1858
32. The
Government
of
India
was
transferred
from the Company to the Crown by the:
(a) Act of 1858
(b) Act of 1861
(c) Act of 1892
(d) Act of 1909
33. The
powers
of
the
Court
of
Directors
and
the
Board
of
Control
were
vested
in
the
Secretary of State for India by:
(a)the Act of 1858
(c) Government of India Act 1935
(d) the Act of 1919
(a)
34. The
Council
of
India
the Act of:
(a) 1858
(b) 1909
(c) 1919
(d) 1935
35. The
military
and
naval
Company
were
transferred
of the Crown by:
(a) the Act of 1861
(b) the Act of 1858
(c) the Act of 1892
was
to
created
forces
the
under
of
the
service
(d) theActofl9C9
36. The
system
of
double
government
was
done away by:
(d) the Act of 1858
37. The
Governor-General
was
redesignated
as Viceroy by the:
(a) Indian Councils Act 1861
(c) the Act of 1858
(d) none of above
38. The
Proclamation
of
the
Queen
which
out
lined
the
principles
which
were
to
form
the
basis
of
future
government
in
India
was
made on:
(a) 15 August 1858
(b) 1 January 1858
(c) 1 November 1858
(d) 31 December 1858
39. Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
find
reference
in
the
Queen's
Proclamation
of
1858?
(a) assurance to the native Indian Princes that their treaties and engagements
with the Company would be scrupulously observed
(b) promise to provide complete freedom of religious belief and worship
(c) due regard to the ancient rights, usages and customs of Indians in the
formulation and administration of justice
(d) imparting of compulsory military training to all able bodied Indians
40. Who
of
the
following
Indian
leaders
described
the
Queen's
Proclamation
of
1858 as Magna Carta?
(a) Copal Krishna Gokhale
(b) Dadabhai Naoroji
(c) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(d) W.C. Banerjee
41. The
Governor-General's
Legislative
Council
was
enlarged
and
given
purely
legislative functions by the:
(a) Act of 1858
42. The
Governor-General
was
given
absolute
veto
in
matters
pertaining
to
legislation
by:
(a) the Act of 1858
(c) the Act of 1909
(d) the Indian Councils Act 1861
43. The
law
making
powers
which
were
taken
away
from
the
Presidencies
of
Bombay
and
Madras
by
the
Act
of
1833
were
restored to them by:
(a) the Indian Councils Act 1861
(b) the Act of 1858
(d) the Act of 1909
44. The
policy
of
legislative
devolution
was
initiated by:
(a) the Act of 1858
(b) the Indian Councils Act 1861
(c) the Act of 1909
(d) the Act of 1919
45. The
Ordinance
Making
power
was
for
the
first
time
granted
to
the
Governor-General
under:
(a) The Act of 1858
(c) the Act of 1909
(d) Indian Councils Act 1861
46. The
foundations
of
the
system
of
administration
in
India
which
lasted
till
the
end
of
the
British
rule
in
India
were
laid by:
National Movement and Constitutional Development
295
(a) The Act of 1858

(c) the Regulating Act of 1773
(d) the Indian Councils Act 1892
47. The
non-official
members
were
associated
with
the
Legislative
Councils
for
the
first
time by:
(a) the Indian Councils Act: 1861
(c) the Act of 1909
(d) the Act of 1858
48. The
principle
of
election,
though
in
a
veiled
form,
was
for
the
first
time
recognised by:
(a) the Act of 1861
(d) the Act of 1909
49. The
members
of
the
Legislative
Council
were
for
the
first
time
given
right
to
ask
questions
from
the
government
and
seek
other information under the
(a) Act of 1858
50. Which
one
of
the
following
Acts
has
been
described
as
the
most
important
milestone
on
the
road
that
led
to
the
establishment
of
Parliamentary Government in India?
(a) the Act of 1858

(d)the Act of 1909
51. Which
one
of
the
following
Acts
granted
an
opportunity
to
the
members
of
Legislative
Council
to
criticise
the
financial
policy of the government?
(a) the Act of 1858
(c) the Act of 1909
(d) the Act of 1919
52. The rise of nationalism in India was:
(a) chiefly due to the British rule in India
(b) chiefly due to Socio-Religious Movement
(c) the combined result of a number of factors
53. For
which
one
of
the
following
factors
rise
of
nationalism
in
India,
the
British
rule
was not responsible?
(a) provision of a lingua franca
(b) introduction of modern means of transport and communication
(c) encouragement to Socio-Religious Movement
(d) policy of economic exploitation
54. Which
one
of
the
following
Governor
General's
time
is
known
as
the
seeding
time of nationalism in india?
(a) LordLytton
(b) LordRippon
(c) Lord Hastings
(d) William Bentinck
55. The
Indian
National
Congress
was
foun
ded in 1885 at the initiative of:
(a) LordDufferin
(b) A.O.Hume
(c) Womesh Chandra Bannerjee
(d) Gopal Krishan Gokhale
56. The
first
session
of
Indian
National
Congress was held at:
(a) Bombay
(b) Calcutta
(c) Nagpur
(d) Delhi
57. The
first
session
of
the
Indian
National
Congress was presided over by
(a) A.O. Hume
(b) Womesh Chandra Bannerji
58. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
object
of
Indian
National Congress?
(a) to promote personal intimacy and friendship among earnest workers in
different parts of the empire
(b) to encourage intercourse among people of all races, creeds and provinces
with a view to develop and consolidate sentiments of national unit/
(a)
(c) to secure proper share for the Indians in the administration of the country
(d) to maintain authoritative record of the mature opinion of the educated
classes in India on some of the important and pressing social questions of the
day
59. The
initial
reaction
of
the
government
to
the
formation
of
Indian
National
Congress
was:
(a) quite favourable
(b) almost one of indifference
(c) quite unfavourable
60. The
first
phase
of
National
Movement
(1885-1905) was dominated by:
(a) princes
(b) landlords
(c) Europeans
(d) middle class Indian Intelligent
61. Most
of
the
leaders
of
National
Movement
during the phase 1885-1905 hailed from:
(a) urban areas
(b) rural areas
(c) urban as well as rural areas
(d) foreign countries
62. Which
one
of
the
followings
was
not
a
moderate nationalists?
(a) Surendranath Banerji
(c) Pherozeshah Mehta
(d) Bipan Chandra Pa!
63.
Which one of the following methods has
been wrongly listed as a method of the
moderate nationalist leaders?

(a) petitions
(b) representations
(c) passing of resolutions
(d) non-cooperation
64. The moderate nationalists stood for
(a) attainment of self-government for India through gradual reforms
(b) effecting improvements in social life
(c) complete freedom for India
65. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) the moderates believed in constitutional and peaceful methods only
(b) the moderates favoured violence only when constitutional and peaceful
methods proved ineffective
(c) the moderates believed in violent methods
(d)none of the above
66. Who
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
included
in
the
list
of
extremist
leaders
of
Indian National movement?
(a) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(b) Lala Lajpat Rai
(c) Bipan Chandra Pal
(d) Surendra Nath Banerjee
67. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
factor
for
the
rise
of
Extremist Nationalism?
(a) disillusionment with the achievement of the moderates
(b) pride in ancient culture and rich heritage
(c) repressive policies of Lord Curzon
(d) introduction of compulsory military education of all young Indians
68. The
rift
between
the
moderate
and
the
extremist
leaders
of
Congress
for
the
first
time made its appearance at:
(a) the Surat Session of Congress
(b) the Benaras Session of Congress
(c) Calcutta Session of Congress
(d) None of the above sessions
69. The
actual
split
between
the
Moderates
and the Extremists took place at the:
(a) Surat Session
(b) Poona Session
(c) Calcutta Session
70. The
Revolutionary
Nationalists
carried
out their activities:
(a) mainly within India
(b) mainly from foreign lands
(c) within India as well as from foreign countries
(d) from Russia and America only
(a)
297
71. Which
one
of
the
fallowings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
Revolutionary
Nationalist?
(a) Barinder Kumar Ghosh
(b) KhudiramBose
(c) Sardar Ajit Singh
(d) Ajit Prasad Jain
72. The
Indian
Home
Rule
Society
was
organised in London by:
(a) Shyamji Krishna Verma
(b) Sardar Ajit Singh
(c) Madan Lai Dhingra
73. The
Ghadar
Party
was
organised
in
USA
by:
(a) Raja Mahendra Prntap
(b) LalaHardyal
(c) Abul Kalam Azad
(d) M.A*Jinnah
74. Which
one
of
the
following
leaders
was
connected
with
the
raid
on
treasury
near
Kakori railway station in August 1925?
(a) Aurobindo Chose
(b) Bhagat Singh
(c) Ram Prasad Bismil
(d) LajpatRai
75.
Who of the following was not associated
with the Home Rule Movement?

(a) Annie Besant
(b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(c) B.P.Wadia
(d) Subhash Chandra Bose
76. The
Congress
which
split
at
the
Surat
Session,
was
reunited
at
the
Lucknow
Session in 1916 chiefly due to the efforts of:
(a) Lala Lajpat Rai
(b) Moti Lai Nehru
(c) Annie Besant
(d) Mahatma Gandhi
77. The
main
objective
of
the
Home
Rule
Movement was:
(a) complete independence for India
(b) self-government of India
(c) immediate independence for Irftiia
78. The
Home
Rule
League
formed
by
Tilak
at
Poona
in
April
1916
and
the
Home
Rule
League
formed
by
Annie
Besant
at
Madras
in September 1916 were finally merged in:
(a) 1918
(b) 1916
(c) 1920
(d) 1925
79. The Swadeshi Movement was launched:
(a) as a protest against the partition of Bengal in 1905
(b) following division of Congress in 1907
(c) following the Lucknow Session
(d) to mark the entry of Mahatma Gandhi in national movement
80. Mahatma
Gandhi
launched
Satyagraha
Movement in 1919:
(a) as a protest against the enactment of Rowlatt Act
(b) as a protest against British policy towards Turkey
(c) as a protest against inadequate reforms introduced by the Act of 1919
81. In
1919
Rabindra
Nath
Tagore
surren
dered his title of 'Sir':
(a) as a token of support to Gandhi's Satyagraha movement
(b) as protest against the inadequacy of reforms introduced by the Act of 1919
(c) on account of failure of British Government to carry out commitments given
to Congress during the war
(d) as a protest against the Jallianwala Bagh incidents and imposition of martiallaw in Punjab
82. Which
one
of
the
following
was
elected
as
the
President
of
the
All
India
Khilafat
Conference in 1919?
(a) Motilal Nehru
(b) Shaukat Ali
(c) Mahatma Gandhi
(d) M.A. Jinnah
(c)
83.The
Non-Cooperation
Movement
was
launched by Mahatma Gandhi in:
(a) 1919
(b) 1920
(c) 1921
(d) 1922
84.Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
form
part
of
the
programme
of
NonCooperation Movement?
(a) surrender of titles, honorary offices and nominated posts in local
bodies
(b) boycott of all official and non-official functions held by the Government
officials or in their honour
(c) gradual withdrawal of children from schools and colleges run by
government
(d) stop payment of all revenues and taxes to the government
85.The
non-cooperation
movement
was
ultimately
withdrawn
by
Mahatma
Gandhi:
(a) on the directions of the party
(b) on account of violent incidents at Chauri-Chaura
(c) on account of amicable settlement with the British
(d) on account of excessive repression by government
86.The
decision
of
Mahatma
Gandhi
to
suspend
non-cooperation
movement
was
strongly supported by:
(a) Lala Lajpat Rai
(b) Pandit Moti Lai Nehru
(c) C.R.Dass
87.The
importance
of
the
non-cooperation
movement lies in the fact that:
(a) a redress for Khilafat and Punjab wrongs was secured
(b) it brought about a unity in the ranks of Congress party

(c) a large number of nationalists managed to get into the Councils
(d) the national movement for the first time acquired a mass basis
88.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
(a) the Swarajist Party was formed as a protest against Gandhi's decision
to withdraw non-cooperation movement
(b) the Swarajist Party was formed to attain dominion status through
obstructionist methods
(c) the Swarajist Party was formed to attain dominion status by winning
over the sympathy of the English
(d) the Swarajist Party was formed to contest elections to the legislature
to prevent undesirable persons being elected
89.Which
one
of
the
following
leaders
was
not associated with the Swarajist Party?
(a) Moti Lai Nehru
(b) C. Rajagopalachari
(c) C.R.Dass
(d) N.C.Kelkar
90.The
British
Government
decided
to
appoint
Simon
Commission
in
1927,
two
years before the stipulated time due to:
(a) successful implementation of the Reforms of 1919
(b) growing pressure from the Swarajist Party
(c) threat of Mahatma Gandhi to resume his non-cooperation movement
(d) none of the above reasons
91.The
appointment
of
the
Simon
Comm
ission was welcomed by:
(a)
Indian National Congress
(b) The Muslim League
(c) The Hindu Mahasabha
(d) None of the above parties
92.The
appointment
of
the
Simon
Commission
was
opposed
by
the
Indians
because:
(a) it was an all white Commission
(b) majority of the members of the Commission were Europeans
(c) it had majority of the non-official Indians
(d) the Indians were not consulted about their representatives on the
Commission
(a)
National Movement and Constitutional
Development 299
93.In
1928
the
AH
India
Parties
Conference
appointed
a
Committee
to
determine
the
principles
of
the
new
constitution
for
India
and
draft
a
report
thereon
under
the
Chairmanship of:
(a) Subhash Chandra Bosc
(b) Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru
(c) Moti Lai Nehru

(d) Sir Imam AH
94.Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
form
part
of
the
Nehru
Committee
recom
mendations?
(a) creation of Federal Polity for India
(b)creation of bicameral Parliament
(c) grant of identical constitutional status to India in the British Empire
as had been provided to Dominions of Canada or Commonwealth of
Australia
(d)introduction of communal and separate electorates
95.The
Congress
declared
complete
indep
endence
for
India
as
its
goal
at
its
session
held at:
(a) Calcutta in 1928
(b)Allahabad in 1930
(c) Lahore in 1929
(d)none of the above
96.The
Lahore
Session
of
the
Congress
which
adopted
resolution
of
complete
indep
endence for India was presided over by:
(a) Subhash Chandra Bosc
(b)Lala Lajpat Rai
(c) Moti Lai Nehru
(d)Jawaharlal Nehru
97.The
Civil
Disobedience
Movement
was
launched by Mahatma Gandhi in:
(a) 1928
(b) 1930
(c) 1932
(d) 1931
98.Before
launching
Civil
Disobedience
Movement
Gandhi
offered
to
put
off
the
same if Government accepted his:
(a) five demands
(b) seven demands

(c)
eighteen demands
(d)
eleven demands
99. Which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) on the question of launching of Civil Disobedience Movement the
Congress leaders were sharply divided
(b) the Muslim League fully supported the Civil Disobedience Movement
(c) The Muslim League did not support the Civil Disobedience
Movement
100. The
Civil
Disobedience
Movement
was
started by Mahatma Gandhi by:
(a) giving a call for countrywide strike
(b) by asking the people to stop payment of taxes to government
(c) asking people to picket liquor shops and foreign cloth dealers'
shops
(d) launching a march from Sabarmati to Dandi with a view to break
salt law
101. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Congress took part only in the First Round Table Conference
organised at London in 1930-31
(b)Congress took part only in the Second Round Table Conference held
at London in 1931
(c) Congress took part only in the Third Round Table Conference held at
London in 1932
(d)Congress took part in all the three Round Table Conferences held at
London from 1930 to 1932
102. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
term
of
Gandhi-Irwin
Pact of 1931?
(a) government agreed to withdraw all special ordinances issued by it
(b)it agreed to release all the prisoners, including the soldiers who
refused to fire in Peshwar
(c) government permitted picketing within the limits of ordinary law
(d)the Congress agreed to stop civil disobedience movement and take
part in the next Round Table Conference
(a)
103. The
Communal
Award
was
announced
by
the
British
Prime
Minister
Ramsay
Macdonald in:
(a) 1932
(b) 1930
(c) 1931
(d) 1929
104. Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
form
part
of
the
Communal
Award
announced
by the British Government?
(a) it recognised the depressed classes as a minority community and gave them
right to vote in the general constituencies
(b)
it conceded weigh tage to the Muslims in provinces in which they were
in minority
(c) it provided for separate electorates for Indian Christians and Anglo-Indians
(d) it reserved certain seats for the Muslims
105. Gandhiji
undertook
a
'fast
upto
death'
as
a
protest
against
the
Communal
Award,
which he broke because:
(a) the British Government withdrew the Communal Award
(b) the Congress leaders successfully prevailed upon Gandhi to accept the
Award
(c) the Depressed classes openly opposed the Award
(d) of the conclusion of the Poona Pact
106. The Poona Pact
(a) reserved seats for the Harijans (depressed classes) in the Provincial
Legislatures, contrary to recommendations of Communal Award.
(b) did away with the reservation of seats for the depressed classes in the
Provincial Legislatures as envisaged by the Communal Award
(c) increased the number of reserved seats for the Harijans (depressed classes)
in the Provincial Legislatures
(d) reduced the number of seats reserved for the Harijans in the Provincial
Legislatures by the Communal Award
107. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
contributory
factor
for
the enactment of Act of 1909?
(a) dissatisfaction of the people with the Indian Councils Act 1892
(b) repressive Rule of Lord Curzon
(c) advent of the Liberals in England
(d) formation of Labour Government in Britain
108. The Act of 1909:
(a) enlarged the size of the Central as well as Provincial Legislative Councils
(b) enlarged the size of Central Legislative Councils only
(c) enlarged the size of Provincial Legislative Councils only
109. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) the Act of 1909 provided non-official majority in the Imperial Legislative
Council
(b) the Act of 1909 provided official majority in the Provincial Legislative
Councils
(c) the Act of 1909 provided a non-official majority in the Provincial Legislative
Councils
(d) the Act of 1909 provided official majority both in the Imperial and Provincial
Legislative Councils
110. The
separate
electorates
were
introduced
in India for the first time under:
(a) the Act of 1909
(b) the Act of 1919
(c) the Act of 1935
111. The Act of 1909:
(a) introduced women franchise
(b) universal franchise
(c) introduced a system of indirect elections
(d) introduced system of direct voting
(a)
301
112.
The Act of 1909 brought about:

(a) decentralisation in the financial sphere only
(b) decentralisation in the legislative sphere only.
(c) decentralisation in the legislative as well as financial spheres
correct?
(a) the Act of 1909 introduced the principles of responsibility of executive
towards the legislature
(b) the Act of 1909 provided a forum to the Indians in the form of Legislative
Councils where they could ventilate their grievances
(c) the greatest achievement of the Act of 1909 was that it introduced system of
direct elections
114. The British introduced the Communal
electorates in India with a view to:
(a) prevent the Muslims from joining the national movement
(b) protect the Muslims against the tyranny of the Hindus
(c) bring about social solidarity
(d) secure for the Muslims their rightful share in the administration of the
country
115. The Declaration of August 1917 promised
to the Indians:
(a) complete independence after thirty years
(b) self-government at the end of First World War
(c) self-government through gradual stages
(d) none of the above things
116. The Act of 1919 is also known as:
(a) Montagu-Chelmsford Reform Act
(b) Minto-Morley Reforms Act
(c) Act for Self-Government
(d) Act of Dyarchical Government

117. The
dyarchical
system
of
government
was
introduced in India under:
(a) Act of 1858
(b) Act of 1909
(c) Act of 1919
(d) Act of 1892
118. The
Princes
were
associated
with
the
administration
of
India
for
the
first
time
under:
(a) the Act of 1858
(b) the Act of 1919
(c) the Act of 1929
(d) by all the three Acts
119. Which
one
of
the
following
Acts
inaugurated
the
era
of
responsible
government in India?
(a)the Minto-Morley Reforms Act 1909
(b) Montague-Chelmsford Reform Act 1919
(c) Government of India Act 1935
(d) Indian Independence Act 1947
120. The
salary
of
the
Secretary
of
State
was
made
payable
by
the
British
Exchequer
under:
(a) Act of 1858
(b) Act of 1909
(c) Act of 1919
(d) Act of 1935
121. The
maximum
limit
on
the
membership
of
the
Viceroy's
Executive
Council
was
done
away by the:
(a) Act of 1919
(b) Act of 1935
(c) Act of 1909
(d) None of the above Acts
122. The
Executive
Council
of
the
Viceroy
was
made responsible by the Act of 1919 to:
(a) the Secretary of State for India
(b) the Central Legislature
(c) the Secretary of State for India as well as Central Legislature

123. The
Imperial
Council
was
bicameral legislature under the Act of:
(a) 1909
(b) 1919
(c) 1935
124. The
Act
of
1919
fixed
Councils
of
State
and
Assembly respectively as:
302
the
replaced
by
terms
Central
of
the
Legislative
(a)9 years and 3 years

(b) 6 years and 2 years
(c) 5 years and 3 years
(d) 5 years each
125. Under
the
Act
of
1919
in
case
of
differences
between the two houses:
(a) the will of the Council of State was to prevail
(b) the will of the Central Legislative Assembly was to prevail
(c) the matter was to be shelved
(d) the decision was to be taken by majority vote at a joint sitting of the two
houses
126. The
beginning
in
the
direction
of
introduction
of
provincial
autonomy
in
the
sense
of
freedom
from
control
from
above
as
well
as
transfer
of
power
to
the
people
was made under:
fa) theActof 1909
(b) the Act of 1919
(c) theActof 1935
127. Dyarchy means:
(a) double government
(b) a government based on division of power between centre and provinces
(c) a government in which the Centre is very powerful
128. Dyarchy worked in India from:
(a) 1919-1931
(b) 1921-1937
(c) 1922-1928
(d) 1930-1937
129. Which
one
of
the
following
causes
for
the
failure
of
dyarchy
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) the idea of dividing the functions of government into two water-tight
compartments proved faulty
(b> the division of subjects was quite illogical
(c) the ministers failed to act as a team
(d) the ministers were made exclusively responsible to the Legislature
130. A
Federal
Scheme
was
envisaged
for
India
under the Act of:
(a) 1919
(b) 1935
(c) 1909
(d) none of the above acts
131. The
Federation
envisaged
under
the
Act
of
1935
could
not
come
into
existence
because:
(a) The British Government suspended these provisions
(b) the Congress party pressurised the Government to withdraw the scheme
(c) requisite number of states did not accede to the Federation as required by
the Act
(d) the King of United Kingdom wanted the scheme to be scrapped
132. The
Act
of
1935
provided
weightage
of
the
various
communities,
classes
and
interests
in:
(a) the Council of State only
(b) the Federal Assembly only
(c) in none of the above two houses
(d) in both the houses of the Federal Legislature
133. A
Federal
Court
enjoying
jurisdiction
over
the
States
as
well
as
the
Provinces
was
created under:
(a) the Government of India Act 1935
(b) the Act of 1919
(c) the Act of 1909
(d) none of the above acts
134. The
Federal
Court
created
in
India
was
vested with:
(a)only appellate jurisdiction
(b) only original jurisdiction
(c) both appellate as well as original jurisdiction
(d) original jurisdiction in some cases and appellate jurisdiction in all cases
135. The Federal Court provided under the Act
of 1935 was not like a Supreme Court
because:
(a) It could not hear appeals against decisions in certain types of cases
(b) It could not hear appeals against decisions of all types of courts
(c) Its decisions were not final and appeals could be taken against its decision to
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
136.The
Act
of
1935
introduced
provincial
. autonomy:
(a) In the Governor's Provinces as well as Chief Commissioner's Provinces
(b) In the Governor's Provinces only
(c) In the Chief Commissioner's Provinces only
(d) In Governor's Provinces, in Commissioner's Provinces as well as the states
137. The
Indian
Council
which
had
been
in
existence
since
1858
was
abolished
under
the Act of:
(a) 1909
(b) 1919
(c) 1935
(d) 1947
138. The
Office
of
the
High
Commissioner
for
India was created under the Act of:
(a) 1909
(b) 1919
(c) 1935
139. The
Federal
Public
Service
Commission
was created under the Act of:
(a) 1909
/'(b) 1919
(c) 1935
140. In
the
elections
to
the
Provincial
Assemblies
held
in
1937
Congress
secured
majority in:
(a) Six provinces
(b) Five provinces
(c) Seven provinces
(d) Nine provinces
141. The
Congress
Ministries
tendered
*
eir
resignation in:
(a) 1937
(b) 1938
(c) 1939
(d) 1940
142. The
Congress
Ministries
tendered
their
resignation
(a) On account of inadequacy of finances placed at their disposal
(b) Due to directive of Mahatma Gandhi to relinquish political offices and devote
themselves to social and economic upliftment of the people
(c) Because the British Government declared India a party to war without
consulting them
(d) Due to combination of all the above factors
143. Which
one
of
the
following
achievements
of
the
Congress
Minisitries
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) They launched ambitious programmes for the welfare of the people
(b) They enacted laws to liquidate agricultural Indebtedness
(c) They reduced the burden of taxation on the people by abolishing a number
of oppressive taxes
(d) They introduced important reforms in the field of education, public health,
local self-government, etc.
144. In
the
non-Congress
Provinces
the
Pro
vincial Autonomy:
(a) Could not work as successfully as in the Congress Provinces
(b) Worked more successfully than in the Congress Provinces
(c) Could not be introduced
145. Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
form
part
of
the
offer
made
by
Lord
Linlithgow
in August 1940?
(a) It shall be the primary duty of the Indians to frame a Constitution for India
.(b) It indicated willingness to expand Viceroy's Executive Council by including
additional nominated Indians
(c) It asserted that in future constitutional changes in the position of the

minorities would be fully safeguarded
(d) It promised to grant independence to India within ten years
146. Individual
Civil
Disobedience
Movement
was launched by Mahatma Gandhi:
(a) As a prelude to the launching of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1931
(b) In the wake of rejection of August offer of 1940
(c) To assess whether the people were fit to launch Quit India Movement
(d) To assess strength of the English to suppress national movement
147. The
British
sent
Cripps
Mission
to
India
chiefly with a view to:
(a) Placate the Muslims
(b) Create divisions within the ranks of the Indian National Congress
(c) Secure the co-operation of the Indians in its war efforts.
(d) To silence the opposition in the British Parliament
148. Which
one
of
the
following
parties
favoured Cripps proposals?
(a) Congress
(b) Muslim League
(c) Hindu Mahasabha
(d) None of the above parties
149. Congress
decided
to
launch
Quit
India
Movement in 1942:
(a) With a view to take full advantage of the tight position of the British during
the war
(b) Because it was convinced by the Cripps Proposals that the British did not
intend to relax their hold on India
(c) With a view to patch up the differences between Congress and Muslim
League
150. Rajaji
Formula
was
suggested
by
C
Rajagopalachari
in
1944
primarily
with
a view to:
(a) Resolve the political deadlock in the country
(b) Seek the withdrawal of communal electorates
(c) Secure greater weightage for the Congress in the provisional government
(d) Impress on the government to withdraw from India within a year of the close
of Second World War
151. Wavell
Plan
was
suggested
by
Lord
Wavell, the Governor-General of India in:
(a) 1943
(b) 1944
(c) 1945
(d) 1946
152. The
Simla
Conference
which
was
convened
by
Lord
Wavell
in
June
1945
failed because:
(a) The Viceroy openly sided with Muslim League
(b) The Viceroy openly sided with the Congress
(c) Of the difference between the main parties regarding the composition of the
Executive Council
(d) Of the sudden outbreak of communal riots
153. The
Indian
National
Army
(INA)
was
raised,
by
Subhash
Chandra
Bose
out
of
Indian
prisoners
of
war
captured
by
the
Japanese
in
Malaya,
Singapore,
Burma
etc.
in:
(a) 1941
(b) 1942
(c) 1944
(d) 1943
154. The
historic
INA
trial
started
at
the
Red
Fort of Delhi in:
(a) 1944
(b) 1945
(c) 1946
(d) 1947
155. The
Revolt
of
the
took place between
(a) 1940-41
(b) 1941-42
(c) 1944-45
(d) 1945-46
156. Cabinet
Mission
was
Labour Government of Britain in:
(a) 1944
(b) 1945
(c) 1946
(d) Early 1947
157. The Cabinet Mission consisted of:
(a) Three members of British Cabinet
Royal
sent
Indian
to
India
Air
by
Force
the

305
(b) Five members of British Cabinet

(c) Three members of British Cabinet and Viceroy
(d) The members of the British Cabinet
158.Who
of
the
following
was
not
a
member
of
the Cabinet Mission?
(a) Sir Stafford Cripps
(b) Pathic Lawrence
(c) A.V.Alexander
(d) LordWavell
159.Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
form
part of the Cabinet Mission Proposals?
(a) It proposed a Federal Union consisting of British Indian Provinces and Indian
States
(b) It made provision for a Constitution, making body to be elected by the
Provincial Assemblies
(c) It accepted the demand for creation of separate state of Pakistan
(d) It provided for the setting up an Interim Government
160. The Cabinet Mission granted communal
representation:
(a) To the Muslims and Sikhs only
(b) To the Muslims only
(c) To the Muslims, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians and Indian Christians
161.Which
one
of
the
following
defects
of
Cabinet
Mission
Plan
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It envisaged a very weak Centre
(b) It envisaged a high undemocratic Constituent Assembly which was to be
indirectly elected by the members of Legislative Assemblies on the basis of
the quota of the communities
(c) It encouraged the states to ascertain their independence by providing that
with the new Constitution coming into force the British paramountcy over
the States would automatically revert to them
(d) It made no bid to protect the interests of the Muslims
162. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
incorrect?
(a) The Congress was not happy with the Cabinet Mission Plan specially the
grouping of the provinces
(b) The Muslim League accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan because it provided
for a weak centre and an opportunity to large Muslim majority provinces to
dominate their respective sections
(c) The Sikhs whole-heartedly welcomed the Cabinet Mission proposals
163. The
Muslim
League
observed
Direct
Action Day on 16 August 1946 to:
(a) Compel the British Government to provided adequate representation to the
Muslims in the Interim Government
(b) Achieve Pakistan
(c) Demand separate Constituent Assembly for Pakistan
(d) Protest against the atrocities of the fanatic Hindus against the Muslims
164. The
Muslim
League
refused
to
join
the
Interim
Government
set
up
under
the
Cabinet Mission Plan because:
(a) Congress objected to the inclusion of certain members, proposed by M.A.
Jinnah in the Government
(b) Congress refused to accept M.A. Jinnah as the head of the government
(c) The Viceroy provided majority to the Congress' in the Government in
violation of the principle of parity accepted by the plan
(d) Home Portfolio was not offered to the Muslim League Minister
165. The
Interim
Government
set
up
under
the
Cabinet Mission Plan assumed office-on:
(a) 2 September 1946
(b) 16 August 1946
(c) 26 January 1947
(d) 15 August 1947
166. The
Muslim
League
ultimately
decided
to
join the Interim Government because:
306
(a) The Home Portfolio was allotted to M.A. Jirinah

(b) The Congress agreed to parity of membership with Muslim League
(c) It did not want to leave the entire field of administration of central
Government in the hands of Congress
(d) Congress accepted the list of the members proposed by Jinnah for inclusion
in the Interim Government
167. The
elections
to
the
Constituent
Assembly
under
the
Cabinet
Mission
Plan
were
held
in:
(a) January 1947
(b) July 1946
(c) August 1947
(d) December 1946
168. The
British
Prime
Minister
indicated
the
intention
of
the
British
to
quit
India
by
the
end of June 1948 in his statement of:
(a) 1 January 1947
(b) 20 February 1947
(c) 26 January 1946
(d) 15 August 1946
169. British
Prime
Minister
Attlee
announced
the
target
date
for
the
withdrawal
of
the
British from India:
(a) With a view to divide and rule the country
(b) Encourage the Muslim League to insist on separate state of Pakistan
(c) Encourage the main political parties to settle their differences and act in an
accommodating spirit
(d) To satisfy his party members in British Parliament
170. Lord
Mountbatten
announced
a
fresh
Plan
on 3 June 1947 because:
(a) The Cabinet Mission Plan was strongly opposed by Congress as well as
Muslim League
(b) The Viceroy withdrew the Cabinet Mission Plan on account of communal riots
in the country
(c) The Viceroy was convinced that the only solution of the Indian problem lay in
partition of the country
171. The
proposals
for
the
partition
of
India
into
two
states
of
India
and
Pakistan
were
contained in:
(a) Cripps Mission Proposals
(b) Cabinet Mission Proposals
(c) Prime Minister Attlee's statement of 20 February 1947
(d) Mountbatten Plan of 3 June 1947
172. The
Indian
Independence
Act
was
passed
by the British Parliament in:
(a) January, 1947 (b) July, 1947
(c) August, 1947
(d) August, 1946
173. Which
one
of
the
following
provisions
of
the
Indian
Independence
Act
1947
has
(a) It ended the British rule and provided for establishment of two Dominions of
India and Pakistan
(b) The King of Britain agreed to drop the title of the Emperor of India
(c) It retained the office of the Secretary of States for India till a new
constitution came into force
(d) India as well as Pakistan were given the right to secede from the British
Commonwealth
174. In
terms
of
the
Indian
Independence
Act,
pending
framing
of
a
new
Constitution
all
the
legislative
powers
were
to
be
exercised
by:
(b) The Governor-General of India
(c) The Governor-General in consultation with the Ministry
(d) Constitution Assemblies of the two Dominions
175. The
distinction
of
working
as
General
Secretary
of
the
Indian
National
Congress
during the first 22 years goes to
(a) A.D.Hume
(c) Womesh Chandra Banerjee
(d) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
176. The moderates were in favour of:
(a) Introducing the western political institution in the country
307
(b) Reviving the Indian institutions and completely doing away with the western
political institutions
(c) Evolving absolutely new institutions
177.The
policy
of
political
mendicacy
is
associated
with
the
section
of
Congress
known as:
(a) Extremists
(b) Revolutionaries
(c) Moderates
(d) Terrorists
178.The extremist nationalists believed in:
(a) British sense of fair-play and justice
(b) Constitutional and peaceful methods
(c) Strikes and bandhs
(d) Direct action
179.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The British openly encouraged the growth of extremist nationalism in India
(b) The British secretly encouraged the extremists in India
(c) The British Government was opposed to extremists and followed a repressive
policy towards them
(d) The British followed a policy of indifference towards the extremists
180.The
year
1905
is
an
important
landmark
in
the growth of Indian Nationalism because:
(a) Mahatma Gandhi joined the national movement
(b) The British accorded official recognition to the Indian National Congress
(c) It witnessed the emergence of extremist leadership in the Congress
181.The
revolutionary
movement
in
Punjab
was initiated by
(a) Bhagat Singh
(b) Sardar Ajit Singh
(c) Lala Lajpat Rai
(d) Madan Lai Dhingra
182.Which
one
of
the
following
revolutionary
parties
had
its
branches
in
a
large
number
of foreign countries?
(a) Anjuman-i-Mahiban-i-Watan
(b) Abhinava Bharat
(c) Indian Home Rule Society
(d) Ghadar Party
183.Abhinava Bharat was
(a) A revolutionary association of Maharashtra

(b)
A patriotic journal in Hindi
(c) An association which worked for national unity
(d) An association which pleaded for greater share for Indians in the
administration of their country
184.The
Indian
Home
Rule
Society
was
founded
in
the
first
decade
of
the
twentieth century in:
(a) America
(b) Singapore
(c) Canada
(d) England
185.The
Indian
Muslim
League
was
founded
in:
(a) 1902
(b) 1906
(c) 1909
(d) 1916
186.The
Indian
Muslim
League
was
founded
by:
(a) Mohammad Iqbal
(b) M.A. Jinnah
(c) Shaukat Alt
(d) Agha Khan
187.The Paper 'New India' was started by:
(a) Lokmanya Tilak
(b) Sarojini Naidu
(c) Mrs. Annie Besant
(d) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
188.Who
of
the
followings
was
associated
with
the
throwing
of
the
bomb
in
the
Central
Council?
(a) Bhagat Singh (b) VirSavarkar
(c) Chandra Shekhar Azad
(d) Sardar Ajit Singh
189.Who
said
"Swaraj
is
my
birth
right
and
I
shall have it"?
308
(a) Lajpat Rai

(b) Lokmanya Tilak
(c) Mahatma Gandhi
(d) Rabindra Nath Tagore
190. General
O.
Dwyer,
who
was
responsible
for the Jallianwala massacre was killed by:
(a) Madan Lai Dhingra
(b) Bhagat Singh
(c) Udham Singh
(d) Chandra Shekhar Azad
191. Anand Math was:
(a) A military organisation formed with a view to overthrow the British
(b) A religious organisation to raise moral standard of the people
(c) An organisation founded to promote communal harmony

192. Gandhi
emerged
as
the
undisputed
leader
of
the
national
movement
after
the
death
of:
(a) Motilal Nehru
(b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
193. Mahatma
Gandhi
for
the
first
time
practised his Satyagraha in India at:
(a) Chauri Chaura
(b) Ahmedabad
(c) Champaran
(d) Navakhali
194. The
movement
against
partition
of
Bengal
was led by:
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Rabindra Nath Tagore
(c) Subhash Chandra Bose
195. The
Committee
which
was
appointed
by
the
Government
of
India
to
inquire
into
the
Jallianwala
Bagh
Tragedy
was
headed
by:
(a) C.R. Dass
(b) Lord Hunter
(c) LordMontford
(d) Moti Lai Nehru
196. The
idea
of
non-cooperation
movement
was mooted by
(a) C.R. Dass
(b) Lala Lajpat Rai

(c)
Moti Lai Nehru
(d)Mahatma Gandhi
197. Gandhiji
organised
Dandi
March
with
a
view to:
(a) Create a scare in the mind of the English people
(b) Bring about Hindu-Muslim unity
(c) Violate the salt-law
(d) Seek reduction in land revenue
198. The
famous
bonfire
of
foreign
cloth
was
organised
at
Bombay
under
the
leadership
of:
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Gopal Krishan Gokhale
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru
199. Picketing was one of the feature of:
(a) Khilafat Movement
(b) Swarajist Movement
(c) Non-cooperation movement
(d) None of the above movements
200. The Swadeshi movement was launched
(a) As a protest against division of Bengal
(b) With a view to improve the economic condition of the people by encouraging
consumption of Indian goods
(c) As a protest against the massacre of Indian people at Jallianwala Bagh
(d) Due to failure of the British government to introduce responsible government
in India
201. Swadeshi Movement stood for:
(a) Overthrow of British government
(b) Boycott of foreign goods and use of Indian goods
(c) Formation of parallel government consisting of Indian representatives
(d) Wearing of hand spun clothes instead of mill made clothes
(a)
202.The
Swarajists
differed
from
Gandhites
so far as
(a) They aimed at Swaraj for the mother country
(b) They stood for the boycott of legislatures
(c)
They wanted to use Satyagraha as a political weapon
(d) They
wanted
to
wreck
the government from within
203.The
only
common
point
between
Swarajists and the Gandhites was that:
(a) They believed in Satyagraha
(b) They aimed at winning Swaraj
(c) They wanted to contest elections for the Legislative Assemblies
204.The
Simon
Commission
consisted
of
members:
in
the
seven
(a) Of which only two were Indians

(b) Containing two Hindu and two Muslim members
(c) All of whom were Europeans
(d) Majority of whom were Europeans
205.The Simon Commission:
(a) Never submitted its report
(b) Submitted its report in 1930
(c) Submitted its report in 1931
(d) Submitted its report in 1932
206.Which
one
of
the
following
recom
mendations
of
the
Simon
Commission
has
(a) Abolition of dyarchy in the provinces
(b) Abolition of Communal electorates
(c) Retention
of
the
communal electorates
(d) Enlargement of Provincial Legislative Councils
207.With
regard
to
Home
Government
the
Simon Commission recommended:
(a) Abolition of Indian Council
(b) Enlargement of the functions and members of Indian Council
(c) Reduction of the functions and membership of the Council
208.The
Indians
boycotted
Simon
Com
mission:
(a) Because they were not given sufficient representation on the Commission
(b) Because it did not contain even a single Indian as its member
(c) The Indian members on the Commission were not acceptable to Congress
(d) The Indian members on the Commission were not acceptable to the Muslim
League
209.Lala
Lajpat
Rai
received
lathi
blow
at
Lahore while:
(a) Protesting against the excesses of the British at Jallianwala Bagh

(b) Organising demonstrations against the Simon Commission
(c) Agitating for annulment of the partition of Bengal
(d) Taking part in the civil disobedience movement
210.The
All-Parties
conference
was
held
at
Delhi in February 1928 at the initiative of:
(b) The Muslim League
(c) The Swarajist Party
(d) The Britishers
211.The
All-Parties
Conference
was
convened
to:
(a) Promote communal harmony
(b) Prepare plan for the overthrow of the British rule
(c) Produce a constitution acceptable to all the Indian political parties
(d) To decide whether co-operation should be extended to the British during the
Second World War or not
212.In
the
first
meeting
of
the
All
Parties
Conferences
held
at
Delhi
is
February
1928:
310
(a) 5 political parties and associations participated

(b) 9 political parties and associations participated
(c) 21 political parties and associations participated
(d) 29 political parties and associations participated
213.The Nehru Committee in its report of
August 1928 recommended for India
(a)Complete independence
(b) Dominion status
(c) Sovereign Republican system
214.The Nehru Committee favoured dominion
status for India:
(a) Because of pressure from the British Government
(b) Because of pressure of Mahatma Gandhi
(c) Because no general agreement was possible among different parties and
groups on anything higher than this
(d) The Congress was already committed to it
215.The recommendations of the Nehru
Committee:
(a) Were unanimously welcomed by all parties and groups
(b) Were immediately accepted by the government in view of their moderate
character
(c) Were rejected by the government on the plea that they were unusually
revolutionary in character
(d) Were unanimously accepted by different shades of Congress leadership
216.Mr. Saunders, who was responsible for
the; death of Lala Lajpat Rai was:
(a) Murdered by the revolutionaries of Punjab
(b) Sentenced to death by the British Government

(c) Killed by the mob of Lahore
217.The
pledge
for
the
independence
of
the
country
was
taken
all
over
the
country
for
the first time on:
(a) 26 January 1929
(b) 26 January 1930
(c) 26 November 1930
(d) 15 August 1930
218.The
Congress
was
declared
an
illegal
organisation:
(a) During the First World War
(b) Soon after it boycotted the Simon Commission
(c) After
the
spread
of
Civil Disobedience Movement
(d) After it refused to take part in the First Round Table Conference
219.Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
form
a
part
of
the
Civil
Disobedience
Movement
launched by Mahatma Gandhi?
(a) Picketing of shops selling foreign cloth and wine
(b) Boycott of government service
(c) No taxation without representation
(d) Violation of the Salt law
220.The
Civil
Disobedience
Movement
was
withdrawn
(a) Because of poor response from the people
(b) Because it turned violent
(c) As a result of an agreement with the Viceroy Lord Irwin
221. The 'Communal Award' announced by
the British Prime Minister in 1932
provided for:
(a) Joint electorates
(b) Reservation of seats for the minorities
(c) Separate communal electorates for various communities
(d) Reservation of seats for the Muslim League
222.The Communal Award aimed at:
(a) Strengthening national unity
(b) Promoting communal harmony
(c) Fostering communal feelings
(a)
223.The
Poona
Pact
concluded
in
1932
provided for:
(a) Separate electorates for the depressed classes
(b) Did away with the reservation of seats for the depressed classes in the
Central Legislature
(c) No representation to depressed classes in the public services
(d) Joint electorates with reservation of seats in the central legislature
224.The
Poona
Pact
of
1932
promoted
the
interests of:
(a) The Hindus
(b) The depressed classes
(c) The Muslims
(d) All the above classes
225.The
Karachi
Session
of
the
Indian
National
Congress
held
in
1930
was
significant
in
so
far as:
(a) It insisted on greater share for the Indians in the administration of the,
country
(b) It recommended adoption of Hindi as the official language of India
(c) It adopted a resolution on Fundamental Rights and economic policy for the
future
(d) It accepted communal electorates
226.The
Third
Round
Table
Conference
was
held in 1932 at:
(a) London
(b) Simla
(c) Lahore
(d) Calcutta
227.One
of
the
major
decisions
taken
at
the
Third Round Table Conference was:
(a) Lifting of ban on Congress
(b) Introduction of further constitutional reforms
(c) Grant of independence to India within 10 years
228.One
of
the
outstanding
features
of
the
Government of India Act 1935 was
(a) Introduction of dyarchy in the provinces
(b) Reduction in the powers of the Governor-Genera I
(c) Creation of the office of the High Commission for India

(d) Introd uction of Provincial Autonomy
229.Provincial
Autonomy
was
introduced
in
India under the:
(a) Act of 1919
(b) Minto-Morley Reforms Act, 1909
(c) Government of India Act. 1935
230.The
Muslim
League
observed
'day
of
deliverance' on:
(a) 22 December 1939
:
(b) 25 December 1938
(c) 26 January 1939
(d) 15 August 1939
231.The
Day
of
Deliverance
observed
by
the
Muslim
League
was
a
token
of
deliverance
from oppression and injustice of
(a) English rule
(b) Congress rule
(c) Both Congress as well as English rule
(d) Orthodox Muslim leaders
232.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
August
Offer
of
18
August
1940
made
by
the
Indian
Viceroy?
(a) Grant of independence within one year of the close of the war
(b) Establishment of full responsible government on the dominion model an
soon as possible
(c) Setting up of a constitution making body for framing a new constitution for
India
(d) Appointment of prominent Indians connected with leading political parties on
the Executive Council of the Viceroy
233.The
elections
under
the
Government
of
India Act 1935 were:
(a) Held in December 1935
(b) Held in January 1936

(c)
Held in 1937
(d) Never held
234.The
Congress
Ministries
in
proved shortlived because:
(a) They could not manage the affairs
312
the
provinces
(b) They were dismissed by the Governor-General

(c) They were voted out by the Federal Assembly
(d). They were directed to tender resignation by Congress Working Committee
235.Which
one
of
the
defects
of
the
August
Offer
given
below
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) The offer was quite vague and paid no attention to the demand of the
Indians to frame their own constitution
(b) It gave certain assurances to minorities which were anti-national and
mischievious
(c) It gave an indirect encouragement to the Muslim League to put forward its
demands for Pakistan more forcefully
(d) It convinced the Congress that the British Government was not willing to part
with power and went a long way in embittering the relations between the
two
236.The
Quit
India
Resolution
was
adopted
by
the Congress in:
(a) 1940
(b) 1942
(c) 1944
(d) 1946
237.Cripps Mission came to India in:
(a) 1928
(b) 1940
(c) 1942
(d) 1945
238.The Quit India Movement failed because:
(a) Of division among Congress leadership
(b) Of lack of popular support
(c) Of the British suppression with heavy hand
(d) It was much ahead of times
239.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a)The Muslim League condemned the Quit India Movement and directed the
Muslims not to take part in it
(b) The Muslim League extended full support to the Quit India Movement
(c) The Hindu Mahasabha opposed the Quit India Movement because its
members were not prepared to court arrest
(d) The Communists extended full support to 'Quit India Movement' to further
impair the precarious position of the Allies in East Asia
240.The
Congress
Working
Committee
adopted
the
'Quit
India
Resolution'
at
its
meeting held in July 1942 at
(a) Wardha
(b) Bombay
(c) Nagpur
(d) Calcutta
241.The title Qaid-i-Azam was used for:
(a) Mahatma Gandhi

(b) Mohammad Ali Jinnah
(c) Mohamad Iqbal
242.Sir
Stafford
Cripps
who
headed
the
Cripps
Mission was:
(a) A member of the British War Cabinet
(b) A trusted friend of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
(c) Known for his anti-Indian views
243.Winston
Churchill
announced
the
despatch of Cripps Mission with a view to:
(a) Find a genuine solution for the Indian problem
(b) To prove that the Indian problem was insolvable
(c) Meet the growing criticism of his policy towards India in British Parliament
244.The Cripps Mission failed because:
(a)The Congress leaders did not extend requisite cooperation to it
(b) The Muslim League adopted a very non-cooperative attitude
(c) Of the unhelpful attitude of the British Prime Minister as well as the Viceroy
of India
(d) Of lack of necessary publicity
245.According
to
Stafford
Cripps
his
mission
failed because of:
313
(a) Unhelpful attitude of the Viceroy of India

(b) The unhelpful attitude of the British Prime Minister
(c) The adamant attitude of the Muslim League
(d) Hindu-Muslim differences

246.Who
of
the
following
acted
as
the
Chief
Defence Counsel in the INA trials of 1945?
(a) Bhulabhai Desai
(b) Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru
(c) Michael Brecher
(d) K.M.Munshi
247.Which
one
of
the
following
persons
was
not subjected to INA trials in 1945?
(a) Subhash Chandra Bose
(b) Major General Shah Nawaz
(c) Major Sehgal
(d) Colonel Dhillon
248.The
Cabinet
Mission
suggested
the
creation
of
a
Constituent
Assembly
consisting of:
(a) 389 members (b) 360 members
(c) 450 members (d) 296 members
249.In
the
Constituent
Assembly
proposed
by
the
Cabinet
Mission
the
Provinces
were
promised:
(a) Equal representation
(b) No representation
(c) Representation in proportion to their population
(d) Representation according to their strategic importance
250.The
Cabinet
Mission
proposed
an
Interim
Government consisting of:
(a) 10 members
(b) 14 members
(c) 18 members
(d) 20 members
251.According
to
the
Cabinet
Mission
proposals
(a) All the members of the Interim Government were to be Indians
(b) The Interim Government was to have equal number of European and Indian
representatives
(C) Majority of the members of the
Interim Government were to be
Europeans (d) Majority of the members of the
Interim Government were to be
Indians
252.The
Interim
Government
which
was
formed on 14 August 1946 was headed by:
(a) Sardaf Vallabhai Patel
(b) G.B.Pant
(c) Rajendra Prasad
253.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The Muslim League did not join the interim government because the Muslim
were not given adequate representation
(b) The Muslim League joined the Interim Government to expedite the
independence of the country
(c) The Muslim League joined the Interim Government with a view to realize its
cherished goal of Pakistan
254.Lord
Mountbatten
announced
a
plan
for
the solution of the Indian problem in:
(a) June 1947
(b) August 1947
(c) January 1947
(d) August 1946
255.Mountbatten in his plan favoured:
(a) Akhand Bharat
(b) Partition of the country
(c) Federation of the Hindu and Muslim Province
256.The
Mountbatten
Plan
provided
that
referendum
should
be
held
in
one
of
the
following
states
to
decide
whether
the
people would like to join India or Pakistan
(a) Kashmir
(b) Bengal
(c) Punjab
(d) North Western Frontier Province
257.The
Indian
Independence
Act
was
mainly
based on the recommendations of:
(a) Cabinet mission
(b) Cripps Mission
(a)
(c) Wavell Plan of 1945

(d) Mountbatten Plan
258. The Indian Independence Act of 1947 was
passed by the British Parliament:

(a) With remarkable speed
(b) After prolonged delay
(c) After deliberation for over a year
259.The Indian Independence Act 1947:
(a) Permitted the existing Central Legislative Assembly to continue till a new
Parliament was elected under the new Constitution
(b) Permitted the Constituent Assembly of India to act as Central Legislature
also
(c) Provided for the election of a new central legislature for the interim period
260.The Indian Independence Act 1947:
(a) Made it obligatory for the Princely States to join India
(b) Made it obligatory for the princely states to join either India or Pakistan
(c) Permitted the Indian Princely states to accede to India or Pakistan
(d) Contained no provision regarding the future of Indian Princely states
261.Which
one
of
the
following
persons
is
known as 'Iron Man of India'?
(b) Lala Lajpai Rai
(c) Bhagat Singh
(d) SardarPatel
262.For
the
first
time
the
masses
were
invited
to
take
part
in
the
anti-imperialist
struggle
by:
(a) B.G.Tilak
(b) Mahatma Gandhi
(c) SardarPatel
263.The
first
resistance
to
British
rule
was
offered:
(a) Soon after its establishment
(b) in 1857
(c) After the formation of Congress in 1885
(d) In the present century
264.Which
one
of
the
following
sections
of
Indian
society
did
not
take
part
in
the
antiimperialist
struggle
during
the
first
century of the British rule?
(a) The Indian intellectuals
(b) Deposed chieftains
(c) Zamindars
(d) Deposed officials and states
265.The
earliest
revolts
against
the
British
rule
took place in Bengal and Bihar because;
(a) People of these states were politically very conscious
(b) The lot of the people in these states were very miserable
(c) The people of these areas were adversely effected by the British policy of
exploitation
(d) People of these areas possessed revolutionary character
266.The
first
serious
challenge
to
British
Imperialism
in
India
appeared
in
the
shape of
(a) Civil Disobedience Movement
(b) Revolt of 1857
(c) Founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885
267.In
1911
the
British
annulled
the
partition
of
Bengal with a view to:
(a) Provide better administration of the province
(b) Placate the Indians
(c) Win over the Muslims to its side
(d) Reduce expenditure on administration
268.The
chief
contribution
of
Mahatma
Gandhi
to the national movement was:
(a) He made it an intellectual movement:
(b) He made it a mass movement
(c) He made it a caste movement
(d) He pleaded for special treatment of Muslims
(a)
315
269.The
Indian
Independence
Committee
formed
by
the
Indians
residing
with its headquarter at:
(a) Singapore
(b) Berlin
(c) New York
(d) Paris
270.Which
one
of
the
following
received
maximum
supports
in
countries?
was
abroad
movements
foreign
(a) Quit India Movement

(b)
Home Rule Movement
(c)
Non-cooperation Movement
(d)
Civil-Disobedience Movement
271.Sardar Patel gained prominence after the:
(a) Bardoli Satyagraha
(b) Navakhali Movement
(c) Champaran Satyagraha
272.Who was the founder of 'Kvsari'l
(a) Lala Lajpat Rai
(b) Mahatma Gandhi
(d) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
273.Who
of
the
following
wrote
'Unhappy
India'?
(a) Lala Lajpat Rai
(b) Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad
(c) Annie Besant
(d) Dadabhai Naoroji
274.The
Hindustan
Socialist
Republican
Army
was founded by:
(a) Ram Mahohar Lohia
(b) VirSavarkar
(c) Chandra Shekhar Azad
(d) Subhash Chandra Bose
275.The
Indian
National
Army
was
founded
by:
(b) Shah Nawaz Khan
(c) Ras Behari Bose
276.The
office
of
the
Secretary
of
State
for
India
was created by the Act of
(a) 1958
(b) 1861
(c) 1892
(d) 1909
277.The principle of Dyarchy refers to
(a) Division of the central legislature into two houses
(b) Division of subjects delegated to the provinces into two categories
(c) Introduction of double government, i.e., Central and State government
(d) Having two sets of rulers: one in London and another in Delhi
278.The
Federal
Scheme
provided
for
by
the
Government
of
India
Act
1930
did
not
become operative because:
(a) The idea was too advanced for immediate implementation
(b) The rulers of the princely states refused to join it
(c) Several anomalies made it unworkable
(d) The Governor-General issued an order for its postponement
279.The
British
Government
made
a
declaration
that
the
policy
of
His
Majesty's
Government
was
that
of
"increasing
association
of
Indians
in
every
branch
of
the
administration
and
the
develop-ment
of
self
governing
tions
with
a
view
to
progressive
of
responsible
government
in
British
as
an
integral
part
of
the
British
When was this declaration made?
(a) 1909
(b) 1917
(c) 1932
(d) 1946
280.The
nationalist
movement
in
India
initially
(a) A movement involving peasants and the working classes
(b) A movement of student and the youths
(c) An urban movement influenced by the ed uca ted middle class
(d) Started by Aurobindo Ghosh
281.Consider
(I) Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
(II) Sardar Bhagat Singh
(III) Chandra Shekhar Azad
(IV) Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
(III)
Among these freedom fighters, the ones known as terrorists were:

(a) I, II, and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) I, III and IV
282.What
is
the
correct
sequence
of
following events?
(1) Ghadar Revolt
gradual
institu
realisation
India
Empire".
was
the
(2) Khilafat Movement

(3)
Lucknow Pact
(4)
Simon Commission Report
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Codes:
(a) 1,3,2,4
(b) 4,2,1,3
(c) 3,4,2,1
(d) 2,1,4,3
283.Consider:
(1) Swadeshi Movement
(2) Civil Disobedience Movement
(3) Quit India Movement
(4) Home Rule Movement
What is the correct chronological order in which these movements took place?
(a) 1,2,3,4
(b) 2,3,4,1
(c) 1,4,3,2
(d) 1,4,2,3
284.Which
of
the
following
provisions
are
contained
in
the
Government
of
India
Act
of 1858?
(I) It is British policy to give self-Government to Indians
(II) British Government does not interfere with the religious freedom of the
local people
(III) The Crown wants to expand its colonies in India
(IV) The Crown recognises and protects the property rights of local people
(V) British subjects in India are entitled to be admitted to the civil services in India
(a) II, IV, and V
(b) I, II, and IV
(c) in,IV,andV
(d) I, II, and HI
285.Match
List
1
with
List
2
and
select
the
correct
answer
using
the
codes
given
below:
List 1
List 2
A. Sardar Vallabhbhai 1, Law Minister and
Patel
Chairman Drafting
Committee of the Constituent Assembly
B. Syed Fazi Ali
2. External Affair Minister and author of 42nd amendment
C. K. Santhanam
3. Deputy Prime Minister
D.Sardar Swam Singh
4. Judge of Supereme
Court and Chairman of State Reorganisation Commission
E. B.R. Ambedkar
5. Member Constituent Assembly and Chairman of Finance Commission Codes:
A
B
C
D
E
(a)3
4
5
2
1
(b)1
3
4
2
5
(c) 3
1
5
4
2 (d)5
4
3
12
286.Match
the
items
of
List
1
with
List
2
and
select
the
correct
answer
using
the
codes
given below:
List 1
List 2
A. Raja Rammohan Roy
1. Arya Samaj
B. Swami Dayanand
2. Theosophical SociSaraswati
ety
C. Swami Vivekanand
3. Brahmo Samaj
D. Annie Besant
4. Ramakrishna Mission Codes:
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
1
3
2
(b)3
1
4
2
(c) 3
4
1
2
(d)l
3
4
2
317
287.Match
the
Items
of
List
1
select
the
correct
answer
given below:
Listl
List 2
A. Dyarchy in Pro1. Government of Invincial Administration
dia Act 1909
B. Rigid centralization
2. Government of
and slow decentraIndia Act 1935
lization
C. Federal Scheme of 3. Government of lngovernment
din Act 1919
D. Communal Repres- 4. Indian Councils Act
entation
1861
Codes:
A
B
CD
(a) 1
3
2
4
(b)2
3
1
4
with
using
List
the
and
codes
(c) 4
1
2
3
(d)3 4
2
1
288.Who was the first British Governor
General of India
(a) LordCurzon
(b) Lord Canning
(c) Lord Rippon
(d) Lord Warren Hastings
289.Which
was
the
main
purpose
of
Pitt's
India Act of 1784?
(a) To create institutional safeguards to supervise the administration of
overseas colonies
(b) To create conditions to assuage the feelings of the native population of the
colonies
(c) To bring the affairs of the East India; Company under the control of the
British Parliament
(d) To ensure administrative control of governance of subject colonies
290.Who took interest in the llbert Bill?
(a) Lord Rippon
(b) Lord Canning
(c) LordLytton
291.The Rowlatt Act was passed in:
(a) 1916
(b) 1918
(c) 1917
(d) 1919
292.The main objective of the Rowlatt Act was:
(a) To vest the Provincial Government with power of internment and that in
certain defined areas political crimes should be tried without help of Jury
(b) To declare all strikes and lockouts illegal
(c) Arm the government with power to convict the political leaders after a
thorough and adequate trial
(d) To declare certain services of the state as essential services
293.The
Simon
Commission
paid
a
visit
to
India in
(a) 1924
(b) 1937
(c) 1946
(d) 1948
294.Provincial Autonomy was inaugurated in:
(a) 1936
(b) 1942
(c) 1946
(d) 1948
295.The
Cripps
Mission
which
was
sent
by
British
Government
to
India
to
settle
the
Indian
constitutional
issues
and
proved
a
failure
for
all
practical
purposes
came
to
India in:
(a) 1939
(b) 1942
(c) 1946
(d) 1948
296.Gandhi
began
his
famous
Dandi
March
to
break Salt Law on
(a) 26 February 1929
(b) 12 March 1930
(c) 31 December 1930
(d) 2 October 1930
297.In
the
Gandhi-Irwin
Pact
Gandhi
agreed
to
the following except:
(a) To discontinue the civil disobedience movement
(b) To stop the boycott of British commodities
(c) To withdraw demand for complete independence
(d) To take part in the Second Round Table Conference for drafting a constitution
298.The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on
(a) 25 January 1931
318 UGGPolitical Science
(b) 12 February 1933

(c) 5 March 1931
(d) 15 April 1932
299.After
dissociating
from
the
Congress
Subhash
Chandra
Bose
formed
a
new
party known as:
(a) Congress Socialist Party ;
(b) Forward Block
(c) National Libration Front
(d) Congress Radical Party
300.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
cause
for
the
rise
of
naitonalism
in
India
during
the
latter
half
of the nineteenth century?
(a) Exploitation of country by the British
(b) Religious and Social Reform Movement
(c) Hostility of the Muslim masses towards British rule in India
(d) Dissatisfaction of English educated classes with British rule
301.Why
did
Mahatma
Gandhi
support
the
Khilafat Movement?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Because the Khalifa was a supporter of India's struggle for freedom

Because Gandhi wanted the support of the Muslims against the British
Because the Khalifa had written personal letter to Gandhi
Because the Khalifa was extending full patronage to the Indian freedom
fighters carrying on struggle from foreign countries
302.Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
form
part
of
programme
of
non-cooperation
launched by Gandhi?
(a) Registration of nominated members in the local bodies
(b) Boycott of educational institutions run by government
(c) Armed rebellion against the government
(d) Surrender of honorary titles
303.Match
List
1
with
List
2
and
select
the
correct
answer
using
the
codes
given
below in the lists.
List
A.
Conspira
Meeru
cy
case
B. Hijrat
C. Lahore
194
0
List 2
1. Protest against
the
Treaty of
2. Arrest of
Bradley
3. Separate
for the
depressed
classes and
4. Demand for
stan
D. Communal
193
2
C
'..,'
,,; .
Cod
D
es:
(a) 4
3
2
(b)3
2
,1
4
3
(cM
(d)2
1
4
304.Match
List
1
with
List
2
and
select
correct
answer
using
the
codes
below the lists:
List 1
List 2
A. The Swaraj Party
1. B. G. Tilak
B. The Congress De2. Lala Hardayal
mocratic Party
C. The Ghadar Party
3. C.R. Das
D. The Radical Hum4. M.N.Roy
anist Party
Codes:
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b)3
1
2
4
(c) 4 .':
3
2
1
(d)3
2
1
4
305.The
Cabinet
Mission
which
came
to
in March 1946 consisted of
(a) Pathic Lawrence, Lord Mountbatten and Clement Atlee
(b) Sir Stafford Cripps, Pathic Lawrence and Lord Wavell
the
given
India
(c) Lord Wavell, Sir Stafford Cripps and Lord Linlithgow

(d) Pathic-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander
306.One
common
agreement
between
dhism and Marxism is
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2
5
Making of the Indian
Constitution and Its
Ideological Basis
The Constitution of India was enacted by a Constituent Assembly set up under

the Cabinet Mission Plan in 1946. The First meeting of the Constituent Assembly
was held on 9 December. It worked through various sub-committees and after
due deliberation on the recommendations of the committees it adopted the
Constitution on 26 November, 1949. The Constitution came into force on 26
January, 1950. The framers of the Constitution freely borrowed from the
constitutions of several other countries and made necessary modifications
keeping in view the requirements of the country. Thus they borrowed
Parliamentary system, the Rule of law, the privileges of members of Parliament
etc from Britain.They borrowed Preamble, Fundamental rights, Federal Judiciary
etc. from USA. Provisions regarding Rajya Sabha and amendment of constitution
from South Africa. Federal system bore the impact of Canadian Constitution. The
emergency provisions were taken from the Weimar Constitution of Germany.
Directive Principles of state policy and nomination of members to Rajya Sabha
from Free Irish Republic. But probably the greatest influence was exerted by the
Government of India Act 1935.
As regards the ideology of the Indian Constitution, two alternatives were
considered by the members of the Constituent Assembly. First some members
favoured an indigenous constitution based on village panchayats and the EuroAmerican constitutional system directly elected by the people. Ultimately the
members decided in favour of centralised Parliamentary constitution. At the same
time some members
were firmly committed to socialism for the economic betterment of the people. In
short the members tried to provide a democratic constitution with a socialist bias.
The conditions prevailing at the time of the enactment of the constitution also
greatly influenced the decisions of the framers of the Constitution. In short it can
be said that the framers of the constitution did not produce any original
constitution. They only provided a good and workable constitution.
The Constitution starts with a Preamble, which outlines the main objectives of
the constitution. The Preamble declares India a Sovereign Socialist Secular
Democratic Republic which seeks to secure to its citizens Justice, Equality and
seeks to promote among them a fraternity assuring dignity of the individual and
the unity and integrity of the nation.
The main features of the Indian Constitution are its written character;
combination of rigidity and flexibility; Parliamentary system of government;
blending of federal and unitary features; secular character of Indian stateincorporation of Fundamental Rights; Directive Principles of State Policy;
Fundamental Duties; Independent Judiciary; Universalt Adult Franchise; Single
citizenship; special provision for backward classes; bicameral legislature;
Emergency provisions etc.
322
1. For the first time demand for Constituent Assembly in India was made by:
(a) M.N. Roy in 1934
(b) Mahatma Gandhi in 1929
(a)
2.
3.
4.
5.
(c) Subhash Chandra Bose in 1938

(d) Jawaharlal Nehru in 1939
The
Constituent
Assembly
which
framed
the
Constitution
of
Free
India
was
set
up
under
(a) Cripps Mission Plan
(b) Cabinet Mission Plan
(c) WavellPlan
Which
one
of
the
following
was
opposed
to the idea of a Constituent Assembly?
(a) Princes
(b) Land Lords
(c) Muslim League
The
Constituent
Assembly
set
up
under
the
Cabinet
Mission
Plan
was
not
a
sovereign body because
(a) it was set up by the British Government
(b) it could be abolished by the British government
(c) it was expected to formulate Constitution within the outlines provided in the
Cabinet Mission Plan.
1. After the enactment of the Indian Independence Act 1947, the Constituent
Assembly became a sovereign body.
2. After the enactment of the Indian Independence Act 1947, the Muslim League
members withdrew from the Constituent Assembly
3. After the passage of Indian Independence Act 1947, all external restrictions on
the powers of the Constituent Assembly automatically disappeared.
4. After the passage of Indian Independence Act 1947, the Constituent Assembly
was divided into two parts entrusted with the task of framing constitutions for
India and Pakistan respectively.
Of the above statements regarding Indian Constituent Assembly
(a) 1,2, and 3 are correct
(b) 2,3, and 4 are correct
(d) 1,3, and 4 are correct
6. The
Objectives
Resolution
which
outlined
the
objectives
of
the
new
Constitution
of
India,
was
introduced
in
the
Constituent
Assembly on 13 December 1946 by
(a) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
(b) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
(c) Jawaharlal Nehru
(d) SardarPatel
7. Which
one
of
the
following
principles
was
not
emphasised
by
the
Objectives
Resolution?
(a) resolve to proclaim India as an Independent Sovereign Republic
(b) all power and authority of Sovereign Independent India are derived from
the people.
(c) development of intimate and close relations with countries of Asia and
Africa
(d) Adequate safeguards to be provided for minorities, backward and tribal
areas and depressed and other backward classes.
8. Which
one
of
the
following
shortcomings
of
the
Constituent
Assembly
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The members of the Constituent Assembly were not elected by the people
for the specific purpose of formulating a constitution for the country.
(b) There was no vocal and effective opposition inside the Constituent
Assembly as a result of which various view points could not be adequately
represented in the deliberations of the Assembly.
(c) The Constituent Assembly was greatly dominated by the lawyerpoliticians, and the other sections of
(a)
Making of the Indian Constitution and Its Ideological Basis 323
society did not get adequate representation on it.

As compared to USA and South Africa,
1. The Constituent Assembly of India took unduly long time for the enactment of
the Constitution.
2. According to Winston Churchill the Constituent Assembly of India was a Hindu
body, which represented the interests of the Hindus alone.
3. The Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly was submitted to
referendum only in areas which earlier formed part of British Empire and not
in the territories of the Indian states.
4. The Constituent Assembly was not a representative body of the people of
India in so far as it was not elected by the people for the specific purpose of
formulating, constitution for the country.
(d) 1,3, and 4 are correct
10. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
Indian
Constitution
was
adopted
under
the impact of Liberalism?

(a) Parliamentary Democracy
(b) Republican System of Government
(c) Independence of Judiciary
(d) All the above
11. The
Constitution
Assembly
which
enacted
the
Constitution
for
independent
India
was set up in
(a) 1946
(b) 1947
(c) 1949
(d) 1950
12. The Constitution of India was adopted on
(a) 26th November, 1949
(b) 15th August, 1949
(c) 9th December, 1949
(d) 26th January, 1950
13. The
members
of
the
Constituent
Assembly
who
enacted
the
Constitution
of
India
were
(a) Directly elected by the people
(b) Nominated by Governor-General
(c)Elected by the Legislative Assemblies of various provinces
(d) Nominated by Congress and Muslim League
14. The
Muslim
League
decided
to
boycott
Constituent Assembly because
(a) They were maltreated by the non-muslim members
(b) They were not given adequate representation
(c) They wanted a separate Constituent Assembly
(d) They wanted a Muslim to be elected as the Chairman of the Constituent
Assembly
15. Which
one
of
the
following
parties
was
not
represented
on
the
Constituent
Assembly
of India?
(b) Hindu Mahasabha
(c) Scheduled Caste Federation
(d) The Communist Party

16. Who
of
the
following
Chairman of the Constituent Assembly?
(a) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
(b) Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) SardarPatel
(d) B.R. Ambedkar
17. Who
of
the
following
the Drafting Committee?
(a) H.N.Kunzru
(b) B.R. Ambedkar
(c) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
(d) Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar
18. Dr.
Rajendra
Prasad
was
President of India:
(a) In a straight contest with Sardar Patel
(b) In a triangular contest
(c) Unanimously
(a)
was
was
elected
the
the
Permanent
Chairman
as
the
of
first
19. The
Constitution
of
India
was
adopted
by
the
(a) Constituent Assembly
(b) The First Parliament
(c) President of India
(d) LokSabha
20. Who
of
the
following
was
not
a
member
of
the
Drafting
Committee
of
the
Indian
Constitution?
(a) B.R. Ambedkar
(b) K.M.Munshi
(c) Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar
(d) Mahatma Gandhi
21. The Constitution of India is
(a) One of the briefest constitutions
(b) One of the bulkiest constitutions
(c) A medium sized constitution
(d) An evolved constitution
22. The
Preamble
of
the
Constitution
declares
India a
(a) Sovereign Democratic Republic
(b) Sovereign Socialist, Democratic Republic
(c) Sovereign
Socialist,
Secular, Democratic Republic
(d) Sovereign Republic
23. The
Indian
Constitution
has
been
divided
into
(a) 16 chapters
(b) 22 chapters
(c) 24 chapters
(d) 25 chapters
24. The
Preamble
of
the
Constitution
was
amended
during
the
emergency
to
add
the
words
(a) Socialist and Secular
(b) Secular and Democratic
(c) Socialist and Republic
(d) Sovereign and Democratic
25. The
framers
of
Indian
Constitution
borrowed
Parliamentary
form
of
government from
(a) U.S.A.
(b) Switzerland
(c) Ireland
(d) Britain
26. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
Indian
Constitution
was
borrowed
from
U.S.A.?
(a) Rule of Law
(b) Rigid Constitution
(c) Fundamental Rights
(d) Directive Principles of State Policy
27. The
two
Principles
which
guided
the
Constituent
Assembly
in
arriving
at
decisions were
(a)Consensus and accommodation
(b) Socialism and planning
(c) Unity and national interest
28. The
Constitution
of
India
borrowed
the
idea of Directive Principles from
(a) Britain
(b) Germany
(c) France
(d) Ireland
29. The
amendment
procedure
laid
down
in
the
Constitution
of
India
is
on
the
pattern
of
(a) Government of India Act 1935
(b) Constitution of South Africa
(c) Constitution of U.S.A.
(d) Constitution of Canada
30. Which
one
of
the
following
amendments
has
been
described
as
a
mini-revision
of
the Constitution?
(a) 24th amendment
(b) 26th amendment
(c) 38th amendment
(d) 42nd amendment
31. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
a
feature
of Indian Constitution?
(a) Parliamentary Government
(b) Presidential Government
(c) Independence of Judiciary
(d) Federal Government
32. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
the Indian Constitution?
(a) A unitary government
(b) Double citizenship
(c) Presidential government
(d) Protection of backward classes and minorities
33. The Constitution of India is
(a) Rigid
(b) Flexible
Making of the Indian Constitution and Its Ideological Basis 325
(c) Blend of rigidity and flexibility

34. Which
one
of
the
following
is
contributory
factor
for
the
bulkiness
Indian Constitution?
(a) Preamble
(b) Emergency provisions
(c) Directive Principles of State Policy
(d) Same constitution for centre as well as states
35. The
Constitution
of
India
had
judiciary
(a) Subordinate to the Parliament
(b) Subordinate to the President
(c) Independent
36. The
Secular
nature
of
the
Constitution means that the state
(a) Is anti-religious
(b) Is religious
not
of
a
the
made
Indian
(c) Is irreligious
(d) Has no official religion
37. Article
370
of
the
Constitution
of
India
deals with
(a) Emergency powers of President
(b) Special status of Jammu and Kashmir
(c) Special provisions for minorities
(d) Amendment procedure
38. The
emergency
provisions
of
the
Indian
Constitution were borrowed from
(a) Government of India Act
(b) Soviet Union
(c) U.S.A.
(d) Weimar Constitution of Germany
39. The
Universal
Adult
Franchise
was
introduced in India under
(a) Minto-Morely Reforms Act, 1909
(b) Montague-Chelmsford Reform Act, 1919
(c) Government of India Act, 1939
(d) The Constitution of India
40. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The Constitution of India can be amended by the ordinary law making
procedure
(b) All Constitution of India can be amended by the ordinary law making
procedure
(c) All the provisions of the Indian Constitution can be amended only with the
consent of the States
(d) The Indian Constitution is more rigid than the Constitution of Britain, but
flexible than the Constitution of U.S.A.
41. In
India
the
amendments
to
the
Constitution can be initiated by
(a) The centre

(b) The states
(c) The people
(d) The centre as well as the states
42. The
provisions
of
the
Constitution
relating
to
the
establishment
and
abolition
of
the
Legislative Council can be amended by
(a) Simple majority of the Parliament
(b) Two-thirds majority of the two houses of Parliament
(c) Two-thirds majority of the two houses of Parliament and majority of the states
43. Amendment
in
provisions
relating
to
scheduled
castes
and
scheduled
tribes
can
be made by
(b) Two-thirds majority of the Parliament
(c) The states alone
(d) By two-thirds majority of the states
44. Which
one
of
the
following
provisions
can
be
amended
by
the
Parliament
by
simple
majority?
(a) Provisions concerning the establishment of High Courts
(b) Provisions concerning Federal Judiciary
(c) Provisions concerning representation of states in Parliament
45. The
provisions
concerning
the
powers
of
the Union Executive can be amended by
(b) Two-thirds majority of the Parliament
(a)
(c) Two-thirds majority of Parliament and majority of States

(d) The President
46. Which
one
of
the
following
points
of
criticisms
levelled
against
the
amendment
procedure
in
the
Indian
Constitution
is
not
correct?
(a) There is no provision for special Conventions for amendment of Constitution
as in U.S.A.
(b) Too much power has been given to the states in the matter of proposing
amendments to the Constitution
(c) The states have not been given sufficient powers with regard to amendment
of Constitution
(d) Too much power has been given to the Union Parliament with regard to the
amendment of Constitution
47. The idea of secular State implies that
(a) Religion should be banished from society
(b) The State should provide equal support to all religions
(c) The State should protect minority religions
(d) State and religion should be separate
48. The Preamble to the Constitution is
(a) Part of the Constitution but has no legal effect

(b) Part of the Constitution but has no legal effect independently of other parts
(c) Not a part of the Constitution and has no legal effect
(d) Part of the Constitution and has the same legal effect as any other part
49. The
words
'secular'
and
'socialist'
were
added
to
the
Preamble
to
the
Indian
Constitution by the
(a) 39th amendment
(b) 41st amendment
(c) 42nd amendment
(d) 44th amendment
50. Name
the
basic
wording
of
the
Preamble
of the Indian Constitution
(a) Federal Democratic Republic
(b) Sovereign Democratic Republic
(c) Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic
(d) Federal Socialist Democratic Republic
51. The Indian Constitution is
(a) A written constitution is
(b) An unwritten constitution
(c) An evolved constitution
(d) A rigid constitution
52. The Indian Constitution is the
(a) Shortest constitution of the world
(b) Lengthiest constitution of the world
(c) Most flexible constitution of the world
53. India became a Sovereign Republic in
(a) 1947
(b) 1949
(c) 1950
(d) 1956
54. India is a Republic, which implies

(a) The head of the state is elected for a fixed term
(b) The country is completely free
(c) The country possesses a democratic system of government
(d) The final authority in the country rests with the Parliament
55. The Preamble of the constitution means:
(a) The Constitution in its totality
(b) The preface of the Constitution
(c) The spirit of the Constitution as distinguished from its body
(d) The character of the Constitution
56. Which
amendment
to
the
Constitution
of
India
gave
precedence
to
the
Directive
Principles
enumerated
in
the
Constitution
over Fundamental Rights?
(a) 39th
(b) 41st
(c) 42nd
(d) 44th
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Fundamental Rights,
Fundamental Duties and
Directive Principles of State
Policy
Like other democratic countries, the Constitution of India also guarantees to its
citizens certain Fundamental Rights which are enshrined in Part III of the Constitution.
These rights have certain special characteristics viz., they are placed at a higher
pedestral than ordinary laws; these rights are not absolute and are subject to several
restrictions; judiciary protects these rights; these rights can be changed only through
an amendment in the constitution; these rights can be suspended during emergency.
The original constitution had seven categories of rights viz., Right to Equality;
Right to Freedom; Right against Exploitation; Right to Freedom of Religion; Cultural
and Educational Rights; Right to Property and Right to constitutional Remedies. Of
these the right to property was removed from the list of Fundamental Rights by the
44th amendment in 1982.
The Fundamental Rights granted to the citizens have been criticised on several
grounds. First, the ecomic and social rights do not find any place in the list of
Fundamental Rights; Secondly, the Fundamental Rights are hedged by so many
restrictions that they virtually become ineffective. Third, the Fundamental Rights are
couched in very difficult language and it is not possible for ordinary citizens to
comprehend them. The remedies for the protection of Fundamental Rights are so
expensive that only well-off people can seek them. Despite the above criticism, it
cannot be denied that the Fundamental Rights have been well protected by the
judiciary against encroachment by government.
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
The Constitution also contains a list of fundamental duties of the citizens, which were
incorporated in the constitution through 42 nd amendment in 1976. These duties
expect the citizens to abide by the Constitution and respected its ideals etc; cherish
and follow noble ideals which inspired our national struggle; protect the sovereignty,
unity and integrity of India; defend the country and render national service; promote
harmony and spirit of common brotherhood among all people of India; to preserve
the rich heritage and composite culture; to protect and improve natural environment;
to develop scientific temper, humanism and spirit of inquiry; to safeguard public
property; to strive towards excellence in all spheres.
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
The Directive Principles of State Policy seek to realise the ideals of justice, liberty,
equality and fraternity enshrined in the constitution, The Directive Principles of state
policy are contained in part IV of the Constitution. This idea was borrowed from the
constituion of Irish Republic. Though the Directive Principles
are not enforceable through the courts, still they are regarded as fundamental to
the governance of the country and have to be kept in mind by the state while
framing the laws and formulating the policy. The Directive Principles can be
broadly divided into three categories viz. Socialistic, liberal and Gadhian.
Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles of State
Policy 329
Directive Principles of State policy differ from Fundamental Rights in many

respects. First, the Fundamental Rights are negative injuctions to state, while
Directive Principles of State Policy are positive instructions to the state. Secondly,
Fundament Rights are justiciable while Directive Principles are not justiciable. Third,
in case of conflict between two the Fundamental Rights are given precedence.
Despite the above limitations of the Directive Principles of State Policy their
importance cannot be denied. They are as much a part of the Constitution as any
other provision and their violation is as much unconstitutional as violation of any
other provision. Further, if the Government acts contrary to the directive principles,
its act can be declared as unconstitutional. Again, if the people take keen interest in
the directive principles the government cannot afford to ignore them. Supreme Court
and High Courts have also attached great importance to some of the directive
principles and tried to enforce them so far they do not come in conflict with the
Fundamental Rights.

1. The
Fundamental
Rights
of
the
Indian
citizens are contained in
(a) Part I of the Constitution
(b) Part II of the Constitution
(c) Part III of the Constitution
(d) Part TV of the Constitution
2. The Fundamental Rights **
(a) Formed a part of the original constitution
(b) Were added by
the Fourth Amendment
(c) Were added by the Parliament in 1952
(d) Were added under the Forty-Second Amendment
3. The
framers
of
the
Constitution
borrowed
the
idea
of
Fundamental
Rights
from
the
Constitution of
(a) U.S.A.
(b) U.S.S.R.
(c) Britain
(d) France
4. The
Constitution
of
India
divided
the
Fundamental Rights under
(a) Six heads
(b) Nine heads
(c) Eleven heads
(d) Thirteen heads
5. Which
one
of
the
following
rights
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Right to Equality
(b) Right to Constitutional Remedies
(c) Right to Exploitation
(d) Right to Freedom
6. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
the
Fundamental
Rights
granted
under
the
Indian
Constitution
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Fundamental Rights have been placed at a higher pedastal than the ordinary
laws
(b) The Fundamental Rights are absolute
(c) The Fundamental Rights are not absolute
(d) The Fundamental Rights are justiciable
7. The Preventive Detention Act curtailed the
(a) Right to Freedom
(b) Right to Equality
(c) Right to Constitutional Remedies
(d) Right to Freedom of Religion
8. Which
one
of
the
following
Fundamental
Rights
has
been
the
subject
of
maximum
litigation and controversy?
(a) Right to Property
(b) Right to Equality
(c) Right to Freedom of Religion
(d) Right to Freedom
9. Which
one
of
the
following
features
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Right
to
Equality?
(a) It ensures equality in the matter of appointment to offices under the State
(b) It abolishes all titles, other than academic and military
(c) It abolishes untouchability
(d) It prohibits special treatment of any section of society including the women
and children, etc.
(a)
10. The
Six
Freedoms
have been enshrined in:
(a) Articles 14 to 18
of
the
Indian
Citizens
(b) Articles 14 to 35
(c) Articles 19
(d)Articles 21 to 26
11. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
Wrongly
shown
as
a
freedom
granted
under the Right to Freedom?
(a) Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms
(b) Freedom to profess, practice and propagate any religion
(c) Freedgm to reside and settle in any part oi the country
(d) Freedom of profession, occupation, trade or business
12. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
omitted
from
the
list
of
freedom
by
the
Forty-Fourth Amendment?
(a) Freedom of association
(b) Freedom of residence and settlement
(c) Freedom of movement throughout the territoty of India
(d) Freedom of acquiring, holding and disposing of property
13. Right
against
exploitation
seeks
to
protect
the weaker sections of society by
(a) Prohibiting traffic in human beings and begar
(b) Prescribing minimum wages for the workers
(c) Placing a ban on introduction of compulsory service by the state on the plea
of public interest
14. The
Right
to
Freedom
of
Religion
granted
by
the
Indian
Constitution
implies
that
the
Indian citizens
(a) Are free to have faith in a religion other than the state religion
(b) Have to follow the religion of the state
(c) Have the freedom to profess, practise or propagate a religion of their choice
(d) Not having faith in some religion shall not be appointed to government
offices
15. Right to Freedom of Religion means
(a) Religious instructions shall be provided in all government educational
institutions
(b) State shall encourage religious thinking and give preference to persons with
religious bent of mind in matter of employment
*
(c) All persons shall have right to establish institutions for religious and
educational purposes
16. The Constitution grants Cultural and
Educational Rights with a view to
(a) Evolve a common national culture
(b) Eradicate illiteracy from the country
(c) To help the minorities conserve their culture
17. Right to Cultural and Educational Rights
implies
(a) Provision of free and compulsory education up to High School
(b) Special assistance to backward classes to educate them
(c) Provision of religious and cultural instructions in schools run by the
government or receiving aid out of government funds
(d) Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their

choice
correct?
(a) The Right to Private Property was incorporated in the Constitution by the
Forty-Second Amendment
(b) The Right to Private Property was granted by the original Constitution but it
has since been removed from the List of Fundamental Rights
(c) The Right to Property was never a fundamental right under the Indian
Constitution
(a)
Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles of State Policy 331
(d) The Right to Private Property which was granted by the original constitution
has been made more sacrosanct by the Forty-Fourth Amendment
19. Which
one
of
the
following
rights
was
described
by
Dr.
B.R.
Ambedkar
as
'the
heart and soul of the Constitution'?
(a) Right to Equality
(b) Right to Freedom
(c) Right to Constitutional Remedies
(d) Right to Freedom of Religion
20. The
Right
to
Constitutional
Remedies
means?
(a) The right of the citizens to request the Parliament to amend the Constitution
(b) The right of Indian citizens to mobilise public opinion in favour of some
constitutional amendments
(c) Right of citizens to disobey the Constitution under certain circumstances
(d) Right to move the courts for the enforcement of fundamental rights granted
by the Constitution
21. Which
one
of
the
following
writs
is
issued
by
the
court
in
case
of
an
illegal
detention
of a person?
(a) Habeas Corpus
(b) Mandamus
(c) Certiorari
(d) Quo Warranto
22. Which
one
of
the
following
writs
is
issued
to
courts,
corporation
of
a
person
directing
them to perform their public duty?
(a) Habeas Corpus
(b) Quo Warranto
(c) Mandamus
(d) Prohibition
23. Which
one
of
the
following
writs
is
issued
by
the
High
Court
to
a
lower
court
or
a
non-judicial
public
institution
to
stop
proceedings in a particular case?
(a) Habeas Corpus
(b) Prohibition (c) Quo Warranto
(d) Certiorari
24. Which
one
of
the
following
writs
is
issued
by
a
higher
court
asking
the
lower
court
to
send
the
record
of
a
particular
case
to
it
on
the
ground
that
it
is
not
competent
to
decide the case?
(a)Habeas Corpus
(b) Quo Warranto
(c) Certiorari
(d) Mandamus
25. Under
which
one
of
the
following
writs
a
person
can
be
prevented
from
taking
an
action to which he is officially not entitled?
(a) Mandamus
(b) Quo Warranto
(c) Certiorari
(d) Mandamus
26. To
which
of
the
following
rights
the
foreigners
are
entitled
under
the
Indian
Constitution
(a) Right against exploitation
(b) Right to equality before law
(c) Right to Life and Personal Liberty
(d) All the above rights
27. What
is
the
sanction
behind
the
Fundamental
Rights
granted
by
the
Indian
Constitution?
(a) Public opinion
(b) Parliament
(c) Independent judiciary
(d) The Constitution
28. The
main
purpose
for
the
grant
of
Funda
mental Rights to the Indian Citizens is:
(a) Establishment of democratic government
(b) Protection of individual liberty
(c) To ensure independence of judiciary
(d) To establish socialist society
29. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens cannot be suspended under
any circumstances
(b) The Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens can be suspended by the
Parliament by a two-thirds majority

332
(a)
(c) The Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens can be suspended by the
President during the national emergency
(d) The Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens can be suspended by the
President during the national emergency as well as emergency arising due to
breakdown of constitutional machinery in a state
30. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The Fundamental Rights granted by the Indian Constitution are absolute
(b) The Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens are non-justiciable
(c) The Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens are justiciable
(d) The Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens protect them against the
tyranny of the majority
31. The
Fundamental
Rights
under
the
Indian
Constitution can be suspended during
(a) General elections
(b) National emergency
(c) All types of emergencies
(d) In all the above cases
32. The
orders
for
the
suspension
of
Fundamental Rights are issued
(a) By the Parliament
(b) By the President on the recommendation of the Supreme Court
(c) By the President with the approval of the Parliament
(d) By the President with the approval of the Council of Ministers
33.
Which one of the following points of
criticism against the Fundamental Rights

(a) The economic and social rights do not find any place in the Chapter on
Fundamental Rights
(b) The Fundamental Rights are absolute and attach too much importance to the
interests of the individual
(c) The remedies for the protection of the fundamental rights are very expensive
and beyond the capacity of ordinary citizens
(d) The rights are hedged with so many restrictions and limitations that they
virtually became ineffective
34. Which
one
of
the
following
authorities
is
authorised
by
the
Constitution
to
impose
reasonable
restrictions
on
Fundamental
Rights?
(a) The Parliament
(b) The Supreme Court
(c) The President
35. The
Fundamental
Duties
of
the
Indian
Citizens
(a) Formed a part of the original Constitution
(b) Were added by the Forty-Second Amendment
(c) Were added by the Forty-Fourth Amendment
(d) Were defined by the Parliament through a law enacted during the emergency
36.
The
Fundamental
Duties
of
Indian
citizens
are contained in
(b) Part III of the Constitution
(c) Part IV-A of the Constitution
(d) None of the above part of the Constitution
37. The
Fundamental
Duties
were
added
to
constitution because
(a) Majority of the people wanted it
(b) A section of people was not fulfilling its obligation of respecting the
established legal order
(c) The government felt this would ensure quicker progress of the country
(d) The Supreme Court emphasised the need of incorporation of these duties in
the Constitution
(a)
Fundamental Rights, Fundamental
38. Which
one
of
the
followings
is
not
a
Fundamental
duty
as
outlined
in
Article
51A of the Constitution?
(a) To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals
(b) To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so
(c) To work for the moral upliftment of the weaker sections of society
(d) To preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture
39. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
Fundamental
Duty
of
the Indian citizens?
(a) To develop scientific temper, humanism and spirit of inquiry and reform
(b) To work for raising the prestige of the country in the international sphere
(c) To protect and improve the natural environment
(d) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity
40. The
Constitution
vests
the
responsibility
for
the
enforcement
of
Fundamental
Rights
(a) Exclusively with the Supreme Court
(b) Both with the High Courts and the Supreme Court
(c) With all the courts in the country
41. The
Fundamental
duties
were
added
to
the Constitution
(a) To make the Fundamental Rights more effective
(b) To check anti-national, subversive and unconstitutional agitations
(c) To accord priority to the directive principles over fundamental rights
(d) To achieve all the above objectives
42. Which
one
of
the
followings
is
not
included as a Fundamental Duty?
(a) Abidance by constitution and respect for its ideals and institutions
ies and Directive Principles of State Policy 333
(b) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India
(c) To ensure rule of law in the country
(d) To safeguard public property and to adjure violence
43. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
enlisted
as
a
fundamental
duty
in
the
constitution?
(a) To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired the freedom struggle
in India
(b) To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do
so
(c) To protect and improve the natural environment
(d)All the above
44. The
inclusion
of
Fundamental
Duties
in
the Constitution was
(a) Unanimously welcomed
(b) Welcomed by the opposition parties only

(c)
Welcomed by the ruling party only
(d)
None of the above
45. Which
of
the
following
rights
can
claimed
only
by
the
citizens
and
not
aliens within the territory of India?
I. Freedom of speech II. Right to form associations of Unions
III. Equality before law
IV. Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms
(a) I, II and HI
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, II and IV
(d) I, III and IV
46. To
whom
among
the
followings
is
Right
against
exploitation
guaranteed
I. Children
II. Tribals
III. Women
IV. Harijans
Select the correct answer using the following codes:
334
be
by
the
by
Codes:
(a) I and III
(b) II and IV
(c) III and IV
(d) I and II
47. If
the
land
belonging
to
a
poor
man
is
appropriated
by
the
government
without
compensation,
he
cannot
directly
approach
the
High
Court
or
Supreme
Court for redress because the
(a) Costs involved are exorbitant
(b) Right to property is a legal right
(c) Courts have been deprived of the power to determine compensation
(d) Matter is outside their jurisdiction
48. The
Constitution
of
which
one
of
the
following
countries
specifically
recognises
that
the
State
has
a
moral
responsibility
to
provide employment to its citizens?
(a) Great Britain
(b) India
(c) U.S.S.R.
(d) U.S.A
49. Which
one
of
the
following
rights
is
vital
for the successful working of democracy?
(a) Right to property
(b) Right to association
(c) Right to assemble
(d) Right to criticise
50. The
Fundamental
Rights
of
the
Indian
citizens have been enumerated from
(a) Articles 12 to 35 of the Constitution
(b) Articles 13 to 36 of the Constitution
(c) Articles 15 to 39 of the Constitution
(d) Articles 16 to 40 of the Constitution

51. In
an
emergency
the
fundamental
rights
of
citizens
(a) May be suspended
(b) Stand automatically suspended
(c) Can be enjoyed only with the approval of the Supreme Court
(d) Have no meaning
52. The Directive Principles of State Policy
(a)were added by the Forty-Second Amendment
(b) Formed a part of the original Constitution
(c) Do not form a part of the Constitution
(d) Were added by the first three amendments to the Constitution
53. The
framers
of
the
Indian
Constitution
borrowed
the
idea
of
Directive
Principles
of State Policy from
(a) The Government of India Act, 1935
(b) The Government of U.S.S.R
(c) The Constitution of U.S.A
(d) The Constitution of Irish Republic
54. The
Directive
Principles
of
State
Policy
are
contained in
(b) Part III of the Constitution
(c) Part IV of the Constitution
(d) None of the above parts
55. The
Directive
Principles
are
in
the
nature
of
(a) Injunctions to the government to refrain from doing certain things
(b) Instructions to the government to do certain things
(c) Request to the government to pay attention to certain subjects

(d) Judicial
injunctions
to
the government to enact certain laws
56. The
Directive
Principles
were
incor
porated in the Constitution with a view to
(a) Ensure a democratic government in the country
(b) Provide a strong central government
(c) Establish welfare state
(d) Raise the living standard of the weaker sections of society
57. The
main
objective
of
the
Directive
Principles is to
(a) Establish political democracy in the country
(b) Establish social and economic democracy in the country
(c) Raise the moral and ethical standard of the people
(d) Establish a police state in the country
58. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly listed as a Directive Principle?
(a) Provision of adequate means of livelihood for all the citizens
(b) Provision of employment facilities to all able-bodied persons
(a)
Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles of State
Policy 335
(c) Protection of workers, especially children

(d) Securing of equal pay for equal work to both men and women
59. Which
one
of
the
followings
has
been
wrongly listed as a Directive Principle?
(a) Complete freedom in the economic sphere in the interest of consumers as
well as producers
(b) Regulation of economic system of the country with a view to prevent
concentration of wealth and means of production
(c) To ensure decent standard of living and facilities of leisure for all workers
(d) To protect the children and youth against exploitation
60. Which
one
of
the
following
Directive
Principles
can
be
described
as
Gandhian
in
character?
(a) Provision of equal work to both men and women
(b) Protection of workers, especially children
(c) Separation of the judiciary from the executive
(d) Organisation of village panchayats as effective units of self-government
61. Which
one
of
the
following
Directive
Principles is non-Gandhian?
(a) Promotion of cottage industries in rural areas
(b) Prohibition of the use of intoxicants except for the medicinal purposes
(c) Prevention of slaughter of cows, calves and other milch cattle
(d) Provision of free and compulsory education for all the children up to the age
of fourteen years
62. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
a
Directive
Principle
enshrined
in
the
Chapter on Directive Principles?
(a) Protection of historical monuments
(b) Abolition of untouchability
(c) Provision of adequate means of liveli-hood-for all citizens

(d) Promotion of cottage industries
63. Which
one
of
the
following
directives
has
not
been
included
in
the
Constitution
with
regard
to
conduct
of
international
relations?
(a) To work for securing disarmament
(b) To work for the maintenance of just and honourable relation between nations
(c) Respect for international law and treaty obligations
(d) Settlement of international disputes through arbitration
64. The Directive Principles of State Policy are
(a) Justiciable
(b) Non-justiciable
(c) Only some of the directive principles are justiciable
65. Who
said
that
Directive
Principles
of
State
Policy
are
like
a
cheque
on
a
bank
payable
at the convenience of the bank?
(a) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehfu
(b) Dr. B.N.Rau
(c) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
(d) Prof. K.T. Shah
66. The
enforcement
of
the
Directive
Princi
ples depends on
(a) Independent judiciary
(b) Resources at the disposal of the government
(c) The whims of the government
(d) An effective opposition
67. Which
one
of
the
following
differences
between
the
Fundamental
Rights
and
the
Directive
Principles
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) The Fundamental Rights are negative in junctions, while the Directive
Principles are positive instructions to the government
(b) The Fundamental Rights are justiciable while the Directive Principles of State
Policy are non-justiciable
(c) The Fundamental Rights enjoy constitutional basis while the Directive
Principles are based on convention
(a)
(d) In case of clash between the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles
the former get precedence
68. The
Directive
Principles
were
accorded
an
over-riding
position
over
the
Fundamental
Rights under certain circumstances by
(a) The Constitution
(b) The Forty-Second Amendment
(c) The Forty-Fourth Amendment
(d) The Twenty-Fifth Amendment
69. The
working
of
the
Constitution
for
the
past
fifty
years
shows
that
the
Government has:
(a) Completely ignored the directive principles of state policy
(b) Given practical shape to all the directive principles
(c) Implemented only the socialist principles
(d) Given a position of pride to all the directive principles
70. Which
one
of
the
following
Articles
of
the
Constitution
of
India
directs
State
Governments
to
organise
village
panchayats?
(a) Article32
(b) Articled
(c) Article 48
(d) Article 51
71. In
the
Constitution
of
India,
promotion
of
international
peace
and
security
is
mentioned in the
(a) Preamble to the Constitution
(b) Directive Principles of State Policy
(c) Transitional provisions
(d) Ninth Schedule
72. The
Directive
Principles
of
State
Policy
in
Indian Constitution are in their nature.
(a) Democratic
(b) Collectivist
(c) Non-justiciable
(d) Gandhian
73. The
enforcement
of
most
of
the
Directive
Principles of State Policy involves:
(a) An active opposition
(b) An independent judiciary
(c) A stable government
(d) A Socialist government
74.
The
Directive
Principles
of
State
Policy
may
be
classified
into
the
following
groups except
(a) Socialistic Principles

(b) Liberal Principles
(c) Communistic Principles
(d) Gandhian Principles
75. The
Directive
Principles
were
given
precedence
mental Rights by:
(a) 39th amendment
(b) 41st amendment
(c) 42nd amendment
(d) 43rd amendment
76. Directive Principles of State policy are:
(a) Non-negotiable
(b) Non-enforceable by law
(c) Negotiable
(d) Enforceable by law
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27Constitution as Instrument of
Socio-Economic Change
Constitutional Amendments and
Review
The constitution of a country reflects the hopes and aspirations of the people. As
these hopes and aspirations keep on changing with the development of the society,
there is always a provision for amendment of the constitution so that it may be able
to keep pace with the growing aspirations of the people. The framers of the Indian
constitution were fully conscious of this fact and made the constitution flexible
enough to enable it to change according to the times. The framers of the constitution
also incorporated numerous provisions to ensure socio-economic justice to the people
and to make India's independence more meaningful. These provisions are contained
in the Preamble as well as the chapters on Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles of State Policy. The Preamble commits the country to ideal of a welfare
state and aims at ensuring socio-economic justice to the people. The Fundamental
Rights protect the citizens against arbitrary state action. The citizens have been
guaranteed right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to
freedom of religion, cultural and educational right, and right to constitutional
remedies. The Directive Principles direct the state to promote the welfare of the
people by securing a social order in which justice, social economic and political shall
prevail. The constitution also pays special attention to the betterment of the
conditions of scheduled castes, schedule tribes and other socially and economically
backward sections of the society. Despite these specific provisions the government
encountered difficulties in the attainment of social and economic justice. It therefore
resorted to
constitutional amendments to over come the obstacles. The very first amendment to
the constitution was carried out in 1951 to overcome the problems which arose in the
wake of enactment of several Land Reforms Acts and Zamindari Abolition Acts. The
Amendment added IX Schedule to the Constitution and placed thirteen laws in the
Schedule . These laws could not be challenged by the Court on the ground that they
violated certain provisions of the constitution. It also permitted the state to make
special provision for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes
of citizens. This amendment encouraged the governments of several states to go
ahead with fresh Land Reform Acts. The other amendments which trieds to ensure
socio-economic justice to citizens include the 17th amendment (1964), 23rd
amendment (1969), 24th amendment (1971), 25th amendment (1972), 26th
amendment (1971), 28th amendment (1972) 34th amendment (1974), 40th
amendment (1976), 42nd amendment (1976), 43rd amendment (1978), 47th
amendment (1984), 62nd amendment (1989), 66th amendment (1990), 76th
amendment (1994), 77th amendment (1995),78th amendment (1995), 79th
amendment (1995), 81st amendment (2000), 86th amendment (2003) etc.
AMENDMENT PROCESS
The process for the amendment of constitution in India is neither very rigid nor very
flexible. In fact there are three different methods for amendment of various
provisions of the constitution.
Constitution as Instrument of Socio-Economic Change Constitutional Amendments
339
In the first p>la,ce certain provisions can amended by simple majority of the two
houses of Indian Parliament. Secondly, certain provisions can be amended by the
Parliament by two-third majority of the members present and voting. This must also
be a majority of the total membership in each house of Parliament. Finally certain
provisions can be amended by two-thirds majority of the members of Parliament and
approval of the majority of the states.
The amendment process in India suffers from several shortcomings, viz., there is
no provision for Constitutional Convention for initiating the amendments; states
cannot initiate amendments to the constitution; majority of the provisions of the
constitution can be amended by parliament alone; provisions concerning amendment
are too sketchy and there is always a possibility of its being challenged. Despite
above defects, the process of amendment has proved quite simple.
REVIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION

The question of review of Indian Constitution was raised on the occasion of the
Golden Jubilee of the Indian Constitution to ensure stability both at the centre and the
states. The government announced its decision to set up a National Commission to
review the working of the Constitution under the Chairmanship of Justice
M.N.Venkatachalaih, former Chief Justice of India. The Commission had ten other
members. The Commission was asked to examine in the light of the experience of the
past 50 years as to how far the existing provisions of the Constitution are capable of
responding to the needs of efficient, smooth and effective system of governance and
socio-economic development of modern India and recommend changes,
if any, that are required to be made in the constitution within the framework of
Parliamentary democracy without interfering with the basic structure of the
constitution." The Commission set up ten expert groups, each under an eminent
person. These groups were required to prepare background papers and
questionares which were sent to various national commissions, research
institutions, NGOs, consumer groups, political parties etc. Each group was to hold
discussions and prepare final recommendations.
After considering the various view points the Commission placed its
recommendations before
the government on 31 March, 2002. The Commission recommended that Article
356 should be used only in difficult circumstances. It recommended that the
Prime Minister should be elected by the Lok Sabha in case no single political
party or pre-poll alliance of parties secured a clear majority in the Lok Sabha. It
suggested that a motion of no-confidence must be accompanied by a proposal of
alternative to be voted simultaneously.
The other recommendations were introduction of new fundamental rights;
amendment in tenth Schedule to debar defectors from holding public office;
setting up of a National Judicial Commission to recommend appointment of
judges; present election system should be replaced by two-ballot system of
election, etc.

1. The
Preamble
of
the
Indian
Constitution
declares India a
(a) Sovereign, Democratic Republic
(b) Sovereign, Socialist, Democratic Republic
(c) Sovereign,
Socialist,
Secular, Democratic Republic
(d) Sovereign Republic
2. Which
of
the
following
words
were
added
to
the
Preamble
through
an
amendment
in
the
Constitution
carried
out
during
emergency in 1976
(a) Socialist and Secular
(b) Secular and Democratic
(c) Socialist and Republic
(d) Sovereign and Democratic
3. The Preamble of the Indian Constitution
(a) commits the country to the ideal of a welfare state
(b) assures social and economic justice to all citizens.
(c)assures freedom of religion to all citizens
4. The
Directive
Principles
of
State
Policy
seek to
(a) secure to all its citizens justice social, economic and political
(b) raise the living standard of the people

(c) assure full freedom of religion to all citizens
(d) secure equal treatment to all the citizens
5. Which
one
of
the
principle
of
state
policy
following
seeks
to
directive
bring
about
socio-economic
changes
in
the
society.
(a) State is expected to ensure to citizens adequate means of livelihood
(b) State is expected to ensure that the ownership and control of material
resources of the community do not get concentrated in few hands only.
(c)State is expected to provide equal pay for equal work to both men and women.
(d) All the above
6. The
Constitution
directs
the
state
to
give
special
attention
to
the
betterment
of
the
condition of
(a) scheduled castes
(b) scheduled tribes
(c) socially and economically backward sections of society.
(d) All the above
7. The
Directive
Principles
of
State
Policy
which
aim
at
bringing
about
socio
economic
changes
in
society
are
contained
in which part of the Constitution
(a) Part III
(b) Part IV
(c) PartV
(d) PartV-A
8.Which
Article
of
the
Constitution
deals
with the abolition of 'untouchability'?
(a) Article 14
(b) Article 17
(c) Article 24
(d) None of above
9. Under
Article
15
of
the
Indian
Constitution
the State can make special provision for
(a) Scheduled Castes
(b) Scheduled Tribes
(c) Socially and educationally backward classes of citizens
(d) All the above
10.
The Courts in India have made the things
difficult for state by according precedence
to the Fundamental Rights over the
Directive Principles and thus stood in the
way of achieving socio-economic justice.

(a) True
(b) False
11. Which
Article
of
the
Constitution
prohibits
discrimination
against
a
citizen
on
the
grounds
of
religion,
race,
caste,
sex,
descent, place of birth and residence.
(a) Article 14
(b) Article 15
(c) Article 16
(d) Article 19
12. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The State cannot confer any title, other than military or academic, on its
citizens
(b) No citizen of India can accept any title from any foreign state.
(c) A citizen of India can accept a title from a foreign state with the prior approval
of the President of India.
13. Article
23
of
the
Indian
Constitution
seeks
to
ensure
socio-economic
justice
by
prohibiting
(a) traffic in human beings
(b) begar
(c) forced labour
(d) all the above
14. Rigtht
to
private
property
which
hampered
the
securing
of
socio-economic
justice was abolished by
(a) 42nd Amendment
(b) 43rd Amendment
(c) 44th Amendment
15. Which
Article
of
the
Constitution
prohibits
the
employment
of
children
below
14
years
of
age
in
any
factory,
mine
or
other
hazardous job.
(a) Article 24
(b) Article 29
(c) Article 19
(d) Article 14
16. Which
one
of
the
following
Articles
of
the
Constitution
directs
the
state
to
strive
to
promote the welfare of the people by
Constitution as Instrument of Socio-Economic Change Constitutional Amendments 341
securing and protecting the social order in

which justice, social, economic and
political shall prevail,
(a) Article 25
(b) Article 38
(c) Article 32
(d) Article 39
17. Article
39
of
the
Constitution
of
enjoins upon the state to ensure
(a) that all citizens have the right to an adequate means of livelihood
(b) that there is eqiial pay for equal work for both men and women.
India
(c) that the citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocation
unsuited to their age or strength.
(d)All of above
18. Which
Article
of
the
Constitution
directs
the
state
to
ensure
that
the
wealth
and
means
of
production
do
not
get
concentrated only in few hands?
(a) Article 38
(b) Article 39
(c) Article 41
(d) Article 42
19. Which
Article
of
the
Constitution
seeks
to
promote
the
educational
and
economic
interests
of
weaker
sections
of
people,
specially
the
scheduled
castes
and
scheduled Tribes?
(a) Article 42
(b) Article 46
(c) Article 39
(d) Article 44
20. The
First
Amendment
to
the
Constitution
carried
out
in
1951
sought
to
provide
socio-economic justice to the citizens
(a) by securing constitutional validity of thirteen Zamindari Abolition laws in the
9th schedule.
(b) By laying the ceiling on immovable property which a citizen could hold.
(c) By reserving seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the
Parliament and state legislatures.
(d) by making provision for compulsory acquisition of property in public interest,
with minimum compensation.
21. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
defect
of
the
consti
tutional procedures in India?
(a) Only the Parliament can propose amendments
(b) Majority of the provisions of the constitution can be changed by the
Parliament single-handed.
(c) There is no provision for referendum on Constitutional Amendments.

22. Which
one
of
the
following
amendment
is
regarded
as
a
'mini
revision
of
the
constitution'?
(a) 42nd amendment
(b) 44th amendment
(c) 52nd amendment
23. Which
one
of
the
following
amendment
was
concerned
with
the
extension
of
reservation
of
seats
for
the
Schedule
Castes?
(a) Eighth amendment
(b) 23rd amendment
(c) 45th amendment
(d) all the above
24. Which
one
of
the
following
amendment
of
the
Constitution
did
away
with
the
privileges
and
concessions
enjoyed
by
the
I.C.S. Officers?
(a) 24th amendment
(b) 28th amendment
(c) 29th amendment
(d) 42nd amendment
25. Which
one
of
the
following
amendment
sought
to
overcome
the
restrictions
on
the
powers
of
the
Parliament
to
amend
the
Fundamental
Rights
(as
per
decision
of
Supreme Court in Golak Nath case)?
(a) 23rd amendment
(b) 24th amendment
(c) 25th amendment
26. Which
one
of
the
following
amendment
of
the
constitution
is
related
with
right
to
private property?
(a) First Amendment
(b) Fourth Amendment
(c) Seventeenth Amendment
(d) All the above.
(a)
27. Which
one
of
removed
Right
to
Fundamental
Rights
legal right?
(a) 42nd amendment
(b) 44th amendment
(c) 48th amendment
the
Property
and
following
from
the
made
it
amendments
List
of
only
a
(d) 52nd amendment

28. Which
amendment
provided
that
if
any
law
was
passed
by
the
Parliament
to
give
effect
to
the
Directive
Principles
of
State
Policy
under
Article
39
(b)
or
or
(c),
it
could
not
be
declared
void
on
the
ground
that
it
was
inconsistent
with
the
rights
conferred
under Article 14,19 and 31?
(a) 25th amendment
(b) 29th amendment
(c) 33rd amendment
(d) 42nd amendment
29. Which
amendment
of
the
Constitution
added
Tenth
Schedule
to
the
Constitution
which
contains
provisions
regarding
disqualifications on grounds of defection?
(a) 51st amendment
(b) 52nd amendment
(c) 53rd amendment
30. Which
one
of
the
following
amendment
reduced
the
voting
age
from
21
years
to
18
years?
(a) 52nd amendment
(b) 60th amendment
(c) 61st amendment
31. Which
amendment
accorded
statutory
status
to
the
Commission
for
scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes?
(a) 64th
(b) 65th
(c) 68th
(d) 70th
32. Which
amendment
provided
a
constitu
tional
guarantee
to
the
for-mulation
of
the
Panchayats at village and other levels?
(a) 73rd amendment
(b) 74th amendment
(c) 84th amendment
33. Which
amendment
empowered
the
state
to
make
provision
for
reservation
in
promotion
in
government
jobs
in
favour
of
Scheduled Castes and scheduled Tribes?
(a) 74th amendment
(b) 75th amendment
(c) 77th amendment
34. Which
amendment
authorised
the
government
to
fill
the
backlog
of
vacancies
for the Scheduled Castes (15%) and
Scheduled Tribes (7%) as these 2
vacancies are to be treated as a separate
class of vacancies to be filled in any
succeeding year or years.
(a) 81st
(b) 85th
(c) 86th
35. Which
amendment
of
the
Constitution
stipulates
that
the
state
shall
provide
free
and
compulsory
education
to
all
children
of the age of 6 to 14 years?
(a) 85th
(b) 86th
(c) 90th
(d) 91st
36. The
National
&
Commission
for
Scheduled Castes was created by
(a) 87th amendment
(b) 88th amendment
(c) 89 th amendment
(d) 92nd amendment
37. Which
one
of
the
following
amendment
of
the
Constitution
abolished
the
Privy
Purses
and
privileges
of
the
Indian
princes?
(a) 26th amendment
(b) 28th amendment
(c) 30th amendment
(d) 32nd amendment
38. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
amendment
process
in
India.
1. Majority of the provisions of the Constitution can be amended by the
Parliament alone either by simple majority or by two third majority.
Constitution as Instrument of Socio-Economic Change Constitutional Amendments 343
2. No time-limit has been prescribed by the Constitution for ratification of

amendments by the states.
3. Certain amendments can be initiated only by the states.
4. There is no provision in the constitution to resolve the deadlock between the
two houses of Parliament over the amendment of the constitution.
39. No
provision
of
the
Constitution
relating
to
the
Federal
character
or
powers
of
the
states
can
be
changed
without
the
consent
of the states.
(a) True
(b) False
40. Certain
types
of
amendments
can
be
initiated
by
the
states
with
the
prior
approval of the President.
(a) True
(b) False
41. Which
one
of
the
following
defects
of
the
process
of
constitutional
amendment
in
India has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is not clear as to what would happen if the President refuses to give his
assent to an amendment passed by the two houses.
(b)
Certain provisions of the constitution can be amended only after these
have been approved in a referendum.
(c) The states cannot initiate any amendment.

(d) There is no provision for resolution of deadlock between the two houses of
Parliament over amendment of the Constitution.
42. The
amendment
process
has
been
used
to
bring
about
several
important
socio
economic
changes
and
establish
welfare
state.
(a) True
(b) False
43. The
concept
of
'basic
structure
of
the
of
the
constitution'
gained
currency
following
Supreme Court's judgement in
(a) Golak Nath case
(b) Keshvananda Bharti case
(c) Minerva Mills case
(d) None of the above cases
44. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
basic
structure of the Constitution?
(a) Sovereignty of the People
(b) Supremacy of the Constitution
(c) Republican Polity
45. The
concept
of
basic
structure
of
the
constitution
propounded
in
the
Keshavanand
Bharati
case
was
further
elaborated and strengthened in
(a) Indira Gandhi Vs Raj Narain case
(b) Minerva Mills case
46. In
mid-seventies
Congress
under
Mrs
Indira
Gandhi
constituted
a
Review
Committee which was headed by:
(a) Swaran Singh (b) A.R. Antulay
(c) H.R.Gokhale
47. Swarn
Singh
Committee
which
was
constituted
to
re-examine
the
Constitution
during Emergency recommended
(a) continuance of the existing Parliamentary system of government.
(b) Centre should be empowered to declare emergency in any part of the
country.
(c) Centre should have the authority to send police in any part of the country.
(d) all the above
48. Which
one
of
the
following
recom
mendation
was
not
made
by
the
Swarn
Singh Committee.
(a) Amendment of the Preamble
(b) Supremacy of Parliament with regard to amendment of the Constitution.
(a)
344
(c) More powers should be granted to the Centre

(d) In matters of land reforms the jurisdiction of the High Court should be ended.
49. On
the
occasion
of
the
Golden
Jubilee
of
the
Indian
Constitution
Vajpayee
Government
decided
National
Commission
to
Review
the
Working
of
the
Constitution
(NCRWC)
under
the
Chairmanship of
(a) R.S. Sarkaria
(b) Justice B.P. Jeevan Reddy
(c) Justice M.N. Venkatachalaih
(d) P.A. Sangama
50. NCRWC, apart from the Chairman, had
(a) eight members
(b) seven members
(c) nine members
(d) ten members
51. The
National
Commission
to
Review
the
working of the Constitution was set up in
(a) 1999
(b) 2000
(c) 2001
(d) 2002
52. How
many
expert
groups
were
constituted
by
the
NCRWC
to
consider
the
area identified by it?
(a) five groups
(b) seven groups
(c) ten groups
(d) 12 groups
53. Which
one
of
the
following
area
was
identified
by
the
NCRWC
for
consi
deration?
(a) Strengthening of Parliamentary democratic institutions and their
accountability.
(b) Electoral Reforms

(c) Review of the pace of socio-economic change and development.
(d)
All the above
54. Which
one
of
the
following
did
not
fall
within
the
area
of
investigation
by
the
NCRWC?
(a) Review of the Union-State relations
(b) Empowerment and strengthening of Panchayati Raj Institutions.
(c) Role of Speaker in ensuring smooth working of Parliamentary Democracy
(d) Fundamental Rights and their enlargement.
55. Soli
Sorabjee,
the
Attorney
General
of
India,
was
a
member
of
the
National
Commission
to
Review
the
working
of
the
Constitution (NCRWC).
(a) True
(b) False
56. Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding NCRWC
1. It was initially given a term of one year
2. The Commission was expected to talk to the political parties before
submitting its report to the Parliament.
3. The Commission was primarily an advisory body and was not expected to
rewrite the Constitution
4. The Commission was not expected to review the working of Articles 356 of
the Constitution.
57. The
NCRWC
submitted
its
final
recommendations
to
the
Union
Law
and
Justice Minister
(a) on 1 March, 2002
(b) on 31 March, 2002
(c) on 31 December, 2002
(d) 1 January, 2004
58. Which
one
of
the
following
recom
mendation
of
NCRWC
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) The Prime Minister should be elected by the Lok Sabha in case no single
political party or a pre-poll alliance of parties secures a clear majority in the
Lok Sabha after the election.
(b) Article 356 should be used only in difficult circumstances.
(a)
Constitution as Instrument of Socio-Economic Change Constitutional Amendments
345
(c) The issue of foreign origin should be decided through national debate.
(d) The commission commended the 61. existing system of elections to the
Lok
Sabha and the State Assemblies.
59. The
NCRWC
has
recommended
appointment of Chief Election Comm^
issioner by a panel. Which one of the
following has not been recommended for
inclusion in the Panel by the Commssion?
(c) Leader of the Opposition in the Lok 63. Sabha
(d) The Speaker
60. NCRWC
has
recommended
enlargement
of
the
Fundamental
Rights
and
recom
mended
inclusion
of
several
new
rights.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Right to elementary education
(b) Right to Privacy
(c) Freedom of Press
NCRWC has recommended reservation for Muslims in educational institutions, with
special focus on Muslim girls.
(a) True
(b) False
To make the elections free and fair the NCRWC has recommended that the present
system of elections should be replaced by a two-ballot system of elections.
(a) True
(b) False
To ensure free and fair elections the NCRWC has recommended.
(a) (b)
(c)
Ceiling on election expenses.

Regulation of the working of political
parties by law.
Disqualification
of
a
person
convicted of any offence for six years
(d)
from the date of conviction.

all the above
l.(c)
7.(b)
13. (d)
19. (b)
25. (b)
31. (b)
37. (a)
43. (b)
49. (c)
55. (a)
61.(a)
2. (a)
8.(b)
14. (c)
20. (a)
26. (d)
32. (a)
38. (d)
44. (d)
50. (d)
56. (a)
62. (a)
ANSWERS
3. (d)
9.(d)
15. (a)
21. (d)
27. (b)
33. (c)
39. (a)
45. (c)
51. (b)
57. (b)
63. (d)
4. (a)
10. (a)
16. (b)
22. (a)
28. (a)
34. (a)
40. (b)
46. (a)
52. (c)
58. (d)
5.(d)
11. (c)
17. (d)
23. (d)
29. (b)
35. (b)
41. (b)
47. (d)
53. (d)
59. (a)
6.(d)
12. (d)
18. (a)
24. (b)
30. (c)
36. (c)
42. (a)
48. (c)
54. (c)
60. (d)
*28"
Structure and Process-I; President,
Prime Minister and Council of
Ministers
THE PRESIDENT
The Constitution of India has provided for a Parliamentary system of government in
which the formal executive authority of the Union is vested in the President, which he
can exercise either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with
the Constitution. The President is elected through an electoral college consisting of
the elected members of both the houses of the Parliament and the elected members
of the Legislative Assemblies of states. A candidate for the office of the President
must be sponsored by atleast 50 electors and seconded byan equal number of
electors. The President holds office for a term of five years from the date on which he
enters upon his office. He can resign his office by addressing his resignation to the
Vice-President of India. The President gets a monthly salary of Rs 50,000. In addition
he is entitled to other allowances and facilities. On retirement the President is
entitled to an annual pension of Rs 3,00,000. The President can be removed from his
office before the expiry of his term through the process of impeachment.
The President has been vested with variety of powers which include executive
powers, legislative powers, financial powers, judicial powers, diplomatic powers and
emergency powers. However, the President makes use of these powers on the advice
of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Despite clear directive that
the President shall act on the advice of the Council of Ministers, it cannot be said that
the President is only a figure head and his role
is confined to mere performance of ceremonial functions. He still plays an important
role and has a right to be consulted, the right to encourage and the right to be kept
informed. Under certain circumstances he can make use of his discretionary powers,
viz. while appointing a Prime Minister if none of the political party has a clear cut
majority or an acknowledged leader. President can also refer back a bill passed by
Parliament for its reconsideration atleast once. He also acts as the symbol of nation
and enjoys considerable amount of authority.
THE VICE-PRESIDENT
The constitution provides for a Vice-President, who discharges the duties of the
President in the event of sickness, resignation, death or removal etc. He is elected by
the members of the two houses of Parliament. The Vice-Parliament holds office for a
term of 5 years from the date on which he enters upon his office. He can relinguish
office earlier by addressing his resignation to the President. The Vice-President as exofficio Chairman of Rajya Sabha draws a monthly salary of Rs 40,000 and other
facilities.
The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha and exercises
legislative functions of the Chief Presiding Officer. He discharges the functions of the
President in the event of his inability to discharge his duties. In the event of the death
of the President, the Vice-President holds office as President for six months. In the
meanwhile fresh elections for the post of President must be held.
Structure and Process-I; President, Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
347
THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

The Constitution provides for a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the
head to aid and advise the President. This advice is binding on the President in terms
of 42nd amendment of the constitution. The Council of Ministers consists of the Prime
Minister and such other ministers which the Prime Minister may consider desirable.
The formation of the Council of Minister commences with the appointment of the
Council of Ministers are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime
Minister. The members of the
Council of Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the President. But actually
the Council of Ministers holds office as long as it enjoys the support of the
majority of the members of Lok Sabha. The Council of Ministers works on the
principle of collective responsibility and a vote of no confidence against one
minister is taken as a vote of no confidence against the entire Council of
Ministers.
The Council of Ministers exercises the executive authority of the union
government on behalf of the President. This includes the executive powers, the
legislative powers, financial powers, powers relating to foreign relations. In short
it can be said that the Council of Ministers has been vested with far reaching
powers both with regard to formulation and implementation of internal as well as
external policies of the country.
PRIME MINISTER
The office of the Prime Minister in India has been created by the constitution which
provides that there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head
to aid and advise the President. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President.
Usually the President invites the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha to
become the Prime Minister. But if there is no single political party with a clear cut
majority or there is no acknowledged leader of the majority party, the President can
make use of his discretion in the appointment of the Prime Minister.
The Prime Minister holds office during the pleasure of the President. But actually
he holds office as long as he enjoys the support of the majority of the members of
Lok Sabha.
Prime Minister is chief advisor of President and Chairman of the Council of
Ministers. Prime Minister communicates all the decisions of the Council of Ministers to
the President. He is duty bound to supply such information to the President which he
may need with regard to legislative proposals and administration of the Union. He
helps the President in making all important appointment. As Chairman of the Council
of Ministers the Prime Minister presides over its meeting. The agenda and
proceedings of the Council are also regulated by the Prime Minister. The Prime
Minister also acts as chief link between the Parliament and the Council of Ministers.
All important policy announcements in the Parliament are made by the Prime
Minister. He also justifies the policy and programme of the government on the floor of
the house. The President summons the sessions of the Parliament and prorogues on
the advice of the Prime Minister. Prime Minister also plays a vital role in the conduct
of India's international relations. As leader of the party he greatly influences its
working and decisions. The above discussion clearly shows that Prime Minister enjoys
tremendous power and influence both in the executive and legislative spheres.

1. The President of India is:
(a) the real ruler of India
(b) the Constitutional head of the State
(c) the head of the state as well as government
(d) the leader of the majority party which forms the government
(a) Appointed by the Prime Minister
(b) Elected by the Parliament
(c) Elected by the Chief Ministers of the States
(d) Elected by an electoral college consisting of Members of Parliament and
state legislatures
3. Which
one
of
the
following
qualifications
for
the
office
of
the
President
has
been
wrongly listed?

(b) He must be more than thirty-five years of age

(c) He must possess qualifications laid down for election as members of the Lok
Sabha
(d) He must be a member of either House of Parliament
(b) Indirectly elected by the members of Parliament
(c) Indirectly elected by the members of state legislatures
(d) Indirectly elected through an electoral college
5. The electoral college constituted for the
election of the President consists of:
(a)
All the members of Parliament
(b) All the members of the Parliament plus all the members of all State Legislative
Assemblies
(c) The elected members of both Houses of Parliament and the elected members
of the Legislative Assemblies of States
6. A member of Parliament or a State
Legislature can be elected as President but:
(a) He has to resign his seat before contesting election
(b) He has to relinquish his seat as soon as he is elected
(c) He has to relinquish his seat within six months of his election
(d) A Member of Parliament can contest but a Member of State Legislature cannot
contest.
7. In the election of the President
(a) The members of the State Legislative Assemblies enjoy more votes
(b) The members of Parliament enjoy more votes
(c) The members of State Legislative Assemblies and two Houses of Parliament
enjoy equal number of votes
8. The
candidate
for
the
office
of
the
President must be sponsored by:
(a) At least 25 electors
(b) At least 50 electors
(c) At least two Ministers

9. The President of India is elected for:
(a) Life
(b) 4 years
(c) 5 years
(d) 6 years
10. Under
the
Indian
Constitution
no
person
can
hold
office
of
the
President
for
more
than:
(a) One term
(b) Two terms
(c) Three terms
(d) There is no such ban under the constitution
11. The
oath
of
office
to
the
President
is
conducted by:
(a) The Chief Justice of India
(c) The Vice-President of India
12. The
election
of
the
office
of
the
President
is
conducted by:
(a) Speaker of the Lok Sabha
(b) Secretary-General of the Parliament
(c) Chief Justice of India
(d) The Election Commission of India
13. The
vacancy
in
the
office
of
the
President
must be filled up within:
(a) 90 days
(b) 6 months
(c) One year
(d) The period decided by the Parliament
14. The
person
elected
to
fill
the
vacancy
of
the
President holds office for:
(a) The unexpired term
(b) For full term of 5 years
(c) The period determined by the Parliament
(d) A term determined by the members of Parliament and State Legislatures
15. The
President
can
vacate
his
office
by
addressing his resignation to:
(a) The Vice-President
Structure and Process-I; President, Prime Minister and Council of Ministers 349
(b) The Speaker of Lok Sabha

(c) The Prime Minister
(d) The Chief Justice of India
16. The
disputes
regarding
President are decided by:
(a) The Supreme Court of India
(b) The Parliament
(c) The Lok Sabha
(d) The Election Commissioner
17. The Salary of the President is:
(a) Liable to income tax
the
election
of
the
(b) Not subject to income tax

(c) Subject to special rate of income tax
18. The
President
of
India
can
be
removed
from
his
office
before
the
expiry
of
his
term
by:
(a) The Chief Justice of India
(b) The Parliament and State legislatures jointly
(c) The two houses of Parliament
(d) The Supreme Court of India
19. The
President
can
be
removed
from
his
office only on grounds of:
(a) Violating the Constitution
(b) Showing favours to his party members
(c) Accepting bribe
(d) Disobedience of the Parliament
20. Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
President
of
India
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He is the supreme commander of the armed forces of India
(b) He makes all the major executive appointments of the Union Government
(c) He can declare war and make peace
(d) He presents the budget before the Parliament for its approval
21. Under the Constitution it is:
(a) Obligatory for the President to seek the advice of the Council of Ministers but
is not obliged to follow it
(b) It is obligatory for the President to accept the advice of the Council of
Ministers
(c) It is not obligatory for the President to seek or accept the advice of the
Council of Ministers
(d) It is obligatory for the President to seek the advice of the Council of Ministers
if his own party is in power
22. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
incorrect?
(a) The President is an integral part of the Parliament
(b) The President is not a part of the Parliament
(c) the President can summon each House of Parliament
(d) The President can dissolve the Lok Sabha
23. The President of India:
(a) Has no right to address either House of Parliament
(b) Has the right to address only the Lok Sabha
(c) Has the right to address only the Rajya Sabha
(d) Has the right to address both the Houses of Parliament either separately or
jointly
24. The
President
of
India
has
the
right
to
nominate to the Rajya Sabha
(a) 5 members
(b) 12 members
(c) 2 members
(d) No member
25. The
President
nominates
the
members
of
the
Rajya
Sabha
from
amongst
persons
who:
(a) Have taken part in India's freedom struggle
(b) Have retired from active politics
(c) Have rendered meritorious services to the country either in politics or military
field
(d) Have distinguished themselves in fine arts, literature, social service, etc.
26. The
President
of
India
enjoys
the
right
to
veto:
(a) Both money and non-money bills
(b) Only money-bills

(c) Only non-money bills
(d) None of the two types of bills
27. During
the
recess
of
the
Parliament
the
President can promulgate ordinances:
(a) With the prior approval of the Parliament
(b) With the prior approval of the Supreme Court of India
(c) With the consent of the Council of Ministers
(d) On his own.
28. Which
one
of
the
following
financial
powers
of
the
President
of
India
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) No money bill can be introduced in the Parliament without the
recommendations of the President
(b) The Contingency Fund of India has been placed at the disposal of the
President and he can make advances out of it to meet unforeseen
expenditure
(c) Every five-year the president appoints a Finance Commission for division of
taxes between the Union and the States
(d) During emergency the President can raise extra funds without the consent of
the parliament
29. Which
one
of
the
following
judicial
powers
of
the
President
of
India
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He appoints the Chief Justice and other Judges of the Supreme Court
(b) He can remove the Judges of the Supreme Court on grounds of misconduct
(c) He can consult the Supreme Court on any question of law of fact which is of
public importance
(d) He can grant pardon, reprieves and respites to persons punished under union
Law
30. Who
said
that
the
emergency
powers
of
the
President
is
a
fraud
on
the
Consti
tution?
(a) K.M.Nambiar
(b) K.M.Munshi
(c) B.N.Rau
(d) B.R.Ambedkar
31. Which
one
of
the
following
types
of
emergency
can
be
declared
by
the
President?
(a) Emergency due to threat of war, external aggression or internal disturbances
(b) Emergency due to break-down of constitutional machinery in a state
(c) Financial emergency on account of threat to the financial credit of India
(d) All the three emergencies
32. The
President
can
declare
national
emergency;
(a) Only in case of foreign attack
(b) Only in case of armed rebellion
(c) If he is satisfied that a great threat exists to the security of country either due
to war or external aggression or armed rebellion
33. The
President
can
declare
emergency
on
ground
of
breakdown
of
constitutional
machinery in the States
(a) Only on the receipt of report from the Governor of the State to this effect
(b)
Even without receipt of a report from the Governor if he is satisfied that
situation has arisen in
which the government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the
provisions of the Constitution
(c) If the Council of Ministers of the States recommends to the President
(d) If the Speaker of the State Legislative Assembly recommends to the President
34. Which
one
of
the
following
changes
cannot
be
effected
during
the
emergency
due
to
constitutional
breakdown
of
the
State
machinery?
(a) The President can assume to himself all or any of the functions of the
government of the State
(b) The President can assume the powers of the High Court of State
(c) The President can declare that the powers of the legislature of the State shall
be exercised by the Parliament
(d) The President can suspend the operation of any provision of the constitution
relating to the body or authority in the State if he feels it desirable to do so
for attaining the objectives of the emergency
35. A
proclamation
of
emergency
must
be
placed
before
the
Parliament
for
its
approval:
(a) Within one month
(b) Within two months
(c) Within six months
(d) Within one year
36. With
the
approval
of
the
Parliament
the
National Emergency can continue for:
(a)A maximum period of three years
(b) A maximum period of one year
(c) An indefinite period
(d) A maximum period of six months
37. Which
one
of
the
following
changes
is
not
effected during the national emergency?
(a) The Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens can be suspended
(b) The distribution of revenue between the Union and the States can be
modified
(c) The President can issue directions to the State with regard to exercise of their
executive powers
(d) The President can act in his discretion the advice of the Council of Ministers
38. Which
one
of
the
following
steps
cannot
be
taken
by
the
President
during
the
Financial Emergency?
(a) He can direct the Union and State Governments to observe such canons of
financial propriety as he deems desirable
(b) He can suspend the Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens
(c) He can order reduction of salaries and allowances of all civil servants
(d) He can order the reduction of the salaries of the Supreme Court and High
Court Judges
39. Which
one
of
the
following
categories
of
emergency
has
been
declared
maximum
number of times?
(a) National emergency

(b) Emergency due to breakdown of constitutional machinery
(c) Financial emergency
(d) All the three equal number of times
40. Which
one
of
the
following
categories
of
emergency has not been declared so far?
(a) National emergency
(b) Emergency due to breakdown of constitutional machinery
(c) Financial emergency
41. The Vice-President of India is elected:
(a) By the people
(b) Elected by the members of State Legislative Assemblies
(c) Elected by the members of the Rajya Sabha
(d) Elected by the members of the two Houses of Parliament at a joint sitting
42. Which
one
of
the
following
qualifications
for
the
office
of
the
Vice-President
of
India
(a) He must be citizen of India
(b) He must have completed the age of thirty-five years
(c) He must be a member of the Rajya Sabha
(d) He must not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or the
Government of any State or under any local or other authority, subject to the
control of said governments
43. The Vice-President of India holds office:
(a) During the pleasure of the President
(b) For a term of four years
(c) For a term of five years
(d) For a term which is decided at the time of his appointment by the Parliament
(a)
44. The
Vice-President
of
India
can
be
removed
from
his
office
before
the
expiry
of his term if:
(a) The Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a majority of its members and the
Lok Sabha agrees with the resolution
(b) If the Supreme Court of India recommend his removal
(c)
the President so desires
45. With
regard
to
the
re-election
of
the
VicePresident:
(a) The constitution is absolutely silent
(b) The constitution places a clear ban
(c) The constitution permits re-election only once
(d) The constitution permits maximum of three terms
46. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
of
the
Vice-President
as
ex-officio
Chairman
of
the
Rajya
Sabha
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He presides over the meetings of the Rajya Sabha and conducts its business
(b) He protects the privileges of the members of Rajya Sabha
(c) He can dissolve the Rajya Sabha
(d) He acts as the spokesman of Rajya Sabha before the President and the Lok
Sabha
47. While
the
Vice-President
discharges
the
functions of the office of the President:
(a) He.ceases to act in his capacity as the chairman of Rajya Sabha
(b) He ceases to act in his capacity as the Vice-President of India
(c) He continues to act as the Vice-President of India and Chairman of Rajya
Sabha
(d) He ceases to act as Vice-President but continues to act as Chairman of the
Rajya Sabha
48. On
the
death
of
the
President
the
VicePresident succeeds him as President for:
(a) The un-expired term
(b) A maximum period of six months
(c) A maximum period of one year
(d) A maximum period of three years
49. In
India
the
real
executive
authority
rests
with:
(a) The President
(c) The Council of Ministers
(d) The Civil Servants
50. The Council of Ministers consists of:
(a) The Prime Minister, the President, the Vice-President and other Ministers
(b) The Prime Minister, the President and other Ministers
(c) The Prime Minister and other Ministers
51. The
formation
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
starts with:
(a) The ordering of the general election of Parliament
(b) The appointment of the Prime Minister
(c) The appointment of the President

(d) The formal notification of the President
52. The
Prime
Minister
who
is
the
head
of
Council of Ministers:
(a) Cannot be a member of either House of Parliament
(b) Must be a member of either House of Parliament
(c) Must be leader of the Rajya Sabha
(d) Must be leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha
53. The
appointment
of
the
members
of
Council
of
Ministers
is
made
by
President:
(a) On the advice of the Prime Minister
(b) In his own discretion
(c) On the advice of the Speaker of Lok Sabha
(d) On the advice of the Prime Minister and the Speaker of Lok Sabha
54. The strength of the Council of Ministers:
(a) Has been fixed by the Constitution
the
the
the
(b) Has been fixed by the Parliament under People's Representation Act 1950
(c) Is determined by the Prime Minister keeping in view the requirements of the
time
(d) Is determined by the President
55. The Council of Ministers is:
(a) Identical with the Cabinet
(b) A smaller body than the Cabinet
(c) A larger body than the Cabinet
(d) In no way related to the Cabinet
56.
Generally all important decisions are
taken by:
(b) The Cabinet
(c) The Council of Ministers and Cabinet at a joint sitting
(d) The Prime Minister
57. Which one of the following categories of
ministers are members of Cabinet?
(a) Ministers with Cabinet rank
(b) Ministers of State
(c) Deputy Ministers
(d) All the above categories of Ministers
58. Constitutionally the members of the
Council of Ministers hold office:
(a) During the pleasure of the President
(b) During the pleasure of the Speaker
(c) During the pleasure of the Parliament
(d) During the pleasure of the Prime Minister
59. In reality the Council of Ministers stay in
office as long as it enjoys:
(a) The confidence of Lok Sabha
(b) The confidence of the Prime Minister
(c) The confidence of the President
(d) The confidence of the Rajya Sabha
60. A person can be appointed a member of
the Council of Ministers:
(a) Only if he is not a member of either House of Parliament
(b)
Only if he is a member of either House of Parliament
(c) Only if the President recommends his appointment to the Prime Minister
61. A
person
who
is
not
a
member
of
the
Parliament
can
be
appointed
a
member
of
the
Council
of
the
Ministers
but
he
must
acquire
the
membership
of
either
House
within a period of:
(a) Six months
(b) One year
(c) Three months (d) Three years
62. The
Council
of
Ministers
can
be
removed
from office:
(a) By the President at his discretion
(b) By the Rajya Sabha if it passes a resolution to this effect
(c) By the Lok Sabha if it passes a vote of no confidence against it
(d) By the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha jointly by passing a vote of no
confidence against it
63. Which
one
of
the
following
executive
functions
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
has
(a) It formulates the executive policy of the country
(b) It coordinates the policies, programmes and activities of the various
departments
(c) It plays an important role in filling up various political, judicial and
ambassadorial assignments
(d) It plays an important role in the election of the President
64. The
Legislative
Functions
of
the
Council
Ministers include:
(a) The right to summon and prorogue the two houses of Parliament
(b) Right to nominate two Anglo-Indian members of Lok Sabha
(c) Right to nominate some members of Rajya Sabha
(d) Right to introduce important bills and resolutions in the Parliament
65. The
financial
functions
of
the
Council
Ministers include the right:
(a) To certify whether a bill is a money bill or not
of
of
(b) To prepare and introduce the budget in the Parliament

(c) To control expenditure out of the Contingency Fund of India
(d) To appoint Finance Commission from time to time
66. As
regards
the
powers
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
with
regard
to
the
foreign
relations:
(a) It receives the ambassadors and diplomats from foreign countries
(b) It determines the foreign policy of the country
(c) It helps in the recruitment of members of Indian Foreign Service
(d) It concludes treaties and agreements with foreign countries
67. The
Council
of
Ministers
is
there
to
aid
and
advise
the
President
in
the
exercise
of
his
functions:
(a) But the President is not bound to accept its advice
(b) But the President can act in his discretion in certain matters
(c) But the President may not seek its advice and thus bypass the Council of
Ministers
(d) And the President is bound to act on the advice of the Council of Ministers
68. The
meetings
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
are presided over by:
(a) The President

(b) The Speaker
(d) By all the Ministers in rotation
69. Generally
the
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers are:
(a) Taken from the same political party
(b) Taken from the various political parties according to their strength in the
Parliament
(c) Taken from amongst persons who are not members of Parliament
(d) Taken from amongst persons with long administrative experience
70. The
allocation
of
portfolios
to
the
various
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
is
done:
(a) According to the discretion of the President
(b) According to the discretion of the Prime Minister
(c) Through draw of lots
(d) On the basis of preferences indicated by the Ministers
71. A member of Council of Ministers:
(a)
Can be dismissed by the President in his discretion
(b) Can be dismissed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister
(c) Can be dismissed by the President after obtaining necessary opinion from the
Supreme Court of India
(d) Cannot be dismissed by the President
72. The Council of the Ministers
(a) Cannot recommend the dissolution of Lok Sabha to the President
(b) Can recommend dissolution of Lok Sabha to the President
(c) Can recommend dissolution of Lok Sabha only after obtaining necessary
clearance from the Supreme Court of India
(d) Can recommend dissolution of the Lok Sabha to President only if all the
political parties have consented to this proposal
73. The Office of the Prime Minister of India:
(a) Has been created by the Constitution
(b) Rests on conventions
(c) Has been created by the Parliamentary Statute
(d) Is the result of the combination of all the above three factors
74. The Prime Minister is the head of:
(a) State
(b) Government
(c) Both state and government
(d) Neither state nor government
(c)
Structure and Process-I; President, Prime Minister and Council of
Ministers 355
75. The Prime Minister is:

(a) Appointed by the President
(b) Elected by the Lok Sabha
(c) Elected by the both the Houses of Parliament at a joint sitting
(d) Elected by an electoral college containing representatives of Parliament and
State Legislatures
76.
Generally the Prime Minister is:
(a) Not a member of either House of Parliament

(b) The leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha
(c) Leader of the majority party in both the Houses of Parliament
(d) A trusted friend of the President
77. The
Prime
Minister
stays
in
office
as
long
as:
(a) He is in the good books of the President
(b) His party enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha
(c) His party enjoys the confidence of the both the Houses of Parliament
(d) For a fixed term of 5 years
78. Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
Prime
Minister
in
relation
to
the
Council
of
Ministers has been wrongly listed?
(a) The members of the Council of Ministers are appointed by the President on
the recommendation of Prime Minister
(b) He allocates portfolios among the members of the Council of Ministers
(c) He presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers
(d) He can dismiss the Council of Ministers if he finds that the members are not
cooperating with him
79. The
agenda
for
the
meetings
of
the
Council
of Ministers is decided by:
(a) The Prime Minister
(b) A small committee of the Council of Ministers formed for this purpose
(c) All the members of the Council at a formal meeting
(d) The Prime Minister in consultation with the President
80. Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
Prime
Minister
in
relation
to
the
President
(a) He communicates all the decisions of the Council of Ministers to the President
(b) He supplies such information to the President regarding proposals of
legislation and administration of the Union as the President may need.
(c) He signs the bills passed by the two House of the Parliament on behalf of the
President during his absence
(d) He assists the President in making all appointments

81. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
appointed
by
the
President
on
the
advice
of the Prime Minister?
(a) Chief Justice and other Judges of the Supreme Court of India
(b) Chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission
(c) Governors of the State
(d) Speaker of Lok Sabha
82. Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
Prime
Minister
with
regard
to
the
Parliament is not correct?
(a) He has to justify the policy and programme of his government on the floor of
the Parliament
(b) He makes all import policy announcements on the floor of the Parliament
(c) He summons and prorogues the sessions of the Parliament
(d) He can recommend the dissolution of the Lok Sabha to the President
83. Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
Prime
Minister
with
regard
to
the
conduct
of foreign relations is correct?
(a) He represents the country in various international conferences
(b) He receives the diplomatic envoys of other countries
(a)
356
(c) Ke always heads the Foreign Affairs 87. Ministry

(d) He is the only spokesman of the Government, on External Affairs in
the Parliament
84. The Prime Minister:
(a) Can also act as the President of the
Party
88.
(b) Is always the President of the Party
(c) Cannot be the President of the Party
85. The
position
of
the
Prime
Minister
of
India
is
superior
to
the
position
of
the
British
Prime Minister because
(a) India has multiple party system
89.
(b) India has a written Constitution
(c) India has a federal system of government
(d) His office has been created by the Constitution
86. Who
administers
the
oath
of
office
to
the
President of India?
(b) Vice-President of India
(d) The Speaker of Lok Sabha
Which one of the following Articles of the
Indian Constitution deals with the
impeachment
process
against
the
President of India
(a) Art. 59
(b) Art. 60
(c) Art. 61
(d) All the above articles
Which one of the following is NOT a reason for the occurrence of a vacancy in the
office of the President of India?
(a) Expiry of five year term
(b) Resignation or death
(c) Vote of no confidence
(d) Impeachment
What is the probable effect if the Indian Parliament expresses no-confidence in the
government?
(a) the Prime Minister resigns and the ministry will be reconstituted.
(b) the Prime Minister recommends for dissolution of the Parliament.
(c) the Ministers resign and the Prime Minister reconstitutes the Ministry.
(d) the Cabinet will become powerless and fresh elections will be called for.
(a)
Mb)
7.(c)
13. (b)
19. (a)
25. (d)
31. (d)
37. (d)
43. (c)
49. (c)
55. (c)
61. (a)
ANSWERS
2. (d)
3. (d)
4.(d)
8.(b)
14. (b)
20. (d)
26. (c)
32. (c)
38. (b)
44. (a)
50. (c)
56. (b)
62. (c)
9.(c)
15. (a)
21. (b)
27. (c)
33. (b)
39. (b)
45. (a)
51. (b)
57. (a)
63. (d)
10. (d)
16. (a)
22. (b)
28. (d)
34. (b)
40. (c)
46. (c)
52. (d)
58. (a)
64. (d)
5.(c)
11.
17.
23.
29.
35.
41.
47.
53.
59.
65.
(a)
(a)
(d)
(b)
(a)
(d)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(b)
6.(d)
12. (d)
18. (c)
24. (b)
30. (a)
36. (c)
42. (c)
48. (b)
54. (c)
60. (b)
66. (b)
67.
73. (a)
79. (a)
85. (d)
68.
74.
80.
86.
(c)
(b)
(c)
(a)
69, (a)
75. (a)
81. (d)
87. (c)
70.
76.
82.
88.
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
71.
77.
83.
89.
(b)
(b)
(a)
(a)
72.
78. (d)
84. (a)
Chapter
29
Working of Parliamentary
Government
The constitution has provided Parliamentary government both at the Centre as well
as in the states. The main features of Parliamentary government are presence of a
titular head (President); effective power in the hands of the council of ministers; close
co-operation between the legislature and the executive; responsibility of the Council
of Ministers to the Parliament; and collective responsibility of the ministers.
Though at the time of the introduction of Parliamentary system of government in
India doubts were expressed in certain quarters about its successful working, yet the
system has worked quite successfully in the country. Some of the factors which have
contributed to the success of Parliamentary system in India are: faith of the people in
democracy; conduct of free and fair elections; role of free media and press role of
independent judiciary; decentralization of administration; presence of large number
of political parties, etc.

1. The Government in India is known as
Parliamentary because
(a) Parliament is elected by the people
(b) Parliament consists of two houses
(c) Parliament is a sovereign body
(d) the executive is accountable to the Legislature
2. Parliamentary government was adopted
in India
(a) by sheer accident
(b) because it was made obligatory to adopt this government under Indian
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Independence Act of 1947

(c) because of historial considerations and practical necessities
(d) on account of all the above reasons
The
framers
of
the
Constitution
drew
inspiration
for
adoption
of
Parliamentary
government from
(a) Britain
(b) Switzerland
(c) France
(d) U.S.A.
The
Parliamentary
government
in
the
western sense was introduced in India by
(a) the British in 1833
(b) the French in 1680
(c) the British in 1858
The
decision
regarding
adoption
of
Parliamentary
Government
was
taken
by
the Constituent Assembly
(a) unanimously
(b) by an overwhelming majority
(c) by the casting vote of the President of the Assembly
The
Constitution
provided
Parliamentary
government
(a) only at the Centre
(b) both at the Centre as well as States
(c) only at the Centre but permitted it to introduce the same at the state level
Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
Parliamentary
Government
in
India
forms
a
deviation
from
the
Parliamentary
governments in Britain?
(a) it provides for an elected President
358
(b) it does not provide for the principle of Sovereignty of Parliament

(c) both the above features
(d) none of the above features
8. The
Parliamentary
System
of
Government
of India works on the principle of
(a) fusion of powers between legislature and executive
(b) separation of powers between the three organs of government
(c) fusion of powers between three organs of government
9. The
President
of
India,
who
is
the
head
of
the
state
under
Parliamentary
system
prevailing in India
(a) enjoys absolute powers
(b) enjoys limited but real powers
(c) enjoys only nominal powers
(d) enjoys no powers
10. In India the Government is headed by
(a) the President
(d) Cabinet
11. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) the President of India is not a member of the Council of Ministers but he can
attend its meetings
(b) the President of India is a member of the Council of Ministers but he never
attends its meetings
(c) the President of India is neither a member of the Council of Ministers nor can
he attend its meetings
(d) the President attends the meetings of the Council of Ministers only during the
emergency*.
12. Though
the
formal
executive
powers
in
India
are
vested
in
the
President,
these
powers are actually exercised by the
(a) Parliament
(b) Prime Minister
(c) Council Of Ministers
(d) Speaker
13. The members of the Council of Ministers
(a) must be taken from Lok Sabha
(b) must be taken from Parliament
(c) cannot be members of Parliament
(d) cannot be members of Rajya Sabha
correct?
(a) the Cabinet is a larger body than the Council of Ministers
(b) the Council of Ministers is a larger body than the Cabinet
(c) the Cabinet also includes the members of the Council of Ministers
(d) the Cabinet and the Council of Ministers are two rival bodies
15. The formation of the Council of Ministers
starts with the selection of the

(a) President
(b) Speaker
(c) Prime Minister
(d) all the Ministers
correct?
(a) a person can be a member of the Cabinet without being a member of the
(b) a person can be a member of either Cabinet or Council of Ministers
(c) a person who is a member of the Cabinet is automatically a member of the
(d) a person who is a member of the Council of Ministers automatically becomes
a member of the Cabinet
17. The Prime Minister in India is generally
(a) a member of Lok Sabha
(b) a member of Rajya Sabha
(c) member of none of the two houses
(d) a non-partisan person
18. The Prime Minister of India is generally
(a) the leader of the majority Party in the Lok Sabha
(b) elected by the members of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha at a joint meeting
(c) a trusted and close friend of the President
(d) nominated by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha
(a)
Working of Parliamentary Government 359
19. The
members
of
the
Council
in India
(a) cannot be members of Parliament
(b) must be members of Parliament
(c) may or may not be members of Parliament
of
Ministers
20. In
India,
majority
of
the
members
of
the
Council of Ministers are drawn from
(a) theLokSabha
(b) the Rajya Sabha
(c) civil servants
(d) freedom fighters
21. Which
one
of
the
following
duties
is
not
performed by the Prime Minister of India?
(a) presiding over the meetings of the Cabinet
(b) presiding over the joint sitting of the two Houses of Indian Parliament
(c) coordination of the work of various Ministers
(d) preparation of the agenda for the meetings of the Cabinet
22. The
Council
of
Ministers
in
India
holds
office
(a) for a fixed term
(b) so long it enjoys confidence of the electorate
(c) so long it enjoys the confidence of the President
(d) so long it enjoys the support of the majority of the members of Parliament
23. In India the Council of Minister is formed
(a) by the party which has majority in Lok Sabha
(b) by the party which has majority in the Rajya Sabha
(c) by the party which has majority in both the houses taken together
(d) by the party which enjoys the confidence of the President
24. The
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
in
India
are
collectively
responsible
to
the
legislature which implies
(a) the Parliament can call all the ministers any time
(b) all the ministers are members of the Parliament too
(c) the ministers take identical stand before the Parliament
(d) A vote of no confidence against anyone minister is taken as a vote of no
confidence against the entire Council of Ministers
25. The
double
responsibility
of
the
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
means
that
they
are
(a) responsible to the Prime Minister as well as the President
(b) responsible to the Rajya Sabha as well as the Lok Sabha
(c) they are responsible for the working of their respective departments as well
as other departments
26. The Prime Minister is
(a) selected by the President according to his discretion
(b) generally the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha
(c) elected by the Parliament from amongst its members
(d) appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Chief Justice of
India
27. The
other
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers are appointed by the President
(a) on his own
(b) on the advice of the Prime Minister
(c) on the advice of the Parliament
(d) on the advice of the Speaker of Lok Sabha
28. The
Parliamentary
Government
in
India
is
also known as
(a) democratic Government
(b) irresponsible Government
(c) responsible Government
(d) plural Government
(a)
360
29. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
mentary Government in India?
(a) President stands outside the Council of Ministers
(b)
there is separation of legislature and Executive
(c) the leadership of the Prime Minister
(d) collective Responsibility of the Council of Ministers
30. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
Cabinet System in India?
(a) secrecy of proceedings
(b) leadership of the President
(c) separation of Legislature
and executive
(d) dominance of Bureaucracy
31. In
the
Indian
Parliamentary
system
government
all
important
bills
introduced in the Parliament by
(a) the Speaker
(b) the members of the Council of Ministers
(c) the ordinary members of Parliament
(d) the Committee constituted for the purpose
32.
The allocation of portfolios amongst the
been
Parlia
of
of
are
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
is
done by
(a) the President
(c) Home Minister
(d) a Committee of the Parliament
33. The
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
can
be
ousted
from
their
office
before
the
expiry of their normal term
(a) by the two Houses of Parliament
(b) by the Lok Sabha by a two-thirds majority vote
(c) by the Rajya Sabha by a three-fourth majority vote
(d) by the Lok Sabha by an absolute majority vote
34. A
Prime
Minister
can
stay
in
his
office
even
after
a
vote
of
no
confidence
is
passed
against him by the Parliament if
(a) the President so desires
(b) the Speaker of the Lok Sabha approves
(c) if the Chief Justice of India approves
35. The size of the Council of Ministers
(a) has been specified in the Constitution
(b) is determined by the Parliament
(c) is determined by the President
(d) is determined by the Prime Minister
36. The
President
of
India
has
discretion
in
the
selection of the Prime Minister
(a) under all circumstances
(b) if no political party enjoys clear-cut majority in the Lok Sabha
(c) no party enjoys majority in both the Houses of Parliament
(d)
if two different parties enjoy majority in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
37. In
the
selection
of
the
Ministers
the
Prime
Minister
is
guided
by
the
following
considerations.
Which
one
of
these
considerations has been wrongly listed?
(a) they must be members of Lok Sabha only
(b) all the major communities and interests should get represented in the Council
(c) all the areas and regions should get representation in the Council
(d) all important leaders of Party be included in the Council
38. The
right
to
reshuffle
the
Council
of
Ministers rests with
(a) the President (b) the Cabinet
(c) the Prime Minister
(d) the Speaker
39. The
meetings
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
in
India are presided over by
(b) the President
(c) all the Ministers by rotation
(d) theSpealer
40. Which
one
ui
the
following
statements
is
not correct?
Working of Parliamentary Government 361
(a) in India all important laws are introduced in the Parliament by the members of
the Council of Ministers
(b) the bills introduced by the Council of Ministers are easily passed by the Lok
Sabha because of the majority support at its disposal
(c) the Bill introduced by private members can become an Act even if the Council
of Ministers does not support it
(d) the bill introduced by a private member can become an Act only if the Council
of Ministers supports it
41. In India the Parliament is not authorised to
(a) propose new taxes
(b) reduce taxes suggested by the Council of Ministers
(c) refuse taxes proposed by the Council of Ministers
(d) debate proposals submitted by Council of Ministers
42. The individual members of the Council of
Ministers can be removed from their office
(a) by the President on his own
(b) by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister
(c) by the President on the advice of Lok Sabha
(d) by the President on the advice of the Cabinet
43. A person who is not a member of either
House of Parliament
(a) can be appointed a member of the Council of Ministers
(b) can be appointed member of the Council of Ministers for a maximum period
of three years
(c) can be appointed member of the Council of Ministers for a maximum period
of one year
(d) can be appointed member of the Council of Ministers for a maximum period
of six months
44. The Parliament can express lack of

confidence in the Council of Ministers in a
number of ways. Which one of the following is not a method of lack of confidence?
(a) rejecting a bill introduced by the Minister
(b) Passing a private member bill to which the Council of Ministers is opposed
(c) impressing on the Ministers the need to make concessions in taxes
(d) rejecting the budget proposals submitted by the Ministry
45. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
treated
as
lack
of
confidence
in
the
Council
of
Ministers?
(a) reduction in demands presented by the Ministers
(b) passage of a vote of no confidence against anyone Minister
(c) refusal of supplies
(d) pressurising a Minister to modify the proposals submitted by him
46.
The
Parliamentary
government
in
India
has great educative value because
(a) it has introduced free and compulsory education for all children
(b) people come to know about problems facing the country through
Parliamentary debates
(c) the political Parties run educational institutions
47. Under
Parliamentary
system
of
government
the
ministers
play
an
important role in the enactment of laws
(a) by introducing most of the important bills
(b) by examining all the bills before they are passed by legislature
(c) by implementing the provisions of the bills
(d) by all the above actions
48. At
the
time
of
enactment
of
constitution
doubts
were
expressed
about
successful
working
of
Parliamentary
government
in
India on account of
/
362
(a) illiteracy of people

(b) lack of political experience to work out the system
(c) Indian heritage which was opposed to democratic thinking
49. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
made
the
critics
sceptic
about
the
successful
working of Parliamentary democracy?
(a) caste-ridden character of Indian society
(b) distance from the seat of power
(c) high rate of illiteracy
(d) all the above
50. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
has
been
responsible
for
non-proper
working
of Parliamentary System in India?

(a) absence of parliamentary traditions
(b) general apathy towards parliamentary system
(c) lack of effective opposition
(d) all the above
51. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
has
contributed
to
failure
of
Parliamentary
Government in India?
(a) absence of collective responsibility
(b) frequent use of Ordinance making powers
(c) intolerant attitude of centre towards states
(d) all the above
52. Parliamentary government's successful
working has been jeopardised because
(a) the constitution has bestowed ordinance making power on the President
(b) the President has been issuing large number of ordinances every year
(c) the President has not been making use of his ordinance making powers
(d) the judiciary has prevented the President from making use of ordinance
making powers
53. The growing agitational politics has
(a) jeopardised the smooth working of Parliamentary Government in India
(b) had no impact on the working of the Parliamentary Government in India
(c) greatly strengthened the Parliamentary Government
(a)
l.(b)
7. (c)
2.(c)
8. (a)
ANSWERS
3. (a)
9.(c)
4. (a)
10. (b)
5.(b)
11. (c)
6.(d)
12. (c)
19.
25.
31.
37.
43.
49.
13.
(b)
(c)
(b)
(a)
(d)
(d)
14.
20.
26.
32.
38.
44.
50.
(b)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
15. (c)
21. (b)
27. (b)
33. (b)
39. (a)
45. (d)
51. (d)
16. (b)
22. (d)
28. (c)
34. (d)
40. (c)
46. (b)
52. (b)
17.
23.
29.
35.
41.
47.
53.
(a)
(a)
(b)
(d)
(a)
(a)
(a)
18.
24.
30.
36.
42.
48.
(a)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(d)
3
0
Structure and Process-II;
Governor, Chief Minister, Council
of Ministers, State Legislature
The constitution of India has provided an executive at the state level on the pattern
of the Union Executive. At the State level the formal executive authority is vested in
the Governor, while the real executive authority rests with the Chief minister and his
Council of Ministers.
GOVERNOR
The Governor, who is the executive head of the state is appointed by the President.
While making the appointment of the Governor the President consults the Chief
Minister of the concerned state the governor is appointed for a term of five years
However, usually he remains in office till his successor enters upon its office. The
Governor is a nominal executive head and makes use of his powers on the advice of
the Council of Ministers. Variety of powers have been vested in the Governor which
include the executive powers, the legislative powers, financial powers judicial powers,
and miscellaneous powers. The position of the Governor differs from that of the
President in so far as the constitution permits him to exercise some of his powers in
his discretion. The subjects which come under this category are selection of Chief
Minister, dismissal of a ministry; dissolution of Legislative Assembly; seeking of
information from the Chief Minister; appending or refusing signatures to a non-money
bill passed by the state Legislature; reservation of a bill passed by the state
legislature for the assent of the President; and recommending to the President the
failure of constitutional machinery in the state etc.
It may be observed that the Governors of states in India have tended to act as the
agents of the ruling party at the Centre and failed to act as the constitutional rulers.
THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

In each state a Council of Ministers has been provided on the pattern of the Union
Council of Ministers. The strength of the Council is determined by the Chief Minister
of the state. The formation of the Council of Ministers starts with the appointment of
the Chief Minister and the other members of the Council of Ministers are appointed
by the Governor on the recommendation of the Chief Minister. Though the Council of
Ministers is there to aid and advise the Governor, but in reality the real executive
authority of the state vests in the Council of Ministers. It has been vested with a
variety of powers which include the executive powers; the legislative powers;
financial powers; formulation of plans etc. In short, it is the chief driving force behind
the machinery of the state.
CHIEF MINISTER
The Chief Minister of the state enjoys a position analogous to the Prime Minister at
the centre. He is appointed by the Governor and holds office during the pleasure of
the Governor. But actually he stays in office as long as he enjos the majority support
in the state legislature. The Chief Minister occupies a preeminent position in relation
to the
364
Council of Ministers. He is vital to its formation and continuance in office. The Chief
Minister presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers and greatly influences
its deliberations and decisions. With regard to the Governor, the Chief Minister is the
chief link of communication between the Governor and the Council of Ministers. The
Chief Minister is duty bound to supply to the Governor information on matters
relating to the administration of the state as well as the proposals for legislation. He
assists the Governor in making all major appointments in the state. Chief Minister
has also very intimate relations with the state legislature. The agenda of the state
legislature is determined by the Speaker in consultation with the Chief Minister. The
Chief Minister makes all important policy announcements on the floor of the House.
The Chief Minister can recommend to the Governor the dissolution of the Legislative
Assembly before the expiry of its term. The position of the Chief Minister depends on
his personality, the position of his party in the state legislature and whether his party
controls the government at the centre or not.
STATE LEGISLATURE
The state legislature consists of the Governor and one or two houses. At present all
the states except Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Uttar
Pradesh have only one house which is known as Legislative Assembly. The Assembly
consists of elected representatives of the people. The
strength of the Assembly in various states ranges between 30 and 425. The
Legislative Assembly of a state enjoys variety of powers which include Legislative
Powers, Constituent Powers, Financial Powers, Control over Executive, etc.

1. Governor of the State is:
(a) The executive head of the State
(b) The executive as well as the legislative head of the State
(c) The head of the State government machinery
(d) Head of the legislature, executive as well as judiciary of state
2. The Governor of the State is:
(a) Appointed by the President of India
(b) Elected by the two Houses of the State Legislature
(c) Appointed by the Chief Minister of the State
(d) Is appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of India
3. Which
one
of
the
following
qualifications
for
the
office
of
the
Governor
has
been
wrongly listed?
(b) He must not be less than thirty years of age
(c) He must not be member of either House of Parliament or State Legislature
(d) He must not hold any other office of profit
4. The Governor holds office:
(a)For a term of five years
(b) During the pleasure of the President
(c) During the pleasure of the Chief Minister
(d) As long as he enjoys the confidence of the State Legislature
5. Before
entering
upon
his
office
the
Governor
of
the
State
has
to
take
an
oath
of
office, which is administered to him by:
(a) The President of India
(b) The Chief Justice of India
(c) The Chief Justice of the State High Court
6. The Governor gets a monthly salary of
(a) Rs.5000
(b) Rs. 6000
(c) Rs.9500
(d) Rs. 11,000
7. The Salary of the Governor is charged on:
(a) The Consolidated Fund of India
(b) Consolidated Fund of the State
(c) The Consolidated Fund of India and Consolidated Fund of the State on fifty-fifty
basis
(d) The Contingency Fund of the State
(a)
Structure and Process-ll; Governor, Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, State
Legislature 365
8. Which
the
listed?
one
Governor
of
of
the
the
following
State
has
immunities
of
been
wrongly
(a) He is not answerable before any court for anything done in the exercise of his
official duties
(b) No criminal proceedings can be launched against Governor during his term of
office
(c) No legal proceedings can be instituted against the Governor during the last
year of his term
(d) The Governor is entitled to rent free official residence
9. Generally the Governor of a State is:
(a) Not a person from the State
(b) A person from the State
(c) A person with long administrative experience
(d) A retired ICS/IAS officer
10. Can
a
person
be
Governor
of
more
than
one State?
(a) Yes
(b) No
(c) Yes, for maximum period of three months
(d) Yes for a maximum period of six months
11. If
a
Governor
acts
as
the
Governor
of
more
than one State:
(a) His salary is paid by the Central Government
(b) His salary is paid by the State where his headquarter is located
(c) He gets one and a half time his normal salary
(d) His salary is shared by the concerned States in equal proportion
12. Which
one
of
the
following
does
not
fall
within
the
executive
powers
of
the
Governor?
(a) He makes all the major appointments of the State
(b) He allocates portfolios among the various members of the Council of the
Ministers
(c) He has a right to be kept informed about all the decisions taken by the
(d) He can dismiss the judges of the State High Court
13. Which
one
of
the
following
legislative
powers
of
the
Governor
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He can summon or prorogue either House of State Legislature
(b) He can address either or both the Houses of Legislative Assembly at the
commencement of the new session after each General election
(c) He can dissolve both the Houses in cases of difference over the enactment of
a law
(d) He can send messages to the State Legislature on a bill pending before it
14. The
Governor
reserves
the
right
to
issue
ordinances:
(a) Whenever the State is under President rule
(b) Whenever he likes
(c) Whenever he is directed by the President
(d) When the State Legislature is not in session and he feels that there is an
immediate need of action
15. The Ordinance of the Governor:
(a) Has the same force as the law made by the State Legislature
(b) Is more extensive than the law made by the State Legislature
(c) Is much narrower than the State Legislature
16. Which
one
of
the
following
options
is
not
open
to
the
Governor
when
the
biil
is
presented to him by the State Legislature?
(a) He can accord assent to the bill
(b) He can return the bill for reconsideration of the Legislature
(c) He can reserve certain bills for the assent of the President
(d) He can reject the bill
(a)
17. The Ordinance issued by the Governor is

valid for a maximum period of:
(a) Six weeks
(b) Six months and six weeks
(c) One year
(d) Indefinite period
18. Which one of the following financial
power is not enjoyed by the Governor?
(a) All the demands for grants are presented before the State Legislature on the
recommendation of the Governor
(b) He is incharge of the Contingency Fund of the State and can make advances
out of it to meet unforeseen expenditure
(c) The supplementary grants, if any, are presented before the State Legislature
on the recommendation of the Governor
(d) He can order the reduction of salaries and allowances of the State civil
servants during the President's rule in the State
19. Which one of the following judicial powers
of the Governor has been wrongly listed?
(a) He appoints the judges of the State High Court and other subordinate courts
(b) He can grant pardon, reprieve, respite or remission of punishment to any
person convicjed of an offence against the State Law
(c) He is consulted by the President while appointing the judges of the High Court
(d) He enjoys full power regarding postings, and promotions of district judges and
other judicial officers of the State
20. The Governor of a State enjoys:

(a) No discretionary powers
(b) Very extensive discretionary powers
(c) Discretionary powers in certain circumstances
21. The Governor of a State exercises his
discretionary powers:
(a) On the advice of the Chief Minister
(b) On the advice of his Personal Secretary
(c) On the advice of the State Council of Ministers
(d) On his own
22. The Governor recommends the imposition
of the President's rule in the State:
(a) On the recommendation of the State Legislature
(b) On the recommendation of the Chief Minister
(c) On the recommendation of the Council of Ministers
(d) If he is satisfied that the Government of the State cannot be carried on in
accordance with the provisions of the Constitution
23. The head of the Government in a State is
known as:
(a) The Governor
(b) The Chief Minister
(c) Lt. Governor
(d) Sadar-i-Riyasat
24. The Chief Minister of a State is appointed
by:
(b) The Governor of the State
(c) The Chief Justice of the High Court
(d) The State Legislature
25. The Chief Minister is generally:

(a) A member of the Legislative Assembly
(b) A member of the Legislative Council
(c) Not a member of either house of State Legislature
26. Can a member of the Legislative Council
be appointed a Chief Minister?
(a) Yes
(b) No, constitution forbids it

(c) No, the convention forbids it
(d) Yes, if his party has majority in both the Houses of the State Legislature
(a)
Structure and Process-ll; Governor, Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, State Legislature 367
27. The
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
are appointed by:
(a) The Governor on the recommendation of the Chief Minister
(b) The Governor on his own discretion
(c) The Chief Minister in consultation with the Governor
(d) The two Houses of the State Legislature
28. The
Strength
of
the
Council
of
the
Ministers:
(a) Has been fixed by the Constitution
(b) Has been fixed by the Parliament
(c) Is fixed by the State Legislature of every State
(d)
Is determined by the Chief Minister
29. Before
entering
upon
their
office
the
members
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
of
a
State
are
administered
an
oath
of
office
and secrecy by:
(a) The Governor
(b) The Chief Justice of the High Court
(c) The Chief Minister of the State
(d) The President of India
30. The Chief Minister stays in office
(a) For a fixed term of 5 years
(b) As long as the Governor of the State wants
(c) As long as the Council of Ministers wants him
(d) As long as he enjoys the confidence of the majority party in the Legislative
Assembly
31. The
portfolios
are
allocated
to
the
various
members of the Council of Ministers,
(a) The Governor according to his discretion
(c) The Governor according to the option indicated by the members
32. The
Council
of
Ministers
of
a
State
works
on
the
basis
of
the
principle
of
collective
responsibility which means:
(a) They are collectively responsible to the President
(b) They are taken from the same political party

(c) They take all major decisions collectively
(d) That a vote of no confidence against any member of the Council leads to the
resignation of the entire body
33. On the death of a Chief Minister:
(a) The Council of Ministers automatically stands dissolved
(b) The seniormost Member of the Council automatically becomes the Chief
Minister
(c) The seniormost Judge of the High Court succeeds him as the Chief Minister
(d) The Governor immediately appoints a new Chief Minister
34. The
salary
and
allowances
of
the
members
of the Council of Ministers:
(a) Have been prescribed by the Constitution in the II Schedule
(b) Are fixed by the Governor of the State
(c) Are fixed by the Parliament
(d) Are determined by the Legislature of the State
35.
Which
one
of
the
following
executive
functions
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
of
a
State has been wrongly listed?
(a) It runs the administration of the State in accordance with the provisions of the
Constitution
(b) It brings about necessary cohesion in the policy of the various ministries
(c) It formulates the policy of the State Government and gives it practical shape
(d) It assists the President in the administration of the State during the
President's Rule in the State
36. Which
one
of
the
following
legislative
powers
of
the
State
Council
of
Ministers
(a) It summons and prorogues the session of the either or both the Houses of the
State Legislature
(b) It determines the business and timetable of the State Legislature

(c) Most of the important bills are introduced in the State Legislature by the
37. Which
one
of
the
following
financial
powers
of
the
State
Council
of
Ministers
(a) It formulates the budget proposals and presents the same to the State
Legislature for approval
(b) All proposals for taxation emanate from the Council of Ministers
(c) It regulates the Contingency Fund of the State and can advance money out of
it to meet the unforeseen contingencies
38. The
meetings
of
the
State
Council
of
Ministers are presided over by:
(a) The Governor
(c) The Minister for Parliamentary Affairs
(d) By all ministers by rotation
39. A
member
of
the
Council
of
Ministers
can
be
asked
to
tender
his
resignation
if
he
loses the confidence of
(a) The Governor
(b) The State Legislature
(c) The Chief Minister
(d) All the above three
40. Which
one
of
the
following
duties
of
the
Chief
Minister
in
relation
to
the
Governor
(a) He communicates to him all the decisions of the Council of Ministers
(b) He supplies him information on such matters relating to the administration of
the States as the Governor may call for
(c) He assists the Governor in making appointment in the State Government
(d) He advises him to recommend to the President that the government of the
State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the
Constitution
41. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
does
not
play
any
role
in
determining
the
position
of the Chief Minister?
(a) His personality
(b) His position in the party
(c) His financial status
(d) The position of his party in the State Legislature
42. The
Chief
Minister
is
the
principal
advisor
to
the
Governor
and
acts
as
a
link
between
the:
(a) Governor and the President
(b) Legislative Council and the Governor
(c) Governor and the Council of Ministers
(d) Governor and other bodies referred to above
43. The
Chief
Minister
of
a
state
asks
the
Governor to dissolve the legislature when:
(a) The President issues a Proclamation of State Emergency
(b) He fears large scale defections from his ruling party

(c) He has no confidence in the Cabinet
(d) His ministry loses absolute majority in the legislature
44. The
Governor
of
a
State
is
responsible
for
his conduct under Constitution to
(b) the President
(c) the Chief Minister
45. The Constitution of India provides for:
(a) Unicameral legislatures in all States
(b) Bi-cameral legislatures in all States
(c) Unicameral legislatures in some States and bi-cameral legislatures in other
States
46. How
many
States
at
present
possess
bi
cameral legislatures?
(a) All the States
(b) Only three States
(a)
Legislature 369
(c) Only ten States

(d) Only five States
47. Which
one
of
the
possess a bi-cameral Legislature?
(a) Punjab
(b) Andhra Pradesh
(c) Bihar
(d) Jammu and Kashmir
following
States
does
not
48. In
the
States
with
bi-cameral
legislatures
the upper House is known as:
(a) Legislative Assembly
(b) Legislative Council
(c) Council of State
49. According
to
the
Constitution
the
upper
House
of
the
State
Legislature
created
or
abolished by:
(a) The State Legislative Assembly
(b) The Parliament of India
(c) The Governor of the State
(d) The Presidential order
50. Generally
the
Legislative
Council
of
a
Sta
te
is
created
or
abolished
recommendation
of:
(a) The Chief Minister
(b) The State Council of Ministers
(c) The Governor
(d) Legislative Assembly
51. The State Legislature consists of:
(a) Legislative Assembly only
(b) Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council, if there is one
(c) The Legislative Assembly and the Council of Ministers
(d) The Governor, the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council, if there is
one
52. The
members
of
the
Legislative
Assembly
are:
(a) Indirectly elected
(b) Directly elected by the people
(e) Partly
elected
and
partly
nominated
by the Governor
(d) Mainly nominated
53. According
to
the
Constitution
the
Strength
of
the
Legislative
Assembly
of
a
State
must
range between:
(a) 50 and 250
(b) 60 and 500
(c) 100 and 300
(d) 250 and 500
54. The
strength
of
the
State
Legislative
Assembly depends on:
(a) Its population
(b) Its population and resources
(c) Its resources
(d) The discretion of the Governor
55. Which
State
Legislative
Assembly
has
the
maximum strength of 405 members?
(a) Andhra Pradesh
(b) West Bengal
(c) Uttar Pradesh (d) Maharashtra
56. At
present
which
of
the
following
States
has
a
Legislative
Assembly
with
a
strength of only 30 members?
(a) Tripura
(b) Arunachal Pradesh

(c) Sikkim
(d) Nagaland
57. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
qualification
for
membership of the Legislative Assembly?
(a) Must be a citizen of India
(b) Must be more than 30 years of age
(c) Must not hold any office of profit
(d) Must possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by a law of
Parliament
58. The
members
of
the
State
Legislative
Assembly are elected for a term of:
(a) 2 years
(b) 3 years
(c) 4 years
(d) 5 years
59. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
the
retirement
of
the
members
of the Legislative Assembly is correct?
(a) All the members retire simultaneously
(b) One-third members retire every two years
(c) One-half members rehire after two years
(d) One-fourth members retire every year
(a)
60. The Presiding Officer of the Legislative Assembly is Speaker, who:

(a) Is elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly from amongst
themselves
(b) Is elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly from amongst persons
who are not members of Legislative Assembly
(c) Is appointed by the Governor of the State on the recommendation of the
Chief Minister
(d) Is appointed by the Chief Minister of the State

60. The
Speaker
of
the
Legislative
Assembly
can
be
removed
from
his
office
before
his
normal term by:
(a) The Chief Minister
(b) The Governor
(c) The Legislative Assembly by passing a resolution by a majority of its total
membership
61. The
Quorun
of
the
meetings
of
the
Legislative Assembly is:
(a) One-tenth of the total membership or ten whichever is greater
(b) Ten
(c) 25
(d) Determined by the Speaker

62. The
members
of
the
Legislative
Council
are:
(b) Elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly
(c) Nominated by the Governor
63. The
total
strength
of
the
Legislative
Council is:
(a) Half the strength of the total membership of State Legislative Assembly
(b) Equal to the strength of the State Legislative Assembly
(c) One-third of the total membership of Legislative Assembly but it should not
be less than 40
(d) One-third of the total membership of the Legislative Assembly but it should
not be less than 100
64. Which
one
of
the
following
categories
of
members
are
not
included
in
the
Legislative Council?
(a) Members elected by municipalities, district boards and other local authorities
in the State
(b) Representatives of temples, churches and mosques.
(c) Representatives of persons engaged in teaching in institutions not lower in
standard than secondary schools
(d) Members nominated by the Governor from amongst persons having special
knowledge of literature, science, art, co-operative movement and social
service
65. Which
one
of
the
following
States
has
the
largest Legislative Council?
(a) Andhra Pradesh
(b) Bihar
(c) Maharashtra
(d) Uttar Pradesh
66. The Legislative Council:
(a) Has a term of five years
(b) Has a term of six years
(c) Is a permanent House
(d) Has a term of four years
67. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) All the members of the Legislative Council retire simultaneously
(b) One-third members of the Legislative Council retire every two years
(c) One-third members of the Legislative Council retire every year
(d) One-half of the members of the Legislative Council retire every three years
68. The
presiding
officer
of
the
Legislative
Council is known as Chairman, who is:
(a) Elected by the members of the Legislative Council from amongst themselves
(b) Appointed by the Governor of the State
(a)
Legislature 371
(c) Appointed by the Chief Minister

(d) Elected by the members of the Legislative Council from amongst persons who
are not its members
69. The
Chairman
of
the
Legislative
Council
can
be
removed
from
his
office
before
the
expiry of his normal term:
(a) By the Speaker
(b) By the Governor
(c) By the Chief Minister
70. The Quorum of the Legislative Council is:
(a) One-fourth of its total membership or 10
(b) One-fourth of its membership
(c) One-tenth of its membership or ten whichever is greater
(d) 25
71. In matter of ordinary legislation
(a) The Legislative Assembly has been given more powers
(b) The Legislative Council has been given more powers
(c) Both the Houses have been given equal power
72.
The Legislative Council can delay the
enactment of a bill passed by the
Legislative
Assembly
for
a
maximum
period of:
(a) One month
(b) Four months
(c) Six months
(d) One year
73. Which
one
of
the
following
alternatives
is
not
available
to
the
Governor
of
a
State
with
regard
to
a
bill
passed
by
both
the
Houses of the State Legislature?
(a) He can return the bill for reconsideration
(b)
He can reserve the bill for the
approval of the President
(c)
He can kill the bill by not returning
the same to the House where it
originated
(d) The
He can accord his assent
74. The
Constituent
Powers
of
the
State
Legislature include the right to:
(a) Initiate certain kinds of amendments to the Constitution
(b) Approve all the amendments to the Constitution
(c) Approve certain types of amendments to the Constitution
(d) Suggest revision of the Constitution
75. The
Legislative
Council
can
delay
the
enactment
of
a
money
bill
for
a
maximum
period of:
(a) Fourteen days
(b) One month
(c) Three months
(c)
l.(a)
7.(b)
13. (c)
19. (a)
25. (a)
31. (b)
37. (c)
43. (d)
49. (b)
55. (c)
61. (a)
67. (b)
73. (c)
2. (a)
8. (c)
14. (d)
20. (c)
26. (c)
32. (d)
38. (b)
44. (b)
50. (d)
56. (b)
62. (d)
68. (a)
74. (c)
3.(b)
9. (a)
15. (b)
21. (d)
27. (a)
33. (a)
39. (c)
45. (c)
51. (d)
57. (b)
63. (c)
69. (d)
75. (a)
4. (a)
10. (a)
16. (d)
22. (d)
28. (c)
34. (d)
40. (d)
46. (d)
52. (b)
58. (d)
64. (b)
70. (c)
5.(c)
11. (d)
17. (b)
23. (b)
29. (a)
35. (d)
41. (c)
47. (a)
53. (b)
59. (a)
65. (b)
71. (a)
6.(d)
12. (d)
18. (d)
24. (b)
30. (d)
36. (a)
42. (c)
48. (b)
54. (a)
60. (a)
66. (c)
72. (b)
11
Panchayati Raj
Institutions: Rural and
Urban and Their Working
Panchayati Raj or Democratic Decentralisation aims at associating the people with

the administration at the grassroots level. Under this system the people are
entrusted with the responsibility of formulating and implementating their own plans.
However, they do all this under the supervision and control of the higher units of
administration. The Panchayat Raj institutions have been in existence in India since
the earliest times. They suffered a set back under the British on account of their
policy of centralisation. However, subsequently the British realised the value of this
institution and set up a Decentralization Commission which recommended the
constitution and development of village Panchayats. However the Government of
India did not pay any attention to these recommendations. With the formation of
Congress Ministries in 1937 attention was again paid to the establishment of gram
panchayats and their reorganisation.
After independence when the new constitution was framed, a special provision was
included in the Chapter on Directive Principles which asked the government to take
necessary steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such power and
authority as may be necessary to enable them to work as units of self-government. In
pursuance of the provisions of constitution a committee under Balwant Rai Mehta
was set up. On its recommendations a three-tier system consisting of Village
Panchayats, Block
Level and Zila Parishad was set up. The establishment of Panchayati Raj was an
acknowledgement of the fact that the local people could very well' manage their
local affairs. However, the actual working of the Panchayati Raj
institutions demonstrated several defects. These include unscientific allocation of
functions, incompatible relations between the three tiers, inadequate finances, uncordial relations between officials and people, un-democratic composition of various
Panchati Raj institutions, infiltration of party politics, tight control of government, and
rise of financial disparities. A Committee under Ashok Mehta was set up by Janata
Government to review the shortcomings of Panchayati Raj. Though the Committee
made several important recommendations to revitalize the Panchayati Raj
institutions, these recommendations were not accepted by the Government.
In the subsequent years steps were initiated to streamline the Panchayati Raj
institutions and grant them more power and finances, but much could not be
achieved. In 1992 a constitutional amendment (73rd) was carried out to accord
constitutional status to Panchayati Raj. Several suggestions were made to make the
Panchayati institutions more effective by providing them greater financial powers.
The amendment set the process of devolution of powers and decentralisation of
administration in motion.
URBAN SELF-GOVERNMENT
Through the Urban self-government institutions have been in existence in India for
quite sometime, they were granted constitutional status only in 1992. The
amendment made detailed provision for the working of urban self-governing
institutions and assigned them greater role in the development of urban areas. In the
main three types of bodies were envisaged viz. Nagar Panchayat, Municipal
Panchayati Raj Institutions: Rural and Urban and Their Working
373
Council and Municipal Corporation. In all these bodies there was provision for
reservation of seats for scheduled castes, schedules tribes, women. The state
legislatures were authorised to grant such powers to the urban local self-government
bodies, so that they may be able to discharge their responsibilities effectively. The
Committees were authorised to levy taxes and raise funds. A Finance Commission
was provided to review the financial position of the Municipalities. The Act also
provided for a District Planning Committee which was responsible for the preparation
of draft development plans for the district. These plans were forwarded to the state
governments for approval. The responsibility for the preparation of the draft
development plans for the whole Metropolitan area was entrusted to the Metropolitan
Planning Committee. While formulating the plans the committee was expected to
keep in mind the plans prepared by the municipalities and Panchayats in the
Metropolitan area

1. Local government aims at
(a) associating the people with administration at grass-root level.
(b) entrusting responsibility for formulation and implementation of plans to
the local people.
(c) managing the local affairs with the funds raised from the local people.
correct?
(a) Panchayats have existed in India since earliest times.
(b) Panchayats were introduced in India by the Britishers with a view to

associate the local people with administration of local affairs.
(c) Institutions of Panchayat Raj were for the first time introduced in India in
the post-independence period.
3. The Panchayats which have existed in
India since earliest times suffered set back
(a) under the Muslim rulers
(b) under the Britishers
(c) under both the Muslim and British rulers
(d) under none of the above
1. The Muslim rulers permitted the Panchayat system to continue unobstructed.
2. Though Panchayats suffered a temporary set back under the Britishers due to
policy of centralisation, but gradually they realised the importance of these
institutions and tried to revive them.
3. The out-break of First World War gave a fillip to demand for revival of the
Panchayats.
4. Under the Montague Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, the responsibility for local
self-government institutions was entrusted to the Indian ministers.
Of the above statements:
5. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The Constitution of India contains elaborate provisions regarding village
Panchayats.
(b) The Constitution of India directs the government to take necessary steps to
organise village Panchayats.
(c) The Constitution of India contains no reference about the village Panchayats.
(d) The Panchayats in India are extra-constitutional growth.
6. In
1957,
the
Government
of
India
appointed
a
Committee
for
the
study
of
Community
Projects
and
National
Extension Service, which was headed by
(a) Shriman Narain
(b) Balwant Rai Mehta
(c) Vinobha Bhave

(a)
374
7. The
Committee
on
Community
Projects
and
National
Extension
appointed
in
1957
recommended
(a)three tier structure from village to the district.
(b) provision of adequate resources to the panchyat raj institutions so that they
may be able to discharge their responsibilities effectively.
(c) introduction of a uniform system of panchayat raj throughout the country.
8. Panchayat Raj is basically
(a) an administrative structure
(b) a developmental structure i (c) a financial structure
(d) combination of all the above
9. The
Panchayat
Raj
was
introduced
in
India
in
(a) 1950
(b) 1957
(c) 1959
(d) 1961
10. Panchayat
Raj
was
for
the
first
time
introduced in the state of
(a) Rajasthan
(b) Gujarat
(c) Kerala
(d) all the above three states simultaneously
11. Which
part
of
the
Constitution
contains
provisions
regarding
introduction
of
Panchayat Raj in the country?
(a) Preamble
(b) Part III dealing with Fundamental Rights
(c) Part IV dealing with Directive Principles
12. Panchayat,
which
is
the
lowest
unit
of
the
three-tier Panchayat Raj consists of
(a) all the adults residing in a village
(b) the elected representatives of the people
(c) only nominated members
(d) both nominated and elected members
13. The
Panchayat
is
headed
by
a
Sarpanch,
who is
(a) elected by the members of the panchayat from amongst themselves.
(b) directly elected by the people of the village.
(c) nominated by the District Officer.
(d) an ex-officio civil servant.
14. The
Panchayat
Samiti,
which
is
an
intermediary
body
between
the
Panchayat
and Zila Parishad consists of
(a) mainly ex-officio members.
(b)
members directly elected by the people.
(c) members elected by the members of the Panchayats.
(d) Partly elected and partly nominated members.

15. The
Panchayat
is
accountable
for
all
its
actions to
(a) the Gram Sabha
(b) the Block Development Officer
(c) the State Government
(d) all the above for different activities
16. All
schemes
of
development
and
pro
posals
of
taxation
at
the
village
level
are
approved by
(a) the Block Development Officer.
(b)the District Officer.
(c) the department of community development of the concerned state.
(d) the Gram Sabha.
17. Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
the
village
Panchayat
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Maintenance of roads, wells, schools, etc.
(b) Promotion of agriculture, animal husbandry, cottage, industries, etc.
(c) Settlement of all civil and criminal cases involving the residents of the village.
(a)
Panchayati Raj Institutions: Rural and Urban and Their Working
375
18. The
Chairman
of
the
who is generally known as Pradhan, is
(a) elected by the members of the Samiti
Panchayat
Samiti,
(b) selected on the basis of principle of rotation among the villages of the bloc.
(c) an ex-officio member.
(d) nominated by the District Officer in consultation with the Block Development
Officer (BDO).
19. The
Janata
Government
appointed
a
Committee
to
review
the
working
of
Panchayat
Raj.
The
Committee
was
headed by
(a) Raj Narain
(b) Ashok Mehta
(c) Balwant Rai Mehta
(d) Jagjiwan Ram
1. The Zila Parishad is the highest development agency in the state.
2. The Zila Parishad works through standing committees elected by the general
body.
3. The Collector or the Deputy Commission is a member of the Zila Parishad and
acts as its Chairman.
4. The Zila Parishad elects its own chairman from amongst its members.
21. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
of
the Zila Parishad has been wrongly listed?
(a) It coordinates the activities of the Panchayat Samitis falling within its
jurisdiction.
(b) It renders advice to the state government with regard to implementation of
the various development schemes.
(c) It is responsible for the maintenance of primary and secondary schools,
hospitals, dispensaries, etc.
22. The
Community
Development
Pro
gramme
was
launched
by
the
Government
to
(a) ensure equitable distribution of resources among people.
(b) uplift the backward sections of society.
(c) ensure people's participation in development.
(d) work for the upliftment of women and children.
23. The
Panchayats
were
accorded
cons
titutional status by
(a) 52nd amendment
(b) 72nd amendment
(c) 73rd amendment
(d) 75th amendment
24. The
Panchayati
Raj
was
given
cons
titutional status in
(a) 1950-under the original constitution
(b) 1959
(c) 1984
(d) 1992
1. The Panchayat Raj Act permits the small states with population below twenty
lakhs, the option to have a two-tier Panchayati Raj.
2. The Panchayat Raj Act has left the constitution, elections, devolution of
powers and- authority relating to Panchayati Raj institutions to the states.
3. The Panchayati Raj Act provides for mandatory reservation of seats for
weaker sections and women.
4. The Panchayati Raj Act authorises the Parliament to lay down guidelines for
the states for the effective working of Panchayati Raj institutions.
(c) 1,3 and 4 are correct.
(a)
376
26. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
Panchayati
Raj
envisaged
under
the
73rd
Amendment
of
the
Constitution
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It provides for a fixed term of five years for the Panchayats.
(b) The members of the Panchayats shall be elected and the elections shall be
held by the state Election Comraissioner.
(c) The constitution lists 29 matters on which Panchayats shall have full
authority.
27. Which
one
of
the
following
provisions
with
regard
to
elections
of
Panchayats
has
(a) The responsibility for the preparation of electoral rolls and conduct of all
elections to the Panchayats rests with the State Election Commissioner.
(b) The State Election Commissioner is appointed, by the Chief Election
Commissioner of India.
(c) The courts have specifically been debarred from interfering in the electoral
matters relating to the Panchayats.
(d) The State Election Commissioner has been assured security of tenure and
cannot be removed from his office except in like manner and on like grounds
as a judge of a High Court.
28. The
matters
on
which
the
Panchayat
enjoys
full
authority
have
been
listed
in
the
Eleventh
Schedule.
This
schedule
in
all
contains
(a) 25 matters
(b) 27 matters
(c) 29 matters
(d) 31 matters
29. For
the
review
of
the
financial
position
of
the
Panchayats
a
Finance
Commission
has
been
provided.
This
Finance
Commission
is appointed by
(a) the President
(b) the Governor of the state
(c) the Union Finance Minister
(d) the Chief Finance Commissioner
30. The
Urban
Local
Bodies
in
India
were
accorded constitutional status by
(a) 52nd Amendment
(b) 73rd Amendment
(c) 74th Amendment
(d) 81st Amendment
31. The
powers
of
the
Urban
Local
Bodies
have
been
incorporated
in
the
12th
Schedule. In all it contains
(a) 21 matters
(b) 19 matters
(c) 25 matters
(d) 18 matters
32. How
many
types
of
Urban
Local
Bodies
have been envisaged by the Act?
(a) only one
(b) two
(c) three
(d) four
33. A
Municipal
Council
is
generally
formed
in
(a) an area which is in transition from rural areas to urban area
(b)a small urban area
(c) a large urban area
(d) any of the above areas
34. Municipal
Corporation
are
generally
formed in
(a) large urban areas
(b) semi-urban areas
(c) small urban areas.
35. A Nagar Panchayat is formed in an area
(a) which is fully urbanised
(b) which is in transition from rural area to an urban area
(c) which
lacks
industrialisation completely
36. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The term of municipalities is determined by each state.
(b) The term of municipalities has been fixed at 5 years by the Act.
(a)
Panchayati Raj Institutions: Rural and Urban and Their Working 377
(c) The municipality can be dissolved before the expiry of its normal term but
fresh elections must be held within six months of its dissolution.
37. The
powers
and
responsibilities
of
the
municipalities
(a) have been stipulated in the act itself
(b) are determined by the state legislature
(c) are determined by the state governor
(d) are determined by the governor in consultation with President
38. For
the
review
of
financial
position
of
Municipalities,
a
Finance
Commission
is
constituted by
(a) the State Legislature
(d) the Governor of the State in consultation with Union Finance Minister 39.
Which one of the following statement is correct?
(a) The Constitutional Amendment Act provides for the constitution of a District
Planning Committee at district level in every state.
(b) The composition of the District Planning Committee is determined by the
Legislature of the state.
(c) The District Planning Committee consolidates the plans prepared by the
Panchayats and Municipalities in the district and prepares a draft
development plan for the district as a whole.
(a)
\
tne governor
state
all the above
(
c
the President
ANSWERS
l.(d)
2. (a)
3.(b)
7.(d)
13.
(a)
19.
(b)
25.
(a)
31.
(d)
37.
8. (a)
14. (c)
20. (a)
26. (b)
32. (c)
38. (b)
9.(c)
15. (a)
21. (b)
27. (b)
33. (b)
39. (d)
4.
(c)
10.
(a)
16.
(d)
22.
(c)
28.
(c)
34.
(a)
5.(b)
11.
17.
23.
29.
35.
(c)
(c)
(c)
(b)
(b)
6.(d)
12. (d)
18. (a)
24. (d)
30. (c)
36. (d)
Emm32"
Federalism: Theory and Practice in
India Demands of Autonomy and
Separatist Movements Emerging
Trends in Centre-State Relations
The Constitution of India provides for a Federal system of government though

the term 'federalism' has nowhere been used in the Constitution. On the
other hand the Constitution describes India as a 'Union of States' which
implies two things. First, the Indian federal system is not the result of an
agreement between the units. Second, the units cannot secede from the
federation. The Indian federal system is largely based on the pattern of
Canada. It possesses all the basic features of a federal system viz. a written
constitution, a rigid constitution, an independent judiciary, division of powers
between the Union and the states; a bicameral legislature and Supremacy of
the Constitution. At the same time the Indian constitution also possesses
several nonfederal features viz. a strong centre a single constitution for Union
and states; Flexibility of Constitution; single citizenship; inequality in
representation in the Rajya Sabha; existence of union territories; special
powers of Rajya Sabha on State subjects; emergency provisions; appointment
of Governor of state by President; Common All India Services; single unified
judiciary; centralised election machinery; comptroller and Auditor General
who is responsible for the audit of accounts of centre as well as states; interstate councils and Boards etc. A persual of the above features of Indian
federalism shows that the Centre stands supreme. This made Prof. K.C.
Wheare observe that the constitution establishes a
unitary state with subsidiary federal features rather than a federal state with
subsidiary unitary features In simple words it can be said that the Indian
government can be both federal and unitary according to the requirements of
time and circumstances.
The
actual
operation
of
the
Indian
federal
system
in
since
the
inauguration
of
the
Constitution
shows
that
the
centre
has
grown
at
the
cost
of
the
states.
This
was
rendered
possible
by
several
factors.
First,
the
powers
of
the
centre
have
been
increased
through
amendment
of
the
constitution.
Second, the Supreme Court
through its decisions has greatly contributed to the increase in the powers of
the Central Government. Thirdly, the Indian party system has also left a deep
impact on the Indian federal system and modified its character. Fourthly, the
establishment of the Planning Commission has also greatly modified the
operation of the federal structure in India and encroached on the autonomy
of the states.
DEMANDS OF AUTONOMY
The relations between the centre and the states remained quite smooth upto
1967 because the same political party was in power both at the centre and
the states. However the formation of the non-Congress governments in
several states after the General Election of 1967 gave rise to
Federalism: Theory and Practice in India Demands of Autonomy and Separatist Movements
379
tension between the centre and states and provided a fillip to demand for
greater autonomy. The states which raised demand for greater autonomy
include West Bengal, Jammu, and Kashmir, Punjab, Maharashtra, Kerala etc.
Later even Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka also joined hands in making
demand for autonomy. The demand for autonomy was made on several
grounds. First, strong centre and strong states can co-exist side by side and
there is contradiction between the two. Secondly, some states have
challenged the right of the central government to regulate functions like
health, education etc. which fall within the purview of the states. Thirdly, they
objected to Centre's interference in the field of law and order, which belongs
to the states.
Fourthly, the states have complained that they are not getting their due
share in the national finances. Fifthly, states have criticised centre's
approach to development of backward regions, resulting in regional
disparitied.
Sixthly, cultural minorities have demanded greater autonomy for
states for the preservation of their independent entitity etc.
SUGGESTIONS FOR RESOLVING THE ISSUE

Though the relations between the centre and the states continue to be
strained on account of their conflicting stands, the following suggestions
can certainly help in improving the centre-state relations.
(1) The Centre should confine itself to only those functions which have
been allotted by the constitution and should refrain from assuming extraconstitutional functions
(2)
States
should
be
provided
financial
resources
which
are
compatible
with
their
administrative
responsibilities.
(3) The
states
should
not
insist
on
excessive
autonomy
which
was
bound
to
hamper
national
unity and integration.
CENTRE-STATE RELATIONS IN PRESENT CONTEXT

The growing role which the regional political parties are playing at the centre
has brought about perceptible changes in the centre-state relations. It
has not only resulted in greater autonomy for the states, but also encouraged
the states to take policy decisions, which they could not do under the earlier
conditions. The presence of various bodies like National Integration Council,
National Development Council and Inter-State Council have exercised a
profound influence on the working of the federal system. These bodies ensure
constant consultations and interaction betwen the centre and the states and
encourage greater devolution of power from the centre to the states and from
the states to the local bodies.

1. The
Constitution
of
India
describes
India
as:
(a) a 'voluntary federation'
(b) a federation
(c) a Union of States
(d) a quasi-federal system
2. The
Indian
Federalism
is
based
on
the
pattern of:
(a) U.S.A.
(b) Canada
(c) Australia
(d) U.S.S.R.
3. The
framers
of
the
Indian
Constitution
adopted federal system because:
(a) it was the prevailing system of government
(b) it was obligatory for them to adopt the federal system in terms of
the Indian Independence Act, 1947
(c) of the diversity of race, religion and languages found in the country
(d) it was keeping with the tradition of government prevailing in
ancient times.
4. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
federal
feature
of
the
Indian polity?
(a) a written constitution
(b) an independent judiciary
(c) division of powers between the Union and the States
(d) dual citizenship
5. The institution of India is:
(a) one of the smallest constitutions in the world
380
6.
7.
8.
9.
(b) a medium-sized constitution

(c) one of the most elaborate constitutions of the world
The Constitution of India is
(a) very rigid
(b) very flexible
(c) a combination of rigidity and flexibility
(d) neither rigid nor flexible
The
Constitution
of
India
is
rigid
in
the
sense that:
(a) no portion of the Constitution can be amended without the consent of the
States
(b) two-thirds majority of the Parliament is needed for amendment to
Constitution
(c) the states alone can initiate amendments
Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
Indian Federalism has been wrongly listed?
(a) it provides equal representation to the state in the Rajya Sabha
(b) it provides for an independent judiciary
(c) it has a written constitution
(d) it divides the powers between the Centre and the States
The Constitution of India divided the
powers between the Centre and States:

(a) by dividing the powers in two Lists
(b) by dividing the powers in three Lists
(c) by defining powers of Centre and leaving the rest with the States
(d)
by defining powers of the States and leaving the rest with the Centre
10. The subjects on which the Central Government enjoys exclusive power are
contained in:
(a) the Union List
(b) the Federal List
(c) the Central List
(d) Concurrent List
11. The
subjects
on
which
the
State
Governments
enjoy
exclusive
powers
are
given in:
(a) Concurrent List
(b) State List
(c) Provincial List
12. The
subjects
on
which
both
the
Centre
and
State
Governments
can
legislate
are
contained in:
(a) the Union List
(b) the State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary List
13. Under
the
Indian
Constitution
the
residuary powers have been:
(a) vested in the Centre
(b) vested in the States
(c) equally divided between the Centre and the States
14. The Residuary powers mean the powers:
(a) which have not been included in any of the three Lists-the Union List, the
State List and the Concurrent List
(b) over which both the Central and State Governments possess the right to
legislate
(c) vested in the President to deal with the national emergencies
(d) none of above
15. The Union List contains:
(a) 97 items
(b) 66 items
(c) 47 items
(d) 105 items
16. The State List contains:
(a) 66 items
(b) 47 items
(c) 99 items
(d) 97 items
17. The Concurrent List contains:
(a) 35 items
(b) 47 items
(c) 66 Items
(d) unspecified number of items
18. 'Education'
which
was
initially
a
state
subject
was
transferred
to
the
Concurrent
List by the:
(a) 24th Amendment
381
(b) 25th Amendment

(c) 42nd Amendment
(d) 44th Amendment
19. Which
one
of
the
following
subjects
is
in
the Concurrent List?
(a) Defence
(b) Police
(c) External Affairs
(d) Criminal Law
20. In
case
of
clash
between
the
State
and
Union
Law
on
a
subject
in
the
Concurrent
List:
(a) the State L?w prevails
(b) the Union Law prevails
(c) both the laws stand annulled
21. The
State
Law
on
a
concurrent
subject
can
have precedence over the Union List if:
(a) it was passed earlier
(b) the Supreme Court of India so declares
(c) the Bill was reserved for the President's assent and the same was accorded
assent before the enactment of law on the same subject by the Parliament
22. The Constitution of India creates:
(a) a weak centre
(b) an all pervasive centre
(c) a strong centre
(d) a centre which is weak in normal times but very powerful during emergencies
23. The
major
portion
of
the
Indian
Constitution can be amended by:
(a) Parliament alone
(b) President alone
(c) the Parliament with the consent of the States
(d) the State Legislatures alone
24. The
Indian
Federal
System
can
be
converted into unitary one:
(a) during the national emergency
(b) if the Parliament decides to do so by a two-thirds majority
(c) if the state legislatures of the two-thirds of the states pass a resolution to this
effect
(d) at the time of the general elections
25. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
non-federal
feature
of
(a)it provides for a single judiciary for tlie whole country
(b) it provides for common all-India Services
(c) it provides equal representation to the states in the Rajya Sabha
(d) it creates a strong centre
26. In
India
an
amendment
to
the
Constitution
can be initiated by:
(a) the Centre alone
(b) the States alone
(c) both the Centre and the States
(d) the Centre with the approval of majority of the states
27. Which
one
of
the
following
reasons
did
not
weigh
with
the
framers
of
the
Constitution
in making the Centre strong?
(a) the past experience that whenever the Centre was weak the country fell a
prey to foreign invaders
(b) it was obligatory under the Indian Independence-Act 1947 that a strong
centre should be provided
(c) it was keeping with the tendencies prevailing in other federations of the world
(d) the fissiparous tendencies prevailing in the country at the time of the
enactment of the Constitution
28. Who
said
that
the
"Indian
Constitution
establishes
a
unitary
state
with
subsidiary
federal
features
rather
than
federal
state
with subsidiary unitary features"?
(a) K.CWheare
(b) Sir Ivor Jennings
(c) K.M. Pannikar
(d) B.R.Ambedkar
29. Under the Indian Constitution:
(a) no territorial changes can be made in the boundaries of states
382
(b) territorial changes in the boundaries of states can be made with the consent
of the majority of the States

(c) territorial changes can be made by the Parliament after the approval of the
majority of the State Legislatures has been obtained
(d) the territorial changes in the boundaries of states can be made by the
Parliament
30. In
India
the
relations
between
the
Union
and
the
States
are
being
regulated
according to:
(a) the law passed by the Parliament in this regard
(b) the provisions of the Constitution
(c) the well-established conventions prevailing in other federations of the world
31. The
Central
Government
can
legislate
on
a
subject in the State List:
(a) if the Parliament passes a resolution declaring that it is essential to do so in
national interest
(b) if the President issues an ordinance to this effect on the plea of national
interest
(c) the Supreme Court grants necessary authority to the Parliament
(d) the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by two-thirds majority declaring that
particular subject in the State list to be of national importance.
32. The
Parliament
can
legislate
on
a
subject
if
the State List:
(a) when a Proclamation of emergency has been made by the President on
grounds of internal disturbances or external aggression
(b) if the President authorises the Parliament to do so during the proclamation of
emergency due to breakdown of constitutional machinery
(c) for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other country
or countries
(d) under all the above conditions
33. The
Union
Government
can
give
directions to the State Governments:
(a) only with regard to subjects in the Union List
(b) only with regard to subjects in the Concurrent List
(c) even with regard to the subjects in the State List
34.
If the States fail to carry out the directives
of
the
Central
Government
with
regard
to
exercise of their administrative powers:
(a) the President can direct the Governor to dismiss the State Council of Ministers
(b) the President can send reserve police to the State for the implementation of
these directives
(c) the President can dispatch army for their implementation
(d) the President can impose President's rule on the State and assume all powers
of the State Government
35. The
President
can
assign
certain
functions
of
the
Union
Government
to
the
State
Government
(a) with the concurrence of the Supreme Court of India
(b) with the consent of the Governor of the State
(c) with the consent of the State Government
(d) without the consent of the State Govenment
36. The
extra
expenses
for
the
discharge
of
the
duties
assigned
by
the
Union
Government
are:
(a) to be incurred by the State Government
(b) shared by the State and the Union Governments
(a)
383
(c) reimbursed by the Union Government

37. In the Judicial sphere the States have:
(a) an important say in the appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court
(b) an important say in the appointment of the judges of the High Courts
(c) no say in the appointment or removal of the judges of Supreme Court or High
Courts
(d) an important say in the appointment as well as removal of the judges of the
Supreme Court as well as High Courts
38. In
the
financial
sphere
the
Constitution
makes:
(a) an equitable distribution of finances between the Centre and States
(b) a distribution in favour of the States
(c) a distribution in favour of the Centre
(d) no distribution and leaves the same to be determined by the Finance
Commission
39. The
Central
Government
grants
financial
assistance
to
the
States
on
the
basis
of
the
recommendations of:
(a) the President of India
(b) the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India
(c) the Planning Commission
(d) the Finance Commission
40. The
Constitution
makes
provision
for
special grants to which State
(a) Punjab in lieu of its wheat export
(b) Assam for export of jute and jute products
(c) Jammu and Kashmir for its rice exports

(d) all the above States for the export of above items
41. For
which
one
of
the
following
States
Constitution
makes
provision
for
grant
for
raising
the
level
of
stration in its backward areas:
(a) Assam
the
special
admini
(b) Jammu and Kashmir

(c) Nagaland
(d) all the above States
42. The
sum
of
special
grants
to
be
made
to
the
various States is determined by:
(a) the Parliament
(b) the President
(c) the Comptroller and Auditor-General
(d) the Planning Commission
43. Which one of the following is not correct?
(a) During financial emergency the Union Government can direct the States to
observe such canons of financial propriety and other safeguards as it deems
necessary
(b) During financial emergency the salaries and allowances of the States civil
servants, including the High Court Judges can be reduced
(c) During the financial emergency the State legislatures are not permitted to
pass the money bills
(d) during financial emergency the States are expected to reserve all the money
bill passed by the State Legislatures for the consideration of the President
44. The
Union
Government
can
set
up
InterState Council to:
(a) settle disputes between various States or States and Centre
(b) co-ordinate the planning activities of the various States
(c) divide the revenues between the Central Government and the States
(d) none of above
45. The
Constitution
of
India
divides
the
financial resources of the country:
(a) in favour of Centre

(b)in favour of the States
(c) equally between the Centre and the States
(d)none of above
46. What
is
the
impact
of
Emergency
on
the
relations
Centre and the States?
the
between
Financial
the
(b)
(a) the President can reduce the salaries of all State servants except the
judges of High Court
(c)
(d)
47.
the President can reduce the salaries of State civil servants including
those of the judges of High Court the State Legislatures are deprived
of the right to enact money bills none of the above
Of late the States have been demanding
(b)
(c) (d)
greater autonomy in: (a) the legislative spheres administrative spheres the
financial spheres in all the above spheres 48. Which one of the following
States has been
a strong protagonist of the State
autonomy?
(a) Kerala
(b) West Bengal
(c) Punjab
(d) all the above
49.How many schedules are there in the
Indian Constitution?
(a) seven
(b) nine
(c) ten
(d) eleven
50.The X schedule of the Constitution of India
deals with:
(a) the national flag
(b) the administration of Union Territories
(c) disqualifications on grounds of defections
(d) privileges of minority communities.
(a)
l.(c)
7.(d)
13. (a)
19. (d)
25. (c)
31. (d)
37. (c)
2.(b)
8. (a)
14. (a)
20. (b)
26. (a)
32. (d)
38. (c)
ANSWERS
3. (c)
9.(b)
15. (a)
21. (c)
27. (b)
33. (c)
39. (d)
4.(d)
10. (a)
16. (a)
22. (c)
28. (a)
34. (d)
40. (d)
5. (c)
11. (b)
17. (b)
23. (a)
29. (d)
35. (c)
41. (a)
6.(c)
12. (c)
18. (c)
24. (a)
30. (b)
36. (c)
42. (b)
43. (c)
49. (a)
44. (a)
50. (c)
45. (a)
46. (b)
47. (c)
48. (d)
3
3
Judiciary: Supreme Court, High
Courts,
Judicial Review, Judicial
Activism
(Including Public Interest
Litigation);
Judicial Reforms
The Constitution of India has provided for a single and integrated judiciary
with the Supreme Court at the top. Below the Supreme Court exist High
Courts in the States and Lower Courts at the district level. All these courts
apply the same civil and criminal law.
SUPREME COURT
It is the highest court. It consists of a Chief Justice and 25 judges. The

Chief Justice and other Judges are appointed by the President in
consultation with such judges of Supreme Court and High Courts as he
may deem necessary. However, in the appointment of ordinary judges the
Chief Justice of India is always consulted. The judges of the Supreme
Court hold office till the attain the age of 65 years.
The Constitution has tried to ensure independence of judiciary by
prescribing qualifications of judges; ensuring security of their tenure; nonreduction of their salaries etc. during their tenure; exempting the
expenses of the Supreme Court from legislative vote; denying the
Parliament the right to curtail the powers of the Supreme Court;
prohibition of practice after retirement; freedom in matters of
appointment of administrative staff; power to punish for its contempt;
prohibition on the discussion of conduct of judge by the legislature, etc.
The Supreme Court enjoys original as well as appellate jurisdiction. In
addition it enjoys advisory powers, and other miscellaneous powers. It is
also a court of record and is not bound by its own decisions. In short, the
Supreme Court has indeed been vested with very extensive powers.
STATE HIGH COURTS

The Constitution provides for a High Court in each state which operates
within the territorial jurisdiction of the state. However, the Parliament can
set up common High Court for two or more states. At present there are
twenty-one High Courts. Each High Court consists of a Chief Justice and
such other judges as the President may from time to time determine. The
Chief Justice of the High Court is appointed by President in consultation
with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the state. While
appointing the other judges the Chief Justice of the State High Court is
also consulted. The judges of High Court hold office till they attain the age
of 62 years.
The High Courts of states are highest courts of appeal in both civil and
criminal matters. The Court has been vested with four types of powers
viz. power to issue writs; power to superintend the working of courts and
tribunals within its jurisdiction; it is a court of record and has power to
punish for its contempt; it has the power to
386
regulate its own working and appoint offices and servants of High Court. The
above powers of the High Court can be further extended through a law of
Parliament.
JUDICIAL REVIEW
It refers to the powers of the judiciary to review the laws passed by the
legislature and orders issued by the " executive to determine their
constitutionality. The Supreme Court of India has made use of its power of judicial
review in numerous cases since the inauguration of the Constitution in 1950. One
of the important case where the Supreme Court exercised its power of judical
review was the Golaknath case of 1967 in which the Supreme Court held that the
Parliament has no right to abridge or abrogate the fundamental rights granted by
the Constitution.
In the Keshavanand Bharati case the Supreme Court reversed its judgement
in Golaknath case and upheld the right of the Parliament to amend the
constitution, including the fundamental rights. However, it debarred the

Parliament from making changes in the basic structure of the constitution. The
scope of judicial review was restricted during emergency, but the Janata
Government in 1977 restored to the Supreme Court the pre-emergency position.
In 1980 the Supreme Court in the Minerva Mills case removed all limitations on
the powers of the Parliament to amend the constitution. In the S.R. Bommai case
the Supreme Court further widened the scope of judicial review and declared
judicial review as a basic structure of the constitution.
Judicial Review has been criticised on several grounds viz. it has undermined the
position of the Parliament; the judges belong to the elitist section of society and tend
to protect and promote their class interest the decisions of judges are often
influenced by their ideoelogy and political views; the principle of judicial review
constitutes a violation of the principle of popular sovereignty; it has encouraged
litigation and promoted friction among various organs of government. Despite the
above defects, it cannot be denied that judicial review has played an important role
in ensuring constitutional government in the country.
JUDICIAL ACTIVISM
The principle of judicial activism gained currency during the nineties and greatly
contributed to the enhancement of the powers and prestige of the Supreme Court. As
the legislative and executive wings of the government were not discharging their
constitutional duties, the judiciary assumed more active role and gave directions to
various authorities to discharge their legally assigned duties. Thus it asked the
government to explain the criteria for allowing retired government employees to
retain government accommodation; directed the local authorities of Delhi to dispose
of the garbage which was posing a threat to the health of the people. However,
certain actions of the court viz., imposition of fines on certain ministers without
proper trial were criticised. A large number of MPs also protested against activism of
judiciary on the ground that this led to curtailment of their powers. But by and large
the leaders and people appreciated the role of the judiciary and did not look at it as a
threat to the democratic system of India.

1. The Supreme Court of India was set up:
(a) By the Constitution
(b) By a law of Parliament
(c) By a Presidential order
2. The Supreme Court consists of Chief
Justice and:
.:.>
(a) 17 other judges
(b) 10 other judges
(c) 25 other judges
(d) 15 other judges ......
3. The present strength of the judges of the
Supreme Court was fixed by:
(a) The original Constitution
(b) The Parliament in 1958

(c)
The Parliament in 1977
(d)
The Parliament in 1985
4. The Judges of the Supreme Court are:
(a) Appointed by the President
(b) Elected by the Parliament
(a)
Judiciary: Supreme Court, High Courts, Judicial Review, Judicial Activism 387
(c) Appointed by the Prime Minister

(d) Appointed by the Chief Justice of India
5. Which
one
of
the
following
qualifications
of
the
Judges
of
the
Supreme
Court
has
(a)He must be a citizen of India
(b) He has been an advocate of a High Court for at least ten years
(c) He has been a judge of a High Court for at least five years
(d) He has either worked as Comptroller or Auditor-General of India for at least
three years
6. The
judges
of
the
Supreme
Court
hold
office till they reach the age of:
(a) 58 years
(b) 60 years
(c) 65 years
(d) There is no upper age limit
7. The
judges
of
the
Supreme
Court
can
be
removed
from
their
office
before
their
normal term by:
(a) The President on the recommendation of the two Houses of Parliament
(b) The President in his own discretion
(c) By the Council of Ministers
(d) By the Parliament.
8. Though
the
permanent
seat
of
the
Supreme
Court
is
at
Delhi,
it
can
also
meet
at:
(a) Bombay
(b) Madras
(c) Calcutta
(d) Any other place as decided by the Chief Justice of India in consultation with
the President
9. The
Chief
Justice
of
India
gets
monthly
salary of:
(a) Rs. 33,000
(b) Rs. 30,000
(c) Rs. 25,000
(d) Rs. 27,000
10. The
ordinary
judges
of
the
Supreme
Court
draw a monthly salary of:
(a) Rs. 25,000
(b) Rs. 27,000
(c) Rs. 28,000
(d) Rs. 30,000
11. The Supreme Court of India enjoys:
(a) Only original jurisdiction
(b) Only appellate jurisdiction
(c) Only advisory jurisdiction
(d) All the above types of jurisdictions

12. Which
one
of
the
following
cases
does
not
fall
within
the
original
jurisdiction
of
the
Supreme Court?
(a) Disputes between the Government of India and one or more States
(b) Disputes between two or more States
(c) Disputes concerning foreign diplomats
(d) Disputes between the Government of India and any State or States on the
one side and one or more States on the other side
13. All
the
cases
regarding
interpretation
of
the
Constitution
can
be
brought
to
the
Supreme Court under its:
(a) Original jurisdiction
(b) Appellate jurisdiction
(c) Advisory jurisdiction
14. The
salary
of
the
Chief
Justice
and
other
judges of the Supreme Court:
(a) Cannot be reduced under any circumstances
(b) Can be reduced by Parliament by a two-thirds majority
(c) Can be reduced during the national emergency
(d) Can be reduced during the financial emergency
15. An
appeal
to
the
Supreme
Court
can
be
taken:
(a) Against the judgement of a military tribunal
(b) If the amount involved in the dispute is more than Rs. 10,000
(c) By the Government if the accused person has been acquitted by the lower
court
(d) If a High Court has in appeal reversed an order of acquittal of an accused
person and sentenced him to death
(a)
16.
Under
the
original
Constitution
an
appeal
to
the
Supreme
Court
be
taken
in
a
civil
case
the
dispute
relates
to
property
amounting
to
Rs.20,000
but
this
power
was abolished by the:
(a) 24th amendment
(b) 30th amendment
(c) 42nd amendment
(d) 44th amendment
17.
The
Advisory
Powers
of
the
Supreme
Court of India imply that:
(a) It renders advice to the Government of India on all constitutional
matters
(b) It tenders advice to the Prime Minister on legal matters
(c) It tenders advice to the President on questions of law or fact which is
of public importance
(d) It has power to tender advice to all the above persons
18.
Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Supreme
Court
of
India
is
not correct?
(a) It acts as the guardian of the liberties of the people of India
(b) It acts as the guardian of the Constitution
(c) It acts as the protector of the Directive Principles of State Policy
(d) It has final power to investigate disputes regarding election of the
President and Vice-President of India
19.
The
President
can
seek
advice
of
the
Supreme Court:
(a) With regard to appointment of high officials
(b) For enactment of laws on subjects enumerated in the State List
(c) Regarding constitutionality or otherwise of a law under enactment
(d) On all the above matters
20.
The
advice
tendered
by
the
Supreme
Court to the President:
(a) Is binding on him
(b) Is not binding on him
(c) Has binding nature with regard to certain categories of matters
21.
Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
highest
court of appeal in India
(b) The Supreme Court of India
(c) Both the Supreme Court and the State High Courts
22.
Which
one
of
the
following
powers
of
the
Supreme
Court
of
India
has
been
wrongly
listed:
(a) It appoints the judges of the High Courts
(b) It is a court of record and enjoys all the powers of such a Court
(c) The decisions of the Supreme Court are enforceable throughout the
territory of India
(d) It decides all disputes regarding the election of the President or the
Vice-President
23.
The
Supreme
Court
can
recommend
to
the
President the removal of:
(a) Any member of the Council of Ministers
(b) The Chairman and other members of the Union Public Service
Commission
(c) The Speaker of Lok Sabha
(d) All the above officials
24.
Who
expressed
the
view
that
"the
Supreme
Court
of
India
has
more
powers
than
any
other
Supreme
Coun
in
any
part
of the world?
(a) Sir Alladi Krishnaswami Aiyar
(b) Justice Khanna
(c) Dr.B.N.Rau
(d) K.M.Munshi
25.
The
Supreme
Court
of
India
has
been
granted
power
of
Judicial
Review,
as
feature
which
was
borrowed
from
the
Constitution of:
(a) Britain
(b) U.S.A.
(c) Switzerland (d) France
Judiciary: Supreme Court, High Courts, Judicial Review, Judicial
Activism 389
26.
Judicial Review means:

(a) The right of the judiciary to advice the President on constitutional
matters
(b) The power of the judiciary to pronounce upon the constitutionality of
laws passed by the Legislature and orders issued by the Executive
(c) The right of the Parliament to ask the judiciary to review its own
judgement in view of the popular resentment

27.
In
India
the
power
of
judicial
review
is
enjoyed by:
(a) The Supreme Court alone
(b) The Supreme Court as well as High Courts
(c) All the Courts
28.
The
power
of
judicial
review
enjoyed
by
the Supreme Court in India is:
(a) Wider than the power of judicial review enjoyed by the Supreme Court
of U.S.A
(b) Narrower than the power of judicial review enjoyed by the Supreme
Court of U.S.A.
(c) At par with the power of judicial review enjoyed by the Supreme Court
of U.S.A.
(d) At par with the power of judicial review enjoyed by the Courts in
Britain
29.
It
became
imperative
for
the
framers
of
the
Constitution
to
adopt
the
doctrine
of
the
judicial review in India because of:
(a) Her Republican Character
(b) Adoption of Parliamentary system of government
(c) Adoption of Federal system of government
(d) A written constitution
30.
During
the
emergency
from
1975-77
the
powers
of
judicial
review
enjoyed
by
the
Supreme Court were:
(a) Completely abolished
(b) Further expanded
(c) Severely restricted
(d) Not touched at all
31.While
examining
the
Constitutionality
of
a
law the Courts in India
(a) Are bound by their earlier decisions
(b) Can go behind the spirit of the Constitution and take the objectives of
the bill into account
(c) Cannot go behind the law to examine its objectives
(d) Have complete discretion to decide the cases according to law or spirit
of the Constitution
32. In
the
exercise
of
its
power
of
judicial
review
the
Supreme
Court
has
propounded
the
doctrine
of
progressive
interpretation which means*.
(a) The Constitution has to be interpreted in the light of the views
expressed in the Constituent Assembly
(b) The Constitution has to be interpreted keeping in view the
interpretations in other advanced countries
(c) The Constitution has to be interpreted in the light of the conditions
prevailing in the country at the time of the enactment of the
Constitution
(d) The Constitution has to be interpreted in the light of the changed
social and economic conditions
33.The
doctrine
of
'severability'
advocated
in
connection with the judicial review means:

(a) The Supreme Court can declare only such portion of law as void which
is inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution
(b)The Supreme Court has to declare the entire law as void even if some
portions of the law contravene the Constitution
(c) The Supreme Court can substitute new provisions for the
objectionable
(a)
390
UGCi-Political Science
portions of law to make it conform to the provisions of the Constitution (d) None
of the above
34. Which
one
of
the
following
conditions
does
not
contribute
to
the
Independence
of
Judiciary in India?
(a) No change in salary and service conditions of the judges can be made which
operates against their interest, after their appointment
(b) Once appointed they cannot be removed from their office before the date of
retirement
(c) The salary and allowances of the judges are charged to the Consolidated
Fund of India and are not subject to Parliamentary vote
(d) Retired judges are not permitted to carry on practice before any Court or
tribunal in India
35. The
Forty-Second
Amendment
curtailed
the powers of:
(a) Supreme Court alone
(b) The High Courts alone
(c) Both the High Courts crnd Supreme Court
(d) Did not make any change in the power of the Courts
36. The High Court is:
(a) The highest court of appeal in the country
(b) A part of the single integrate judicial system in the country
(c) The only competent court which hears disputes regarding the election of the
President and Vice-President.
37. The
High
Court
consists
of
a
Chief
Justice
and:
(a) 5 other judges
(b) 7 other judges

(c) Such other judges as may be decided by the President from time to time
(d) Such other judges as may be decided by the Governor of the State
38. The
Chief
Justice
of
the
High
Court
is
appointed by:
(c) The Chief Minister of the State
39. The
other
judges
of
the
High
Court
are
appointed by:
(a) The Chief Justice of the High Court
(b) The President in consultation with the Chief Justice of India, the Chief Justice
of the High Court and the Governor of the State
(c) The Governor of the State in consultation with the Chief Justice of the High
Court
40. Which
one
of
the
qualifications
for
appointment
as
Judge
of
the
High
Court
(b) He must have been an advocate of a High Court for at least ten years
(c) He must have been a judicial official in the territory of India for at least ten
years
(d) He must have been a judge of Supreme Court for two years
41. The
Chief
Justice
and
other
Judges
of
the
High Court hold office:
(a) Till the age of 60 years
(b) For life
(c) Till the age of 52 years
(d) During the pleasure to the President of India
42. A
Judge
of
the
High
Court
can
be
removed
from
his
office
before
the
expiry
of
his
normal term by:
(a) The President of India on the recommendation of the Parliament
(b) The Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister
(c) The Parliament
(a)
Judiciary: Supreme Court, High Courts, Judicial Review, Judicial Activism 391
43. The
Chief
Justice
of
a
High
Court
draws
a
monthly salary of:
(a) Rs. 24,000
(b) Rs. 27,000
(c) Rs. 25,000
(d) Rs. 30,000
44. The
judges
of
the
State
High
Court
draw
monthly salary of:
(a) Rs. 27,000
(b) Rs. 30,000
(c) Rs. 25,000
(d) Rs. 32,000
45. The
salary,
allowances
and
other
privileges the judges of High Court:
(a) Cannot be changed to their disadvantage under any circumstances

(b) Can be changed by the Parliament by a two-thirds majority
(c) Can be changed by the President during national emergency
(d) Can be changed to their disadvantage during financial emergency only
46. The
salary
of
the
High
Courts
is
charged
to:'
(b) The Contingency Fund of the State
(c) The Consolidated Fund of the State
47. The
Pension
of
the
Judges
of
the
High
Court is charged to:
(b) The Consolidated Fund of State
(c) The Contingency Fund of India
(d) The Consolidated Fund of India and the Consolidated Fund of the State on
equal basis
48. The
Judge
of
the
High
Court
are
administered oath of office by:
(a) The Chief Justice of the High Court
(c) The President of India
49. Which
one
of
the
followings
does
not
fall
within
the
supervisory
powers
of
the
High
Court? ,
(a) To call for reports from the subordinate courts under its jurisdiction
(b) To make general rules and prescribe forms regulating the practice and
proceedings of lower courts
(c) To settle Tables of fees to be allowed to sheriff and others practising before
these courts
(d) To supervise the working of tribunals constituted by or under any law relating
to the armed forces
50.
The jurisdiction of the State High Court
can be extended by:

(a) The Parliament through law
(b) The Chief Justice of India
(c) The Governor of the State with the consent of the President
(d) President
51. The
detailed
provisions
regarding
subordinate
courts
in
India
has
made:
(a) Under the Constitution of India
(b) By the State Legislature of each state
(c) By the Supreme Court of India
(d) By the High Court of the State
52. The
formal
control
over
the
courts rests with:
(a) The Supreme Court of India
(b) The President of India
(c) The Chief Justice of India
(d) The State High Court
53. The
structure
and
functions
of
courts in India:
(a) Differs from state to state
(b) Is identical in various parts of India
(c) Differs for states in North and states of South
54. The subordinate courts enjoy:
(a)Only civil jurisdiction
(b) Only criminal jurisdiction
(c) Only revenue jurisdiction
(d) All the above type of jurisdictions
55. The
subordinate
Civil
Courts
are
by:
(a) District Court
392
the
been
subordinate
subordinate
headed
(b) Sessions Court

(c) Board of Revenue
56.The
District
Judge
who
heads
Court enjoys:
(a) Only original jurisdiction
(b) Only appellate jurisdiction
(c) Both original as well as appellate jurisdiction
57.An
appeal
against
the
decision
District Court lies with:
(a) Senior Sub-Judge Court
(b) Munsif Court
(c) High Court
(d) None of the above Courts
the
District
of
the
58.The
Senior
Sub-judge
Courts
deal
with
case involving:
(a) Any amount
*
(b) Amounts above Rs. 500 and less than Rs. 5,000
(c) Amounts above Rs. 200 and less than Rs.500
59.Which
one
of
the
following
subordinate
civil
courts
enjoys
only
original
jurisdiction?
(a) Small Causes Courts
(b) Courts of Sub-Judges
(c) Courts of Senior Sub-Judges
(d) All the above Courts
60.At
the
apex
of
the
subordinate
criminal
courts stands the:
(a) Court of Session Judge
(b) Court of District Judge
(c) The State High Court
61.Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
Session
Judge
Court
is
not
correct?
(a) It can try cases involving murder and other serious offences
committed to it by the First Class Magistrate
(b) It can award a death sentence, which needs no confirmation by the
High Court
(c) It can award a death sentence but the same must be confirmed by the
High Court
(d) The Session Judge Court can award any punishment in accordance
with law
62.
In the criminal matters which one of the
following courts does not enjoy original
jurisdiction:
(a) Third Class Magistrate Court
(b) Second Class Magistrate Court
(c) First Class Magistrate Court
(d) All the above Courts
63.Which
one
of
the
following
courts
enjoys
appellate
jurisdiction
criminal cases?
(a) Third Class Magistrate Court
(b) Second Class Magistrate Court
(c) First Class Magistrate Court
(d) None of the above Courts
64.The subordinate revenue courts deal with:
(a) Only revenue cases
(b) Revenue as well as civil cases
(c)
Revenue, civil as well as criminal cases
(d) None of the above category of cases
65.Which
one
of
the
followings
is
revenue court?
(b) Deputy Commissioner's Court
(c) Commissioner's Court
(d) Tehsildar's Court
66.Which
one
of
the
following
is
revenue court?
(b) Commissioner's Court
(c) Deputy Commissioner's Court
(d) The Board of Revenue
67.Judicial
Review
in
India
has
been
the
subordinate
in
the
the
lowest
the
highest
based
Judiciary: Supreme Court, High Courts, Judicial Review, Judicial Activism
(a) Due process of law principle

(b)
Procedure established by law principle
(c) Uniform law uniformly administered principle
(d) Independence of judiciary principle
68. The due process clause is the salient feature of judicial review in
(a) The U.S.A. Constitution
(b) The Indian Constitution
(c) The U.S.S.R. Constitution
(d) The British Constitution
(a)
l.(a)
7. (a)
13. (b)
2.(c)
8.(d)
14. (d)
ANSWERS
3. (d)
9. (a)
15. (c)
4. (a)
10. (d)
16. (b)
5. (d)
11. (d)
17. (c)
6.(c)
12. (c)
18. (c)
on
393
19.
25.
31.
37.
43.
49.
55.
61.
67.
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(b)
20. (a)
26. (b)
32. (d)
38. (a)
44. (a)
50. (a)
56. (c)
62. (c)
68. (a)
21. (b)
27. (a)
33. (a)
39. (b)
45. (d)
51. (a)
57. (c)
63. (c)
22. (a)
28. (b)
34. (b)
40. (d)
46. (c)
52. (d)
58. (a)
64. (a)
23. (b)
29. (c)
35. (c)
41- (c)
47. (a)
53. (b)
59. (d)
65. (d)
24. (a)
30. (c)
36. (b)
42. (a)
48. (b)
54. (d)
60. (a)
66. (d)
_ 34Political Parties, Pressure Groups,

Public
Opinion and Media
POLITICAL PARTIES
Political Parties are indispensable for the smooth working of the Parliamentary
System of government adopted in India. Generally the political parties in India are
traced back to 1885 when the Indian National Congress was formed. However, strictly
speaking it was not a political party because it did not seek to capture power. In a
true sense the political parties made their appearance in India only in the postindependent period. These political parties were mainly formed by splinter groups
from the Indian National Congress. In addition on a large number of regional political
parties also made their appearance.
At present there are six national political parties and over 40 state parties. All the
political parties in India are expected to get registered with the Election Commission,
which can also withdraw their recognition. The Party system in India has certain
district features which include multi-party system, end of dominance of single party,
lack of ideology; presence of large number of parties based on language, religion,
caste etc; limited membership of party; laxity of Discipline among members;
Important role of leadership; close resemblance in the policies of political parties;
national political parties truly not national in character; tendency of fostering narrow
party interests; defections; lack of proper organisation; and presence of large number
of regional political parties.
PRESSURE GROUPS
A Pressure group is a body, origanised or unorganised, which actively seeks to
promote its
particular interests with the society by exerting collective influence on various
segments of society. The Pressure groups differ from political parties in several
respects viz. they are narrower than political parties; a person can be member of
more than one group at the same time, which is not possible with regard to political
parties; the pressure groups do not participate in elections; they do not take active
part in political activities and operate from behind the scene.
There is a vast variety of pressure groups in India which include Special Interest
groups of businessmen, trade unions, peasants, Students Organisations, Religious
Groups, Linguistic, Caste and Regional Groups and groups based on Gandhian
ideology. It may be noted that in India the pressure groups have not been able to
exert much influence and promote interests of their members because of rigid party
discipline. Therefore the various pressure groups have tried to align themselves with
various political parties (generally the party in power). Different pressure groups use
different methods to promote the interests of their members. These include
influencing the ministers and legislators; providing necessary financial support to
political parties; resort to pressure tactics and promotion of militancy etc.
PUBLIC OPINION
Public opinion is the considered opinion of an effective majority of citizens based on
the ideal well-being and progress of the community as a whole. Its main features are
(i) it is a definite opinion; (ii) It is held by an effective majority; (iii) it is based on
sound arguments and reason;
Political Parties, Pressure Groups, Public Opinion and
Media 395
and it aims at common good. The public opinion is moulded by several agencies viz.
the Press (which includes daily newspapers, weekly and monthly periodicals and
other published material); Public Platform (which includes public meetings called for
discussion of economic, social and political issues); Political Parties (who acquaint the
public with the important public questions); Broadcasting (which includes Radio,
Cinema and T.V.); Educational Institutions (which leave deep impact on the
impressionable minds of students); and legislatures (which serve as a useful forum
for discussion on problems facing the country).

1. Political
Parties
are
indispensable
for
the
working of
(a) democratic government
(b) democratic as well as totalitarian governments
(c) all forms of governments
2. Who
defined
political
party
as
"an
association
organised
in
support
of
some
principles
of
policy
which
by
constitutional
means
it
endeavours
to
make the determinant of government."?
(a) Edmund Burke
(b) Maclver
(c) Leacock
(d) Gilchrist
3. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Political Parties has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is voluntary association
(b) It is formed by persons who hold common views on certain basic political
economic and other issues.
(c) Its members believe in peaceful and constitutional methods.
(d) The members of political parties aim at capturing political power with a
view to promote their own interests.
4. The
Indian
National
Congress,
which
is
regarded
as
the
first
organised
political
party of India was founded in
(a) 1883
(b) 1885
(c) 1887
(d) 1888
1. During the initial years, the Indian National Congress did not aim at capturing
power.
2. A number of political groups existed before the formation of the Indian
National Congress, but they merely served as forms for discussion and debate
on various political and public issues.
3. With the turn of the century the Indian National Congress came to be divided
into two groups - the moderates and extremists.
4. The members of Indian National Congress holding opposite views continued to
operate as separate parties till they were re-united in 1916.

6. Determine
the
order
in
following
political
parties
were
India
1. Indian National Congress
2. Hindu Mahasabha
3. Muslim League
4. Communist Party
(a) 1,2,3 and 4
(b) 2,1,3 and 4
(c) 1,3, 2 and 4
(d) 1,4,2 and 3
7. Who founded the Muslim League?
(a) Mohammad Iqbal
(b) Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan
(c) Feroze Khan
(d) Mohammad Ali Jinnah
8. After
independence
a
number
parties were formed by
(a) the splinter groups from the Indian National Congress
(b) the disgruntled Zamindars
(c) the deposed Princes of the Indian states
(d) all the above
(a)
which
formed
of
the
in
political
9. The political parties in India fall into two categoriesthe national political parties,
and the state political parties. A party is treated national party if it secures
supports of India.
(a) 5 per cent of the electorate in any five states of India.
(b)
4 per cent of the electorate in any four states of India.
(c) 3 per cent of the electorate in any three states of India.
(d) 6 per cent of the electorate in any two states of India.
10. A
political
party
is
treated
as
a
state
party
in India if it secures
(a) four per cent of the valid votes in a state in Lok Sabha or Assembly elections
(b) one seat of every 25 Parliamentary seats in a state
(c) one seat of every 30 seats in the Assembly
(d) any one of the above
11. Which
one
of
the
following
political
parties
was
earlier
recognised
as
a
national
party
and
now
enjoys
the
status
of
a
state
party?
(a) Samajwadi Party (b) Samata Party
(c) Congress (T)
(d) all the above
12. Which
one
of
the
following
political
parties
was
stripped
of
the
status
of
a
state
party
because
it
failed
to
fulfil
the
prescribed
condition
of
recognition
as
state party?
(a)Jammu and Kashmir Panthers Party
(b) The Jammu and Kashmir People's Conferrence
(c) Indian Congress (Socialist)
(d) all the above
13. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a National Party?
(a) Bahujan Samaj Party
(b) Bharatiya Janata Party
(c) Samajwadi Party
(d) Congress
14. A
political
party
in
India
can
acquire
the
status of a registered party if it secures
(a)atleast 2 per cent of votes in a state
(b) atleast one per cent of votes in a state
(c) atleast three per cent of votes in a state
15. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
political
parties
in
India
is
correct?
(a) It is obligatory for political parties to get registered under the Representation
of the People's Act.
(b) A political party which applies for registration has to include a specific
provision in its constitution professing allegiance to the constitution and
principle of secularism and democracy.
(c) The political parties in India register themselves with the Election
Commission.
(d) all the above.
16. Recognition
of
a
political
party
can
be
withdrawn by the Election Commission
(a) on account of failure of the party to observe the model code of conduct.
(b) on account of failure of the party to follow lawful directions and instructions of
the Election Commission.
(c) with the prior consent of the Supreme Court of India.

(d)both (a) and (b).
17. Several
factors
contributed
to
the
rise
of
multi-party
system
in
India.
Which
one
of
the
following
factor
has
been
wrongly
listed as a contributory factor?
(a) Certain individuals set up political parties to increase their personal
importance.
(b) Due to introduction of universal adult franchise the numerically strong
communities
were encouraged to form their own parties to
acquire share in the political power.
(a)
Political Parties, Pressure Groups, Public Opinion and Media
397
(c) The constitution desires that the country should have more than two political
parties to ensure genuine democracy.
(d) The reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes
encouraged these members to form independent political parties.
18. Consider fheiollowing statements:
1. After independence several groups which had worked in close cooperation
with Congress during freedom struggle decided to withdraw from Congress
and set up independent parties.
2. After independence the disgruntled Landlords, dispossessed Zamindars and
deposed Maharajas decided to form independent political parties.
3. Factional fights within the larger parties also led to formation of new parties.
4. The enactment of Representation of People's Act 1950 greatly encouraged the
formation of new political parties.
19. India
witnessed
single
party
dominance
till
(a) 1962
(b) 1967
(c) 1971
(d) 1977
20. For
the
first
few
years
Congress
enjoyed
monopoly
of
power
at
the
Centre
as
well
as states on account of
(a) significant role played by the party during independence struggle.
(b) the skillful handling of the problems which confronted the country after
partition.
(c) ban imposed by the Constitution on creation of new political parties.
(d) both (a) and (b).
21. For
the
first
time
Congress
was
called
upon
to
sit
in
the
opposition
in
the
Parliament after the elections of
(a) 1967
(b) 1977
(c) 1971
(d) 1989
1. Most of the political parties in India lack ideological basis.

2. It is difficult to distinguish various parties in India on the basis of their class
interests, methods, values and ideals.
3. A large number of political parties in India have been formed on the basis of
language, religion, caste, etc.
4. A peculiar feature of the party system in India is large membership of various
political parties.
(d) 2,3 and 4 are correct.
23. Which
one
of
the
following
political
party
has been formed on the basis of religion?
(a) Hindu Mahasabha
(b) Muslim League
(c) Ram Rajya Parishad
(d) All the above
1. In India people prefer to support the various parties with funds from behind
the scene rather than come out in public in support of a particular party.
2. The membership of political parties in India is very low because the people of
India have not been able to develop sufficient sense of political participation.
3. The rural people in India possess high sense of political consciousness.
4. The political parties in India are characterised by laxity of discipline.
Of the above statements: (a) 1,2 and 3 are correct

25.
Some sort of discipline among members of
political
parties
was
sought
to
be
enforced
through
the
enactment
of
anti-defection
law in
(a) 1985
(b) 1987
(c) 1989
(d) 1991
26. A
peculiar
feature
of
the
party
system
in
India
is
that
quite
often
political
parties
are
organised
around
an
eminent
leader.
Which
one
of
the
following
party
is
not
a
leader based party?
(a) Telugu Desam Party
(b) Rashtriya Janata Dal
(c) C.P.I. (Marxists)
(d) Bahujan Samaj Party
27. Which
one
of
the
following
political
parties
of
India
is
an
ideologically
based
party?
(a) Janata Party
(b) CPI(M)
(c) Bahujan Samaj Party
(d) Congress
28. Which
one
of
the
following
regional
political
parties
enjoy
the
distinction
of
having
acted
as
opposition
party
in
the
Parliament after the elections of 1984?
la) Telugu Desam
(b) A.I.A.D.M.K.
(c) D.M.K.
1. The national political parties in India are truly speaking not national in
character because most of the national parties not spread over the entire
country.
2. On account of multi-party system in India we find a close resemblance in the
policies and programmes of various political parties.
3.Of late the regional political parties are playing more important role in
the Indian polity than the national political parties. 4. The political parties in India
have tended to subordinate their narrow interests to national interests due to
development of nationalists spirit. Of the above statements:
30. Defection,
which
has
been
one
of
the
main
feature
of
party
system
in
India,
gained
currency after the election of
(a) 1962
(b) 1967
(c) 1971
(d) 1977
31. The
term
'Aya
Ram
Gaya
Ram'
gained
currency
with
regard
to
frequent
defections
by
members
of
state
legislature
in the state of
(a) Uttar Pradesh
(b) Haryana
(c) Punjab
(d) Madhya Pradesh
32. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
regarding
organisation
of
parties
in
India
(a) The political parties in India are not well organised.
(b) Most of the political parties in India are organised around certain leaders.
(c) The organisational elections of political parties in India are held at regular
intervals.
(d) Most of the political parties in India do not hold organisational elections at
regular intervals.
33. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Pressure group is an organised or unorganised body which actively seeks to
promote its particular interest with society.
(b) The Pressure group seeks to influence public opinion in order to create broad
public support for its aims.
(a)
Political Parties, Pressure Groups, Public Opinion and Media
399
(c) All pressure groups have a ready made plan of action for government.
(d) both (a) and (b). .
1. Pressure groups have no public interests but only private interests.
2. Pressure groups are organised groups of people who have same and equal
interests for solving their own problems. .,...
3. Pressure groups have close alignment with politics and seek to gain control
over government.
4. Pressure groups maintain political links only for the sake of expediency.
Of the above statements about pressure groups:

(c)
35. Which
one
of
the
following
distinction
between
political
parties
and
pressure
groups has been wrongly listed?
(a) Pressure groups are narrower than political parties in term of membership as
well as objectives.
(b) A person can be member of a number of pressure groups at the same time
but can be member of only one political party at a time.
(c) The pressure groups exert pressure on government through various political
parties and administrative agencies, but do not take direct part in political
activities.
36- The pressure groups in India
(a) have existed since earliest times
(b) have existed since medieval times
(c) have existed since the British rule
(d) made appearance only in the post independence period.
37. Which one of the following is the oldest pressure group in India (a) Indian National
Congress.
(b) Associa;ed Chambers of Commerce
(c) All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)
(d) Hind Mazdoor Parishad
38. The
business
groups
in
India
have
tried
to
protect
the
interests
of
their
members
by
cultivating intimate relations with
(a) political leaders
(b) bureaucrats who lay down policies on behalf of ministers.
(c) the Parliament
(d) the people directly
39. Match
Lists
I
and
II
and
select
the
correct
answer using the codes given below:
List I
List II
1.All India Trade
A. Bhartiya Janata Union Congress Party (AITUC)
2.Indian National
B. Congress Trade Union
Congress (INTUC)
3.Hind Mazdoor
C. Communist Party Parishad (HMP)
of India (Marxits)
4.Hind Mazdoor
D. Socialist Party Sabha (HMS)
Codes
1
2
3
4
(a) C
B
A
D
(b)B
C
D
A
'(c) A
B
C
D
(d)C
A
D
B
40. Various
types
of
pressure
groups
exist
in
India.
Which
one
of
the
following
category
of
pressure
groups
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Peasant Organisations
(b) Students Groups
(c) Labour and Trade Unions

1. Trade Unions in India are mainly adjuncts of various political parties.
2. The Trade Unions mainly exist to fight for better working conditions and
higher wages for workers.
1.
3. The fight of the trade unions is mainly directed against the

management.
4. The fight of the trade unions mainly directed against government
because they know it fully well that their demands can be conceded
only with government intervention.
42.The
trade
unions
in
India
have
proved
ineffective on account of
(a) their growing dominance by the political parties
(b) their poor organisation
(c) limited and irregular subscriptions
43.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
business
pressure
group?
(a) Chambers of Commerce and Industry
(b) All India Manufacturers Organisation
(c) The Associated Chambers of Commerce
44.
The Trade Unions in India have not been
able
to
operate
as
effective
pressure
groups due to
(a) lack of adequate financial resources
(b) divisions among trade unions which reduces their bargaining power
(c) lack of selfless leaders
45.Consider the following statements:
1. Most of the peasant organisations work as adjuncts of various political
parties.
2. Though the peasants have organised themselves to protect their
interests, but their organisation is quite weak.
3. The first peasants organisation in India was formed only in the postindependence period.
4. All India Kisan Sabha, the first peasant pressure group was formed by
Indian National Congress in the pre-independence period.
46.The
first
All
India
Kisan
Sammelan
was
held under socialist leader Raj Narain in
(a) 1956
(b) 1972
(c) 1978
(d) 1981
47.The
first
step
to
organise
the
students
in
India
was
taken
in
1920
when
All
India
Students Union was formed by
(a) Lala Lajpat Rai
(b) Bhagat Singh
(c) BalGangadharTilak
(d) Mahatma Gandhi
48.A
Student
Union
was
formed
by
the
Communists
under
the
name
of
All
India
Student Federation in
(a) 1930
(b) 1936
(c) 1942
(d) 1943
49.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
religious
pressure
group?
(a) Anglo-Indian Christian Association
(b) Jamat-e-Islami
(c) R.S.S.
50.The
pressure
groups
in
India
have
not
been
able
to
play
as
effective
role
as
pressure
groups
in
USA
and
Britain
because
(a) they lack effective lobbies
(b) the number of people associated with various pressure groups is very
small
(c) of too much dependence on the various political parties
(a)
Political Parties, Pressure Groups, Public Opinion and Media 401
56. Press, which plays an important role in the formation of public opinion, includes
(a)daily newspapers
(b) welkly and monthly periodicals
(c) other published material
(d) all the above
5Z^-Qnly
an
independent
press
can
form
a
licaTtlT_7aTM-eiilifeXiTgnea
puBttg-opinmn,
(a) True
(b) False
58. Political
parties
play
an
important
role
in
the formation of public opinion.
(a) by organising public meetings
(b) by highlighting the main political and other issues facing the country
(c) by distributing political literature
(d) all the above
59. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
major
hindrance
in
the
way
of
development
of
sound
public
opinion?
(a) Illiteracy
(b) disparity in wealth
(c) lethargy of the people
60. The
press
contributes
to
the
moulding
of
the public opinion by
(a) presenting news and comments on important events
(b) enabling the readers to express their opinions through the columns of
newspapers
61.
Public Platform is an effective instrument
for
the
formulation
of
public
opinion
because
(a) spoken words have direct appeal to the people
(b) he spoken words can appeal both educated and illiterate
(c) important social, economic and political issues can be discussed in public
meetings.
51. The
organised
business
pressure
groups
seek
to
protect
and
promote
interests
of
their
members
through
use
of
different
methods.
Which
one
of
the
following
methods is not used by them?
^tay-dwect^correspondence with the
governmenT~-^__
(b) contacts with the legislaioio wa:~~^- administrators
(c) prompting strikes and lock-outs
(d) provision of expert advice to ministers and other subordinate officials
52. The
business
groups
try
to
protect
the
interests of their members by
(a) offering gratifications in cash or kind
(b) contributing to the funds of the party in power
(c) developing effective contacts with the bureaucrats
(d) all the above methods
53. Public Opinion means
(a) the sum total of the opinions held by different citizens or a group of
citizens
(b) the unanimous opinion of the citizens
(c) the majority opinion of the citizens
(d) the opinion of the majority which takes into consideration the interests
of all.
54. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
xvrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
public
opinion?
(a) It is a definite opinion
(b) It is an opinion of effective majority
(c) It is based on the ideal of common good
55. Which
one
of
the
following
is
essential
for
the formation of sound public opinion.
(a) free press
(b) freedom of religion
(c) liberal education
(d) All the above
(a)
402
62. Which
one
of
the
way
of
formation
nion'?
(a) educational institutions
following
stands
in
of
'sound
public
the
opi
(b) controlled press

(c) Parliamentary discussions
(d) Political literature
63. EducaJioMHr^titutions^La^Lai>4BftperiagF
rcneTrTmouldiiTg the public opinion by
(a) widening the outlook of the students and encouraging them to think
independently
(b) holding periodical debates on topics of current importance
(c) holding mock parliaments
(d) by inculcating discipline among the students.
64. The
Parliament
(Legislature)
plays
an
important
role
in
the
formulation
of
public
opinion by
(a) focussing attention on issues of public importance
(b) imparting education in public affairs and moulding public opinion.
(c) enacting laws relating to freedom of press etc
65. Which
one
of
the
following
can
contribute
to the formation of public opinion?
(a) Bi-party system
(b) An independent Judiciary
(c) Free Mass Media
(d) all the above
66. Which
one
of
the
following
stands
in
thp
way fo formation of souncLpWicopinion?
(a) fi rornirmted press
(b) single party dominance
(c) controlled mass media
(d) all the above
67. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
removal
of
hurdles
in
the
way
of
development of sound public opinion.
1. Press should be made free
2. Illiteracy should be removed

3. Economic Inequalities should be done away with
4. Judiciary
should
be
made independent
68. The
true
function
of
public
effect
a
proper
relationship
legal and ultimate political sovereign.
(a) True
(b). False
Ma)
7.(b)
13. (c)
19. (b)
25. (a)
31. (b)
37. (a)
43. (d)
49. (d)
55. (a)
61. (d)
67. (a)
2. (b)
8. (a)
14. (b)
20. (d)
26. (c)
32. (c)
38. (b)
44. (d)
50. (d)
56. (d)
62. (b)
68. (a)
ANSWERS
3. (d)
9. (b)
15. (d)'J
21. (b)
27. (b)
33. (d)
39. (a)
45. (c)
51. (c)
57. (a)
63. (a)
4.(b)
10. (d)
16. (d)
22. (a)
28. (a)
34. (c)
40. (b)
46. (c)
52. (d)
58. (d)
64. (d)
opinion
is
between
5. (a)
11. (d)
17. (c)
23. (d)
29. (a)
.
35.
(d)
41. (c)
47. (a)
53. (d)
59. (d)
65. (c)
C H APTER
35
Peasant
Movements
6.(c)
12. (d)
18. (a)
24. (c)
30. (b)
36. (c)
42. (d)
48. (b)
54. (d)
60. (c)
66. (d)
to
the
Contrary to the general impression that the peasants in India are quite
passive and take the things as they come in their stride, the peasants in
India have been taking keen interest to protect and promote their interests.
For this purpose they launched various peasant movements. The history of
these peasant movements can be traced back to the times of British rule
when peasants organised revolts against the then prevalent forms of
agrarian-administrator land tenure system. The peasant movements were
mainly launched with a view to seek an improvement in the position of the
peasants and to secure an honourable position for them in the society by
eliminating social, economic and political exploitation of peasants.
As the condition of the peasants continued to be quite miserable even
after attainment of independence, fresh peasant movements were launched
in different parts of the country. In the 1950's and 1960's such movements
were launched in Telangana and Thanjavur. In West Bengal the Naxalbari
agitation was launched in 1967 and the peasants were encouraged to take
forcible possession of the lands on which they were working. In Andhra
Pradesh also the peasants forcibly deprived the zamindars of their land and
distributed the same among themselves. In the 1970's peasant movements
in India took a new shape when different political parties and organisations
took up their cause and tried to exert pressure on the government to provide
better prices to the farmers for their produce. In December 1978 a Charter of
demand of peasants was presented to the government. The farmers also
demanded adequate representation in various' economic organisations and
committees. They also exerted pressure on the government to adopt policies
which were in the interest of farmers. For
this purpose the peasant resorted to various methods of agitation viz. 'rasta
roko' movement in Maharashtra; non-payment of taxes to the government in
Tamil Nadu etc. It is noteworthy that the leadership of these peasant
movements was in the hands of non-peasant leaders. However, gradually the
leadership of the movement was assumed by the rich farmers. However, if
the peasant movement has to be really effective the middle peasantry must
play an active part in the movement.
1.
wrongly listed in the category of peasants?

(a) small and marginal farmers
(b) shareholders
(c) tenants
2. During
the
pre-independence
period
majority of land was under the control of
(a) zamindars
(b) share-croppers
(c) small and marginal farmers
(d) tenants
3. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
peasant
movement
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It is a movement based on agrarian needs.
(b) It seeks salvation from suppression by political lords.
(c) It wants to share a part of the power or overthrow the whole power
hierarchy.
(a)
4. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
a
cause
for
revolts during the British rule?
(a) protest against their exploitation by the administrative classes.
(b) protest against cultivation of a particular crop.
(c) protest against exploitation by the money-lenders.
5. Tebhaga
Movement
was
launched
in
by
(a) the Muslim Landlords
(b) the Communist Party
(c) the Indian National Congress
(d) all the three jointly
6. Tebhaga Movement stood for
(a) distribution of land among the landless.
(b) denial of share in cultivation to the absentee landlords.
(c) grant of two-third share of the crop to share cropers.
(d) all the above
7. Tebhaga
Movement
was
launched
in
state of
(a)West Bengal
(b) Andhra Pradesh
(c) Bombay
8. Telangana
Movement
was
launched
the peasants in
(a) the erstwhile state of Hyderabad
(b) the erstwhile state of Junagarh
been
peasant
1946
the
by
(c) the state of Bombay

(d) the state of Andhra Pradesh
9.Which
one
of
the
following
movements
stood
for
establishment
of
commune
system
after
confiscation
of
lands
from
the
zamindars?
(a) Tebhaga Movement
(b) Telagana Movement
(c) Peasant Movement in Thanjavur
(d) All the above
10. Acharya
Vinobha
Bhave
started
Bhoodan
Movement after the suppression of
(b) Naxalbari Movement
(c) Thanjavur Movement
(d) Telangana Movement
11. In
which
one
of
the
following
Peasants
Movements
caste
system
played
a
significant role?
(a) Naxalbari Movement
(b) Peasant Movement in Thanjavur
(c) Naxalbari Movement
(d) All the above
12. Which
one
of
the
following
Peasant
Movement
was
spearheaded
by
the
Communist Party?
(a) Telangana Movement
(b) Thanjavur Movement
13.
Which one of the following peasant
movements
encouraged
the
peasants
to
forcibly
take
possession
of
lands
of
Zamindars?
(b) Thanjavur Movement
(c) Naxalbari Movement
(d) All the above movements
14. The
peasant
moments
in
India
took
a
different
shape
in
the
1970's
and
were
characterised
by
various
features.
Which
one
of
the
following
feature
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Different political parties and organisations took up the cause of peasants.
(b) Constitutional methods were used to build up pressure on the government to
provide better prices to farmers for their produce.
(c) Emphasis was laid on payment of adequate wages to the farm-workers.
15. In
1978,
a
Farmer
Rally
was
organised
at
New Delhi which submitted a Charter of
Peasant Movements 405
Demands. Which one of the following did not form part of this Charter of Demand?
(a) Payment of adequate prices to the farmers for their produce.
(b) Adquate representation to the farmers in various economic organisations and
committees.
(c) Removal of all restrictions on export of food-grains.
(d) Conferment of ownership rights on farmers who have been tilling the lands for
continuous ten years.
16. Various political parties organised farmers rallies in the 1980's
(a) to give the projection that they are the well wishers of the farmers.
(b) to give the projection that they enjoy the support of the farmers.
(c) to capture the seats reserved for the farmers in the state Legislative
Assemblies.
17. Sharad
Joshi
spear-headed
a
movement
for
reasonable
procurement
price
for
onions in
(a) Gujarat
(b) Maharashtra
(c) Tamil Nadu
(d) Andhra Pradesh
18. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Peasant movements in post-independent India have been spearheaded by
non-peasant leaders.
(b) Peasant movements in post-independence India have been led by rich
landlords.
(c) Peasant movement in post independent India have been led by the
Communist Party alone and other political parties have kept away from the
same.
(a)
l.(d)
7. (a)
13. (c)
2. (a)
8. (a)
14. (d)
ANSWERS
3. (d)
9. (b)
15. (d)
4. (d)
10. (d)
16. (d)
5.(b)
11. (b)
17. (b)
6-(c)
12. (c)
18. (a)
Elections, Electoral Behaviour,

Election Commission and
Electoral Reforms
The adoption of the principles of democratization and decentralisation under the

Indian constitution has led to greater participation of the people in the political
process. Election is an important part of this process. Under the Constitution all
adults who are not less than 18 years of age, and are otherwise not disqualified, take
part in the election. Broadly speaking two types of electoral systems have been
adopted in India. First, direct election based on territorial constituencies. Members of
Lok sabha and State Legislative Assemblies are elected through this method. Second,
election through proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.
The President, Vice-President, Members of Rajya Sabha and Legislative Councils are
elected through this method.
The responsibility for the conduct of elections has been entrusted to an
independent Election Commission The electoral system works in accordance with the
laws passed by the Indian parliament which include Representation of People's Act
1950; Representation of People's Act 1951; Presidential and Vice-Presidential Election
Act etc. The prominent features of the electoral system in India include (a) single
electoral body for all; conduct of elections on the basis of adult franchise; reservation
of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes; representation given on territorial
basis; secret voting; single member constituencies with one member being returned
from each constituency; important role of political parties in elections; elections
disputes decided by the High Court or Supreme Court.
Elections are conducted by the Election in accordance with schedule decided

with the concerned government. The electoral process goes
through several stages viz. notification of election; filing of nominations by
candidates; scrutiny of the nomination papers; with-drawal of candidatures;
finalisation of list of candidates and allotment of symbols; campaigning for 14
days; polling and results. A code of conduct is provided for the elections which all
the candidates are expected to follow. So far 13 general elections have been held
to the Lok Sabha. These elections have demonastrated increase in percentage of
votes polled in both urban as well as rural areas; and participation of women has
increased.
The election held so far have demonstrated following features of electoral
behaviour, (i) People have tended to reject the government which failed to come
upto their expectations; (ii) Voters have tended to vote on the basis of
personality of leaders heading a Particular party; (iii) Caste considerations have
greatly influenced the electoral behaviour; (iv) religion has played an important
role in the electoral behaviour; (v) regionalism has exercised profound influence
in the voting behaviour; (vi) Money has played a vital rule in influencing the
electoral process; and (vii) muscle power has greatly influenced the outcome of
the elections.
ELECTION COMMISSION
The Constitution entrusts the responsibility for the conduct of Election Commission,
which consists of the Chief Election Commissioner and such other commissioners as
the President may from time to time determine. At present the election commission is
a multi-member body. Then main functions of the Commission include preparation
Elections, Electoral Behaviour, Election Commission and Electoral Reforms
407
of electoral rolls; supervision, direction and control of all matters pertaining to

election; to render advice to President Governor on the diqualifications of MPs and
MLAs, settlement of dispute regarding allotment of election symbols; preparation of
roster for central broadcasts and telecasts; notification of schedule of elections and
scrutiny of nomination papers; to determine the code of conduct to be observed by
the parties and candidates during election; to keep voters list update at all times; to
disqualify a candidate who fails to submit election returns within the prescribed
period.
ELECTORAL REFORMS
There are several shortcomings in the Indian electoral system viz. growing use of
corrupt practices; use of money and muscle power; role of caste and religion; distinct
advantage to the ruling party; presence of large number of political parties and
independent candidates in the fray; wide gap between the percentage of votes polled
and the number of seats captured. Several Commissions looked into these
shortcomings and made suggestions for reforms. In 1974 Tarkunde Committee
suggested appointment of Election Commission on the recommendation of a high
powered committee. It suggested a three member Election Commission and
reduction of voting age to 18 years; autonomy be granted to radio and television. In
1990 Dinesh Goswami Committee recommended increase in security deposit to keep
a check on the number of candidates contesting elections. No candidate should
contest election from more than two constituencies; Evil of booth capturing should be
curbed; introduction of photo identity cards to check bogus voting. A model code of
conduct should be strictly enforced. Proper accounts of elections should be
maintained. Ban on distribution of liquor and movement of persons with lethal

weapons; State should provide assistance to national parties for elections.
The Election Commission has also been making suggestions for free and fair
elections from time to time. It has suggested video coverage of polling boths to check
booth capturing; introduction of identity cards; confiscation of arms and ammunition
during the election; closure of liquor shops and tab on anti-social elements.
However, these reforms did not evoke favourable response from government.

1. The
electoral
system
of
India
is
largely
based on the pattern of
(a) Britain
(b) Irenland
(c) U.S.A.
(d) France
2.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
responsible
for
greater
participation
of
the
people of India in the electoral process?
(a) democratisation
(b) decentralisation
(c) adoption of Republican System
3. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
elected
on the basis of territorial constituencies?
(a) Members of Lok Sabha
(b) Members of State Legislative Assembly
(c) the President of India
4. Which
one
of
the
following
is
elected
through
proportional
representation
by
means of a single transferable vote?
(a) the President of India
(b) the Vice-President of India
(c) Members of Rajya Sabha
(d) All the above
5. The electoral system of India
(a) has been prescribed by the Constitution
(b) has been laid down by the Election Commission
(c) has been determined by Indian Parliament through laws enacted by it.
(d) has been determined by a Special Commission set up for the purpose.
6. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
electoral system has been wrongly listed?
(a) India has a single electoral body for conduct of all elections.
(b) The elections to Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies are conducted
on the basis of adult franchise.
(a)
(c) In India the members of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies are
elected on the basis of territorial constituencies.
7. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding Indian electoral system.
1. The elections in India are conducted on the basis of universal adult franchise
2. In India the election is held on the basis of single member constituencies with
one member being returned from each constituency.
3. The political parties play an important role in the election process.
4. Elections are held through open ballot of the above statements
8. All the election disputes are decided by
(a) the Parliament and State Legislative Assembly
(b) the High Court or the Supreme Court
(c) the Election Commission
(d) the Supreme Court alone
9. The schedule for the election is decided by
(a) the Election Commission on its own
(b) the Election Commission in consultation with the concerned government.
(c) the concerned government and intimated to the Election Commission.
(d) the Election Commission in consultation with the the Prime Minister and
Leader of Opposition.
10. Which one the following feature of electoral behaviour in India has been wrongly
listed?
(a) Voters have tended to vote on the basis of personality of leaders heading a
particular party
(b) Caste considerations have greatly influenced the electoral behaviour
(c) Gradually the role of money has been declining.
(d) Muscle power has greatly influenced the outcome of elections.
11. The
Chief
Election
Commissioner
and
other
members
of
the
Election
Com
mission are appointed by
(a) the President
(b) the Prime Minister in consultation with leader of Opposition.
(c) a Special Committee constituted by the parliament
(d) the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of India.
12. The
Election
Commission
was
finally
made a Multi-member Commission in
(a) 1975
(b) 1984
(c) 1993
(d) 1996
13. On
the
eve
of
the
General
Elections
of
1989
Rajiv Gandhi Government appointed
(a) one additional commissioner
(b) two additional commissioners
(c) three additional commissioners
(d) four additional commissioners
14. During
the
tenure
of
which
one
of
the
following
Prime
Minister
the
Election
Commission
was
made
a
Multi-member
Commission?
(a) V.P.Singh
(b) Narasimha Rao
(c) Atal Behari Vajpayee
15. The
Chief
Election
Commissioner
can
be
removed
from
his
office
before
the
expiry
of his tenure
(a) by the President in consultaion with the Chief Justice of India.
(b) by the President on the recommendation of the Parliament
(c) by the Speaker of Lok Sabha after the two Houses have passed a
resolution by two-third majority recommending his removal.
(d) by the Chairman of the Union Public Service Commission
(a)
Elections, Electoral Behaviour, Election Commission and Electoral
Reforms 409
16.
What
is
the
tenure
Commissioner
and
other
Election Commission?
(a) for life
(b) three years
of
the
member
Chief
of
Election
the
(c) four years

(d) five years
17.
Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
the
Election
Commission
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Preparation of electoral rolls for the Election of the Parliament and
State legislatures.
(b) Settlement of disputes regarding allotment of Election symbols to
parties at the time of election
(c) delimitation of constituencies from time to time.
(d) To ensure that the voters' lists are kept up-to-date at all times.
18.
Which
one
of
the
following
fuction
is
performed by the Election Commission?
(a) It determines the code of conduct to be observed by the parties and
candidates at the time of election.
(b) It appoints election officer to inquire into disputes arising out of or in
connection with election arrangements.
(c) It notifies the dates and schedules of elections and scrutiny of
nomination papers.
(d) All the above.
19.
The
constitution
has
ensured
indep
endence of election Commission by
(a) making the removal of the Chief election Commissioner and other
members of the Commission difficult.
(b) protecting the salary and service conditions of the Election
Commission
(d) granted it full power to initiate disciplinary action against staff
employed for the conduct of election.
20.
At
present
the
Election
Commission
con
sists of Chief Election Commissioner and
(a) two other members
(b) three other members
(c) four other members
(d) five other members
21.The
Election
Commission
has
no
role
in
the election of
(a) the President
(c) Speaker of Lok Sabha
(d) members of Rajya Sabha
22.Which
one
lof
the
following
Chief
Election
Commissioner
contested
for
the
office
of
the President
(a) M.S.Gill
(b) T.S.Sheshan
(c) R.V.S. Peri Sastri
23.For
the
first
time
Congress
lost
power
at
the Centre in the elections held in
(a) 1967
(b) 1977
(c) 1989
(d) 1991
24.The
Code
of
Conduct
which
the
candi
dates
are
expected
to
follow
during
the
election is
(a) formulated by the Election Commission and is legally enforceable.

(b) formulated by the leaders of National political Parties and enforced by
the Election Commission.
(c) formulated by the Election Commission in consultation with political
parties and is not legally enforceable.
(d) formalised by the Election Commission and approved by the
Parliament
25.An
amendement
was
carried
out
to
the
Representation
of
People's
Act
in
1996.
By
this amendment
(a) the amount of security deposit was increased
(b) candidates were debarred from contesting from more than one
constituency
(c) persons insulting the national flag were disqualified from contesting
the elections for six years.
(d) all the above provisions were made.
26.In
urban
areas
the
behaviour
of
the
voters
is generally greatly influenced by
410
(a) the educational qualifications of candidate

(b) the party affiliation of the candidate
(c) the caste and profession
27. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
a
shortcomings
of
electoral process in India?
(a) Growing use of corrupt practices
(b) Growing use of money and muscle power
(c) Presence of large number of regional political parties
(d) Presence of large numer of independent candidates in the contest
been
the
28. Which
one
of
the
following
was
a
recommendation
of
the
Tarkunde
Committe
appointed
in
1974
to
propose
electoral reforms.
(a) Lowering of the age of voters from 21 years to 18 years.
(b) Appointment of Election Commissioner on the recommendation of a high
powered committee.
(c) Grant of autonomy to radio and television.
(d) All of above
29. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
malady
of
Indian
electoral system
(a) Growing corrupt practices
(b) Increasing role of the criminals
(c) Growing .patronage of criminals by the politicians.
(d) None of above
30. Which
one
of
the
following
Chief
Election
Commissioner
was
appointed
as
Governor
of a state after completion of his tenure
(a) T.S.Sheshan
(b) M.S.Gill
(c) S.P. Sen Verma
(d) None of above
31. Which
one
of
the
following
was
an
important recommendation of the Dinesh
Goswami Committee appointed in 1990 to recommend electoral reforms.
(a) Increase in security deposit to keep check on the number of candidates
contesting elections.
(b) No candidate should be permitted to contest election from more than two
constituencies.
(c) Introduction of photo identity cards to check bogus voting.
(d) All the above
32. Which
one
of
the
following
was
not
a
recommendation
of
the
Dinesh
Goswami
Committee for electoral reforms?
(a) Maintenance of proper accounts of elections
(b) Video coverage of polling booths to check booth capturing
(c) State assistance to national political parties for elections.
(d) Strict enforcement of model code of conduct
33. The
composition
and
qualifications
of
the
members
of
Election
Commission
has
been
stipulated in the Constitution.
(a) True
(b) False
34. The
Chief
Election
Commissioner
and
other
members
of
the
Election
office
hold
office
for
a
term
of
5
years
or
till
they
reach
the age the age of 65 years.
(a) True
(b) False
35. The
Government
of
Narasimha
Rao
took
a
decision
to
convert
the
Election
Commission
into
a
multi-member
body
on
account
of
policy
of
confrontation
followed
by
the
Election
Commission
towards the government
(a) True
(b) False
36. The
Election
Committee
gives
the
President
and
Governors
question
of
disqualification
the
members
of
the
Union
Legislatures.
(a) True
(b) False
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Section 4
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
J
itf*A
,> ^-^ >*,y*
BBiflBM *) J
Development of Public
Administration as a Discipline:
Approaches to the Study of
Public Administration
Public administration is a segment of the wider field of administration. It is concerned

with the organization and management of human and material resources to fulfill the
objectives laid down by the government. According to L.D. White 'public
administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfilment
or enforcement of public policy'. Scholars are divided regarding the scope of public
administration. Those who take narrow view of public administration would like to
confine the scope of public administration
to the executive branch only. On the other hand those who take broader view of
public administration include all the organs of government in its scope.
Before the emergence of Public Administration as an independent discipline, it
was studied as a part of other disciplines like political science, history, law etc. It
was only after Wilson gave a call for specialized study of government that public
administration as a discipline began to evolve as an independent discipline.
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Several approaches for the study of Put/lie Administration have been advocated.
These include, (i) the Philosophical Approach, which is one of the oldest and
comprehensive approach; (ii) the legal approach which studied public administration
as part of law and.laid emphasis on
constitutional' legal structure etc. (iii) the historical approach, while studied public
administration through the historical developments in the past and had its impact on
the present; (iv) case method approach, which deals with detailed account of the
specific events that lead to a decision by an administrator.
It seeks to reconstruct the administrative realities. In addition to the above
approaches for the study of public administration there also exist certain other
approaches viz. Structural Approach; Human Relations Approach; Behavioural
Approach; Systems Approach; Comparative Approach; Ecological Approach;
Development Approach; Public Choice Approach.

1. Who
is
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
father of Public Administration?
(a) M.E. Dimock
(b) L.D.White
(c) Woodrow Wilson
(d) E.N. Gladden
2. Who
said
"
Public
administration
consists
of
all
those
operations
having
for
their
purpose
the
fulfilment
or
enforcement
of
public
policy
as
declared
by
the
competent
authorities."
(a) Woodrow Wilson (b) L.D.White
(c) M.E. Dimock
(d) Ruthnaswamy
3. Who
of
the
following
offered
a
narrow
view of public administration and
416
included in it the activities of only the

executive Branch of government?
(a) Simon
(b) Gucick
(c) Willoughby
(d) All the above
4. L.D.
White
in
his
book
'Introduction
to
the
Study of Public Administration'
(a) adopted inter-disciplinary approach for the study of subject
(b) developed new theories for the study of the subject
(c) tried to keep Public Administration and Political Science as separate
from each other
(d) borrowed the tools of research from natural sciences for the study of
the subject.
5. As
a
field
of
systematic
study
public
administration is
(a) as old as the political society
(b) hardly about hundred years old
(c) hardly about 50 years old
(d) as old as the American War of Independence
6. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
contributed
to
the
development
of
public
administration
as
a
separate
subject
in
the
twentieth century?
(a) Industrialisation in the 19th century which gave rise to large-scale
organizations
(b) The concept of welfare state replacing the police state.
(c) Movement for governmental reform due to negative consequences of
'spoils system'.
(d) All the above
7. After
Wilson,
who
of
the
following,
sought
to
promote
public
administration
as
an
independent and separate discipline
(a) Marshall Dimock (b) Goodnow
(c) L.D. White
8. Who
was
the
first
to
put
forth
the
idea
that
Public Administration is a science?
(a) Marshall Dimock
(b) Luther H. Gulick and Lyndall Urwick
(c) W.F. Willoughby
^"~~
9. Who is associated with the principle of
POSDCORB with regard to managerial
functions?
(a) Gulick
(b) Henry Fayol
(c) Willoughby
(d) None of above
10.
Who of the following has been wrongly
listed as an advocate of the managerial
view
regarding
the
nature
of
public
administration?
(a) Simon
(b) Smithburg and Thompson
(c) L.D. White
(d) Luther Gulick
11.
Who
said
that
public
administration
includes
the
operations
of
only
the
executive branch of government?
(a) L.D. White
(b) Luther Gulick
(c) Willoughby
(d) None of above
12.
Who
said
that
public
administration
consists
of
all
those
operations
having
for
their
purpose
the
fulfillment
or
enforcement of public policy'.
(a) L.D. White
(b) Willoughby
(c) Luther Gulick
(d) Henry Fayol
13.
The
main
feature
of
the
study
of
public
administration between 1938-1950 was
(a) development of various theories for the study
(b) the principles already developed were characterised as proverbs.
(c) Principles of administration evolved so far were further strengthened
(d) Several incentives were offered by the US government to promote
research in public administration.
14.
Robert
Dahl
challenged
the
scientific
character
of
public
administration
on
several
grounds.
Which
one
of
these
grounds has been wrongly listed?
(a) Public administration was not a value free subject
Development of Public Administration as a Discipline: Approaches to the Study 417
(b) The social framework within which the organisations work widely differ
(c) The study of public administration was cost prohibitive
(d) The human personalities differ from each other.
15. The
development
of
public
administration
between 1950 and 1970 was characterized
by
(a) emergency of public administration as separate subject of study
(b) large scale research in the field of public administration
(c) the crisis of maintaining its identity.
(d) All the above features
16. Which
one
the
following
feature
of
the
present
day
public
administration
has
(a) Its inter-disciplinary character
(b) Greater attention to the dynamics of administration
(c) Non-loss of uni-disciplinary character
(d) All the above.
17. Which
one
the
following
regarding public administration is correct?
(a) It is the management of the affairs of government
(b) It is the action part of the government
(c) It operates within a political context
(d) All the above
18. Who
defined
administration
organization
and
direction
of
material
resources
to
achieve
ends."
(a) Dimock
(b) J.M.Pfiffner
(c) LutherGulick
(d) H.A.Simon
19. Consider
the
following
regarding administration.
1. It is a co-operative effort
2. It permeates all planned human activities
3. It works for the attainment of desired ends
4. The term administration is drawn from Greek language.
20. Which
of
the
following
responsible
for
the
increasing
of public administration
(a) Emergence of a Welfare state
(b) Economic Planning
(c) Scientific and Technological advancements
statement
as
human
the
"the
and
desired
statements
factors
is
importance
(d) All the above

21. Which
one
of
the
following
were
the
dominant
themes
during
the
first
stage
of
the
evolution
of
public
administration
as
discipline?
(a) Efficiency and economy are the watchwords of public administration
(b) Public Administration can become a value-free science.
(c) Separation between Politics and Administration
(d) All the above
22. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
contributed
to
the
growth
of
the
study
of
public
administration
as
a
separate
academic discipline in USA?
(a) Industrial Revolution
(b) Evolution of the concept of welfare state
(c) Movement for government reforms
(d) All the above
23. Determine
the
correct
chronological
order
of
the
evolution
of
Public
Administration
as a discipline using the codes given bleow
1. Principles approach
2. Public Policy Approach
3. Administrative Behaviour
4. Politics
Administration
Dichotomy
(a) 4,1,3 and 2
(b)
1,2,3
and
4
(c) 4,3,2 and 1
(d) 4,2, land 3
24. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
most
ancient
approach
for
the
study
of
public
administration?
(a) The philosophical Approach
418
(b) The Historical Approach

(c) The Legal Approach
25. Consider
the
following
statements
of
F.A.
Nigro regarding public administration
1. Public administration is different in significant ways from private
administration.
2. It is a cooperative group effort in a public setting
3. It has an important role in the formulation of public policy and is thus part of
the political process.
4. It covers only the executive branch of the government.
26. "Administration
has
to
do
with
getting
things
done,
with
the
accomplishment
of
defined
objectives"
The
above
statement
represents the
(a) Integral view of public administration
(b) Managerial view of public administration
(c) Narrow view of public administration
(d) Wider view of public administration
27. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
similarities
between
public
and
private administration
1. Both make use of the same management techniques
2. Both make similar contributions to the society
3. Both make use of certain common skills like accounts keeping
4. Both have hierarchically organised bureaucracy
28. Which
one
of
the
following
scholars
is
associated
with
Human
Relations
Approach?
(a) Warren Bennis
(b) RensisLikert
(c) Douglas McGregor
(d) All the above
29. Who
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
Father
of
American
Public
Admini
stration?
(a) WoodrowWilson (b) L.D.White
(c) Goodnow
(d) Willoughby
30.
Who of the following said that "A theory
of
Public
Administration
in
our
time
also
means a theory of politics"?
(a) JohnGaus
(b) Wallace Sayre
(c) Goodnow
(d) Dwight Waldo
31. Which
one
the
following
feature
of
New
Public
Administration
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Decentralisation of administrative Process
(b) Democratic Decision Making
(c) Client-focussed administration
(d) None of above
32. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
New
Public
Administration
has
been
wrongly
listed
(a) It has tried to link Public Administration with society.
(b) It has tried to bring Public Administration closer to Political Science
(c) It has stressed that the subject should pay more attention to social problems.
33. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
decision
making process.
(a) It is an environment linked activity
(b) It involves study of various alternatives before taking final decision.
(a)
Development of Public Administration as a Discipline: Approaches to the Study 419
(c) It is not one time process but a continous one

34. Listed
below
are
the
stages
of
making process
1. Collection of Data
2. Diagnosing of problem
3. Finding an alternative
4. Identification of the Problem The correct order of these stages is
(a) 4,2,1 and 3
(b) 1,2, 3 and 4
(c) 2, 3,4 and 1
(d) 3,4, land 2
35. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
decision
making
power
of
a
Administrator?
(a) It should be based on some logic
(b) It should be based on some facts and figures
(c) It should be goal oriented
36. Which
one
of
the
following
are
hindrances
in
the
way
of
rational
making by a Public Administrator?
(a) Lack of knowledge of the problem
(b) Lack of knowledge of the alternatives
decision
been
rational
Public
the
decision
(c) Lack of ability to analyse the available alternatives

(d) All the above
37. Ecological
approach
in
public
adminis
tration implies
(a) that the decision is taken in favourable environment
(b) taking in account the likes and dislikes of the group before arriving at a
decision
(c) that while taking a decision the cost factor should be given due consideration.
38. Who
of
the
followig
said
that
a
system
is
a
set
of
elements
standing
in
inter-action
with each other?
(a) Karl Dutch
(b) David Easton
(c) Ludwig
39. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
system
approach
in
Public
Administration
(a) It takes into account only formal aspects
(b) It is comprehensive in so far as it takes into account all the interactions
(c) It has lot of inter-dependent variables which play their role in decision
making.
(d) It takes clear demarcation between various aspects.
40. Development
administration
is
concerned
with
(a) political development
(b) social development
(c) economic development
(d) all the above
41. The
development
administration
is
not
concerned with
(a) co-ordination of the working of various departments of the government

(b) development of administrative machinery
(c)the formulation of the plans
(d)the process of national development
42.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
development
administrations?
(a) It is growth oriented
(b) It is dynamic
(c) It is adoptive
(d) It stands for centralised decision making
43. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding development administration.
1. It is mainly concerned with socioeconomic changes.
2. It is future oriented
3. It lays emphasis on centralised planning for attainment of quicker results.
4. It is client oriented.
420

44. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
development administration?
(a) It is action motivated
(b) It is future oriented
(c) It aims at socio-economic development
(d) all the above
45. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
development
administration
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It is opposed to innovations
(b) It lays emphasis on group performance
(c) It keeps pace with the times
(d) It lays emphasis on inter-group collaboration
46. An
efficient
development
administration
is dependent on
(a) trained manpower
(b) use of sophisticated aids for decision making
(c) empirical approach for the solution of problems
(d) all the above
47. Which
one
of
the
following
does
not
fall
under
the
scope
of
development
adminis
tration?
(a) Elimination of social evils
(b) Programme Planning
(c) Area Development
(d) Extension and Community Service

48. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
helpful
in
bringing
the
bureaucracy
tune with development administration?
(a) Recruitment on the basis of merit
(b) change in the behaviour of the bureaucrats
(c) professional mobility
(d) all the above
49. Match
List
I
containing
the
names
of
authors
with
List
II
containing
the
titles
the books
List I A. W.F. Willoughby
List II
B. Mary Parker Follet
is
in
the
of
C. Mooney and Reiley

1.Principles of Organisation
2.Industrial General Management.
3.Principles of Public Administration.
D. Henri Fayol
4. Creative Experience
Give the correct answer using the following codes:
A
B
CD
(a) 3
4
1
2
(b)4
2
3
1
(c) 2
3
4
1
(d)l
2
3
4
50. According
to
William
Richard
making process is greatly influenced by
(a) the social forces
the
decision
(b) the psychological forces

(c) the cultural background of decision makers
(d)
the unconscious processes
51. Which
one
of
the
following
aspect
emphasised
by
Simons
for
the
study
of
decision making in Public Administration
(a) Political
(b) Economic
(c) Psychological
(d) All the above.
52. According
to
the
integral
view
administration the following activities fall
;!
within its purview
(a) Managerial
(b) Technical
(c) Manual, Clerical, Managerial and Technical
(d) Manual and Clerical
53. Who
said
"Administration
is
now
so
an
area
that
a
philosophy
administration
comes
close
to
being
philosophy of life."
(a) L.D.White
(b) Luther Gulicki
(c) Marhsall E. Dimock
(a)
was
the
of
vast
of
a
Development of Public Administration as a Discipline*: Approaches to the Study

421
54. The
philosophical
approach
to
the
study
of
public administration seeks to
(a) find out and enunciate the principles or ideals underlying these activities
(b) study the public administration as part of law
(c) study the public administra tion of the past within particular time span
(d) reconstruct
the
administrative realities.
55. Which
one
of
the
following
approach
traces
its
ancestry
to
the
European
tradition?
(b) Philosophical approach
(c) Legal approach
(d) all the above
56. "The
greatest
limitation
of
this
approach
for
the
study
of
public
administration
is
that
one
cannot
get
a
true
picture
of
how
an
organisation
functions
in
practice".
The
above statement is applicable to
(a) Behavioural approach
(b) Institutional Structural Approach
(c) Historical Approach
(d) Philosophical Approach
57. Herbert
A.
Simon
is
regarded
as
a
pioneer
of
which
approach
for
the
study
of
public
administration
(b) Behavioural Approach
(c) Philosophical Approach
(d) Structural Approach
58. Which
one
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the centre of administration?
(a) The People
(b) The Administrators
(c) The Governors
59. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
similarities
between
the
public
administration
and
the
private
administrations.
1. Some of the managerial techniques are common to both.
2. Some of the practices in vogue in private administration and have been
influencing public administration and have been assimilated by the latter.
3. The responsibility of the government official as of his counterpart in the
private business is the same in as much as each aims at achieving results in
his assigned field of work by getting things done.
4. Public and private administration function in the same environment.
60.
Which one of the following is regarded as
half
way
house
between
its
commerical
prototype
and
the
traditional
government
department.
(a) Departmental Undertakings
(b) Government Corporation
(c) Branches of the Government
(d) All the above
61. Who
made
the
statement
"Power
in
a
democratic
society
requires
control,
and
the
greater
the
power,
the
more
need
for
control."
(a) L.D.White
(b) W.F. Willoughby
(c) Paul Appleby
(d) OrdwayTead
62. Control
over
public
administration
is
exercised by
(a) Professional Standards and ethics
(b) Nature of Society
(c) Private Limited companies
(d) all the above
63. In
democracy
the
broad
policies
of
administration are laid down by
(a) the executive
(b) the legislature
(c) judiciary
(a)
64. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
limitations
on
the
authority
of
Parliament is correct?
(a) The civil servants play a decisive role in the formulation of the policies
(b) The legislature has neither the time nor the expertise to effectively control
the rapidly expanding administration.
(c) Legislators often do not possess the technical knowledge of the various
departments and are therefore reluctant to criticise their demands for
grants.
(d) All the above.
65. Match
List
I,
containig
view
regarding
Public
Administration
with
List
II
relating
to the Author.
List I
List II
A. Wider view of Public
1. L. Gulick
B. Narrow view of Public
2. E. Dimock
C. Managerial view of
3. L.D. White
Administration
D.Integral view of
4. H.A. Simon
Administration
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
A
B
CD
(a) 1
3
2
4
(b)3
1
4
2
(c) 3
4
2
1
(d)l
2
4
3
66. Match
List
I
containing
the
title
and List II containing the name of Author
; List I
List II
A. Science of Public
1. Willoughby
Administration
B. Comparative Public
2. Wilson
Administration
C. New Public Admini3. Robert Dahl
stration
D. Principles of Public
4. Dwight Waldo
Administration
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
A
B
C
D
(a)
2
1
4
3
(b)
1
3
-4
2
(c)
4
1
2
(d)
3
4
1
2
67. Match List-I (titles of the books) with ListII (names of authors)
List I
List-II
A. Policy and Admini1. Paul Appleby
stration
B. The Art of Admini2. Ordway Tead
stration
of
the
book
C. Philosophy of Admini- 3. E. Dimock

stration
D. An Introduction to 4. E.N. Gladden
Public Administration
Select the correct answer usingthe codes
given below
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b)2
1
4
3
(c) 2
3
41 (d)4
3
68. Match List-I (Concepts) with List - II
(Propounders)
List-I
List-II
A. Proverbs of admini1. H.A. Simon
stration
B. The ecology of admini2. F.W. Riggs
stration
C. The Problems of Science
3. Robert A. Dahl
of Public Administration
D.The Development Ad- 4. J.L. Palombara
ministraation.
Select thecorrect answer using the codes
given below
A
B
CD
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b)2
3
4
1
(c) 2
4
3
1
(d)3
1
2
4
(P) 99
(q)-09
(q) -S9
(B) "6fi
(P) "W
(<0 "8S
00 *w
(a)-es
00 "Z*
00-i* x
(p) -se
CO 63
00 '3
W -zs
(p)
(p) -3fr
(P) -9
(e) -oe
00 TO.
(q) -8i
00 "31
(P)-9
(q) -a
(q)-n
(q)-s
(P) 9f
CO W
00 "fr
(P) '83
(P) 33
(B) '91
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(q)"E9
(q)'zs
W 'IS
(b) -gf
(b) 6
(P) '
(b) -a
(P) "13
(3) "SI
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(P)-
(b) "89
(P) '39
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(P) "OS
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(q)'3
(q)-93
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38-
Theories of
Organisation
Organisation is an essential element of administration. It facilitates the proper

utilisation of men, material and money for the accomplishment of the defined
objectives. L.D. White defined organisation "the arrangement of personnel for
facilitating the accomplishment of some agreed purpose through allocation of
functions and responsibilities. According to him there are three primary elements of
organisation viz., persons, combined efforts and a common purpose. However Luther
Gulick has identified four elements of organisation viz., purpose, process, persons
and place.
Several theories regarding organisation have been propounded. The most
important of these are Scientific Management Theory; Bureaucratic Theory; The
Formal Organisation Theory; the Human Relations Theory; and the System Theory.
The Scientific Management theory is mainly associated with Taylor who used the term
to give complete and systematic explanation of scientific methods and techniques for
promoting the organisational efficiency and economy. The classical theory of
organisation which gained popularity during the first half of the twentieth century laid
emphasis on order, rationality, structure and specialisation. The bureaucratic theory
of organisation is mainly associated with Max Weber. It holds that rational attainment
of goals of an organisation is not possible without efficient bureaucracy. The Human
Relations Theory, associated with Elton Mayo, was advocated in the 1930's. Like the
traditional theory this theory accepted efficiency and productivity as legitimate
values of the organisation, but laid emphasis on individuals , informal groups and
inter-group relationships in addition to the formal structure.
In other words it laid stress on the study of multi-dimensional nature of man. The
Behavioural approach to organisation was advocated and developed by scholars like
Elton Mayo, Herbert Simons etc. This theory seeks to develop practical propositions
about human behaviour in the organisation setting by undertaking
systematic, objective and empirical studies. The System Theory of

Organisation emphasised that the parts of a system are interrelated and
independent, but they contribute to the functioning of the system as a whole.

1. Who
said
"Organisation
is
the
basic
tool
by
means
of
which
the
administrative
p rocess is kep t opera ting? "
(a) Money
(b) Simon
(c) Dimock
2. Which
one
of
the
following
was
the
first
coherent theory of organisation?
(a) Classical Theory
(b) Scientific Management
(c) Bureaucratic Theory
(d) Human Relations Theory
3. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
Organisation?
(a) It is a co-operative effort
(b) It is set up to achieve a particular purpose
(c) It needs coordinated efforts
(d) all the above.
4. Who
said
Organisation
is
the
form
of
ev
ery
human
association
for
the
attainment
of a common purpose?
Theories of Organisation 425
(a) Chester Barnard

(b) Pfiffner
(c) Mooney
(d) J.M. Gaus
5. Luther
Gullick
identified
several
organisation.
Which
one
of
the
(a) Purpose
(b) Process
(c) Persons
6. Which
one
of
the
following
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
organisation?
(a) In this organisation stress is laid on human approach
(b) It is deliberately planned
(c) It is designed and sanctioned by a competent authority
7. Which
one
of
the
following
informal
organisation
has
been
listed?
(a) It attaches too much importance to human behaviour
(b) It gives due recognition to the human emotions
(c) It does not give explicit recognition to human values.
bases
has
of
feature
of
following
been
formal
of
wrongly
8. Who
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
father of scientific management?
(a) F.W.Taylor
(b) Max Weber
(c) Louis Braudeis
9. Who
of
the
following
for
the
first
time
used
the term 'scientific management'?
(a) Max Weber
(b) Louis Braudeis
(c) F.W.Taylor
(d) Vincent de Gournay
10. The main goal of scientific management was to achieve
(a) higher industrial efficiency
(b) maximum of employment
(c) maximum social welfare
(d) all the above
11. Which
one
of
the
follownig
method
of
science has been wrongly listed?
(a) Observation and measurement
(b) Experiment
*
(c) Analysis and tabulation
12. Which
one
of
the
following
objectives
of
scientific
management
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Standardisa tion of work methods
(b) Maximization of employment
(c) Planning of large daily tasks
(d) Standardization of work methods
13. Scientific
management
addressed
itself
to
the problem of management at
(a) the bottom of the organisation
(b) the top level
(c) the middle level
(d) all the levels.,
14. The
Scientific
Management
theory
laid
maximum stress on
(a) tools and data collection
(b) development of organisation structure
(c) planning and standardization
(d) social service
15. In
the
Scientific
Management
Theory,
Taylor pleaded that
(a) all workers doing identical work should be paid equal wages
(b) the workers who were producing less than standard quantity should be
given incentive to improve their production
(c) those who give more than the standard output should be given higher
wages
(d) the above principles should be strictlty followed.
16. Scientific
management
theory
has
been
criticised on the ground that
(a) it lays too much of stress on the social environments in production
(b) it attaches too much of importance to the psychological aspects
(a)
(c) it interprets efficiency in purely mechanistic terms.

(d) it regards the wages as the chief motivating factor.
17.The
theory
which
refers
to
the
tasks
procedures of administration is known as
(a)Management Theory
(b) Organisation Theory
18.The
body
of
administrative
officials
known as
(a) Bureaucracy
(b) Administrative Organisation
(c) Management Organisation
(d) Administration
19.The
term
'bureaucracy'
was
first
of
coined by
(a) LouisBraudeis
(b) F.W.Taylor
(c) L.D. White
(d) Vincent de Gournay
20.Who
of
the
following
deserves
the
^for
initiating
sociological
study
Bureaucracy in modern times?
(a) F.W.Taylor
and
is
all
credit
of
(b) Karl Marx

(c) Max Weber
(d) Luther Gulick.
21.Who
is
regarded
as
the
founder
of
the
modern sociologial study of bureaucracy?
(a) Max Weber
(b) M. Crozier
(c) Thomas Carlyle
22.Which
one
of
the
following
characteristic
of
bureaucracy,
as
formulated
by
Max
Weber, has been wrongly listed?
(a) Precision
(b) Continuity
(c) Discipline
23.Who
authored
the
book
The
Bureaucratic
Phenomenon?
(a) M. Crozier
(b) Max Weber
(c) RXMerton
24. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding Bureaucracy.
1. Bureaucracy is a career structure
2. The official may appropriate neither the post nor the resources that go with it
3. official is subject to unified control and disciplinary system
4. Appointments are made for life, but there is provision for removal of corrupt
officials
25. The Bureaucratic Theory is characterised

by
(a) Rigidity
(b) Inflexibility
(c) Anti-human overtones
(d) all the above
26.
Which
one
of
the
following
characteristic
of
bureaucratic
organisation,
as
developed
by Max Weber, has been wrongly listed?
(a) The functions of each officer are clearly defined.
(b) It operates on the principle of hierarchy
(c) The staff members are personally not free to take any action
27. Which
one
of
the
following
characteristic
of
bureaucratic
type
organisation,
as
developed
by
Max
Weber,
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The employees are subject to unified control
(b) It operates on the basis of some unified career structure.
(c) The officials are selected on the basis of professional qualifications
28. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
Bureaucratic
type
of
Organi
sation
1. It lays emphasis on means rather than end

2. It has anti-human over-tone.
3. It is by nature inflexible
4. It lays stress on ends rather than on means.
(c) 1,2 and 4 are cor Jif (d\ 1,3 and 4 are correct
29. The
Mechanistic
theory
of
Organisation
is
also known as
(a) Classical Theory
(b) Behaviourialistic Theory
(d) Scientific Management Theory
30. Which
one
of
the
following
theories
is
the
most
dominant
theory
in
the
field
of
organisation?
(a) Scientific Management Theory
(b) Classical Theory
(c) Behaviouristic Theory
(d) Bureaucratic Theory
31. The Mechanistic Theorists of Organisation
(a) stood for formulation of principles of organisation.
(b) wanted to develop rational basis for the division of work in the organisation
(c) wanted to develop bases relating to coordination of work in the organisation.

32. Which
one
of
the
following
was
not
a
principle
of
organisation
as
expounded
by
Henri Fayol?
(a) Authority
(b) Division of work
(c) Flexibility
(d) Discipline
33. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
among
the
supporters
of
classical theory of organisation?
(a) Henry Fayol
(b) Luther Gulick
(c) J.D. Mooney
34. Who
authored
the
book
'General
and
Industrial Administration'
(a) M.P. Follett
(b) Henri Fayol
(c) R.Shelton
(d) J.D. Mooney
35. How
many
principles
of
organisation
were
propounded by Henri Fayol
(a) four
(b) eight
(c) ten
(d) fourteen
36. Which
one
of
the
following
principles
of
organisation
was
enunciated
by
Mooney
and Reiley
(a) The scalar principle
(b) The functional principle.
(c) The Staff Line principle

(d)All the above
37. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
relating
to
classical
theory
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) This theory manifests impartiality
(b) This theory is atomistic in character
(c) This theory focusses on man
(d) This theory is very dynamic
38. The classical theory treats organisation as
(a) an all prevading system
(b) an open system
(c) a closed system
39. Which
one
of
the
following
writer
does
not
belong to the classical school
(a) Taylor
(b) Bernard
(c) Fayol
(d) Gulick
40. Human Relations Theory focuses on
(a) Human motivations
(b) Informal Organisation
(c) Role of Individuals
(d) All the above
41.
Consider
the
following
statements
relating
to Hawthorne Experiments
1. Individuals crave for self-interest and have no regard for social norms
2. Workers constitute a small, well-knit social group
1.
3. Men are not inter or isolated

creatures
4. An organisation is a social system
42. Consider
the
following
ding an Informal Organisation
1. It is not written and manualised
2. It is not portrayed in organisational charts
3. It is customary and not enacted
4. It is the result of slow evolution.
43. Which
is
an
odd
theory
statements
in
the
regar
following
groups?
(a) Human Relations Theory
(b) Socio-Economic Theory
(c) Humanistic Theory
(d) Structural Theory
44. Which
is
the
greatest
weakness
of
an
Informal Organisation?
(a) Predictibility of its behaviour
(b) Its utter instability
(c) Non-changeability
(d) all the above
45. Hawthorne
Experiments,
which
form
the
basis
of
humanistic
relation
theory
of
organisation,
were
carried
out
in
USA
under the leadership of
(a) Pfiffner
(b) Gullick
(c) Elton Mayo
(d) Wilson
46. Hawthorne experiments established
(a) The workers constitute a small, well-knit social group
(b) Men are isolated creatures and prefer to work independent of social groups
(c) There is no corelation between physical variables and production
(d) all the above principles
47. The
Humanistic
Theory
of
Organisation
lays stress on
(a) human relationship
(b) human motivation
(c) study of informal group functioning
(d) all the above
48.
"Hierarchy consists of the universal
application
of
the
superior-subordinate
relationship
through
a
number
of
levels
of
responsibility
reaching
from
the
top
to
the
bottom of the structure."
The above statemenmt is attributed to
(a) L.D.White
(b) Mooney
(c) Paul Appleby
(d) E. Dimock
49. Who
of
the
following
described
Hierarchy
as "the scalar process"
(a) L.D. White
(b) Paul Appleby
(c) Mooney and Railey
50. The
Systems
Theory
of
Organisation
is
based on the principle that
(a) each part of the organisation works independent of the other parts.
(b) all parts of the organisation are interdependent.
(c) each acts as a check on the other part and prevents its degeneration
(d) all parts of the organisation counteract each other.
51. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
System
Theory of Organisation?
(a) The system does not operate in vacuum
(b) The system has no boundary
(c) The system tries to maintain equilibrium with its environments.
(d) The variables of the system are interdependent.
52. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
System's
Theory
of
Organi
sation.
Theories of Organisation
429
1. The theory provides a useful framework for looking into the whole spectrum of
organisation.
2.The theory is helpful in evolving mathematically based models.
3. The theory helps in analysing nonessential factors.
4. The theory has propounded certain principles which have been accepted
universally.
(a)
ANSWERSl-(c) 2. (b)3.(d).
4. (c)5.(d)6.(d)7. (c)8. (a)9. (b)10. (a)11. (c)12.

(b)13. (d)14. (c)15. (c)16. (b)17. (c)18. (a)19. (d)20. (c)21. (a)22. (d)23. (a)24. (a)25.
(d)26. (c)27. (d)28. (a)29. (a)30. (b)31. (d)32. (c)33. (d)34. (b)35. (d)36. (d)37. (d)38.
(c)39. (a)40. (b)41. (b)42. (a)43. (a)44. (b)45. (c)46. (c)47. (d)48. (a)49. (c)50. (b)51.
(b)52. (a)
_39Principles of Organisation: Line and

Staff, Unity of Command,
Hierarchy, Span of
Control, Centralisation
and Decentralisation
All organisations of administration operate on the basis of certain well-established

principles. Though different organisations may deviate from these principles at times
but generally these are followed because these principles have been evolved over a
period of time and have been validated over a period of time. In
this chapter we shall study these principles of organisation.
LINE AND STAFF

On the basis of the work done by the various organisations they are divided into
three types. In the first place there are line agencies which directly work for the
attainment of the objectives of the organisation. Secondly there are staff agencies
which assist the line agencies in the discharge of their duties. Thirdly, there are
auxiliary agencies which provide common house-keeping services to the line
agencies.
UNITY OF COMMAND
This principle envisages a special kind of superior-subordinate relationship under
which each subordinate receives orders from one superior. Violation of this principle
undermines the discipline in the organisation and poses a threat to its stability.
However, in actual practice the principle of 'unity of command' has been greatly
undermined on account of growing influence of
staff and auxiliary agencies, the concept of 'one single boss or each person' is seldom
found in complex government situations.
HIERARCHY
AH big organisations possess a hierarchical system in which the higher officer
exercises control over the lower. The principle of superior-subordinate relationship
operates through a number of levels of responsibility reaching from the top to the
bottom of the structure. The system of hierarchy provides the much needed channel
of communication from top to the bottom and in the reverse direction as well. It helps
in achieving consensus in the organisation and facilitates delegation of authority.
SPAN OF CONTROL
The principle of span of control imples the number of subordinate or the units of
work, which an officer can direct, supervise and control. This rests on the principle
that there is a human limit to the number of things one person can do or attend.
Usually the span of control depends on the personality of the supervisor;
diversification of the functions of the organisation; age of organisation; traditions and
environment of the organisation; calibre of the subordinate etc.
Principles of Organisation: Line and Staff, Unity of Command, Hierarchy,

Span of Control 431
CENTRALISATION AND DECENTRALISATION

The
concepts
of
centralisation
and
decentralisation
revolve
around
the
location
of
the
decision
making
power
in
the
administrative
system.
If
the
authority
is
concentrated
at
the
top
level
of
administration,
it
is
known
as
Centralisation.
On
the
other
hand
if
the
authority
is
dispersed
among
the
lower
levels
of
administrative
system,
it
is
known
as
decentralisation.
Centralisation
has
several
advantages
viz.
it
ensure
quick
decisions;
ensures
unity
and
integrity
of
the
organisation;
ensures
uniformity
of
action;
facilite
facilitates
emergent
decisions;
minimises
duplication
of
work
and
prevents
wastage.
On
the
other
hand
decentralisation
has
also
some
distinct
advantages
viz.,
it
reduces
burden
of
the
top
executives;
facilitates
diversification;
motivates
administrators; reduces the number of levels by organising autonomous and self
sufficient units; etc.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANISATIONS

Organisations are divided into formal and informal on the basis of the determination
of their organisation and functions in writing or otherwise. In a formal organisation
every thing is put in writing and each member of the organisation is expected to
strictly operate in accordance with the stipulated rules and regulations.The members
are not expected to deviate from these rules. On the other hand, an informal
organisation does not operate on the basis of written rules and regulations and much
is left to the discretion and judgement of the operating officer. In this type of
organisation the main objective is to attain the best of results without attaching too
much of importance to the rules and regulations. Humanitarian considerations are
given due importance in the operation of informal organisations.
DEPARTMENT
Department is one of the three line agencies. It is directly under the chief executive
and is the biggest unit of the administrative hierarchy. There
are different types of departments and they differ from each other in size, structure,
nature of work and internal relationship. The departments can be organised on
three different bases viz. purpose, process, geographic boundaries and clientele it
serves. Which one of the above four should be selected depends on the objective
to be achieved and the circumstances to be dealt with. The departments can be
either large or small. The large departments are capable of achieving greater degree
of co-ordination; they facilitate comprehensive planning; reduction of overhead
costs by avoiding overlapping of activities; minimise the influence of pressure
groups etc. On the other hand large departments also suffer from several
shortcomings viz. they lead to delays, tend to neglect the inter-departmental aspects
of matters under their jurisdiction; neglect of certain aspects of department in
which the head of department has not much interest; and reduction of the
influence of the pressure groups may not be always in the interest of the people.
PUBLIC CORPORATIONS
This form of administrative organisation has been devised to carry on the business
and industrial activities of the government. It works like a body of shareholders and
appoints a Board of Director, who are responsible for laying down the policies for
the corporation. The internal policy of the Corporation is entrusted to General
Manager who is responsible for the internal administration. The Public Corporations
enjoy considerable amount of autonomy and flexibility like the private enterprises,
but at the same time
they are accountable to the public, which provides them the necessary
funds. The Public Corporations differ from government companies in several
ways viz. the method of their creation; the pattern of ownership; the role of
non-official directors; disinterestedness and range of application.
BOARD OR COMMISSION
The Boards or Commissions have features of both departmental organisation and
the Public Corporation. At the top they have a corporate structure but internally
they possess a departmental structure. Therefore a Board or
432
Commission can be defined as a group of people elected or appointed to discharge

collectively some public functions which have been entrusted to them. The Board
form of organisation has several advantages viz it enables the administration to
secure the advice and services of best competent people; it ensures wider civil
responsibilities through wider citizen participation in government; they ensure
representation of wide range of opinions in the community. However, the Board
system also suffers from several shortcomings viz. it leads to induction of politics in
administration; generally only mediocres are associated with the Boards; it is difficult
to fix responsibility under this form of organisation; and in comparison to the bureau,
the commission or Board organisation is more expensive.

1. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
administrative
organi
sation of the government
(a) Line Agency
(b) Staff Agency
(c) Auxiliary Agency
2. A Line agency
(a) works for the achievement of the purpose of organisation.
(b) provides necessary data for policy formulation
(c) keeps control over the staff working in the department
(d) is responsible for recruitment of staff
3. The
administrative
organisation
of
the
government
has
three
types
of
agencies.
Which
one
of
these
agencies
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Line Agency
(b) Staff Agency
(c) Public Corporation
(d) Auxiliary Agency
4. Which
one
of
the
following
line
agencies
is
a
special
feature
of
public
administration
in USA?
(a) Government Departments
(b) Public Corporations
(c) Government Companies
(d) Independent Regulatory Commissions (IRC)
5. Which
one
of
the
followng
characteristic
of
line agency has been wrongly listed?
(a)
It directly carries out functions of accomplishing the substantive
objectives of the organisation.
(b) It enjoys authority to make decisions and issue orders and directives.
(c) It comes in direct contact with the people and provides them various services
etc.
6. The
Staff
Agencies
assist
the
line
agencies
in their activities.
(a) True
(b) False
7. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Staff Agencies
1. They perform supportive functions and assist the line in the accomplishment
of organisational purpose.
2. They have no authority to take decisions and issue directives
3. They work in complete co-operation with the people.
4. They function in anonymity without coming in contact with the people directly.
(a.) 1,2 and 3 are correct
8. Though
the
Line
and
Staff
Agencies
are
expected
to
work
in
a
cordial
manner,
yet
the
relations
between
the
two
get
strained
on account of
(a) Staff agency being close to the chief executive tends to usurp the authority of
line agency.
(b) Tendency of the Staff to suggest unrealistic plans which are naturally ignored
by the Line and gives rise to tension between the two.
(a)
Principles of Organisation: Line and Staff, Unity
(c) Tendency of line officials to disown responsibility and blame the staff
officials for the mistakes.
(d) All the above reasons
9. If the line control proceeds from top downwards along the functional lines, it
is known as
(a) Functional Pattern
(b) Line Pattern
(c) Line-cum-Staff Pattern
(d) Staff Pattern
10. The
Staff
engaged
by
the
chief
executive
in
an
organisation
for
performance
of
administrative
work,
is
according
to
Pfiffner is known as
(a) general staff
(b) technical staff
(c) Administrative Staff
(d) Auxiliary staff
11.
The
staff
engaged
in
an
organisation
for
the
performance
of
functions
common
to
various departments is known as
(a) Line staff
(b) Auxiliary staff
(c) General Staff
(d) Administrative Staff
12. The
rivalary
and
conflict
between
the
line
and staff agency can be reduced if
(a) the chief executive specifies the nature of responsibilities of the line and
staff people.
(b) closer relations are promoted between the line and staff officials for
accomplishing
organisational purpose and objectives
(c) the line people are given training in staff work and vice-versa.
(d) the above steps are taken.
13. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
staff
function
in
an
organisation?
(a) Planning
(b) execution
(c) Fact Finding
(d) Advising
14. What is the main defect of hierarchy?
(a) It promotes superiority or inferiority
\
feeling in an organisation.
Command, Hierarchy, Span of Control 433
(b) It leads to rigidity in the organisation
(c) It leads to delay inthe disposal of cases
(d) It leads to decentralised decision making.
15. Who
of
the
follownig
called
hierarchy
the scalar process?
(a) L.D. White
(b) Pfiffner and Presthus
(c) Mooney and Reiley
16. "Every
organisation
must
have
its
chain
as
every
house
must
have
its
Who
of
the
following
is
associated
with
above statement?
as
scalar
drain."
the
(a) J.D.Millet
(b) Urwick
(c) LutherGulick
(d) F.W.Taylor
17. The
concept
of
unity
of
command
is
based
on the principle that
(a) An employee should, receive orders only from one superior.
(b) An employee can receive commands from more than one superior but has to
obey the command received first Of all.
(c) An employee can receive command from more than one superior but has to
justify in writing the choice being made by him.
(d) The employee has to obey the command of his immediate superior but
communicate the same to the top officer.
18. The
concept
of
'unity
of
command'
is
complementary to the principle of
(a) Delegated Legislation
(b) Hierarchy
(c) Scalar Chian
(d) Span of Control.
19. The
principle
of
unity
of
command
has
been effected by
(a) the Line agencies
(b) the Staff Agencies
(c) Auxiliary agencies
(d) Staff and Auxiliary agencies
(a)
434
20. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding span of control.
1. An employee should receive orders from only one superior.
2. The number of subordinate staff which an administrator can effectively direct.
3. The control of the superior over subordinates.

4. The number of employees being controlled by the Superior.
21. The span of control depends on
(a) Nature of the work to be supervised
(b) The personality of the superviser
(c) Calibre of subordinates
(d) all the above
22. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding span of control.
1. The concept of span of control is related to the principle of span of attention.
2. There is a difference with regard to span of control between higher and lower
levels.
3. The span of control is dependent on several variable factors.
4. Usually there is an agreement on the length of the span of control.
23. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
concept
of
authority
in
public
administration?
1. Authority is the legitimate power of office holders.
2. Authority is the foundation of administration in public life.
3. Authority and Power are synnymous
4. Authority is derived from law, organisational tradition and deli-gation.
24. Who
propounded
the
formal
theory
of
authority?
(a) Fayol
(b) Weber
(c) Bernard
25. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
concept
of
responsibility
in
public administration.
1. It implies obligation to carry out certain duties
2. It is not possible to take up any responsibility without authority.
3. Both operational responsibility and ultimate responsibility can be delegated
4. Responsibility is political, institutional and professional.

26. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
main
feature of Hierarchical system.
(a) In this system the person at the lower level is responsible to his immediate
superior
(b) In this system the person at the lower level is responsible to all his superiors.
(c) In this system the person at the lower level is accountable only to the person
at the top.
(d) In this system level jumping is permitted in the interest of effective working of
the system.
(a)
Principles of Organisation: Line and Staff, Unity of Command, Hierarchy, Span of
Control 435
27. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
hierarchical
system
is
not
correct?
(a) It is a pyramidical structure
(b) It is suited only to the big organisations
(c) It is helpful in quick disposal of the work
(d) all the above statements
28. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
main
feature of hierarchical system?
(a) In this system it is easy to fix the responsibility
(b) In this system the authority flow from top to below
(c) The system is helpful in quick disposal of work
29. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding hierarchical system is wrong?
(a) Under this system there is wide scope for informal consultations.
(b) The system is conducive to the growth of human relationship.
(c) The system encourages the lower staff to take initiative.
(d) All the above

30.
Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding hierarchical system.
(a) It encourages red tapism
(b) It imparts rigidity to administration
(c)It permits delegation of authority by higher authority to subordinate without
absolving himself of ultimate responsibility
(d) It makes the system of rewards and punishment meaningless.
(c) 1,2 and 4 ae correct
31. Who
said
"It
is
of
great
importance
to
smooth
working
that
at
all
levels
authority
and
responsibility
should
be
co-terminus
and co-equal?"
(a) Urwick
(b)J.D.Millet
(c) Henry Fayol
(d) Max Weber
32. In an administrative
organisation
coordination is necessary
(a) to avoid conflicts or over lapping
(b) to achieve goals of the organisation
(c) to curb the growing tendency of empire-building
(d) for all the above reasons.
33. Who
of
the
following
said
that
"coordination
is
the
first
principle
of
organisation?"
(a) Mooney
(b) Newman
(c) Cleveland
34. Who
said
that
the
concept
of
delegation
is
a mere myth of organisation theory?
(a) Cleveland
(b) C.I.Barnard
(c) M.P.Follet
(d) H.A. Simon
35. Who
said
"Delegation
means
conferring
of
specified
authority
by
a
higher
to
lower
authority?"
(a) Paul Appleby
(b) M.P.Follet
(c) Mooney
(d) Pfiffner
36. When
the
delegated
assignments
and
the
accompanying
authority
for
each
delegate
are
spelt
out
on
a
piece
of
paper,
it
is
known as
(a) Formal Delegation
(b) Informal Delegation
(c) Lega Delegation
(d) General Delegation.
37. When
the
delegation
is
made
through
an
understanding
between
the
superior
and
the subordinate, it is known as
(a) Informal Delegation

(b) General Delegation
(c) Formal Delegation
(d) Specific Delegation
38. When
the
task
it
to
the
delegate
is known as
(a) Specific Delegation
436
is
to
broadly
work
out
assigned,
leaving
the
details,
it
(b) Formal Delegation

(c) General Delegation
(d) Informal Delegation
39. When
the
details
of
the
spelt
out
and
specific
the delegate, it is known as
(a) General Delegation
(b) Specific Delegation
(c) Formal Delegation
40. If
the
official
or
delegate
what
he
thinks
proper,
on
power
which
he
enjoys
it is known as
(a) Delegation by force
(b) Delegation by consent
task
authority
is
in
the
assigned
vested
permitted
basis
the
are
in
to
do
of
his
organisation,
(c) Delegation by Piracy

(d)Delegation by Trust
41. If
a
Manager
is
permitted
by
a
weak
leader
to
take
decisions
which
do
not
fall
within
his
authority,
and
gets
those
decisions
vouched
from
his
senior
or
present
the
decision as fait accompli, it is known as
(a) Delegation on by Understanding
(b) Delegation on by Consent
(c) Delegation by Piracy
42. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
unitary
field
establishment
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It works in accordance with the instructions from the headquarters
(b) Each unit has some specific work to do.
(c) The unit is not responsible to the field station for its action.
43. What
is
the
most
effective
method
through
which
the
headquarter
exercises
control
over field establishment?
(a) Issue of instructions from time to time
(b) by denying finances for noncompliance with its roders
(c) through receipt of periodical reports
(d) all the above
multiple field establishment?
(a) For all practical purposes it is an extension of the head-quarters
(b) it receives no direct instructions from headquarters
(c) It operates through the system of unified command
(d) The field station controls all units working under it.
45. The headquarters can exercise control over
field establishment by
(a) preventing free mixing of the staff belonging to the field establishment and
the headquarters
(b) Starving the field establishment of finances
(c) impressing on the field establishments that they are only means to an end
rather than an end in themselves.
(d) keeping the establishments short of qualified staff.
46. The headquarters can exercise effective
control over field establishments by
(a) concentrating establishment of field establishments in the same area
(b) appointing regional coordinators
(c) encouraging regional boundaries of field establishments
(d) all the above
47. The field agencies are
(a) a useful link between the community and the citizens.
(b) generally anti-citizens
(c) ready to solve the day-to-day problems of the citizens.
(d) constantly in touch with the headquarters
regarding field establishment is correct?
(a) Field Establishment is a costly system

(b) Field Establishment is a cheap system of maintenance
(c) Field Establishment hampers the solution of the day-to-day problems of the
citizens
(a)
Principles of Organisation: Line and Staff, Unity of Command, Hierarchy, Span of Control 437
49. Which
factor
is
kept
in
mind
by
the
head
quarter
while
creating
a
field
establishment?
(a) Availability of necessary funds
(b) Availability of required man-power
(c) Involvement of the people of area in the formulation of policy
(d) all the above.
50. There
has
been
constant
increase
in
the
number of field establishments because
(a) their staff is more competent than the staff of the headquarters.
(b) the people can easily approach the field staff.
(c) the head-quarter insists that all cases should be routed through the field
agencies.
(d) of all the above factors.
51. Harmonious
relations
between
head
quarters
and
field
agencies
can
be
ensured
only
(a) If the headquarter reposes full faith in the field staff
(b) If the staff of the field agencies and the head quarter is periodically
transferred
(c) The staff of the headquarter has an affinity with the staff of the field
establishments.
(d) by taking all the above steps.
52.
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
decentralised
field establishment?
(a) It takes decisions in matters falling within its jurisdiction with the prior
approval of the head quarter.
(b) Its decisions are not communicated to the head-quarters.
(c) All policy decisions are taken by the field establishment.
(d) All the above.
53. Powers
are
decentralised
to
the
field
establishments by the headquarters only if
(a) the organisation is stable
(b) the field agencies insist on decentralisation.
(c) the organisation is unifunctional
(d) the field agencies are performing special type of functions.
54. It
becomes
imperative
for
the
head
quarters
to
decentralise
authority
to
the
field staff if
(a) the organisation is performing specialised type of functions.
(b) the membership of the organisation is not very large.
(c) the organisation is multi-functional
(d) the organisation is uni-functional.
55. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
centralised
organisation?
(a) The field establishments are permitted to take decision on large number of
macters.
(b) The sub-offices are granted lot of initiative
56. Which
one
is
a
feature
of
centralised
organisation?
(a) The field establishments work merely as executing agencies.
(b) In large number of cases the authority is not delegated to the subordinate
organisations.
(c) In centralised organisation the departments do not enjoy any functional
autonomy.
(d) All the above.
57. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
with
regard
to
centralised
organisation
is
not
correct?
(a) In this organisation sufficient time is available for policy formulation.
(b) In this organisation there is less red-tapism.
(c) In this organisation there is little time available for the local affairs.
(d) There is very little gap between administration and popular participation.
(a)
438
58. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
a
feaature
of
organisation?
(a) It provides relief to the overburdened central authority
(b) It promotes sense of self-respect among subordinate staff.
been
centralised
(c) It causes unnecessary delay in decision making

(d) It reduces delay in the decision making process.
59. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
formal
organisation?
(a) it is deliberately planned
(b) It is sanctioned by a competent authority
(c) It rests on social demands
(d) Ncne of the above
60. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding formal organisation.
1. It contains broad outlines and plans of organisation.
2. Its organisational pattern is designed by the management
3. It is based on human approach
4. It is very mechanistic
61. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
an
Informal
Organisation?
(a) It operates on the basis of personal equations.
(b) In it there is explicit recognition of values
(c) In it new departments may be created to adjust personalities.
62. Which
one
of
the
following
consideration
is
taken
into
account
while
creating
a
department?
(a) Increase in work-load
(b) Reduction in concentration of power
(c) To check delays in decision making

(d)All the above
63. Consider the following statements about a
department
1. Department is the outgrowth of need of division of labour.
2. Department leads to simplification of governmental operations.
3. Department facilitates the formulation of programmes.
4. Department makes the task of coordination of government activities easy.
64. Which one of the following function of
Department has been wrongly listed?
(a) It helps the Chief Executive to exercise better control over administration.
(b) It prevents overlapping of work
(c) It prevents personality clashes.
(d) It ensures better utilisation of technical knowledge.
65. An integrated department is
(a) an operational department
(b) directly placed under the control of the Chief Executive
(c) a department which has field agencies spread over whole of the country
66. A Department created for service to the
people is known as
(a) Operational Department
(b) Functional Department
(c) Welfare Department
(a)
Principles of Organisation: Line and Staff, Unity of Command, Hierarchy, Span of Control 439
67.
A
Department
created
for
service
in
particular Territory is known as
(a) Geographically Organised Department
(b) Area Based Department
(c) Territory Based Department
68. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
an
advantage
of
function based department?
(a) It prevents duplication of functions
(b) It minimises the confusion
(c) None of the aspect of work gets neglected
(d) It is helpful in development of skills of employees.
69. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
an
advantage
of
clientele based departments?
(a) it does not create any problem of coordination.
been
the
been
the
(b) It possesses competent staff which can effectively deal with various view
points.
(c) It prevents the growth of pressure groups.
(d) It simplifies relations between administration and concerned groups.
70. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
the
process
based
department
is
wrong?
(a) It facilitates maximum specialisation
(b) It can conveniently utilise and update the skills of the technical staff.
(c) It is a cheap method of organising a department.
(d) It encourages healthy competition for achievement of excellence.
71. What
is
the
advantage
of
a
territory
based
department?
(a) It promotes spirit of nationalism
(b) It imparts political stability
(c)It is helpful in handling cases involving communication difficulties.
(d) It promotes broad outlook.
72. Which
one
of
the
following
has
not
been
included
as
a
feature
of
Public
Corporation
byJ.M. Pfiffner?
(a) It is an independent financial entity
(b) It is authorised by law to carry out certain activities.
(c) It is formed by a number of persons to act as a single person.
(d) It is an artificial person.
73. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
public
corporation?
(a) It is a legal person
(b) It can enter into contract
(c) It can own and dispose of property

74. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
Public Corporation?
(a) It enjoys complete administrative autonomy
(b) It enjoys the initiative of a private enterprise
(c) It has its own budget
(d) All the above
75. Consider
the
following
statement
with
regard to the Public Corporations.
1. The Corporations can make capital investment and borrowing only with the
approval of the government.
2. In policy matters the government can issue directions to the Corporations.
3. In India the accounts of the Corporation are kept in consultation with the
Comptroller and Auditor General.
4. The Government can appoint the members of the Board of Directors of the
Public Corporation, but can remove them only with the prior approval of the
Parliament.
76. Match
List
I
(concept)
with
List
II
(Author)
and
give
the
correct
answer
using
the
following Codes
440
List-I
List-II
A. Unity of
1. Gullick
B. SpanCommand
of Control
2. Fayol
C.
3. Urwick
Hierarchy
D.
4.
Delegatio
Mooney
Code
A
B
C
D
(a)l
2
3
4
(b)2
3
4
1
(c) 1
3
2
4
(d)2
4
1
3
77. Match List -I
(concept)
with
List
(Author)
and
give
the
correct
answer
the following Codes
List -1
List - II
A. Staff Agencies
1. Gullick
B. Supervision
2. Barnard
C. Authority
3. Mooney
D. Coordination
4. Millet
Code
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2~':'
3
4
II
using
(b)2
3
4
1
(c) 3
42
1 (d)4
2
1
3
78. Match
List
I
(Statement)
with
List
(Author)
and
give
the
correct
answer
the following Codes
List -1
List - II
A. "Hierarchy is a method
1. Paul H. Appleby
whereby the efforts of
many different individuals are geared together."
B. "Every organisatioin must 2. L.D. White
have its scalar chain just
as every house must have its drain."
C. "Hierarchy is the means
3. Millet
by which resources are
apportioned, personnel
selected and assigned operations activated, reviewed and
modified."
D. "Hierarchy consists of the 4. Urwick
universal application of
the superior-subordinate
relationship
through a number
ponsibility reaching
from the top to the
the structure."
Codes
A
B
C
D
(a
2
3
4
)l
II
using
(
3
4
1
(c)
4
1
2
3(
1
2
3
d)79. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
common
feature
of
Public
Corporation
and
Joint
Stock Company
(a) Both are set up by an Act of the Legislature
(b) Both aim at the service of the people.
(c) Both aim at the earning profits
(d) All the above
80. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
common
feature
of
Public
Corporation
and
a
Department?
(a) Both can sue and can be sued
(b) Both are depended for finances on the government
(c) Administrative and Financial Power vests in both
(d) all the above.
81. Which
one
of
the
following,
according
to
Willoughby is not a feature of a Board.
(a) The Board takes all actions as a body
(b) Each member of the board operates as an independent entity.
(c) Board is a group of members who act collectively on all matters.
82. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regard
the
Board
type
of
organisation
is
correct
(a) It is suitable for organisations which represent number of interests.
(b) It is suitable for organisations whose policies are still to be deliberatred.
(c) It is suitable for organisations where the administration is to be saved
from external pressures.
(d) All the above.
(a)
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Chief Executive:
Types, Functions and
Q2QEQQ ^Ll I |
Roles
Chief Executive is the official who heads the entire* government and controls its
functioning. In fact he is the chief controlling and directing force to whom all look for
guidance and direction.
The Chief Executive Head can either be hereditary, as in Britain, or elective as in
India and U.S.A. Again the executive can be distinguished on the basis of exercise of
powers. If the Executive head wield real power he is described as real executive. On
the other hand if the executive enjoys powers only on paper and those powers are
exercised by someone else, the executive is known as nominal. The Queen of Britain
is the nominal executive, because the real powers are exercised by the Cabinet
headed by the Prime Minister. Again, on the basis of relations between the legislature
and the executive the Executive can be Parliamentary or Presidential. Under a
Parliamentary executive, the Executive is accountable to the
legislature and can be ousted from office. This type of executive is found in
Britain and India. On the other hand if the executive is not accountable to the
legislature and wields real powers (as in USA), the executive is known as
Presidential. As under the Parliamentary system the Prime Minister is assigned a
dominant role, this executive is more or less a single executive. However, in
Switzerland there exists plural executive because the powers are vested in
Federal Council consisting of seven members are the Chairman of the Federal
Council does not enjoy any over-riding powers.
As an administrative head of the state the Chief Executive is responsible for the
enforcement of laws passed by the legislature and maintain peace and order in
the country. The Chief
executive also plays an important role in the conduct of diplomatic relations. He
represents the country in other countries and appoints diplomatic envoys to various
countries. He also receives the diplomats from other countries. In United States the
President can negotiate treaties with other countries but these have to be ratified by
the Senate.
Usually the supreme command of the armed forces rests with the Chief Executive,
who can declare war and make peace. Usually war is declared with the concurrence
of the legislature. In countries with Parliamentary system the Executive plays an
important role in law-making. Under Presidential system no such power vests in the
head of the executive. However, he can veto laws passed by the legislature. The
Chief Executive also plays a vital role in the financial and judicial spheres as well.

1. In
Public
Administration
the
term
'chief
executive' means
(a) an official who heads the entire government
(b) the Head of the Department
(c) the head of the Board
(d) all the above
2. An
executive,
in
whom
all
the
powers
are
vested
by
the
Constitution,
but
who
actually
does
not
use
those
powers
is
known as
(a) nominal executive
(b) constitutional executive
(a)
Chief Executive: Types, Functions and Roles
443
(c) De facto executive

(d) De jure executive
3. The
Chief
Executive,
have
been
vested
actually
makes
use
known as
(a) Constitutional Executive
(b) Real Executive
(c) De Jure Executive
4. Which
one
of
the
nominal executive?
by
in
of
whom
the
the
Constitution,
those
powers
following
countries
has
powers
and
is
(a) England
(b) India
(c) USA
5. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
has
a
collegiate type of executive?
(a) France
(b) Switzerland
(c) Japan
6. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Parliamentary type of executive?
(a) It
comprises
of the elected representatives of the people.
(b) The real executive authority rests with the head of the government
(c) The head of the state under this system wields real powers.
7. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
common
feature
of
the
Parliamentary
and
Presidential Executive?
(a) In both the systems the executive is accountable to the people.
(b) The executive is elected for a fixed term
(c) Both have a Cabinet which formulates the policy of the country
(d) Both are accountable to the legislature
8. Which
one
of
the
following
is
an
outstanding
feature
of
the
Presidential
type of executive?
(a) The executive works in close cooperation with the legislature
(b) The members of the Cabinet, who assist the chief executive, are taken from
the Legislature
(c) The legislature can remove the executive at sweet will.
(d) The chief executive is elected for a fixed term.
9. Which one of the following countries
possesses a Presidential Executive?
(a) U.S.A
(b) Switzerland
(c) England
10.
The executive in USA falls in the category
of
(a) nominal executive
(b) Titular executive
(c) De facto executive
11. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
administrative
function of chief executive by Gulick?
(a) Staffing
(b) Coordinating
(c) Directing
(d) Ideologising
12. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
parliamentary
type
of
executive
has
been
wrongly listed
(a) The chief executive does not enjoy any fixed tenure.
(b) The system works on the basis of principle of collective responsibility
(c) The Prime Minister is appointed by the Chief Executive and holds office at his
pleasure
13. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Presidential
type
of
executive.
1. The executive head is elected for a fixed term.
2. the procedure for the removal of the executive head is quite difficult.
3. The executive head is accountable to the legislature.
4. The executive head is the boss of his cabinet.
444

14. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Swiss type of executive
1. Members of the executive participate in the proceedings of the legislature.
2. The executive are elected by the two houses of the legislature at a joint
meeting.
3. The members of the executive do not enjoy any fixed tenure.
4. The Executive does not quit office even if its policy is not approved by the
legislature.
15. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
function
of
the
Chief
Executive?
(a) Formulation
of
administrative policies.
(b) Approval of the structure of organisation. ,

(c) appointment and dismissal of organisational personnel.
16. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
functions
of
the
chief
executive.
1. To ensure that the administrative activities conform to statutory provisions.
2. To formulate and submit annual budget to the legislature.
3. To ensure that the powers delegated to the subordinate staff is not being
misused.
4. To help in the preparation of statutory provisions relating to the organisation.
17. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
administration
is
performed
by
the
Chief
Executive as General Manager?
(a) To select, control and remove unwanted personnel
(b) To exercise control over institutional activities
(c) To establish pyramidical system
(d) All the above
18. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
in
the
category
of
executive
functions of the Chief executive?
(a)To determine administrative policies
(b) To fill the gaps in the legislative enactments
(c) To lay guidelines for the performance of duties by the operational agencies
.(d) None of the above
19.
Match List-I (name of country) with List II
(designation of the Chief Executive) and
give correct answer on the basis of the code
given below.
List-I
List-II
A.U.S.A
1. President
B. England
2. Queen
C. Switzerland
3. Federal Executive
D. Japan
4. Emperor
A
B
CD
(a) 12
3
4
(b)2
3
4
1
(c) 3
2
1
4
(d)4
1
2
3
20. In
Public
Administration
Chief
Executive
has
that
of
the
General
Undertaking.
(a) True
(b) False
21. Consider
the
regarding
the
political
Chief Executive
the
role
of
the
been
compared
with
Manager
of
Corporate
following
functions
of
statements
the
Chief Executive: Types, Functions and Roles

445
1. To ensure that the public funds are properly utilised.

2. To determine the policies and programmes of the country.
3. To lead the nation
4. To ensure harmonious functioning of the Executive.
22. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
is
not
performed
by
the
Chief
Executive
under
a
Parliamentary system?
(a) To ensure that the sanctioned funds are properly utilised.
(b) To create and abolish administrative departments
(c) To issue directions to state legislatures regarding transaction of business.
(d) To fill up the vaccant posts by appointing competent persons.
23.
Which
one
of
the
following
administrative
function
is
performed
by
the
Chief
Executive in a Parliamentary System?
(a) To ensure that the various depart-mentS/Work in co-operation with each
other.
(b) To ensure that the departments maintain cordial relations with public.
(c) To ensure that no deviation is made from the accepted policy at the
implementation stage
/ (d) All the above
24. Which
one
of
the
following
is
an
essential
qualification of a good Chief Executive
(a) He should be intelligent firm and energetic
(b) He should have the capacity to identify his people with the objectives of his
organisation.
(c) He should not be vindicative or fickle minded.
(d) All the above
25. Match
List-I
(Name
of
the
author)
with
List-II
(Title
of
the
Book)
and
give
the
correct
answer
on
the
basis
of
the
codes
given below
List-I
List-II
A. Koontz, Harold and
1. Public AdministraO'Donnell
tion
B. W.F. Willough
2. Principles of
Organisation.
C. Mooney and James
3. Principles of Public
Administration
D. Dimock, Dimock and
4. Principles of ManaKoeing
gement
Code
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
3
2
1
(b)l
2
3
4
(c) 2
3
4
1
(d)3
4
1
2
26. Luther
Gulick
has
summed
up
the
administrative
functions
of
the
Executive
in
the
word
POSDCORB.
In
this
word
the
letter'?' stands for
(a) Planning
(b) Post-Mortem
(c) Processing
27. Letter 'O' in POSDCORB stands for
(a) Ombudsman
(b) Openness
(c) Organisation
(d)
None of the above
28. Letter'S' in POSDCORB stands for
(a) Steering
(b) Saturation
(c) Staffing
(d) Standards
29. The letter (D'in POSDCORB) stands for
(a) Delegation
(b) Direction
(c) Deviation
30. The letter 'C in POSDCORD stands for.
(a) Communication
(b) Coordination
446
(c) Convenience
(c) Revenue
(d) Risk
32. The letter'B'in POSDCORB
stands for 31. The letter 'R' in POSDCORB stands for
(a)
Budgeting
(b) Balancing
(a) Reporting
(b) Retirement
(c) Beginning
(d)
Betterment
1. (a)
7. (a)
13. (c)
19. (a)
25. (a)
31. (a)
ANSWERS
2. (a)
3.(b)
8.(d)
14. (c)
20. (a)
26. (a)
32. (a)
9. (a)
15. (d)
21. (b)
27. (c)
4.(d)
10.
16.
22.
28.
(c)
(a)
(c)
(c)
5.(b)
11.
17.
23.
29.
(d)
(d)
(d)
(b)
6. (c)
12. (c)
18. (d)
24. (d)
30. (b)
41Personnel Administration:
Recruitment,
Training, Promotion, Discipline,
Morale,
Employee-Employer Relations
Personnel Administration is an important part of any organisation. In fact the efficient

working of any organisation depends on its personnel. It is therefore essential that
the right type of the employees should be recruited, given proper training and placed
in their respective positions. Hence Personnel Administration involves recruitment,
training, promotion, discipline, morale, and employee-Employer relations.
Recruitment
The term recruitment is used in two senses narrow and broad. In the narrow sense
it includes the process occurring upto and including the filing of an application for a
particular position. In the broader sense it includes the entire process of filling
vacancies from issuing the initial advertisement to placing the qualified persons in
their jobs. In simple words we can say that recruitment means 'securing the right
people for a particular job, and it may take the form of advertising for a large group
of employees or tracking out a highly skilled individual for special work. The most
popular method of recruitment is through open competition. In such a recruitment
the prescribed qualifications are such that these are fulfilled by many. This system of
recruitment ensures that the best talents of the country are attracted. This system is
followed in Britain as v^ ?11 as India. On the other hand in the American system
candidates are examined in the problems with which they shall be concerned in their
official capacity.
Training
After recruitment the candidates are imparted training to make the employees
efficient. The main purpose of training is to impart knowledge of things which the
candidate would be called upon to do in his official capacity; the acquaint the
candidate with the rules and regulations so that he can discharge his duties
efficiently; and inculcate habits in the candidate which enable him to respond to the
situation properly.
Generally the candidates are imparted two types of training. Basic training
(which is essentially theoretical,) and practical training. Different schools exist for the
training of candidates belonging to various services.
Promotion
If the efficiency of the civil servants is to be ensured, there must be provision for their
promotion to higher posts. In fact promotion is a Sort of reward for meritorious and
faithful service. It also ensures that brilliant employees would not take up jobs with
private organisations on account of handsome salaries and benefits. In India 25 per
cent of the posts are filled up through promotion. This provides a chance to the
persons working in subordinate ranks to improve their prospects.
Broadly speaking two principles are followed for promotion. First, promotion is
granted on the basis of seniority. It is assumed that if a person spends a number
of years in service, he acquire administrative experience and is expected to be
more competent. If a junior person is given
promotion it is bound the affect the morale of the junior employee. Secondly,
promotion is granted on the basis of merit. In this type of promotion due weightage is
also given to seniority. In India both these methods are followed for promotion.
Discipline
Discipline in relation to an organisation implies orderly behaviour in accordance with
the rules and procedures of the organisation. Discipline can be of two typespositive
and negative. By positive discipline we mean that the subordinates willingly abide by
the rules. The employer ensures positive discipline by motivating the employee by
means of praise and incentives of pay etc. The negative discipline on the other hand
is punitive in character in which penalties are imposed on the wrongdoers. It has
been argued that as far as possible punitive discipline should be avoided because it
does not curb the undesirable tendencies on long term basis. It merely suppresses
them temporarily. Further, punishment can have side effect. It can cause resentment
and hostility towards the punisher.
Morale
Every organisation expects its employees to maintain high morale. This can be
attained by laying down a professional code of morality which the employees must
observe. Generally this code consists of traditions, precedents, and standards which
have to be kept up by the employee. It may be observed that the employees are not
merely expected to set-up high moral standards for themselves but also for the
community at large. In short it can be said that the morale depends on the
administrative standards on the basis of which action are judged. In India the rules of
conduct have been laid down in the code of conduct for civil servants, who are
expected to act in accordance with these rules. Some of the important principles
which influence the morale of employees include integrity, loyalty, honesty,
efficiency, non-partisan attitude, humbleness, devotion of duty, sense of public good,
secrecy, neutrality, anonymity, impartiality, neutrality and sincerity.
Employee-Employer Relations
For the smooth working of any organisation it is
essential that there should be smooth and healthy relations between the employer
and the employee. Generally for the regulation of employer-employee relations
detailed rules and procedures have been laid down and there is very little scope for
tension if those rules and procedures are adhred to. Despite this the relations
between the two tend to get strained and end up in strikes or lock-outs. Realising the
need for avoiding such eventualities certain mechanisms have been devised in
various countries to ensure cordial relations between the two.

1. Personnel Administration is also known as
(a) Manpower Management
(b) Labour Welfare Management
(c) Personnel Management
(d) all the above
2. Who
said
"Personnel
is
the
sovereign
factor in public administration?"

(a) L.N. White
(b) E.N. Gladden
(c) Herman Finer
(d) Paul Appleby
3. Which
one
of
the
following
does
not
part of civil services?
(a) Military Service
(b) Judicial Service
(c) Police Force
(d) all the above
4. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
in the civil services?
(a) persons holding political offices
(b) persons working in an honorary capacity
(c) persons working in diplomatic missions
5. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
services?
(a) It is a body of professional administrators
(b) Its members are appointed through an open competition.
(a)
form
included
been
civil
Personnel Administration: Recruitment, Training, Promotion, Discipline, Morale, Employee 449
(c) Its members are neutral and serve different political regimes impartially.
6. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
civil
service has been wrongly listed?
(a) Anonymity
(b) Neutrality
(c) It operates on the principle of hierarchy
(d) Body of amateurs
7. Attracting
proper
and
suitable
type
of
candidate
for
the
post
to
be
filled
up
is
known as
(a) appointment
(b) recruitment
(c) placement
8. There
are
two
types
of
recruitments
negative
and
positiveNegative
recruitment stands for
(a) elimination of political influence
(b) prevention of favouritism
(c) keeping out the unqualified and unsuitable
(d) all the above
9. Who
defined
recruitment
as
a
"process
through
which
suitable
candidates
are
induced
to
compete
for
appointment
through public service?"
(a) Herman Finer
(b) Max Weber
(c) D.Waldo
10. Positive System of recruitment implies
(a) picking up meritorious candidates for the available positions
(b) reservation of certain per centage of posts for the weaker sections of the
society
(c) picking up right candidates from the colleges and universities.
(d) all the above
11. Effort
to
recruit
the
right
type
of
candidates constitutes
(a) positive recruitment
(b) general recruitment
(c) active recruitment
(d) all the above
12. The
system
in
which
recruitment
to
the
higher
positions
is
open
to
all
the
qualified
candidates,
who
wish
to
apply,
is
known
as
(a) Direct recruitment
(b) Positive Recruitment
(c) General Recruitment
(d) Normal recruitment
13. The
system
in
which
recruitment
for
higher
positions
is
restricted
to
persons
already in service, is known as
(a) Indirect recruitment
(b) Recruitment through promotion
(c) Passive recruitment
(d) Preferential recruitment
14. Which
one
of
the
following
method
of
recruitment
is
in
keeping
with
the
principle of democracy?

(c) Recruitment through election
(d) General Recruitment
15. Which
system
of
recruitment
leads
to
induction of young blood in the services?
(a)Recruitment through elections
(b) Direct recruitment
(c) Recruitment through promotion
16. Before
the
adoption
of
merit
system
of
recruitment
which
one
of
the
following
was prevalent?
(a) Spoils system
(b) Patronage System
(c) Sale of Office
(d) all the above
17. The
merit
system
of
recruitment
in
India
was for the first time introduced in
(a) 1854
(b) 1892
(c) 1921
(d) 1950
18. At
whose
initiative
merit
system
of
recruitment was introduced in India
(a) LordCurzon
(b) LordMacaulay
(d) William Bentick

19. In
which
country
the
system
of
sale
of
offices was in vogue
(a) France
(b) U.S.A.
(c) Russia
(d) All the above
20. The
merit
system
of
recruitment
in
Great
Britain was first introduced in
(a) 1688
(b) 1855
(c) 1887
(d) 1020
21. Merit
system
of
recruitment
in
USA
was
first introduced in
(a) 1776
(b) 1887
(c) 1911
(d) 1920
22. If
the
candidates
are
selected
on
the
basis
of
personal
equations
or
political
considerations,
the
system
of
recruitment
is known as
(a) Spoils system
(b) Elite System of Selection
(c) Patronage
23. If
with
the
change
of
government
the
employees
of
the
existing
government
are
replaced
by
the
supporters
of
the
new
government, the system is known as
(a) Spoils System
(b) Patronage System
(c) Selective Recruitment
24. Which
one
of
the
following
system
of
recruitment
is
widely
followed
in
present
times?
(a) Merit System
(b) Spoils System
(c) Patronage System
25. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding direct recruitment
1. It gives premium to brilliance
2. It considerably widens the area of selection
3. It infuses new blood in services
4. It promotes healthy employer-employee relations
26. Which
one
of
the
following
method
of
recruitment
is
followed
in
majority
of
the
countries?

(c) Combination of (a) and (b)
(d) Recruitment through election
27. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
serious
drawback of direct recruitment system?
(a) It gives rise to heart burning among the staff already working in the
organisation.
(b) It infuses new blood in the services.
(c) It leads to the recruitment of persons of integrity.
28. The
Generalistic
System
of
Recruitment
followed
in
Britain
presumes
that
if
a
candidate
does
well
in
the
University
career
and
in
the
general
test,
he
is
likely
to
be a good administrator.
(a) True
(b) False
29. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Open
competition?
(a) All can appear for the examination irrespective of other considerations
(b) The minimum qualifications prescribed for the competition are fulfilled by
many
(c) Open competition attracts the best talents of the country.
30. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the American System of recruitment.
1. American system of recruitment is a specialist system of recruitment.
Personnel Administration: Recruitment, Training, Promotion, Discipline, Morale,
Employee 451
2. In the American system of recruitment the written competition consists of

such problems with which the person shall be concerned in his official
capacity.
3. The American system of recruitment is more democratic than the British
system
4. The American System is less democratic than the British system
31. In
India
majority
of
the
senior
positions
in
civil serices are filled though
(a) written test
(b) written test followed by an interview
(c) Interviews
(d) Nomination by the head of the state
32. In
USA
majority
of
the
high
civil
services
are filled through
(a) Promotion from lower ranks
(b) direct recruitment
(c) nomination by the President
(d) election
33. The
main
advantage
of
recruitment
through a written test is
(a) It helps in judging the power of expression of a candidate
(b) It helps the examiner to assess the standard of reasoning of a candidate
(c) It provides a fairly good idea about the continuity of thought of the candidate.
(d) all the above
34. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
listed
as
a
defect
of
recruitment
through
objective type test?
(a) It ensures fair evaluation
(b) It is economical method of evaluation
(c) It gives fair idea about the strandard of reasoning of the candidate
35. Which
type
of
tests
in
assessing
the
power
of
expression,
logical
arrangement
and
thinking qualities of the candidate.
(a) Oral Test
(b) Short-answer tests
(c) Essay type examination
36. Which
type
of
test
is
used
to
measure
the
innate qualifications of a candidate?
(a) Intelligence Test
(b) Aptitude Test
(c) Oral Test
(d) Viva Voce Test
37. What
is
the
aim
of
training
of
civil
services?
(a) To impart knowledge of things which the candidate shall be called upon to do
in his official capacity.

(b) To acquaint the candidate with the rules and regulations so that he may be
able to conduct the business entrusted to him efficiently.
(c) To inculcate habits in the candidate so that he is able to respond to the
situations properly
(d) All the above
38. The
training
imparted
to
an
employee
by
attaching
him
to
some
superior
officer
is
known as
(a) Informal Training
(b) Formal Training
(c) In House Training
(d) Practical Training
39. The
training
which
an
employee
receives
through
the
process
of
trial
and
error
is
known as
(a) In Job Training
(b) Hard way of learning
(c) Training through trial and error
40. The
training
which
the
employee
receives
while doing his official work is known as
(a) Formal Training
(b) Informal Training
(c) Departmental Training
(a)
41. The
traditional
method
is even now followed is known as
of
training,
which
(a) Skill training

(b)Informal Training
(c) Practical Training
42. The
training
which
is
imparted
to
an
employee
under
the
guidance
of
an
expert
is known as
(a) Formal Training
(b) Informal Training
(c) General Training
(d) Skill Training
43. The
training
which
is
imparted
to
a
recruit
before
entering
upon
his
service
is
known
as
(a) Pre-entry training
(b) Post-entry training
(c) Formal Training
(d) Informal Training
44. The
training
which
is
imparted
to
an
employee within the office is known as
(a) In-Service Training
(b) Departmental Training
(c) Refresher Course Training
45. The
training
imparted
to
an
employee
in
some
specialised
techniques
or
com
plicated procedure is known as
(a) Technical Training
(b) Skill Training
(c) Departmental Training
(d) General Training
46. If
the
employees
of
two
or
more
departments
assmble
at
a
place
where
the
Chairman
or
some
senior
officer
imparts
training, it is known as
(a) Training by Conference
(b) Training through Formal Communication
(c) Training through Seminars
47.
According
to
E.N.
Gladden,
the
adminis
trative training includes
(a) Training in basic clerical techniques
(b) Training in the routine and specialised techniques of the department
(c) Imparting knowledge about the theory of public administration.
(d)all the above.
48. The
IAS
training
school
which
was
established
in
1947
was
originally
located
at
(a) New Delhi
(b) Shimla
(c) Hyderabad
(d) Mussoorie
49. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding In-Service training is correct?
(a)It is an expensive method of training.

(b) It tends to curb the initiative of the trainees.
(c) It prepares the trainees for the onerous tasks which they are expected to
handle.
50. The
training
which
seeks
to
appraise
the
employee
with
the
socio-economic
background of the country is known as
(a) Background Training
(b) Refresher Training
(c) Formal Training
(d) Informal Training.
51. The
training
which
seeks
to
update
the
knowledge
of
the
employees
through
lectures etc. is known as
(a) In Service Training
(b) Orientation Training
(c) Refresher Training
52. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
promotion
as
listed
by
L.D.
White
has
been
wrongly stated?
(a) It means an appointment from a given position to a higher position or grade
(b) It involves allotment of more difficult type of work and greater responsibility
(c) It involves change of title and usually an increase in pay.
(a)
Personnel Administration: Recruitment, Training, Promotion, Discipline,
Morale, Employee 453
53. The
term
promotion
has
been
drawn
from
the word 'promoverse' taken from
(a) Greek language
(b) Latin language
(c) French language
(d) Roman language
54. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
most
logical
and
impersonal
method
of
promotion?
(a) Seniority
(b) Merit
(c) Combination of (a) and (b)
55. In
India
which
one
of
the
following
method is followed for promotion
(a) Fitness
(b) Seniority
(c) Fitness cum seniority
(d) Nomination
56. Which
one
of
the
following
reasons
for
the
adotion
of
seniority
as
a
criteria
for
promotion has been wrongly listed?
(a) Seniority is the most impersonal method for promotion.
(b) A person who has spent a number of years in service is supposed to have
more administrative experience than a person who joins later.
(c) If a junior person is given promotion over a senior person it is likely to upset
the morale of the services.
57. Promotion
on
the
basis
of
seniority
is
not
justified on the following grounds.
(a) It kills the initiative of the juniors
(b) It hampers the process of self-improvement
(c) It can lead to promotion of incompetent persons to the higher posts.
(d) On all the above grounds.
58. Consider
the
following
statement
of
British
Fulton
Committee
(1966-68)
"The
right
promotion
at
the
right
time
is
an
essential
part
of
the
process
of
developing
full
talents
of
men
and
women
in the services."
(a) True
(b) False
59. Which
one
of
the
following
three
types
of
promotion has been wrongly listed?
(a) Promotion from lower grade to higher grade
(b) Promotion from lower class to higher class
(c) Promotion from lower service to a higher service
60. Promotion is also known as
(a) Indirect Recruitment
(b) Recruitment from within
61. The
system
of
assessing
an
employee
for
promotion
by
an
outside
agency
is
not
desirable on the following ground
(a) It shall not be able to assess the qualities and drawbacks of the employee.
(b) It shall not have full idea about the inside working of the organisation.
62. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
by
Willoughby
as
an
essential of sound promotion system?
(a) Principle of merit should be followed in determining the promotion of
employees
(b) There should be adequate means for determining the relative merits of
employees eligible for promotion.
(c) Adoption of standard specifications setting forth the duties and qualifications
required for all promotions in the government service.
63. Under
the
System
of
Promotion
operating
in
England,
the
promotion
is
granted
on
the basis of
(a) a Departmental examination
(b) Merit
(c) Confidential Assessment Report
(d) Seniority
(a)
Personnel Administration: Recruitment, Training, Promotion, Discipline, Morale, Employee

455
(a) It undermines the authority of the head of the department.

(b) It is likely to promote in subordination
(c) It is likely to be guided by principles of abstract justice rather than logic of
administration.
75. Which
one
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
an
act
of
indiscipline
on
the
part
of
a
civil
servant?
(a) disloyalty to the organisation
(b) non-discharge of duties
(c) insubordination
(d) all the above
76. A
public
servant
is
expected
to
strictly
follow
the
prescribed
code
of
conduct.
Which
one
of
the
following
is
usually
not
treated as a part of code of conduct?
(a) Fairness in official dealing
(b) Maintenance of dignity of office
(c) Maintainance of official secrecy
(d) Observance of family planning
77. What
is
the
correct
order
in
which
following
disciplinary
steps
are
taken.
Give answer with the help of codes
1. Suspension of Employee
2. Framing of charges
3. Hearing of charges
4. Calling of explanation The correct order is
(a) 1,2,3 and 4
(b) 4,3,2 and 1
"(c) 4,2,3 and 1
(d) 1,2,4 and 3
78. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
right
of
a
civil
servant
in
India
to
appeal
against
the
order
of
the
superior officer.
1. An appeal is permissible under the rules
2. The appeal must be routed through proper channel
3. The appeal must be made within the stipulated period of six months
4. The appeal can be made only if the head of the office grants necessary
permission.
79. Which
one
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
a good principle of disciplinary action?
(a)Prompt justice
(b) Non-revengeful attitude
(c) Consistency of action
(d) All the above

80. Discipline
which
generates
from
within
is
known as
(a) Instant discipline
(b) Positive Discipline
(c) Conscience discipline
81. The
concept
of
morale
in
public
admini
stration
(a) is an index of sound employment situation.
(b) is helpful in building up an efficient organisation.
(c) stimulates loyalty
(d) includes all the above
82. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
Morale has been wrongly listed?
(a) Morale is not a state of mind but a creation of the organisation.
(b) Morale induces the workers to give their best
(c) It promotes cooperation among the workers
83. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
are
conducive
to
the
morale
building
of
the
empolyees
(a) Goods working conditions
(b) Stimulating leadership
(c) Security of job
84. Which
one
of
the
following
is
symbolic
of
low morale among the employees?
(a) Growing indiscipline of
(b) Disloyalty to the Organisation
(c) Frustration
(d) all the above
(a)
85. Which
one
of
the
following
yardstick
is
helpful
in
measuring
the
morale
of
the
employees
(a) Provisions
regarding
collective bargaining
(b) Presence of Trade Unions
(c) Good working conditions
86. Who
authored
"The
human
side
of
the
enterprise'
(a) Libert
(b) McGregor
(c) HenryFayol
(d) L.D.White
87. Which
one
of
the
following
was
considered
essential
by
Libert
for
building
up the moral of the empolyees?
(a) Impartial system of selection of employees
(b) Schemes of Profit sharing with the employees
(c) Recognition of the work of employees
(d) All the above
88. The
relations
between
the
employee
and
the
employer
generally
get
strained
on
account of
(a) poor working conditions
(b) Arrogant attitude of the supervisory staff
(c) Tight employment conditions.
89. What
is
the
correct
order
for
the
settlement
employer-employee disputes in India
1. Presentation of Demands
2. Negotiations with trade unions
3. Threat to go on strike
4. Reference of the matter to Settlement Machinery
(a) l,2,3and4
(b) 4,3,2andl
(c) 2,1,4 and 3
(d) 3,4, land 2
90. Workers resort to strike because
(a) it draws the workers closer to each other
(b) it helps them to force the employer to accept their demands
(c) it forces the employer to accept the legitimate demands of the workers
(d) of all the above stated reasons
regarding strike by civil servants in India.
1. The conduct rules in India prohibit the civil servants from participating in any
strike
2. Strike by civil servants is considered a disciplinary offence in India
3. The Administrative Reforms Commission of India recommended complete ban
on strikes by civil servants.
4. In India the civil servants can resort to strike after they have exhausted
peaceful methods of negotiated settlement with the employer.
(b) 2,3 and 4 correct
(c) 1,2 and 4 correct

(d) 1,3 and 4 correct
92. The civil servants in India are
(a) not permitted to engage in active politics
(b) not permitted to join any political party
(c) not permitted to canvass in favour of any candidate
(d) not permitted to enage in any of the above activities
93. Neutrality of civil servants implies
(a) they must remain non-political.
(b) they must serve different governments in power impartially.
(c) they must render free and frank advice to the political considerations.
(d) all the above.
94. The concept of 'civil service neutrality'
was first developed in
(a) Britain
(b) U.S.A.
(c) Switzerland
(c)
Personnel Administration: Recruitment, Training, Promotion, Discipline, Morale,
Employee 457
95. Which
one
of
the
following
is
an
ingre
dient of the British concept of neutrality
(b)
(a) Public confidence in the freedom of the civil service from all political bias Civil
servants loyally serve the ministers irrespective of the political party in
power.
(c)
(d) The
High staff is confident that promotion and other rewards shall be offered only on the
basis of merit
and not on political considerations. All the above

96. The
Hoover
Commission
of
USA
laid
down
following
concepts
for
the
neutrality
of
civil
services.
Which
one
of
these
has
been wrongly listed.
(a) Civil servants must keep clear of all political activities and preserve their
neutrality in matters of policy.
(b) They must avoid emotional attachment to the policies of any
administration and work in harmony with new leaders.
(c) Senior civil servants should refrain from all political activities which could
adversely affect their ability to perform their official duties fairly.
97. Anonymity of civil servants means
(a) They work from behind the curtain without praise or blame
(b) They are protected by the ministers and are not exposed to the din and fury
of politics.
(c) The ministers assume responsibility for the acts of omission and commission
of the civil servants working under them.
(d) All the above
(a)
(a)
l.(d) 7.(b) 13. (b) 19. (a) 25. (a) 31. (b) 37. (d) 43. (a) 49. (c) 55. (c) 61. (c) 67. (b)
73. (b) 79. (d) 85. (c) 91. (a) 97. (d)
2.(c) 8.(d) 14. (a) 20. (b) 26. (c) 32. (a) 38. (a) 44. (b) 50. (a) 56. (d) 62. (d) 68. (d)
74. (d) 80. (b) 86. (b) 92. (d)
ANSWERS
3.(d)
9-(c)
15. (b)
21. (b)
27. (a)
33. (d)
39. (b)
45. (b)
51. (c)
57. (d)
63. (c)
69. (b)
75. (d)
81. (d)
87. (d)
93. (d)
4. (d)
10. (a)
16. (d)
22. (c)
28. (a)
34. (c)
40. (b)
46. (a)
52. (d)
58. (a)
64. (c)
70. (d)
76. (d)
82. (a)
88. (d)
94. (a)
5.(d) 11. (a) 17. (c) 23. (a) 29. (a) 35. (b) 41. (b) 47. (d) 53. (b) 59. (d) 65. (d) 71.
(c) 77. (c) 83. (d) 89. (a) 95. (d)
6.(d) 12. (a) 18. (b) 24. (a) 30. (c) 36. (a) 42. (a) 48. (a) 54. (a) 60. (c) 66. (d) 72.
(d) 78. (a) 84. (d) 90. (d) 96. (d)
_42.
Bureaucracy: Theories, Types and
Roles Max Weber and His Critics Civil
Servant-Minister Relationship
Bureaucracy has been defined by Laski as a system of government, the control of

which is so completely in the hands of the officials that their power jeopardizes the
liberties of the ordinary citizens. In this definition Laski uses the term in derogatory
sense and completely ignores the important role played by bureaucracy in the
working of the modern governments. Though Karl Marx was the first modern writer to
undertake the study of bureaucracy, but he looked upon it as an instrument by which
the dominant class exercises its domination over other social classes. A systematic
study, however, began with the German sociologist
Max Weber. Robert Michels also expressed the view that large organizations have
a tendency to develop a bureaucratic structure. In simple words he took the view
that in a big organization power is concentrated in the hands of a few oligarchs.
In short it can be said that though other scholars talked about bureaucracy the
credit for offering the first scientific treatment of bureaucracy goes to Max Weber.
He said that bureaucracy was indispensable for the rational achievement of the
goals of an organization.
Max Weber considered bureaucracy as an important instrument which
influences the modern polity, the modern economy and the modern technology.
According to him the bureaucratic system had several features viz; it is a
corporate body bound by rules; it rests on principle of division of labour; it is
based on principle of hierarchy; its members are appointed and not elected; the
administration is carried on in
accordance with rules; the concerned officer is fully responsible for the discharge
of his duties; the officer is paid salary during his service and a pension on
retirement; bureaucracy is a career where one can go up in the basis of seniority
and merit; the officer has to maintain strict discipline.
Weber held that only a purely bureaucratic type of administrative
organization is capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency. According to
him bureaucracy is most efficient and most rational, as compared to other forms
of organizations. Weber listed seven factors which were responsible for the rise of
bureaucracy viz. creation of money economy; emergence of capitalist economy;
growth of democratic institutions; emergence of complex administrative
problems; development of modern means of communication; growth of
rationalism and growth of population.
Weber's bureaucratic model was criticised by several writers on different
grounds. First, his model is concerned with formal structure of the organisation
and neglects the human dimension. Second, Max Weber's model did not take into
account the interaction between the organization and its environment. Third, it
cannot work in changing environmental conditions. Fourthly, his model is not
suitable for jobs involving creativity and innovation. Despite the above criticism it
cannot be denied that Weber's bureaucratic model continues to be the dominant
paradigm in public administration.
Bureaucracy: Theories, Types and Roles Max Weber and His Critics Civil ServantMinister 459
CIVIL SERVANT-MINISTER RELATIONSHIP

In a Parliamentary system of government there are two wings of executive viz.
political executive consisting of ministers and the permanent executive consisting of
civil servants. While the various departments are headed by the Ministers who are
amateur persons, they are assisted by the civil servants who assist the ministers in
the formulation and implementation of policy. Though the civil servants are there
mainly to assist the ministers, in actual practice they have come to play an effective
role. They provide the necessary data to the ministers on the basis of which the
policy is determined. Even after the policy has been formulated, the civil servants
enjoy considerable discretion in the implementation of the policy. The ministers are
expected to avoid interference in the day-to-day administration of the department.
The civil servants play an important role in the sphere of legislation, preparation
and implementation of budget, and discharge other quasi-judicial functions on behalf
of the ministers. For all their failures the ministers are accountable to the Parliament
and cannot pass on the blame to the civil servants. In the interest of administrative
efficiency it is desirable that the civil servants and ministers must work in cooperation with each other. The ministers should avoid interference in the day-to-
administration and avoid blaming the civil servants for their lapses. On the other
hand the civil servants should fully co-operate with the ministers and render them
sincere advice. In simple words the ministers and the civil servants must keep
themselves confined to their respective spheres and avoid encroachments on each
other's sphere.

1. Which one of the following characteristic of Bureaucracy has been wrongly
listed?
(a) It should be politically neutral
(b) It should apply the rules and regulations rigidly
(c) It must faithfully implement the laws
(d) It should work in close co-operation with the political executive
2. A committed bureaucracy is committed to
(a) the head of the state
(b) the constitution
(c) a particular ideology
(d) all the above
3. A good bureaucracy must
(a) stick to its own view point
(b) co-operate
with
the
political executive
(c) provide correct data to the executive
4. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
important
function
of
bureaucracy?
(a) It ensures financial stability of the state
(b) It discharges the quasi-judicial functions assigned to it
(c) It places the grievances of the people before the Parliament
5. Which
one
of
the
following
Prime
Ministers
put
forth
the
idea
of
a
committed
bureaucracy?
(a) Indira Gandhi
(b) Charan Singh
(c) V.P.Singh
(d) A.B. Vajpayee
6. Who
of
the
following
is
concerned
with
the
recruitment of bureaucracy in India
(b) the President
(c) the Union Public Service Commission
(d) the Union Home Minister
7.
regarding bureaucracy in post-
independent India
1. The bureaucracy in India works under heavy strains.
2. There is too much interference of politicians in the day-to-day working of
Bureaucracy
3. It is more efficient than the bureaucracy in pre-independence period
1.
4. The
civil
servants
in
post-independence India are more corrupt than
their counter-parts in pre-inde-pendence days Of the above statements
8. The civil servants in England
(a) are recruited through open competition
(b) are nominated by the Cabinet
(c) are appointed by the House of Lords
(d) are appointed by the Lord Chancellor
9. In
Britain
the
civil
servants
play
a
vital
role
because
(a) The ministers who head the various departments and laymen
(b) The ministers are greatly dependent on the civil servants, who are experts in
their respective sphere
(c) The civil servants tender honest and impartial advice to the ministers and
faithfully carry out the policy directives given by the ministers.
10. The
civil
servants
in
England
have
been
divided into
(a) two classes
(b) three classes
(c) four classes
(d) five classes
11. Which
one
of
the
following
in
Britain
is
regarded
as
the
top
class
of
the
Civil
Services
(a) The Administrative Class
(b) The Executive Class
(c) Clerical Class
12. The
Administrative
Class,
which
is
the
top-class
of
civil
service
in
England,
is
responsible for
(a) the formulation of policy
(b) the coordination of the working of various departments of government
(c) the issue of instructions and directions for the execution of policy to the
subordinate departments.
(d) All the above.
13. Which
one
of
the
following
class
of
civil
services
looks
after
the
supply
and
accounting departments in England
(a) The Executive Class
(b) The Administrative Class

(c) Clerical Class
(d) All the above
14. For
the
recruitment
of
which
category
of
civil
service
in
England
the
minimum
qualification is graduation
(b) The Executive Class
(c) Clerical Class
(d) All the above
15. In
which
class
of
the
following
services
in
England
certain
per
centage
of
posts
are
filled
through
promotion
from
lower
classes?
(b) The Executive class
(c) Clerical Class
(d) All the above classes
16. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
role
of
Civil
Services
in
Britain
1. The civil servants make available necessary data and information to the
ministers on the basis of which they formulate policy
2. The civil servants in England are responsible for the enforcement of the laws
enacted by the Parliament
3. The civil servants in England act as the custodian of public funds
4. Unlike in USA, the civil servants in England do not discharge any quasi-judicial
functions.

17. "The
Ministers
in
England
are
amateurs
in
the
art
of
government
and
real
administration
is
carried
on
by
the
members of Permanent Civil Services."
(a) True
(b) False
18. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
civil
servants
in
England
is
correct?
(a) The civil servants are recruited at a comparatively young age and possess
spccalized knowledge of administration.
(b) The civil servants in England are expected to behave in neutral manner and
keep aloof from active politics.
(c) The civil servants in England cannot make political speeches or canvass
support for candidates in the elections
<d) All the above
19. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
civil
servants
in
England
is
not
correct?
(a) They hold office till the attain the age of retirement
(b) The civil servants in England remain in office irrespective of change in the
ruling party.
(c) The civil servants in England are replaced with a new set of civil servants with
the change of government.
(d) The civil servants in England tender impartial advice to the government.
20. The
Ministers
in
England
are
greatly
dependent on the civil servants because
(a) they are immatures and cannot run the administration without the help of
expert civil servants
(b) of their pre-occupations vith parliamentary and other political activities.
(c)the civil servants provide the facts and statistics on the basis of which the
Ministers formulate the policy
(d) of the above stated reasons.
21. In
recent
years
in
England
the
powers
of
the
civil
servants
have
greatly
increased
and
the
position
of
the
ministers
has
been
greatly
undermined.
Which
one
of
the
following factors is not responsible for it?
(a) Civil servants play an important role in the formulation of laws which are
highly complex and technical in nature.
(b) The Parliament passes only skeleton laws and the civil servants frame rules
and regulations to fill the gaps in the bills
(c) Grant of full judicial powers to the civil servants has greatly enhanced their
prestige.
(d) The civil servants make available necessary material to the ministers on the
basis of which they answer questions in the Parliament
22. In
Britain
the
bureaucracy
thrives
under
the cloak of ministerial responsibility.
(a) True
(b) False
23. In
USA
apart
from
some
important
positions
all
important
appointments
in
civil services are made
(a) by the President
(b) by an independent commission
(c) by the Senate
24. Several
factors
have
contributed
to
tremendous
increase
in
the
powers
of
Bureaucracy
in
USA.
Which
one
of
these
factors has been wrongly listed?
(a) Increase in the welfare activities of the state
(b) State is dealing with more and more technical subjects
(c) Frequent wars
25. 'Spoils
System'
which
was
an
important
feature
of
Bureaucracy
in
USA
implied
that
(a) with the change of the President there was change in administration.
462
.(b) The bureaucratic positions were given to the highest bidder.

(c) The civil servants were engaged on contract basis.
26. Who
of
the
following
Presidents
is
as the father of the 'Spoils System' in USA?
(a) George Washington
known
(b) Jefferson
(c) Jackson
27. When
was
the
system
of
employment
on
the
basis
of
competitive
examinations
first
introduced in USA?
(a). In 1787
(b) In 1820
(c) In 1883
(d) In 1940
28. What
was
the
percentage
of
the
federal
positions
which
were
initially
filled
by
the
Civil
Service
Commission
on
the
basis
of
merit?
(a) 10 per cent only
(b) 15 per cent only
(c) 25 per cent only
(d) 50 per cent only
29. When
was
the
United
States
Civil
Service
Commission set up?
(a) In 1883
(b) In 1940
(c) In 1949
30. Which
one
of
the
following
in
the
central
personnel agency in the USA?
(a) Merit System Protection Board (MSPB)
(b) The Federal Labour Relations Authority (FLRA)
(c) The Office of Peronnel Management (OPM)
31. The
Office
of
Personnel
Management
in
USA is concerned with
(a) preparation of personnel policies, rules and regulations.
(b) recruitment and promotion of civil servants
(c) administration of retirement and insurance programmes
(d) all the above
32. Under
the
position
classification
of
civil
services
in
USA,
the
civil
services
have
been classified on the basis of
(a) duties
(b) responsibilities
(c) qualifications
(d) all the above
33. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
recruitment
system in USA?
(a) The civil service examination for the federal jobs is conducted by the office of
Personnel Management
(b) Entry of candidates into civil service it at all age and at all level
(c) No definite educational qualification is prescribed for joining the civil service
34. The
retirement
age
for
the
civil
servants
in
USA is
(a) 60 to 65 years (b) 65 to 70 years
(c) 70 to 75 years

35. In
USA
the
responsibility
for
the
preparation
and
administration
of
Budget
rests with
(a) the President
(b) the Congress
(c) The Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
(d) The President and Congress jointly.
36. France
has
a
highly
centralized
admini
strative
system
in
which
the
civil
servants
enjoy powerful position.
(a) True
(b) False
37. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Before the French Revolution the system of 'sale of offices' was in vogue in
France
(b) Merit system of recruitment is a feature of recruitment of civil services in

France
(c) The civil servants in France are drawn from an elitist social group.
(d) All the above
38. The
National
School
of
Administration,
which
works
under
the
direct
control
and
supervision
of
the
Prime
Minister
of
France
(a) conducts open competitive examination for recruitment of civil services
(b)
arranges pre-entry coaching for the aspiring candidates
(c) provides long term, post-entry, training to the civil servants.
(d) Does all the above things.

39. The
French
system
of
training
of
civil
services,
which
is
regarded
as
a
model
for
training
in
many
countries,
has
several
features.
Which
one
of
these
features
has
(a) It imparts practical rather than theoretical training.
(b) The training is handled by the civil servants themselves.
(c) The training instils both generalist and specialist skills.
40. Which
one
of
the
following
criterias
is
adopted
for
the
promotion
of
civil
servants
in France?
(a) Seniority
(b) Merit
(c) Merit-cum-seniority
41. Administrative
Law,
which
is
a
distinct
feature
of
administration
in
France,
has
several features. Which one of the
following feature of Administrative Law has been wrongly listed?
(a) It draws a distinction between the personal acts of public officials from their
official acts.
(b) It provides for a special tribunal to try officials when they are sued by private
citizens for their administrative lapses.
(c) It provides compensation to the citizens for the injuries and losses suffered by
them at the hands of the administrative authorities.
1. Administrative Courts are a unique institutional device created for the
redressal of citizens grievances.
2. In France a distinction is made between the personal acts and the official acts
of a public official.
3. In France public official is personally liable for his personal acts and can be
sued in ordinary courts.
4. The civil servants in France are accountable to the Administrative Courts for
all their personal and official acts.
43. Which one of the following is the highest
Administrative Court of France?
(a) Council of States
(b) Regional Council
(c) National School of Administration
(a)
(b) Zfr
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43Leadership, Its Role in Decision

Making;
and Communication
Leadership plays an important role in the successful functioning of an organization

and attainment of its objectives. Keith Davis defines leadership as the ability to
persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. According to Barnard
"leadership refers to the quality of the behaviour of individuals, whereby they guide
people in their activities in an organized effort." Thus leadership depends on three
thingsthe individual, the followers and the conditions. It may be observed that the
leader not only influences the group but is also influenced by it.
According to M.P. Follet there are three types of leadership. First, there is
leadership of position in which the leader holds a position of formal authority. Second,
there is leadership of personality in which the leader holds forceful personal qualities.
Thirdly, there is leadership of function, in which the leader holds both position and
personality. In a modern organization only those people lead the organization who
possess functional knowledge rather than those who possess formal authority.
As regards the style of leadership, there are three styles of leadership viz.
autocratic, democratic and laissez faire. In the autocratic style the entire authority is
concentrated in the hands of the leader who decides all policies and gives orders to
the subordinates. In the democratic style of leadership, the leader allows the subordinates to participate in the decision-making process. In laissez faire style of
leadership, the leader gives complete independence to the subordinates in their
operations and the leader has minimum participation. A good leader, according to
Chester
Barnard, should have four qualities viz. (i) vitality and endurance; (ii) decisiveness;
(iii) persuasiveness; and (iv) responsibility and intellectual capacity.
Hicks and Gullet have identified eight functions of a leader. These are (1)
Supplying organizational objectives to the members. (2) Arbitrating on disagreements
among organizational members; (3) catalising to arouse the subordinate to action. (4)
Suggesting ideas to subordinates. (5) Inspiring subordinates to work effectively
towards accomplishment of organizational goals. (6) Praising subordinates to satisfy
their recognition needs. (7) Providing security to followers when they face problems.
(8) Representing the Organisation before others.
In the main three theories of leadership have been propounded. These are the
Trait Theory, the Behavioural Theory and the Situational Theory.
Communication
Communication is an important principle of organization for realization of its
objectives. In fact it has been described as the "blood stream of an administrative
organization." Peter Drucker has defined communication as the ability of the various
functional groups within an enterprise to understand each other and each other's
functions and concerns. Usually three types of communications are made in an
organization viz. internal communication, external communication and inter-personal
communication. The internal communication is concerned with the relationship of the
organization with its employees. The external communication
deals with
the
-j &$&&>& .&*~V* -,-*-.
466
relationship of the organization with the public Inter-personal communication is

concerned with the relationship among employees.
Broadly speaking there are two types of channels of communication viz. formal
and informal. A formal channel of communication is set up by the management for
the transmission of official information. On the other hand the informal channel is an
unofficial channel which comes into operation on account of the social forces at the
work-place. To be effective, a communication must be clear, consistent with the
expectations of the receiver, adequate, timely, uniform and acceptable.

1. Who
defined
leadership
persuade
others
to
seek
enthusiastically?"
(a) Terry
(b) Mooney
(c) Keith Davis
as
"ability
to
defined
objectives
2. Without
leadership,
an
organization
is
but
a muddle of men and machines...
(a) True
(b) False
3. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a feature of leadership?
(a) It is based on superior-subordinate relationship.
(b) It is based on coercive power
(c) It can handle all types of situations effectively
(d) All the above
4. What is the hallmark of leadership?
(a) capacity to influence others to follow
(b) capacity to settle the disputes within the organization amicably
(c) Attainment of the goals of an organization
(d) To preserve the core values of the organization.
5. Which
one
of
the
following,
according
to
Barnard,
is
the
most
important
quality
of
leadership?
(a) Decisiveness
(b) Persuasiveness
(c) Intellectual capacity
(d) Vitality and endurance
6.Who
of
the
following
distinguished
between
leadership
of
position,
leadership
of personality and leadership of functions?
(a) Follett
(b) Barnard
(c) Mooney
(d) All the above
7. Which
theory
highlights
the
multi
dimensional aspect of leadership?
(a) Behavioural Theory
(b) Trait Theory
(c) Situational Theory
8. The
leadership
which
lays
stress
on
performance
rather
than
individual
position is known as
(a) Formal leadership
(b) Behavioural leadership
(c) Cognitive leadership
(d) Positional leadership
9. The
leadership
which
is
influenced
by
the
situational
behaviour
rather
than
actual
behaviour is known as
(a) Cognitive leadership
(b) Behavioural leadership
(c) Task oriented leadership
10. A
leader
can
play
an
important
role
in
decision making only if
(a) he has rendered long service in the organization
(b) he has good contacts with leaders in other organizations
(c) he has been a successful trade union leader
(d) he has all the above qualities.

11. Which
one
of
the
following
quality
of
a
good leader has been wrongly listed?
(a) Clarity of objective
(b) Readiness to delegate authority where necessary
(c) Collection of facts before taking decision
(a)
Leadership, Its Role in Decision Making; and Communication
467
(d) Strict adherence to the prescribed procedure

12. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
quality
good leadership?
(a) Leader must have followers
(b) He must maintain good working relationship with his followers.
(c) He should actively participate in the activities of his group.
(d) All the above
13. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
leader has not been listed by Follett?
(a) Coordination
(b) Definition of Purpose
(c) Anticipation
(d) Persuasiveness
14. According
to
Paul
H.
Appleby
a
administrator
(a) must be willing to assume responsibilities
(b) must be a good listner and ask pointed questions
(c) must work well with all sorts of people
of
good
(d) all the above

15. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Autocratic
Style of leadership?
(a) The entire authority is concentrated in the hands of the leader
(b) The leader gives orders to the subordinates and demands complete
obedience from them.
(c) The leader can withhold rewards or give punishments.
16. The
autocratic
style
of
leadership
is
also
known as
(a) authoritative leadership
(b) directive style of leadership
(c) participative style of leadership
17. The
Democratic
style
of
leadership
is
characterized by
(a) participation of subordinates in the decision making process
(b) all decisions being taken through group discussions.
(c) The communication flows freely.
(d) all the above features.
18. Laissez
Faire
Style
of
leadership
is
also
known as free rein style of leadership.
(a) True
(b) False
19. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Laissez
Faire
Style
of
leadership.
1. In this style of leadership the leader gives the subordinates complete
independence of operation.
2. The subordinates are permitted to set their own goals and achieve them.
3. In this system there is minimum participation of the leader.
4. The leader enjoys absolute powers and there is no check on his authority.
20. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
common
feature
of
management
as
well
as
leadership?
(a) Both seek to achieve the objectives of the organization
(b) Both are appointed by the management
(c) Both operate on the superior-subordinate relationship.
(d) All the above
21. In the authoritative type of leadership
(a) workers are encouraged to take initiative.
(b) workers blindly follow the orders of leaders
(c) workers are willing to own responsibility for their failures.
(d) workers can convey their grievances to the leaders only through their
leaders.
(a)
468
22. Autocratic
style
of
leadership
is
effective
only
(a) if the workers have full knowledge about the goals of the organization.
(b) If the workers are inexperienced.
(c) If the workers have been imparted necessary training to handle the
assigned job effectively
(d) All the above
23. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
participative leadership?
(a) it is based on decentralization of
authority
"/
(b) it discourages the workers from
acting on their own
iir
(c) the subordinates are assigned
minimum of responsibilities.
(d) there is centralization of authority
ffi.
which imparts greater efficiency
24. Participative
leadership
can
be
effective
only if
(a) the leadership is willing to involve
the workers in decision making.
s
(b) The workers are willing to assume
greater responsibilities and discharge their duties in a dedicated manner.
(c) The subordinates are assigned less complicated functions
(d) All the above conditions are complied with.
25. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
common
feature
of
Authoritative
and
participative
type of leadership?
(a) Under both the systems the leadership plays a restrictive role
(b) Both operate on the principle of decentralization of authority
(c)
The leader occupies an important
>
position under both the systems and
his orders are faithfully complied with.
=>
26. Which one of the following innate trait of a successful leader has been
wrongly listed?
(a) Objectivity
(b) Technical Skill
(c) Participative spirit
(d) Emotional stability
27. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as theory of leadership?
(a) Trait Theory
(b) Behavioural Theory
*
(d) None of the above -"
28. Who
of
the
following
is
associated
with
the
Trait Theory of Leadership?
(a) Chester Barnard
*-'
(b) OrdwayTead
(c) Schell
(d) All the above
29. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Trait Theory of Leadership.
1. A person becomes a leader because of the traits possessed by him.
2. The trait theory of leadership is also known as 'greatman theory of
bn;
leadership'.
3. The leadership traits are not totally in-born but can also be acquired through
learning and experience.
4. Traits of leadership are not in-born but acquired through learning and
experience.
30. The
Trait
theory
of
leadership
has
been
criticized
on
following
grounds.
Which
one of these has been wrongly listed?
(a) The theory fails to provide a common list of leadership traits.
(b) It fails to indicate comparative importance of different traits.
(c) Many of the traits attributed to leaders are also found in the non-leaders.
(d) It attaches too much of importance to the needs of followers (subordinates)
(a)
Leadership, Its Role in Decision Making; and Communication
469
31. Which
Behavioural
one
of
Theory
the
of
following
feature
Leadership
of
has

(a) It concentrates on what leaders are
(b) It concentrates on what leaders do
(c) It concentrates on leadership functions and style.
32. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Situational Theory of Leadership.
1. The theory holds that the leadership effectiveness is determined by various
situational factors
2. The Theory contains the good points of both trait and behavioural theories of
leadership.
3. The theory holds that the leadership is a multi-dimensional.
4. The theory views leadership in terms of a dynamic interaction between a
number of situational variables like the leader, the followers, the
environments etc.
33. The
democratic
or
participative
style
of
leadership is intimately linked with?
(a) Systems Theory
(c) Human Relations Theory
(d) Classical Theory
33. Which
one
of
the
following
theories
of
leadership
views
leadership
as
multi
dimensional.
(a) Trait Theory
34. Who
defined
communication
as
'shared
understanding of a shared purpose'?
(a) Simon
(b) Millet
(c) Barnard
35. Communication
in
administrative
organization means
(a) meeting of minds on common issues
(b) the shared understanding of a shared purpose
36. What is the essence of communication?
(a) transmission of information
(b) sharing of information
(c) sharing of understanding
(d) imparting of knowledge
37. Who
was
the
first
thinker
to
offer
a
meaningful
solution
of
the
problem
of
communication?
(a) Taylor
(b) Fayol
(c) Weiner
(d) Barnard
38. Who
of
the
following
developed
the
most
widely
used
model
of
communication
process?
(a) Shannon and Weaver
(b) Barnard
(c) Simon
(d) Millet
39. Written
or
verbal
reports
of
performance
received from an employee is known as
(a) Internal communication
(b) Inter-personal communication
(c) External communication
(d) Departmental communication
40. Written
or
verbal
report
of
performance
received from an employee is known as
(a) up communication
(b) down communication
(c) formal communication
(d) informal communication
41. The
communication
through
which
written
instructions
are
transmitted
to
the
employee is known as
(a) Internal communication
(b) Formal communication
(c) Informal communication
(d) Simple communication
42. G.R.
Terry
has
given
a
list
of
factors
which
are essential for making the com-
t:
munication effective. However, he has not mentioned one of the following.

Identify the same
(a) provision of full information
47
(b) finding a common ground of experience
(c) to assess expectations of the recipient
(d) to have regard for the context
43. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
barrier
in
the way of good communication?
(a) Difference in the background of
^g receiver and the sender.
(b) Difficult language of communication
(c) Size of communication
(d) All the above
44. The
world
communication
has
been
drawn
from
the
word
'communis',
taken
from
(a) French language
(b) Latin language
(c) Greek language
49.
(d) Roman language
45. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
communication?
(a) It is a managerial action

(b)It is a continuous process
(c) It is a process of meaningful interaction 50.
(d) It facilitates flow of information between various parts of the
organization
46. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
function
of
communication?
(a) It helps in planning
(b) It helps in training and development
(c) It helps in decision making
(d) All the above
The term 'grapevine' with reference to communication refers to
(a) all formal communication
(b) all informal communication
(c) all formal as well as informal communications
Which one of the following is a feature of the Oral Communication?
(a) It is very slow
(b) It does not provide immediate feedback
(c) It helps in getting doubts cleared on the spot
(d) It is not possible to lay stress on important issues in oral communication.
A communication of the department which flows from the superior to the inferior
authority is known as
(a) downward communication
(b) formal communication
(c) vertical communication
A good communication from leader
(a) should contain minimum factual information
(b) should leave scope for clarification
(c) should be sent much in advance
(d) should clearly reflect leader's thinking.
(a)
l.(c)
7.(c)
13. (d)
19. (a)
25. (c)
31. (a)
37. (b)
43. (d)
49. (a)
ANSWERS
2. (a)
3-(d)
4. (a)
5.(d)
8. (d)
14. (d)
20. (a)
26. (b)
32. (d)
38. (a)
44. (b)
50. (b)
9. (a)
15. (d)
21. (b)
27. (d)
33,. (c)
39. (b)
45. (d)
10. (c)
16. (d)
22. (b)
28. (d)
34. (b)
40. (a)
46. (d)
11. (d)
17. (d)
23. (a)
29. (a)
35. (c)
41. (b)
47. (b)
6. (a)
12. (d)
18. (a)
24. (a)
30. (d)
36. (c)
42. (c)
48. (c)
44.
Financial Administration: Budget,

Audit,
Control Over Finance with Special
Reference to India and U.K.
Financial administration one of the most important aspect of public administration. It

deals with the public finance and the principles relating to the proper and efficient
administration of the finances of the state. In recent times financial administration
has attained great importance on account of adoption of the goal of welfare state and
consequent increase in the functions of state. The adoption of democratic institutions
has also enhanced its importance because the citizens are keen to keep a watch on
the finances of the country. Broadly speaking there are three aspects of financial
administration viz. budgeting, accounting and auditing, and legislative and
administrative control over finances.
Budget
The term budget refers to the statement of income and expenditure for the ensuing
financial year presented by the government for the approval of the Parliament. The
main objectives of the Budget are to ensure financial and legal accountability of the
executive to the legislature; accountability of the subordinates to the superior; to
promote desired social and economic policy; efficient execution of the functions and
services of government; and to coordinate the activities of the government
department. The Budget has to pass through several phases viz. preparation of
estimates, legislative authorization, and the execution. The budget is generally
prepared for a year by the executive and presented to the legislature for its
approval. The over-all
responsibility for formulation of budget rests with the Ministry of Finance.
However other agencies like the Administrative Ministries, the Planning
Commission and the Comptroller and Auditor General also play an important role
in the formulation of the budget. In the Parliament the Budget has to pass
through five stages viz. presentation of budget, general discussion, voting on
demands for grants, passage of Appropriation Bill, and passage of Finance Bill.
There are two facets of the execution of budgetexpenditure side and
revenue side. The Ministry of Finance exercises control over both. It keeps check
over public expenditure at three stages viz. approval of programmes in principle;
acceptance of the provisions in the budget estimates; and prior concurrence to
incur expenditure likewise the execution of the revenue side of budget also
involves three considerations viz. proper collection of revenue; proper custody of
the collected funds; and proper distribution of funds.
Accounting
Accounting is intimately related to budget because it provides current
information on expenditure and permits adherence to the budget. In fact without
proper accounting neither the budget can be prepared nor controlled.
Audit
Audit is an important part of financial administration. It ensures that while spending
the
472
government funds all canons of financial propriety have been observed and the rules
and regulations which govern expenditures are adhered to. It further ensures that the
expenditure has been incurred by the authority which is empowered to incur it and
that it has been incurred for the purpose for which it has been appropriated by the
Parliament. In view of the importance of the audit the Constitution has provided for
an independent Comptroller and Auditor General.
LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE CONTROL

In India as well as UK, both the legislature and the executive exercise control over
finance. It not only determines the broad objectives of the administration but also
provides necessary funds to achieve them. Both the Parliament and its committees
exercise scrutiny of the finances. The Executive plays an important role in the control
of finances by laying down the policy. This task is generally assigned to the Cabinet
under a Parliamentary system. The Cabinet not only formulates the policy but also
exercises control over various branches of administration. The Executive plays a vital
role in the formulation of the budget and determines the sources of income and
provides various amounts of expenditure to the department which they cannot
exceed.

1. Who
said
that
Financial
at the core of the modern government?
(a) Kautilya
(b) Hoover Commission
(c) Lloyd George
(d) MorsteinMarx
2. Budget
is
a
financial
Administration
document
of
is
the
4.
5.
6.
7.
government
as
presented
to
the
legislature
and as sanctioned by the legislature.
(a) True
(b) False
3. The
term
'budget'
is
drawn
from
the
word
'Bougett' taken from
(a) French Language
(b) English language
(c) Latin language
The
Budget
passes
through
the
following
stages
1. Formulation of Budget
2. Enactment of the Budget
3. Execution of the Budget
4. Audit
The correct order through which the
Budget passes is
(a) 1,2,3and4
(b) 4,3,2andl
(c) 2,4, 3 and 1
(d) 3,2,4 and 1
Which
one
of
the
following
deals
with
the
proper
and
efficient
administration
of
the
finances of a state?
(a) Budget
(b) Financial Administration
(c) Public Administration
(d) All the above
The
importance
of
financial
admini
stration
has
increased
in
recent
years
due
to
(a)
increase in the activities of the state
(b) advancement in management techniques
(c) adaptability according to the requirements of democratic institutions
(d) all the above
Which department of the Government of
India
is
responsible
for
the
preparation
of
the budget?
(a) Department of Revenue
(b) Department of Expenditure
(c) Department of Economic Affairs
(d) All the above departments jointly.
8.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
the
purpose
or
function
of budget?
(a) To ensure financial and legal accountability of the executive to the legislature
(b) To facilitate efficient execution of the functions and services of government
(c) To ensure accountability of the subordinates of the superiors in the
administrative hierarchy.
(a)
Financial Administration: Budget, Audit, Control Over Finance with Special Reference 473
9. Line-Item Budget, which is also known as traditional or convention budget, aims

at
(a) prevention of wastage
(b) prevention of misuse of money granted by the legislature to the executive
(c) ensuring legality and regularity of expenditure
(d) all the above
10. Line-item budget is also known as
(a) traditional budget
(b) conventional budget
(c) incremental budget
(d) all the above
11. The
system
of
performance
budgeting
was
for the first time adopted in
(a) U.S.A
(b) India
(c) France
(d) England
12. In
India
the
performance
budget
was
for
the first time introduced in
(a) 1950
(b) 1968
(c) 1956
(d) 1999
13. Which
one
of
the
following
advantage
of
the
Performance
Budgeting
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It clearly states the purpose and objectives for which the executive seeks
funds from the Parliament.
(b) It increases the accountability of the management
(c) It renders performance audit more purposeful and effective
14. The
system
of
budget
in
which
every
scheme
is
to
be
and
reviewed
critically
rejustified
from
a
scratch
before
being
included in the budget is known as
(a) Zero-based Budgeting
(b) Programme Budgeting
(c) Contingency Budget

15. Which
one
of
the
following
is
an
advantage of the Zero-based Budget?
(a) It eliminates the low priority programmes
(b) It facilitates critical review of schemes in terms of their cost-effectiveness and
cost benefits.
(c) It allocates the scarce resources rationally
(d) All the above
16. If
the
estimated
expenditure
provided
in
the
budget
matches
the
estimated
revenues, it is known as
(a) Balanced Budget
(b) Programme Budget
(c) Zero-based budget
17. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
principle
of
sound
budgeting?
(a) The budget should be balanced one
(b) The budget should be cash based
(c) The budgeting should be net
(d) The revenue and capital portions should be shown separately
18. If
the
estimate
revenue
is
more
than
the
estimated
expenditure,
the
budget
is
known as
(a) Surplus Budget
(b) Balanced Budget
(c) Net Budget
(d) Proper Budget
19.
If the estimate revenue shown in the
budget
is
less
than
the
estimated
expenditure, it is known as
(a) Deficit Budget
(b) Expenditure Oriented Budget
(c) Programme based Budget
20. If
the
budget
is
prepared
on
the
basis
of
what
is
expected
to
be
actually
spent
or
received
during
the
financial
year,
it
is
known as
(a) Revenue Budget
(b) Cash Budget
(c) Cash-cum-Revenue Budget
21. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
does
not have Cash Budget?
(a) India
(b) U.K.
(c) France
(d) U.S.A.
22. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
has
more than one budget?
(a) France
(b) Switzerland
(c) Germany
(d) All the above
23. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the single budget
1. All the revenue and expenditure is shown in the same budget.
2. It reveals the overall financial position of the government
3. India, like UK and USA, has a single budget
4. Budgets of all the departments are incorporated in the same budget
24. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
good
Budget?
(a) It should be brief and precise
(b) It should be easily understandable by the people.
(c) It should show the revenue and capital portions separately
(d) The form of budgetary estimates should correspond to the form of accounts
to facilitate defective financial control.
25.
Which
one
of
the
following
agencies
is
involved
in
the
formulation
of
the
budget
in India?
(a) The Administrative Ministries
(b) The Finance Ministry
(c) The Planning Commission
(d) All the above
26. Generally budget is prepared for

(a) one year
(b) two years
(c) three years
(d) different durations in different countries
27. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
presentation
of
Budget
in
India
is correct
(a) In India the budget is presented in two partsRailway Budget and General
Budget
(b) In India the General Budget is presented before the Parliament on the last
working day of February.
(c) The General Budget is presented in the Parliament by the Finance Minister of
India.
(d) All the above
28. Budget is an instrument of Government's
(a) Monetary policy
(b) Fiscal policy
(c) Commercial policy
29. Parliamentary
control
over
finances
implies that
(a) no taxes can be imposed or expenditure incurred without its authority
(b) taxes can be imposed only at the initiative of the legislature
(c) no expenditure can be incurred without the formal approval of the legislature
(d) all the above
30. In
India
the
term
'charged
expenditure'
refers to the expenditure
(a) which has already been approved by the government
(b) which is still to be approved by the Parliament
(c) on salaries and allowance of certain officials which is not subject to the vote
of Parliament
(d) which is met out of Contingency Fund and subsequently recouped.

31. The
funds
which
are
made
available
by
Parliament
to
meet
the
expenses
the
period
between
the
presentation
of
budget and its final approval, is known as
(a) Vote on Account
(b) Interim Budget
(a)
the
during
the
(c) Preliminary Budget

32. The
Bill
introduced
in
the
Parliament
to
give
effect
to
the
financial
proposals
of
the
Government of India is known as
(a) Appropriation Bill
(b) Finance Bill
(c) Contingency Bill
(d) Consolidated Bill
33. The
Bill
authorizing
the
withdrawal
of
funds
from
the
Consolidated
Fund,
after
the
charges
have
been
voted
by
the
Parliament is known as
(a) Finance Bill
(b) Demand for Grant
(c) Appropriation Bill
(d) Consolidated Fund Bill
34. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding demands for Grants is correct?
(a) The demands are presented ministry-wise
(b) A demand becomes a grant after it has been duly voted.
(c) The voting of demands for grants is the exclusive privilege of the Lok Sabha
(d) All the above
35. In
India
the
member
of
Parliament
can
move
cut
motions
of
different
types.
Which
one
of
the
following
motion
has
(a) Disapproval of policy cut motion
(b) Economy Cut Motion
(c) Token Cut Motion
36. The
Finance
Act
legalizes
the
income
side
of
the
budget
and
completes
the
process
of
the enactment of the budget.
(a) True
(b) False
37. If
the
money
authorized
by
the
Parliament
through
the
Appropriation
act
for
a
particular
service
for
the
current
financial
year
is
found
insufficient,
effort
is
made
to
provide funds through
(a) Supplementary Grant
(b) Additional Grant

(c) Excess Grant
(d) Exceptional Grant
38. If
need
is
felt
during
the
current
financial
year
for
additional
grant
to
meet
some
new
expenses,
not
provided
in
the
budget,
it is known as
(a) Exceptional Grant
(b) Supplementary Grant
(c) Excess Grant
(d) Token Grant
39. Which
one
of
the
following
demand
has
been
a
blank
cheque
given
described
as
to
the executive by the Lok Sabha?
(a) Exceptional Grant . (b) Vote on Credit
(c) Additional Grant
(d) Excess Grant
40. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
good Audit System?
(a) It should be positive in approach
(b) It should mainly concentrate on Expenditure aspect of the budget
(c) It should mainly concentrate on the income aspect of the budget
(d) All the above
41. The
Audit
which
deals
with
the
technical
processes
of
administrative
apparatus
is
known as
(a) Technical Audit
(b) Administrative Audit
(c) Financial Audit
(d) Post-Audit
42. The
audit
in
which
all
actions
are
scrutinized
before
finalized is known as
(a) Test Audit
(b) Sample Audit
(c) Pre-audit
43. In
India
who
prescribes
the
the accounts are to be kept
(a) Ministry of Finance
(b) Comptroller and Auditor General of India
(a)
476
financial
the
deal
form
in
trans
is
which
(c) Planning Commission

44.
Who
of
the
following
prepares
Appropriation Account of India
(a) Public Accounts Committee
(b) Planning Commission
(c) Ministry of Finance
(d) Comptroller and Auditor General of India
45. Who
has
been
entrusted
with
responsibility
of
examining
the
priation Account?
(a) Attorney General of India
(b) Public Accounts Committee
(c) Comptroller and Auditor General
(d) The Expenditure Division of the Ministry of Finance
46. The
account
of
all
the
receipts
expenditure
under
various
heads
and
heads of budget is known as
(a) Appropriation Account
(b) Finance Account
(c) Finance cum Appropriation Account
47. Who
prepares
the
combined
finance
revenue
accounts
of
the
Central
and
Governments?
(b) Comptroller and Auditor General
(c) Audit and Accounts Department
(d) All the above
48. The
Indian
Audit
is
regulated
Government
of
India
Audit
and
order, which was passed in
(a) 1950
(b) 1936
(c) 1952
(d) 1909
49. Through
which
one
of
the
the
the
Appro
and
sub
and
State
under
Accounts
following
committees,
the
Indian
Parliament
exercises control over audit and budget?
(b) Estimates Committee
(c) Audit Review Committee
(d) All the above
50. The audit in which all the papers relating
to
financial
transactions
are
scrutinized
after
the
deal
has
taken
place
is
known
as
(a) Current audit
(b) Post Audit
(c) Test Audit
(d) Sample Audit
51. In
which
year
the
audit
and
accounts
functions were separated in India
(a) 1976
(b) 1979
(c) 1981
(d) 1984
52. If
the
audit
is
conducted
as
the
deal
proceeds, it is known as
(a) Sample Audit
(b) Pre-audit
(c) Concurrent audit
(d) Current audit
53.
Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding Audit in USA
1. In USA the accounts are audited under the supervision of the Comptroller and
Auditor General.
2. The CAG in USA is appointed by the President
3. The CAG in USA can disallow any expenditure
4. The CAG in USA retires at the age of 70 years

54. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
of
Paul
Appleby
about
the
Indian
Audit
system is correct?
(a) The Indian audit is by and large positive
(b) It lays more stress on constructive suggestions.
(c) The Auditors in India are not competent and hence unable to render proper
service.
55. Separation
of
Audit
from
Accounts
has
been justified on the ground that
(a) it helps in detailed investigation
Financial Administration: Budget, Audit, Control Over Finance with Special
Reference 477
(b) it makes the departments more duty conscious

(c) auditing is an executive function and should be left with the executive
regarding Audit is correct?
(a) Audit is an important means of legislative control over financial
administration.
(b) Audit is an instrument of enforcing account ability of administration to the
legislature
(c) Audit is a part of external control over administration.
(d) All the above
Audit
1. Audit is an examination of the accounts in order to discover and report to the
legislature the illegal or irregular expenditure.
2. Audit highlights the unsound financial practices of the administration.
3. Audit sees that the expenditure has been incurred for the purpose for which it
was sanctioned by the legislature.
4. Effective audit can be carried out only by private agencies.
regarding Regulatory Audit is correct?
(a) It is concerned with the legal and technical aspects of expenditure by the
administration.
(b) It ensures that the expenditure has been carried out in accordance with laws,
rules and regulations.
(c) Regulatory Audit is also known as Legal Audit.

(d) All the above statements.
59. Propriety Audit is concerned with
(a) wisdom, faithfulness and economy of expenditure
(b) detection of cases of extravagance and waste
regarding Performance Audit is correct?
(a) It is concerned with the accomplishments of the administration.
(b) It is also known as efficiency audit.
61. Consider the following statements regar
ding the Audit in India
1. In India audit is carried on by the independent office of the Comptroller and
Auditor General.
2. The CAG is the guardian of public purse and controls the entire financial
system of the country
both at the
center and the states.
3. The Office of the CAG has an All India character
4. The CAG heads the Indian Audit Department
regarding CAG is correct?
(a) The duties and powers of the CAG of India in relation to accounts have been
prescribed by the Indian Parliament
(b) The CAG can ascertain whether the money disbursed was legally available for
the service
(c) The CAG can look into the wisdom, faithfulness and economy of the
government expenditure.
(d)All the above
correct?
(a) It is obligatory for the CAG of India to carry out legal and regulatory audit.
(b) It is discretionary for the CAG to carry out propriety audit
(c) The CAG is an agent of the Parliament and conducts audit of expenditure on
its behalf.
(d) All the above
1. In India the accountability of the executive to the Parliament in the sphere of
financial administration is secured through the Audit Reports of the CAG
2. The CAG of India is responsible only to the Parliament
3. The CAG has no control over the issue of money from the Consolidated Fund
and is concerned with it only at the audit stage.
4. The position of CAG in India is akin to the position of CAG in Britain because
wields the powers of Both Comptroller as well as Auditor General.
65. In India, the Committees of Parliament
have been created with a view to
(a) associate outsiders with the work of legislation
(b) provide offices to the supporters of the party in power
(c) facilitate speedy enactment of laws by examining them.
66. The members of the Committees of Indian
Parliament are
(a) nominated by the leaders of various parties in Parliament
(b) nominated by the Prime Minister
(c) appointed by the Speaker or elected
by the House from amongst persons who are not members of Parliament, (d)
appointed by the Speaker or elected by the House from amongst its own
members.
67. Which
one
of
the
following
committee
consists
of
members
drawn
from
Lok
Sabha as well as Rajya Sabha
(a) The Business Advisory Committee
(b) The Rules Committee
(c) The Committee on Subordinate Legislation
(d) The Public Accounts Committee
68. The
Speaker
of
Lok
Sabha
is
the
ex-officio
Chairman of
(a) The Rules Committee
(b) The Committee on Privileges

(d) The Committee on Private Members Bills and Resolutions.
69. What
can
be
the
maximum
strength
of
a
Select Committee of Lok Sabha?
(a) 10 members
(b) 15 members
(c) 20 members
(d) not fixed and differs from committee to committee
70. A
Minister
can
be
member
of
which
one
of
the following committees?
(a) Committee on Subordinate Legislation
(b) The Committee on Petitions
(c) The Committee on Government Assurances
(d) The Committee on Absence of members from the sittings of the House.
71. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
largest
Committee of the Indian Parliament?
(d)
The Committee on Petitions.
(a)
72. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
of
the
Estimates
Committee
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It prepares the estimates of expenditure for the ensuing year
(b) It suggests alternate policies with a view to bring about efficiency and
economy in administration.
(c) It suggests the form in which the estimates are to be presented to the
Parliament
(d) It examines whether the money is well laid out within the limit of the policy
implied in the estimates
73. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
of
the
Public
Accounts
Committee
has
been
wrongly listed
(a) It sees that the expenditure does not exceed the grants made by the
Parliament
(b) It sees that the money has been spent for the purpose for which it was
sanctioned by the Parliament.
(c) It sees that the executive has followed the financial rules and regulations.
74. The
Comptroller
and
Auditor
General
is
described
as
the
friend,
philosopher
and
guide of
(a) the Public Accounts Committee
(c) The Committee on Public Undertakings.
(d) All the above committees
75. The Parliament passes a vote on account
(a) only on the recommendation of the President of India.
(b) before the general discussion on budget starts
(c) after the general discussion on budget
(d) after voting the demands.
76. The
ultimate
responsibility
for
taking
due
action
on
the
report
of
the
Comptroller
and
Auditor General rests with
(a) the Parliament
(b) the President
(c) the Ministry of Finance
(d) all the above
77. The principle of 'lapse of funds' is inherent
in
(a) the principle of balanced budget
(b) the principle of Annuality of Budget
(c) the principle of close budget
(d) all the above principles
78. To whom would you attribute the
following statement?
"If the Finance Minister is to be held responsible for filling the reservoir and
maintaining a certain depth of water in it, he must also be in a position to
regulate the outflow."
(a) Hoover Commission
(b) Haldane Committee
(c) Paul Appleby
(d) A.D. Gorwala
79. Consider the following statements with
regard to the Indian Parliament
1. The Parliament can increase a tax
2. The Parliament can abolish a tax
3. The Parliament cannot increase a tax
4. The Parliament can reduce a tax Of the above statements

80. Which one of the following expenses are
charged to the Consolidated Fund of India
(a) Expenditure relating to raising of loans and the service and redemption of
debt
(b) Sums required to satisfy the award of any arbitration Tribunal
(c) Pension of the Judges of High Court
(d) all the above
(a) The Finance Bill cannot be amended, while the Appropriation Bill can be
amended
480
(b) The Finance Bill and the Appropriation Bills are governed by different
procedures.
(c) While the Finance Bill can be rejected by the Rajya Sabha, the
Appropriation Bill cannot be rejected.
(d) All the above
82. The Administrative Reforms Commission
recommended that the financial year in
India should commence on
(a) 1 January
(b) ljuly
(c) 1 November
(d) 1 September
83. Which one of the following statement about budget is correct?
(a) Budget is a tool of legislative control over executive.
(b) Budget is a tool of executive control over administration.

(c)
Budget is an instrument of social and economic change in the
society.
(d)
All the above
(a)
(a)
s
ANSWERS
1. (b)
7. (c)
13. (d)
19. (a)
25. (d)
31. (a)
37. (a)
43. (b)
49. (a)
55. (a)
61. (a)
67. (d)
73. (d)
79. (c)
2. (a)
8. (d)
14. (a)
20. (b)
26. (a)
32. (b)
38. (a)
44. (d)
50. (b)
56. (d)
62. (d)
68. (a)
74.(a)
80. (d)
3.(b)
9.(d)
15. (d)
21. (c)
27. (d)
33. (c)
39. (b)
45. (b)
51. (a)
57. (a)
63. (d)
69. (d)
75. (c)
81. (d)
4. (a)
10. (d)
16. (a)
22. (d)
28. (b)
34. (d)
40. (a)
46. (b)
52. (c)
58. (d)
64. (a)
70. (d)
76. (a)
82. (c)
5, (b)
11. (a)
17. (c)
23. (c)
29. (a)
35. (d)
41. (b)
47. (c)
53. (c)
59. (c)
65. (c)
71. (b)
77. (b)
83. (d)
6.(d)
12. (b)
18. (a)
24. (a)
30. (c)
36. (a)
42. (c)
48. (b)
54. (c)
60. (c)
66. (d)
72. (a)
78. (b)
_45-
Good Governance: Problems of

Administrative Corruption,
Transparency
and Accountability, Right to
Information
The process of modernization and economic development has given rise to political
corruption in almost all the countries. However, in the developing countries
corruption is more rampant as compared to the developed countries. This growing
corruption is mainly due to the nexus between politicians, businessmen and
criminals. According to Samuel Huntington, modernization has created new sources
of wealth and power, which in turn have given rise to corruption. K. Santhanam
Committee on Prevention of Corruption in its report of 1964 admitted that corruption
was quite common among ministers and other high-ups in administration. It
recommended a code of conduct for the ministers. Despite this corruption has
steadily grown over the years. Top politicians and administrators have been involved
in various scams and scandals. No doubt on account of the growing awareness of the
people action had to be initiated against some of the influential people for their
involvement in the cases of corruption, but generally they escaped punishment on
account of insufficient evidence.
In recent years the government has shown great concern over growing corruption
and taken several steps to curb the same. An important step in this direction was
taken in 1968 when Lokpal Bill was introduced but the same could not be passed.
Subsequently also the bill was introduced in 1971, 1977,1985,1989,1996, 1998, and
2001 in the Parliament. However, the same could not be passed due to one reason or
the other. In fact with the emergence of
multi-party government at the

center the corruption has grown and the various political leaders have tended to
feather their own nests and bypass the interests of the people.
ACCOUNTABILITY AND TRANSPARENCY

Accountability is an important feature of democratic system. This implies the
obligation of the administration to give satisfactory account of its performance.
This enables the people to check the wrong and arbitrary actions of the
government and to ensure its efficiency and effectiveness. According to Pfiffner
accountability denotes the specific methods and procedure to enforce the public
servant's responsibility. The accountability of administration is ensured through
two methods viz. internal control and external control. The main techniques of
internal control are budgetary system; personnel management; efficiency survey;
professional standards; administrative leadership; hierarchical order; enquiries
and investigations; and annual confidential reports. On the other hand the
external control is exercised through legislature, executive, judiciary and citizens.
RIGHT TO INFORMATION
In a democratic system of government the people are the chief source of power
behind the government. As such they have right to know about the various
operations of government and have access to all the files and documents pertaining
to the governmental operations. This
482
right to information has been justified on several grounds viz. it makes administration
more accountable to people; it reduces gap between the administration and the
people; it ensures better delivery of goods and services to the people; it facilitates
constructive criticism of administration; it increases people's participation in
administration; it discourages arbitrariness in administration; it reduces scope of
corruption in administration; it makes administration more responsive to the people;
and it reduces changes of abuse of authority by public servants.
In India though the constitution does not confer right of information on the
citizens, the Supreme Court has treated this right as an intrinsic part of the right of
freedom of speech and expression. In July 2000, Freedom of Information Bill was
introduced in the Lok Sabha, which seeks to promote openness, transparency and
accountability in administration. The law permits the citizens to secure information
from the government about various schemes, their stage of implementation and
other related details. The government is expected to make available the desired
information within 30 days of the receipt of application. However, the bill exempts
certain categories of information from being disclosed.

1. The
growing
political
corruption
has been attributed to
(a) process of modernization
(b) process of economic development
(c) introduction of universal adult franchise
2. In
terms
of
corruption
developing countries
(a) India ranks quite high
in
amongst
India
the
4.
5.
6.
7.
(b) India ranks quite low

(c) India stands at the top
3. According
to
Vohra
Committee
the
growing
corruption
in
our
contemporary
public life is mainly due to nexus between
(a) politicians and businessmen
(b) politicians and criminals
(c) businessmen and criminals
(d) politicians,
businessmen
and criminals.
Which
one
of
the
following
first
highlighted
in
its
report
the
prevalence
of
corruption
at
high
places
of
administration
in India?
(a) A.D. Gorwala
(b) K. Santhanam
(c) AshokChanda
(d) T.T. Krishnamachari
The
Government
of
India
appointed
a
Committee
in
1962
to
check
corruption
and
highly
unethical
behaviour.
This
Committee was headed by
(a) A.D. Gorwala
(b) K. Santhanam
(c) Justice S.R. Das
(d) KJD.Malviya
Which
one
of
the
following
Prime
Ministers
of
India
was
charged
with
bribery and forgery?
(a) Indira Gandhi
(b) Rajiv Gandhi
(c) Narasimha Rao
Which one of the following Finance
Ministers
of
India
tendered
resignation
after
a
Commission
of
Inquiry
found
him
responsible
for
certain
objectional
transactions?
(a) MorarjiDesai
(b) T.T. Krishnamachari
(c) K.D.Malviya
8. Which
one
of
the
following
Prime
Ministers
did
not
take
any
action
against
certain
ministers
on
the
plea
that
corruption was a global phenomenon?
(a) Indira Gandhi
(b) Rajiv Gandhi
(c) Narsimha Rao
9. Which
one
of
the
following
Chief
Ministers
of
Punjab
tendered
resignation
because
a
commission
headed
by
a
retired
Chief Justice of Supreme Court found that
Good Governance: Problems of Administrative Corruption, Transparency and Accountability
483
his sons and relatives had misused his position to promote their own interests?
(a) Pratap Singh Kairon
(b) Gurnam Singh
(c) Prakash Singh Badal
10. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
oldest
case
of
corruption
amongst
politicians
in
India?
(a) Jain Hawala Case
(b) Bofors pay-off scandal
(c) Mundhracase
(d) Fodder Scam.
\
1. Political corruption in India has steadily grown over the years.
2. Generally the politicians charged of corruption have been able to escape
punishment on account of insufficient evidence.
3. Politicians with vast resources at their command are able to thwart legal
process at every stage and escape punishment.
4. The enactment of the Lok Pal Bill has led to a curb on political corruption.
(b) 2,3, are 4 are correct
(c) 1,2, and 4 are correct (c) 1,3, and 4 are correct
12. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
correct?
(a) Political instability due to multi-party system has contributed to the growth of
corruption.
(b) As the multi-party government lacks ideological basis the various partners try
to feather their own nests.

(c) It has been suggested that state funding of elections can greatly help in
curbing political corruption.
(d) All the above.
13. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
cause
of
corruption
in
India?
(a) clash between old and new values
(b) poverty of the people
(c) lethargy of public servants
(d) growing materialistic outlook of the people
14. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
cause
of
growing corruption in India?
(a) willingness of the people to pay to get their work done expeditiously
(b) expanding economy
(c) Reluctance of people to check corruption
(d) All the above
15.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
measure
corrupt
practice?
(a) Collection of money on behalf of the political parties
(b) Offer of fabulous salaries to retired Senior Civil Servants.
(c) Payment of certain percentage of money to officials awarding contracts
16.
Which
one
of
the
following
mode
of
corruption
has
not
been
identified
by
the
Central Vigilance Commission.
(a) Borrowing money from industrial and commercial houses.
(b) Misappropriation of public money
(c) Borrowing money from contractors and suppliers
(d) Accepting sub-standard stores

17. Which
one
of
the
following,
according
to
the
Central
Vigilance
Commission,
constitutes corruption?
(a) Abuse of official position
(b) Purchase of private property by a public servant without the permission of
appropriate authority.
(c) Acceptance of sub-standard stores
(d) All the above
18. Under
the
Government
Servant
Conduct
Rules
which
one
of
the
following
cons
titutes corruption?
(a) Acceptance of Gifts
(b) Acceptance of private employment after retirement without the permission of

appropriate authority.
(c) Lending and borrowing of money
(d) All the above
19. A
Committee
under
K.
Santhanam
was
set
up
to
check
corruption
and
unethical
behaviour in
(a) 1962
(b) 1963
(c) 1964
(d) 1972
20. Which
one
of
the
following
was
a
term
of
reference
for
the
Santhanam
Committee
appointed in 1962?
(a) To review the working of the vigilance machinery of the Government of India.
(b) To review the working of the Vigilance machinery in the states
(c) To review and recommend improvement in the working of vigilance
machinery at the center as well as the states.
(d) To review the working of vigilance machinery operating in the Union
Territories.
21. The
Santhanam
Committee
in
its
report,
submitted in 1964, recommended
(a) that the retired government servants be permitted to seek employment with
established business houses.
(b) A Central Vigilance Commission, with autonomous powers, may be set up.
(c) The setting up of Central Bureau of Investigation, to investigate cases of
corruption involving civil servants.
22. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Central
Bureau
of
Investigation
(CBI) is correct?
(a) CBI was established in 1968
(b) CBI was set up through an amendment in the Constitution
(c) CBI was set up through a resolution of the Ministry of Home Affairs
23. Consider
the
following
statements
about
CBI
1. CBI is an attached office of the Ministry of Personnel

2. CBI is the main investigating agency of the Central Government.
3. CBI plays an important role in preventing corruption and maintaining integrity
in administration. Autonomous body
4. CBI is an which works independent of all the departments of the Government
of India.
24. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
CBI
has been correctly listed?
(a) It investigates cases of corruption, bribery and misconduct of central
government employees.
(b) It investigates cases relating to infringement of fiscal and economic laws.
(c) It investigates serious crimes committed by organized gangs of professional
criminals.
(d) All the above
25. Which
category
of
cases
do
not
fall
under
the jurisdiction of the CBI?
(a) cases relating to corruption
(b) cases relating to economic crimes, including frauds.
(c) cases relating to political crimes
(d) cases relating to special crimes
26. The
Central
Bureau
of
Investigation
was
set up in 1963
(a) True
(b) False
27. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
Central
Bureau
of
Investigation
(CBI) is correct?
(a) It co-ordinates the activities of the anti-corruption agencies and the various state
police
forces.
485
(b) At the request of the state government it takes up cases of public importance
for investigation
(c)It maintains crime statistics and disseminates information regarding
criminals.
(d) All the above
28. The
Committee
on
Prevention
of
Corruption
under
the
Chairmanship
of
K.
Santhanam
made
several
recommen
dations.
Which
one
of
these
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The judicial process in corruption cases should be simplified and expedited.
(b) An independent Vigilance Commission should be set up.
(c) Government Servants Conduct Rules be amended to restrict the employment
of retired public servants in private sector.
29. Santhanam
Committee
on
Prevention
of
Corruption recommended that
(a) the laws, rules, procedures and practices should be simplified so as to
eliminate the opportunities to indulge in corrupt practices.
(b) Civil servants, ministers and legislators should be asked to declare their
private property.
(c) The political parties should maintain and publish the accounts of funds and
donations collected from the private sector
(d) All the above
30. The
Central
Vigilance
Commission
was
established in
(a) 1964
(b) 1977
(c) 1979
(d) 1991
31. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Central
Vigilance
Commission
is
correct?
(a) Originally it was neither a constitutional body nor a statutory body
(b) Central Vigilance Commission was given statutory status through an
ordinance promulgated by the Central Government in 1998
(c) The Central Vigilance Commission is a multi-member commission
(d) All the above
32. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Central
Vigilance
Commission (CVC).
1. CVC consists of Chief Vigilance Commissioner than three vigilance
commissioners.
2. The Chief Vigilance Commissioner and the vigilance commissioners are
appointed by the President of India on the recommendations of a high
powered committed headed by the Prime Minister.
3. The Chief Vigilance Commissioner holds office during the pleasure of the
President.
4. The Vigilance Commissioners hold office for a fixed term of 3 years or till they
attain the age of 65 years.
33. Who
of
the
following
is
a
member
of
the
high
powered
committee
which
recom
mends
the
appointment
of
the
Chief
Vigilance
Commissioner
and
the
vigilance
commissioners to the President of India?
(a) Union Home Minister ^b) Leader of the Opposition
34. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about CVC is correct?
(a) Before 1988 the CVC was a one-member commission headed by the Central
Vigilance Commissioner
(b) The CVC was given a statutory status in 1998.
(a)
486
(c) The Chief Vigilance Commissioner can be removed from his office in the same
manner as the Chairman of the UPSC.
(d) All the above
35. Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding the Central Vigilance Commission.
1. The Central Vigilance Commission is the main agency for preventing
corruption in the Central Government.
2. CVC advises the central government on all matters relating to protection and
maintenance of integrity in administration.
3. CVC enjoys same independence and autonomy which is enjoyed by the UPSC
4. It is obligatory for the government to accept the recommendations of the CVC
36. The
Central
Vigilance
Commission
enjoys
wide
ranging
powers
to
supervise
the
functioning
of
investigating
agencies
like
the CBI and the Enforcement Directorate.
(a) True
(b) False
37. Which
one
of
the
following
categories
of
public
servants
fall
under
the
jurisdiction
of CVC?
(a) All employees of Central Government
(b) All employees of public undertakings, corporate bodies and other institutions
working under the central government.
(c) All employees of Delhi Metropolitan Council and the New Delhi Municipal
Committee.
(d) All the above
38. Which
one
of
the
following
categories
of
employees
and
politicians
do
not
fall
under the jurisdiction of CVC?
(a) non-gazetted officers
(b) MPs and Ministers with regard to cases of political corruption
(c)Employees of public undertakings and corporate bodies.
39. Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
function
of
the
CVC
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It reviews the procedures and practices to mitigate scope for corruption and
to maintain integrity in administration.
(b) It renders impartial and independent advice to disciplinary authorities in
disciplinary cases.
(c) It undertakes enquiry into any transaction in which a public servant is alleged
to have acted in a corrupt manner.
40. Which
one
of
the
following
categories
of
civil
servants
do
not
fall
within
the
jurisdiction of CVC?
(a) employees of central government
(b) employees of state government
(c) employees of public undertakings
(d) employees of Delhi Metropolitan Council
41. Each
Ministry
of
the
Government
of
India
has
a
Chief
Vigilance
Officer
who
is
appointed by
(a) the Minister Incharge of the Ministry
(b) the Secretary of the Ministry
(c) theC.V.C.
(d) President of India
42. The
Central
Vigilance
Commission
mits an annual report on its activities to
(a) the Speaker of Lok Sabha
(b) the President of India
(c) the Minister of Personnel
(d) the Prime Minister
43. To
check
corruption
vigilance
officers
appointed in
(a) attached offices
(b) subordinate offices
(a)
sub
are
Good Governance: Problems of Administrative Corruption, Transparency and

Accountability 487
(c) public undertakings

(d) all the above
44. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
State
Vigilance
Commissioner
is
not correct?
(a) The State Vigilance Commissioner is appointed for a term of 5 years.
(b) The State Vigilance Commissioner has been provided necessary staff to assist
him in his work.
(c) Only a person qualified to be appointed as a judge of High Court is appointed
as State Vigilance Commissioner.
(d) The State Vigilance Commissioner is not eligible for re-employment after
retirement.
45.
Which one of the following function of the
State
Vigilance
Commission
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It collects statistics regarding anti-corruption cases.
(b) It can ask the State Special Police Establishment to register case against a
public servant and investigate charges of corruption.
(c) It keeps vigil on the Central Government employees posted in the state
(d) It reviews the procedures of administration to ensure integrity in
administration.
46. Transparency
in
government/adminis
tration means
(a)Taking all the decisions in public view
(b) The files should be accessable to all the citizens who wish to examine them.
(c) Making available information of nonconfidential nature to the concerned
person on valid grounds
(d) All the above
47. Generally
transparency
in
government
is
avoided on the plea
(a) of shortage of staff
(b) of its costly nature
(c) of national interest
(d) of absence of specific provision in this regard in the constitution.
48. Right to Information implies
(a) freedom of the people to have access to government information
(b) that the citizens and nongovernmental organistions should have free access
to all files and documents pertaining to the government operations, decisions
and performance.
(c) openness and transparency in the functioning of the government.
(d) all the above
49. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
alone
grants
right
to
information
through
direct
constitutional provision?
(a) U.S.A.
(b) France
(c) Sweden
(d) Britain
50. The
citizens
of
USA
were
granted
right
to
information
(a) by the original constitution
(b) through an amendment in the constitution
(c) Under the Freedom of Information Act (1968)
(d) through none of the above
51. Right to information is valuable because
(a) It makes administration more accountable to the people.
(b) It reduces gap between the administration and the people.
(c) It increases people's participation in administration.
(d) All of the above stated reasons.
52. Freedom
of
information
promotes
public
interest
by
discouraging
arbitrariness
in
administrative decision-making.
(a) True
(b) False
53. Which
one
of
the
following
reasons
in
support
of
right
of
information
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It reduces the scope for corruption in public administration.
488
(b) It makes administration more responsive to the requirements of people.

(c) It reduces the chance of abuse of authority by public servants.
54. Who
said
"Everyone
knows
corruption
thrives
in
secret
places
and
avoids
public
places?"
(a) Woodrow Wilson
(b) James Madison
(c) Max Weber
55. Who
of
the
following
said
"A
popular
government
without
popular
information
or
the
means
of
acquiring
it
is
but
a
prologue
to
a
farce
or
tragedy
or
perhaps
both?"
(a) Lord Acton
(b) James Madison
(c) Woodrow Wilson
(d) Justice Douglas of USA
56. The concept of accountability implies
(a) the obligation of the administrators to give a satisfactory account of their
performance
(b) obligation to prove that they have exercised powers conferred on them in a
proper manner
(c) obligation to increase efficiency and effectiveness of administrative process.
(d) All the above
57.
The instruments of administrative control
safeguard
the
rights
and
people
without
curbing
discretion of the public servants.
(a) True
(b) False
58. Which
one
of
the
wrongly
listed
as
a
control over administration?
(a) Budgetary System
(b) Administrative leadership
(c) Enquiries and investigations
59. Which
one
of
the
wrongly
listed
as
an
control over administration?
(a) Legislature
(b) Executive
liberties
the
of
power
the
and
following
technique
has
of
been
internal
following
agency
has
of
been
external
(c) Citizens

60. Who
of
the
following
made
the
statement
"Power
in
a
democratic
society
requires
control
and
the
greater
the
power,
the
more need to control?
(a) Lord Acton
(b) Samuel Huntington
(c) L.D.White
61. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) In any representative democratic government, the legislature exercises
control over administration to hold it accountable and responsible.
(b) The system of legislative control over administration differs under
parliamentary and presidential forms of governments.
(c) The legislative control over administration under a Parliamentary system is
exercised indirectly through the ministers.
(d) All the above
62. The
Parliament
exercises
control
over
administration through executive
(a) by exercising general control over the policies and actions of the government
(b) by exercising financial control through budget and audit.
(c) Through committees, who exercise detailed control over legislative,
administrative and financial matters.
(d) by all the above noted methods.
63. Which
one
of
the
following
categories
of
questions has been wrongly listed?
(a) Starred Question
(b) Unstarred Question
(c) Emergent Question
(d) Short Notice Question
(a)
489
64. A short notice question usually requires a

(a) three days notice
(b) five days notice
(c) seven days notice
(d) ten days notice
65. To
which
category
of
question
an
oral
answer is given
(a) Starred Question
(b) Short Notice Question
(c) Unstarred question
66. India
has
borrowed
the
concept
of
'Zero
Hour' from
(a) Britain
(b) USA
(c) Switzerland
67. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
contribution
of
India
to
the
Parliamentary
procedure?
(a) Zero Hour
(b) Adjournment Motion
(c) No Confidence Motion
68. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about Half-an-Hour Discussion is wrong?
(a) This discussion is raised on a matter of sufficient public importance
(b) The Speaker can allot three days in a week for such discussion
(c) There is no formal motion or voting in the House on this motion.
69.
Which one of the following statement
about
Short
Duration
Discussion
is
correct?
(a) It is also known as two hour discussion
(b) Such discussion can be raised by the members of Parliament on any matter of
urgent public importance.
(c) There is neither a formal motion nor voting in this type of discussion
(d) All the above
70. Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding Calling Attention:
1. It is an Indian innovation in the Parliamentary Procedure.
2. It is a notice by a member of Parliament to call attention of a minister to a
matter of urgent public importance and to seek an authoritative statement
from him on that matter.
3. It involves an element of censure against the government.
4. Unlike Zero Hour which finds no mention in the rules of procedure, the Calling
Attention is mentioned in the rules of procedure.
71. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about Adjournment Motion is correct?
(a) It is introduced to draw the attention of the minister to a matter of urgent
public importance and to seek an authoritative statement from him on that
matter.
(b) The motion should be supported by at least 50 members of Parliament
(c) It involves an element of censure against the government and, hence, cannot
be used by the Rajya Sabha.
(d) All the above
72. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
'noconfidence motion'?
(a) The motion is moved to ascertain the confidence of Lok Sabha in the Council
of Ministers.
(b) It is moved against the entire Council of Ministers.
(c) If the motion is passed by the Lok Sabha, the Council of Ministers has to
resign from office.
73. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding Censure Motion is correct?
490
(a) Reason for its adoption in Lok Sabha must be clearly stated.
(b) It can be moved against the entire Council of Minister or individual ministers.
(c) If a Censure Motion is passed against the Council of Ministers, it need not
resign from the office.
(d) All the above
74. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
Parliamentary
Control
over
Administration.
1. Budget is the most important technique of Parliamentary control over
administration.
2. The power to raise and spend government funds ultimately rests with the
Parliament
3. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India audits the accounts of the
government on behalf of the Parliament.
4. The Comptroller and Auditor General is the agent of the Finance Ministry and
keeps strict control on the financial transactions of the government.
75. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Public
Accounts
Committee
is
wrong?
(a) The Public Accounts Committee was firstsetupinl921.
(b) The Public Accounts Committee consists of 22 members (15 from Lok Sabha
and 7 from Rajya Sabha).
(c) The members of Public Accounts Committee are elected by the Parliament for
a term of three years.
(d) A Minister cannot be a member of the Public Accounts Committee.
76. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the Public Accounts Committee
(a) The members of the PAC are elected from the members of Parliament on the
basis of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote.
(b) The Chairman of the PAC is invariably taken from the Opposition.
(c) The PAC examines the annual audit report of the Comptroller and Auditor
General of India.
(d) The detailed functions of the Public Accounts Committee have been specified
in the Constitution itself.

(b)2,3 and 4 are correct
77. According
to
Ashok
Chanda,
"Over
a
period
of
years,
the
Committee
has
developed
into
a
powerful
force
in
the
control
of
Public
expenditure"
This
refers
to
(d) All the above
78. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
Public
Accounts
Committee
has
been
correctly listed?
(a) It scrutinizes the Appropriation Accounts of the Government of India and the
report of the Comptroller and Auditor-General thereon.
(b) If money has been spent in excess of the amount granted by the House, the
Committee can look into the facts of each case and make recommendations
as it deems fit.
79.
Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
the
Estimates
Committee
has
491
(a) The Estimates Committee consists exclusively of the Lok Sabha members.
(b)
The members of the Estimates Committee are elected by the Lok
Sabha from amongst its members according to the principles of proportional
representation by means of a single transferable vote.
(c) The Chairman of the Estimates Committee is appointed by the Speaker from
amongst its members.
80. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Estimates Committee
1. The estimates committee consists of 30 members, all taken from the Lok
Sabha.
2. The Chairman of the Estimates Committee is invariably taken from the ruling
party
3.
The Committee examines the estimates included in the budget and
suggests economies in public expenditure.
4. Five members of the Rajya Sabha can be co-opted as members of the
Estimates Committee by the Speaker.

81. Which
one
of
the
following
committees
is
known
as
continuous
economy
committee?
(b) Estimates Committee
(c) Committee on Public Undertakings
82. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
of
Estimates
Committee
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It suggests the form in which the estimates are to be presented to the
Parliament
(b) It examines whether the money is well laid out within the limits of the policy
implied in the estimates.
(c) It suggests alternative policies in order to bring about efficiency and economy
in administration.
83. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Committee
on
Public
Undertakings.
1. The Committee consists of 22 members (15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya
Sabha)
2. The members of the Committee are elected by the Parliament every year
3. The Chairman of the Committee is appointed by the Speaker from amongst
its members drawn from the Lok Sabha
4. The Chairmanship of the Committee is rotated among the members drawn
from the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
84.
Which one of the following functions of
the
Committee
on
Public
Undertakings
(a) It examines and reports and accounts of public undertakings.
(b) Apart from the business or commercial functions the Committee looks into
matters of major government policy.
(c) It examines the reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General on public
undertakings.
(d) It examines whether the affairs of the public undertakings are being managed
in accordance with sound business principles and prudent commercial
practices.
85. Under
Presidential
system
the
legislature
exercises control over administration
492
(a) by appointing committees to investigate into and criticizing the working of

administrative departments and agencies.
(b) By enacting laws to lay down public policies.
(c) By approving the Budget prepared by office of Budget and Management
(d) Through all the above steps.
86. Which one of the following instrument of control used by the US Congress to
control administration has been wrongly listed?
(a) Senate (the upper house of US Congress) confirms the treaties executed by the
President.
(b) All higher appointments made by the President are confirmed by the Senate
(c) It can impeach the President before the completion of his tenure from his office on
grounds of treason or corruption.
(a)
(a)
l.(d)
7.(b)
13. (c)
19. (a)
25. (c)
31. (d)
37. (d)
43. (d)
49. (c)
55. (b)
61. (d)
67. (a)
73. (d)
79. (d)
85. (d)
4. (a)
10. (c)
2. (a)
8. (a)
14. (d)
20. (a)
26. (a)
32. (c)
38. (d)
44. (c)
50. (c)
56. (d)
62. (d)
68. (d)
74. (a)
80. (a)
86. (d)
5.(b)
11. (a)
3.(d)
9. (a)
15. (d)
21. (b)
27. (d)
33. (c)
39. (d)
45. (c)
51. (d)
57. (a)
63. (c)
69. (d)
75. (c)
81. (b)
6.(c)
12. (d)
16.
22.
28.
34.
40.
46.
52.
58.
64.
70.
76.
82.
(a)
(c)
(d)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(d)
(d)
(c)
(a)
(d)
17. (d)
23. (a)
29. (d)
35. (a)
41. (c)
47. (c)
53. (d)
59. (c)
65. (d)
71. (d)
77. (a)
83. (a)
18. (d)
24. (d)
30. (a)
36. (a)
42. (c)
48. (d)
54. (a)
60. (c)
66. (d)
72. (d)
78. (c)
84. (d)
^46Grievance Redressal
Institutions: Ombudsman,
Lokpal and Lokayukta
With the emergence of the 'welfare state' the state is playing an important role in the
socio-economic development of the country. This has resulted in enormous expansion
in the size of Bureaucracy. This is turn has led to increase in the powers and
discretion of the bureaucracy. Often this gives rise to grievance among the citizens.
For the redressal of these grievances certain institutional devices have been created.
The Ombudsman System

This is one of the earliest institution created for the redressal of citizens 'grievances'
against administration. This institution was created in Sweden in 1809 where an
officer was appointed by the legislature to handle complaints against administrative
and judicial action. The matters which fell under the discretion of Ombudsman
included abuse of administrative discretion; maladministration; administrative
corruption; nepotism and misbehaviour of various types. In Sweden, Ombudsman is
appointed by the Parliament and submits its annual report to the Parliament. The
Ombudsman ensures that the government officials comply rules and regulation, and
they discharge their duties properly. The Ombudsman can act on the basis of a
complaint received from a citizen against an officer or on its own. He recommends
corrective action agai st the errant officials to the higher authorities. This method of
redressal of citizens grievances is direct, simple, informal, cheap and speedy.
Impressed by the success of the Ombudsman system in Sweden it was also adopted
by Finland, Denmark, Norway, New Zealand and U.K. Thereafter more countries of the
world have also adopted this
system. In India Ombudsman is known as Lokpal/Lokayukta.
Lokpal
This institution for the redressal of citizens grievances was set up in India on the
recommendation of the Administrative Reforms Commission (headed by Morarji
Desai) The Commission submitted its interim report in 1966 and recommended the
setting up of two special authoritiesLokpal and Lokayukta. These authorities
designed on the pattern of Ombudsman. The Lokpal deals with the complaints
against ministers and secretaries at the Central and state levels. The Lokayukta on
the other hand deals with complaints against other specified higher officials. In India
the judiciary has, however, been kept outside the purview of the Lokpal and
Lokayukta.
The Government of India accepted the above recommendations of the
Administrative Reform Commission with regard to Lokpal and Lokayukta. However, it
could not get the necessary law passed from the Parliament despite repeated
attempts. These bills were either withdrawn or lapsed due to the dissolution of the
Lok Sabha.
Lokayukta
This institution, which looks into complaints against higher officials at the state level
has been set up in several states. The first institution of Lokayukta was established in
Maharashtra in 1971, even though Orissa was the first to pass an act in this regard in
1970. The Lokayukta is appointed by the Governors in most of the states,
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.47Theories and Approaches to the

Study of
International Relations:-Idealist,
Realist,
Systems, Game, Communication and
Decision-Making
With the expansion in the scope of International Relations scholars have tried to
build up theories of international relations and adopted different approaches for
its study. These approaches broadly fall in two categories viz. classical approach
and scientific approach. The classical approach (also known as traditional
approach) is basically normative, qualitative and value judgement approach. This
approach was popular before the emergence of the scientific approach. It had
several variants viz., historical approach, philosophical approach legal approach
and institutional approach. In addition to this the classical approach has two
other variants as well viz. Realist and Idealists.
The Scientific Approach, also known as behavioural approach, became
popular after second world war, and laid emphasis on the methods of study
rather than the subject matter. This approach is inter-disciplinary and draws from
various social sciences like sociology, psychology and anthropology.
The Idealist Approach

This is one of the classical approach which regards the power politics as a passing
phase of history and presents a picture of future international society free from
power political, immorality and violence. It seeks to bring about a better world with
the help of education and international organisation. This theory rests on the
assumption
that the interests of various groups or nations are likely to get adjusted in the larger
interest of mankind. The theory has been criticised on the ground that it runs counter
to the factual position because nations do not behave as they are expected.
Realist Approach
This approach is mainly associated with the names of thinkers like Hobbes,
Machiavelli, George Kennan, Morgenthau etc. This theory assumes perpetual
existence of conflict among the nations, who are contesting for power. This contest
for power can neither be controlled nor regulated by international law or world
government. Both the Idealist and Realist approach possess respective merits and
demerits for a balanced understanding of international relations. It is desirable that
both these approaches should be intermingled. As Carr has observed 'the
combination of realism and idealism is the best solution'.
The Systems Theory

This approach was the result of behavioural revolution in social sciences. This
approach holds that a scientific study of international relation can be made only if the
relevant material is treated in terms of system action. This theory assumes that there
is a system in international relations and the states are part of this system. The
various states not only interact with each other but are also in
(a) sociology
(c) anthropology
(b) psychology
(d) all the above
11. Which
one
of
the
following
was
an
exponent
of
realist
theory
of
international
relations?
(a) Hans J. Morgenthau
(b) George Kennan
(c) Henry Kissinger
(d) All the above
12. Morgenthau,
who
is
regarded
as
a
leading
exponent
of
realistic
theory
of
international
relations,
laid
emphasis
on
certain
principles.
Which
one
of
the
following
principles
was
not
emphasised
by him?
(a) Politics is governed by objective laws which are based on human nature and
psychology.
(b) State is expected to observe the same standards of morality as are observed
by the individual.
(c)Interest is not fixed and is moulded by the environments.
(d) There is no identity between the moral aspirations of nation and the moral
law which governs the universe.
1. Kennan held that the national interest is a reliable guide to intelligent policy
and each state tries to safeguard its national interest.
2.Kennan insists on adopting moral approach in the formulation of policy while
safeguarding the national interests.
3. Both Morgenthau and Kennan regarded the power politics as the basis of
world political relations.
4. Kennan like Morgenthau completely ignores the moral aspect and insists on
taking national interests as they are.

14. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
of
the
realist approach has been wrongly listed?
(a) The theory suffers from ambiguity and is inconsistent with reality.
(b) The theory wrongly assumes that all men and states seek their national
interests in terms of power.
(c) It treats the world as a static unit in which power is a permanent guiding
factor.
1. The realist theory is defective insofar as it assumes that there is hardly any
relationship or activity iwhich does not involve power.
'
2. The theory wrongly assumes that power is the most important tool which the
nations pursue.
3. The theory rightly assumes that world is a static unit in which power is a
permanent guiding factor.
4. The realist theory is defective insofar as it regards the political sphere as a
nomous as the sphere of economists, or lawyers..."
Of the above statements regarding criticism of Morgenthau's realist theory
16. Despite
several
shortcomings
the
realist
approach
has
certain
distinct
advantages.
Which
one
of
the
following
advantage
of
this approach has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is persuasive and is supported by
historical experience, (by .It has given jolt to scholars and
compelled them to re-evaluate their
own assumptions.
(c) Even those scholars who challenge the basis of realism have tended to rely
on realist perspectives.
(c)
Theories and Approaches to the Study of International
Relations 503
17.
Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about the Idealist Approach is correct?
(a) It regards the power politics as the passing phase of history.
(b) It aims at bringing about a better world with the help of education and
international organisation.
(c) This approach found its faint echoes in the Declaration of the
American War of Independence of 1776 and the French Revolution of
1789.
(d) All the above
18.
In
the
writings
of
which
one
of
the
following
writers
the
idealist
approach
did
not find any expression.
(a) Kennan
(b) Condorcet
(c) Rousseau
(d) Woodrow Wilson
19.
Consider the following statements:
1. The idealist thinkers visualised a future system free from power
politics, immorality and violence.
2. The idealists regarded the power struggle as nothing but a passing
phase of history.
3. The idealist theory proceeds with the assumption that the interests of
various groups or nations would get adjusted in the large interest of
mankind.
4. The idealists do not hesitate from advocating use of military force to
establish a system of their perception.
Of the above statements regarding idealist theory
20.
A
controversy
ranged
between
the
Classicists and Behaviouralists in
(a) thel940's
(b) thel950's
(c) thel960's
(d) thel970's
21. The
controversy
between
classicists
and
behaviouralists started with
(a) Hediey Bull
(b) E.H. Carr
(c) Raymond Aron
(d) Hans J. Morgenthau
22.Hediey
Bull
advanced
several
arguments
against
the
use
of
scientific
approach
for
study
of
international
relations.
Which
one
of
the
following
argument
has
been
wrongly attributed to him?
(a)
The matter of international relations is such that it cannot be examined
merely with the help of modern scientific tools.

(b) As the scholars of scientific approach have not attended to the basic
questions they have not been able to contribute much to the
development of theory of international relations.
(c) The scientific theorists have done a great disservice to the theory of
international relations by introducing the so-called method of models.
(d)
None of the above
23.Which
one
of
the
following
was
most
powerful
defender
of
the
scientific
theory
of international relations?
(a) Morton Kaplan
(b) Martin Wright
(c) Raymond Aron
(d) Alfred Zimmern
24.Who
of
the
following
first
expounded
the
systems theory or general systems theory?
(a) Morton Kaplan
(b) McClelland
(c) Kenneth Boulding
25.Which
one
of
the
follow
scholars
developed
the
systems
theory
or
general
systems
theory
in
most
systematic
manner?
(a) McClelland
(b) Kenneth Boulding
(c) Morton Kaplan
(d) Kenneth Waltz
26.Consider the following statements:
1. International relations or politics implies two things: 'International
system'and'nation state system'.
2. Nation state system is political system in the strict sense of the term while
international system is not in fact a real political system.
3. Physical force is necessary to keep the system intact and this force is present
in the state system and absent in the case of international systems.
4. The nations or states have a fixed role in the international system.
Of the above statements regarding Morton Kaplan's Systems theory
27. Morton
Kaplan
identified
six
models
of
major
international
system.
Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
included
in
these
six
models?
(a) Balance of Power
(b) Non-aligned System
(c) Universal International System
(d) Veto System

28. The
Decision
Making
Approach
is
associated with the name of
(a) Richard C. Synder
(b) H.W.Bruck
(c) Borton Spain
(d) All the above
1.The writers associated with the decision-making approach tried to provide a
theoretical explanation of the behaviour of the actors in international
relations.
2. The advocates of decision making approach tried to analyse the decision and
find out as to why and how do the actors behave.
3. The basic Idea underlying the decision-making approach is that international
politics should be taken as the interaction of foreign policies.
4. The decision-making approach attaches too much importance to the
norms, value or high principles which exercise profound influence on
international politics.
Of the above statements regarding
decision making approach
30. The Realist approach is also known as
(a) Historical Approach
(b) Scientific Approach
(c) Power Approach
(d) International Organisation Approach
31.
Which one of the following was the main
supporter
of
realist
approach
in
International Relations?
(a) Morgenthau
(b) Woodrow Wilson
(c) KarlDeutsch
32. Who
introduced
the
Game
Theory
in
the
study of Politics?
(a) Morton A. Kaplan
(b) Robert C. North
(c) S.L.Wasby
(d) William H. Riker
33. Who
of
the
following
developed
Game
Theory?
(a) KarlDeutsch
(b) EmileBord
(c) Neuman
34. Which
one
of
the
following
approach
applied
mathematical
models
for
the
study of political phenomenon
(a) Game Theory
(b) Communication Theory
(c) Systems Theory
35. Who
of
the
following
introduced
Game
Theory
in
the
field
of
International
Relations?
(a) Thomas C. Schelling
(b) M.A.Kaplan
(a)
Theories and Approaches to the Study of International
Relations 505
(c) Norbert Wiener

36. Though
the
Game
theory
was
developed
by
Emile
Bord
in
1920's,
the
credit
for
popularising the same goes to
(b) Robert Mitchell
(c) John Von Neuman
(d) David Easton
37. Who
was
the
author
of
'Games
and
Decisions-Introduction and Critical Survey'
(a) R. Ducan Luse
(b) Morton A. Kaplan
(c) John Von Neumann
38. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Games Theory has been wrongly listed?
(a) There are always two parties to the game

(b) Both the parties try to win the government
(c) Each party to the game has perfect knowledge of the available choices.
(d) Only the institutions (and not individuals) can be parties to the game.
39. Which
one
of
the
following
characteristic
of Games Theory has been wrongly listed?
(a) Each party tries to achieve its own interests and objectives.
(b) The participants to the game always try to behave rationally and reasonably
(c) Each participant considers the interests of the other.
40. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Games Theory has been wrongly listed?
(a) All players to the game have independent choice
(b) Each party to the game believes that the other one is wise.
(c) It holds that every participant is accommodative.
(d)
None of the above
41. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Game Theory
1. The game is played rationally by the players
2. Every player takes into account his interests to the maximum
3. The parties know that there are not very many alternatives available.
4. Parties to the game are not always very efficient.
42. Which
one
of
the
following
according
to
Ricker,
is
conducive
to
the
formation
of
coalitions in international relations?
(a) Strategy of coalition partners

(b)for the same of maximum gains
(c)population size of coalition partners
(d)all the above
43. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Game Theory
1. It does not provide basic information about international power politics.
2. It failed to give due importance to power blocs and cold war
3. It is not helpful in knowing national priorities in International politics.
4. It lays stress on terminologies rather than facts of life.
44. Which
one
of
the
following
is
associated
with the Communication Theory
(a) KarlDeutch
(c) David Easton
(d) S.L.Wasby
45. Communication theory is based on
(a) input-output system
506
(b) internet system

(c) cybernetics
46. Who
described
communication
process
of
steering
and
human
efforts
towards
the
some goal'?
(a) O.R.Young
(c) KarlDeutsch
47. Who
said
that
the
world
includes
'all
the
procedures
by
mind may affect another'
(a) Warren Weaver
(b) KarlDeutsch
(c) O.R.Young
(d) S.L.Wasby
48. Who
used
the
term
cybernetics
the process of communication?
(b) Norbert Wiener
(c) David Easton
(d) S.L.Wasby
as
'the
co-ordinating
attainment
of
communication
which
one
to
explain
49. The
term
'cybernetics'
used
to
explain
the
process
of
communication
was
borrowed
from
(a) Mathematics
(b) Sociology
(c) Mechanical Engineering
(d) Psychology
50. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
communication
system
has
been
wrongly
emphasised by Karl Deustch
(a) There are various channels for providing information.
(b) The Communication system differs in time, quality and quantity.
(c) The system is dependent on the types of channels available for providing
information.
51. The Communication Theory has
(a) helped in developing a new approach to the study of international relations
(b) helped in democrating structures dealing with information flow
(c) helped in the study of dynamics of a political system.
(d) helped in achieving all the above.
52. The Communication Theory
(a) does not make any distinction between the democratic and the totalitarian
systems
(b) is not helpful in comparing the modern and traditional system
(c) has failed to study the phenomenon of system growth.
(d) has all the above features.
53. Who
of
the
following
are
the
main
actors
in the decision-making process?
(a) the decision makers
(b) regional organisation
(c) world organisation
54. Who
of
the
following
falls
in
the
of decision makers?
(a) those who have legal responsibility for taking decisons
(b) those who actually participate in the decision-making process
(c) those who provide information to the decision makers
(d) all the above
55. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
making process?
(a) It is both a conscious as well as unconscious process
(b) It is a continuous process
(c) It is one time activity
56. A
decision-making
process
in
customs,
values
and
well-established
play an imoportant role is known as
(a)
sociological process
(b) psychological process
(c) social cum legal process
(d) mechanical process
(a)
category
been
decision
which
rules
Theories and Approaches to the Study of International Relations 507

decision making process?
(a) It is an individual activity
(b) It is a conscious process
(c) leaders of interests groups play an important role in this process
58. Who of the following popularised the
decision-making approach?
(a) H.A. Simon
(b) Harold Lasswell
(c) David Easton
(d) Burton Spain
59. Who said that every actor is a decision
maker?
(a) Harold Lasswell (b) V.V.Dyke
(c) Burton Spain
(d) KarlDeutsch
60. Who
of
the
following
applied
the
decision
making
approach
to
the
study
of
international relations?
(a) Richard Snyder
(b) Burton Sapin
(c) H.W.Buck
(d) All the above
61. Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
levelled
against
the
decision-making
approach is correct?
(a) It gives too much importance to the personality of the decision maker.
(b) This approach is dynamic in nature
(c) This approach is state centric.

(d) all the above
(a)
(a)
l.(a) 7.(d) 13. (a) 19. (c) 25. (c) 31. (a) 37. (a) 43. (a) 49. (c) 55. (c) 61. (c)
2.(c) 8. (a) 14. (d) 20. (c) 26. (a) 32. (d) 38. (d) 44. (a) 50. (d) 56. (d)
ANSWERS
3.(d)
9-(c)
15. (c)
21. (a)
27. (b)
33. (b)
39. (c)
45. (c)
51. (a)
57. (d)
4.(d)
10. (d)
16. (d)
22. (d)
28. (d)
34. (a)
40. (d)
46. (a)
52. (d)
58. (a)
5.(d) 11. (d) 17. (d) 23. (a) 29. (b) 35. (b) 41. (a) 47. (a) 53. (a) 59. (b)
6. (a) 12. (b) 18. (a) 24. (b) 30. (a) 36. (c) 42. (d) 48. (b) 54. (d) 60. (d)
48Power, Interest and

Ideology in
International
Relations
Power
With the rise of modern nation state, the political scientists realised the
importance of power in politics. They defined state in terms of its power. The
best exposition of power was offered by Max Webber. The other scholars who
further elaborated the concept of power were Catlin, Marrian, Lasswell,
Goldhammer and Shils. However, the credit for extending the concept to
international politics goes to Morgenthau. He says that whatever be the
ultimate aim of international politics, power is always the immediate aim.
"Generally it is held that the wealth, resources, manpower and armies are the
real sources of power. However, the mere possession of these does not make
a national powerful. It is the possession of certain elements and their skilful
use which makes a nation powerful. The main factors which form the basis of
power include geography, natural resources, technology, population, national
character and morale, economic development, political structure, ideological
element, leadership, military preparedness, diplomacy etc. It may be noted
that the evaluation of power is not an easy task because its miscalculations
can have disastrous effect. Further, certain factors limit the national power of
a state viz. the balance of power, international morality, world public opinion,
international law, disarmament, international organisations.
National Interest
National interests reflect the general and continuing ends for which a nation
acts. According to Brower, it is not easy to define national interest
because it is a highly subjective term, the definition of which depends almost
entirely upon specific content given to it by a particular person at a particular
time. Different instruments are used by the states for the promotion of their
national interests. Some of the important instruments used for this purpose
include diplomacy, propaganda, imperialism, display of military force,
economic aid and religion.
It canot be denied that the concept of national interest is very useful and
must be kept in mind by the policy makers. In fact national interest greatly
influences the domestic as well as the foreign policy of a country.
Ideology in International Relations

By ideology we mean a body of ideas concerning economic, social and
political values and goals with positive action programmes for attaining those
goals. It constitutes the backbone of the foreign policy of a state and strives
for its effective implementation. Different countries have followed different
ideologies at different period of time. Morgenthau has classified these
ideologies in three categories viz. ideologies of status quo, Ideologies of
Imperialism; and Ambigious Ideologies.
There is close relationship betwen the interests and ideology and each
influences the other. Often the states tend to give an ideological base to their
selfish interests and try to justify their actions with the help of ideology.
Likewise ideology can also influence the national interests.
Scholars have expressed diverse views regarding the impact of ideology
on international
Power, Interest and Ideology in International
Relations 509
relations. On the one hand it has been asserted that the ideology is a simplifying
mechanism which offers to the individual ready-packaged ideas and therefore
obviates the necessity of him to work out answers for himself. On the other hand it
has been contended that ideolgy does not play that effective role in international
politics. The ideologies merely give direction to the physical resources of the
countries. Both the above views are extreme and the truth lies in between. In modern
times ideologies exercise considerable influence on international relations because
people are exerting greater influence in the decision making process Ideology plays a
multi-facet role in international relations. Thus it provides justification and rationale
to the policy of a country; it plays both co-operative and oppositional role; it provides
a rigid framework for foreign policy makers; it provides a mask behind which the
ulterior motives are concealed. According to Palmer and Perkins the signifance of
ideologies in world politics today lies in the fact that in some instances they have
become linked to national power.
Some scholars have contended that there has been decline of ideology in recent
years and most of the disputes which confront the world at present are essentially
not ideological in
nature. Further, the growing co-operatioin between the states with different
ideologies is a clear proof that ideology has lost its relevance. In recent years
most of the Communist states of East Euorope have moved towards democracy
and liberalisaton. This is a proof that ideology no longer plays a vital role in
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1. Which
one
of
the
following
systematically
developed
the
concept
of
power
in
the
20th
century
(a) Max Weber
(b) David Easton
(c) Robert Dahl
2. Who
identified
power
with
the
"capacity
of
an
individual
or
a
group
of
indh
duals,
to
modify
the
conduct
of
other
in
the
manner which one desires."
(a) Robert Dahl
(b) Friedrich
(c) Tawney
(d) Lasswell
Who
is
credited
with
having
extended
the
concept
of
power
to
international
relations/politics?
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Max Weber
(c) Morgenthau
(d) E.KCarr
Which
one
of
the
following
characteristic
of power has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is a relationship among men and not a quality possessed by them.
(b) It is situational in so far as its exercise is greatly influenced by the
surrounding circumstances.
(c) It is issue based and cannot be evaluated as indivisible unit
(d) In extreme cases power can even assume violent character
Who
said
that
everything
which
is
happening
around
us
is
in
one
way
or
the
other concerned with power?
(a) Machavelli
(b) Maclver
(c) Morgenthau
(d) Karl Marx
Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
characteristic
of
power?
(a) There is legal sanction behind power
(b) Power is absolute but related
(c) Power is absolute and imaginary
(d) Power is used by the elites or legislators
Which
one
of
the
following
source
of
power has been wrongly listed?
(a) Formal Authority
(b) Wealth
(c) Military Force
(d) Organisation
Power can be acquired through
(a) constitution
(b) statutes
(c) delegation
(d) all the above
Persuasion,
which
is
one
of
the
methods
for the use of power, includes

(a) self-example
(b) education
(c) propaganda
(d) all the above
10. Pressure, which is one of the methods for
the use of power, includes
(a) use of force
(b) manipulation
(c) bargaining
(d) all the above
11. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about National Power is correct?
(a) Power is the ability of a nation to coerce other nation to follow a particular
course of action
(b) Power is the ability of a nation to bring other nations within its network
(c) Power is the ability of a nation to create favourable climate for international
understanding.
12. Which
one
of
the
following
elements
of
national power is most stable?
(a) Population
(b) Natural Resources
(c) Geography
13. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
national
power?
(a) International Status
(b) Technological development
(c) Industrial development

(d)Economic development
14. Ideology and morale fall in the category of
(a) tangible elements of national power
(b) non-tangible elements of national power
(c) natural element of national power
(d) permanent elements of national power.
15. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
of
national power has been wrongly listed?
(a) Leadership
(b) Diplomacy
(c) Ideology
16. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
element
of
national
power?
(a) Independent Press
(b) Natural Resources
(c) Population.
(d) Technology
17. The National Power is limited by
(a) International Morality
(b) World Public Opinion
(c) International Law
(d) All the above
18. Which
one
of
the
following
methods
for
use of power has been wrongly listed?
(a) Persuasion
(b) Rewards
(c) Punishment
19. Who
said
that
'the
foreign
policy
of
every
country
is
at
all
times
presumably
designed to promote the national interest'?
(a) Morgenthau
(b) Bertrand Russle
(c) Palmer and Perkins
(d) V.V.Dyke
20. National Interest implies
(a) Interest of all the nations
(b)
preservation of a country's territory, political institution and culture etc.
(c) association of all the people with the administration of the country.
(d) all the above
21. Who
said
that
national
interest
implies
what
"the
states
seek
to
protect
or
achieve
in relation to each other?"
(a) Morgenthau
(b) V.V.Dyke
(c) Brower
(d) Schicher
22. Who
said
that
the
national
interests
of
a
country
should
be
proportionate
to
its
capabilities?
(a) Schielcher
(b) Morgenthau
(c) V.V.Dyke
(d) George Schwarzenberger
23. Which
one
expressed
the
political
necessity
a
nation
to
nations
but
for
thought,
National Interest?
(a) Maclver
(b)
(c) Morgenthau
(d)
of
view
but
follow
one
one
the
following
scholars
that
it
is
not
only
a
also
a
moral
duty
for
in
its
dealings
with
other
guiding
star,
one
standard
rule
for
action;
The
V.V.Dyke
J.T. Shotwell
511
24.
Which
oê
of
the
following
intruments
is/
are
used
by
states
to
promote
their
national interests?
(a) Diplomacy
(b) Propaganda
(c) Economic aid
(d) All the above
25. Which
one
of
the
following
instruments
for
the
promotion
of
national
interests
has
(a) Display of military force
(b) Religion
(c) Propaganda
(d) None of th? above
26. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
does
not
influence
the
national
interest
of
a
country?
(a) Government Process
(b) Philosophy of the Government in Power

(c) Philosophy of other nations
(d)Geography of the country
27. Which
one
of
the
following
falls
in
the
category of primary national interest?
(a) Preservation of national identity
(b) Improvement in international status
(c) Rapid economic development
(d) Promotion general welfare of the people
28. The
interests
which
are
held
by
several
states in common are known as
(a) General National Interests
(b) Identical National Interests
(c) Complementary National Interests
29. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
method
for
the
protection of national interest
(a) alliances and treaties
(b) propaganda
(c) threat of war
(d) economic aid
30. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
hindrance
in
the
way
of
promotion
of
natural
interest?
(a) casteism
(b) regionalism
(c) communalism
(d) all the above
31. National Interest can be best promoted by
(a) inculcating feeling of national interest among the citizens
(b) avoiding conflicts with other countries
(c) entering into alliance with powerful nations
(d) all the above steps.
32. Who
defined
ideology
as
"a
body
of
ideas
concerning
economic,
social
and
political
values
and
goals
with
positive
action
programmes for attaining those goals?"
(a) Charles P. Schleicher
(b) Padelford and Lincoln
(c) W.G.Carleton
33. Morgenthau has classified ideologies into
(a) three categories
(b) four categories
(c) two categories
(d) five categories
34. Which
one
of
the
following
kind
of
ideology
as
classified
by
Morgenthau
has
(a) Ideologies of Status Quo
(b) Ideologis of Imperialism
(c) Ambiguous Ideologies
35.
Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
status
quo
ideology
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) This ideology is opposed to all kinds of imperialism
(b) This ideology holds great faith in international law and peace
(c) This ideology holds faith in system of collective security and mutual
assisstance.
36. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Ideology
of
Imperialism
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) This ideology holds faith in international law
(b) This ideology seeks to overthrow the
status quo
512
(c) This ideology seeks to create an international system which redistributes the
power in their favour
37. Which
ideology
lays
emphasis
on
the
protection of the interests of smaller states?
(a) Ideology of Status Quo
(b) Ideology of Imperialism
(c) Ambiguous Ideology
38. Which
one
of
the
following
adopted
principle
of
national
self-determination
according to its convenience?
(a) President Wilson of USA

(b)Hitler of Germany
39. The
Ideology
of
Liberalism
is
also
known
as Ideology of freedom and world peace?
(a) True
(b) False
40. In
the
international
sphere
the
ideology
of
liberalism
laid
emphasis
on
several
principles.
Which
one
of
the
following
feature
has
not
been
emphasised
by
Liberal
Ideology
in
International
relations?
(a) Non-violence
(b) co-operation
(c) justice
(d) peace
41. Which
one
of
the
following
characteristics
of
Liberal
Ideology
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It seeks to promote individual diginity
(b) It seeks to promote the welfare of men irrespective of their social, economic,
racial or national status
(c) It favours pacific settlement of disputes and peaceful changes in accordance
with the will of the majority
42. In
the
context
of
international
relations
which
one
of
the
following
features
of
Liberal Ideology has been wrongly listed?
(a) It stands for full state control over the individual.
(b) It is opposed to free competition
(c) It glorifies war and aggreession
(d) All the above
43. Totalitarianism
as
an
ideology
in
international relations stands for
(a) omnipotence of the state
(b) settlement of disputes through war
(c) constant expansion of state
(d) all the above
44. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a totalitarian ideology?
(a) Fascism
(b) National Socialism
(c) Communism
45. Communism
as
an
ideology
differs
from
other
totalitarian
ideologies
like
Fascism,
National Socialism, etc insofar as
(a) it stands for elimination of system of exploitation of man by man
(b) it stands for a free and dignified life of the individual
(c) it stands for a world revolution
(d) it stands for all the above
46. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding Communist Ideology
1. It is the most liberal of all the totalitarian ideologies.

2. It stands for free and dignified life of individual through elimination of system
of exploitation of man by man.
3. It stands for a world revolution
4. It views state as an instrument of dominance of one class by the other.
47. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Communist
Ideology
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It believes in the primacy of economic factors
513
(b) It holds faith in the theory of class struggle

(c) It stands for full freedom of expression.
(d) It stands for world revolution.
48. Which
one
of
the
following
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Status Quo?
(a) This ideology holds full faith in international law and peace.
(b) It supports policy of imperialism to ensure better life for
countries.
(c) It holds faith in the system of collective security and mutual
has
Ideology
been
of
people of all the

assistance.
49. Which
one
of
the
following
ideologies
is
ambiguous?
(a) Ideology of national self-determination
(b) Ideology of Peace
(c) Ideology of U.N.O.
(d) All the above
50. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about Ideology is correct?
(a) While common ideologies unit the states, the opposite ideologies divide
them.
(b) Ideology provides justification and rationale to the policy of a country.
(c) Ideology provides a mask behind which the ulterior motives are concealed.
(d) All the above.
51. Who
of
the
following
said
"the
ideological
fires
in
the
western
world
have
cooled
down
and
'ideology'which
was
once
the
road to action, has become a dead end?"
(b) Morgenthau
(c) Daniel Bell
(d) E.H.Carr
52.
The
national
power
of
a
country
is
greatly
determined
by
the
quality
of
diplomacy
pursued by the state
(a) True
(b) False
ANSWERSl.(a)2.(c)3. (c)4.(d)5.(b)6.(c)7. (c)8.(d)9.(d)10. (d)11. (d)?2. (c)13. (a)14.

(b)15. (d)16. (a)17. (d)18. (d)19. (c) 20. (b)21. (b)22. (b)23. (c)24. (d)25. (d)26. (c)27.
(a)28. (b)29. (c)30. (d)31. (a)32. (b)33. (a)34. (d)35. (d)36. (a)37. (a)38. (c)39. (a)40.
(a)41. (d)42. (d)43. (d)44. (d)45. (d)46. (b)47. (c)48. (b)49. (d)50. (d)51. (c)52. (a)
0..49-
Arms and Wars: Nature, Causes and

Types
of War Conflicts Including Ethnic
Disputes Etc; Arms Race, Arms
Control
and Disarmament
Wars and conflicts have been a feature of human history since earliest times. These
wars were waged for different reasons. These wars began for control over hunting
territories. During medieval period the wars assumed dynastic colour. However, with
the rise of nationalism, the wars assumed a total character and the principles of
conscription and ideology came to play an important role. Oppenheim has defined
war as "a contention between two or more states through their armed forces for the
purpose of overpowering each other." According to Quincy Wright, the causes of war
can be studied from different angles political, economic, social, religious,
psychological, ideological, jurisdical, technological and so on
The modern day wars differ from the earlier wars in several respects viz; the
duration and number of battles has greatly increased; operation of modern wars has
greatly expanded; the civil population is more deeply involved in modern day wars;
modern wars are carried throughout the year modern wars involve a conflict of
opposite social systems; and modern wars are fought with highly destructive
weapons. The wars have several function viz; it is an instrument in the hands of the
state to protect the lives and interest of its citizens; it helps in the elimination of
inconsistencies and incompatibilities in the policy goals of different states; it is a
useful instrument for ending injustice; threat of war has strengthened
the desire for peace, prosperity and happiness; it saves the nations from stagnation
and inertia and greatly contributes to its progress. However, war also suffers from
certain shortcomings. It gives rise to feelings of bitterness, humilitation, revenge etc
due to loss of men and material during war. One war sows the seeds of the next war.
War does not provide any long-term solution to any problem.
Scholars have suggested several measures for the elimination of war. These
include development of harmonious relations among states and ensure that they
resolve disputes through peaceful methods; effective use of UN should be made
to eliminate war; people should exercise greater control over political leaders to
prevent them from acting in an aggressive manner; disarmament can contribute
to elimination of war; effective role of International Law in preventing wars;
establishment of world government which can eliminate war.
Arms Race, Arms Control and Disarmament

Arms race has been a feature of international relations since medieval times, but it
became a consistent feature only in the modern times. The armed race assumed
serious dimensions between 1884 and 1919 when England and France, due to
suspicion of each other, tried to strengthen their respective positions by acquiring
more and more arms. The efforts of Bismarck to make Germany a
Arms and Wars: Nature, Causes and Types of War Conflicts Including Ethnic
Disputes Etc; 515
world power also contributed to this race. It became more serious with Japan entering
the fray. However, the enormous destruction caused by the First World War promoted
the world leaders to work for preservation of peace and to put an end to arms race.
After First World War efforts were stepped up to check arms race and promote
disarmament. However, not much success could be achieved. In fact in the post
world war II period on account of ideological differences between two blocs the arms
race was stepped up. Due to technological advancement the arms race became more
qualitative. New nuclear weapons were invented or old ones were perfected. Some of
the new weapons invented or perfected included satellites, ICBMs, Titan, Polaris,
minutement and a Variety of space and thermonuclear weapons. Along with these
developments there was a growing realisation among the world statesmen to put a
halt to this made race and evolve mechanism so that the peace of the world was not
threatened. Efforts were stepped up during the inter-war period as well as the postworld war II period to check armament race. The UN Charter also laid special
emphasis on this point. Some of the prominent steps taken to check arms race and
bring about disarmament included setting up of an Atomic Energy Commission in
1946; Setting up of a Commission on Conventional Armaments (1947); Setting up of
Disarmament Commission in 1952; Atom for Peace Plan (1953); Anglo-French Plan
(1954) Soviet Proposal (1955); Geneva Summit and Open Skies Plan (1955); Six Point
Plan of USA (1957), Nuclear Test Ban Conference (1958-1961); Antarctic Treaty
(1959), Ten Nations Disarmament Conference (1960); Eighteen Nations Disarmament
Conference (1962); Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963); Seven Point Plan (1966); Outer
Space Treaty (1967); Treaty of filatelolco (1967); Conference of Non-Nuclear Weapon
States (1968); Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968); Sea Bed Treaty (1971); Biological
Weapons Convention (1972); Stratetgic Arms Limitation Treaty (1972); US-Soviet
accord on Limitation of Arms (1973); Threshold Test Ban Treaty (1974); US-Soviet Arm
Pact (1973) The Peaceful Nuclear Explosion treaty (1976); Special Session on
Disarmament (1978); SALT (1976); Agreement concerning Activities of States on
Moon and other Celestial Bodies (1979); Prohibition of Inhumane Weapons (1981)
START
Negotiations (1982); Second Special Session on Disarmament (1982); Talks between
NATO and Warsaw Pact Countries (1984); Four Continent Peace Initiative (1984);
Geneva Talks (1985); Six Nations Summit (New Delhi, 1985); Reykjavik Meeting
(1986); Third Special Session of UN General Assembly on Disarmament (1988);
Geneva Talks on Strategic Arms Reduction (1989); Washington Summit (1990); The
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) (1991): Five Power Accord to Prevent Spread
of Weapons of Mass Destruction (1992); START II (1993); Convention orl Chemical

Weapons (1993); Comprehensive Trust Bank Treaty (CTBT) 1996, etc.
The arms race has had three fold impact. In the military sphere it increased the
possibility of war. In the economic sphere it led to wastage of lot of money which
could have been fruitfully utilised for the improvement of the lot of the people. In the
third place it has widened the gap between the developed and developing countries.
It is now being increasingly realised that disarmament and development must go
hand in hand. It is a commonly accepted view that progress towards disarmament
would release resources which could be utilised for the purpose of development.

1. Who
of
the
following
defined
war
as
"a
contention
between
two
or
more
states
through
their
armed
forces
for
the
purpose
of overpowering each other
(a) Quincy Wright
(b) Oppenheim
(c) Lawrence
(d) Edwards
2. Who
of
the
following
said
"War
is
the
use
of
organised
force
between
two
human
groups
pursuing
contradictory
policies,
each
group
seeking
to
impose
its
policy
upon the other"
(a) Oppenheim
(b) Hoffman Nickerson
(c) David V. Edwards
(d) Quincy Wright
3. Dynastic wars was a feature of
(a) ancient times (b) medieval age
(c) modern age
(d) all the above
516
4. The modern day wars differ from earlier

wars insofar as
(a) the duration and number of battles has greatly increased

(b) the civil population is more deeply involved in the wars
(c) the modern wars involve a conflict of opposite social systems
(d) in all the above respects
regarding the functions of war
1. It is an instrument in the hands of the state to protect the lives and interests
of its citizens.
2. It is a useful instrument for ending justice
3. Threat of war has strengthened the desire for peace, prosperity and happiness
4. It has greatly contributed to the space of development in the underdeveloped
countries.
6. Which one of the following shortcoming of
war has been wrongly listed?
(a) It gives rise to feelings of bitterness, humilition and revenge
(b) Generally each war sows the seeds of the next war
(c) War does not provide a long-term solution to any problem
(d) War has contributed to the development of the under-developed countries.
war?
(a) It is a contest between two states
(b) It involves use of organised force
(c) It is an armed conflict between two independent states
(d) All the above
(a) In war each party seeks to impose its will on the other.
(b) War involves hostility between two states
(c) War is the quickest method for the settlement of long standing disputes.
(d) Failure to resolve the disputes through peaceful means generally culminates
in war
9. Which one of the following measure can
contribute to the elimination of war?
(a) Development of harmonious relations among states.
(b)
Encouraging the states to resolve their disputes through peaceful
methods
(c) Effective use of the United Nations
(d) All the above
regarding the elimination of war.
1. Disarmament can contribute to the elimination of war
2. International Law can play an effective role in the prevention of wars.
3. Establishment of World Government can help in the elimination of war
4. War can be prevented by restricting the size of armed forces of the major
powers.

General War has been wrongly listed?
(a) In general war the defeated nation accepts the dominance of the victorious
state.
(b) A general war can be both conventional and non-conventional.
(a)
Arms and Wars: Nature, Causes and Types of War Conflicts Including Ethnic Disputes Etc; 517
(c) In general war the area of operation often extends beyond the area of actual
dispute.
12. So
long
as
the
present
nation-state
system
continues
it
shall
be
difficult
to
banish
wars.
(a) True
(b) False
13. The
present
International
System
is
the
main cause of wars because
(a) It is based on nation-states who are free to defend their rights and interests.
(b) International law recognises war as an instrument for the protection of a
state's rights and interests
(c) It has no effective power to resolve the disputes among states without resort
to war.
14. Consider
the
following
statements
regardings the causes of war
1. Imperialistic ambitions of the powers lead to war
2. Conflicting national interests of countries lead to wars
3. Non-existence of an international force is a cause of war
4. Religious differences often lead to wars

(c) 1, 2 and 4 are correct (dy 1,3 and 4 are correct
15. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
listed
by Quincy Wright as a cause of war?
(a) ideological differences
(b) political differences
(c) economic differences
(d) all the above
16. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
can
be
a
potential cause of war?
(a) Desire to raise the living standard of the people
(b) Raising of trade barriers to protect domestic economic interests
17. Marxian
writers
hold
the
capitalist
system
responsible for war
(a) because of its monopolistic and expansionist nature.
(b) because it completely neglects the welfare of the workers
(c) because it is motivated by the sole considerations of profit.
(d) because of all the above factors.
18. Which
one
of
the
following,
according
to
the Liberals, is the chief cause of wars?
(a) Curtailment of free trade for the sake of protecting domestic economic
interests.
(b) Free Trade
(c) Open Competition
(d) Conflicting cultures
19. What
was
the
underlying
cause
of
Crusades War?
(a) Economic
(b) Imperialism
(c) Ethnic
(d) Psychology
20. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
underlying
factor
in
Indo-Pak
and
ArabIsrael Wars?
(a) Ideological
(b) Cultural or religious
(c) Psychological
(d) Political
21. The traditional war was
(a) restricted to a particular area or region
(b) mainly fought by the armies of the contesting parries
(c) of much shorter duration than the modern wars
(d) all the above
22. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a feature of modern war?
(a) It involves the total population
(b) It attaches great importance to moral and humanitarian principles.
(a)
518
(c) It is more devastating than the traditional war

23. Which
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
modern war?
(a) It involves increasing use of automatic weapons of war
(b) It is highly mechanised
(c) It is a total war
(d) All the above
24. Which
one
of
the
following
methods
can
be
effective
in
checking
the
outbreak
of
war?
(a) making people conscious of the destructive nature of war
(b) educating people about the horrors of nuclear and bio-chemical weapons.
(c) controlling the nuclear armaments
(d) all the above
25. The
history
of
disarmament
is
generally
traced back to
(a) The Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
(b) The First Hague Conference (1899)
(c) The Treaty of Versailles
(d) Second Hague Conference
26. The
Council
of
the
League
of
Nations
set
up
a
Temporary
Mixed
Commission
to
secure disarmament in
(a) 1920
(b) 1921
(c) 1924
(d) 1929
27. The
League
of
Nations
set
up
a
Preparatory
Commission
to
prepare
a
provisional
draft
treaty
concerning
various questions of disarmament in
(a) 1925
/(b) 1929
(c) 1931
(d) 1932
28. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) Disarmament and arms control differ from each other
(b) Disarmament means a plans for the limitation, reduction or abolition of armed
forces, including their arms and equipments etc.
(c) Arms control means a co-operative or multilateral approach to armament
with a view to improve national security (d) All the above
29. The
World
Disarmament
Conference
was
held by the League of Nations in
(a) 1925
(b) 1932
(c) 1934
(d) 1935
30. Which
one
of
the
following
leaders
took
first step towards disarmament?
(a) Czar of Russia in 1816
(b) Napoleon in 1815
(c) Woodrow Wilson in 1914
(d) Winston Churchill in 1932
31. The
Washington
Conference
of
1922
attended by five major powers proposed
(a) general disarmament
(b) limitation of naval armaments
(c) over-all reduction of armaments
(d) all the above
32. Who
assisted
the
League
of
Nation
in
the
formulation of plans for reduction of arms
(a) The General Assembly
(b) The Council
(c) Permanent Advisory Commission
(d) The Secretariat
33. Under
the
UN
Charter
the
responsibility
for
recommending
general
principles
governing
disarmament
and
regulation
of
armaments has been entrusted to
(a) the Security Council
(b) the Secretary General
(c) the General Assembly
(d) all the above organs
34. The
Atomic
Energy
Commission,
consisting
of
the
permanent
members
of
the
Security
Council
and
Canada
was
set
up in
(a) 1946
(b) 1945
(c) 1948
(d) 1949
35. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
provided
fillip
to
arms
race
after
first
world war?
(a) Emergence of USSR as a world power
(b) Policy of encirclement adopted by the power blocs
(a)
Arms and Wars: Nature, Causes and Types of War Conflicts Including Ethnic Disputes
Etc; 519
(c) Failure of the world bodies to check arm race

36. At
the
Geneva
conference
of
1932,
the
participating member states agreed on
(a) the need of arms limitation
(b) international supervision of the arms business.
(c) publicity of arms budget
(d) all the above
37. The
efforts
of
the
Geneva
Conference
of
1932
to
promote
disarmament
were
jeopardised by
(a) by Japanese attack on Manchuria
(b) due to reluctance of Germany to follow the restrictions regarding
disarmament imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.
(c) due to withdrawal of Germany from the Disarmament Conference.
(d) due to all the above factors.
38. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
attended
the
Washington
Conference
of
1921-22,
but
abstained
from
the
London
Conference of 1927
(a) Italy
(b) France
(c) Japan
(d) U.S.A.
39. League
of
Nations
could
not
effectively
deal
with
the
problem
of
disarmament
due
to
(a) the selfish attitude of the big powers
(b) differences among the members of the Disarmament Commission.

(c) its failure to deal effectively with the defeated nations.
(d)all the above reasons
40. The
efforts
of
the
League
of
Nations
to
bring
about
disarmament
ended
in
failure
due to
(a)failure to distinguish between aggressive and non-aggressive weapons.
(b) reluctance of the members to reduce their arm piles
42. Commission
on
on
Conventional
Armaments
was
set
up
by
the
UN
Security
Council in
(a) 1949
(b) 1947
(c) 1948
(d) 1950
43. Atomic
Energy
Commission
failed
to
make
a
break
through
on
the
issue
of
disarmament
due
to
differences
among
the
powers over
(a) destruction of war weapons
(b) inspection of war weapons
(c) production of new war weapons
(d)
the limit on the use of war weapons
44. Which
one
of
the
following
recommendation
of
the
Commission
on
Conventional
Armaments
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a)It recommended a system for the regulation and reduction of armaments of
all states
(b) It suggested establishment of an adequate system of international control of
atomic energy.
(c) It suggested measure for reduction and regulation of armaments to
encourage further regulation and reduction.
(d) None
45. Disarmament
Commission
was
set
up
in
1952 on the recommendation of
(a) the Soviet President
(b) the U.S. President
(c) the British Prime Minister
(d) the UN Secretary General.
46- The Disarmament Commission was set up
in 1952 by merging the Atomic energy
Commission and the Commission on
Conventional Armaments,
(a) True
(b) False
47. The Disarmament Commission which at present comprises of all the members of
the UN, at the time of its creation had
(a) 9 members
(b) 11 members
(c) all members of Security Council and Canada as members
(d) 21 members
(a)
48. Who
proposed
Atoms
for
Peace
Plan
for
peaceful use of atoms?
(a) U.S.A.
(b) Soviet Union
(c) France
(d) India
49. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
Atoms
for Peace Plan for peaceful use of atoms
(a) It proposed establishment of an international pool of fissionable materials to
be used for peaceful purposes.
(b) It appealed to all those powers who possessed atomic energy material to
contribute the same to the Atomic Energy Commission on under the United
Nations.
(c) The Atomic Energy Commission was to ensure that these materials were used
for peaceful purposes and for the promotion of international peace and
security.
(d) None
50. Who
proposed
the
Open
Skies
Plan
of
1955?
(a) France
(b) U.S.A.
(c) USSR
(d) England (U.K.)
51. The Partial Test Ban Treaty was signed in
(a) 1945
(b) 1963
(c) 1967
(d) 1968
52. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
refused to sign the Partial Test Ban Treaty?
(a) France
(b) China
(c) India
53. The
Non-Proliferation
Treaty,
which
came
into
force
in
March
1970,
was
actually
signed in
(a) January, 1937 (b) July, 1968
(c) June, 1969
(d) January, 1970
54. Which
one
of
the
following
decade
was
declared
by
the
UN
General
Assembly
as
Disarmament Decade?
(a) 1960's
(b) 1970's
(c) 1980's
55. The
Strategic
Arms
Limitations
Treaty
(SALT) was signed by USA and USSR in
(a) 1972
(b) 1969
(c) 1975
(d) 1976
56. The
Strategic
Arms
Limitations
Treaty
(SALT) sought to
(a) ban production of nuclear weapons by all countries
(b) curb the race in nuclear arms between the two super powers.
(c) curb the proliferation of nuclear arms to non-nuclear countries
(d) achieve all the above objectives.
57. Which
one
of
the
following
features
of
the
Threshold
Test
Ban
Treat
(TTBT)
signed
by
USA
and
USSR
in
1974
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It proposed a ban on carrying out of underground nuclear weapons tests
having a yield of more than 150 kilotons.
(b) The Parties to the Treaty pledged to limit the number of their underground
weapons tests to a minimum
(c) The parties to the Treaty agreed to fully stop nuclear weapon tests
58. Which
one
of
the
following
was
declared
by
the
General
Assembly
as
Second
Disarmament Decade?
(a) 1980's
(b) 1970's
(c) 1990's
59. When
was
the
first
special
session
of
Assembly on Disarmament held?
(a) 1968
(b) 1972
(c) 1978
(d) 1982
60. The
Second
Special
Session
of
the
General
Assembly on Disarmament was held in
(a) 1980
(b) 1982
(c) 1986
(d) 1990
61. The
Third
Special
Session
of
the
UN
General
Assembly
on
Disarmament
was
held in
(a) January 1990
(b) June 1988
(c) September 1992
(d) July 1991
Arms and Wars: Nature, Causes and Types of War Conflicts Including Ethnic Disputes
Etc; 521
62. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
Treaty
signed
by
NATO
and
Warsaw
Pact
countries
in
November
1990
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It recommended drastic reduction of conventional arsenals for the first time.
(b) It was the most comprehensive and far-reaching arms reduction accord for
arms reduction.
(c) It paved the way for new cooperation in Europe and marked the formal end of
cold war.
63. The
Strategic
Arms
Reduction
Treaty
(START)
was
signed
by
the
Presidents
of
Soviet Union and U.S.A. in
(a) 1988
(b) 1990
(c) 1991
(d) 1994
64. The
Comprehensive
Test
Ban
Treat
(CTBT)
which
is
regarded
as
an
important
step
in
the
direction
of
disarmament
was
signed
in
(a) 1992
(b) 1995
(c) 1996
(d) 1998
65. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
CTBT has been wrongly listed?
(a) The Treaty placed a ban on all kinds of nuclear weapons test explosions.
(b) It envisaged an international monitoring system to check treaty violations
(c)
It envisaged setting up of 20 stations to detect the underground, atmospheric
or underwater explosions more powerful than the equivalent 1000 tons of
conventional
explosive
66. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
contribution
of
the
United
Nations
towards
the
cause
of
disarmament.
(a) It provided a forum to the nations of the world to express views on
disarmament.
(b) It took several measures in the direction of disarmament
(c) It imposed sanctions against states guilty of non-compliance with its
directions with regard to disarmament
(d) It has made disarmament a world concern
67. Which
one
of
the
following
impact
of
arms
race has been wrongly listed?
(a) It has increased the possibility of war
(b) It has led to wastage of lot of money which could have been fruitfully utilised
for the improvement of the lot of the people.
(c) It has widened the gap between the developed and developing countries.
(a)
l.(b)
7.(d)
13. (d)
19. (c)
25. (a)
31. (b)
37. (d)
43. (b)
49. (d)
55. (a)
61. (b)
67. (d)
2.(b)
8. (c)
14. (c)
20. (b)
26. (b)
32. (c)
38. (b)
44. (d)
50. (b)
56(b)
62. (d)
ANSWERS
3.(b)
9. (d)
15. (d)
21. (d)
27. (a)
33. (c)
39. (d)
45. (b)
51. (b)
57. (c)
63. (c)
4-(d)
10. (a)
16. (c)
22. (b)
28. (d)
34. (a)
40. (c)
46. (a)
52. (d)
58. (a)
64. (c)
5. (a)
11. (d)
17. (a)
23. (d)
29. (b)
35. (d)
41. (d)
47. (c)
53. (b)
59. (c)
65. (d)
6.(d)
12. (a)
18. (a)
24. (d)
30. (a)
36. (d)
42. (b)
48. (a)
54. (b)
60. (b)
66. (c)
O.50Peaceful Settlement of Disputes,

Conflict Resolution, Diplomacy,
World Order and
Peace Studies
Since earliest times two type of methods have been in vogue for the settlement of
disputes between the states viz through argument and by use of force. Since war
does not provide any permanent solution to the problem and gives rise to fresh
tension and war, stress is being laid on peaceful methods for resolving all conflicts.
These methods of peaceful settlement include negotiation, Good-offices and
Mediation,Conciliation, Enquiry, Arbitration, Judicial Settlement, and settlement
through the United Nations. These methods of peaceful settlement have been
evolved over a period of time. Some of these methods found elaboration in the
Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The Convenant of the League and the UN
Charter also contain details about these methods. Negotiations is the easiest method
of resolving dispute between two states. Negotiations can, however, succeed only if
they are properly conducted. Good Offices and Mediation is another method of
settlement of international disputes. In this method the third state voluntarily or on
the request of either of the party to the dispute, tries to bring about an adjustment of
controversy between the two states. Conciliation is another method of peaceful
settlement.In this method the dispute is referred to a commission of persons who
submit proposals for a settlement. However, the recommendation is not binding on
the parties. Enquiry is another method of peaceful settlement in which the parties to
dispute refer the same to a third state or an agency of international law. The report of
Enquiry is
binding on both the parties. In Arbitration, the dispute is referred to certain persons
called arbitrators who make an award to resolve the dispute. In Juridicial Settlement,
a properly constituted International Court tries to settle the dispute in accordance
with the rules of law. The best example of this type of court is the Permanent Court of
International Justice. Finally the UN also plays an important role in adjusting
international disputes. In fact Article 2 of the UN Charter clearly stipulates that the
members of the organisation shall settle their disputes through peaceful means
without resort to force. The General Assembly and the Security Council are also
expected to play an important role in handling situations which are likely to impair
peace and promote friendly relations among nations.
Diplomacy As Instrument For Promotion of Peace

Apart from the various instruments for peaceful resolution of disputes discussed
above, diplomacy also plays an important role in the promotion of international
peace. It may be noted that the term diplomacy has been used by different scholars
in different senses viz. it has been as synonym for foreign policy; again it has been
used for the branch of foreign service; it is used for negotiations; the skill in the
conduct of international negotiations etc. However, we take diplomacy as the process
of presentation and negotiation by which states customarily deal with one another in
terms of peace. In international
Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, Conflict Resolution, Diplomacy, World
Order 523
relations the term diplomacy is also used for the art of negotiation in order to achieve
the maximum of group objectives with a minimum of costs within a system of politics
in which war is a possibility.
Diplomacy broadly consists of two typesthe old or Traditional Diplomacy; and
new or Modern Diplomacy. The main features of the old diplomacy wereit was
mainly confined to Europe; it operated on the assumption that the great powers have
special responsibility for the maintenance of world peace; the small powers did not
play any significant role in diplomacy; diplomacy necessitated whole time diplomats
which led to establishment of a professional diplomatic service in several European
countries; the diplomacy was secret in nature etc. The New Diplomacy, which
replaced the traditional diplomacy in the twentieth century, on the other-hand is
characterised by great openness; it is multilateral in character; all big and small
powers have a role to play in modern diplomacy; peace is equal concern of big as
well as small powers; diplomacy is conducted through civil servants drawn from all
sections of society and is democratic in character; modern diplomacy is conducted in
the open- through various conferences etc; the diplomats do not play independent
role and are expected to faithfully carry out instructions from the foreign offices.
If the primary object of all the nations is to preserve peace, the diplomats and
statesman of the world have been consistently trying to innovate means capable of
preventing wars and keeping the world in tact. In short, it can be said that diplomacy
has proved to be a major instrument for the preservation of world peace.
World Order and Peace

The human desire to prevent war and promote peace has given rise to feeling among
the sovereign states to evolve an international organisation. It may be observed that
desire for such organisation has been expressed during the past two centuries after
each major conflict. Thus Concert of Europe was formed after the Napoleonic war.This
concert remained in operation for almost 90 years and worked for world peace. This
was followed by the league of Nations which was formed after the first world
war. The League of Nations, however, could not maintain international order and
peace. The next important step in the direction of formation of international
government was taken after the second world war when the United Nations was
formed. The enormous destruction caused by the second world war convinced the
leaders of the world that this destruction could be avoided in future only through the
formation of a world government. It was argued that the world government would
ensure world peace by preventing wars and diverting the funds, at present used for
the conduct of war, for the moral and material upliftment of the people all over the
world.
As regards the form of the world government, it has been generally favoured that
it can be formed on the pattern of US of Swiss Federation. However Prof. Friedman

has observed that at present no plan for world government can succeed because the
present states are not willing to surrender their sovereign rights to maintain their
armies. In fact at present the prospects of a world government do not seem to be
quite bright. There are several hurdles in the way such as reluctance of the nation
states to give up voluntarily their powers in favour of a world government; the
national leaders are not favourably disposed towards the idea of world government
because of their vested interests; the people are still accustomed to think in terms of
their national state, are not prepared to work for a world government; even if some
world government is created there would be a problem of representation and
different countries are likely to favour differnet methods of representation.

1. In
modern
times
the
states
keen
interest
in
peaceful
settlement
of
thier
disputes
has become
(a) very costly
(b) highly destructive
(c) highly unpredictable
(d) all the above
2. The
UN
Charter
states
"All
settle
their
international
peaceful means in such a manner that
are
methods
because
showing
for
war
members
disputes
shall
by
peace and security and justice are not

endangered,
(a) True
(b) False
3. Which
one
of
the
peaceful
settlement
disputes has been wrongly listed?
(a) Negotiations
following
of
methods
of
international
(b) Good-Offices
(c) Arbitration
4. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
easiest
method
for
peaceful
settlement
of
dispute
between the two states?
(a) Negotiations
(b) Arbitration
(c) Good-offices
(d) Conciliation
5. Which
one
of
the
following
method
is
used
by
the
states
to
resolve
their
dispute
through discussion?
(a) Conciliation
(b) Arbitration
(c) Negotiations
6. The
methods
of
peaceful
settlement
of
disputes were first of all outlined by
(a) The Holy Alliance
(b)
The Hague Conferences in 1899 and 1907
(c) The Covenant of the League of Nations
(d) The U.N. Charter
7. The
method
under
which
friendly
assistance
is
rendered
by
a
third
party
to
bring
the
disputants
together
so
that
they
may reach a settlement is known as
(a) Good Offices
(b) Conciliation
(c) Arbitration
(d) Judicial Settlement of Adjudication
8. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding Good Offices and Mediation
1. Good offices refers to act of a third state to bring about an adjustment of
controversy between the two states.
2. If the third state itself joins the discussion, good offices merge into mediation.
3. Good offices are offered by a third state only if both the parties to the dispute
request it to do so.
4. A party offering good offices does not decide the dispute between the two
parties, rather it induces them to decide their dispute themselves.
9. Which one of the following feature of Conciliation as a peaceful method for
settlement of dispute has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is process of settling a dispute by referring it to a Commission.
(b) The Commission elucidates the facts and makes a report containing proposals
for settlement.
(c) The proposals for settlement of dispute are binding on the parties to the
dispute.
(d) The proposals for settlement submitted by the Commission are not binding on
the parties to dispute.
10. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Enquiry
as
an
instrument
of
peaceful
settlement of disputes is wrong?

(a) The dispute is referred to a third state or an international agency to enquire
facts on the recommendation of both the parties.
(b) The report of the enquiry is to be accepted by the parties to the dispute.
(c) The state which refuses to accept the enquiry is held guilty.
11. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a feature of Arbitration?
(a) Arbitration means settlement of differences between states through one or
more Umpires.
(b) The Arbitrator makes an award without strict regard for legal considerations.
(a)
Order 525
(c) The decisions of the Arbitrator are binding on the disputing parties
12.
Which
one
of
the
following
case
was
resolved through Arbitration?
(a) Merger of Goa with India
(b) Merger of Hyderabad
(c) Issue of Rann of Kutch
(d) All the above cases
13. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding Arbitration
1. Arbitration as an instrument for peaceful settlement of disputes is quite an
old one.
2. The Arbitrators give awards strictly on the basis of law
3. The award of the arbitrator is binding on the parties to the dispute
4. The Arbitrators make an award without strict regard to the legal
considerations.

14. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
Judicial
settlement
of
disputes
(a) The case is referred for settlement to a properly constituted International
Court
(b) The International Court decides the case in accordance with the rules of laws
(c) International Court of Justice enjoys both compulsory and advisory jurisdiction
(d) Judicial settlement is made in accordance with the rules and regulations of
the disputant p rties.
15. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
Judicial
settlement of dispute?
(a) International Court of Justice is a
permanent agency for the judicial settlement of disputes
(b) The permanent agency settles the cases in accordance with international law.
(c) The parties to the dispute voluntarily submit their disputes to the
International Court of Justice
16. Of
the
various
methods
for
settlement
of
dispute
which
one
of
the
following
method has a binding character.
(a) Mediation
(b) Judicial Settlement
(c) Enquiry
(d) Conciliation
17.
Under
the
UN
Charter
the
members
are
expected
to
settle
their
disputes
through
peaceful
means
and
to
refrain
from
the
use
of force..
(a) True
(b) False
18. Judicial Settlement is also known as
(a) Adjudication
(b) Arbitration
(c) Conciliation
(d) Negotiations
19. Which
one
of
the
following
methods
of
peaceful
settlement
of
dispute
involves
active
participation
of
the
third
state
or
individual?
(a) Arbitration
(b) Mediation
(c) Good Office
(d) AH the above
20. Which
one
of
the
following
were
parties
to
the Kutch Arbitration Award of 1968
(a) India and China
(b) India and Pakistan
(c) Israel and PLO

21. The
method
of
dispute
through
committee
or
suggestes
measures
dispute is known as
526
peaceful
settlement
reference
to
commission,
for
settlement
of
the
which
of
(a) Enquiry
(b) Mediation
(c) Conciliation
(d) Judicial Settlement
22. Which
one
of
the
following
courts
has
vested
with
the
power
of
settlement of disputes?
(a) International Court of Justice
(b) Permanent Court of Justice
(c) The Court of the states which are parties to the dispute
(d) All the above courts in different kinds of cases.
23. Which
organ
of
the
UN
has
empowered
by
the
UN
Charter
to
recommendations
for
settlement
disputes through peaceful means?
(b) Security Council
(c) International Court of Justice
(d) The Secretariat
24.
Which one of the following is the easiest
been
judicial
been
make
of
method
for
the
peaceful
settlement
of
dispute between two states?
(a) Negotiations
(b) Good Offices
(c) Mediation
(d) Enquiry
25. Who
defined
diplomacy
as
"the
art
of
negotiation
in
order
to
achieve
the
maximum
of
group
objectives
with
a
minimum
of
costs
within
a
system
of
politics in which war is a possibility?"
(a) Quincy Wright
(b) Earnest Satow
(c) Harold Nicholson
26. Which
one
of
the
following
characteristics
of diplomacy has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is a source of action in international relations.
(b) It is backed by national power
(c) It is an instrument for peaceful settlement of disputes
27. Consider
the
following
statements
about
Diplomacy
1. Diplomacy seeks to secure the national interests
2. Diplomacy operates in both environments of crisis and cooperation
3. Usually the diplomacy is not immoral
4. Diplomacy seeks to protect the interests of the state unmindful of the fact
that the means are moral or not.
28. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a function of diplomacy?
(a) Representation
(b) Negotiations
(c) Reporting
(d) Management of conflict
29. Which
one
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
a good technique of diplomacy?
(a) It seeks to convince others through persuasion about the justification of goals
being pursued by it
(b) It exerts pressure on other nations to achieve its own objectives
(c) It uses threat of force on other nations to achieve its own objectives
(d) AH the above
30. Usually diplomacy is of two types viz.
(a) Traditional and New Diplomacy
(b) Democratic and Totalitarian
(c) Capitalist and Socialist
(d) Liberal and Automatic
31. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
old
or
Traditional Diplomacy?
(a) It was confined to Europe alone

(b) In this type of diplomacy great powers had special responsibility for the
maintenance of world peace.
(c) The small powers did not play any significant role in old diplomacy
32. Consider
the
following
statements
about
Traditional Diplomacy
Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, Con
1.The traditional diplomacy necessitated engagement of whole time

diplomats.
2. The traditional diplomacy necessitated the establishment of a professional
diplomatic service
3. The traditional diplomacy was secret and was conducted by the diplomats
posed in other countries
4. The traditional diplomacy did not attach much importance to virtue
(b) 2, 3 and 4 are correct "(c) 1,2 and 4 are correct
33. The
old
or
traditional
diplomacy
was
replaced by a new type of diplomacy in
(a) early twentieth century
(b) the later half of the nineteenth century
(c) the middle of twentieth century
(d) the early nineteenth century
34. The
new
diplomacy
differed
from
the
traditional
diplomacy
in
the
following
respect
(a) It is characterised by greater openness

(b) It makes extensive use of multilateral diplomacy
(c) It is characterised by personal or summit diplomacy
(d)In all the above respects
35. The
traditional
diplomacy
was
replaced
by
new diplomacy due to
(a) replacement of absolute monarchy by constitutional monarchy and
democracy
(b) people acquiring greater say in the foreign affairs.
(c) replacement of dynastic diplomacy by democratic diplomacy
(d) all the above factors.
36. The
growth
of
democratic
diplomacy
has
been attributed to
(a) growing sense of community of nations
ict Resolution, Diplomacy, World Order 527
(b) greater importance of public opinion

(c) rapid increase in communication
37. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
modern
diplomacy
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It is characterised by greater openness
(b) It is multilateral in character
(c) It possesses an oligarchic character
(d) All big and small powers have a role in modern diplomacy
38. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the modern diplomacy
1. Modern diplomacy is conducted through civil servants drawn from all
sections of society
2. In modern diplomacy the diplomats do not play any independent role and
merely carry out instructions from the foreign office
3. Modern diplomacy is conducted in the open through various conferences etc.
4. In modern diplomacy the diplomatic representatives play more effective role
as compared to the role played by the diplomats under traditional diplomacy
39. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
has
contributed
to
the
decline
of
the
old
or
traditional diplomacy?
(a) Emergence of large number of independent states in Asia and Africa.
(b) The open nature of diplomacy and greater involvement of people in
diplomacy
(c) Growing weigth of the people in internationalism
(d) All the above
(a)
528 UGCPoliticaJ Science
40. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
democratic
diplomacy
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It gives due importance to the interests of the public.
(b) It is conducted in open and the people are kept well-informed about the
progress of negotiations etc.
(c) In democratic diplomacy decisions on vital issues are taken in consultation
with the people.
41. A
diplomacy
conducted
on
the
principles
of compromise and tolerance is known as
(a) Democratic Diplomacy {b) Open Diplomacy
(c) Compromise Diplomacy
(d) Shopkeeper Diplomacy
42. Consider
the
following
statements
about
Arbitration
1. Arbitration is helpful in settlement of legal as well as political disputes.
2. As compared to adjudication, arbitration is less elastic.
3. As compared to adjudication, arbitration is more complex and costly.
4. Arbitration does not cover political disputes
43. Diplomacy
has
proved
to
be
a
major
instrument
for
the
preservation
of
world
peace.
(a) True
(b) False
44. Who
of
the
following
was
a
great
advocate
of open diplomacy?
(a) President Wilson of USA

(b)Winston Churchil
(c)Charles De Gaule
45. The
Conference
diplomacy
or
multilateral
diplomacy gained popularity after
(a) the Congress of Vienna
(b) the first world war
(c) the second world war
(d) the end of cold war
46. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
multilateral
diplomacy
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It tends to by-pass the foreign office and normal diplomatic channels.
(b) UN plays more effective role in the conduct of multilateral diplomacy
(c) Multilateral diplomacy is a substitute of the UN Diplomacy and has greatly
underminds the UN system.
47. Harold
Nicholson
describes
Conference
Diplomacy
as
"perhaps
the
most
unfortunate
diplomatic
method
over
conceived."
(a) True
(b) False
48. Who
for
the
first
time
coined
the
term
'summit diplomacy'?
(a) Winston Churchill
(b) President Trueman
(c) President Wilson
(d) President Roosevelt
49. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
or
personal
or
summit
diplomacy
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) In this type of diplomacy the heads of the states try to establish direct
contact with their counterparts in other countries.
(b) Quite often the heads of the states engage their personal agents to establish
contact with the leaders of other countries.
(c) The heads of the states can easily reach some sort of understanding because
they do not receive any instructions from above.
(d)
None of the above.
(a)
Order 529
50. Which
one
of
the
following
contributed
to
the
decline
of
since the end of second world war
(a) Development of communications
(b) Diplomacy by Parliamentary Procedures (Open Diplomacy)
(c) Emergence of Superpowers on the world scene
(d) All the above
51.
With
the
development
of
new
factor
has
diplomacy
means
of
transport
and
communications
the
diplomacy
has
changed
in
theory
ais
well
as practice.
(a) try to innovate means to prevent wars
(b) try to preserve peace thorugh various instruments
(c) try to find out means of amicable settlement and avoid wars.
(d) all the above
53. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
best
example of the Summit Diplomacy?
(a) Congress of Vienna (1815)
(b) Paris Peace Conference (1919)
(c) Malta Conference (1945)
(d) All the above
54. The
Holy
Alliance
formed
in
1815
is
regarded
as
the
first
experiment
at
international
government.
Which
one
of
the
following
members
was
not
an
initial
member of this alliance?(a) Australia
(b) Britain
(c) Prussia
(d) Russia
55. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
Holy
Alliance has been wrongly listed?.
(a) It lacked a permanent organisation
(b) It worked through a number of international Congresses the settlement of
current international affairs
(c) It for the first time provided a joint force which could be used for the
preservation of peace
56. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Concert of Europe.
1. The meetings of the Concert of Europe were held at intervals.

2. The meetings of the Concert of Europe were held as and when a concerted
action was called for
3.The Concert of Europe remained in operation for almost 90 years and
maintained general peace during its period of existence.
4. The concert of Europe lacked institutional government.
57. The
League
of
Nations,
which
was
formed
after
the
first
world
war,
was
a
step
forward
in
the
direction
of
world
government because
(a) it had organisation
(b) it had a legal personality
(c) it had representatives of all the states
(d) of all the above
58. The
League
of
Nations
could
not
maintain
an effective international order because
(a) it permitted the members of the League to go to war under certain
conditions.
(b) it suffered from structural deficiency
(c) it suffered from certian political defects viz. the members of the League could
not act in union on matters of major importance and pursued antagonistic
policies.
59. According
to
Morgenthau
"The
United
Nations
is
an
international
government
of
the
great
powers
which
resembles
in
its
constitutional
agreement
the
Holy
Alliance
and
in
its
pretences
the
League
of
Nations."
(a) True
(b) False
60. Serious
attention
was
given
to
the
idea
of
evolving
an
international
government
after the second world war.
530
61.
(a) on account of the discovery of nuclear weapons which posed a threat of complete
annihilation of the world.
(b) on account of growing social, economic and technological interdependence of the
nations
(c) because it was felt that more radical transformation of the existing international
society of sovereign nations into a supra-national community of individuals was
needed.
(d) on account of the above reasons.
regarding the need of world government
1. The world government is desirable to put an end to the anarchic conditions
prevailing in the present-day international society
2. There is a growing realisation among scholars and statesman that only through
world government the destruction, which can be brought by nuclear weapons,
can be avoided.
3. The world government alone would be able to keep the sovereign nations
in their respective jurisdiction and promote world peace 4. The world government
alone can impose ban on nuclear weapons and prevent wars. Of the above
statements
62. Which one of the following factor is retarding the realisation of the goal of world
state?
(a) The existing nation state system based on nationalism and sovereignty.
(b) The national leaders are not favourably disposed towards the idea of world
government because of their vested interests.
(c) People as yet are not prepared to work for the creation of a world government
because by and large they are still nationalist
(d)
All the above
(a)
ANSWERS
l.(d)
7. (a)
13. (c)
19. (b)
25. (a)
31. (d)
37. (c)
43. (a)
49. (d)
55. (c)
61. (a)
2. (a)
3.(d)
4. (a)
5-(c)
8-(c)
14. (d)
20. (b)
26. (d)
32. (a)
38. (a)
44. (a)
50. (d)
56. (b)
62. (d)
9.(c)
15. (d)
21. (b)
27. (a)
33. (a)
39. (b)
45. (b)
51. (a)
57. (b)
10. (d)
16. (b)
22. (a)
28. (d)
34. (d)
40. (c)
46. (c)
52. (d)
58. (d)
11. (d)
17. (a)
23. (b)
29. (d)
35. (d)
41. (d)
47. (a)
53. (d)
59. (a)
6. (b)
12. (c)
18. (a)
24. (a)
30. (a)
36. (d)
42. (a)
48. (a)
54. (b)
60. (d)
51Cold War, Alliances, NonAlignment, End

of Cold War and Globalization
COLD WAR
In the post world war II period the world got divided into two hostile camps led by
USA and USSR. This situation has been described by Bernard Baruch as a period of
cold war when there was neither peace nor war between the two power blocs.
Several factors contributed to the rise of cold war. These included Soviet Union's
effort to increase its influence in Eastern Europe in violation of the term of Malta
Agreement; Soviet Union's refusal to withdraw its forces from Iran and instigation of
rebellion in Northern Ireland; Soviet support to the communists to pull down legally
constituted government in Greece; Soviet effort to foment trouble in Turkey; denial of
political rights to the people of Germany under Soviet zone; refusal of USA and other
western powers to accord recognition to Bulgaria and Rumania; frequent use of veto
power by Soviet Union in the UN; obstacles put by the Soviet Union in the way of
conclusion of peace treaties; vicious propaganda against USA; sudden suspension of
lend-lease aid by USA to Soviet Union.
Cold war passed through several phases viz. First phase which lasted from 19461949; Second phase which lasted from 1949-1953; Third phase lasted from 1953-57;
Fourth phase lasted from 1957-1962; Fifth Phase lasted from 1962-69; Sixth Phase
lasted from 1969-1978; Seventh phase from 1979-onwards. The cold war had farreaching implications viz it gave rise to a fear psychosis which resulted in mad race
for manufacture of sophisticated armaments; it led to formation of various alliances
during peace time; encouraged

countries of Asia and Africa to avoid joining of military alliances and follow policy of
non-alignment; it undermined the chances of attaining the goal of one world;
diversion of enormous amounts to acquisition of sophisticated weapons affected the
development of the states; it renderect"^-UN ineffective. All these implications
encouraged the leaders of two blocs to make a serious bid to end cold war. As a
result in the sixties and seventies the cold war subsided.
A new Cold war started following Soviet intervention in Afghanistan. It differed
from the earlier cold war in so far as the cold war alliance partners were not
actively involved in the new cold war. Further the two super powers were involved
in nuclear arms race. The new cold war was more threatening than the earlier cold
war. It was not based on ideology. It rather centred round the arms race. The
second cold war lasted till mid 1990 when the NATO leaders formally announced
the end of cold war.
Cold war left a deep impact on the future course of international relations. Hope
was expressed that this will lead to a new type of world which shall be free from
military alliances. It would lead to enormous savings which can be utilized for
development activities. The end of cold war led to change in the role of the nonaligned movement. Better relations between USA and Soviet Union facilitated
amicable settlement of long standing disputes in Vietnam, Cambodia, Korea etc.
The end of cold war also provided an impetous to the idea of new world order
based on justice and conducive to world peace.
532
Alliances
The cold war which started in the wake of world war II gave rise to a number of
military alliances. The main cause of these military alliances was ideological
differences. The first step towards the formation of alliances was taken by Soviet
Union in 1947 when it re-established the Communist Information Bureau or
Cominform. On the other hand in March 1947 President Truman of USA propounded
the Truman doctrine which envisaged American intervention in any part of the world
to forestall the supposed danger of Communism. United States also proposed a
Marshall Plan to check the growing influence of communism. In 1949 USA sponsored
North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) for the purpose of safeguarding the freedom,
common heritage and civilization of their people, founded on the principle of
democracy, individual liberty and rule of law. In 1947 USA signed Rio Pact for the
maintenance of continental peace and security. The members agreed to provide
reciprocal assistance to meet armed attacks against any American state CENTO
was another military alliance concluded between Turkey and Iraq, which was
subsequently joined by Pakistan, England and Iran. ANZUS Pact was concluded
by New Zealand, Australia and USA to check advance of communism in South
East Asia. SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Organisation) or Manila Pact was signed
by USA, UK, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand and Philipines for
defence of democracies in South East Asia.
Soviet Union also entered into several alliances. In 1950 it concluded Treaty of
Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance with China. In 1955 Russia formed Warsaw
Pact with Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Rumania, and
Czechoslovakia. The signatories affirmed their faith in UN and promised friendship,
collaboration and mutual assistance.
The Warsaw Pact was dissolved after the withdrawal of forces from erstwhile
satellites of Soviet Union in 1991. In 1970 Soviet Union signed a treaty of friendship
with Rumania whereby the two countries agreed to fight for each other in the event
of an armed attack.
Non-Alignment
Non-alignment is a policy of keeping out of alliances in general and military pacts in

particular. The main factors which prompted the various countries to adopt policy of
non-alignment were nationalism which prompted them not to become tools in the
hands of big powers; anti-colonial feeling in countries of Asia and Africa; poverty and
under-development of the countries of Asia and Africa and their eagerness to
improve the living standard of their people; desire for peace for the purpose of
development.
The main motives underlying non-alignment were urge for independence in the
formulation of policy; desire to avoid involvement in general war; preservation of
world peace and prevention of war; concentration on economic development; moral
considerations also prompted the states to adopt policy of non-alignment; the policy
was helpful in the successful functioning of the United Nations; they could procure
economic and technical assistance from countries of both blocs.
Non-alignment has been criticized on different grounds viz. as a doctrine it is
unclear; it lacks analytical precision; it is not a model of international behaviour; it
represents policy of national self interest etc. However, non-alignment also has
several merits viz. it is conducive to world peace; helps in the preservation of
independence; helps in procuring economic aid from both blocs; acts as a check on
big-powers ambitions; helps in easing cold war; helped UN to carry out its
peacekeeping functions effectively; helps in promoting independence of judgement;
it has helped in minimising the armamemnts race.
According to the critics in the present context of international developmentsthe
end of cold war, dismantling of power blocs, collapse of Soviet Union and erosion of
its super power statusnon-alignment has lost all relevance. However, this is not
correct because non-alignment is still relevant and shall remain relevant as long as
there is exploitation, war, destruction, hunger, poverty and disease on this earth. In
fact the movement can play an important role in fulfilling the aspirations of the NAM
countries for equality, genuine independence and unfettered development. In the
economic sphere NAM has put in consistent efforts to evolve New International
Economic order with
Cold War, Alliances, Non-Alignment, End of Cold War and Globalization 533
a view to gain greater share in the world economy for the developing countries.
Globalisation
In the wake of the cold-war the states which formally belonged to rival blocs were
drawn closer and important economic, political and cultural linkages were established
between them. This resulted in fundamental changes in the existing institutions and
promoted world wide links among the economic institution. This also transformed the
character of the national state and its basic attributes: sovereignty, exclusive
territoriality and citizenship. In the economic sphere globalization has been viewed as
the process of integration of the world's economies in conditions of free flow of trade
and capital and movement of persons across borders, facilitated by new technologies
for instant communication of information. In the political field the role of the state has
undergone great transformation. It has ceased to be the sole protector of the human
rights. Instead several supranational institutions have appeared which protect the
human rights. This has greatly undermined the sovereignty and citizenship. Further
the highly developed countries are encouraging free flow of people across the
borders to protect and promote the financial interests of the corporate sector. It is
well known that United States has been encouraging the entry of low wage
immigrant workers to lower the cost of production and increase profits.

1. The term 'cold war' was first of all used by
(b) Bernard Baruch
(c) Walter Lipman
2. The term 'cold war' implies
(a) the conditions prevailing immediately before the out-break of war
(b) the condition of active hostility
(c) the condition of mutual distrust
(d) all the above
3. The cold war started
(a) during the inter-war period
(b) after the second world war
(c) after the dropping of Atom Bomb at Hiroshima
(d) after the fall of Napoleon.
4.- Which one of the following factor was responsible for the commencement of the
Cold War?
(a) Mutual distrust of the two super powers
(b) Formation of Military alliances

(c) Arms race among various powers
5. In
the
post
world
war
II
period
the
world
got
divided
into
two
camps.
While
one
camp
was
led
by
USSR,
the
other
was
led
by
(a) England
(b) France
(c) USA
(d) Japan
6. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
did
not
contribute to the rise of cold war
(a) Effort of Soviet Union to increase its influence in Eastern Europe
(b) Soviet refusal to withdraw forces from Iran
(c) Soviet institution of rebellion in Northern Ireland.
(d) Contest for leadership of communist bloc between Soviet Union and People's
Republic of China.
7. Which
one
of
the
following
action
of
USSR
was responsible for cold war?
(a) Denial of political rights to people of Germany under Soviet zone
(b) Frequent use of veto power in the United Nations
(c) Hurdles created by the Soviet Union in the way of conclusion of peace treaties
(d) All the above
8. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a cause of cold war?
(a)Contest for supremacy between the Communists (USSR) and the Capitalists
(USA)
(b) Ideological differences between two super powers.
(a)
534
(c) Formation of Military and other alliances.

9. In which one of the following countries
Soviet Union tried to support the
communists or pull down the legally
constituted government
(a) Greece
(b) Turkey
10. During
the
first
phase
of
1946
and
1949
USA
sought
on the authority of Soviet Union
(a) through Truman Doctrine
(b) through Marshall Plan
(c) by,holding a threat of using Atom Bomb
11. During
the
first
phase
of
1949)
tension
between
increased due to
(a) US support to Formosa Government
(b) Blockade of Berlin by USSR
cold
to
cold
USSR
war
keep
war
and
between
check
(1946USA
(c) Formation of Trizonia by merger of occupation zones by weatern powers.

12. Which
one
of
the
following
was
not
a
contributory
factor
for
the
cold
war
during
the first phase from 1946-49?
(a) Truman Doctrine
(b) Marshall Plan
(c) ANZUS
(d) NATO
13. Which
one
of
the
following
treaties
was
concluded
during
the
second
phase
of
cold
war from 1949-1953?
(a) NATO
(b) ANZUS
(c) SEATO
(d) All the above
14. In
which
one
of
the
following
events
USA
was
involved
during
the
second
phase
of
cold war (1949-1953)?
(a) Peace Treaty with Japan
(b) Treaty with Australia and New Zealand (ANZUS)
(c) Korean War
(d) All the above
15. Which
one
of
the
following
was
an
important
feature
of
cold
war
during
the
third phase of cold war (1953-57)?
(a) USA sponsored SEATO (South East-Asia Treaty Organisation) and MEDO
(Middle East Defence Organisation)
(b) USA got entangled in Vietnam War
(c) Soviet Union concluded Warsaw Treaty
(d) All the above
16.
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
third
phase of cold war from 1953-1957?
(a) It witnessed the permanency of the Potsdam partition of Germany
(b) Both USA and Soviet Union exploded hydrogen bombs during this period.
(c) First step towards detente in the form of summit meeting at Geneva between
two super powers took place.
17. The
Fourth
Phase
of
Cold
war
from
19571962 witnessed
(a) Cuban Missile Crisis
(b) Prevalence of spirit of co-existence between USA and USSR
(c) U-2 incident
(d) All the above
18. Which
one
of
the
following
was
an
outstanding
feature
of
the
cold
war
during
the fifth phase from 1962-69?
(a) Conclusion of the Non-Proliferation Treaty
(b) Partial Test Ban Treaty
(c) USA and USSR came closer due to Hot-line Agreement
(d) All the above
19. The
partial
Nuclear
Test
Ban
Treaty
of
1967 envisaged
(a) provision for limit ban on all nuclear tests in the atmosphere including
territorial water and High Sea
(b) destruction of all nuclear weapons within 20 years

(c) stoppage of further production of nuclear weapons and destruction of the
existing ones within 20 years.
(d) All the above
20. The
Nuclear
Non-Proliferation
Treaty
of
1968 provided that
(a) the countries equipped with nuclear capabilities were not to transfer their
nuclear weapons or control over them to any non-nuclear power
(b) the countries equipped with nuclear capabilities would not provide know-how
to other countries in producing these weapons
21. Which
one
of
the
following
contributed
to
the
easing
of
cold
war
between
two
super
powers between 1969-1978?
(a) President Nixon's visit to USA
(b) Treaty on the limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile System
(c) Agreement on Limitation of Strategic Offensive arms
(d)
All the above
22. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
contributed
to
the
reduction
of
tension
between
the
two
super
powers
in
the
1970's?
(a) Treaty between Soviet Union and West Germany whereby the former agreed
not to use force against the later

(b) Treaty between East Germany and West Germany whereby the two
acknowledged each other's existence and agreed to co-operate in different
spheres.
(c) Visit of Brezhnev, the Chief of the Communist Party of Soviet Union, to
Washington.
(d) All the above
23. Despite
Detente
between
USA
and
USSR
the
relations
between
the
two
got
strained
on the issue of
(a) Bangladesh
(b) Egypt Israel War
(c) Due to desire of USA to convert Diego Garcia into military base.
(d) All the above
24. The new cold war started with
(a) The U.S. recognition of people's Republic of China
(b) Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
(c) The U.S. refusal to ratify SALT II
(d) The conversion of Diego Garcia into a military base by U.S.A.
25. In
what
respect
the
new
cold
war
differed
from the earlier cold war?
(a) In this cold war the alliance partners were not actively involved.
(b) In this cold war the two super powers were involved in nuclear arms race
(c) The new cold war was not based on ideology
(d) In all above respects
26. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
impact
of
new
cold
war
on
international relations.
1. Unlike the first cold war in which European powers were actively involved, in
the new cold war USA tended to deal with the former colonies directly.
2. New cold war provided a fresh impetus to the non-aligned movement and
more and more countries joined the movement.
3. The new cold war greatly contributed to the difficulties of the super powers
and adversely affected the international economy.
4. In the new cold war ideological considerations were given top priority.
(a)
27. The
formal
announcement
regarding
end
of second cold war was made at
(a) The Malta Summit of 1989
(b) The Reykjavik Meeting (1986)
(c) London Summit
(d) Washington Summit (1990)
28. The
end
of
second
cold
war
had
far
reaching
impact
on
the
international
relations.
Which
one
of
the
following
impact has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is likely to lead to emergence of a new kind of world free from military
alliances and adversaries.
(b) It is likely to lead to lot of saving in military expenditure. These funds can be
utilised for the development of lessor developed region.
(c) Reconciliation between USA and Russia can facilitate amicable settlement of
several long-standing international disputes.
29. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
founder
of
the
nonaligned movement?
(a) Jawaharlal Nehru
(b) Marshal Tito
(c) Col. Nasser
(d) U.Thant
30. The
first
Summit
of
the
Non-Aligned
Countries was held in 1961 at
(a) Cairo
(b) Colombo
(c) Belgrade
(d) New Delhi.
31. In
the
post
world
war
II
period
a
large
number
of
alliances
were
formd
on
the
basis of
(a) religion
(b) ideology
(c) geographical contiguity
(d) convenience
32. President
Truman
of
USA
propounded
Truman
Doctrine
with
a
view
to
protect
the following country from Communists
(a) Greece
(b) Turkey

33. Marshall
Plan,
which
sought
to
Europe
on
its
feet
economically
proposed by
(a) U.S.A.
(b) United Kingdom
(c) France
(d) USSR
34. NATO
(North
Atlantic
Organisation)
was
formed
in
April,
by
12
nations.
Which
one
of
the
countries
has
been
wrongly
listed
member?
(a) Canada
(b) Norway
(c) Luxembourg
35. Manila Pact is also known as
(a)South-East Asiatic Treaty Organization (SEATO)
(b) Central Treaty Organisation (CETO)
(c) ANZUSPact
(d) The Rio Pact
36. Which
one
of
the
follwowing
was not a member of the Baghdad Pact?
(a) Britain
(b) Pakistan
(c) U.S.A.
(d) Iraq
37.
Which one of the following state which
joined the South East Asiatic Treaty
Organisation (SEATO) actually belonged
put
was
Treaty
1949
following
as
a
countries
to South-East Asia?
(a) Thailand
(b) Philippines
(c) Korea
38. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
joined
CENTO
but
subsequently
with
drew from it?
(a) Iraq
(b) Pakistan
(c) Turkey
(d) all the above countries
39. Which
one
of
the
following
alliance
was
not sponsored by the Western Powers?
(a) Manila Pact
(b) Baghdad Pact
(c) Cominform
(d) The Rio Pact
(a)
Cold War, Alliances, Non-Alignment, End of Cold War and Globalization
537
40. Which
one
of
the
following
hasbeen
wrongly
listed
as
Russian
sponsored
Alliance?
(a) Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance with China
(b) Warsaw Pact
(c) The ANZUS Pact
41.Which
one
of
the
following
country
was
not a member of the Warsaw Pact of 1955?
(a) Albania
(b) Poland
(c) People's Republic of China
(d) East Germany
42.The
Warsaw
Pact
was
practically
a
duplicate
copy
of
NATO
with
some
minor
difference.
(a) True
(b) False
43.The
formation
of
NATO
has
been
criticised
on the ground that
(a) It was not true to its name because all the members of NATO were not
from North Atlantic region.
(b) Its formation led to the formation of counter military alliances and
threatened world peace
(c) Its formation greatly undermined the importance of UNO
(d) On all the above grounds
44.Non-alignment
is
a
policy
of
keeping
out
of
alliances
in
general
and
military
pacts
in
particular
(a) True
(b) False
45.Various
countries
were
prompted
to
adopt
policy of non-alignment because
(a) they did not want to become tools in the hands of big powers.
(b) of the prevailing anti-colonial feeling among the countries of Asia and
Africa
(c) of their desire for peace for the purpose of development
46.The
countries
which
adopted
policy
of
non-alignment mainly hailed from
(a) Asia
(b) Africa
(c) East Europe
47.Consider
the
following
statements
about
non-alignment
1. The members of the non-aligned group are not bound by any alliance.
2. All the members of the group are treated as equals.
3. It is a policy of keeping out of alliances in general and military pacts
particular
4. The two super powers did not want the newly independent countries
to join their opponents.
48.Majority
of
the
countries
of
Asia
and
Africa
after
attaining
independence
preferred
to
follow
policy
of
nonalignment
(a) due to their desire to pursue an independent foreign policy
(b) so that they may be able to secure economic assistance from
countries belonging to both the blocs
(c) because they wanted to preserve world peace for the sake of thier
own development.
(d) on account of all the above reasons.
49.Consider
the
following
statements
regarding non-alignment
1. The policy of non-alignment has greatly contributed to the succesful
functioning, of the United Nations
2. Non-alignment as a doctrine is unclear and lacks analytical precision
3. Non-alignment is a model of international behaviour.
4. Non-alignment has acted as a check on the big powers ambitions.
(a)
50. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
achievement
of
the
non-alignment?
(a) It has helped in easing cold war
(b)
It has helped the UN to discharge its peace-keeping functions
effectively
(c) It has helped in minimising the armament race.
51. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
principle
of
Panchsheel
adopted
at
the
first
NAM
meeting
at
Belgrade in 1961?
(a) Peaceful co-existence
(b) Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
(c) Elimination of Colonialism at the earliest
(d) Non-interference in each other's affairs.
52. How
many
countries
participated
in
the
first
Non-aligned
Summit
held
at
Belgrade
in September, 1961?
(a) 15
(b) 25
(c) 30
(d) 32
53. Who
said
"By
aligning
ourselves
with
any
other
power,
you
surrender
your
opinion,
give
up
the
policy
you
would
normally
pursue
because
some
body
else
wants
you
to pursue another policy?"
(a) Jawaharlal Nehru
(b) Marshal Tito
(c) Sukarno
54. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as an objective of NAM?
(a) Protection of Human Rights
(b) Freedom to follow independent foreign policy
(c) To preserve and protect the freedom of new nations.
55. According
to
the
critics,
in
the
present
context
of
international
developments,
non-alignment has lost all relevance due to
(a) end of cold war
(b) dismantling of the power blocs
(c) collapse of the Soviet Union
56. In
which
year
the
Non-aligned
Conference
was held at New Delhi
(a) 1972
(b) 1983
(c) 1989
(d) 1994
57. Non-alignment
is
still
relevant
and
shall
remain relevant as long as
(a) there is exploitation.
(b) there is war
(c) there is hunger, poverty and disease
(d) the above factors are present
58. Global Order refers to the order
(a) created after First World War
(b) created after the Second World War
(c) which emerged in the post-cold-war period
59. Which
one
of
the
following
movement
launched
during
the
period
of
cold
war
can be described as global movement?
(a) Environmental movement which sought to promote common world
environment.
(b) Movement against global economic and social inequalities.
(c) Women's liberation movement
(d) All the above
60. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
did
not
contribute
to
the
development
of
global
feeling in the post cold war period?
(a) Establishment of important economic and cultural linkages among states,
which formerly belonged to rival blocs
(b) The strong wave of democracy which swept the world in 1980's and 1990's
(c) Disintegration of the Soviet bloc
(d) Technology, communication and markets
61. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a feature of global order?
(a) Extensive internationalisation
(b) Extensive democratisation
(a)
(c) Relations of worldwide society which it includes.

1. With the economy getting globalised the established order is undergoing
fundamental changes.
2. Global order has brought about transformation in the character of the nation
state and its basic attributes.
3. Under the new globgal order the sovereignty of the people has given way to
the concepts of supranational and extra-territorial regimes.
4. With the emergence of the new global order the concept of state sovereignty
has become redundant.
incorrect?
(a) With the emergence of new gloal order the role of state as protector and
guarantor of human rights has undergone significant change.
(b) With the emergence of new global order the state sovereignty has been
greatly undermined as domestic courts are increasingly invoking human right
covenants in defence of individual rights.
(c) With the global institutions playing an important role the state shall gradually
wither away.
globalisation has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is a movement towards standardisation of international consumer tastes.
(b) It refers to series of reforms towards liberalisation.
(c) It is a move towards a borderless free trade
65. Globalisation is inconsistent with
(a) protection of domestic industries
(b)the promotion of MNCs (Multi-National Corporations)
(c) liberal trade regime

(d) all the above
66. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
has
facilitate globalisation?
(a) Free flow of capital across the states
(b) Restrictive Trade Policies
(c) Restrictions on free flow of technology
(d) All the above
67. Globalisation has resulted in
(a) Growing economic inter-dependence of the states
(b) Encouragement of restrictive trade practices
(c) Economic isolation of the states
(d) All the above
68. Globalisation
has
encouraged
the
developed
countries
to
permit
entry
of
low
wage
immigrant
workers
to
lower
the
cost
of production and increase profits
(a) True
(b) False
69. Who
defined
globalisation
as
"the
increasing
close
international
integration
of
markets
both
for
goods
and
services
and
capital."
(a) World Bank
(b) International Monetary Fund (IMF)
(c) UNDP
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Rights and Duties of States in

International Law: Intervention,
Treaty
Law, Prevention and Abolition of War
The present age is an age of internationalism in which the different states regularly
come in contact with each other. To regulate the relations of states, both during times
of peace as well as war, certain rules and regulations have been evolved over the
past few centuries. These rules and regulations are known as International Law.
These rules try to regulate the mutual relations of the states according to certain
accepted norms and prevent use of unnecessary force for the settlement of disputes.
The United Nations has also played an important role in the development of
international law by reaffirming faith in the well-established rules of inter-state
conduct and by enunciating several new principles of international conduct. Some of
the prominent rights and duties of member states emphasised by the UN Charter
include renunciation of the use of force and settlement of disputes through peaceful
means; non-interference in the domestic affairs of other states; right to equality and
right of self determination of the people; non-discrimination; promotion of
international co-operation; promotion of co-operation in economic, social, cultural,
educational and health fields. It is true that the principles enunciated by the UN
Charter were not entirely new, but their incorporation in the Charter acorded them
legal status * "id international recognition. The various organs and agencies of the UN
adopted conventions and resolution to secure certain rights to the states. Some of
the prominent conventions adopted include Genocide conventions which declares
genocide as a crime; Convention on Elimination of all forms of racial discrimination;

Suppression and
punishment of crime of aparthied; Convention on Elimination of all forms of
discrimination against women; Convention on Rights of the Child; Declaration on the
Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and People; etc. In fact the list of the
conventions and resolutions adopted by the various agencies of UN is so long that it
is not possible to refer to all of them.
Intervention
Intervention is a dictatorial inteference by a state in the affairs of another state for
the purpose of maintaining or altering the active condition of things. The intervention
can be made on three grounds viz. ideological, political and economic. In the post
world war II period Soviet intervention in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia etc. was
based on ideological grounds. Similarly the various moves of USA to contain
Communism were also motivated by ideological considerations. Political intervention
is made by a country to check the growing influence of its adyersory and to enhance
its own influence. Intervention in Korea, Vietnam, Indo-China Peninsula, Chile, Angola
etc. were all motivated by political considerations. Finally states can make
intervention by force or threat of force to get certain economic benefits, privileges
and concessions for their nationals. The economic intervention can manifest itself in
three forms viz trade relations; public financial relations; and private financial
relations.
It may be observed that though under international law intervention is not
permitted, yet states have resorted to intervention and justified their action under
certain circumstances. Thus UK,
542
France and Israel justified their attack on Egypt in 1956. USA intervened in the
internal affairs of other states on the pretext of protecting their own nationals; USA
threatened to intervene and take over Arab oil fields in the force of threat to increase
oil prices in 1974-75; Of late states have been intervening in the affairs of other
states to prevent violation of human rights in a state. In short, it can be said that the
states have tended to justify intervention in the interest of self-preservation, selfdefence and national security. It may be further noted that the UN Charter also
permits intervention under certain conditions. Thus the UN Charter permits the
Security Council to make intervention if it is satisfied that the breach would pose a
threat to international
peace. Likewise the General Assembly can also take action under Uniting for
Peace Resolution of 1950.
According to some critics intervention constitutes a violation of the UN
Charter, which specifically prohibits use of force or threat thereof against the
territorial integrity and political independence of another state. Hence it can be
said that no state or group of states has the right to intervene directly or
indirectly in the internal affairs of another state
TREATY LAW
Treaty may be defined as an agreement whereby two or more states establish or
seek to establish a relationship under international law between themselves. It may
be noted that the process of conclusion of treaties has been in vogue since the
emergence of the states and shall continue as long as the world community exists.
Broadly speaking there are two types of treaties viz. Law making treaties and Treaty
Contracts. The Law Making Treaties are of general character and apply to majority or
all states, while the latter is limited to two or few states It is noteworthy that not all
the agreements between the states or other international person are treaties. In fact
all international agreements are contracts in so far as they derive their validity from
the agreement of parties. It is well established that once a state has bound itself by
agreement in a treaty, it cannot withdraw from its obligations without the consent of
the other state parties.
All the treaties, to be valid, must be ratified by an authorised or appropriate
authority. The state
can ratify or refuse to ratify a treaty. The process of ratification provides time to the
state functionaries to consider the pros and cons of the treaty. If the treaty is
considered as good for the country it is ratified. On the other hand if the treaty is not
conducive to the interests of the country, the ratification can be withheld. The
procedure of ratification differs from country to country, depending on its
constitutional provisions and practices. A state which has not participated in the
negotiation of the treaty or is party to the treaty, can join the treaty through
accession. It may be noted that earlier a country could acceed to a treaty which has
actually come into force. But now accession to treaty can be made before or after the
treaty has come into force. In short it can be said that accession is normally
considered a final act by which a state considers itself bound by the treaty. A treaty
may be terminated and the parties to the treaty be discharged from further
obligations under the treaty. This termination of treaties can take place in three ways
viz. in pursuance of a fresh agreement of the parties; in pursuance of the provisions
of the treaty itself; and breach of the treaty by one of the party. It is noteworthy that
termination is not a unilateral process available to single party in its caprice.
PREVENTION AND ABOLITION OF WAR

War, in the strict sense of international law, is an armed contention between two or
more states. The ultimate objective of this contention is that each contestant seeks
to vanquish the other and impose its own conditions of peace. Oppenheim has
defined was as "a contention between two or more states through their armed forces
for the purpose of overpowering each other and imposing such conditions of peace as
the victor pleases." Perusal of the various definitions of war shows that a war has
following ingredientsit is a contention; the contention is between two or more
states; the contention is carried through armed forces of the contestant states; and
the ultimate objective of each contestant is to vanquish the other and impose its own
conditions of peace.
As regards the declaration of war, the signatories of the Hague Convention of
1907 agreed that hostilities between the two contestant
Rights and Duties of States in International Law:
543
should not commence without a declaration of war stating the grounds on which it
was being declared or an ultimatum containing a conditional declaration of war. It
further stipulated that the existence of the state of war should be notified to the
neutral states without delay.
Prior to First World War the states felt that it was their fundamental right to resort
to war because the acceptance of the principle of absolute sovereignty of the states
and absence of any legal regulations for the waging of wars against other states.
After the first world war the statemen of the world tried to regulate the use of force.
The Convenant of the League of Nations impressed on the states to seek arbitration
or judicial settlement of disputes before taking recourse to hostilities. The Paris Treaty
for Renunciation of War (also known as Kellogg-Briand Pact) directed the member
states to renounce war as an instrument of national policy and settle their disputes
through peaceful means. In short the Kellogg Briand Pact prohibited all wars of
aggression. The UN Charter took further steps to regulate the use of force. It asked all
members to refrain from use of force and insisted that all disputes should be settled
by peaceful means. However, the UN Charter recognised the right of self-defence in
the event of an armed attack. However, this right of self-defence cannot be used if
the Security Council takes up the issue and acts to maintain international peace and
security. Another noteworthy point with regard to right of self-defence is that the
action must be immediately reported to the security council. This clearly constitutes
a limitation on the exercise of right of self-defence.
Despite the provisions of the UN Charter which impose a clear ban on the use of
force, big powers like USA, USSR, Britain, France etc. have been promoting and
participating in aggression to further their own interests.

1. Which one of the following ha: been wrongly listed as a right of the state under
International Law?
(a) Right to equality
(b) Right of Self-Determination
(c) Right of non-discrimination.
2. Which
one
of
the
following
duty
of
the
state
has
been
emphasised
by
the
UN
Charter?
(a) Renunciation of the use of force and settlement of disputes through peaceful
means
(b) Non-interference in the domestic affairs of other states.
(c) Promotion of International Cooperation
(d) All the above
3. The
state
responsibility
with
regard
to
international duties is
(a) a contractual responsibility
(b) a legal responsibility
(c) a moral responsibility
4. According
to
Oppenheim^
state
responsibilty
in
international
law
implies
that
(a) the state must strictly enforce international law within its jurisdiction.
(b) no state can refuse entry to aliens in its territory
(c) the neglect of international duty is treated as international deliquency
(d) the state can modify international law according to its requirements.
5. An
injured
state
can
seek
redress
for
the
damage suffered in the event of
(a) breach of treaty
(b) non-performance of contractual obligations
(c) injuries to the citizens of another state
(d) all the above
6. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
essential
element
of
state responsibility?
(a) An act of omission which violates an obligation established by international
law
(b) An unlawful act which is imputable to a state as a legal person.
(a)
(c) Loss or damage suffered due to unlawful act.

7. In
which
one
of
the
following
cases
the
loss
or damage suffered by a state is justifiable.
(a) Self defence
(b) Repraisals and other sanctions
(c) Consent of the state
(d) all the above cases
8. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
state
responsibility
under
International Law
1. State responsibility is governed by well established international standards
2. If the damage has resulted from its unlawful act
3. If the damage has been caused by its agents intentionally or unintentionally
4. If the damage has been caused by the agent without the knowledge of the
state

9. Under
international
Law
state
is
liable
to
make
good
the
losses
suffered
by
another
state if
(a) it enacts a law in contravention of an international treaty
(b) if the loss is essentially of material character
(c) if the loss has occured due to non-implementation or violation of the
provisions of a treaty
(d) the other state has also enacted similar laws.
10. A state is responsible for the acts of its
(a) legislative organ
(b) executive organ
(c) judicial organ
(d) all the above
11. The
state
is
not
accountable
for
the
acts
of
its judiciary if
(a) it was actuated by bias
(b) the court acts under external pressure
(c) the court acts in accordance with the international obligations of the state
(d) its action is based on fraud.
12. "It
is
true
that
the
principles
enunciated
by
the
UN
Charter
were
not
entirely
new,
but
their
incorporation
in
the
Charter
accorded
them
legal
status
and
international recognition."
(a) True
(b) False
13.
Who defined intervention as "a dictatorial
interference by a state in the affairs of
another state for the purpose of
maintaining or altering the active
condition of things."
(a) Lawrence
(b) Oppenheim
(c) Caroline Thomas (d) MaxBeloff
14. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
intervention has been wrongly listed?
(a) It is interference by a state or group of states in the internal or external
affairs of another state
(b) The interference is made in the affairs of another state for the purpose of
maintaining or altering the active condition of things.
(c) Intervention seeks to affect the internal structure and external behaviour of
other states through various degrees of coercion.
15. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) political intervention
(b) diplomatic intervention
(c) economic intervention
(d) ideological intervention
16. Soviet
intervention
in
Czechoslovakia
in
1968 is an example of
(a) Political intervention
(b) Ideological intervention
(c) Economic Intervention
(a)
Rights and Duties of States in International Law: 545
17. A country resorts to political intervention

(a) to check the growing influence of its adverasery
(b) to enhance its own influence.
(c) to establish suzeranity over the adversary
18. Which
one
of
the
following
intervention
the
post
world
war
II
was
motivated
political considerations?
(a) Vietnam
(b) Korea
(c) Angola
(d) All the above
19. The
Economic
intervention
manifests
in the form
(a)Trade relations
(b) Public Financial Relations
(c) Private Financial Relations
(d) All the above
20. Economic
intervention
through
relations occurs through
(a) manipulation of tariffs
(b) imposition of an embargo
(c) imposition of boycott
(d) all the above
21. An
embargo
becomes
intervention
in
by
itself
trade
only
when
it
is
used
mainly
for
the
purpose
of
forcing
another
state
to
fall
in
line
with
a
course
of
action
or
inaction
warranted
by
the nation placing an embargo"
(a) True
(b) False
22. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
boycott
which
is
regarded
as
the
clearest
type
of
intervention
through
trade
relations
1. When a government persuades or compels its citizens to enforce a boycott
then it becomes intervention.
2. Voluntary boycott by the nationals of a state does not constitute intervention.
3. In boycott the state through its nationals interrupts commercial and financial
relations with another state.
4. Voluntary boycott by the nationals of a state is the highest type of
intervention.
23. Which
one
of
the
following
constitutes
an
economic
intervention
through
public
financial relations?
(a) Refusal by a state to grant public loan to another state
(b) Freezing of the public assets of another state.
(c) Devaluation or inflation of currency in relation to the other state.
(d) All the above
24. Economic
intervention
through
private
financial
relations
manifests
itself
in
the
form of
(a) Prohibition on granting of credits to another nation by all private banking and
lending institutions.
(b) Prohibition on the sale of stocks or bonds of that nation or its corporate
citizens within its jurisdiction.
(c) Suspension of existing clearing of payment agreements between its citizens
and the government and citizens of another country.
(d)All the above
25. Under
the
U.N.
Charter
economic
intervention is permitted
(a) for the enforcement of the decisions of the organisation.
(b) to assist the state co-operating in resisting aggression
26. Any
act
performed
by
one
state
with
the
consent
of
another
state
does
not
constitute an intervention.
(a) True
(b) False
27. Intervention
can
be
made
by
a
state
in
the
affairs of another state
(a) in pursuance of the decision of the Security Council, under the UN Charter
546
(b) for the protection of the rights and security of its citizens abroad.
(c) on grounds of self-interest
28. Which
one
of
the
following
article
of
the
UN
Charter
grants
right
of
individual
or
collective self-defence?
(a) Article 48
(b) Article 51
(c) Article 53
(d) Article 54
29. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding intervention is correct?
(a) The UN charter does not impair the inherent right of collective self-defence
(b) UN Charter provides that right of self-defence should be exercised only if an
armed attack occurs.
(c) Right to self-defence ceases once the Security Council takes steps to
maintain security and peace in the disputed states
(d) All the above
30. Which
one
of
the
following
has
not
been
identified
by
Starke
as
a
kind
of
intervention?
(a) Diplomatic Intervention
(b) Internal Intervention
(c) External Intervention
(d) Punitive Intervention.
31. Indian
intervention
in
the
Bangladesh
War
of
Liberation
against
Pakistan
is
an
example of
(a) Internal Intervention
(b) External Intervention

(c) Punitive Intervention
32. Though
the
modern
International
Law
does
not
permit
the
states
to
intervene
in
the
internal
affairs
of
other
states,
it
permits
such
intervention
in
the
following
cases.
(a) for the protection of the rights and interests and personal safety of the
citizens abroad
(b) for self defence in the event of actual armed attack
(c) if the state, where intervention is envisaged, has itself unlawfully intervened.
33. Though
under
International
Law
intervention
is
not
permitted,
yet
states
have
resorted
to
intervention
and
justified
their action on the plea of
(a) protecting their own nationals
(b) preventing violation of human rights
(c)
national security and self-preservation
34. The
Monroe
Doctrine
was
advocated
in
1823
by
USA
to
prevent
intervention
in
American continents by
(a) France
(b) Germany
(c) The European Powers
(d) United Kingdom
35. Monroe
doctrine
laid
emphasis
on
several
principles.
Which
one
of
the
following
principle was not emphasised by it?
(a) USA shall not take part in European Wars
(b) USA shall not tolerate attempts by European powers to extend their system
to any part of American continent.
(c) The American continent is not open for further colonisation.
(d) USA shall not support further colonisation anywhere as it was against
principles of democracy
36. The two types of treaties are
(a) National and international
(b) Law-making treaties and Treaty Contracts
(c)
Provisional Treaties amd Ratified Treaties
(d) Written and Unwritten treaties
37. A Law making treaty is
(a) a treaty of general nature
(b) a treaty which applies to majority of states or all the states
(a)

(d) a treaty concluded by two or more states which must be registered with the
International Court of Justice.
38. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about ratification of treaty is correct?
(a) Usually there is no time limit for the ratification
(b) Ratification is an act of appropriate organ of the state which signifies
willingness of the state to be bound by a treaty
(c) Ratification presupposes the signing of the treaty which is to be ratified.
(d) All the above statements
39. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about ratification is correct?
(a) It provides an opportunity to the state functionaries to think over the pros and
cons of the treaty
(b) Ratification provides an opportunity to the ratifying authority to ensure that
the state's representative has not gone beyond its authority while signing the
treaty.
(c) Ratification occupies an important position in the realm of law of treaties.
(d) All the above statements
40. Different
countries
follow
different
methods
for
ratification.
Which
one
of
the
following
method
for
ratification
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) In USA treaty is ratified by two-third members of Senate, the upper House of
US Congress
(b) In UK the treaty is ratified by the Crown on the advice of the concerned
minister.
(c) In certain countries the treaty is ratified by the President of the state.
(d) In Switzerland the treaties are ratified by the Federal Court.
41. An unratified treaty is just a scrap of paper
(a) True
(b) False
unratified treaty has been wrongly listed?
(a) A treaty is not legally valid untill it is ratified by an appropriate authority.
(b) The signatories to a party are expected to follow the provisions of the treaty
during the period intervening between the signing of the treaty and its
ratification.
43. The procedure for ratification of treaties
(a) has been laid down in the UN Charter
(b) depends on the constitutional provisions and practice prevailing in a country
(c) is generally stipulated in the treaty itself.
regarding accession to the treaty
1. Accession is an act by which the provisions of the treaty are formally
accepted by a state which had neither signed nor ratified the treaty.
2. Accession may be made before or after the treaty has come into force
3. Accession is usually considered as a final act by which the state accepts the
terms of the treaty
4. Accession is generally permitted only with regard to bi-lateral treaties.
(d) 3 and 4 are correct
regarding accession is correct?
(a) Accession cannot be made without the consent of the parties to the treaty.
(b) Once a state acceeds to a treaty, it is treated at par with the signatory states.
(a)
(c) Generally accession is permitted with regard to multi-lateral treaties which

make provisions for accession.
(d) All the above

46. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
method
for
the
termination of a treaty?
(a) In pursuance of a fresh agreement of the parties
(b) In pursuance of the provisions of the treaty itself
(c) If the International Court of Justice directs its termination on the ground that
it contravenes principles of international law.
(d) On account of breach of the terms of the treaty by one of the parties.
47. Which
one
of
the
follow
method
for
the
termination
of
treaty
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Any signatory state can terminate the treaty through unilateral action
(b) Treaty can be terminated only in accordance with the provisions of the treaty
(c) A Treaty can be terminated with the consent of the majority of the signatory
members.
48. Which
one
of
the
following
agencies
is
empowered to interpret the treaties?
(a) The International Court of Justice
(b) Technical International Organs like ILOetc.
(c) The Courts of the signatory member states
49. Which
one
of
the
following
principle
of
termination
of
treaty
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Treaty should be read and interpreted in good faith.
(b) Treaty must be read as a whole so that the intentions of the signatory states
can be properly understood.
(c) Treaty should be interpreted in the light of the views expressed by wise men.
50. Which
one
of
the
following
has
offered
the
following definition of war?
"War is a contention between two or more states through their armed forces for
the purpose of over-powering each other and imposing such conditions of peace
as the victor pleases."
(a) Oppenheim
(b) LordStowell
(c) Kelsen
(d) Hall
51. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
war
has been wrongly listed
(a) It is a contention between two or more states
(b) The contention is carried through armed forces of the contestant states
(c) The objective of the contestant is to vanquish the other and impose its own
conditions of peace.
(d) None
52. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
War
was
emphasised
by
the
Hague
Convention
of 1907
(a) Hostilities between two contestants should not start without a declaration of
war.
(b) The Declaration of war must clearly state the grounds on which war is being
declared
(c) Existence of state of war should be notified to the neutral states without
delay.
(d) AH the above
53. Before
first
world
war
the
states
could
resort to war as a matter of right because of
(a) their faith in the principle of absolute sovereignty of states
(b) absence of legal regulations for the waging of wars against other states.
(a)
54. Which
one
of
the
following
organisation
for
the
first
time
impressed
on
the
states
to
seek
arbitration
or
judicial
settlement
of
disputes
before
taking
recourse
to
hostilities?
(a) The Concert of Europe
(b) The League of Nations
(c) The United Nations
(d) Hague Convention of 1907
55. Which
one
of
the
following
placed
a
ban
on all wars of aggression?
(a) Covenant of the League of Nations
(b) Kellogg Briand Pact
(c) U.N. Charter
56. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
self-defence
under
the
UN
Charter
1. The UN Charter directs the member states to refrain from use of force
2. The UN Charter recognises the right of the states to self-defence in the event
of an armed attack.
3. The member states cannot make use of right of self-defence if the Security
Council takes up the issue and acts to maintain international peace and
security
4. Members enjoy absolute right of self-defence and need not inform the
Security Council about the same.
57. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
the
law
of
war?
(a) Only the lawful combatants are subject to the laws, rights and duties of war.
(b) The lawful combatants are those who directly take part in hostilities and are
subjected to all risks of violence and injury during the course of war.
58. In
terms
of
the
law
of
war,
as
outlined
by
the
Hague
Convention
of
1907,
a
lawful
combatant must
(a) be properly commanded
(b) carry arms openly
(c) conduct operations in accordance with laws and customs of war.
(d) comply with all the above
59. Which
one
of
the
following
principle
regarding
prisoners
of
war
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The detaining power is expected to treat prisoners of war humanely.
(b) The detaining power must ensure that the prisoners of war are not exposed to
unnecessary brutality during the immediate math of their capture.
(c) The prisoners of war should be released and repatriated without delay after
cessation of active hostilities.
60. The Hague Convention of 1907 prohibited
(a) the use of poisoned weapons or arms during the war
(b) killing or wounding of an enemy who had surrendered
(c) killing or wounding treacherously any individual belonging to the hostile
nation or army.
(d) all the above
61. According
to
the
Hague
Convention
a
belligerent
country
can
seize
or
destroy
enemy's
property
if
it
becomes
imperative
for the conduct of war
(a) True
(b) False
62. With
the
war
assuming
a
totalitarian
character
the
distinction
between
the
combatants
and
non-combatants
has
disappeared.
(a) True
(b) False
63. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding armistice.
550
64.
1. An armistic suspends military operations by mutual agreement between the
belligerent parties.
2. If the duration of the armistic is not defined the belligerent parties may resume
operations at any time
3. The general armistic suspends the military operations of the belligerent states
everywhere.
4. During armistic the actual hostilities are stopped but spy activities are stepped
up.

(c)
(d)
Which one of the following principles regarding naval warfare has been wrongly
listed?
65.
(a) during naval warfare the belligerents are entitled to capture enemy vessels and
enemy property
(b) Privateering i.e. commissioning of private merchant vessels is illegal
(c) Unless the local authorities refuse to comply with the demand for provisions and
supplies, the naval bombardment of undefended ports, towns etc. cannot be
made.
During the Second World War aerial
bombardment was resorteed to by the
powers to terrorize the adversary and its
civilian population
(a) True
(b) False
ANSWERS
1. (d)
2.(d)
3.(b)
4. (c)
5.(d)
7.(d)
13. (b)
19. (d)
25. (c)
31. (b)
37. (c)
43. (b)
49. (c)
55. (b)
61. (a)
8. (a)
14. (d)
20. (d)
26. (a)
32. (d)
38. (d)
44. (a)
50. (a)
56. (a)
62. (a)
9. (c)
15. (b)
21. (a)
27. (d)
33. (d)
39. (d)
45. (d)
51. (d)
57. (c)
63. (a)
10. (d)
16. (b)
22. (a)
28. (b)
34. (c)
40. (d)
46. (c)
52. (d)
58. (d)
64. (d)
11. (c)
17. (d)
23. (d)
29. (d)
35. (d)
41. (b)
47. (d)
53. (c)
59. (d)
65. (a)
6.(d)
12. (a)
18. (d)
24. (d)
30. (a)
36. (b)
42. (c)
48. (d)
54. (b)
60. (d)
Political Economy of
International
Relations: New International
Economic
Order, North-South Dialogue
South-South
Cooperation, WTO, Neo
Colonialism and
Dependency
The economic system which emerged in the post world war period was based
on East-West division and confrontation between the rich and the poor. The
western countries led by USA evolved their own institutions like IMF, IBRD,
GATT etc in which the East did not take part. On the other hand the East
followed a policy of economic and political isolation. The countries of the third
world in the main continued to be part of the western economic system on
account of their links with the former colonial powers. Some of the prominent
features of the present economic system are nondiscriminatory liberal trade;
market place economy, inflow of foreign private capital from developed
countries to developing countries. As this system is largely guided and
manipulated for the benefit of rich countries, it is generally operated to the
benefit of the developed countries. This has naturally resulted in widening of
the gap between the developed and developing countries, and given rise to
the demand for New International Economic Order (NIEO).
New International Economic Order
In May 1974 the General Assembly, in the face of opposition from United
States and other western powers adopted the Declaration on the
Establishment of a New International Economic Order
by
an
overwhelming majority. The
declaration stipulated the principles on which the international economic
relations should be based. The main principles emphasised by the declaration
were sovereign equality of states, their territorial integrity, non-interference
in the internal affairs; equal participation of all the states in the solution of
the world economic problems, the right to adopt an economic system of their
own choice, inalienable and permanent sovereignty of each state over their
natural resources and all economic activities etc. The General Assembly in its
6th and 7th Special session accepted the need of restructuring the
international economic relations on democratic basis. However, the Assembly
failed to take any concrete measures for the implementation of these
decisions due to obstructions posed by USA and other western powers.
The main objectives of NIEO were outlined in the Charter of Economic
Rights and Duties of States adopted by the UN General Session of December
1974. The main objectives are creation of new structure of economic
relationships, warranting fundamental changes in a large number of related
fieldscommodity trade, market access and preference, aid flows, the
activities of multinational corporations, the international monetary system,
the restructuring of international institutions, the transfer of
552
technology etc. In view of the growing demand from the less developed countries the
UN General Assembly adopted a resolution in 1979 which is regarded as a watershed
in the struggle of developing countries for the creation of NIEO. The resolution
emphasised the need for global talks within the framework of UN on energy, raw
materials, trade development, currency and financial questions. In view of the
opposition of USA to hold talks within the framework of UN, it was decided to hold
talks outside the forum of the UN. Hence Cancun summit was held in 1981 in which
US President agreed to take part on the condition that the developing countries
agreed to support the existing institution.
North-South Dialogue
In 1981 the Commonwealth Heads of Government recommended the constitution of
a group to review the North-South Dialogue. This group was constituted in 1982 and
was asked to review the negotiating process between the developed and developing
countries. The group was asked to recommend improvements in the negotiating
process. The Group submitted its report 'The North-South Dialogue: Making it work',
in August, 1982. In February 1983 Brandt Commission published its second report in
which the Commission proposed a series of financial measures to assist the
resolution of the current balance of payments debts and banking crisis and to help
promote recovery in developing and industrial countries.
South-South Co-operation
As the North (the developed countries), did not respond favourably to the demands
of South (developing countries) for reduction of tariff, liberalisation, international
commodity agreement to stablise prices, reforms in international monetary system,
the countries of South were convinced that there was no common meeting ground
between North and South. Therefore they thought of promoting south-south cooperation by concentrating on nine points. However the deliberations showed that
the members were sharply divided and could not reach any concensus. Despite
difference among countries of South, the heads of the Commonwealth countries
adopted a Statement on Economic Action and
emphasised that it was necessary to discuss the various issues at an international
conference.
At present the prospects of evolution ot NIEO are quite bleak because the
developed countries have not shown any inclination to accord representation to the
developing countries on international trade and aid agencies.
The World Trade Organisation (WTO)

This inter-governmental organisation was established on 1 January 1995 to oversee
international trade. This function was earlier being performed by the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). In fact as a result of the acceptance of
Uruguary Round of Agreement all the 128 members of GATT were automatically
admitted as members of WTO. WTO's main functions include the administration and
implementation of multilateral and plurilateral trade agreements; to act as a forum
for multilateral trade negotiations among its members; to seek to resolve trade
disputes among members; to oversee national trade policies of members; and to
cooperate with other international institutions involved in global economic policymaking.
Neo-Colonialism
In the post-world war II period through large number of colonies attained
independence and were admitted as sovereign members to the world body, yet they
could not be fully independent economically. In fact their economic system and
political policy is directed from outside. In simple words we can say that under neocolonialism the former colonies are dependent on colonial powers through capital
investments, loans, aid, unequal exchange and finances, which are directly controlled
by the colonial powers. According to Prof. Organski, neo-colonialism manifests itself
in two forms viz. economic dependencies and satellites. In economic dependencies
the foreign power exercises complete control over the industry, mines, commercial
houses, banking institutions etc through its nationals. On account of their hold on the
economic life of the society they are able to have effective voice in the government
also. Satellite countries are those countries which are formally independent but
controlled by some foreign power both politically and economically. This control more
extensive
Political Economy of International Relations:
553
than the one exercised is over economic dependencies. Most of the states of Eastern
Europe
were satellites of the Soviet Union.

Neo-colonialism manifested itself in several forms. The extreme form of neocolonialism is that the imperial power keeps its troops in the territory of the neocolonial state and controls the government. But the most common method of
control is through economic or monetary means. Most of the colonies which
gained independence were backward and did not possess sufficient finances.
They were obliged to seek financial and technical assistance from advanced
countries. The big powers also tried to control the independent developed
countries through aid. While extending aid the donor countries imposed number
of conditions and tried to convert them into economic dependencies. The neocolonialism was also promoted by the advanced countries by extending loans
and credits to the liberated countries. Multinational Corporations have also tried
to dominate the economies of the newly independent countries and tried to
influence their political and economic policies. Dependence on advance countries
for technology also renders the less developed countries dependent on advanced
countries. Foreign trade has also been used by the neo-colonial powers as an
instrument of exploitation of the newly independent states. Finally? the advanced
countries try to maintain their hold over the newly independent countries
through military bases.
Neo-Colonialism is generally considered better than the old colonialism in so
far as the dominant power enjoys only indirect control and treates the people of
exploited territories with respect. Some scholars regard neo-colonialism as the
worst form of imperialism because it operates on the principle of 'power without
responsibility'. The financial aid provided by the neo-colonial powers has greatly
harmed the social and economic interests of the recipient countries by retarding
the development of local people. They try to keep the prices of the raw materials
to be imported from the less-developed countries, to the barest minimum and
sell the finished products at exhorbitant prices. This has resulted in increase of
gap between the rich and the poor countries. Neocolonialism also promoted
rivalry between the powers and posed a threat to the world peace.

1. The
present
international
economic
order
was evolved
(a) during the nineteenth century
(b) during the inter-war period (i.e. between two world wars)
(c) during the second world war and years thereafter
(d) In the mid-fifties of the 20th century
2. The
present
international
economic
order
radically
differed
from
the
economic
order
of
the
nineteenth
and
early
twentieth
century. These changes took place due to
(a) revolutionary changes in the field of technology and communication
(b) the emergence of multinational corporations
(c) emergence of a large number of independent states
3. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
present
international
economic
order,
listed by Henry Kissinger, is wrong?
(a) Open and expanding trade
(b) Free movement of investment capital and technology
(c) International co-operation
4. In
the
post
world
war
II
period
the
third
world
countries
in
the
main
continued
to
554
be
part
of
the
western
economic
system
on
account
of
old
links
with
the
imperial
powers.
(a) True
(b) False
5. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
the
present
economic
order
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It is characterised by confrontation between the rich and the poor
countries
(b) It is protective of the interests of the north
(c) It is based on market place economy
(a)
6. The
present
economic
system
has
operated
to
the
benefit
of
advanced
countries
in
several
ways.
Which
one
of
the
following
benefit has been wrongly listed?
(a) It operates on the principle of free trade, which has tended to benefit the
developed nations.
(b) The International Monetary Fund has tended to promote the interests of the
rich countries.
(c) International institutions like IBRD which were created to help the developing
countries have actually operated in the interest of western countries.
7. Call
for
New
International
Economic
Order was based on the assumption
(a) That the prevalent international order perpetuates and aggravates
international inequalities
(b) That the rich developed countries were morally obliged to increase and
facilitate the flow of resources to less developed countries
(c)
That it was in the interest of the developed countries to enocurage the
promotion of
growth and development of poor countries in order to expand their markets.

(d) All the above assumptions.
8. The
General
Assembly
adopted
the
Declaration
and
Programme
of
Action
on
the
Establishment
of
a
New
International
Economic Order (NIEO) in
(a) 1974
(b) 1979
(c) 1990
(d) 1991
9. What
are
the
main
objectives
of
the
NIEO
(New International Economic Order)
(a) To reduce gap between the rich and poor nations
(b) To reduce economic inequalities between the developed and underdeveloped
countries
(c) To remove existing maladies in the international economic system
(d) All the above
10. The
spirit
of
NIEO
is
envisaged
in
the
Charter
of
Economic
Rights
and
Duties
of
States
adopted
by
the
UN
General
Session
in December 1974
(a) True
(b) False
11. Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding the objectives of the NIEO
1. It seeks to promote more rational and equitable international relations
2. It seeks to bring about structural changes in the world economy.
3. It seeks to provide conditions which permit further expansion of trade and
greater co-operation among all nations.
4. It recommends allocation of 4 per cent of GDP for aid to the less developed
countries.
12. The NIEO seeks to
(a) check the drawbacks of existing international order
(b) eliminate existing imbalances by restructuring the existing system
(c) secure equitable distribution of the world income
(d) secure all the above
13. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
did
not
influence the demand for NIEO?
(a) Monetary crisis facing the developed nations
(b) Failure of UNCTAD to check the widening gap between the rich and poor
nations.
(c) Growing global interdependence
(d) Growing control of the developed nations over under-developed nations.
14. Which
one
of
the
following
was
not
a
major issue which warranted NIEO?
(a) Restructuring of world economic order on just and reasonable basis.
Political Economy of International Relations: 555
(b) Creation of an order based on equality and interdependence.

(c) Modernisation of the existing economic order
(d) Formulation of new rules for the conduct of international economic relations.
15. Which
one
of
the
following
is
not
a
major
issue before the NIEO
(a) a proper check on the flow of capital from developed countries to the
(b) development of new economic institutions to promote greater cooperation
among nations
(c) to eliminate protectionism in international economy
16. Bretton
Woods
Conference,
which
was
attended
by
representatives
of
44
nations
recommended the creation of
(a) International Monetary Fund (IMF)
(b) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
(c)International Trade Organisation (ITO)
(d) All the above
17. GATT (General Agreement of Tariffs and
Trade) was set up to promote multilateral
reduction of trade barriers, in
(a) 1946
(b) 1947
(c) 1949
-(d) 1950
18. Which
organisation
was
created
after
the
second
world
war
to
tackle
the
problem
of
international
liquidity
and
achieve
international monetary stability?
(a) International Monetary Fund (IMF)
(b) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
(c) GATT
(d) None of the abote
19.
Which one of the following functions of
IMF has been wrongly listed?

(a) To promote international monetary cooperation
(b) To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade
(c) To promote exchange stability and avoid competitive exchange depreciation.
20. Which
one
of
the
following
type
of
function of IMF has been wrongly listed?
(a) punitive functions
(b) regulatory functions
(c) financial functions
(d) consultative functions
21. The
International
Monetary
Fund
(IMF)
assists
the
members
to
take
corrective
steps
to
overcome
the
problem
of
balance
of payments.
(a) True
(b) False
22. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
IBRD has been wrongly listed?
(a) It lends foreign currencies to members to help them tide over deficit in their
current account.
(b) It lends money to the member states
(c) It provides compensatory financing facility to members producing primary
products which suffer from fluctuations in export receipts.
23. IBRD
or
World
Bank
was
established
under the Bretton Woods Conference in
(a) 1945
(b) 1946
(c) 1947
(d) 1948
24. Which
one
of
the
following
objectives
of
the
IBRD
(World
Bank)
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It assists in the reconstruction and development of the territories of the
members by facilitating the investment of the capital for productive
purposes.
(b) It promotes private foreign investment by means of guarantee or
participation in the loans and other investments made by private investors.
(a)
(c) It promotes long-range balanced growth of international trade and

maintenance of equilibrium in the balance of payments.
25. The IBRD acts as
(a) a lender
(b) a guarantor
(c) an international brain trust
(d) all the above
26. The IBRD provides loans
(a) to resolve the problem of balance of payments
(b) for social projects
(c) to encourage economic growth in major debtor countries of the third world.
(d) for all the above purposes.
27. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the IBRD (World Bank)
1. It provides help in the preparation of the project proposals for development.
2. It provides training to senior development officials etc.
3. The Fund is over-flowing with funds and is always able to meet the
requirements of the members.
4. The Fund is not able to meet the fund requirements of the members due to its
limited resources and capacity.
28. The term 'North' is generally used for
(a) countries of the Communist bloc
(b) the countries of South East Asia
(c) world's rich, industrialised non-communist states
(d) the countries not alligned with any of the two power blocs
29.
Which
one
of
the
following
countries
has
been
wrongly
listed
amongst
the
countries
of'North'?
(a) United States (b) Japan
(c) New Zealand
30. The term 'South' refers to
(a) the developing countries of the third world
(b) the countries who joined USSR sponsored alliances
(c) the developed countries located outisde Western Europe
31. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Bretton
Woods
structure
created after the Second World War.
1. The system treated the poor countries as legally equal with the industrial
states
2. The system created by Bretton Woods after the Second World War worked to
the advantage of the poor states
3. The system created by Bretton Woods after the Second World war worked to
the dis-advantage of poor states.
4. The system created by Bretton Woods after the Second World war
perpetuated the existing inequalities.
32. Brandt
Commission
was
setup
under
the
Chairmanship of Willy Brandt to
(a) find a new approach to the North-South dialogue in which the element of
confrontation could be eliminated.
(b) promote South-South cooperation
33. The
Brandt
Commission
in
its
report
submitted in early 1980) recommended
(a) 'massive transfer' of resources from the rich countries to the poor countries
for their sustained development
(b) allocation of 2 per cent of national income by the advanced countries for the
development of the un-developed countries.
(c) that detailed negotiations between North and the South shoud take place
outside the framework of the United Nations.
(d) all the above
34. The
Cancun
Summit,
held
in
1981
was
attended by 8 developed countries and
(a) 7 developing countries
(b) 14 developing countries
(c) 21 developing countries
(d) 52 developing countries
35. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
recommendation
of
the
Cancun Summit of 1981?
(a) It recommended promotion of an orderly dialogue about the energy problem.
(b) Priority should be given to increase the food production in developing
countries.
(c) It favoured maintenance of an open trading system
36. In
1981
the
Commonwealth
heads
of
governments
constituted
a
group
to
review
North-South
dialogue.
The
group
in its report of August, 1982 recommended
(a) Negotiations should be conducted in small groups rather than plenary bodies.
(b) Greater use of expert panels should be made
(c) South should be urged to make full use of representation in the Bretton
Woods Institutions to put forward its policies and advance its interests.
(d) All the above
37. The
Second
Brandt
Commission
submitted
it
report
'Common
Crisis-North
South
Cooperation for World Recovery' in
(a) January 1981
(b) February 1983
(c) July, 1985
(d) August 1986
38. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
has
been
responsible
for
the
slow
progress
of
NorthSouth Dialogue?
(a) Difference in the attitude of the developed and developing countries
(b) Reluctance of the north to share power in the management of international
economic institutions
(c) South has favoured universal, multilateral system of public negotiations,
whereas north has preferred bi-lateral negotiations.
(d) All the above
39. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
slow
progress
of
North-South
Dialogue.
1. The group system on the basis of which north-south negotiations have been
conducted has greatly affected the negotiation process.
2. The process of decision-making has hampered the progress of North-South
dialogue because the decisions are taken by majority vote rather than
consensus.
3. The universal nature of negotiations in which all members states participate
has slowed the process of negotiations.
4: North has preferred negotiations within the UN General Assembly and its
subsidiary bodies like UNCTAD, while south favours negotiations through existing
institutions like IMF, World Bank etc. Of the above statements
40. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
North-South
Dialogue
is
correct?
(a) The developed countries have tended to favour status quo and therefore
adopted passive approach
558
(b) The developing countries have tended to hold the international forces
responsible for their slow economic progress and play down domestic factors.
(c) Conflicting attitudes of the north and south have generated mistrust about
the motives and intention of the other and hampered genuine progress.
(d) All the above
41. Pyongyang
Conference
on
South-South
Cooperation was held in
(a) 1983
(b) 1985
(c) 1987
(d) 1990
42. The
Pyongyang
Conference
which
was
attended
by
the
Foreign
Ministers
of
NonAligned countries in 1987
(a) recommended that a political dialogue should be held between the developed
and the third world countries to resolve the problem of unpaid debts.
(b) regretted that some developed countries had not shown the political will to
remove trade imbalances
(c) suggested an action plan which called for measures for economic cooperation
at the national, regional and international levels to promote south-south
cooperation.
(d) made all the above recommendations.
43. The
South
Commission
held
its
second
meeting in 1988 at
(a) Kuala Lumpur
(b) Prague
(c) Colombo
44. The
countries
of
South
(developing)
are
dependent
on
the
countries
of
North
(developed) for
(a) trade
(b) investments
(c) aid
(d) all the above
45. The
World
Trade
Organisation
(WTO)
was
established on
(a) 1 January, 1992
(b) 30 June, 1993 (c) 1 January, 1995
(d) 16 July, 1997
46. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about WTO has been wrongly listed?
(a) This organisation was set up to oversee international trade
(b) The functions assigned to the WTO were earlier being performed by the GATT
(c) All the members of GATT were automatically admitted as members of WTO
47. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
highest
body of the WTO?
(a) Ministerial Conference
(b) General Council
(c) Council for Trade in Goods
(d) The Executive Council
48. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
of
WTO has been wrongly listed?
(a) It administers and implements the multilateral and plurilateral trade
agreement which make up the WTO agreements.
(b) It acts as a forum for multilateral trade negotiations among its members
(c) It seeks to resolve trade disputes/ among WTO members.
49. Which
one
of
the
following
functions
is
performed by the WTO?
(a) It oversees national trade policies of its members.
(b) It co-operates with other international institutions in matters relating to
global economic policymaking
(c) It regularly examines the trade regimes of individual members and acts as a
watchdog on international trade.
(d) All the above.
50. WTO
provides
the
sole
legal
and
institutional
foundation
for
the
multi
lateral trading system
(a) True
(b) False

wrongly listed as a body of the WTO?
(a) Dispute Settlement Body
(b) Appellate Body
(c) Trade Policy Review Body
52. W.T.O. follows the code of conduct for
international trade established by GATT
(a) True
(b) False
53. WTO has its headquarter at
(a) Geneva
(b) Paris
(c) New York
(d) Kuala Lumpur
correct?
(a) WTO acts as a forum for multilateral trade negotiations among members
(b) WTO resolves trade disputes among members.
(c) WTO co-operates with other international institutions involved in global
economic policy-making.
(d) All the above
55. Which one of the following objectives of
WTO has been wrongly listed?
(a) To work for increase in the share of developing countries in world trade
(b) To act as a forum for multilateral trade negotiations among members
(c) To promote trade without discrimination
(d) To promote fair competition.
regarding WTO:
1. It works on the principle of one member one vote
2. The General Secretary of WTO enjoys a tenure of four years
3. Members of WTO contribute to the administrative cost of the or^ ini-sation in
proportion to their share in the global trade
4. Members of WTO make contribution to the organisation on the basis of their
per capita income
57. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about WTO is correct?
(a) The day-to-day administration of WTO is looked after by the General Council
(b) The Ministerial Council is the highest authority of WTO
(c) The General Council of WTO can delegate its responsibilities to other bodies.
(d) All the above
58. The WTO is responsible for
(a) removal of all non-tariff barriers specified in WTO rules within five years
(b) reduction of tariff by 40% within five years of the inception of WTO
(c) establishing a uniform legal framework to protect commercial interests of
those who have created something unique
(d) All the above

59. Neo-colonialism applied to
(a) colonies which are on the verge of attaining independence
(b) the colonies which have attained independence and have been admitted as
sovereign members to the world body.
(c) colonies which are still engaged in struggle for independence and are still far
away from their goal.
(d) all the above categories of territories
60. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
cause
for
rise
of
neo
colonialism?
(a) lack of economic independence of the former colonies
(b) dependence on colonial powers for capital and investment
(a)
560
(c) feeling of opposition against colonialism

61. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
did
not
contribute
to
the
transformation
of
colonialism into neo-colonialism
(a) dependence of newly independent states on the developed states for their
economic development
(b) military weakness of the newly independent states
(c) rapid technological development of newly independent states
(d) expansionist policies of super powers like USA and USSR.
62. According
to
Organski
neo-colonialism
manifested itself in the form of
(a) economic dependencies and satellites

(b)economic and military dependence
(c) economic dominance and institutional dominance
(d)None of the aove
63. In
the
economic
dependencies
the
foreign
powers
exercise
control
through
their
nationals over
(a) industry
(b) commercial houses
(c) banking institutions
(d) all the above
64. The
neo-colonial
powers
generally
try
to
control the weak nations through
(a) financial aid and loans
(b) control over international financial institutions
(c) sale of arms and weapons
(d) All above method
65. The
neo-colonial
powers,
on
account
of
their
hold
on
the
life
of
the
society,
are
able
to
have
effective
voice
in
the
government
as well
(a) True
(b) False
66. Which
of
the
following
statement
regarding a satellite country is correct?
(a) Though it is formally independent but it is controlled by a foreign power both
politically and economically.
(b) In a satellite the neo-colonial power exercises more extensive control than
exercised over the economic dependencies.
67. Most
of
the
states
of
Eastern
Europe
were
satellites
of
the
Soviet
Union
before
its
integration.
(a) True
(b) False
68. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
most
common
method
for
control
over
independent
states
by
the
neo-colonial
powers?
(a) stationing of troops in the territory of a neo-colonial country
(b) control through economic and monetary means
(c) through technological assistance
69. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
most
extreme form of neo-colonialism?
(a) Stationing of troops in the territory of the neo-colonial state
(b) Installation of a friendly government in the neo-colonial state for the
protection of its own interests.
(c) Use of trade as an instrument for the exploitation of newly independent
countries.
(d) Through the dominance of multinational corporations.
70. The
main
factors
which
contributed
to
the
rise
of
neo-colonialism
in
the
post
world
war II period were
(a) Conversion of the state into a welfare state which necessitated extra finances
for various welfare projects.
(b) It was not possible to revive the old colonial system because this would have
provoked colonial resentment
(a)
Political Economy of International Relations:
561
(c) The cold war between two super powers in the post world war II period also
made it difficult for the former colonial territories to act in an independent
manner
(d) All the above
71. Which
one
of
the
following
methods
of
neo-colonialism has been wrongly listed?
(a) Garrisoning of the territory of neo-colonial state by the imperial power.
(b) Regulation of the social, economic and educational activities in the neocolonial state in the interest of administering or ruling state.
(c) The independent states were weak and sought financial and technical
assistance from more advanced states.
72. Aid
was
used
by
the
colonial
powers
as
an
instrument
for
the
exploitation
of
the
newly independent countries by
(a) Permitting the donor country to impose necessary conditions while extending
aid
(b) permitting the donor country to muddle in the internal finances of the
recepient country
(c) permitting the donor country to decide how the funds made available as aid
are to be used
73.
regarding aid provided to the newly
independent countries.
1. Aid benefits the recipient country only margianally.
2. In the long run aid promotes the interests of the donor country by
perpetuating the dependence of the recipient countries on such aid.
3. The foreign capital made available to the less developed countries is not
meant so much for the development of the less developed areas, as for the
promotion of the interests of the developed countries.
4. Aid benefits the donor and recipient countries equally Of the above statements
74. The
real
motive
of
the
Multinational
Corporation
is
profit
making
and
global
domination.
(a) True
(b) False
75. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding neo-colonialism.
1. The advanced countries try to exploit the newly independent countries by
making them dependent on technology made available by them.
2. Neo-colonial powers make effective use of the instrument of foreign trade for
the exploitation of the newly independent states.
3. Neo-colonial powers interfere in the internal matters of the states through
overt and covert methods for the protection of their interests.
4. Neo-colonialism has given fillip to demand for human rights and pevented
exploitation of the backward countries.
76. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding neo-colonialism is correct?
(a) Neo-colonialism is better than old colonialism in so far as it treats the people
of the exploited territories with respect and keeps them satisfied.
(b) Neo-colonialism greatly retards the social and economic development of the
local people.
(c) The rise of neo-colonialism has given rise to rivalary between the great
(a)
promotion of mutual trust and understanding; promotion of collaboration in

economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields; strengthening of cooperation with other developing countries and themselves, besides cooperation with
regional and international organizations with similar objectives. This cooperation
among the member states was not to be a substitute for bilateral and multi-lateral
cooperation. The members of SAARC agreed to take all decisions on the basis of
consensus and all bilateral and contentious issues were to be excluded from
deliberation. It may be noted that the formation of SAARC was a significant step
forward because it could stimulate regional cooperation through collective approach
and action. Though SAARC has been in existence for over fifteen years yet its
progress has been quite slow due to differences in the approaches, attitudes and
perceptions of the countries of the region. On the question of the institutional

framework for the regional cooperation also the members adopted different attitudes.
Despite the slow progress of the organization, it has raised high hopes of peace in the
region bedeviled by conflicts of all kind. Further the periodical meetings of SAARC
provide an opportunity to the leaders of the member countries of iron out their
differences. It is true that at present SAARC is far from the stage where EEC and
ASEAN have reached, yet it cannot be denied that a small beginning has been made
in this direction which shall produce far reaching results in future. The setting up of
SAARC Secretariat is further likely to contribute to the strengthening of SAARC.
ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH-EAST ASIAN NATIONS (THE ASEAN)

The ASEAN was created through Bangkok Declaration in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. The main objective of ASEAN were (i) to
accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the
region; (ii) to promote regional peace and stability; (iii) to promote active
collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the economic,
social, cultural, technical, scientific and administrative fields;
(iv) to provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities
in educational technical and administrative sphere; (v) to promote South-East Asian
Studies; and (vi) to collaborate for greater utilization of their agriculture and
industries and expansion of trade, etc; (vii) to maintain close and beneficial
cooperation with existing international and regional organizations with similar aim
and purposes.
The organization of ASEAN consists of Ministerial Conference, Standing
Committee, the Secretariat and a number of Permanent and ad hoc committees.
During the first few years the five members held periodic consultations and tried to
arrive at a consensus. However after 1975 ASEAN made serious proposals in respect
of economic cooperation and took stand on extra regional affairs. The strength of
ASEAN rose to 9 in 1997 with Brunei, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam joing the
organization. The significance of ASEAN in international affairs lies in the fact that it
tried to develop Asian solution to the Asian problems. It took up projects with a view
to improve tourism, shipping, fishing trade etc.
ORGANISATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC)

This organization was formed in Baghdad (Iraq) in 1960 with Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia and Venezuela as founder members. Subsequently Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon,
Indonesia, Libya,
Nigeria, Qatar, United Arab Emirates also joined as its members. The
membership of OPEC is open to any other country which has substantial net
exports of crude petroleum.
The main objectives of OPEC are to effect stability in oil prices and avoid
unnecessary fluctuations in prices; to carry out consultation among companies of
concerned countries before making modifications in prices of oil; to control
production with a view to ensure stability of prices; to ensure regular supply of
petroleum of consumers and equitable remuneration to investors and regular
revenues to oil producing states; and to hold regular consultations among the
member states to safeguard their common interest.
Regional and Sub-Regional Organisations: SAARC, ASEAN, OPEC, OAS
567
operation among the countries of South Asia

(a) President of Bangladesh
(b) President of Pakistan
(c) King of Nepal
(d) Prime Minister of India
19. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
member
of
SAARC?
(a) Maldives
(b) Nepal
(c) Myanmar
(d) Bhutan
20. SAARC was formally inaugurated in
(a) 1984
(b) 1985
(c) 1986
(d) 1987
(a) By consensus
(b) By two-third majority
(c) Three-fourth majority
(d) By two-third majority of members, present, which should also be clear cut
majority of the total membership.
26. Under the SAARC rules all bilateral and
contentious issues are to be excluded from
deliberation?
(a) True
(b) False
26. What is the correct order in which the following SAARC summit were held.
(a) Dhaka Summit
(b) Bangalore Summit
CrX Kathmandu Summit
Regional and Sub-Regional Organisations: SAARC, ASEAN, OPEC, OAS 565
Organisation of American States (OAS)
This is the oldest regional organization which was created by the states of American
hemisphere in 1948 with a view to promote mutual co-operation. The OAS Charter
came into force in December 1951 and was reformed in 1967. The membership of
this organization is open to all American states, including Canada. The main organs
Of OAS are the General Assembly; Foreign Ministers Meeting; Permanent Council; The
Pan American Union; Specialised Organisation and Specialised Converences. In
addition OAS has certain specialized and subsidiary organizations. The members of
the OAS hold faith in settling their disputes through peaceful methods. Before
referring their disputes to the Security Council they submit these disputes to the
regional organization. Generally these disputes are resolved through conciliation or
investigation. The members of OAS are pledged to assist each other in case of armed
attack against any American state. The members are also pledged to resolve
amicably the political, juridical and economic problems arising among them and to
co-operate in the economic, social and cultural development. The main achievement
of OAS has been that it played an effective role in checking the threat of Communism
in the hemisphere.

1. The
formation
of
regional
and
sub-regio
nal
organizations
received
an
impetus
after
(a) the first world war
(b) the second world war
(c) the establishment of the United Nations
(d) the end of cold war
2. Which
one
of
the
following
factor
contributed
to
the
formation
of
the
regional and sub-regional organizations?
(a) Emergence of a large number of independent states which lacked self
sufficiency and were keen to cooperate with other states
(b) The setting in of the cold war in the wake of second world war
(c) Open hostility between the two super powersUSA and USSR
(d) All the above.
3.
Which one of the following feature of a
regional
organization
has
been
listed?
(a) it is a non-universal association of the states
(b) it possesses some sort of permanent organization
(c) all the members of the organization must belong to the region.
(d) The members of the organization have common interests.
4. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
admitted
as
a
member
of
North
Treaty
Organisation
(NATO)
being a part of North Atlantic?
(a) Greece
(b) Turkey
(c) Italy
(d) All the above
5. Usually
the
states
join
a
regional
zation due to
(a) security reasons
(b) economic assistance
(c) political co-operation
6. Which
one
of
the
following
organization
was
formed
for
reasons?
(a) NATO
(b) CENTO
(c) Warsaw Pact
(d) All the above
7. Usually
a
country
joining
a
organization
for
security
reasons
is
not
position to act independently in
(a) defence matters
(b) economic matters
(c) matters of foreign policy
(d) all the above matters
8. Which
one
of
the
following
organization
does
not
seek
to
economic interests of the members
(a) Warsaw Pact
(b) European Community
(c) Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (CEMA)
(d) Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA)
(a)
568
wrongly
was
Atlantic
without
organi
regional
security
regional
in
a
regional
promote
(a) Thailand
(b) Maldives
(c) Singapore
(d) Malaysia
32. Which one of the following objectives of
ASEAN has been wrongly listed?
(a) to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development
in the region.
(b) to promote regional peace and stability
(c) to collaborate for greater utilization of their agriculture and industries and
expansion of trade etc.
(d) to render mutual military assistance in the event of unprovoked aggression.
wrongly listed as an organ of ASEAN?

(a) Ministerial Conference
(b) Standing Committee
(c) The Secretariat
wrongly listed as an objective of ASEAN?
(a) To promote South-East Asian Studies
(b) To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and
regional organi-zations with similar aims and purposes.
(c) To provide training and research facilities in educational, technical and
administrative spheres.
(d) To keep the military machine update to meet any unforeseen eventuality.
35. The Secretariat of ASEAN is located at
(a) Bangkok
(b) Jakarta
(c) Singapore
(d) Manila
36. Which one of the following countries was
not an original member of ASEAN?
(a) Brunei
(b) Laos
(c) Vietnam
(d) All the above
37. The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) was formed in
(a) 1958
(b) 1959
(c) 1960
(d) 1962
38. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
founder
member
of
OPEC?
(a) Iran
(b) Iraq
(c) Libya
(d) Kuwait
39. The membership of OPEC is open to

(a)
any country in the world
(b) only countries of Middle East
(c) only those countries which have substantial net exports of crude petroleum
(d) all the members of UNO
40. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
is
not
a member of OPEC?
(a) Egypt
(b) Indonesia
(c) Nigeria
(d) Kuwait
41. Which
one
of
the
following
objectives
of
OPEC has been wrongly listed?
(a) To effect stability in oil prices by controlling production.
(b) To ensure regular supply of petroleum to consumers
(c) To hold regular consultations among the member states to safeguard their
common interests.
42. Consider
the
following
statements
regar
ding the objectives of OPEC
1. OPEC holds consultations with the companies of the concerned countries
before making modification in the prices of oil.
2. It seeks to check fluctuations in the oil prices and seeks to effect stability in
oil prices.
3. It seeks to regulate the supply of oil to ensure that there is no shortage of oil
in the market.
4. It holds regular consultations with the member states to safeguard their
common interests.
(b) 2,3 and4 arecorrect
(a)
(a)
~^*r
13. Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
organization?
(a) It is more than an alliance
(b) All its members need not have cultural affinity
(c) The members of the organization have common interests.
14. Which
one
of
the
following
organization
seeks
to
promote
economic interests of the member states?
(a) Warsaw Pact
(b)
Colombo Plan
êqtin. i\.frm*nA v{,.. -
been
regional
regional
the
an important role in the preservation of world peace.

(b) The regional organizations have played an important role in promoting social
and economic cooperation among the member states and encouraged them
to rise above narrow nationalism
(c) The regional organizations are able to operate more freely without ideological
obstructions.
(d) All the above
18. Which one of the following took first step in the direction of encouraging
coRegional and Sub-Regional Organisations: Saarc, Asean, Opec, Oas
569

43.
Which
one
of
the
following
organizations is the oldest?
(a) SAARC
(b) OAS (Organisation of American States)
(c) OPEC
(d) ASEAN
44.
The
OAS
(Organisation
of
States) was formed in
(a) 1942
(b) 1948
(c) 1951
(d) 1956
45.
Which
one
of
the
following
has
wrongly listed as an organ of OAS?
(b) Permanent Council
(c) Military Council
(d) The Pan American Union.
regional
American
been
46. Which
one
of
the
following
performs
the
functions of OAS Secretariat?
(a) Permanent Council
(b) The Pan American Union
(c) The General Assembly
47. Which
one
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the supreme organ of the OAS?
(a) Permanent Council
(b) Foreign Ministers Meeting
(c) The General Assembly
(d) The Pan American Union
48. The
General
Assembly
of
OAS
meets
once
in
(a) two years
(b) three years
(c) four years
(d) five years
49. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Foreign
Ministers
meeting
is
correct?
(a) It holds its meeting on the request of the majority of the members
(b) It deals with the pressing security related problems of common interest of the
American states
(c) It acts as the enforcement agency of the OAS andean order member states to
take collective measures
(d) All the above
50. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
function
of
the
Pan
American Union?
(a) It coordinates the social and economic activities
(b) It promotes the welfare of the members
(c) It works as the Secretariat of the OAS
(d) It is responsible for convening the conferences and meetings of the
members.
51. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
about
the
Permanent
Council
of
OAS
is
not
correct?
(a) It works as the Secretariat of the OAS
(b) It contains delegates of all the member states
(c) It is responsible for convening the conferences and meetings of the members
(d) It prepares the agenda for the conferences in consultation with the concerned
governments.
52. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as an objective of OAS?
(a) It believes in settling disputes through peaceful methods
(b) The members of OAS submit their disputes to the regional organization
before referring them to the Security Council.
(c) The members of OAS are pledged to assist each other in case of armed
attack against any American state
(d) The members are committed to check the spread of Communism in the
American hemisphere
53. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding OAS
1. The members of the OAS believe in settling their disputes through peaceful
methods.
2. The members submit their disputes to the regional organization before referring
them to the Security Council.
3. The members of OAS are pledged to assist each other in the event of armed
attack against any American state.
4. The members of OAS are committed to evolve a common civil and criminal code.
54. OAS
has
played
an
effective
role
in
checking
the
threat
of
Communism
in
the
American hemisphere.
(a) True
(b) False
55. The headquarter of OPEC is located at
(a) Baghdad
(b) Vienna
(c) Cairo
(d) New York
l.(b)
7. (a)
13. (d)
2. (a)
8. (a)
14. (b)
ANSWERS
3.(c)
9. (d)
15. (a)
4.(d)
10. (a)
16. (a)
5.(b)
11. (a)
17. (d)
6.(d)
12. (b)
18. (a)
25.
31.
37.
43.
49.
55.
1?.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
(d)
(b)
20. (b)
26. (a)
32. (d)
38. (c)
44. (a)
50. (a)
21. (b)
27. (b)
33. (a)
39. (c)
45. (c)
51. (a)
22. (d)
28. (a)
34. (d)
40. (a)
46. (b)
52. (d)
23. (b)
29. (b)
35. (b)
41. (d)
47. (c)
53. (a)
24. (a)
30. (d)
36. (d)
42. (c)
48. (d)
54. (a)
55United Nations: Aims, Objectives,

Structure and Evaluation of the
Working
of UN: Peace and Development
Perspectives: Charter Revision;
Power
Struggle and Diplomacy Within UN,
Financing and Peace-Keeping
Operations
The foundations of the United Nations were laid on the basis of the League of
Nations. The name United Nations was devised by President Franklin D. Roosevelt of
USA. He for the first time used it in the 'Declaration by United Nations' of 1 January
1942, when representatives of 26 nations pledged their government to continue
fighting together against the Axis Power. However, the UN Charter was drawn by
representatives of 50-countries who met at San Francisco from 25 April to 26 June
1945. The Charter was actually signed on 26 June by representatives of 50 countries.
Subsequently Poland joined as original member and its strength rose to 51. The UN
Charter actually came into existence on 24 October 1945. The purpose and
objectives of UN were outlined in Article 1 of the Charter and included maintenance
of international peace; development of friendly relations among nations; and
international cooperation in solving problems of economic, social, cultural and
humanitarian nature; promotion of respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms; and to harmonise the actions of nations to achieve the above objectives.
The membership of UN is open to all peace-loving nations which accept the

obligations of the
Charter. New members are admitted by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. The UN has six principal organs viz. General
Assembly, the Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council,
International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat. In addition to the above organs the
UN is helped by a number of Specialised Agencies which play an important role in the
promotion of higher standards of living, fully employment, and conditions of
economic and social progress and development.
The UN during its existence of about six decades has played an important role in
various spheres. In the first instance it has tried to maintain international peace and
security. In this respect both the General Assembly and the Security Council have
played an important role. Under the UN Charter the responsibility for the
maintenance of international peace and peaceful settlement of disputes rests with
the Security Council which has sought to sought to achieve it through mediation,
good offices, stationing of military observers and peace-keeping forces. The General
Assembly has also adopted a large number of resolutions insisting on the need of
peaceful settlement of
572
disputes. However, on account of bickerings between the two super-powers the

effectiveness of the UN was considerably reduced. Reluctance of the member states
to give their subscription also rendered the UN less effective due to paucity of funds.
After the end of the cold war the UN came to play more effective role and
successfully resolved the issues of Afghanistan, Iran-Iraq war, Namibia, etc. However,
UN could not succeed in Somalia, Rwanda and former Yugoslavia, which gave rise to
doubts in the mind of the people about the capacity of UN to achieve the objectives
of peace
UN has also played an important role in promoting conditions for better economic,
social and humanitarian development. UN has tried to secure the interests and needs
of the developing countries by organising international conferences. UN launched
development Decades in succession to speed up the development of the developing
countries. The UN General Assembly adopted a Declaration and Programme of Action
on the Establishment of New International Economic Order and urged the member
states to work together to devise an international economic order that would correct
inequalities, redress injustices and ultimately eliminate the gap between the
developed and developing countries. The General Assembly also
tried to bring the North (developed countries) and the South (the developing
countries) but unfortunately not much success could be achieved. UN has also
provided funds to the less developed countries for their economic and social
development through the IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development) etc. UN has also tried to encourage scientific research and
technological activities in the developing countries. Again UN has tried to
promote developemnt through promotion of international trade. UN has also paid
attention to the protection of environments. To tackle the problem of food
shortage the General Assembly established a World Food Council, which
promotes cooperative actions to deal with the food problems. The UN has greatly
felt concerned about the fast growing population and formulated plans to assist
the population programmes in the developing countries. UN has done
commendable job in protecting the interests of the working
people through ILO. It adopted several conventions concerning freedom of
association, collective bargaining, social security, employment service etc. In
short it can be said that the UN has done enough to resolve the various economic
problems confronting the world community.
The UN has also paid sufficient attention to the social development of the
people. The Economic and Social Council has played an important role in
improving the living conditions, housing town and country planning, family, youth
and child welfare; rehabilitation of handicapped, population migration as well as
refugee questions. Effort has been made to improve the lot of women. The
General Assembly celebrated women's year and tried to secure their
participation on equal terms with men in economic, social, political and cultural
fields at the national, regional and international levels. UN agencies have also
paid attention to the welfare of the youth as well as the elderly people. It has
sought to secure for the handicapped and disable persons the same rights which
are available to the normal people. UN has played a key role in controlling the
production and distribution of narotic drugs. It drafted several treaties which
require the governments to exercise control over production and distribution of
narcotic drugs.
UN has felt greatly concerned about the welfare of children and has launched
programmes of long-range benefits for the childrens of the developing countries.
The UNICEF has played a vital role in this regard. UN has tried to protect the
refugees. It established the office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), which protects the refugees and tries to find a durable
solution of their problems. UN has promoted universal respect for human rights
and fundamental freedom. It has also sought to protect the interests of the
minorities and pleaded for right of self-determination for the non-self governing
territories. In fact the accomplishments of UN in the socio-economic field are so
numerous that they cannot be listed in the limited space. However, we cannot
but agree with Palmer and Perkins that "overshadowing the political and security
activities of the UN, in scope, achievement and perhaps ultimate significance, are
its operations in the economic and social fields."
United Nations: Aims, Objectives, Structure and Evaluation of the Working of
UN: 573
The working of the UN for the last six decades shows that it has been able to
achieve some of the objectives outline in the UN Character viz self-determination of
people, promotion of economic and social co-operation, respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms, liberation of colonial people and people under UN Trusteeship
system; and racial discrimination being practiced in South Africa etc. However, in
certain other spheres the UN has a rather disappointing record. Thus it has failed to
ensure peaceful settlement and avoid conflicts. It has also failed to check drug
trafficking, international terrorism, and enviromental degradation. The performance
of the International Court of Justice has also been rather disappointing due to lack of
compulsory jurisdiction.
Revision of Charter
The UN Charter contains provisions for effecting changes in the UN according to the
requirements of the time. Article 109 of tthe Charter deals with the review of the
Charter. It provides for the holding of a general conference of member for the
purpose of review of Charter at a date and place to be fixed by the General Assembly
by two-thirds vote of members. And vote of 9 members of security council. In 1953
the UN set up a special Sub-Committee to review the charater. The subcommittee
favoured changes in Charter regarding universality of membership, security,
membership, voting in security council, voting in General Assembly, armaments and
international law. In 1974 the General Assembly established an ad hoc committee to
review the Charter to make the organisation more effective. The Assembly set up a
Special Committee on the UN Charter to strengthen the role of UNO. In 1984 the
General Assembly asked the Special Committee to spend more time on the question
of maintaining international peace and security and to strengthen the role of United
Nations
On the basis of the wide-spread discussions a consensus seems to have been
reached for the revision or improvement of provisions relating to Veto, change in the
structure of the Security Council; changes in General Assembly; changes in
International Court of Justice; independence in financial matters; greater coordination of the
social and economic activities and the enforcement role of the United Nations. While
it cannot be denied that the above changes in the UN Charter are essential to make
the UN more effective, but it shall not be easy to carry out these changes on account
of the unhelpful attitude of the permanent members who are keen to preserve the
status quo, which buttresses their own dominant and special position in the world
affairs. On the other hand the developing countries are trying to step up pressure for
holding a general conference of the members of the UN, and effect necessary
changes in the UN Charter. In conclusion it can be said that in view of the opposing
interests of the developed and developing countries, it is indeed difficult to expect
that any far reaching changes can be brought about in the UN system.
Financing and Peace-keeping Operations
During its existence the UN has been often called upon to prevent war and persuade
opposing parties to settle their difference across the table. Despite this, if the war
broke out it tried to restore peace by dispatching peace-keeping forces, observers or
fact-finding missions, good offices missions, mediators and special representatives.
All this requires finances. As the members of the UN are unwilling to give necessary
financial support to the organisation, it has been confronted with seriious financial
problems. Efforts were made time and again to find a solution for this problem. It was
suggested that the deficit of the organisation should be made up by voluntary
contributions. In 1965 an ad hoc committee of 14 members was constituted to
examine the finances of UN and the specialised agencies. The committee made
several recommendations including improvement in the administrative and
budgetary practices of the UN system. Despite these efforts the financial crisis of
the UN reached major proportions and its solvency was threatened in mid 1980's.
In fact the financial position of the UN became quite precarious due to failure of
several members to pay their contributions on regular basis. However, the UN
managed to tide over the situation with the help of voluntary contributions from
some countries and delaying reimbursements to the states which had
574
contributed troops for peace keeping operations. Some scholars have contended
that UN must find some independent sources of income to tide over the financial
crisis. According to Eichlberger 'the lessons of history dictate that the UN can
only have the necessary sovereign independence and strength by having an
independent source of income, in addition to the contributions made by the
member states'.

1. The name United Nations was devied by
(b) Franklin D. Roosevelet
(c) C.R. Atlee
2. The
term
'United
Nations'
was
for
the
first
time used by
(a) the Declaration of United Nations in January 1942
(b) the Moscow Declaration of October 1943
(c)the Tehran Conference of November 1943
(d) the Malta Conference of February 1945
3. What
is
the
correct
order
in
which
the
following
Conferences
were
held
for
the
formation of UNO?
1. Tehran Conference
2. Dumbarton Oaks Conference
3. Malta Conference
4. San Francisco Conference.
(a) 1,2, 3 and 4
(b) 2,3,4,1
(c) 1,3,4,5
(d) 3,4,2,1
4. In
which
year
UNO
formally
came
into
existence?
(a) 1944
(b) 1945
(c) 1946
(d) 1947
5. The
UN
Charter
was
signed
on
26
June,
1945 by the representatives of
(a) 50 countries
(b) 56 countries
(c) 61 countries
(d) 59 countries
6. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as an objective of the UNO?
(a) maintenance of international peace
(b) international co-operation in solving problems of economic, social, cultural
and humanitarian nature

(c) promotion of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
7. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
enjoys
the
distinction
of
being
the
fifty-first
original member of the UNO?
(a) Egypt
(b) Syria
(c) Poland
(d) Portugal
8. Which
one
of
the
following
ideals
does
not
find
expression
in
the
Preamble
of
the
UN
Charter
(a) faith in fundamental human rights
(b) faith in equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small
(c) faith in universal brotherhood of man and promotion of war-free world.
(d) promotion of social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom.
9. Which
one
of
the
following
has
not
been
listed
in
the
Charter
as
purpose
of
United
Nations?
(a) To maintain international peace and security
(b) To develop friendly relations among nations
(c) To co-operate in solving international economic, social, cultural and
humanitarian problems
10. Which one of the following principle the members of the UN are expected to
observe?
(a) sovereign equality of all the members
(b) to refrain from threat or use of force against any other state.
(c) not to assist the states against which the UN is taking preventive or
enforcement action.
(d) all the above
(a)
United Nations: Aims, Objectives, Structure and Evaluation of the Working of UN: 575
11. The
United
Nations
can
ask
the
states
which
are
not
members
to
act
in
accordance
with
the
principles
outlined
in
the
Charter
for
the
maintenance
of
international peace and security
(a) True
(b) False
12. The
UN
Charter
permits
the
United
Nations
to
intervene
in
the
domestic
jurisdiction
of
any
state
in
the
interest
of
international peace
(a) True
(b) False
13. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
condition
for membership of the United Nations?
(a) the country should be peace-loving
(b) the country is willing to accept the obligations of the UN Charter
(c) the state is willing and able to carry out the obligations listed in the UN
Charter.
(d)All the above
14. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
was
the
first
to
withdraw
from
the
membership
of
the
UN,
but
subsequently
rejoined
the
UN.
(a) USSR
<b) Pakistan
(c) Indonesia
(d) Phillipines
15. A state can attain membership of UNO
(a) by filling an application, along with prescribed subscription, with the
Secretary General.
(b) through a decision of the Security Council
(c) through a decision of the General Assembly on the recommendation of the
Security Council.
(d) with the approval of the General Assembly
16. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
General
Assembly
of
the
UN
has
(a) All the members of the United Nations are ipso facto members of the General
Assembly.
(b) Each member of General Assembly has only one vote.
(c) The members of the General Assembly can send five representatives.
17. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the General Assembly.
1. The General Assembly is the Apex body of the United Nations
2. The members of the General Assembly act in accordance with the instructions
of their respective governments and are responsible to them.
3. The General Assembly is more of a diplomatic conference than a legislative
body.
4. Though the members of the General Assembly are nominees of the respective
states they do not act according to the instructions of their governments.

18. At
its
first
session
the
General
elects
a
President
who
holds
office
term of
(a) three months
(b) six months
(c) 12 months
(d) two years
19. In
addition
to
a
President,
the
Assembly elects at its first session
(a) 21 Vice-Presidents
(b) 17 Vice-Presidents
(c) 9 Vice-Presidents
(d) 11 Vice-Presidents
20. The
regular
sessions
of
the
Assembly are held
(a) once a year
(b) twice a year
(c) thrice a year
(d) once in two years
21. Which
one
of
the
following
function
General
Assembly
has
been
listed?
Assembly
for
a
General
General
of
the
wrongly
(a) The General Assembly can discuss any question or matter falling within the
scope of the UN charter or relating to any organ of the United Nations.
(b) It can invite the attention of the Security Council to the situation which are
likely to endanger international peace and security
(c) It can recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of situation which is
likely to disturb the friendly relations between nations.

22. Which
one
of
the
following
supervisory
functions
of
the
General
Assembly
has
(a) It controls and regulates the working of other organs agencies of the United
Nations.
(b) It receives and considers annual and special reports from other organs of the
United Nations
(c) It lays down the regulation for the appointment of the staff of the Secretariat
23. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
wrong?
(a) The General Assembly apportions expenses among the member states and
approves.
(b) The International Contingency Fund is placed at the disposal of the General
Assembly, which can enhance funds to meet unforeseen expenses.
(c) The General Assembly approves the budget of the United Nations.
(d) The responsibility for the financial and budgetary arrangements of the
specialised agencies of Organisation rests with the General Assembly.
24. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
functions
of
the
General
Assembly
1. It admits new members to the UN on the recommendations of the Security
Council.
2. The General Assembly elects the non-permanent members of the Security
Council.
3. It elects the judges of the International Court of Justice in concurrence with
the Security Council
4. The power to review the UN Charter rests exclusively with the General
Assembly.
25. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The General Assembly can amend the UN charter by two third majority of
its members.
(b) The General Assembly is empowered a convene a general conference, in
concurrence with the Security Council, for the review of the UN Charter
26. The Uniting for Peace Resolution, which >
brought about a remarkable change in the
role of the General Assembly was adopted
in
(a) 1952
(b) 1953
(c) 1958
(d) 1960
27. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
regarding
'Uniting
for
Peace
Resolution'
(a) The resolution was introduced by the United states.
(b) The resolution provided that if the Security Council, because of lack of
unanimity among the permanent members fails to perform its primary
responsibility for the maintenance of
(a)
peace and security, the matter shall be immediately considered by the

General Assembly
(c) If the general assembly is not in session, special emergency session can be
called within twenty four hours.
28. Which
one
of
the
following
confirms
the
predominant
position
of
the
General
Assembly in the UN?
(a) It exercises supervision over other organs like the Secretariat, the Trusteeship
Council and Economic and Social council
(b) The General Assembly has the right to discuss and take decision on any
matter mentioned in the U.N. Charter
(c) The organs of the UN and its subsidiary bodies have to submit reports to the
General Assembly.
(d) All the above
29. The
Security
Council
has
five
permanent
members
which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
permanent
member?
(a) U.S.A.
(b) U.K.
(c) Germany
(d) People's Republic of China
30. The
Security
Council
consists
of
five
permanent and
(a) ten non-permanent members
(b) seven-non-permanent members
(c) eleven non-permanent members
(d) such number of non-permanent members as the Security Council may decide.
31. The
Presidency
of
the
Security
Council
is
held
by
each
member
of
the
Security
Council
in
alphabetical
order
for
a
period
of
(a) one month
(b) three months
(c) six months
(d) 12 months
32. Decisions
on
all
procedural
as
well
as
substantive
matters
are
taken
by
nine
members of the Security Council, which
must also contain the concurring votes of
all the permanent members,
(a) True
(b) False
33. Which
one
of
the
statement
about
the
Security Council is incorrect?
(a) The UN Charter entrusts the responsibility for the maintenace of international
peace and security to the Security Council.
(b) All the members of the United Nations are committed to carry out the
decisions of the Security Council
(c) Of all the organs of UN, the Security Council alone has been vested with the
power to take decisions which the member states are obliged to carry out.
34. A
demand
for
expansion
of
the
Security
Council
has
been
made
on
the
basis
of
the
various
criterias.
Which
one
of
these
criterias has been wrongly listed?
(a) Size of population of the country
(b) Military strength of the state
(c) Contribution to the activities of the UNO
(d) Industrial progress of the state
35. Disputes
or
situations
likely
to
endanger
international
peace
and
security
can
be
brought
to
the
attention
of
the
Security
Council by
(a) members of the UNO
(b) the General Assembly
(c) the Secretary General
(d) All the above
36. Which
one
of
the
following
is
permitted
to
take
part
in
the
procedings
of
the
Security
Council but cannot take part in voting?
(a) states which are not members of the UNO, provided they accept in advance
the obligations of peaceful settlement contained in the UN Charter.
(b) a state which is member of UN but not of the Security Council, when the
matter concerning that state is under discussion in the Security Council
(a)
(c) a state which is not a member of UN can be invited to take part in the
discussions of the Council, if it is a party to the dispute under consideration.
37. Which
one
of
the
following
is
regarded
as
the
enforcement
arm
of
the
United
Nations?
(a)General Assembly
(c) The Secretariat
(d) International Court of Justice
38. Though
the
Charter
grants
the
states
the
right
to
have
recourse
to
individual
collective
self-defence
in
the
event
of
an
armed
attack,
they
are
not
expected
to
exercise
this
right
until
the
Security
Council
has
taken
measures
for
the
maintenance
of
international
peace
and
security.
(a) True
(b) False
39. Which
one
of
the
following
electoral
function
of
the
Security
Council
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The new members of UNO can be admitted by the General Assembly only on
the recommendation of the Security Council.
(b) The Security Council takes part in the election of the judges of the
International Court of Justice.
(c) The members of UN can be suspended by the General Assembly only on the
recommendation of the Security Council.
40. The
Security
Council
has
not
been
able
to
work
as
effectively
as
envisaged
by
the
UN
Charter on account of
(a) disagreement among the most powerful states
(b) adoption of Uniting for Peace Resolution by the General Assembly

(c) development of powerful regional security alliances outside the United
Nations.
41. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
Economic
and
Social
Council
is
not correct?
(a) The Economic and Social Council is one of the six principal organs of the
United Nations.
(b) The Economic and Social Council operates under the authority of the General
Assembly
(c) The members of the Economic and Social Council are elected for one year but
are eligible for immediate reelection.
(d) The Economic and Social Council elects a President for one year from
amongst its members.
42. The
Economic
and
Social
Council
generally holds
(a) one session a year
(b) two sessions a year
(c) three sessions a year
(d) four sessions a year
43. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
the
Economic
and
Social
Council
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) The Council prepares draft conventions for submission to the General
Assembly with respect to matters falling within its competence.
(b) The Council convenes international conferences both on its own initiative as
well as on instructions from the General Assembly.
(c) The Council coordinates the work of the specialised agencies of the United
Nations.
44. The
subsidiary
bodies
of
the
Economic
and
Social Council include
(a) five regional commissions
(b) six functional commissions
(c) six standing committees
(d) all the above
45. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
Economic
and
Social
Council.
1. The UN Charter has accorded the Economic and Social Council the status of
principal organ of the United Nations
2. The council functions under the authority of the General Assembly
3. The Council has produced studies which have helped to overcome the death
of statistical and other kinds of information on economic and social conditions
in the world.
4. The Council has initiated a large number of laws on subjects relating to
human rights, narcotic drug control, populatoin problem, refugees etc.

not correct
(a) Trusteeship Council is one of the principal organ of the United Nations.
(b) The size of the Trusteeship Council has been specified in the UN Charter but it
can be changed by the General Assembly.
(c) The membership of the Trusteeship Council is equally divided between
. those members of the UN which administer trust territories and those which
do not.
(d) The
permanent
members
of
the
Security
Council
are
also
the
permanent
members
of
the
Trusteeship
Council,
but
they
do
not
enjoy any veto.
regarding the Trusteeship Council.
1. The Permanent member of the Security Council are members of the
Trusteeship Council but do not enjoy any 'veto'
2. Generally the Trusteeship Council meets once a year but its special
sessions can be convened on the request of the majoruty of the members.
3. With the completion of the process of decolonisation the strength of the
Trusteeship Council is now confined to only five permanent members of the
Security Council.
4. The permanent members of the Security Council can veto the decisions of the
Trusteeship Council.
48. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
the
Trusteeship
Council
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It considers the reports submitted by administering authority
(b) It accepts the petitions and examines them in consultation with the
administering authority.
(c) It arranges periodical visits to the respective territories at times agreed with
the administering authority.
49. Consider
the
following
statement
about
the Trusteeship Council
1. All the administering powers are automatically treated as members of the
Trusteeship Council.
2. Certain members of the Trusteeship Council are elected by the General
Assembly for a term of six years.
3. One-third of the members of Trusteeship Council elected by the General
Assembly retire every two years.
4. Only those permanent members of the Security Council, who administer the
trust territories, can vote in the Trusteeship Council
580

50.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
objective
of
the
trusteeship system.
(a) To promote international peace and security ,
(b) To promotcpolitical, economic, social and educational advancement of
the inhabitants of the trust territories
(c) To encourage respect for all without distinction of race, sex, language
or religion
51.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
duty
of
the
administering state?
(a) To promote the well-being of the inhabitants of the Trust territories.
(b) To work for the political, economic, social and educational
advancement of the people of trust territories.
(c) To transmit regularly to the Secretary General statistical and other
information of technical nature relating to economic, social and
educational condition in the territory under its administration
(d) To fix date for grant of self-government in the various trust territories.
52.Which
one
of
the
following
organ
of
the
United
Nations
does
not
perform
any
function
with
regard
to
the
Trust
Territories?
(a) The Secretary General
(b) Trusteeship Council
(c) General Assembly
(d) Security Council.

53.Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
the
International
Court
of
Justice is correct?
(a) The Court is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
(b) It works according to a Statute which forms an integral part of the UN
Charter
(c) The Statute of International Court of Justice is based on the statute of
the Permanent Court of International Justice which was prepared by
the League Council
(d)
All the above
54.
Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
the
International
Court
of
Justice
1. All the members of the UNO are impso facto members of the United
Nations
2. A state which is not a member of the UN cannot be a party to the
statute of the International Court of Justice.
3. The conditions for membership of the Court in each case are
determined by the General Assembly
4. A state which is not a member of the UN can become a party to the
statute of the International Court on the recommendations of the
Security Council.
(a)
55.
The
International
Court
of
Justice
consists
of
(a) 11 judges
(b) 15 judges
(c) 17 judges
(d) 21 judges
56.
Which
one
of
the
following
statement
regarding
International
Court
of
Justice
is
correct?
(a) The judges are elected by the General Assembly and the Security
Council, voting independently.
(b)The judges are elected on the basis of their qualifications and high
moral character and not on the basis of their nationality
(a)
UN: 581
(c) while electing the judges care is taken to ensure that all the principal legal
systems of the world get represented in the World Court.
(d) All the above
57. The
judges
of
the
International
Court
of
Justice are elected for
(a) life
(b) 7 years
(c) 9 years
(d) 11 years
58. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about the World Court is wrong?
(a) The members of the Court are eligible for re-election
(b) Five judges of the Court are replaced every three years.
(c) The judges of the Court do not act as representatives of their respective
countries nor do they act upon the instructions of their governments.
(d) During the recess of the Court the judges can take up some other assignment
with the prior approval of the Secretary General.
59. The
Permanent
court
of
International
Justice has its permanent seat at
(a) Geneva
(b) Hague
(c) Zurich
(d) New York
60. The
Court
elects
its
own
President
and
Vice-President for a term of
(a) one year
(b) two year
(c) three years
(d) four years
61. The
salary,
allowances
etc
paid
to
the
officials of the Court are determined by
(a) the Secretary General
(b) the General Assembly
(c) the security Council
(d) None of the baove
62. The
International
Court
of
Justice
takes
all
decisions by
(a) majority of judges present and voting
(b)two thirds-majority
\
(c) consensus
(d) three-fourth majority
63. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
International
Court
of
Justice
is
correct?
(a) The President of the Court exercises his vote only in case of a tie
(b) A judge of the Court can be removed from office only by unanimous vote of
the other members of the court.

(c) None of the party enjoys veto with regard to the decisions of the court
(d) All the above
64. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
about
International
Court
of Justice?
(a) All cases involving sovereign states which have accepted the statute of the
Court are decided by Court.
(b) The disputes involving the states which have not accepted the statute of the
Court can be taken to Court on fulfilment of conditions laid down by the
Security Council.
(c) The decisions of the International Court of Justice are binding on the
members of the UN
(d) The International Court of Justice does not enjoy any compulsory jurisdiction
unless the members accept the same by special agreement.
65. The
International
Court
of
Justice
decides
the cases referred to it in accordance with
(a) International Law
(b) International Conventions.
(c) General Principles of law recognised by civilized nations
(d) All the above
66. Which
one
of
the
following
statements
is
correct?
(a) The International Court of Justice does not enjoy any enforcement power.
(b) While deciding the cases the Court makes use of judicial decisions and
teaching of highly qualified publicists of various countries, to determine rules
of law.
(a)
(c) The Court is not bound by its earlier decisions and can take fresh look at the
new cases
(d)All the above
67. Consider
the
following
statements
about
the International Court of Justice
1. The Court enjoys power to give advisory opinion to the General Assembly,
the Security Council and other specialised agencies of the UN.
2. The Court can render advisory opinion on its own if it feels that a moot legal
question is involved.
3. The Court does not render advisory opinion on its own.
4. The advice of the Court is not binding on the organ seeking it.
68. The
first
case
which
was
brought
before
the
International
Court
of
Justice
in
1948
on
the
recommendation
of
the
Security
Council
related
to
dispute
over
the
mining
of Corfu Channel involved
(a) Britain and France
(b) Britain and Albania
(c) France and Germany
69. The
Secretary
General,
who
is
the
chief
administrative officer of the Secretariat is
(a) elected by the General Assembly
(b) appointed by the Security Council on the recommendations of the General
Assembly.
(c) appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendations of the Security
Council elected
(d) the General Assembly and the Security Council at their joint meeting.
70. The
Secretariat,
which
is
one
of
the
principal
organs
of
the
United
Nations
has
its headquarter at
(a) Geneva
(b) New York
(c) Washington D.C. (d) Paris
71. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
the
Secretariat has been wrongly listed?
(a) Organisation of conferences, expert group meetings and seminars of topics of
concern to the international community.
(b) Provision of technical assistance to the developing countries
(c) To disseminate information on United Nations activities and decisions among
the public
72. At
which
one
of
the
following
places
the
branch
office
of
the
Secretariat
is
not
located?
(a) Geneva
(b) Paris
(c) Vienna
(d) Nairobi
73. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about
the
functions
of
the
Secretariat
is
not
correct?
(a) It provides secretarial services to the legislative organs and their subsidiary
bodies.
(b) It provides training to the staff of the principal organs of the UN as well as the
subsidiary bodies.
(c) It provides editorial, translation and document production services for the
issuance of UN documents in different languages.
(d) To produce such statistical publications, information bulletins and analytical
work, as the General Assembly decides.
74. The
Secretary
General
is
appointed
for
a
term of
(a) Five years
(b) Four years
(c) Three years
(d) Seven years
75. The Secretary General is
(a) eligible for re-appointment
(b) eligible to take up job with any government, except his own government,
after retirement.
(a)
United Nations: Aims, Objectives, Structure and Evaluation of the Working of UN:
583
(c) eligible to take appointment after retirement only with the government of his
own country
(d) not eligible for re-appointment
76. The
Secretary
General
of
the
UN
has
been
given
far
less
powers
than
his
counterpart
under the League of Nations
(a) True
(b) False
77. Which
one
of
the
following
power
of
the
Secretary
General
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He is responsible for the registration of treaties and agreements entered into
by the members of the United Nations
(b) All multilateral treaties are deposited with the Secretary General who notifies
these treaties to the members of the United Nations.
(c) He assists in the drafting of the documents, resolutions and reports and
provides legal and technical advice.
(d) None of the principal organ or subsidiary body can hold its meeting unless its
agenda is approved by the Secretary General
78. Which
one
of
the
following
financial
function
of
the
Secretary
General
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) Subject to the authority of the General Assembly he prepares the budget of
the United Nations.
(b) He allocates funds, controls expenditure and acts as the custodian of the
funds
(c) He collects the contributions from the members
79. Which
one
of
the
following
function
of
the
Secretary
General
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) He represents the UN in negotiations with other agencies and governments.
(b) He recruits and controls the staff of the UN and other agencies
(c) The consent of the Secretary General is essential before the Budget of UN
becomes operative.
(d) He represents the UN before the International Court of Justice
80. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding the Secretary General.
1. He can convene meetings of the Security Council even if no such demand is
made by the members of the Security Council.
2. He can give information or state opinions-en matters already under the
consideration of the Security Council.
3. He exercises considerable amount of political influence through his annual
reports on the work of the United Nations.
4. He convenes meetings of the Security Council only if a demand is made to
this effect by all the permanent members of the Security Council.
81. The
United
Nations
has
tried
to
promote
international peace and security through
(a) mediation
(b) good-offices
(c) stationing of military observers
82. Which
one
of
the
following
organ
of
the
United
Nations
has
played
an
important
role
in
the
maintenance
of
international
peace?
(a) GeneralAssembly
(c) Court of International Justice
83. Which
one
of
amicably settled by the UNO?
(a) Arab-Israel
(b) Indonesia-Holland
(a)
584
the
following-disputes
was
(c) Hungarian Question

84. The
effectiveness
of
the
UN
was
greatly
reduced due to
(a) bickering between the two superpowers
(b) reluctance of the member states to give their subscription which rendered UN
less effective due to paucity of funds
85. In
the
post
cold-war
period
UN
successfully resolved
(a) issue of Iran-Iraq war
(b) the issue of Afghanistan
(c) the issue of Namibia
(d) all the above
86. The UN could not succeed in
(a) Somalia
(b) Rwanda
(c) former Yugoslavia
87. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
achievement
of
the
United Nations?
(a) It has served as a forum for the discussion of international problems
(b) It has been quite successful in getting aggression vacated
(c) It has successfully mediated in several disputes.
88. The
UN
has
played
an
important
role
in
promoting
conditions
for
better
economic,
social and humanitarian development?
(a) True
(b) False
89. Which
one
of
the
following
achievement
of
UN
in
the
economic
field
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) It has tried to promote conditions for better economic, social and
humanitarian development
(b) It rjUs tried to speed up the development of the developing counties by
launching Development Decades in succession.
(c) It has played a major role in the establishment of New International Economic
Order
(d) It has tried to promote close relations between the developed countries and
the developing countries.
90. Which
one
of
the
following
statement
about the UN is correct?
(a) It has provided funds to the less developed countries for their economic and
social development through the IBRD etc.
(b) It has tried to encourage scientific research and technological activities in the
(c) It has tried to promote development through promotion of international trade.
(d) All the above
91.
1. UN has paid attention to the protection of environments.
2. A World Food Council was set up by the General assembly to tackle the
problem of food shortage.
3. UN has protected the interests of working people through the ILO
4. It has formulated plans for increasing population in the developed countries.
92. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
an
achievement
of
the
UNO in economic field?
(a) It provides loans for economic development of the poor countries.
(b) It conducts detailed studies and surveys of economic problems.
(c) It assists the developing countries to bring their economy on proper lines.
(a)
93. UN
has
tried
to
protect
interests
of
minorities
by
consistently
pleading
for
self-determination
in
non-self-governing
territories.
(a) True
(b) False
94. Which
one
of
the
following
social
achievement
of
UN
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) It has tried to secure the participation of women on equal terms with men in
economic social and political fields.
(b) UN agencies have paid special attention to the welfare of the youth as well as
the elderly people.
(c) UN has played key role in controlling the production and distribution of
narcotic drugs.
95. Consider
the
following
statements
with
regard
to
the
social
achievements
of
the
United Nations and its agencies.
1. It has tried to promote the welfare of children of developing countries by
launching programmes of long-range benefits for the childrens.
2. The UN has tried to find a durable solution of the refugee problem by setting
up United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNECR)
3. It has promoted universal respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms.
4. It has secured right of work for all able bodied citizens in most of the
96.
Who of the following said "over
shadowing the political and security
activities
of
the
UN,
in
scope,
achievement
and
perhaps
ultimate
significance,
are
its
operations
in
the
economic
and
social
fields.
(a) Leland M. Goodrich
(b) Inis Claude Jr.
(c) Palmer & Perkins
(d) Martin Hill.
97. During
its
life
of
six
decades
the
UN
has
been
able
to
achieve
the
following
objectives outlined in the U.N. Charter
(a) self-determination of people
(b) respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
(c) Liberation of colonial people and people under UN Trusteeship system
(d) All the above
98. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly listed as a failure of the UN?
(a) It has failed to check drug trafficking
(b) It has failed to check environmental degradation
(c) It has failed to end racial discrimination being practised in South Africa etc.
(d) It has failed to ensure peaceful settlement of disputes and avoid conflicts.
99. Which
one
of
the
following
Article
of
the
UN
Charter
deals
with
the
review
of
the
UN Charter?
(a) Article 108
(b) Article 109
(c) Article 111
100. How
many
Conferences
have
been
held
so
far for the review of the UN Charter?
(a) None
(b) One
(c) Two
(d) Three
101. The
data
and
place
for
the
holding
of
conference
for
the
review
of
UN
Charter
is
decided by
(a) the General Assembly by two-thirds majority and a vote of nine membes of
the Security Council.
(b) by the Security Council by two-thirds majority
(c) by the General Assembly and the Secretary General
(d) by the Secretary General in consultation with the permanent members of the
Security Council.
(a)
102. Which
one
of
the
followig
provisions
of
the
UN Charter need revision.
(a) Provision relating to veto
(b) Changes in the Structure of the Security Council.
(c) Changes inthe General Assembly
(d) All the above
103. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
proposal
made
by
USSR for reforming the United Nations?
(a) Greater share be granted to the Afro-Asian countries in the UN Committees
(b) The Headquarter of the UN should be shifted from USA
(c) The powers of the Secretary General should be exercised by a group of three
persons.
104. Which
one
of
the
following
suggestions
can make ICJ more effective?
(a) Members should submit their legal disputes to the Court of International
Justice to ensure more satisfactory settlement of disputes.
(b) The Court should be granted authority to give binding decisions on all such
political disputes which cannot be resolved by political organs of the United
Nations.
(c) The individuals be permitted to take certain types of cases against the state
to the ICJ
(d) All the above
105. Which
one
of
the
following
can
help
in
making United Nations more effective
(a) Effective measures should be adopt to collect payment from members
whose capacity to pay is unquestionable.
(b) Additional funds be raised through exploitation of the sources of the bed of
the sea beyond the limits of national jurisdictin.
(c) Nominal tax be imposed on international mail and telecommunications etc.
(d) All the above

106. Which
one
of
the
following
step
will
help
the
United
Nations
in
discharging
its
enforcement role?
(a) It should be authorised to impose sanctions and take military enforcement
measures against states which act against international law
(b) The peace-keeping forces should be authorised and controlled by the
Security Council
(c) The members of the UN be asked to earmark certain military units for the
peace-keeping operations.
(d) All the above
107. The
United
Nations
can
successfully
meet
the future challenges
(a) if the members of the UN abide by the obligations accepted by them while
joining the Organisation.
(b) by making effective use of the various regional organisations which have
been evolved to secure political security and economic advancement of the
members.
108. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
problem
of
the
United
Nations?
(a) Dissatisfaction of the smaller nations with the working of the UN
(b) Dominance of the various organs of the UN by the big powers.
(c) Dominant role being played by the Secretary General.
(d) Inadequate representation of Afro-Asian countries in the Security Council.
109. When
did
the
General
Assembly
set
up
a
special
sub-committee
to
review
the
charter?
(a) 1953
(b) 1955
(c) 1960
(d) 1962
110. The
Sub-Committee
of
the
General
Assembly
set
up
in
1953
to
review
the
UN
Charter recommended
UN: 587
(a) universality of membership

(b) membership and voting in the Security Council
(c) removal of veto on question involving pacific settlement of disputes
(d) all the above
111. In
the
event
of
war
between
the
members
the UN tries to restore peace by
(a) dispatching peace-keeping forces
(b) sending fact-finding missions
(c) sending mediators and special representatives
112. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
contributory
factor
for
the poor financial position of the UN?

(a) Unwillingness of the members of UN to give necessary financial
support to the oranisation.
(b) Failure of several members to pay their contributions on a regular
basis.
(c) Stoppage of voluntary contribution by the various subsidiary agencies
of the UN.
113. An
ad-hoc
committee
was
set
up
in
1965
to
examine
the
finances
of
UN
which
recommended
(a) Improvement in the administrative and budgetary practices of the UN
system
(b) Denial of right to vote to members who have not cleared their dues
to-date
(c) Realisation of arrears due from members along with interest
(d) All the above
114. Who
of
the
following
said
that
"the
lessons
of
history
dictate
that
the
UN
can
only
have
the
necessary
sovereign
independence
and
strength
by
having
an
independent
source
of
income,
in
addition
to
the
contributions
made
by
the
member
states."
(b) Eichlberger
(c) David Singer
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56India's Role in International

Affairs:
India's Relations with its
Neighbours, War
Security Concerns and Pacts,
Mediatory
Role: Features of Indian
Foreign Policy
and Diplomacy
Ever since independence India has been playing an active role in

international relations. In fact India started taking keen interest in the
international conferences even before the attainment of independence. Thus
India took part in the various conferences between 1917 and 1918 and was
admitted as an independent member of the League of Nations. India's
involvement in international relations increased further during the inter-war
period. This experience proved immensely beneficial for the framers of the
Indian foreign policy in subsequent years. However, the underlying motive of
India's foreign policy was to protect and promote national interest.
The foreign policy of India was influenced by several factors, the
prominent among them being the geographical location of the country,
historical tradition of maintaining peaceful relations with all countries, the
impact of Indian culture impact of political leaders; impact of economic
conditions; weak military position of India; impact of plural society; impact of
Indians abroad; impact el :old war; impact of political parties and elites;
impact of ideology and role of policy makers. The international environments
also exercised profound influence on India's foreign policy.
India has tried to maintain very intimate relations with its neighbours
which include
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh. As India has many common historical, social, economic and
political bonds with these countries, it has tried to maintain cordial and close
relations with these countries. However the size, strength and population of
India has given rise to suspicions in the minds of these neighbouring
countries. In June 1996 the United Front Government made a bid to improve
relations with neighbouring countries and announced several unilateral
concessions with regard to trade and travel without expecting any reciprocity.
India's relations with Pakistan got strained soon after independence due to
various problems which arose in the wake of independence. These included
boundary dispute; problem of refugees; problem of recovery of compensation
for abandoned property of refugees; divisions of assets; canal water dispute;
problem of minorities; Indo-Pak trade, integration of Indian states etc. But the
main issue which strained relations between India and Pakistan was the
Kashmir issue. Pakistan tried to grab Kashmir by sending armed tribesmen
along with its regular troops in 1947. However, the ruler of Kashmir sought
Indian help and signed Instrument of Accession. Again in
1965 Pakistan made a bid to seek military solution of the

Kashmir Problem, but India gave a befitting reply and managed to capture some
of the areas in Kashmir which were under illegal occupation of Pakistan. The war
formally came to an end in September 1965 and the Tashkent Declaration was
signed
India and Pakistan were again involved in a war in 1971. The Indian forces
gave full support to Mukti Bahini and contributed to liberation of Bangladesh. In
July 1972 India and Pakistan signed Simla Agreement and agreed to work for
friendly and harmonious relations in the interest of durable peace in the subcontinent. The two countries agreed to withdraw their forces to their side of
international border and agreed to respect the line of control. They agreed not to
alter international frontiers unilaterally. Despite the above agreement Pakistan
continued to aid and support the acts of terrorism in Punjab and Kashmir which
resulted in loss of thousands of innocent lives.
In the midst of this tension certain positive developments also took place in
the relations between the two countries. In 1997 India unilaterally relaxed visa
restrictions on the Pakistan citizens wishing to visit India. In 1998 the leaders of
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh stressed the need of closer co-operation in the
field of trade, investment and joint ventures. In February 1999 the two countries
introduced a bus service between Lahore and Delhi. But the friendly relations
between India and Pakistan did not last long because Pakistani troops captured
Batalik, Kargil and Mushkoh ranges in Kashmir. However, the Indian forces gave a
befitting answer and recaptured these territories. In July 2001 President Musharaf
of Pakistan paid a visit to India and held extensive talks at Agra. However, the
two sides could not reach any agreement. In fact the relations between the two
countries got strained due to growing terrorist attacks which included hijacking of
an Indian civilian plane as well as attack on the Parliament House. Despite the
provocative postures of Pakistan India showed great self-restraint
A new phase in Indo-Pak relations set in October 2003 when the Indian
Government announced 12 peace proposals to promote goodwill
and
cooperation between the two
countries. This included resumption of air and rail links. The two countries
resumed sports encounters as well as bus service between Srinagar and
Muzaffarabad.
India and Bangladesh

India tried to develop very intimate relations with Bangladesh right from its
inception. In fact, India played a vital role in the creation of Bangladesh arid was
one of the first countries to accord recognition to the new state. In 1972 the two
countries signed a Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Peace, whereby the two
countries agreed to respect each other's territorial integrity. They also agreed to
strengthen bonds of cooperation in social, economic and cultural fields. The
relations between two countries suffered setback following murder of Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman in 1975. In 1977 the two countries resolved the Farakka barrage
dispute. In 1982 they signed an interim accord on distribution of Ganga waters.
The two countries also agreed to set up a Joint Task Force to look into the
problem of flood management.
The relations between India and Bangladesh were strained on account of
illegal immigration of Bangladesh to Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and
West Bengal. Despite this setback in December 1996 India and Bangladesh
signed an agreement regarding sharing of Ganga waters. In 1997 the two
countries agreed to step up the pace of co-operation in the fields of finance,

trade, transport and communications. In 2001 the relations between two
countries got severely strained on account of merciless killing of BSF soldiers by
the Bangladeshi Riflemen. The presence of large number of terrorists on the
border of Bangladesh and the presence of terrorist camps on the IndoBangladesh border have also strained relations between the two countries.
Though Bangladesh has repeatedly denied its role in promoting terrorist
activities, there is sufficient evidence to show that they are operating with the
connivance of police and government officials.
India and Nepal

Nepal is located in the north of Uttar Pradesh and the southern slops of Himalayas,
can very well be considered as a geographical extension of India. Being a land-locked
country, Nepal can trade with
India's Role in International Affairs: India's Relations with its
Neighbours, 591
foreign countries only through India and China. Before the signing of the Treaty of
Peace and Friendship signed with Nepal in 1950 India-Nepal relations were governed
by the treaty signed by Britain and Nepal in 1923. Under the Treaty of 1950 the two
countries agreed not to tolerate any threat to each other's security by a foreign
aggression. India also provided extensive assistance to the development projects of
Nepal. However, relations between India and Nepal got strained after the Communist
Party leaders of Nepal mounted a campaign of hatred towards India. Relations were
further strained following Nepal's decision to get arms from China and her insistence
that Indians living in Nepal should take workpermit from the Government of Nepal.
The relations between the two countries showed an improvement following exchange
of visits by the leaders of two countries. The two countries agreed to tap water
resources and hydel potentiality on its part India agreed to provide additional transit
facilities for Nepalese goods at Kandla and Mumbai. In 1996 India and Nepal signed a
treaty on exploiting Mahakali river basin for electricity and irrigation. In subsequent
years measures were taken to strengthen co-operation between the two countries.
The two countries agreed to fight the menace of terrorism. The two countries agreed
to extend bilateral treaty upto March 2007. India also extended help of Nepal in
combating violence by the Maoist groups.
The relations between India and Nepal got somewhat strained following
imposition of state of emergency and suspension of all political activities. India not
only expressed displeasure over this act but also suspended arms sales of Nepals.
India has consistently held that multiparty democracy and constitutional monarchy
alone can provide political stability to Nepal.
India and Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is an island country which has close cultural links with India. The
relations between the two countries could not develop along f> mdly lines due to
apprehension in the minds of Sri Lanka that India may establish her hegemony
over South Asia. The presence of a large number of people of Indian origin in Sri
Lanka was also viewed with suspcision by the Sri Lankan
leadership. As the attacks on the Indian Tamilians went on increasing they raised
demand for self-rule. Some of them even demanded separate Tamil State. As a
result of this policy of prosecution of Lankan Tamils several Sri Lankan Tamils
sought refuge in Tamil Nadu
In July 1987 India and Sri Lanka signed an accord whereby it was agreed that
Sri Lanka would not be partitioned. It was also agreed that the northern and the
Eastern provinces where Tamils were in majority, would be merged and a
provincial council would be set up there. In case the tamil militant organization
(the LTTE) did not lay down arms the Sri Lankan Government would invite Indian
Peace keeping Force to overcome their resistance. The Indian Peacekeeping force
did a commendable job in restoring peace and order. Sri Lanka agreed to grant
citizenship rights to the people who had been made stateless
India continued to favour a peaceful solution of the ethnic crisis within the
framework of Sri Lankan Constitution. Cooperation between India and Sri Lanka
continued to grow in the fields of trade, investment, finance, science and
technology. In 1997 India set up a joint commission with Sri Lanka to help in the
rehabilitation of the civilian population of Jaffna. India has persistently favoured
negotiated settlement with the LTTE.
India and China

India and China have maintained very intimate relations since ancient times. Even in
the modern times India expressed full sympathy for China when China was subjected
to Japanese aggression. After independence India established diplomatic relations
with the Nationalist Government of China. After the defeat of the Nationalist
Government in October 1950, India extended official recognition to the new
government. However, the issue of Tibet generated some tension in the relations
between the two. The relations between the two deteriorated following establishment
of military control over Tibet. However, in 1954 India formally recognized Chinese
sovereignty over Tibet. In 1959 Dalai Lama along with thousands of Tibetan sought
refuge in India. On the other hand China constructed roads right upto the Indian
borders and laid claim some of the Indian territory. In
&$Sf2Slf&&&.-~
592
October 1962 China launched a massive attack on Indian territories of NEFA

and Ladakh. As India was not prepared to meet the challenge, China captured
quite a good chunk of Indian territory. Though the war came to an end in
November 1962 the mutual relations between the two countries were greatly
strained. In 1976 India took initiative to improve relations with China and
restored diplomatic relations with China In 1985 the two countries signed a
New Trade Protocol. In 1988 Indian Prime Minister paid visit of China and the
two countries agreed to establish a Joint Working Group to resolve border
dispute the two countries reached an agreement for educational and cultural
exchanges. In 1996 the Chinese President paid a visit to India and signed a
historical agreement not to use military capability against each other. They
also agreed to reduce weapon and forces along the Actual Line of Control. In
the meanwhile trade relations between the two countries continued to grow.
In February 2000 India pledged support to China's entry into the World Trade
Organisation (WTO). Despite differences between the two countries over line
of actual control and Arunachal Pradesh, the two countries indicated their
intention to improve relations. In July 2003, the Indian Prime Minister visited
China and assured that Tibetans would not be allowed to indulge in anti-China
activities. The two countries also agreed to open the silk-route which had
been closed following conflict of 1962. China and India also signed several
other agreements relating to bilateral trade, visa relaxation and tourism etc.
In 2005 the Chinese Prime Minister paid a visit to India and the two countries
agreed to take part in multilateral military exercises for countering terrorism.
The two countries accepted the principle of comprehensive cooperation and
to work for resolution of the border dispute. China openly supported India's
claim for permanent seat in the Security Council.
INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TO MAINTENANCE OF PEACE

AND SECURITY
As original member of the UN, India extended full support to the military and
diplomatic actions of the UN for maintenance of international peace.
India fully supported peace-keeping operations in Korea, Congo, Cyprus,
Lebanon, Mozambique and Somalia India also fully supported the struggle
against colonialism and played a vital role in the independence of Algeria,
Morocco, and Tunisia. India also played a leading role in the abolition of
apartheid (racial discrimination). India played a key role in the promotion and
protection of human rights. In recognition of India's role in the protection of
human rights she was elected to the Commission of Human Rights for period
2004-2006.
India also played a key role in the promotion of peace through its
participation in the peacekeeping operations. Thus India sent troops to repel
North Korean invasion in 1950 and helped in restoration of peace. In 1960
India took part in Congo operations. In 1999 General V.K. Jetley acted as
commander of the UN peacekeeping forces in Sierra Leone. The wide
participation of India in peace-keeping operations is evident from the fact
that it took part in nearly 37 UN peacekeeping missions.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY

AND DIPLOMACY
The main distinguishing features of India's foreign policy and diplomacy can
be summed up as under:
1. Preservation of territorial integrity of the country and freedom to pursue

independent foreign policy.
2. Promotion of international peace.
3. To achieve quick economic development of the country with a view to
improve the social and economic conditions of the people.
4. Protection of interests of the people of Indian origin settled in different
countries.
5. To work for the freedom of the dependent peoples and eliminationm of
racial discrimination.
6. To pursue policy of non-alignment so that India could develop good
relations with various countries and secure all types of aid from
countries of both blocs.
1.
India's Role in International Affairs: India's Relations with its Neighbours,
593
7. Strong opposition to colonialism and imperialism and support to the demand

for new internationaleconomic order.
8. Opposition to all types of discrimination and specially racial discrimination.
9. To promote spirit of co-operation and peaceful co-existence among states
professing different ideologies.
10. To promote intimate relation with countries of Asia with a view to promote
unity among them.
11. To promote intimate relations with countries of Common wealth
12. Display of faith in the United Nations and to extend full support to the actions
of the United Nations
13. To support disarmament with a view to reduce the prevailing international
tension and to reduce unproductive expenditure which can be utilised for the
development and improvement of the economic conditions of the people.
14. Opposition to nuclear arms race and peaceful use of nuclear energy.
15. Special emphasis on purity of the means for the attainment of the above noted
objectives of foreign policy.

1. India
was
admitted
as
member
of
the
League
of
Nations
even
before
the
attainment of independence.
(a) True
(b) False
2. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
influenced the foreign policy of India?
(a) geographical location of the country
(b) plural character of the Indian society
(c) international environments
(d) all the above
3. Which
of
the
following
factors
hampered
the
development
of
friendly
relations
between
India
and
its
neighbouring
countries?
(a) size of the country
(b) population of the country
(c) strength of the country
(d) all the above

4. India's
relations
with
Pakistan
got
strained
soon after independence due to
(a) boundary dispute
(b) problem of recovery of compensation for abandoned policy of the refugees
(c) Kashmir issue
5. Pakistan tried to grab Kashmir in 1947 by
(a) raising the issue at the United Nations
(b) by sending armed tribesmen along with its regular troops
(c) with the help of the Britishers who were strong supporters of partition of the
country.
6. After
1947
when
did
Pakistan
make
a
bid
to
seek
a
military
solution
of
the
Kashmir
problem.
(a) 1962
(b) 1965
(c) 1969
(d) 1971
7. Who
was
the
ruler
of
Kasmir
who
signed
Instrument of Accession with India?
(a) Randhir Singh
(b) Hari Singh
(c) Ranbir Singh
(d) Hari Singh Nalwa
8. India
and
Pakistan
signed
Simla
Agreement in
(a) 1971
(b) 1972
(c) 1973
(d) 1974
9. Which
one
of
the
folowing
countries
played
a
major
role
in
bringing
the
IndoPak War of 1965 to close?
(a) USSR
(b) U.K.
(c) U.S.A.
10. Which one of the following has been wrongly listed as a clause of Simla
Agreement signed between India and Pakistan in 1972?
(a) The two countries resolved to settle their differences by peaceful means
through bilateral negotiations
(b) The two countries agreed to respect each other's national unity, territorial
integrity, political independence and sovereign equality.
(a)
(c)Both agreed to prevent hostile propaganda against each other and exchange
all such information as would promote the use of friendly relations between
them.
11. In
1972
Indian
forces
gave
full
support
to
Mukti
Bahini
and
contributed
to
the
liberation of Bangladesh
(a) True
(b) False
12. India
unilaterally
relaxed
visa
restrictions
on
the
Pakistan
citizens
wishing
to
visit
India in
(a) 1978
(b) 1997
(c) 1998
(d) 2000
13. The
Bus
service
between
Lahore
and
Delhi
was introduced in?
(a) 1998
(b) 1999
(c) 2000
(d) 2001
14. When
did
President
Musharaf
of
Pakistan
held
extensive
talks
with
the
Indian
leaders at Agra?
(a) in 1999
(b) in 2000
(c) in 2001
(d) in 2002
15. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
the
main
irritant
in
the
relations
between
India
and Pakistan in Recent years
(a) Growing intemacy between USA and Pakistan
(b) Growing intimacy between China and Pakistan
(c) Cross border terrorism
15. Which
one
of
the
following
is
mani
festation
of
the
improved
relations
between
India
and
Pakistan
in
Recent
years?
(a) Resumption of air and rail links
(b) resumption of sports encounters between two countries
(c) introduction of buss service between Srinagar and Muzaffarabad
(d) all the above
16. Which
one
of
the
following
countries
was
the
first
to
accord
recognition
to
the
independent state of Bangladesh?
(a) Pakistan
(b) Indonesia
(c) India

17. When
was
the
Treaty
of
Friendship,
Cooperation
and
Peace
between
India
and
Bangladesh was signed?
(a) in 1971
(b) in 1972
(c) in 1975
(d) in 1977
18. The
relations
between
India
and
Bangladesh
suffered
a
setback
after
the
assassination of Mujibur Rehman in
(a) 1975
(b) 1977
(c) 1979
(d) 1982
19. The
Farakka
Barrage
dispute
between
India and Bangladesh was resolved in
(a) 1975
(b) 1979
(c) 1977
(d) 1982
20. India
and
Bangladesh
signed
an
interim
accord on distribution of Ganga Waters in
(a) 1980
(b) 1981
(c) 1982
(d) 1983
21. The
relations
between
India
and
Bangladesh were severely strained due to
(a) unfavourable balance of trade with India
(b) merciless killing of BSF soldiers by the Bangladeshi riflemen
(c) stoppage of Ganga water by India
22. The
relations
between
India
and
Bangladesh
have
got
greatly
strained
in
recent years on account of
(a) illegal immigration of Bangladeshi to Assam, Tripura, West Bengal etc.
(b) merciless killing of BSF soldiers by the Bangladeshi Riflemen
(c) presence of large number of terrorist camps on the Indo-Bangladesh border

(d)all the above reasons.
23. Which
one
the
following
neighbouring
country
of
India
is
regarded
as
a
geographical extension of India?
(a) Nepal
(b) Sri Lanka
(c) Bangladesh
(d) all the above
Neighbours, 595
24.Before
the
signing
of
Treaty
of
Peace
and
Friendship
between
India
and
Nepal
in
1950,
the
relations
between
the
two
countries
were
governed
by
the
Treaty
signed by Britain with Nepal in
(a) 1919
(b) 1923
(c) 1941
(d) 1945
25.Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
term
of
Treaty
of
Peace
and
Friendship
signed
by
India
and
Nepal
In 1950?
(a)
The two governments agreed to acknowledge and respect
comlplete sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of each
other.
(b) The treaty permitted Nepal to import from or through territorial
integrity and India, arms, amunition or warlike material and
equipment necessary for the security of Nepal.
(c) The two governments agreed to grant to each other's nations the
same privileges in matter of residence, ownership of property,
participation in trade etc.
(d) India agreed to assist Nepal in the event of an un-provoked attack by
a neighbouring country.
26.Which
one
of
the
following
contributed
to
tension in Indo-Nepalese relations?
(a) Mounting of campaign of hatred towards India by the Communist
leaders of Nepal
(b)Nepal's decisions to get arms from China.
(c) Insistence by Neopal that Indians living in Nepal should take Workpermit from its government
(d)All the above
27.Which
one
of
the
following
constitutes
an
improvement in Indo-Nepalese relations?
(a)Provision of additional transit facilities to the Nepalese goods at
Kandla and Mumbai
(b)Agreement between the two countries to exploit Mahakali river basis
for electricity and irrigation.
(c) Extension of the bilateral treaty upto March 2007
(d) All the above
"'
28.Consider
the
following
statements
regarding Indo-Nepalese relations.
1. The relations between two countries were strained following

imposition of state of emergency by the King in Nepal.
2. India expressed its displeasure by suspending arms sales to Nepal.
3. India is of firm view that multi-party democracy and constitutional
monarchy alone can provide political stabitlity to Nepal
4. India has given an open offer to the King of Nepal that she is willing
to extend full support in curbing the growing Maoist activities in the
Kingdom.
Of the above satements
29.During
the
initial
years
of
independence
India
and
Sri
Lanka
could
not
develop
friendly relations on account of
(a) apprehension in the minds of Sri Lanka that India may eastablish her
hegemony over South Asia.
(b)presence of a large number of people of Indian origin in Sri Lanka
which was viewed by the Sri Lankan leadership with suspicion.
(c) growing demand of the Indian Tamilians for self-government
(d)all the above reasons.
30.When
was
an
accord
signed
by
India
and
Sri
Lanka
that
Sri
Lanka
would
not
be
partitioned?
(a) 1981
(b) 1983
(c) 1987
(d) 1989
31.Which
one
of
the
following
statement
is
correct?
(a) India was one of the first few countries to accord recognition to the People's
Republic of China
(b) India did not accord recognition to the people's Republic of China till USA did
so.
(c) India accorded recognition to People's Republic of China only after it agreed
to return the Indian territory which it had forcibly occupied during the war of
1962.
32. Lot
of
tension
was
generated
in
SinoIndian relations on the issue of
(a) Recognition of People's Republic of China
(b) Tibet
(c) Permanent membership of Security Council for People's Republic of China.
33. India
formally
recognised
Chinese
sovereignty over Tibet in
(a) 1952
(b) 1954
(c) 1957
(d) 1958
34. When
did
Dalai
Lama
seek
refuge
in
India
along with thousands of Tibetans?
(a) 1959
(b) 1961
(c) 1963
(d) 1965
35. When
did
china
attack
India
and
occupied
a good chunk of Indian territory
(a) In 1959
(b) In 1962
(c) In 1964
(d) In 1965
36. When
did
India
take
initiative
to
restore
diplomatic
relations
with
China,
which
had
been
suspended
following
Chinese
attack on India
(a) 1976
(b) 1978
(c) 1982
(d) 1984
37. India and China signed
a
New
Trade
Protocol in
(a) 1983
(b) 1985
(c) 1988
(d) 1989
38. When
did
India
and
China
establish
a
Joint
Working
Group
to
resolve
the
border
dispute?
(a) in 1983
(b) in 1985
(c) in 1988
(d) in 1991
39. When
did
India
pledge
to
support
China's
entry
into
the
World
Trade
Organisation
(WTO)?
(a) in 1999
(b) in 2000
(c) in 2001
(d) in 2003
40. Consider
the
following
statements
regarding
Sino-Indian
relations
in
recent
years
1. During his visit to China in July 2003 the Indian Prime Minister assured that
Tibetans would not be allowed to indulge in anti-China activities.
2. The two countries agreed to open the silk route which had been closed
following conflict of 1962
3. The two countries agreed to take part in multilateral military exercises for
countering terrorism.
4. The two countries agreed to cooperate in the field of peaceful use of nuclear
energy.
41. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
the
main
cause
of
tension
between
India
and
China?
(a)
Growing friendly relations of china with Pakistan.
(b) Occupation of thousands of square miles of Indian territory of China
(c) Rivalary between the two countries for supremacy in Asia
(d)
Refusal of China to find a negotiated
- settlement of the border problem.
42. Simla
Agreement
was
signed
in
1971
by
Pakistan's
Prime
Minister
Zulfakar
AH
Bhuto and
(a) Indira Gandhi
(b) Lai Bahadur Shastri
(c) Rajiv Gandhi
(d) MorarjiDesai
(a)
Neighbours, 597
43.
Which one of the following Prime Minister
of
India
undertook
a
bus
journey
to
Lahore
in
a
bid
to
improve
relations
with
Pakistan?
(a) Inder Kumar Gujaral
(b) Rajiv Gandhi
(c) P. V. Narasimha Rao
(d) Atal Behari Vajpayee
44. India
and
Soviet
Union
signed
a
treaty
of
Friendship
and
Cooperation
in
1971
whereby the two agreed?
(a) to play a positive role in relaxing inter-national tension.
(b) to help each other's in the event of attack.
(c) to co-operate in the field of space research.
(d) on all the above points
45. Which
one
of
the
following
is
the
main
irritant in the Indo-Sri Lankan relations
(a) Growing intimacy of Sri Lanka with China
(b) The issue of Indian Tamilians settled in Sri Lanka.
(c) Suppression of democracy in Sri Lanka
(d) All the above
46. India
supported
peace-keeping
operations
in
(a) Korea
(b) Congo
(c) Somalia
(d) All the above countries
47. India
played
a
vital
role
in
the
independence of
(a) Algeria
(b) Morocco
(c) Tunisia
(d) All the above countries
48. Which
one
of
the
following
achievements
of India has been wrongly listed?
(a) India played a leading role in the abolition of Apartheid.
(b) India played an important role in the promotion of Human Rights
(c) India has consistently supported the principle of Free Trade
49. India
and
Sri
Lanka
concluded
Freed
Trade Agreement in
(a) 1995
(b) 1996
(c) 1998
(d) 1999
50. India
made
nuclear
explosion
at
Pokharan
in
(a) 1996
(b) 1998
(c) 1999
(d) 2000
51. In
which
one
of
the
following
countries
the
Indian
troops
are
not
taking
part
in
the
UN
peace keeping operations?
(a) Korea
(b) Kuwait
(c) Lebanon
(d) Western Sahara
52. What
was
the
main
cause
of
the
failure
of
the
Agra
Summit
(2001)
between
Pakistan
and India
(a) Insistence of India that cross-border terrorism from POK must be stopped.
(b) Pakistan's insistence to discuss the Kashmir issue only
(c) India insisted that all the disputes between India and Pakistan must be
discussed at the Summit
(d) Insistance of Pakistan to involve USA in the negotiations and non-acceptance
of this demand by India.
53. Both
UK
and
USA
are
of
the
opinion
that
the
Kashmir
issue
should
be
resolved
bilaterally
without
the
involvement
of
the
third party
(a) True
(b) False
54. Which
one
of
the
following
has
been
wrongly
listed
as
a
feature
of
India's
foreign policy and diplomacy?
(a) Preservation of territorial integrity of the country
(b) Promotion of International peace
(c) Setting up of a strong UN force for the promotion of international peace
(d) To achieve quick economic development of the country.
55. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
India's
foreign
policy
has
been
wrongly
listed?
(a) Protection of interests of the people of Indian origin settled abroad
598
(b) To work for the freedom of the dependent people.

(c) Elimination of racial discrimination

56. Which
one
of
the
following
is
a
feature
of
India's foreign policy?
(a) Strong opposition to colonialism and imperialism
(b) Support to the demand for new international economic order.
(c) Promotion of spirit of co-operation and peaceful co-existence among states
professing different ideologies.
(d) All the above
57. Which
one
of
the
following
feature
of
India
Foreign
Policy
and
Diplomacy
has
been
wrongly listed?
(a) India has sought to promote intimate relations with countries of Asia with a
view to promote unity among them.
(b) India has displayed full faith in the United Nations and extended full support
to its actions.
(c) India has opposed nuclear arms race and favoured use of nuclear energy for
peaceful purpose.
58. Indian
foreign
policy
has
been
criticised
on
several
grounds.
Which
one
of
the
following
criticism
of
Indian
foreign
policy
(a) Indian foreign policy is highly inelastic.
(b) Indian foreign policy is idealist and not realistic
(c) Indian foreign policy lays special emphasis on purity of the means
59. Before
India's
independence,
India's
relations
with
Bhutan
were
conducted
in
accordance
with
two
treaties
signed
by
the
British Government with Bhutan in
(a) 1865 and 1910
(b) 1887 and 1910
(c) 1901 and 1923
(d) 1923 and 1937
60. India
and
Bhutan
concluded
a
Treaty
of
Perpetual Peace and Friendship in
(a) 1947
(b) 1948
(c) 1949
(d) 1953
61. Which
one
of
the
following
term
of
the
Treaty
of
Perpetual
Peace
and
Friendship
signed
by
India
and
Bhutan
in
1949
has
(a) Bhutan shall have all the powers to regulated its external relations as it had
been doing since 1947.
(b) India was not to interfere in the internal administration of Bhutan
(c) The two countries were to have free trade and commerce.
62. Which
one
of
the
following
concessions
was
granted
by
India
to
Bhutan
under
the
Treaty
of
Perpetual
Peace
and
Friendship
concluded in 1949?
(a) India agreed to return an area of 32 miles in the form of Devangiri to Bhutan
(b) India permitted Bhutan to import from or through India arms, ammunition,
machinery and war like materials.

(c) The two countries agreed on mutual extradition of the criminals.
(d) All the above
63. When
was
Bhutan
recognized
independent state by India?
(a) in 1953
(b) in 1971
(c) in 1976
(d) in 1984
64. Myanmar
(Burma)
has
a
border
does
not
touch
one
the
following
states
India
(a) Nagland
(b) Manipur
(c) Bihar
(d) Mizoram
65. Myanmar
(Burma),
which
formed
a
part
the British Empire, separated from India in
(a) 1935
(b) 1937
(c) 1939
(d) 1944
66. Burma attained independence in
(a) 1945
(b) 1946
(c) 1948
(d) 1949
as
which
of
of

Neighbours, 599
67. The
relations
between
(Myanmar)
were
placed
by
the
Treaty
of
concluded in
(a) 1951
(b) 1952
India
on
Peace
and
formal
and
Burma
footing
Friendship
(c) 1953
(d) 1955
68. Which
one
of
the
following
factors
contributed
to
the
straining
of
relations
between
India
and
Myanmar
in
the
1980's?'
(a) expulsion
of
India
businessmen
and
money lenders from Myanmar
(b) Differences over the delimitation of
the maritime boundary in the Bay of

Bengal.
(c) Pro-Chinese orientation of Myanmar regime which restricted the trade
relations between India and Mysnsiar
(d) All the above
69. Which
one
of
the
following
contributed
to
the
straining
of
relations
between
India
and Myanmar?
(a) Conferment of Nehru Award on Aung San Sun Kyi in 1996
(b) Agitation by the Samata Party President (George Fernandes) on the border
town of Morch in Manipur
70. Which one of the following consideration prompted India to improve its relations
with Myanmar?
(a) desire to counter secessionist and terrorist activities on both sides of IndoMyanmar border.
(b) Greater cooperation was essential to control the illegal trafficking of drugs
from the Golden Triangle across subcontinent.
(c) To safeguard India's security interests in the Bay of Bengal and shipping lanes
which were of considerable importance to Indian trade.
(d) All the above considerations.
(a)
1(a)
7.(b)
13. (c)
19. (c)
25. (d)
31. (a)
37. (b)
43. (d)
49. (c)
55. (d)
61. (d)
67. (a)
2.(d)
Mb)
14. (c)
20. (c)
26. (d)
32. (b)
38. (c)
44. (b)
50. (b)
56. (d)
62. (d)
68. (d)
ANSWERS
3.(d)
9. (a)
15. (d)
21. (b)
27. (d)
33. (b)
39. (b)
45. (b)
51. (a)
57. (d)
63. (b)
69. (c)
Unit I POLITICAL THEORY
4.(d)
10. (d)
16. (c)
22. (d)
28. (a)
34. (a)
40. (a)
46. (d)
52. (b)
58. (a)
64. (c)
70. (d)
5.(b)
11. (a)
17. Co)
23. (a)
29. (d)
35. (b)
41. (b)
47. (d)
53. (a)
59. (a)
65. (a)
6.(b)
12. (b)
18. (a)
24. (b)
30. (c)
36. (a)
42. (a)
48. (c)
54. (c)
60. (c)
66. (c)
1
Nature of Political TheoryIts Main Concerns-Decline
and Resurgence
Since 1970
A theory is an essential element for the development of every subject of study. The
term 'theory' has been drawn from the Greek word Theoria' which means a wellfocussed mental look taken afsomething in a state of contemplation with the intent to
grasp or understand it. The term theory is taken in two sensesbroad and narrow. In
the broad sense the word theory includes
the entire teaching on a subject viz. description of the facts, thinker's

explanation, his perception of history, his value judgements and his proposals of
goals, policy and principles. In the narrow sense the term theory means
explanatory thought only or atleast primarily. Different scholars have offered
different definitions of political theory. According to Hacker 'political theory is a
combination of a disinterested search for the principles of good state and good
society on the one hand, and a disinterested search for knowledge of political
and social reality on the other'. Sabine has given both broad and narrow
definitions of political theory. In the broad sense, he includes in it anything about
politics or relevant to politics. In the narrow sense, on the other hand, it refers to
disciplined investigation of political problems. Bluhm says 'political theory is an
explanation of what politics is all abo. ; a general understanding of the political
world, a frame of reference. Without one, we are unable to recognise an event as
political and decide anything about why it happened, judge whether it was good
or bad or decide what is likely to happen next. According to David Held, political
theory is a network of concepts and generalizations, about
political life involving ideas, assumptions and statements about the nature,
purpose and key features of government, state and society, and about political
capabilities of human beings.
An analysis of the above definitions of political theory highlights the following
points: First, its area extends to the realm of political life of the citizens, his
political behaviour, his political ideas, the government he establishes and the
tasks which are performed by this government. Secondly, it includes the
description, explanation and investigation of the political phenomenon. Thirdly,
though political theory is mainly concerned with the political activities, it seeks to
understand political in relation to the social, economic, psychological, ecological,
historical, and moral aspects etc. Fourthly, political theory seeks to build a good
state in a good society. For this purpose it seeks to create processes, procedures,
institutions and structures which have been historically tested.
SUBJECT MATTER AND SCOPE

The subject matter of political theory has varied since the Greek times. From the
early Greek till the end of the eighteenth century political theory mainly concerned
itself with what the politics ought to be. However, in the nineteenth century it mainly
concerned itself with the nature and structure of government as a decision-making
body. However, with the emergence of the American Political Scientists, under the
influence of scienticism, death of political science was
4
announced even though the traditional British scholars continued to lay emphasis on
the value and usefulness of the political theory as a guide to political action. The
seventies of the twentieth century once again witnessed the emergence of political
theorists who demonstrated the need of political theory in the fast changing world.
Thereafter, interest in political theory continued to constantly grow.
EVOLUTION OF POLITICAL THEORY

Political theory passed through three phases, which each having distinct features.
1.
Classical Political Theory
The political theory from the 6th century B.C. to the close of the eighteenth century is
generally known as classical or traditional theory. The classical theory possessed the
following characteristics. First, it was dominated by the philosophy and sought to
establish a rational basis for action. Secondly, it did not draw any distinction between
philosophical, theological and political issues. In other words, it was not an
autonomous subject as it is today. Thirdly, it served as a conscience keeper of politics
and probed important questions. Fourthly, it dealt with the political whole and was in
that sense all comprehensive and all inclusive. It included the ruling, warfare,
religious practices, economic problems, and belief in God, justice, equality etc. Fifthly,
the classical theory believed in ultimate good, which also included the political good.
It considered the state as a natural institution which existed prior to the individual.
The end of the state was promotion of good life. Sixthly, the classical theory was
essentially ethical in nature and its response was rooted in a moral outlook. Finally,
the classical theory sought to search an ideal state and a stable system of
government. They raised questions as to who should rule and why? Which is the best
form of government? They analysed the principle of justice which might guide the
political organisation in discharging its distributive functions of assigning material
and non-material goods. In short, it can be said that classical political theory was
philosophical, normative, idealistic and to some extent historical.
2.
Modern Political Theory
As the historical, normative and evaluative tradition of classical political theory was
not found adequate to deal with the changing conditions of the 18th-19th centuries,
scholars resorted to the scientific-empirical behavioural study for the understanding
of intricacies of politics. They laid stress on present rather than the past, living rather
than the dead, immediate rather than the remote, objective rather than subjective;
analytical rather than philosophical; explanatory rather than descriptive. The main
features of the modern political theory can be summed up as under:
1. Facts and data constitute an important part of modern theory. It accumulates
the facts and uses them for testing hypothesis.
2. On the basis of the study of human behaviour, generalisations can be made.
3. Facts and values are separated and the values make the facts as relevant as
possible.
4. Modern theory lays emphasis on objectivity, analytical explanation, procedure,
observation, and scientific principles.
5. It assumes that inter-disciplinary approach which includes social, economic,
religious, moral, psychological, ecological and the like activities yields better
results.
6. It lays great emphasis on realism and asserts that what the state does is more
relevant than what it had been doing or is likely to do.
Marxist theory
Another variant of the modern political theory is the Marxist political theory which
seeks to explain change through struggle between opposites. It examines the
development from the lower stage to the higher one; from say capitalistic to
socialistic and from socialistic to the
communistic. It seeks to explain the social and political change through the
interpretation of the past, understanding of the present and projecting the future.
The main features of the Marxist political theory can be summed up thus: (1)
Every phenomenon is in a flux; (ii) the development always takes place from the
lower stage to higher
Nature of Political Theory-Its Main Concerns-Decline and Resurgence Since 1970
5
stage of development; (iii) All developments takes place through productive relations,
productive forces and new modes of production; (iv) Between mind and matter, it is
the latter which diectates; (v) Matter evolves because the law of evolution is inherent
in it; (vi) Each material base builds its own social, political, economic or educational
super-structure (vii) Man, labour and nature constitute the essence of social
development.
DECLINE OF POLITICAL THEORY

According to a quite a good number of thinkers, there has been a decline of nolitical
theory in recent years. For example, Meecham says, the present political science
deals almost entirely, with the probablistic generalisations and that universal
generalisations are rare and perhaps non-existent. Robert Dahl, goes to the extent of
saying that in English speaking world political theory is dead; in the Communist world
it is imprisoned; elsewhere it is moribund."
It cannot be denied, that the condition of political theory in the developing
countries is indeed deplorable, because most of the scholars in these countries are
tradition - loving and are not willing, to shed their traditional approach and adopt new
approaches. Further, political theory has also witnessed decline because the political
theorists have tagged political theory with political philosophy. According to David
Easton, the present day political thinkers are to be blamed for the decline of political
theory because, instead of developing new political theories, they have tried to
concentrate on the existing political philosophies. They have failed to develop new
political concepts, to meet the requirements of the modern society. According to
David Easton, several factors have contributed to the decline of the traditional
political theory. In the first place, too much of historicism, has prevented the political
theorists from concentrating on the present day social and political problems, and
finding their solutions. Instead, they have concentrated on the analysis of the
exisNng principles. Secondly, moral relativism has also greatly contributed to the
decline of the traditional political theory. Most of the political theorists lack faith in
universal principles of morality and prefer
to follow the moral principles, relating to present day conditions. However, these
political theorists have failed to evolve new values.
The main cause of the decline of political theory, according to Alfred Cobben, has
been the concentration of power in very few hands in every state. The ever
increasing powers of the state; emergence of a powerful bureaucracy and growing
importance of the military in recent years, has also contributed to the decline of
political theory. Another cause, which has greatly contributed to decline of political
theory, is the under-estimation of the value of political life. The present day theorists,
have laid greater emphasis on scientific methods and pushed the study of political
theory to the background.
The emergence of strong democratic systems, in most of the countries, have also
contributed to the decline of the classical political theory. Ideology, has since, ceased
to have any appeal for them. Further, the political scientists have also failed, to
evolve new concepts and values needed by the society.
RESURGENCE OF POLITICAL THEORY SINCE 1970'S

Scholars like David Easton (The Decline of Political Theory), Alfred Cobban (Ethics
and Decline of Political Theory), Robert A. Dahl (Political Truth, Theory and
Consequences), have expressed the view, that there has been decline of Political
Theory and some have even gone to the extent of suggesting, that political theory is
virtually dead. However, this view has been challenged by P.H. Patridge. He says "In
view of the re-statements of the political goals and means, it would be absurd to say
that energy or vigour of political theorising have declined; on the contrary, it has
acquired an analytical thorou-ghness and sharpness, a closeness in argument, that is
pretty new." It has been further argued that, the fire which was found in the political
philosophies of thinkers like Rousseau and Marx, is still burning and is quite visible, in
the writings of many thinkers of today, and they wish to preserve the society even
now. These writers hold that the theory very much exists, but its nature has changed.
According to Isaiah Berlin, it is absolutely wrong to think, that political theory, is

either dead or, is on the decline. In fact, so long as curiosity existsa desire for
justification and explanation, in terms of motives and reasons, political theory will not
wholly perish from the earth. According to Isaiah, both at the traditional and
behavioural levels, political theory is very much thriving.
Some of the modern political thinkers like Michael Oakeshott, Eric Voegelin, Leo
Strauss etc. have taken the view that political theory is not dead and is resurging. Its
utility and significance is, being increasingly realised. It is felt that, without political
theory, no proper and dependable super structure, can be built. According to John
Palmentaz "Political theory, as distinct from political science is not fantasy or the
parading of prejudices, nor is an intellectual game. Still less, it is linguistic analysis. It
is an elaborate, rigorous, difficult and useful undertaking. It is as much needed, as in
any of the sciences."
CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL THEORY
As noted, there has been considerable interest in political theory since 1970's. In the
fast changing world, need for political theory was felt, on account of two reasons. On
the one hand, behaviouralism, and post-behaviouralism with its emphasis on science,
led us no where close to the realities. Secondly, the failure of the Marxian model in
some part of the world gave rise to the realization that political theory is more than a
philosophy as it is also more than a science. Mere reliance on philosophy, robs
political theory of its relevance, while stress on science
deprives it of vision.
According to David Held, the contemporary political theory has following
features:
1. It seeks to examine the significance of the events in historical context.
2. It looks upoon political theory as a systematic reflection upon, and
classification of, the meaning of the key terms and concepts such as
sovereignty, democracy, justice etc.
3. It offers a systematic elaboration of the underlying structure of our moral and
political activities.
4. It is concerned with abstract theoretical questions and particular political
issues.
5. It aims to construct formal model of political processes.
6. It makes an attempt to construct theory on the basis of the observation and
modest empirical generalization.
Functions of Political Theory

Political theory performs several useful functions. Some of the functions identified by
David Easton are as under:
(1) It identified the significant political variables and describes their mutual
relations.
(2) It helps in the verification of conclusions drawn by the earlier researches and
reveals the areas of research which require more empirical work.
(3) It helps in building consistent body of concepts, making research more reliable.
(4) Political theory serves as a teacher, a guide and philosopher of men in general
and tries to comprehend and control the whole environmentboth social and
natural.
(1)
Chapter
Liberali
sm
Liberalism, which has been a dominant philosophy of the western countries for the
last four centuries, was not developed at any particular point of time by a particular
political thinker. It is rather like a stream which has flown through all these years and
to which various thinkers and philosophers made their contribution. In other words,
Liberalism does not present any coherent body of doctrines and has been assigned
different meaning by different scholars at different times or even at the same time.
Some scholars have conceived liberalism as 'a faith', while the others consider it as
attitude of mind. Similarly, to others it is a spiritual or an intellectual attitude. Some
equate liberalism with individualism, while other, associate it with democracy or
social democracy. Therefore Laski says that "it is not easy to describe, much less to
define, for it is hardly less a habit of mind than a body of doctrine."
Despite the hazards of defining Liberalism, some scholars have attempted certain
definitions of the term. According to Laski "Liberalism is the expression less of trend
than of a temperament. It implies a passion for liberty; and that the passion may be
compelling. It requires a power to be tolerant; even sceptical about opinions and
tendencies you hold to be dangerous, which is one of the rarest human qualities."
IMPLICATION OF LIBERALISM
For a fuller understanding of the concern- of liberalism it is desirable to have an idea
about its social, economic and political implications.
In the social sphere, liberalism is opposed to all artificial pressures or regulations
on the individual's freedom of conscience, because it not only curbs all initiatives, but
also stultifies his
personality. In the economic sphere, liberalism stands for free trade and production. It
is opposed to restrictions on imports and exports and wants the individual to be left
free to exploit the natural resources and distribute the economic dividends as he
likes. The concept of liberalism has, however, undergone a change in modern times
due to the popularity of the doctrine of socialism, and the state is being encouraged
to regulate the economic activities in the larger interest of the community.
In the political sphere, liberalism emphasises that political liberty constitutes a
prerequisite for all other kinds of liberties. "Therefore, it emphasised that the state
interference should be restricted. It therefore, favoured devices like separation of
powers, parliamentary control over executive, judicial review, protection of interests
of minorities, and other mechanisms to prevent concentration of powers. It also
implies that, the government must be accountable to them, through periodical
elections and the participation of all the adult citizens in these elections.
HISTORY OF LIBERALISM
Liberalism rose as a reaction against the absolute authority of state, church and the
feudal lords in the sixteenth century. It laid emphasis on the need to remove
obstacles in the path of human progress. Thus, Liberalism at that stage was
essentially a capitalist concept and pleaded for absolute powers for the state,
because it alone, could provide peace and security so vital for the
growth, development and extension of free trade and commerce. It also

emphasised the principle of sanctity and inviolability of private property.
The concept of liberalism was further developed
and
consolidated
during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by philsophers like Locke, Montesquieu,

Thomas Paine, Hobbes, Rousseau, etc.
Liberalism, received most detailed and lucid expression, in the writings of
John Locke, who is often described as the father of the liberal political philosophy.
He, was a strong proponent, of constitutional government and made a strong
plea for limiting the sovereignty, of the state, through grant of rights to the
individual. He also emphasised that, the government rested on the consent of
the people, and considered the individual as prior to the state.
After Locke, Montesquieu, Thomas Paine, Bentham, Rousseau, and a number
of other thinkers carried the liberal philosophy further. They, not only expressed
firm faith in the rationality and capacity of the individuals, but also, insisted on
non-interference, by the government, in the affairs of the individual. As a result
of these preachings, the liberal philosophy was given a practical shape in the
American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and the French Declaration of the
Rights of Man of 1789. The American Declaration of Independence also asserted
belief in natural law and inalienable rights of people.
It may be noted that, the liberalism of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, which is also known as classical liberalism, was negative in character.
It, no doubt laid emphasis on dignity, rationality, liberty and individuality of man,
but was essentially negative in character. It not only viewed freedom, as absence
of restraints but also, envisaged it only for capitalist or propertied classes and did
not care for the common people. It treated the state, as a necessary evil and
considered the state which performed minimal functions, was the best. In the
economic sphere, it defended the right to private property and pleaded for free
trade. Hallowell notes the following main features of a classical or negative
liberalism:
(1) A faith, in spiritual equality of the individual and absolute value, of the human
personality. (2) A belief in rationality and goodness of man. (3) Existence of certain
inalienable natural rights like life, liberty and property. (4) State, as an artificial
institution, which was created, with the sole objective of preserving and protecting
the
rights of the individual. (5) The relationship between the state and the individual is
contractual. If state fails to observe the terms of the contract and protect the right of
the people, the people have the right to form a new government. (6) Faith, in
government of law, rather than government by the whims of the ruler. (7) State is a
necessary evil and the best state is one which performs the minimal functions. It
assigned only negative functions to the state. (8) Freedom for individual in all
spherespolitical, social, cultural, economic, moral, spiritual, etc. (9) Individual is a
rational person and when he pursues his own interests, the interests of the society
are automatically promoted. In other words, there is no contradiction between the
individual and the social interests. (10) Complete freedom in the economic sphere
and non-interference by the state in the economic matters.
POSITIVE LIBERALISM
The negative liberalism, was replaced by positive liberalism, towards the close of the
nineteenth century. This became necessary in view of the changed social, economic
and political conditions of the society. By that time, it became evident that, the
unrestricted freedom granted to the capitalists, had resulted in the exploitation of the
working class by the capitalists, and there was a growing demand for improving the
lot of the worker. The rise of the Marxist philosophy also compelled the liberal
thinkers to modify their philosophy to meet its onslaughts successfully.
The change in the liberal philosophy, first became visible, in the works of Jeremy
Bentham, who tried to reconcile the idea of individual liberty with the Principle of
General Happiness. He advocated the need of reform in the field of law, education,
parliamentary composition, municipal organisation, poor relief and prisons. Stuart Mill
said that, positive liberalism assumed more concrete shape. Mill, an ardent champion
of the individual liberty, he favoured increase in the functions of the state provided, it
promoted the welfare of the society. He wanted the state to create a free society, a
society in which the people could live happily in peace, harmony, develop their
intellectual capacities, a moral character without any hindrance, express the
opinions,
Liberalism
9
freely without fear and promote the welfare, as well as, the collective welfare of the
society
Positive liberalism, assumed more distinct shape, in the writings of English
philosopher T.H. Green who pleaded direct intervention of the state in the eradication
of three gigantic social evils viz. ignorance, pauperism and drinking liquor. He insisted
that the state should not concern itself merely with the checking of traditional crimes
and torts, or protection of the country against foreign attack, but to "remove external
hindrances to the voluntary performance of good acts." The other important
philosophers, who made valuable contributions to the development of positive
liberalism, include Hobhouse, Harold Laski, etc.
In United States, R.M. Maclver emphasised principles of positive liberalism, which
brought it closer to socialism. He asserted that, the essential functions of a modern
state include, establishment of the areas and frontiers of political authority and
control over import and export, transport and communications, setting up of the units
of measurement and computation of value, specification of general rights and
obligations of citizenship and territorial residence, determinations of the rights and
obligations of various associations, regulations of marriage, contracts, currency,
occupational status relating to population and trades, provisions for security, justice,
rights, decent living, wage rates, employment, upbringing of children, prevention of
destitution and social wreckage, promotion of physical conditions by maintaining
centres of health, recreation and profession, utilisation of natural resources, planning
rural and urban development, education and scientific research, establishment of,
the centres of cultural
and historical interest, promotion of agricultural and industry and scientific,

development for general good and provision for the means of inquiry into
problems of general significance.
But, it was in the writings of Laski, that the impact of Marx was most clearly
visible. He tried, to examine the questions of individual liberty and state interference
from the Marxian viewpoint. He emphasised that, the state was an institution for
securing general welfare on the largest possible scale.
FEATURES OF POSITIVE LIBERALISM
After examining the evolution of positive or modern liberalism, it is desirable to

examine its main features. The protagonists of positive liberalism do not consider the
state as a 'necessary evil'. Rather, they treat it as a positive instrument for the
promotion, of general welfare of the community. They do not favour curtailment of
state function and want it to participate in social, political, economic, cultural and
other activities in the general interest of the individual. They treat state as a moral
institution, which can promote the moral and intellectual faculties of the members.
Again, the positive liberalism does consider the rights and liberties as natural and
holds that the same are the creation of state. All the rights have to be enjoyed in the
social context and the welfare of the society. No doubt, the individual is permitted to
utilise his liberties and freedoms to promote his own moral, spiritual and intellectual
well being, but must not injure the interests of other members of the society.
Positive liberalism, favours regulation and control of the economic life of the
society, in the larger interests of the community. It wants to bring about reforms, in
socio-economic structure of the society, through constitutional, democratic and
parliamentary methods. It wants state to take positive steps to remove poverty,
hunger, disease, etc. and improve the condition of the people through effective state
action. Some of the important functions, which the liberal thinkers assign to the
state, include establishment of unity and order in society; safeguarding and
promoting of the rights and liberties of people; creation of healthy environments for
moral and intellectual development of people; removal of poverty, hunger, disease,
ignorance, etc. creation of conditions conducive to the development of human
personality and promotion of social welfare of the society as a whole.
CONTEMPORARY LIBERALISM
In the post World War II period, further changes took place in the liberal philosophy.
For the sake of convenience, we can designate the changed
10
liberalism as Contemporary Liberalism. Contemporary Liberalism arose chiefly, with a

view to save the mankind, from the tyranny of totalitarian system. It lays more
emphasis on the personality of the individual and his social groups. It is, generally
directed against the state and treats it as little more than a federation of groups, a
union of guilds or a community of communities, which coordinates the activities of
these groups and adjusts their conflicting claims.
The contemporary liberalism, while emphasising equality of opportunity for all, is
not willing to make any compromise, as far as liberty and rational choice of the
human beings is concerned.
Some of the prominent scholars, who made valuable contributions to the
development of contemporary liberalism, include Schumpeter, Robert Dahl,
Chapman, Rawls etc. Schumpeter holds that the democratic methods do not
necessarily help in the realisation of the common good, because quite often, they are
used by the people to acquire the power to decide, by means of competitive struggle
for people's vote. Robert A. Dahl treats democracy merely as a mechanism which
helps in maintaining the equilibrium so that the principle of distributive justice is not
disturbed. Chapman says that, justice not only permits inequality, but also, requires
it, because the first principle of distributive justice is distribution of benefits, which
maximises benefits in accordance with principle of consumer's sovereignty. John
Rawls also holds that, inequalities are inevitable in any society and justice demands
that we should try to judge the moral worth of various distribution of rights and
income, only within a class divided society. Thus all the contemporary liberal thinkers
have emphasised that man is essentially a doer, an exerter and enjoyer of his human
attributes.
John Dewey and Morris Raphael Cohen, see contemporary liberalism, both as an
attitude, as well as a programme. As an attitude, it considers reason, and scientific
methods, as guides to social action. It emphasises, the need of open mindedness and
envisages a variety of solutions for the problems. As a programme, it stands for three
things. First, it wants to keep all the social channels of communication open, so that
the
people are adequately informed on all issues. It wants the people, to have the
freedom to form political parties and participate in elections. It is opposed, to the
right of one group to suppress another group, which is in disagreement with it.
Second, it insists that economic problems of the society can be solved, only if, the
state acquires control over major industries. The economic resources of the world,
should be integrated and operated on the basis of world plan. Third, the above can
be achieved in countries, where a political system exists, which permits the process
of popular education, in economic realities to be completed.
It shall be noted from the above discussion that though liberalism has undergone
constant transformation during the past few centuries it has always emphasised the
need of liberating the individual from oppressive political rule or intolerant
ecclesiastical authority, or from restraints embodied in laws and customs, etc. In
short, it has shown constant a concern with the deliverance of man from various
types of restraints which were widely regarded as a normal feature of life at a given
time.
EVALUATION OF LIBERALISM
The theory of Liberalism has been subjected to criticism on following grounds:
Firstly, it is a highly flexible and fluid philosophy and has meant different, things
to different philosophers, at different times.
Liberal thinkers, have not only expressed widely divergent views on the policies and
programmes of the state but differts even on fundamental questions, like the role of
the state. While the early liberal thinkers considered the state as a necessary evil,
the liberal thinkers of
late nineteenth century treated the state as a positive good and assigned it
extensive powers.
Secondly, liberalism has been essentially, a philosophy of the bourgeois class
and laid greater emphasis on stability and equilibrium, within the system rather
than human values. The general welfare measures advocated by it have, also
been motivated by, the considerations of promoting the interests of the capitalist
class. It has never advocated radical socio-economic changes.
Liberalism
11
Thirdly, the classical liberalism, by restricting the authority of the state, paved the
way for anarchy. The modern liberalism, on the other hand, by emphasising the need
of a highly centralised system for the promotion of general welfare, has curtailed the
political liberty of the people.
Fourth, the Marxian and Socialist thinker have criticised liberalism because, it
holds that fundamental changes in society, can be brought about through peaceful
means. They argue that, those who control the instruments of production and
distribution, would resist with full might any move to deprive them of their privileged
position. Hence, any substantial change in the existing social and economic system,
is possible only through use of force.
Fifth, liberalism is accused of being a deceptive theory. In the words of
Macpherson, "Over the whole span of three hundred years of liberal society and
thought, the deceptive task of political theory, appears to vary inversely as the
limitation of the bourgeois vision and directly as the extent of the apprehended
threat to liberal values."
Despite the above criticism of Liberalism, it cannot be denied that it has rendered
great service to the development of democratic and humanistic ideas. It gave a death
blow to the feudal order and played an important role in doing away with
conservatism and orthodoxy represented by the papacy and monarchy. It provided
the slogan of 'Liberty, equality and fraternity' which have served as beacon light of
the struggling masses. It also gave rise to the notions of democracy, natural and
inalienable rights, and development of human personality. Later, the positive
liberalism emphasised the constructive dimensions. It not only
attacked
the
institutions, which were
detrimental to the liberty of the individual, but also, suggested necessary reforms in
the existing institutions and provision of conditions which covild help in the
development of individual's personality.
DECLINE AND FUTURE OF LIBERALISM

In recent years, liberalism has lost lot of ground. Faith in personal rights and freedom
to think and act independently, has prevented the liberal thinkers, to evolve a
disciplined party which could uphold or popularise this philosophy. This weakness was
greatly exploited by the other minorities, who, because of their good organisations
succeeded in outmanouvering the liberal, to change in the light of the new situation
and facts and to talk purely in general terms, has made it less effective. In the
absence of concrete plans and techniques of action, the liberals have not been able
to gain much ground in practical life. At present a liberalism is confronted with, twofold problem. On the one hand, it is faced with the problems of the crisis ridden
capitalist society and on the other hand, it has been greatly undermined by the
growing challenge of the socialist forces. In view of these serious challenges, some
scholars have expressed the view, that its, survival is in danger. However, Freidrich is
not so pessimistic about the future of liberalism. He believes it possess the timeless
quality of intrinsic humanism which, guards against its destruction. So long as the
present day society is faced by problems of oppression, discrimination and inequality,

liberalism shall exist and try to translate its ideas into action.
Marxis
m
Marx is often described as the father of modern socialism. He was highly critical of
the capitalist society, based on exploitation of man by man and wanted to raise a
society free from exploitation, a society in which every one will live in peace,
harmony and comfort, and shall have full opportunity to develop his personality. No
doubt, before Marx a number of writers like Thomas More, Fouirer, Robert Owen,
Saint Simon etc. had denounced capitalism and advocated a socialist philosophy, but
their programme was Utopian and they failed to provide an alternate to capitalism.
Marx was the first socialist thinker, who fully realised the futility of formulating a
Utopian constitution of socialist society and devoted his attention to find out a new
path, which could lead to the establishment of the socialist society. This naturally,
involved the need of making a detailed analysis of the working and growth of the
capitalist system. In short, he provided a theory of social change and a scientific
philosophy. In the words of Laski "Marx wrote at once the epitaph of the new
capitalism and the prophecy of its ultimate outcome. The first aspect of his work,
both by reason of the materials he used and the thesis he deduced from them, put
the defenders of economic individualism finally upon the defensive; and the second
provided an inspiration to his followers which has increased the profundity as the
years have gone by."
Marx's theory of social and political change is, based on certain principles which
have been dealt hereunder:
DIALECTIC MATERIALISM
The whole theory of Marxian socialism is built on dialectic materialism. Marx
borrowed this idea
from Hegel, even though he introduced fundamental changes in Hegel's concept. As
against
Hegel, who believed that human idea is the ultimate reality. Marx considered
matter as the ultimate reality. In other words whereas Hegel felt that the world
changes by the force of ideas, Marx explained all the changes in terms of
material conditions of life. He considered minds as secondary to the matter. He
asserted "It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but on
the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness."
HISTORICAL MATERIALISM
Marx tried to explain the historical evolution with the help of dialectic
materialism and offered a materialism interpretation of history. He asserted that,
changes in history, are caused by changes in the mode of production and
exchange and the changes in other spheres effect history only marginally.
Whereas a change in the economic sphere leaves a lasting impact on the course
of future history. Marx explained it thus "In the social production which men carry
on, they enter into definite relations that are indispensable and independent of
their will, these relations of production correspond to a definite stage of
development of their material force of production. The sum total of these
relations of productions, constitutes the economic structure of the society-the
real foundation, on which rises a legal and political superstructure and to which
correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production in
material life determines the social, political and intellectual life process in
general. It is not consciousness of men that determines their being, but on the
contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness."
Marxism
13
In simple words, Marx says that (i) in production, men enter into definite relations
which are independent of their will; (ii) these relations have a direct relationship with
the stage of development of these material forces; (iii) these relations form the real
basis of the juridical and political substructures; (iv) it is not the consciousness of
men that determines their being but it is the social being, which determines their
consciousness; (v) at some stage of development the material forces of production in
a society come into conflict with the existing property relations; and (vi) with the
change in the economic foundation the whole superstructure is automatically
transformed.
CLASS STRUGGLE
The principle of class struggle is another important feature of Marxian philosophy. It
provides a key to the understanding of history. Marx asserted "The history of all
hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle". At every stage of history,
man has been divided into two classes, the exploiters and the exploited. During the
various phases of human history, these classes have been freemen and slaves,
patricians and plebians, lord and serf, guild master and journey-men etc. In the
modern times, the two classes are the capitalists and workers. As the interests of
these classes have been hostile to each other, there has been a constant friction and
fight between these classes, which have often resulted in revolutionary reconstitution
of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.
SURPLUS VALUE
The theory of surplus value forms the cornerstone of Marxian economic theory. Marx
borrowed the idea from classical economists like Adam Smith and David Recardo, and
described labour as the sole source of all value of a commodity. He argued that in the
capitalist society, the labourer is paid much less, than what he produces by his
labour. The difference between what he produces by his labour and the wages paid to
him constitutes the surplus value. The surplus value is appropriated by the capitalists
and constitutes exploitation of the workers. As a result of constant exploitation, the
lot of the capitalist keeps on improving and the position of the labourer gets more
and more miserable, till it compels him to overthrow the capitalist system through
revolution. It may be noted that to Marx revolution is a logical, natural and inevitable
phenomenon and a great lever for social progress.
REVOLUTION
According to Marx, the state is an instrument of coercion, controlled by the dominant
economic class, for the suppression of its opponents and preservation of its own
interests. He asserted that the existing state aimed at protecting the interest of the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat have to use violence perforce to overthrow it. He says
"The proletariat during its contest with the bourgeoisie, is compelled by the force of
circumstances, to organise itself as a class... by means of evolution, it makes itself
the ruling cl&ss and as such, sweeps away by force, the old conditions of production."
Thus Marx permits the use of force to bring about revolution or change. It may be
observed that, Marx permits the use of force only wherever it is necessary. It is to be
used only when, the ruling classes offer resistance by arms. Marx did not rule out the
possibility of peaceful transition to socialism in countries where a strong working
class existed.
STATELESS AND CLASSLESS SOCIETY

As state was an instrument of class coercion, it could never aim at the good of the
community. Marx therefore favoured a stateless and classless society. However,
during the period of dictatorship of proletariat, Marx was in favour of retaining the
state so that it could be used to liquidate capitalism and establish socialism. Once
these class distinctions were eliminated state was expected to automatically wither
away.
Features of Marxian Socialism

A perusal of the various principles on which Marxian Socialism is based highlight the
following characteristics Marxian Socialism:
1. It opposed capitalist system because it operated against the interest of
the
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
working classes. Marx held that capitalism was incapable of reform and therefore
favoured its elimination.
Marxian socialism attached more importance to the social good than the interests
of the individual. It would like the means of production to be controlled in the
interest of the community and, opposed to the idea of a handful of capitalists
pocketing the profits. It wanted the system of production to be geared according to
the needs of community.
Marxian socialism was opposed to competition which led to economic waste and
extravagance. Instead it emphasised the need of cooperation in the economic
sphere so that wastes and losses could be avoided. This cooperation could also
help in reducing tension between the employers and the workers.
Marxist socialism holds faith in the principle of equality and is opposed to the
existing inequalities, which is a characteristic feature of the capitalist system. It
may be noted that Marxist socialism does not insist on mathematical or absolute
equality which is incapable of realisation. It merely insists that adequate
opportunities should be made available to all so that they may be able to develop
their personalities fully.
Marxian socialism is opposed to private property and holds it responsible for the
various evils in the existing economic system. It holds that land and other natural
resources are gifts of nature which should be available to all the members of the
community. To ensure that these things are made available to all the people, it
proposed state control of the means of production.
Marxian socialism holds faith in planned economy and insists that only those
things should be produced which were needed by the people. It is opposed to
production for the sake of profit. In other words, it insists on production based on
social needs rather than profit motives.
7. Marxian socialism favours positive freedom for the members. It is not satisfied
with leaving the individual to himself and avoiding unnecessary restraints. On
the other hand it insists that adequate opportunities should be made available
to the individual to enable him to develop his human and social faculties.
Critical Evaluation of Marxian Socialism

The various principles of Marxian socialism have been subjected to criticism. The
main points of criticism are as follows:
First, Marx offers only a one-sided interpretation of history. He tries to interpret
history purely in economic terms which is not quite logical. The various historical
events have been influenced by numerous other factors. No doubt, the economic
factor is an important determinant of social change, but it would be wrong to treat it
as the only or the primary factor. Again, Marxism holds that historical development is
the result of changes in the mode of production alone. This is not correct. Other
factors like ideology, demography, etc., also play a vital role in the historical
development of society.
Second, Marx's theory of class-struggle as an explanation of history is quite
untenable. It is not always possible to interpret all the conflict between the church
and the emperors during the medieval times as a quarrel between the exploiter and
the exploited. It is also wrong to assume that under capitalist system the society is
divided into two hostile camps. On the other hand, the present society is a
hierarchical structure.
Third, Marxian socialism sacrifices the individual at the altar of the society. It
attaches more importance to the community than the individual and virtually reduces
the individual to the position of a cog in the machine.
Fourth, Marxian socialism wrongly assumes that capitalism is incapable of reform,
and wants to do away with it. On the other hand, practical experience shows that
capitalism has remarkably adjusted itself according to the requirements of the
changed conditions and the hostility between the capitalists and labourers, as
envisaged by Marx,
Marxism
15
does not exist any more. On the other hand due to the rise of a large middle-class
and improvement in the condition of the workers very cordial relations exist between
the two.
Fifth, Marxian socialists wrongly assume that the state is class organisation which
is used by the dominant economic classes for the exploitation of the weaker classes.
In fact, state is moral institution which aims at the all round development of human
personality.
Sixth, Marxian socialists wrongly assume that in course of time the state shall
wither away and shall be replaced by a classless and stateless society. The actual
experience is to the contrary. Dictatorship of proletariat was established in Soviet
Union in 1971 but the state has not withered away as yet. In fact, with the passage of
time the state has emerged stronger.
Seventhly, Marxian socialism goes against human psychology in pleading the
abolition of private property. Every man has a strong acquisitive spirit and wants to
acquire more and more of wealth through hard work. If private
property is abolished, there shall hardly be any incentive for man to work hard and
the production shall decline. Again the means of production and distribution
controlled by the state are likely to operate less efficiently in the absence of personal
stakes of the officials. It is also likely to add to the burden of the government and
effect its efficient working.
Finally, Marxian socialism leads to regimentation of human thoughts and actions.
Each member of the community is expected to act according to the directions of the
state and is thus virtually reduced to the position of a slave.
Despite these shortcomings of Marxian socialism, it cannot be denied that it has
provided to the toiling masses a philosophy of social and political change. It exposed
the inadequacy of the existing social organisation and provided a definite programme
of action. Its significance lies, in the fact, that it left a deep impact on the socialist as
well as liberal ideology in the years that followed. In short, it has provided a definite
purpose and a clear programme of action.
^4Individual and Social

Justice
All societies are divided on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion, economic
status, etc. In each society some members get certain privileges which are denied to
the others. On the basis of colour, a distinction is drawn between the white and the
negroes and the latter are treated as inferior to the former. On the basis of religion
the society is divided into Christians and Non-Christians, Hindus and Muslims etc.
Within these religious groups there exist certain sects like Protestants and Roman
Catholics; the Shias and Sunis. The Indian society is further divided on the basis of
caste into Brahmins, Kshatrya, Vaisha and Shudras, and those who belong to the
higher castes enjoy certain privileges which are denied to the members of lower
castes. On the basis of the economic status, the people are divided into rich and
poor, the employer and the employees. The Marxists, divide the society on economic
grounds, as bourgeois and proletariat, with the former exploiting the latter. With the
dawn of democracy there is a growing realisation among the people that these
artificial divisions in the society should be done away with in the interest of social
justice.
MEANING OF SOCIAL JUSTICE

Social justice implies, that all the members of the society, should be provided equal
opportunities to grow and develop and no distinction should be made on the basis of
caste, colour, race, wealth etc. Unfortunately, the concept of social justice was
missing in the pre-independence period and the society was sharply divided into four
castes Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishas and Shudras. The members of the first three
castes, were placed at the higher pedestral and were entitled to special treatment
and privileges, which was denied to the
shudras. The Shudras, were not only denied the right to live with the members of the
higher castes but were required to perform those functions and duties which the
members of the higher castes were not willing to undertake. The remunerations paid
to the Shudras were also quite meager. As a result they suffered from chronic
poverty, illiteracy etc. The shudras lived in sub-human conditions and were not
permitted to attend any educational institution or mix up with the childrens of the
upper castes. With the exception of social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy; Swami
Dayanand Saraswati and Mahatma Gandhi, no other social reformer paid any
attention to the improvement of the condition of the lower castes.
CONSTITUTION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

In the interest of social justice it is imperative that the society much change
according to the changed conditions and every one should be provided adequate
opportunities for development. The Constitution of India sought to provide social
justice to its citizens. Thus all the citizens have been assured equality before law. The
state is not permitted to discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. The citizens cannot be denied access
to shops, public resturants, places of public entertainment etc. on these grounds. To
bring the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other backward classes, at par
with the rest of the people, government jobs have been reserved for them. The
Constitution seeks to protect the weaker sections of society by prohibiting traffic in
human beings and begar etc. It also accords special protection to the minorities and
permits them to
Individual and Social Justice
17
set up educational institutions for preserving their culture and language. The state, is
directed by the constitution, to provide just and humane conditions of work and
opportunities for social and cultural development. It is also expected to make
provision for free and compulsory education to children upto the age of 14 years. The
constitution assures all citizens freedom of thought, expression, faith, belief and
worship. However, it may be observed that the freedom assured to the citizens under
the constitution is not absolute and reasonable restrictions can be put on them in the
interest of public order, morality, decency etc.
In short, social justice implies several things. In the first instance it implies that
the existing social order must undergo change according to the changed conditions.
Secondly, it is opposed to exploitation of weaker sections of the society. Thirdly, it
seeks to protect the interests of the minorities and weaker sections of society.
Fourthly, it implies provision of just conditions of work, good medical care, imparting
of education to all sections of society so that they may be able to develop to their full
capacity.
The Government has taken numerous positive steps to improve the lot of the
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes. Thus seats have
been reserved for them in the Parliament (Lok Sabha and the State Legislative
Assemblies). In the matter of recruitment to public services, though the chief criteria
for selection is merit, but effort is made to protect the interests of the scheduled
castes, scheduled tribes and backward classes by reserving the prescribed
percentage of seats. Some relaxation is also made in the qualification of candidates
belonging to these classes.
WOMEN AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
The framers of the constitution also felt greatly concerned over the miserable
condition of women. It not only sought to provide an equal status to women with
men by assuring them equality before law but also sought to make special
provision for them so as to assure them equal status in all walks of life. Women
were assured equal wages for equal work with men. In fact, the state has taken
several
steps to facilitate the rapid development of women. Ample opportunities have
been provided for the education of women. In the matter of recruitment to
government services also no distinction is made on the basis of sex. The woman
have been granted fair share in the ancestral property. Widow marriage is being
encouraged. Women are encouraged to become self-sufficient so that they are
not subjected to maltreatment by the men-folk. In recent years the women have
become fully conscious of their rights and have stepped up pressure on the
government to reserve 33 per cent of the seats in the state as well as the central
legislature. It is noteworthy that the women have already got 33 percent seats
reserved for them in the Panchayat Raj institutions.
CHILDREN AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

Till the dawn of the twentieth century the children in most of the countries were
denied social justice and subjected to worst type of exploitation. They were made
to work for long hours at the minimum wages. They were engaged in hazardous
jobs and moved around as street beggars. They were engaged as domestic
servants in the rich families and required to take up menial jobs. There was
hardly any provision for their education. In India also the lot of the children was
no better. However, after the attainment of independence, the framers of the
constitution paid great attention to the plight of the children. In fact one of the
Directive Principles of State Policy clearly stipulated that all children upto the age
of 14 years shall be provided free education upto the primary level. A ban was
imposed on the employment of children in hazardous jobs. To encourage the
parents to send their childrens to the schools a scheme of mid-day meals was
introduced. Attention was also paid to the health of the children and periodical
medical check ups were arranged both as preventive and precautionary
measures. A legal ban was placed on child marriage. Reform homes were set up
for the children involved in various types of crimes and various plans were
launched for the rehabilitation of such children. In short, every effort was made
to assure social justice to the children who had been exploited by the various
sections of the society for all these years.
RffllflBl
Role of
Ideology
One of the features which distinguishes the contemporary world policies from the
classic pattern is the central role of mass beliefs and popular ideas in the affairs of
states. In the twentieth century Nazism and Fascism in Germany and Italy
respectively led to War in 1939. Communism from its base in Russia has become one
of the major forces of the present age. Democracy has opened new and exciting
vistas of individual worth and free societies to much of the human race. Anticolonialism has transformed the political map of the world and drastically changed
the conditions of International politics. It can be very well said that the 20th century
is an ideological era.
MEANING
The ideology has been defined by Charles P. Schleicher as "a system of abstract ideas
held by an individual which purports to explain reality, express value goals and
contain programmes of action for the retention or attainment of the kind of social
order in which its proponents believe the goals can be best realised." It follows that a
particular individual may and ordinarily does adhere to several ideologiesnationalism, socialism, neutralism, and Gandhism, etc.
According to another definition of the ideology it is, a cluster of ideas, about life,
society of government which originate in most cases as consciously advocated to
dogmatically asserted social, political or religious slogans or battle cries and which
through continuous usage and preachment gradually became the characteristic
beliefs or dogmas of particular groups, party or nationality." Padelford and Lincoln
define ideology as "a body of ideas concerning economic,
social and political values and goals with positive action programmes for attaining
those goals."
Martin Seliger has offered a detailed definition of ideology. He says: "An ideology
is a group of beliefs and disbeliefs expressed in value sentences; appeal sentences
and explanatory statements. These sentences refer to moral and technical norms and
are related to the descriptive and analytical statements of fact with which they are
arranged and together interpreted as a doctrine bearing the imprint of centrality of
morally founded prescribes. A doctrine, which is to say an ideology, presents a not
entirely self-consistent, not fully verified and verifiable, but not merely distorted body
of views. These views relate in the main to forms of human relationships and sociopolitical organisation as they should and could be and refer from this perspective to
the existing order and vice versa, sldeologies share with other some morally and
factually based views and thus attest ideological pluralism without thereby losing
their distinctiveness." Snyder and Wilson define ideology as "a cluster of ideas about
life, society or government, which originate in most cases as consciously advocated
or dogmatically asserted social, political or religious slogans or battle cries and
which through continuous usage and peachment gradually become the characteristic
beliefs or dogmas of particular group, party nationality."
Thus, scholars have defined and interpreted ideology in different senses.

In the first instance, it has been defined as a self-contained and selfjustifying belief system, based on a definite world view. It claims to provide a
basis for explaining the whole reality. In the second instance, ideology has
been described as a cloak for real foreign policy objective. Used in this
sense, ideology is concerned
Role of Ideology
19
with the achievement of power as its immediate goal of foreign policy, which
explaining the action in legal, ethical or humanitarian terms. Karl Mannheim uses
ideology in this sense.
Despite difference in interpretation, it is admitted at all hands that ideology
constitutes the backbone of the foreign policy of a state and, strives for its effective
implementation. Prof. Holsti has rightly observed that "ideologies not only establish
foreign policy goals, evaluate criteria and justifications, for actions but have
important effect on perceptual process as well." He says that ideology affects the
political goals and actions in five ways. First, it establishes the intellectual framework
through which policy makers observe reality. Secondly, it prescribes for policy makers
the long-range goals of state's external behaviour to be promoted by them. Thirdly, it
serves as a justification for choice of more specific foreign policy decisions. Fourthly,
it defines for policymakers the main stages in historical development within which
specific foreign policy strategies can be enunciated. Finally, it posists a moral and
ethical system that helps prescribe the correct attitudes and evaluative criteria for
judging one's own actions and those of others.
KINDS OF IDEOLOGIES
Countries have followed different ideologies at different period of time, which have
been classified by Morgenthau in three different categories.
1.
ideologies of Status Quo
If a state pursues policy designed to preserve the status quo it is regarded as the
adherent of status quo ideology. Usually such states hold great faith in international
law and peace and are opposed to all types of imperialism. They also hold faith in
system of collective security and mutual assistance to ensure that the world peace is
not disturbed. The states adhering to this ideology seek to protect the interests of
smaller states so that status quo is not disturbed. It is noteworthy that a state which
has acquired significant portion of territory of other states through force cannot be
regarded as adherent of the ideology of status quo because all the time these states
have to face resentment of other states.
2. Ideologies of Imperialism
As opposed to the ideologies of status quo there are ideologies of imperialism which
seek to overthrow the status quo and create an international system which
redistributes the power in their favour. These ideologies do not hold faith in
international law and seek to disturb the status quo to promote their own interests.
Hitler of Germany adhered to this ideology. He severely condemned Treaty of
Versailles which sought to preserve the status quo and advocated imperialist policies.
3. Ambiguous Ideologies
This refers to ideologies whose premises are not clear and are used by various states
for their respective purposes. One of the best examples of this ideology is offered by
'principle of national-self-determination' advocated by President Wilson during the
First World War. While on the one hand, this principle was used to dismember the
Austria-Hungarian empire by the Allies, on the other hand, Hitler used it to swallow
Austria and a part of Czechoslovakia.
INTEREST AND IDEOLOGY

There is ordinarily a close relationship between interest and ideology. Each seems
to be influenced by other. The interest may shape the ideology and be shaped by it.
The history is rampant with such examples where the national interests were served
by shaping ideology according to the goals. The annexation of India by Great Britain
as its colony was described as educating, civilising and humanitarian mission, a sort
of 'White man's burden. But the real objective was economic exploitation of the
backward countries. The ideology was used to rationalise the action. Annexation was
an act of imperialism but to disguise it humanitarian ideology was advanced.
Similarly, when USA annexed Philippines for trade and military purpose, she
explained her imperialistic action as a humanitarian mission. Likewise ideology can
also influence the national interests. American involvement in Europe was essentially
directed by her desire to 'contain communism' and save democracies. Schleicher has
rightly observed that both interest and ideology shape and are shaped by the other.
"They tend to converge although
20
they are entirely compatible. The relative influence of each where they are not
mutually reinforcing, seems to depend on the intensity of attachment to the interest
and ideology."
IMPORTANT IDEOLOGIES
There are so many ideologies that it is not possible to deal with all of them. We shall,
therefore, concentrate only on some of the important ideologies:
1.
Liberalism
This is also known as ideology of freedom and world peace. It is not a new ideology
and was quite popular during the seventeenth century. In fact it formed the basic of
the western social, religious, economic and political system. It regarded the individual
as supreme and laid emphasis on development of his talents and capacities to the
maximum. It laid emphasis on free competition and paid great attention to the
welfare of the individual. When extended to the international sphere this ideology
emphasises the principles of peace, friendship, freedom,
co-operation, justice, etc. It is opposed to intervention in the domestic affairs of

their states and holds faith in peaceful coexistence of all states irrespective of
their position or status. Vernon Van Duke highlights the chief features of this
ideology thus: "Faced with a choice between guns and butter, the liberal is
inclined to choose butter, perhaps to the peril of his nation. Faced with a choice
between appeasement and resistance to a foreign threat at the risk of war, the
liberal may be inclined towards appeasement, for war threatens most of the
values he holds dear. In recent decades, particularly, the liberal democracies
have been very reluctant to engage in military preparations and to participate in
war."
Prof. Schleicher has highlighted following salient characteristics of Liberalism.
1. It is conducive to the practices which promote the welfare of men regardless of
their social, economic, racial or national status.
2. It seeks to promote individual dignity not only of its own nationals but of all
people in general.
3. It does not permit sovereignty to stay in the way of protection and promotion
of human rights and other democratic values.
4. It favours international institutions where man shall have right to take part in
important decisions affecting them and find peaceful solutions.
5. It favours pacific settlement of disputes and peaceful changes in accordance
with the will of the majority.
Though the above principles are emphasised by all those who believe in liberal
ideology, they considerably differ in the actual application of these principles.
Further, they have conveniently used these principles to justify their acts of omission
and commission. Even the formation of various military alliances has been justified
on the ground that this aims at the preservation of democracy which is threatened by
the Communists. In fact, the adherents of liberal ideology attach equal importance to
the economic interests and security of their country and are not willing to sacrifice
the same for the sake of above principles.
2.
Totalitarianism
This ideology, is opposite of liberalism and attaches more importance to the state,
rather than the individual. It draws a clear line of demarcation between the ruler and
the ruled and asserts the right of the elites to government. It does not attach any
importance to the freedom of speech and association as instruments of popular
welfare and holds that state alone can promote the welfare of people. The other
important features emphasised by this ideology are one-party government, constant
expansion of state, omnipotence of state war as an instrument for settlement of
disputes, etc. Some of the important totalitarian ideologies have been Fascism,
National Socialism, and Communism. The Fascist under Mussolini attached a mystical
quality to the state, they wanted the power to be left in the hands of an elite led by a
single superman; regimentation of social, economic, political and intellectual
activities of people; territorial expansion and war as an instrument for settlement
of international
Role of Ideology
21
disputes; subordination of individual to state, etc. Likewise, Socialism under

Hitler not only emphasised the above principles but also put forth principle of
racial superiority of the Nordic people. Communism which is also a variety of
totalitarian ideology differs from Fascism and National Socialism, in so far as
it stands for a free and dignified life of the individual through elimination of
system of exploitation of man by man. This ideology is, however, different
from both Liberalism and other Totalitarian ideologies in so far as it stands for
a world revolution. Communism views state as a class organisation, an
instrument of the domination of one class by the other. Communists
anticipate a stage when the state will 'wither away' and the principle 'for
each according to ability, to each according to his need' will be realised.
Marxism predicts two stages of socialism-first phase in which production is
socialised under proletarian dictatorship and a final phase when stateless
society would usher in. That is why Marxism-Leninism insists on the
destruction of the bourgeois state, machinery through a violent revolution
and establishment of the proletarian dictatorship. It asserts that the present
system of capitalism has lost its usefulness in the national sphere; in the
international sphere it has led to the system of imperialism which possesses
inherent contradiction which shall manifest themselves in the form of
struggle for national emancipation. The ultimate aim of Communism is to see
triumph of world communism.
IDEOLOGICAL CONFRONTATION
A conflict ensued between Liberalism (Democracy) and Communism
(Totalitarianism) in the post World War II period and both aimed at destroying
each other. However, in course of time both these ideologies underwent a
change and abandoned their intention to destroy each other. Failure to bring
about proletarian revolution in advanced industrial states greatly undermined
the Communist ideology and need was felt for major revision. On the other
hand, the unsuccessful attempts by the capitalists to destroy the Bolshevik
edifice compelled them to reconcile with the changed situation. In short, both
the ideologies underwent great transformation. The Capitalist
states, due to fear of losing ground to Communists started dismantling their
colonial empires. Internally they embarked upon socialist policies and carried
out far reaching social reforms. This trend of reforms in capitalist states
induced the Communists to introduce reciprocal changes specially after 1953.
Thus both Communism and Democracy ceased to be orthodox doctrines and
were involved in competitive co-existence rather than peaceful existence.
In this regard the Communists had certain advantages over the capitalist
system, specially in the newly emerging states. The principles of freedom and
economic development emphasised by the Communists had great appeal
with the newly emerged states. The Communists also promoted anti-colonial
feeling and contributed to the liquidation of the colonies. On the other hand,
the Democratic ideology emphasised the superiority of the evolutionary
methods of change and development
and asserted that the resolution of existing social and economic

problem through revolutionary methods was bound to produce
disappointing results. In support of their contention they argued that the
historical experience confirms that no revolution, except the American
Revolution, succeeded in establishing a stable and efficient government.
The experience of the Americans was different from other countries which
witnessed revolution because this revolution took place under quite
different conditions viz. the people enjoyed relative prosperity rather than
mass poverty. The newly emerged countries of Asia and Africa, however,
have shown preference for the Socialist ideology because it assures them
of quick results.
The practical experience of Soviet Union and China, two leading
Communist countries, also attracted the newly independent countries
towards Communist ideology. They were greatly impressed with the
enormous progress made by these two countries. No wonder the
underdeveloped states were attracted towards Communist ideology which
held the prospect of quick development which they ardously desired.
In recent years, the ideological tension has virtually come to an end
with the Communist states embarking upon more open policies and
adopting good features of the capitalist system.
22
IMPACT OF IDEOLOGY
There is difference of opinion among scholars regarding the impact of ideology
on international relations. On the one hand, Prof. Hill says that it is a simplifying
mechanism that "offers to individual ready-packaged ideas and, therefore,
obviates the necessity for him to work out answers for himself. The easiest
course is to accept without question the package handed to him to become a
Communist if he lives in Russia, where Communism is the approved system, to
uphold the ideas of democracy, if he has been raised in the Western world, to be
a German militarist, if he has been brought up in Germany, or, a French
nationalist, if his background has been French. Whatever a person may be, he is
surrounded by isms to which he rather naturally succumbs without much, if
anything, in the way of mental effort. To be sure, some people are sufficiently
assertive intellectually to work out for themselves something other than package
ideas but the rank and file take the easier course."1
On the other hand, certain other scholars have contended that ideology does
not play that effective role in international politics. If certain powers are able to
move men and destroy and create society, it is more on account of their power
rather than their ideology. The ideologies merely give direction to the physical
resources of the countries.
The truth lies between these two extreme views. While it may be too much to
say ideology plays a vital role in international politics, but it cannot be denied
that it exercises considerable influence on international relations. For example,
during the inter-war period Fascism in Italy and National Socialism in Germany
considerably influenced the foreign policies of these countries and influenced
their relations with other countries. In the modern times, ideology has become
more important because, large number of people have begun to play an effective
role in the formulation of foreign policy at decision making level. No doubt, the
general public does not exert a continuous, direct and positive influence over
decision-making, yet the public opinion limits the scope of alternatives available
to the decisionmakers. The policy makers on their part try to mould the public opinion in
support of their policies. They do this by not allowing the information to reach the
people and indoctrinating them with the ideas favourable to them. This is
particularly true of totalitarian states. Even in democratic states effort is made to
control the thought. E.H. Carr has highlighted this point thus: "Prior to 1914, the
conduct of international relations was the concern of the person professionally
engaged in it. In democratic countries, foreign policy was traditionally regarded
as outside the scope of party politics, representative organs did not feel
themselves competent to exercise any close control over mysterious operation of
foreign offices."
2. Ideology provides justification and rationale to the policy of a country by
providing goals for political actions and concealing all manifestations of a
struggle for power.
3. Ideology plays both cooperative and oppositional role. While common ideology
unites the states, the opposite ideology divides them sharply. Again, the
ideology of nationalism has divided mankind into small groups opposing each
other. Nationalism impels a country to assert that its cause is absolutely just,
while that of the opponent is unjust. The states are not willing to concede a
remote possibility that there can be a measure of justice and a measure of
injustice on both sides.
4. Ideology provides a rigid framework for the foreign policy maker, which results
in "Faulty thinking characterised by assumptions of doubtful validity, disregard
for the meaning of words and definitions, misrepresentations of facts,
omissions of facts, general conclusions drawn from specific premises of
conclusions based on only one premise, predictions on the basis of insufficient
data, conclusions drawn per analogiam with due regard for differences
impairing the overall validity of the analogy, disregard
for the time
elements and
2.
1. Norman Hill, Contemporary World Politics, pp. 429-30.
Role of Ideology
23
disregard for the laws of thinking in general."

5. There exists a definite relationship between the ideologies and struggle for
power. In the world of Prof. Morgenthau "all politics-domestic or international is
nothing but struggle for power and the true nature of the policy is concealed by
ideological justifications and rationalisations". Therefore, instead of using the
ideology in explaining objectives for the realisation of which political power is
needed, the ideology merely provides a mask behind which the ulterior motives
are concealed. The significance of ideology in international politics has been

brought out by Prof. Palmer and Perkins thus: "the significance of ideologies in
world politics today lies in the fact that in some instances they have become
linked to national power. Just as power became the instrument of ambitious
nationalism it has now become the tool of ideologies. Without power of some
kind ideology-even one which aspires to universalism-in a passive harmless
pattern of 'related ideas'. What makes Communism the dread of the world is not
the gospel of Marx and Lenin, it is Soviet (and Chinese) power associated
with and sustaining the Communist ideology. Without power "Communism
would be an important psychosis"1 They further assert "Ideologies, in fact are
futile source of international conflict, and they greatly complicate the task of the
peaceful solution of all conflicts". Further "Ideologies are essentially irrational,
they have a considerable emotional content, they can be used to obscure the
real facts of a situation or the real motives of ambitious leaders; they can be
appealed to by extremist and then can make reasonable approaches and
compromises difficult or even impossible; they frustrate efforts to find areas of
agreement, they make it hard to deal with international problems
without undue sacrifice of national honour or prestige; the- turn international
conferences into propaganda forums instead of opportunities for the
accommodation of diplomacy."
DECLINE OF IDEOLOGY
Some scholars have taken the view that there has been decline of ideology in
recent years. For example, Prof. Daniel Bell holds that the ideological fires in the
western world have cooled down and 'ideology' which was once the road to
action, has become a dead end. In fact most of the disputes which still persist
between different countries such as dispute between India and Pakistan, the Arab
states and Israel, etc. are not ideological in character even though they may be
projected in ideological terms. Likewise the dispute between Soviet Union and
China could hardly be described as an ideological dispute. However, Prof. Palmer
and Perkins do not agree with this view. They argue that "in many countries it
may be true that political ideas and ideologies have lost their old appeal, but in
international politics this seems to be less true." In the changed conditions, at
present, the above view of Palmer and Perkins does not seem to be valid. The
growing co-operation between states with ideological differences is a clear proof
that in recent times ideology has lost its relevance. Most of the East European
countries which earlier held faith in Communist ideology have moved towards
democracy and liberalisation, symbolising the end of the ideological conflict.
States like East and West Germany, which were divided on ideological basis, have
since united which is a further proof that the ideology no longer plays that vital
role. In view of the above, it can be safely asserted that ideology no longer plays
that important role in international relations which it played a few years back.
1. Palmer and Perkins, International Relations; p. 84
Chapter
Lenin (18701924)
EARLY LIFE AND INFLUENCES
Vladimir Illyich Ulyanov, popularly known as N. Lenin, was born on 22 April, 1870. His
father was a Government Inspector of Schools. Lenin after his early school education
joined the University of Kazan. However, he had to soon leave the University due to
his radical ideas and political activities. Thereafter Lenin pursued his studies as a
private student and got his degree in law from St. Petersburg University in 1891. He
started his career as a barrister but soon gave up this profession and devoted himself
to the study of Marxism. In 1893 he founded the League for Emancipation of Working
Classes. His interest in Marx's philosophy grew deeper and he indulged in
revolutionary activities. In 1898, he was arrested for his objectionable and
revolutionary activities and exiled to Siberia, for three years. It was during this exile
that he met
a charming revolutionary girl Nadezhda Krupskaya and married her. During this
period of exile he wrote The Development of Capitalism in Russia.
In 1900, Lenin moved to Munich and founded the journal The Iskra (The
Spark). Later on this journal was shifted to London and then to Geneva. Lenin
soon came in conflict with some of the prominent members of the Russian
Communist Party because he favoured an immediate revolution in Russia. He
emerged the leader of the majority group known as Bolshevik of the Socialists
Democrats, while his opponents known as Mensheviks (who believed in peaceful
and constitutional methods) were reduced in minority. It may be noted that both
these groups were opposed to the Czarist regime and stood for its overthrow. The
only difference between the two groups was that while the Mensheviks held that
time was not yet ripe for revolution and favoured a
democratic government for the time being, Lenin's group (Bolsheviks) stood for
immediate revolution. Another difference between the two was that, while the
Mensheviks wanted the land to be snatched from the rich and nationalized, the
Bolsheviks favoured the distribution of land among the peasants, after their
snatching from the rich.
Lenin continued his campaign against the Czarist regime from 1900 to 1914.
In 1914 when Russia joined the war, Lenin felt happy because he saw in the
possibility of Russian defeat an opportunity for the workers to rise. In this respect
Lenin proved quite correct. As the actual event showed, the defeat of the Czar in
1917 paved the way for his overthrow. Though for some time the power fell in the
hands of the Mensheviks, but ultimately Lenin and his followers succeeded in
ousting them from power. In November 1917 Lenin became the chairman of the
new Soviet Government. He died in January 1924. According to Chamberlain,
Lenin did "more to deflect the course of world history than any political figure
since Napoleon".
Lenin wrote a large number of books and pamphlets, but his philosophy is
mainly contained in the following works-VWwf is to be done? (1902); Two Tactics
of Social Democracy in the Democratic Revolution (1905); Materialism and
lmpirio Criticism (1909); Imperialism, the Final Stage of Capitalism (1916); State
and Revolution (1917).
LENIN'S MODIFICATIONS IN MARXISM

Though Lenin was a faithful disciple of Marx, he played fast and loose with Marxist
theory at every turn. Though Lenin claimed that his mission was
Lenin 25
to rescue the true revolutionary Marxism, which was being misrepresented by the
opportunists and revisionists. But while actually bringing Marxism up-to-date, he
made use of the theory of imperialism, and arrived at conclusions which were very
reverse of Marxian concept. In fact, Lenin was not a political theorist and therefore,
did not make any significant contribution to the field of theory. On the other hand, he
adapted Marxism with great skill according to the practical needs of the time and
made Marxism applicable even in a country which was not industrially advanced.
According to Prof. Sabine, Lenin's theory may best be defined as "an adaptation of
Marxism to non-industrialised economies and to societies with a prevailing peasant
population: its world-wide importance depends upon the fact that the world is full of
such societies". In fact Lenin was more interested in making men carry out his policy,
than in justifying it theoretically.
Lenin also brought Marxian philosophy up-to-date. Certain events had taken place
since Marx wrote which could not be envisaged by Marx and consequently could not
incorporate in his thought. Lenin revised Marxism in the light of the latest
developments. That is why Stalin described Lenin's philosophy as Marxism of the era
of imperialism and of the proletarian revolution.
2. Lenin on Imperialism
Lenin regarded Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. He argued that the
middle classes and skilled workers, of the advanced industrial countries, have been
saved from the increasing misery predicted by Marx, due to creation of empires by
these countries. Had these countries not carved out empires, the condition of the
workers would have certainly deteriorated as predicted by Marx. The industrial states
could improve the lot of working people due to exploitation of the colonies. He argued
that under the circumstances the people of the colonial territories suffered
exploitation and became genuine proletariat, whereas the people of the ruling power
became capitalists. He held that this was in no way a contradiction to the teachings
of Marx, but rather, a fulfilment of it. As capitalism develops, units of industrial
production grow bigger and combine in trusts and cartels to produce monopoly
capitalism. The same process
takes place in the financial world. The Banks combine and become master of capital,
which are used by the capitalists and thus, the monopoly capitalism becomes finance
capitalism. The monopoly finance capitalism has three fold consequences. First, it
results in the exploitation of the colonial peoples. Second, it produces war between
nations because of the competition for markets. Thirdly, it brings about end of
capitalism and emergence of new order, because the national wars are bound to end
as class wars. In the words of Lenin "Imperialism is capitalism in that stage of
development in which the domination of monopoly and finance capital has taken
shape; in which the export of capital has acquired pronounced importance; in which
division of the world by international trusts has begun and in which the portion of all
the territory of the earth by the great capitalist countries has been completed." This
imperialism, according to Lenin, contains a number of contradictions which shall
ultimately lead to its destruction and bring about socialism.
Lenin's view on imperialism have been criticised as philosophically ambiguous and
historically, wrong. Criticising Lenin's theory of imperialism Wayper says "Lenin's
theory of Imperialism was a neat answer to criticism made against Marx, but it was
fundamentally dishonest in a way that Marx himself had indeed specifically
condemned... The consequence of a process cannot precede the process itself. Yet,
this is exactly what Lenin makes them do." Lenin's contention that monopoly
capitalism leads to domination of monopoly finance capitalism is also not true. Great
Britain, which had the largest empire in the world was never dominated by the
finance capitalism. Again, Lenin's argument that investing capitalists pushed their
governments in dangerous diplomatic adventures and war is also not approved by
history. In fact, the finance interests alone do not force the government to resort to
war. There are other equally important factors, such as lust for power, which
influence the decisions of the government in this regard, Lenin's view that the
possession of empire alone leads to
Improvement of standards of the workers is also not fully correct. For

example, in both Sweden and Denmark the living standard of the workers, was
much higher than the standard of workers in France and Belgium, even though
these two countries did not
possess any colonial empires. In fact, there are so many deficiencies and
contradictions in Lenin's theory of imperialism that we can say with Wayper
"Lenin's theory of imperialism, in fact, in so far as it is a defence of Marxism, s
both dishonest and untrue; in so far as it is true it is not a defence out an
effective renunciation of the teachings of his master."
3. Lenin on Dialectical Materialism

Lenin also held faith in the principle of Dialectical Materialism, but thought it
desirable to offer a restatement of the same, to save it from the hands of the
revisionists. He took the dialectic as the idea of the universal, all-sided, living
connection of every thing with everything; and the reflection of this connection in the
conception of man". He found in dialectic the relation between the past and the
present. His thesis is that, objective reality is independent of consciousness and he
restricts the concept of reality, to that which acts upon the sensory organs.
Knowledge is obtained through sensation which gives us copies, images, and mirror
reflections of things, which the mind passively accepts. Lenin applied dialectic to
science, social studies, literature and even to art. No wonder, this has not found
favour with scholars and he has been bitterly criticised. For example, Wayper says his
dialectic was "dreadfully dull, repetitive, dogmatic and superficial survey, chiefly of
notes for its crude notion of materialism, hardly different from the materialism of
Fellerbach which Marx attacked". Prof. Sabine also expressed somewhat identical
views when he says that "dialectical materialism can set mathematician right about
Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry and can instruct the physicist about the
record relations between matter and electricity".
4. Lenin on State
Lenin, like Marx, held that state was a capitalist organisation, which was used by the
capitalists to crush the workers and the peasants. As the capitalists were able to
acquire vast majority in the legislatures, it could not be expected of them that they
would give justice to the common people. The state was exploited by the capitalists,
to control the means of production and distribution and to create monopoly
conditions so that they may be able to
exploit the workers. He, therefore, pleaded for its abolition. However, he admitted
that "the toilers need the state only to overcome the resistance of the exploiters".
Lenin also pleaded for the replacement of the existing judicial institutions because
they were created by the capitalists and were likely to promote their interests.
5. Lenin on Party System

Lenin's theory of the party, is probably, his greatest contribution to communist
philosophy. Lenin considered party organisation most vital for the overthrow of the
existing capitalist system. He said "The proletariat has no weapon, in the struggle for
power, except organisation. Constantly pushed out of depth of complete poverty the
proletariat can and will inevitably become the unconquerable force, only as a result
of this: that its ideological union by means of principles of Marxism, is strengthened
by the material union of an organisation, holding together millions of toilers, in the
army of the working class." Lenin argued that the party was needed, not only before
the revolution, to arouse the revolutionary spirit of the proletariat, but also, after the
revolution, to annihilate the capitalist state and establish the dictatorship of the
proletariat. It was the party which provided ideology to the proletariat and acted as
their vanguard. Highlighting the role of the Communist Party he said "it is a part of
working class, the most advanced, most class conscious, and hence most
revolutionary party. By a process of natural selection the Communist Party is formed
of the best, most class conscious, most devoted and far-sighted workers... It has a
clear view of the entire historical path of the working class in its totality and is
concerned, at every bend in this road, to defend the interest not of separate groups
of occupations, but of the working class in its totality".
Lenin assigned an omnipotent position to the party and asserted it was
impossible to carry out the dictatorship of the proletariat without it. He held that, it
was the party alone which, decided the policy of the government and determined the
correctness of all opinions in the fields of art, science, economics, literature, etc. As
regards the organisation of the Party, Lenin laid emphasis on the principle of
Democratic Centralism. This
Lenin 27
meant (a) the election of all the party bodies from bottom to top, (b) periodic
accountability of the party bodies to the party organisations; (c) strict party discipline
and subordination of minority to the majority; and (d) the unconditional obedience to
the decisions of the higher bodies by the lower ones.
Lenin wanted to restrict the membership of the party only to those persons who
were devoted to the cause of Marxism-Leninism and were willing to make any
sacrifice for this purpose. He wanted the party members to guide the masses and
create among them the sense of a disciplined life. The members of the party were
also expected to look after the welfare of the people and chalk out necessary
programmes for this purpose. Lenin wanted, the Party not only to work for the good
of the party members but non-party men too. He held that a healthy and harmonious
atmosphere could be created only if the party was able to win over the confidence of
the non-party workers, that their interests were being properly looked after by the
party.
Lenin favoured a strong party organisation which was capable of bringing out the
revolution as well as maintaining its fruits. This naturally implied a strong discipline
among the members of the party. No member of the party was permitted to become
disloyal to the party hierarchy and all the members were expected to think along the
party lines. Lenin held that such rigid discipline among the party members was
essential to promote discipline among the people because only a disciplined nation
could make progress.
According to Prof. Sabine, Lenin's Party system, and the communist parties anywhere
have three distinctive features: "First, the party was assumed to possess in Marxism a
unique type
of knowledge and insight, with a uniquely powerful method, the dialectic...

second, Lenin's party, being in principle a carefully selected and rigidly
disciplined elite, was never designed to become a mass organisation exerting its
influence mainly by convincing and attracting voters. It claimed superiority both
intellectual and moral ...third, Lenin's party was designed to be a tightly
centralised organisation, excluding any form of federalism or autonomy to any
local or other constituent bodies. It was to have a quasi-military
organisation, subjecting its ranks and file to strict discipline and rules of
obedience and its leaders to a hierarchical chain of authority from the top-down."
Thus, Lenin assigned a pre-eminent position to the party in his scheme and
wanted the people to render full obedience to it.
LENIN ON REVOLUTION
Lenin laid great emphasis on revolution, to bring about communism. However, he
believed that initially revolution could be brought about in countries which did
not possess healthy democratic traditions. He was fully convinced that socialism
could not be brought about parliamentary methods and the workers had to adopt
revolutionary methods to capture power and bring about necessary
transformation of the existing economic and social institutions. Lenin held that
for the success of a revolution it was essential that "the exploited and oppressed
should understand that they cannot go on living in the old way and that they
should demand a change for revolution it is not necessary that the exploiters
should not be able to govern in the old way. Only when the lower classes do not
want the old and when the upper classes cannot continue in the old way, only
then can the revolution be victorious." In other words, he held that a revolution
was impossible without a national crisis affecting both the exploited and the
exploiters. For this purpose the majority of the workers (or class conscious and
politically active workers) should be convinced of the need of revolution and be
prepared to sacrifice their life, and the government should face a crisis which
draws into politics even the most backward masses and renders the government
impotent to enable the revolutionaries to overthrow it.
Lenin assigned a very significant role to the Communist Party in bringing
about the revolution. He argued that insurrection was an art which can be
mastered by the professional revolutionaries. Therefore, Lenin insisted that his
party should consist of only professional revolutionaries, organised as secretly as
possible. Lenin also attached great importance to the tactics of revolution. He
held "Never play at uprising, but once it is begun, remember firmly that you have
to go to the very end, (2) it is necessary to gather a great preponderance of
forces in a decisive place at
28
a decisive moment, otherwise the enemy, being better prepared and organised
will annihilate the insurgents; (3) one must strive to take the enemy by surprise
to take advantage of a moment when his troops are scattered."
Once the revolution had been brought about, Lenin favoured quick action to
get hold over the private means of production and their replacement by
collective methods. He also favoured collective control over the means of
production and distribution so that wasteful energies in competition could be
utilised for constructive purposes. According to Coker "A Marxist, said Lenin in
1917, must take cognisance of living life of true facts of reality...he must not
continue clinging to the theory of yesterday, which like every other theory, at
best only outlines the main and the general, only approximately enhancing the
complexity of life."
LENIN'S THEORY OF DICTATORSHIP OF PROLETARIAT

Lenin accepted Marx's concept that the transformation from capitalism to
communism shall take place through the transitory stage of dictatorship of the
proletariat, but he converted it into dictatorship of the Communist Party. Lenin held
that the workers by themselves do not develop a revolutionary consciousness. They
must be given proper instructions before-hand by the party leaders. If they are not
given adequate instructions before the revolution they will not be able to take control
of the situation. He therefore, insisted on the need of a small body of informed,
disciplined revolutionaries, who shall seize power and use their superior knowledge
and revolutionary consciousnes to preserve the gains of revolution. Thus, with Lenin,
the dictatorship of proletariat becomes dictatorship over the proletariat. Lenin
himself admitted that he transformed the dictatorship of the proletariat into
dictatorship of one party state. However, like Marx he also held that it was of a
temporary nature and would disappear once the exploitation of man by man and
class contradictions and antagonism came to an end. In fact, the dictatorship of the
Communist Party is a sort of interim government which possesses all the coercive
functions of the
old order. It is a sort of bourgeois state without the bourgeoisie."
The ultimate objective of Lenin, was to establish a communist state or society, in
which all the public offices shall be elective and the administrators, shall have
experience to solve all practical problems. Lenin, outlined the following process for
the attainment of this goal. "The first task is to lay low the exploiters, to crush their
resistance; to render impossible any attempts on their part to reimpose the yoke of
capitalism and wage slavery. The second, is to inspire and lead, in the footsteps of
the revolutionary advance guard of the proletariat, its communist party. The third, is
to neutralize or render harmless the inevitable fluctuations between bourgeois i.e.
and the proletariat, between bourgeois democracy and Soviet power."
LENIN ON RELIGION
Like Marx, Lenin also considered religion as an obstacle in the way of progress and an
instrument of exploitation of the poor. To quote Lenin "We... reject every attempt to
impose on us any moral dogma whatsoever as an eternal, ultimate and forever
immutable moral law on the pretext that the moral world too has its permanent
principles which transcend history and the difference between nations. We maintain,
on the contrary, that all former moral theories are the product, in the last analysis, of
the economical stage which society has reached at that particular epoch. And as
society has hitherto, moved in class antagonisms, morality was always a class
morality." He further asserted that "our morality is wholly subordinate to the interests
of the class struggle of the Proletariat. Explaining the attitude which he wanted the
Government to take towards religion he said: "The Party of the Proletariat demands
that the Government shall declare religion as a private matter, but it does not for a
moment regard the
question of the fight against the opinion of the people, the right against religious
superstition as a private matter. We want that religion be regarded as a private
matter as far as the state is concerned, but under no circumstances can we regard it
as private matter in our own party," However, certain scholars have
Lenin 29
argued that the communists fail to completely discard religion and have adhered to it
in a different form. For example, Prof. Laski says, "The Jesuit who sets out to preach
his faith in China or the unknown Arctic North-West is similar to the communist who
volunteers to bury the infected corpses in the cholera epidemic. Like the Jesuit, the
Communist has no personal end to secure, he feels himself essentially the servant of
the great idea. Like the Jesuit also, the Russian Communist has the assurance that he
works for a cause that is bound in the end to triumph."
ESTIMATE OF LENIN
Lenin has rightly been given the credit for giving practical outlook to the otherwise
theoretical dogmas of Marx and updating his philosophy. An account of the
modifications made by Lenin in Marxian philosophy has already been given and need
not be repeated. But probably the most important contribution of Lenin to the
Marxian theory, as Prof. William Ebenstein has put "it was his concept of professional
revolutionary. Marx tinged by ninteenth century respect for man's capacity to think
for himself had assumed that the working class would spontaneously develop its
class-consciousness in the daily. Struggle for economic existence, and that its
leadership would largely come from its own ranks. Lenin had much less confidence in
man, even if he belonged to the select class, the proletariat. Communist activity, said
Lenin, is to be carried on along two lines. First, workers are to form labour
organizations, which are to be small groups of professional revolutionaries, patterned
after the army and the police, highly select and entirely secret. Lenin did not care
whether the professional revolutionary was of proletarian origin or not, as long as he
did his job well."
Solvadori sums up the contributions of Lenin thus: "He stressed the necessity of
creating a homogenous group of disciplined professional revolutionaries... The
masses were not going to lead, as most other branches of the socialist movement
hoped. He advocated mass violence while rejecting the individual acts of terrorism.
Lenin accepted the Marxian theory of the withering away of the state in a society,
instead of eliminating the state as soon as the revolution had
taken place... Lenin wanted to use it for the achievement of socialism... the
dictatorship of the proletariat became the dictatorship of the party leading the
proletariat... Lenin opposed parliamentarian procedure and the liberal theory of the
division of power... Lenin was intolerant of any kind of compromise... Lenin saw his
political party as an elite leading the proletariat into the struggle against the
parliamentary democracy, capitalism and nationalism... He was exclusively
concerned with groups and not individualism. An unflinching devotion to the ideal of
socialism and terrific capacity for work."
On a perusal of the above views about the contributions of Lenin to political
thought we can recount the following points:
Firstly, Lenin made Marx's philosophy up to date and provided it a practical
outlook. This was indeed a difficult task and Lenin accomplished it remarkably. He
brought Marx's philosophy up to date without effecting any change in his
fundamental philosophy. Joad has rightly observed: "While Marx's approach to life is a
bit philosophical, Leninism has no such fragrance; it is a scientific truth, not a dogma,
purely a materialistic approach to life and its activities...
Secondly, Lenin laid great emphasis on organisation and was in this sense a
realist. He emphasised that the Marxian doctrines could not be implemented without
an effective Communist Party. Thus he was the first to emphasise the need and
effectiveness of political party as an instrument for the implementation of the
programme. This aspect is now accepted in almost all the countries, including the
democratic countries. Political parties and rigid party discipline form the basis of most
of the modern governments.
Thirdly, Lenin laid great stress on the selection of the right persons for the party
offices. He asserted that the party members should be men of high integrity and
character, because people who lack these qualities cannot inspire the confidence of
the people and hence fail to get their full cooperation.
Fourthly, Lenin laid great emphasis on the need and importance of a theory. He
asserted that unless there was a proper theory there could be no proper action. He
was not in favour of evolving a
theory after action. On the other hand he insisted that the theory should precede the
action because a sound action can be taken only if there is a sound theory.
Fifthly, he rightly emphasised the important role which the peasantry could play in
bringing about the revolution, particularly in predominantly agricultural societies. He
put this principle in actual practice by organising a successful revolution in Russia
in 1917. In
subsequent years the peasantry played a dominant role in most of the revolutions.
The credit for highlighting the significance of the role of the peasantry goes to Lenin.
In conclusion, we can say with Prof. Gray that Lenin's "strength lay in his
singleness of purpose, in the intensity with which he kept his mind fixed on the end
to be attained. He was a man set apart, ruthless and undeviating in the fulfillment of
a mission".
EQShEEI /
B
Mao Zedong or Mao

Tse Tung (1893-1977)
Mao Zedong, popularly known as Mao Tse Tung, the father of modern Communist
China, was not only an important political leader who moulded the destiny of the
Chinese people and made China as one of the most powerful nations of the world,
but also an important Marxian philosopher who gave Marxism its Asiatic form. Before
we discuss his ideas it shall be desirable to have an idea about his early life and
influences on his thought.

Mao Tse Tung was born in 1893 in Huan province in the family of a poor peasant. As a
child he was required to work hard on the fields and consequently forced to give up
his education at the age of 13. As Mao Tse Tung was keen to have education he
worked on the fields during the daytime and read books at night. He took special
delight in the books dealing with heroes of the world, and was greatly impressed by
heroes like Washington, Rousseau, Gladstone and Napoleon. He also studied the
histories of various countries. One thing which really surprised him was that all these
books on history dealt with the character and achievements of rulers, feudal lords,
and nobility and hardly made any reference to the hardships and sacrifices made by
the peasants.
The actual sufferings of the peasants also left a deep impact on his mind. He was
pained to see that the rulers and nobles greatly maltreated the peasants and even
chopped off the heads of famine striken peasants when they demanded food. At the
age of sixteen he joined the revolutionary army of Dr. Sun Vat Sen. However, he left
the army after sometime and took up job with Hunnan Library where he got an
opportunity to know the views of Adam Smith, Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Mill etc. In
1917, after the death of his mother, Mao decided to jump into the struggle against
the Manchus. He started New People's Society. The members of this society were
encouraged to engage in physical exercises to increase their physical strength and
study extensively to increase their knowledge. This society produced most of the
important Communist leaders of China in the later years.
IMPACT OF RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

The Russian Revolution of 1917 left a deep impact on the mind of Mao and he started
organising the labourers and the students. In 1920 he formed the first labour
organisation of China. Earlier in 1919 he actively participated in organising the
students against the Hunan. Mao also started making a serious study of Marxism. In
1921 the Communist Party of China was founded by Mao with some top leaders. As a
result of the persistent activities of Mao and his society the whole of Hunnan area
became a centre of revolutionary activities.
Mao also co-operated with Dr. Sun Vat Sen in the struggle against the Manchus
and formed a united front with him. This provided Mao an opportunity to establish
closer links with the peasants, labourers and students. He organised a number of
strikes with success and won the admiration of Dr. Sun Vat Sen. However, after the
assumption of leadership of Chiang-Kai-Shek, the communists suffered a set back
because the leader did not tolerate the rising power of the Communists. Thereupon
Mao formed the Red Army and started a new kind of struggle against Chiang-KaiShek. He made use of the guerilla tactics against the numerically superior armies of
Chiang-Kai Shek and caused much embarassment to him.
In 1935 Mao organised a front against the Japanese. He even offered to cooperate with the Kuomintang in this struggle against a foreign power. However,
Chiang did not respond favourably. As a result Mao gained much popularity while
Chiang's own soldiers turned against him and forced him to co-operate with Mao.
Thus the struggle against the Japanese was continued till ultimate victory. This
provided Mao an opportunity to increase his popularity and strengthen his mass
base.
After the war was over Mao suggested to Chiang to have a coalition government.
But Chiang could not reconcile with the rising power .of Mao and therefore turned
down the offer. As a result during the next year a struggle ensued between the
Chiang and Mao's followers, which culminated in the capture of power by the
Communists in 1949 and the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Chiang
was obliged to take shelter in Formosa where he continued to rule with the American
support.
POLITICAL IDEAS OF MAO TSE TUNG.

Mao was not a systematic political thinker and his ideas lie scattered in his writings
like On Contradiction and On Practice composed in 1937 and New Democracy
composed in 1939-40. It may be observed that Mao in contrast to Marx, Lenin and
Stalin, did not provide any comprehensive philosophy or political theory and his
writings were directed chiefly to popularise the Communist tenets and to deal with
the given situation. We can conveniently deal with Mao' s views under the following
heads:
1.
Modifications in Marxism to Suit Chinese Conditions
One of the major contributions of Marx to political thought was that he tried to adjust
Marxism-Leninism to the Asian culture. As at that time China was purely an agrarian
country
and lacked even the small industrial base, which Russia possessed at the time of the
Revolution. Mao was convinced that unless the Marxian philosophy was interpreted
to suit the Chinese conditions, the revolution could not be brought about in China.
He, therefore, proceeded to make modifications in
the Marxian-Leninist theory in the light of the realities of time. He expounded a
strategy which could be applied to China. Unlike Marx and Lenin who held that the
leadership to the revolution would be provided by the workers, Mao held that the
leadership of revolution would be provided by the peasants who constituted almost
70 per cent of the rural population. According to Sabine "Whether Mao's stress on
peasantry was heresey or enlightened application of Marxist-Leninist thought, it
certainly had its roots in Chinese situation".
2. Belief in Permanent Revolution

Mao did not agree with Marx and Lenin that, the dictatorship of the proletariat, shall
only be a transitory stage and the state would ultimately wither away. On the other
hand, Mao asserted that the phase of dictatorship of the proletariat would last over
many decades because the socialist revolution on the economic front must be
accompanied by the political and ideological revolution also. In short, while Marx and
Lenin treated the revolution as a quick affair, Mao believed in the perpetual character
of the revolution. Mao argued that "revolution was a means by which the people
achieved their goals. The road to socialism, he claimed, must be constantly
punctuated with violence. This conflict after all is the essence of the dialectic. Great
progress born of turmoil and social eruption is an inevitable fact of life."
3. Opposition to Capitalism
Like Marx, Lenin and Stalin, Mao also strongly opposed capitalism. He asserted that,
there cannot be true peace or accommodation, with capitalism because the two
systems are contradictory to each other. Violent struggle between these two
antagonistic systems is inevitable, even though it may be averted for the time being
through mutual restraint. However, Mao's ideas about the inevitability of conflict
between the capitalist and socialist societies were not rigid, and in course of time
with the change of circumstances Mao adopted a more flexible attitude in this regard.
4. People's War
Another important feature of Mao's thought was his concept of People's War. Mao
wanted to bring
Mao Zedong or Mao Tse Tung (1893-1977)
33
two revolutions simultaneously-one against the imperial and colonial rule and the
other against the feudal landlords. He was convinced that, unless the rule of
imperialism was overthrown, the rule of the feudal landlords could not be ended. On
the other hand, no powerful contingent could be formed to overthrow the imperialist
rule unless, the peasantry was helped in the overthrow of the feudal landless class.
Mao held that his two front war was to be fought by the political organised masses
rather than by the standing on behalf of the masses. Mao considered people as more
important than the weapons and wrote "Weapons are an important factor in war but,
not the decisive factor; it is people, not things, that are decisive. Thus, he
emphasised the theory of total revolution, by the totality of the people.
It may be noted that in this People's War, Mao assigned a prominent role to the
peasants. He asserted that the peasants were also capable of independent
revolutionary action. Thus, he replaced the concept of 'dictatorship of the proletariat'
by the principle of People's Democratic Dictatorship. He wanted to build up rural base
areas and then to use them for capturing cities. This was to be accomplished through
a number of steps. First of all, certain areas were to be brought under the political,
military and administrative control of the communist party. Certain preliminary land
reforms were to be introduced in these areas and various welfare activities were to
be undertaken to win the support of the people. Simultaneously, they were to be
indoctrinised in the principles of communism and imparted military training. Through
all these measures the leaders were to establish a sort of emotional identity between
the people and the party.
5.
Guerilla Warfare
Another notable and probably the most widely acclaimed idea of Mao was his theory
of guerilla warfare. While both Marx and Lenin believed that the power could be
seized by a violent revolution of a short duration, Mao held that revolution in the less
developed world would have to spread over a long period. He sought to achieve the
revolution through guerilla warfare. He divided the guerilla warfare into two basic
parts-military and political. The military part of the guerilla war was to pass
through three distinct phases. During the first phase, the soldiers build secure bases
of safe zones in which soldiers take rest and are trained. They try to befriend the
local people and gain support for their cause. During the second phase, the small
groups, attack the enemies by means of ambush and other guerilla activities. The
final phase involves large troop maneuvers and launching of battles, on the pattern
of conventional war. Mao advised avoidance of battle in which victory was not sure.
The aim of his guerilla war was to destroy the enemy and preserve self. The object
was to destroy the fighting capacity of the enemy rather than gain territory. The
guerilla strategy was explained by Mao thus "When guerillas engage a stronger
enemy, they withdraw when he advances; harass him when he stops; strike when he
is weary pursue him when he withdraws".
Mao attached more importance to the political activities of the guerilla forces, than
their military operations. He asserted "The most important victory is to win over the
people". Mao expected the soldiers to do more teaching than fighting. He said that
war could be won by convincing the peasants of the Tightness of the cause, rather
than by defeating the enemy militarily. The peasants were to be converted by the
soldiers through self-example. He insisted that the troops should respect the local
people and try to gain their confidence with a view to weaken their loyalty to the
enemy. Once the area was captured by the guerillas, Mao favoured establishment of
local government there to win the confidence of the peasants. This would serve as a
base of local resistance, in case, the area were to be ever left to the enemy. To win
the goodwill of the people, he also favoured redistribution of land, taken from the
landlords among the people who farmed it, and thus giving the peasants an
economic stake in the guerilla cause. The guerilla soldiers were also to devote their
time to the rebuilding of the villages, to establish
relations between the soldiers and peasants on equal and friendly basis.
Along with these activities, the guerilla forces were to constantly teach the
peasants, the principles of revolution and highlight the evil policies of the enemy.
Thus, Mao believed, the guerilla forces would build an invincible base of support.
With growth in peasant support, the supplies and recruits
would
also
increase. Above all
34
information about the enemy would also increase. All this would strengthen the
guerillas and render the enemy isolated ,and weak, and eventually help in stifling
the enemy's initiative and sapping its power. In course of time, the pressure
would become unendurable and bring about enemy's collapse.
6. Views on Power and War

Mao was a staunch advocate of the philosophy of power and asserted that political
power grows out of the barrel of gun.. He said "that the experience in the class
struggle of the era of imperialism teaches us that the working class and the toiling
masses cannot defeat the armed bourgeoise and landlords except by the power of
the gun; rather the whole world can be remoulded only with the gun". In other words,
Mao believed that whosoever wanted to seize the political power and maintain it
must have a strong army.
Mao was also a strong advocate of war because he was convinced that war alone
could bring an end of capitalism and install communism. He argued that while the
Russian Revolution was the outcome of the First World War, the Revolution in China
was on account of the Second World War. He expressed the hope that the next World
War would completely wipe out imperialism and establish socialism all over the
world. According to Sabine "Few political thinkers, and indeed few Communist
leaders, have attributed such great significance to war and to military power".
7. Mao on Cultural Revolution

Mao did not want the Chinese society to deviate from his teachings and therefore
launched a Grand Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1965-66 with a view to
downgrade the role of the party and upgrade the role of the masses, and to bring
back the Chinese to his way of thinking. As Sabine has observed "The cultural
revolution...(was) designed to preserve Mao's Chinese Marxist Society from being
overwhelmed by the industrialization and consequent bureaucratization of life that
has characterised the modern west and is increasingly characteristic of Soviet Union
as well". During the revolution, the party was exposed to popular scrutiny constantly.
The Red
Guards were used to get rid of the party leaders who were taking capitalist roads.
After accomplishing the Cultural Revolution in 1967, Mao set up Revolutionary
Committees consisting of members of Peoples Liberation Army. These Committees
took part over the power of the state as well as the party in given areas. Prof. S. P.
Verma brings out the impact of the Cultural Revolution thus "The Communist Party
which emerged in China after the Cultural Revolution was no longer a bureaucratic
steel frame ruling over the country in its own right, as the Communist Party in the
Soviet Union does, but responsible ultimately to the people, which virtually means
responsibility to Mao Tse Tung, who now emerges as reflecting not the will of the
communist party, a claim, Stalin had made, but the will of the entire Chinese people,
a kind of God."
8. Theory of Knowledge
Mao's theory of knowledge was intimately linked with his views on Cultural
Revolution. Instead of laying emphasis on rational knowledge, he laid emphasis on
practice. He believed that maximum knowledge could be obtained by personal

participation rather than through rational faculty. Mao says "If a man wants to know
certain things or certain kinds of things directly, it is only through personal
participation in the practical struggle to change reality, to change those things or
those kinds of things, that he can come into contact, with the phenomena of those
things or those kinds of things; and it is only during the practical struggle to change
reality, in which he personally participates, that he can disclose the essence of those
things or those kinds of things and understand them". Thus, Mao asserted that the
best method to acquire knowledge, was through personal participation in the
activities.
9. Mao's Hundred Flowers Policy

This feature of Mao's thought forms the part of the new ideology which Mao
advocated during the period of cultural revolution. He asserted that it would be
wrong to think that in any society there should be only one ideology or only one
state. He held that each thinking was a flower and let such hundred flowers blossom
and grow. To quote him: "Let the hundred flowers blossom; let the hundred
Mao Zedong or Mao Tse Tung (1893-1977) 35
schools of thought contend". Earlier in February, 1957 also Mao had asserted that
"All classes, strata and social groups that approve, support and work for the cause of
socialist construction belong to the category of the people". Through his theory of
Hundred flowers, he once again asserted that the society shall find out the rotten and
out-dated ideas and get rid of the same only if all the ideas were permitted free
expression. In short, this policy emphasised that coercion shall not be used in
ideological matters.
10. Mao's Attitude Towards Bourgeoisie

When the Communists came to power in 1948-49, the economy of the country was in
very bad shape. However, Mao instead of resorting to socialization of economy in
accordance with the principles of Marxism, decided to tolerate the bourgeoisie class.
This approach was warranted not only on pragmatic grounds, but was also in keeping
with Mao's theory of non-antagonistic contradictions amongst the four classesthe
proletariat, peasantry, petty bourgeoisie and national bourgeoisie of the Chinese
society. He believed that these diverse classes could co-exist in peace
because their different interests did not necessarily conflict with each other.
ASSESSMENT
The perusal of the above ideas of Mao Tse Tung shows that he greatly modified
Marxism in the light of China's rural-oriental character and realities of the
situation. According to Anna Louise, an American Communist "Mao Tse Tung's
great accomplishment has been to change Marxism from a European to an
Asiatic form. Marx and Lenin were Europeans; they wrote in European languages
about European histories and problems, seldom discussing Asia or China. The
basic principles of Marxism were undoubtedly adaptable to all countries but to
apply their general truth to concrete revolutionary practice in China is a difficult
task. Mao Tse Tung is Chinese: he analyses Chinese problems and guides the
Chinese people in their struggle to victory. He used Marxist-Leninist principles to
explain Chinese history and the practical problems of China. He is the first that
has succeeded in doing so...He has created a Chinese or Asiatic form of
Marxism."
_8M.K. Gandhi
(1869-19)
Mahatma Gandhi, was not a political thinker, in the true sense of the term. He was
more of a moral reformist and did not expouse any new principle or doctrine.
Mahatma Gandhi himself admitted "I do not claim to have originated any new
principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the central truths to
our daily life and problems". However, it cannot be denied that the ideas propounded
by Mahatma Gandhi exercised a profound influence on the nationalist movement
between 1919 and 1947. The ideas of Mahatma Gandhi are contained in his
autobiography entitled 'The Study of My Experiments with Truth', 'Hind Swaraj',
'Young India', 'Harijan and Navajivan'. Through a careful scrutiny of his ideas his
admirers have tried to reconstruct Gandhian Philosophy. But the fact remains that
Gandhi was a Karamayogi or a practising idealist. He taught only what he himself
practised.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi or Bapu, was
born at Porbandar on 2 October 1869. His father was a Dewan at the court of the
ruler of Kathiawar. Gandhi's mother was a religious lady and left a deep impact on his
mind. Gandhi was shy child and spent most of the time in his books. After his early
education in India, Gandhi went to England for his higher education. He returned to
India, after obtaining degree in Law in 1891 and set up his practice as a lawyer first
at Bombay and then at Kathiawar. As he could not have good practice, he took up a
job with a firm having business in South Africa and proceeded there. In South Africa,
he saw the worst type of racial discrimination being practised against the non-whites
and organised
the Indians living there, to fight for their rights. Through constant agitation he made
the Indians in South Africa conscious of their sufferings.
He came to India on the eve of the First World War and decided to extend full
support to the British Government, in the hope that they would do full justice toTndia,
after the war. Gandhi also took up the cause of the indigo workers and launched first
jion-violent struggle in India. He organised country-wide protests against the Rowlatt
Act. He also bitterly criticised the British Government for the Jallianwala Bagh
Tragedy. In 1920, he started non-cooperation movement against the Government but
suspended the same in the wake of the violent incidents at Ghauri Chaura in Uttar
Pradesh. Thereafter, Gandhi devoted himself to the social and economic upliftment of
the untouchables and women. He also led movements like Civil Disobedience
Movement in 1930-31 and Quit India Movement in 1942.
As regards the influence on Gandhi he was greatly influenced by his mother and
his nurse Ramba, who were deeply religious ladies. Gandhi was greatly influenced by
Ramayana, which he described as the greatest book in all devotional literature. The
teachings of Buddha, Mahavira, and various philosophic works of Hindus also
exercised profound influence on him. Mahabharata and Bhagwat Gita also greatly
influenced him. In fact, he learnt the lesson of self-reliance and disinterested
performance of one's duty from Gita. Gandhi himself admitted "to me the Gita
became an infallible guide of conduct. It became my dictionary of daily reference".
His concept of Satyagraha was largely the, result of influence of Gita.
M.K. Gandhi
37
The play Harish Chandra left probably most profound influence on Gandhi's mind
and confirmed his faith in the principles of truth and non-violence. Acknowledging the
influence of Harish Chandra, Gandhi says "This playHarish Chandracaptured my
heart. I could never be tired of seeing it. To follow truth and to go through all the
ordeals Harish Chandra went through was the one ideal it inspired in me. " Similarly,
Bible also left an impact on Gandhi. He says, "it was the New Testament, especially
the Sermon on the Mount, which really awakened me to Tightness and value of
Satyagraha". The life of Mohammad also won his admiration. In short, Gandhi's
thinking was influenced by various religious Stands.
Apart from religion Gandhi was also influenced by Western writers and philosophers
like Ruskin, Henry, David, Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, etc., He learnt the principle of dignity
of labour from Ruskin. His views on non-cooperation were largely influenced by
Thoreau. He learnt the
principles of Ahimsa and truth from Tolstoy. However, the influence of these
writers was supplemented by the influence of Hindu traditions.
MAIN IDEAS OF GANDHI

At the outset it may be noted that Gandhi was not a systematic thinker but only
an inspired teacher who poured out his deepest feelings and sincere realizations
of truth. Gandhi himself admitted that he was not giving any new philosophy and
said "There is no such thing as Gandhism and I do not claim to have originated
any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the
eternal truths to our daily life and problems. The things I have formed and
conclusion, I have arrived at, are not final. I may change them...I have nothing to
teach to the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as hills. All I have done is to
try the experiments in both on as vast a scale as I could do. In doing so I have
sometimes erred and learnt by my errors; well, f my philosophy, if it might be
called by that pretentious name is done in what I have said, you will not call it
Gandhism; there is no ism about it.
It is true that Gandhi never tried to present new principles in a systematic
manner, but he,
preached certain basic principles which were quite consistent. Scholars have
tried to analyse and present Gandhi's views in a systematic manner and
establish that Gandhi was a great political thinker. Without going into this
controversy any further, let us briefly examine some of the important ideas of
Gandhi's thought.
1. Gandhi on Religion and Politics

Gandhi saw a very close relationship between religion and politics and sought to
spiritualize politics. As one scholar has observed "His politics, philosophy and political
techniques are only two corollaries of his religious and moral principles...without the
moral basis supplied by the religion, life would be mere maze of sound and fury
signifying nothing." He condemned politics which was bereft of religion on the ground
that it makes man corrupt, selfish, unreliable, materialistic and opportunistic. A
politics separated from religion was politics of force and fraud. It may be noted that
Gandhi identified religion with morality and was opposed to the exploitation of
religion for political interests. He highlighted the close relationship between religion
and politics thus: "Those who say that religion has no relationship with politics do not
understand the meaning of religion. For me there is no politics without religion.
Politics is subordinate to religion. Politics without religion is a death trap because it
kills man's soul. Again he said, "I could not be leading a religious life, unless I
identified myself with the whole of mankind, and that I could not do unless I took part
in politics. In short, Gandhi saw a close relationship between religion and politics and
favoured a religiously dominated politics. However, Gandhi never preached or
believed in theocratic dogmatism. He certainly did not believe in making any religion
a state religion and considered religion as a purely personal matter. Attempt on the
part of Gandhi to combine religion and politics simply means that he was in favour of
spiritualizing politics.
2. Gandhi on Non-Violence
Another notable feature of Gandhi's thought is his advocacy of non-violence or
Ahimsa. It may be observed that the concept of Ahimsa was not an original
contribution of Gandhi and had been known and practised in India since ancient
times.
38
Gandhi merely lifted it from the individual plane and applied it to various walks of life,
viz., domestic, institutional, economic and political. His concept of Ahirnsa (nonviolence) was quite extensive and did not merely imply avoidance of violence. He
also included in it avoidance of injury through thought, words or deeds. Thus, he
considered a harsh speech or thinking ire of others, also as violence. On the other
hand, if a life was destroyed for the sake of those whose life was taken, Gandhi would
not consider it as Ahirnsa. Gandhi is said to have got a calf in his ashram poisoned
because its unbearable agony and suffering was beyond cure. Gandhi gave another
example, when a life could be taken without violating the principle of Ahirnsa. He said
"Should my child be attacked with rabies and there was no helpful remedy to relieve
his agony. I should consider it my duty to take his life (violence)". However, he
insisted that such a step could be taken only when the disease is incurable; the case
is beyond all help or service; and the patient is not in a position to express his wish.
"To kill any living being or anything save for his or its own interest is hinsa' (violence).
"Thus, Gandhi's concept of nonviolence was positive concept which was based on
goodwill towards all. It even included love for the evil doer, and may even involve
conscious suffering on the part of the person who practices it. It implies absence of
malice towards the opponent and hate of the evil without hating the evil doer.
3.
Satyagraha
Gandhi's concept of Satyagraha is intimately related to his concept of non-violence,

and constitutes an important part of his thought. Satyagraha literally means 'holding
fast to truth'. Gandhi evolved the principle of Satyagraha even before its name was
coined. Initially, Gandhi described it as 'passive resistance'. However, all the time he
was conscious of the inadequacy of the term. He recorded: "I do not like term
'passive resistance'. It fails to convey all I mean. It describes a method, but gives no
hint of the system of which it is only a part. Real beautyand that is my aim is
doing good against evil." It is a technique of resisting all that is evil, unjust, impure or
untrue by love, suffering, self-purification and by the
appealing to the divine spark in the soul of the opponent.
It may be noted that the concept of Satyagraha differs from passive resistance, in
so far as the latter was supposed to be a weapon of the weak and was characterised
by hatred. It could also manifest itself in violence. Under passive resistance the
violence is abjured on account of weakness and a passive resister to embarrass the
opponent into submission. If there is a suitable opportunity the passive resister would
not mind adoption of violent methods. In short, passive resistance was a weapon of
the weak, based on the principle of expediency. On the other hand, Satyagraha is
based on soul force and stands for vindication of truth not by the infliction of
suffering on the opponent but on one's own self." It is the courage of dying without
killing. In Gandhi's Satyagraha there is no scope for cowardice and he preferred
violence over cowardice.
No doubt there are certain common methods like non-cooperation, boycott, strikes,
etc., in Satyagraha and passive resistance, but their spirit differs under the two. In
passive resistance
these methods are used to coerce the opponent to submission. On the other
hand, in Satyagraha these instruments are used to exert spiritual influence
through self-suffering. Another notable feature of Gandhi's Satyagraha was that it
could be resorted to by the individual as well as the community and could be
applied to all walks of life. As Gandhi put it "It may be used as well in politics as a
domestic affairs. Its universal applicability is in demonstration of its permanence
and invincibility". In fact, he stood for its practice in the domestic and social
relations before adoption in political sphere. The only condition essential for the
success of the Satyagraha was "recognition of the existence of the soul as apart
from the body, and its permanent and superior nature; and this recognition must
amount to a living faith and not a mere intellectual grasp".
TECHNIQUES OF SATYAGRAHA
Gandhi's Satyagraha involved the use of any one or combination of more than one of
the following techniques:
M.K.Gandhi
39
(a) Non-Co-operation
Gandhi held that governd can perpetuate injustice only if the people co-operate with
it. The people put an end to injustice by withdrawing their cooperation from the
Government and paralysing it. He said "Even the most despotic government cannot
survive except by the consent of the government which consent is often forcibly
procured by the despot. But as soon as the subject ceases to fear the despotic force,
the despot's power is gone".
The non-cooperation with the government assumes any of the following forms: (i)
Strike (Hartal). This means stopping the business as a mark of protest against the
high-handed policy of the rulers with a view to strike the imagination of the people
and the government. Gandhi, however, insisted that the strike should be voluntary
and non-violent and should be resorted to only sparingly, (ii) Picketing viz. blocking
the path of a person who wants to do a particular thing. However, Gandhi pleaded for
avoiding coercion, intimidation, discourtesy, hunger-strike, etc., in organising
picketing, (iii) Social Ostracism or social boycott of those who defy the public opinion.
This was also to be resorted to only in exceptional cases and with restraint.
(b) Civil-Disobedience
It was based on the principle of non-obedience of unjust and anti-social laws. The
participants in the civil disobedience movement were to openly declare their
intention to disobey the cruel and unjust laws and suffer the necessary punishment
for doing so. However, they were to carry on their struggle till these laws were
abrogated and replaced by just laws. As Gandhi put it "Disobedience to be civil, must
be sincere, respectful, restrained never defiant, must be based upon some well
understood principle, must not be capricious and must have no ill-will or hatred
behind it". Civil disobedience could be resorted to on individual as well as mass basis.
(c) Fasting
According to Gandhi fasting was the most effective, and fiery technique of
satyagraha and advocated great caution while making use of it. It implies readiness
on the part of the Satyagrahi to
suffer with a view to appealing to the heart of the wrong-doer. Gandhi said that
fasting could be resorted to only by a person who possesses spiritual fitness, purity of
mind, discipline, humility and faith. An ordinary individual could not make use of this
technique. It may be noted that Gandhi favoured fast only as a last resort when all
other techniques have been explored and are found wanting.
(d) Hijarat
Hijarat meant a voluntary migration from permanent place of residence. If a person
felt that he could not undertake satyagraha against the injustice of the oppressor, he
should leave his ancestral place. Gandhi held that Hijarat could be practised by
individuals as well as groups. He asserted it was not symbolic of the weakness but of
great strength because it was not an ordinary thing to leave one's ancestral place
where one was born and brought up. As Hijarat would lead to complete breaking of
association with the country, relatives and friends, this step required boldness which
only few persons possess.
In short various techniques of Satyagraha vindicate the individual's abiding right
of opposition to coercive authority. Stanley Jones describes Satyagraha as the
greatest of the contributions of Gandhi to the world. As a moral technique for waging
the battle of national freedom, Satyagraha attained dramatic and historic character.
GANDHI ON 'END AND MEANS'

Gandhi saw a very intimate relationship between the end and" means and considered
the means as more important than the end itself because the former grows out of the
latter. He argued that if we take care of the means the end will take care of itself.
Gandhi likened the means to a seed and the end to a tree and asserted that there is
just the same inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is
between the seed and the tree. He asserted that moral ends can be achieved only
through moral means and no peaceful and disciplined society could be built through
violence. A society established through nonviolent methods shall certainly be a
society based on non-violent psychology. It may be noted that
before Gandhi, Plato and Green also emphasised close relationship between politics
and ethics and wanted an ideal social organisation to be built on moral principles.
However, Gandhi went much ahead and tried to extend this principle to the daily
social and political conduct. Gandhi was not prepared to make any compromises on
fundamental principles. He attached great importance to the adherence of moral
values and said "Where the means are clean, there God
is undoubtedly present with his blessing". He was not willing to deviate from this
principle even for the attainment of country's independence and said "You might,
of course say, that there cannot be non-violent revolution and there has been
none known to history. Well, it is my ambition to provide an instance, and it is my
dream that my country may win its independence through nonviolence. I will not
purchase my country's freedom at the cost of non-violence."
Gandhi firmly rejected the view that an action could be divided into two partsmeans and ends and so long as the end was good any means to achieve the end
were justified. Gandhi said that means and ends are inseparable and they
constitute an organic whole. As such bad means are bound to pollute the end. He
likened the end and the means with the two sides of same coin and asserted that
it was difficult to disentangle and separate them. In fact, Gandhi considered
means as more important than the end because the end grew out of the means.
Further, the individual could have control only over the means and not over the
ends.
Gandhi and Swadeshi

Swadeshi literally means love for one's own country. However, Gandhi applied
the concept to various spheres, viz., religious, economic and political. In the
religious sphere Swadeshi meant to Gandhi following one's hereditary religion. He
said "A Hindu can get more inspiration from his own religion than from Islam or
Christianity. We should try that Hindus should become better Hindus, Muslims
better Muslims and Christians better Christians". He attached more importance to
the moral conduct than performance of worship and other rituals.
In the economic sphere Swadeshi meant for Gandhi, the use of only those
goods which were
produced by one's immediate neighbours and serve those industries by making
them efficient and complete where they were wanting. In other words, Gandhi
made a plea for the protection of the home industries, especially those which had
the potentiality of growth. Swadeshi in the economic sphere also meant boycott
of the foreign goods. Emphasising the importance of boycott of foreign goods
Gandhi said "India cannot be free so long as India voluntarily encourages or
tolerates the economic drain which has been going on for the past century and a
half. Boycott of foreign goods means no more and no less than boycott of foreign
cloth." Gandhi was not in favour of rejecting everything that was foreign. He
certainly, favoured the use of foreign goods which could not be manufactured in
the country, provided, they did not interfere with the growth or injured the
interest of immediate neighbours. He said "To reject foreign manufactures merely
because they are foreign and to go on wasting national time and money, in the
promotion in one's own country of manufactures for which it is not suited, would
be criminal folly and a negation of the Swadeshi spirit." Thus, he favoured the
purchase of goods from different parts of the world provided they were needed
for the growth of the individual and did not interfere with and injured the growth
of the local industries. As such, he had no objection to the purchase of useful
healthy literature from different parts of the world, surgical instruments from
England and watches from Switzerland. On the other hand, he was not in favour
of purchasing even an inch of the finest cotton fabrics from England or Japan
because they would injure the indigenous industry of India. Thus, Gandhi's
principle of Swadeshi emphasised "contentment with local conditions and with
the things that God had provided for man's sustenance, instead of ruthless
exploitation of other countries to obtain unnecessary luxuries; thus, overthrowing
their own internal economic equilibrium and introducing discord."
In the political sphere, Swadeshi meant adoption of traditional Indian political
institutions in preference to the western political institutions. Thus, Gandhi
pleaded for the establishment of village panchayats, Ganarajya etc. In short,
Gandhi pleaded for Swadeshi in the religious, economic, political and even other
spheres with a
M.K. Gandhi
41
view to promote a spirit of self-confidence, courage and self-reliance among the

people of the country.
GANDHI'S SCHEME OF EDUCATION

Gandhi was strongly opposed to the English system of education and favoured its
replacement by an indigenous scheme. His opposition to the western system of
education was on account of number of reasons. First, it was based on foreign culture
and completely excluded the indigenous culture. Second, it ignored the culture of
heart and hand and confined itself only to the head. Third, it was imparted through
foreign medium. He argued that the time which a child spends in mastering the
vagaries of English language could be better utilised for imparting essential
knowledge about the basic facts of civil life. Gandhi insisted on the replacement of
the existing system of education by Basic Education and presented his own scheme.
He said "My plan to impart primary education through the village handicrafts like
spinning and weaving, is thus conceived as the spearhead of a silent social revolution
fraught with the most far-reaching consequences. It will provide a healthy and moral
basis for relationship between the city and village, and thus, to a long way towards
eradicating some of the worst evils of social insecurity and poisoned relationship
between the classes. It will check the progressive decay of our villages and lay the
foundation of juster social order in which there is no natural division between the
haves and have nots and everybody is assured of a living wage and the right of
freedom". Gandhi's scheme of education laid emphasis on the all round development
of the chid and laid emphasis on the development of his body, mind and spirit. It
attached more importance to moral development rather than literary training. Gandhi
asserted that moral education could not be imparted through books but through the
living touch of the teacher. Gandhi's scheme of basic education covered the period
from 7 to 14 years of age, and laid emphasis on physical drill, drawing, handicrafts,
etc. Gandhi held that true intelligence could not be developed through the reading of
books but through artisan's work learnt in a scientific manner. It may be noted that in
Gandhi's scheme
of education handicrafts were not to be taught side by side with the liberal education,
but the whole scheme of education was based on the handicrafts and industry. It
attached less importance to reading and writing. As Gandhi observed "The signs of
the alphabet may be taught later when the pupil has learnt to distinguish grain from
chaff and when he has somewhat developed about his tastes". Another notable
feature of Gandhi's, scheme of basic education was that it was economically selfsupporting. The running expenses of the education were to
come from the educational process itself. The expenses for the maintenance of
the scheme of education were to be managed from the income from handicrafts
produced by the students.
GANDHI ON STATE
Gandhi was opposed to the present state because it was based on force and
centralisation of authority, which led to negation of individual freedom. Gandhi
attached great importance to the individual and pleaded of decentralisation of
authority. He wrote in 1931 "To me political power is not an end but one of the
means enabling the people to better their condition in every department of life.
Political power means capacity to regulate national life through national
representatives. If national life becomes so perfect as to become self-regulated,
no representation is necessary. There is then a state of enlightened anarchy. In
such a state every one is his own ruler. He rules himself in such a manner that he
is never a hindrance to his neighbour". Gandhi looked upon enormous powers of
the state with suspicion and considered it as a "great threat to individual's
progress". He said "I look upon an increase in the power of the state with great
fear, because although while apparently doing good by minimising exploitation, it
does the greatest harm to mankind by destroying individuality which lies at the
root of all progress. The state represents violence in a concentrate and organised
form".
Though Gandhi was against the existing state and wanted to replace it by an ideal
state, based on non-violence, in which individual would have maximum
independence, he refrained from painting a picture of the ideal state. He said "When
society is deliberately construed in accordance
42
with the law of non-violence, its structure will be different in material particulars from
what it is today. But I cannot say in advance what the Government based wholly on
non-violence will be like." Gandhi did give some vague idea about the ideal society in
the course of his speeches and writings and by piecing them together we can form a
fairly good idea of the ideal state of his concept.
1. A Non-violent State
In the first place, he envisaged an ideal state which would be predominantly nonviolent. Gandhi admitted that in actual practice, use of force was inevitable in
politics, on account of imperfections of human beings. As he puts it "Perfect
nonviolence whilst you are inhabiting the body is only a theory like Euclid's point or
straight line, but we have to endeavour every moment of our lives". He, therefore,
advocated a predominantly nonviolent society. Gandhi did not favour imposition of
non-violence from above and insisted on voluntary non- violence. He held that this
could be achieved through moral evolution of the individual. Gandhi said that nonviolence, was not a negative doctrine but a positive force, implying love in the largest
senselove even for the evil doer. Explaining the concept of non-violence Gandhi
said "Non-violence in its dynamic condition means conscious suffering. It does not
mean meek submission to the will of the evil doer, but it means that putting one's
wholesome against the will of the tyrant. Working under this law of our being, it is
possible for a single individual to defy the whole might of an unjust empire to save
his honour, his religion, his soul and lay the foundation of that empire's fall or its
regeneration.
2. Faith in Spiritual Democracy

Another feature of the ideal state contemplated by Gandhi was spiritual democracy. It
would be governed by the voluntary efforts of the individual and would be conducted
in accordance with ethical ideals. He favoured spiritual democracy because it
provided the model for the state to improve itself. It shall be based on the willing coopration of the citizens rather than force. He asserted: that "even the most despotic
government cannot stand except for the consent of the governed, which consent is
often forcibly procured
by the despot. Immediately the subject ceases to fear the despotic force his power is
gone". Gandhi held that submission to immoral laws tantamounted to participation in
evil. He, therefore, said that a citizen should refuse to cooperate with the laws of the
state which were immoral or not good for the common people.
It may be noted that Gandhi's concept of democracy was quite different from the
general concept of democracy. He said "The nearest approach to the purest anarchy
would be democracy based on non- violence-in such a state everyone is his own
ruler. He rules himself in such a manner that he is never a hindrance to his
neighbour. In the ideal state, therefore, there is no political power because there is no
state".
3. More Emphasis on Duties Rather

than Rights
Gandhi's ideal society was to differ from the present state in so far as in this society
more emphasis shall be laid on the performance of duties rather than insistence on
rights, as was the case in the present state. The only right which the citizens in the
ideal state would possess, says Gandhi, would be the right to perform their duties
properly. The citizens would perform their duties either willingly or through
persuasion, and there would be no scope for the use of force for the enforcement of
duties.
4. Decentralisation of Authority
Gandhi was a strong critic of the centralized system because it curbed individual
initiative and stood in the way of self-realisation. He, therefore, pleaded for
decentralisation of authority both in the political as well as economic sphere. In the
political sphere, he favoured curtailment of the authority of (he state and grant of
more autonomy to the village community. Gandhi said "Society based on nonviolence can only consist of groups settled in villages in which voluntary co-operation
is the condition of dignified and peaceful existence". In other words, he insisted on
the creation of self-sufficing autonomous village communities. Writing in favour of the
autonomous village communities, Gandhi records "In this structure composed of
innumerable villages...life will not be pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom.
But it will be an oceanic
M.K.Gandhi
43
circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish for the village, the
latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes one life
composed of individuals... The outermost circumference will not wield power to crush
the inner circle but will give strength to all within and derive its own strength from it".
Gandhi asserted that in such a decentralised society individual shall enjoy complete
freedom. Such a society shall be non-violent in nature and there shall be no place for
military, police or law courts in it".
As regards decentralisation in the economic field he favoured replacement ci the
large scale industry by cottage industry. He asserted that through cottage industries
alone the spiritual values could be properly understood and appreciated. In short,
Gandhi favoured decentralisation in the political as well as economic spheres. He said
"Decentralisation of political and economic power provides for the working of
democracy based upon individual freedom and initiative and for the individual being
allowed to participate in the government of his country. It would also regulate
automatically both the production and distribution of the commodities necessary to
human life; and both the production and the consumption of these would be in the
same locality rather than having production concentrated in particular areas only,
thus necessitating regulations for the distribution of products and wealth.
Decentralisation would also bring about the regulation of the use of machinery."
GANDHI'S VIEWS ON PROPERTY AND TRUSTEESHIP

Gandhi emphasised the ideal of a simple life and insisted that a person should
possess only what was absolutely essential for his day- to-day life and attainment of
self-realisation. He was agains* unnecessary accumulation of wealth or goods. He
conceded right to private property to the extent it was necessary for one's moral,
mental and physical well-being. To quote him "Every one must have a balanced diet,
a decent house to live in, facilities for the education of one's children and adequate
medical relief". Gandhi said that when possession of property by one man interferes
with
possession of property by another; when one set of men are secured in the power of
getting and keeping the means of realizing their will, in such a way that others are
practically denied the power, then such a property is a theft.
Though Gandhi was opposed to the accumulation of wealth in the hands of few
rich people, he did not favour use of force for taking away this surplus wealth from
the rich for the benefit of the poor and deserving. He said that the consciousness and
sense of justice of the rich should be aroused and they should be made to feel that
they have no justification in keeping surplus wealth with them. They should be made
to realise that they hold the surplus wealth as trustees of the society and should
devote the same for the benefit of the community. Once the rich people were made
to feel that they were merely trustees of the surplus wealth, it would become easy to
establish a class-less society without violence or force. Gandhi said "The rich man
would be left in possession of his wealth of which he would use what he reasonably
required for his personal needs, for the remainder he would act as a trustee, using it
for the benefit of the society. But if the rich do not become the guardians of the poor
what is to be done. The only right and infalliable solution of this problem lies in nonviolence, non- cooperation and civil disobedience".
GANDHI ON BREAD LABOUR

Intimately connected with his views on trusteeship is his concept of 'bread labour'.
Gandhi said that in an ideal society every one should put in physical labour. He said
that "If all laboured for their bread and no more, then there would be enough food
and enough leisure for all. There would be no cry of over-population, no disease and
no such misery as we see around. Men will no doubt do many other things either
through their bodies or through their minds, but all this will be labour of love, for the
common good. There will be no rich, no poor, none high and none low, no touchable
and no untouchable". It may be noted that Gandhi favoured physical iabour for the
intellectuals and asserted that the needs of the body must be supplied by the body. A
significant feature of Gandhi's scheme was that it was to be voluntary and there was
no room for compulsion.
VARNA SYSTEM
Gandhi's ideal state was to be based on the ancient Varna system, which demanded
that a man shall follow the profession of his ancestors for earning his livelihood.
Gandhi attributed the existing economic and spiritual degeneration as well as the
growing poverty and unemployment to the abandonment of the Varna system. As he
puts it "The main reason of our economic and spiritual degeneration is that we have
not correctly followed the Varna system. This is the main reason of poverty and
unemployment and this is one of the main reason that there is untouchability in our
society and many people have left our society". He pleaded for the adoption of the
Varna system and said "I believe that just as every one inherits a particular form so
does he inherit the particular characteristics and qualities of his progenitors and to
make this admission is to conserve one's energies. That's frank admission, if he will
act upon it, would put a legitimate curb upon our material ambitions and thereby our
energy is set free for extending the field of spiritual research and any spiritual
evolution". However, Gandhi was not in favour of compelling any person to follow the
parental occupation against his wishes and attitude.
Gandhi's/Varna system was not hierarchical and the idea of superiority or
inferiority was wholly repugnant to his concept of Varna system. To him Varna cannot
be a set of rights or privileges but, performance of certain duties or obligations. It
was based on the principle of equality between different occupations and laid
emphasis on the observance of one's obligations. As Gandhi said "One born of
Brahmana parents will be called a brahmana, but if his life fails to reveal the
attributes of brahmana when he comes of age, he cannot be called a brahmana. He
will have fallen from brahmanahood. On the other hand, one who is born not a
brahmana but reveals in his conduct the attributes of a brahmana will be regarded as
brahmana, though he will himself disclaim the label". Gandhi considered the Varna
system beneficial for the individual as well as the community by placing at their
disposal the accumulated knowledge of the previous generations.
GANDHI'S VIEWS ON POLICE AND MILITARY

Gandhi held that though under ideal conditions there was no room for police and
military which were embodiment of the force, but in actual practice both these
are needed. However, he favoured complete transformation of their character.
The police of his concept was to consist of believers in non-violence, who treated
themselves as servants of the people rather than their masters. The police would
have some kind of arms but they will be rarely used. The policemen would act
more as reformers than policemen. They shall try to deal with disturbances with
the help and cooperation of people. The force would be used only in dealing with
the criminals and dacoits.
Similarly, Gandhi favoured retention of military force which would be nonviolent in character. This force was to be active both during the time of peace as
well as disturbances. The military forces would constantly engage in constructive
activities and keep in touch with every individual, providing very limited chances
for clashes amongst various communities. Despite this, if there were incidents of
mob frenzy, they would risk their lives in sufficient numbers, to put an end to the
riots. Similarly, if the country was attacked by some foreign power they should
either yield possession and non-cooperate with the aggressor; or offer nonviolent resistance and offer themselves as fodder for the aggressor's canons. The
sight of a large number of unarmed people ready to die rather than surrender will
melt the aggressor and his soldiers. Gandhi asserted that there would be greater
loss in men if forcible resistance was offered. However, Gandhi admitted that this
sort of ideal could be achieved only through the moral evolution of the
individuals and could not be imposed from above, as that would be against the
very spirit of nonviolence. Till people had attained such moral standards, Gandhi
favoured the retention of the military and the police force. He admitted that a
"sudden withdrawal of the military and the police will be a disaster if we have not
acquired the ability to protect ourselves against robbers and thieves". He argued
that in a democracy the
M.K.
Gandhi
45
government works on the principle of majority, and if the majority cannot

follow the non-violent methods to deal with foreign aggression or believes in
violence, the principle of non-violence should not be imposed on them. This
would be against the very spirit of non- violence on which he wanted to base
his ideal society.
CRIME, PUNISHMENT AND JAILS

Gandhi held that even in his predominantly nonviolent state there would be
some anti-social elements and some sort of crime. He, therefore, felt the
necessity of retaining punishments. However, he believed in preventive and
deterrent punishments. Therefore, he was in favour of confining the thieves
and robbers so that they could not commit the crime again. Gandhi argued
that "Crime is a disease like any other malady and is a product of the
prevalent social system". As the prevailing conditions were responsible for
the wrong-doer's action the punishment should aim at reformation of the
criminal. Gandhi was firmly opposed to capital punishment and said "I can
recall the punishment of detention, I can make reparation to the man upon
whom I inflict corporal punishment. But once a man is killed, the punishment
is beyond recall or reparation. God alone can take life, because He alone
gives it".
Gandhi also favoured retention of the prisons and insisted on transforming

them into reformatories where education and training could be provided to
the criminals. He wanted these jails to be financially self-sufficient and
suggested that "all industries that were not paying should be stopped. All the
jails should be turned into hand-spinning and hand-weaving institutions
...Prisoners...should not be looked down upon. Warders should cease to be
terrors of the prisoners, but the jail officials should be their friends and
instructors". He wanted the state to buy all the Khadi produced by the
prisoners at cost price. He insisted that the outlook of the jail staff should be
that of physicians and nurses in the hospital. They should try to help the
prisoners to regain their mental health and not harass them in any way. In
short, Gandhi stood for the reform of the criminals and wanted to make the
jails financially self-supporting.
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE
Gandhi was not happy with the existing judicial administration and favoured
its transformation. He was highly critical of the role of the judges and lawyers
in the prevailing judicial system and asserted that they encouraged quarrels
rather than repressing them. He also criticised it for its expensiveness. He
favoured decentralisation of judicial administration and insisted on the
transfer of judicial work to the village Panchayats. He said" Administration of
justice should be cheapened ...Parties to civil suits must be compelled in
majority of cases to refer their disputes to arbitration, the decision of
Panchayats to be final except in cases of corruption or obvious misapplication
of law. Multiplicity of intermediate courts should be avoided. Case law should
be abolished., and the general procedure should be simplified". Gandhi also
insisted that the judges and lawyers should perform their judicial duties
without any payment.
GANDHI ON NATIONALISM AND INTERNATIONALISM

Though, Gandhi was a great nationalist in the sense that he intensely loved
his country but the element of humanism was also present in him and he
considered the welfare of the world no less important and in this sense he
was a true internationalist. Gandhi himself said "My mission is not merely the
brotherhood of Indian humanity, my mission is not merely the freedom of
India, though today it undoubtedly engrosses practically the whole of my life
and the whole of my time. But through the realization of the freedom of India,
I hope to realize and carry on the mission of the brotherhood of man".
Gandhi did not find any contradiction between the absolutely independent
states and internationalism and asserted that an international league would
become possible when all, the nations, big or small, composing it were fully
independent and learnt to
live in friendship with each other. Gandhi wanted to see India free and
strong so that she may offer herself as willing and pure sacrifice for the
upliftment of the world. To quote Gandhi "Just as the cult of patriotism
46
teaches us today that the individual has to die for the family, the family for the
village and the village for the district, the district for the province and the
province for the country, even so a country has to be free in order that it may die
if necessary for the benefit of the world. My idea, therefore, of nationalism is that
our country may become free, that if need be, the whole country may die so that
the human race may live."
It is quite evident from the above views of Gandhi that he was a true
internationalist. He attached great importance to the service of his country but
did nothing to injure the interests of other countries. He found no contradiction
between nationalism and internationalism and asserted that it was impossible for
one to be an internationalist without being a nationalist. He said "It is not
nationalism that is evil, it is the narrowness, selfishness, exclusiveness which is
the bane of modern nations which is evil". According to a scholar who has made
a special study of Gandhi, his "idea) does not, make anv contribution to the
shaping of an institutional frame work capable of keeping the peace despite
national rivalries. The value of the ideal consists in the inspiration it may provide
to any individual or nation willing to strive for it".1
GANDHI AND COMMUNISM

Scholars have found close resemblance between Gandhism and Communism and
asserted that the former is nothing but Communism minus violence. This view
has been expressed because both Gandhism and Communism were opposed to
the existing system which was based on exploitation of the poor by the rich. Both
of them held that capital which was not used for the welfare of the people was an
evil and pleaded for better deal of the weaker sections of the society with a view
to ensure social equality.
This resemblance between Gandhism and Communism is only superfluous
and sharp differences exist between the two. While Gandhi attached great
importance to religion and insisted on spiritualisation of politics. Marx considered
religion as an opium of the people and insisted on
its complete discard, Again, Gandhi had firm faith in God and described him as
the architect of human fate, Marx did not believe in any God and asserted that no
heavenly power guided the destiny of man. All the actions of man were
motivated by materialistic considerations. In other words, while Gandhias
political philpsophy is based on spiritualism, Marxian philosophy is based on
materialism. To Gandhi man was in end in itself, while to Marx the individual was
only a means to an end. Again Marx stood for large-scale industrialisation while
Gandhi favoured decentralisation and cottage industries. He favoured large-scale
industries only as an interim measure.
Gandhi attached more importance to the means and argued that if proper
means were adopted good ends would automatically be achieved. Marx attached
more importance to the ends and stood for its attainment through just or unjust
means. Gandhi hated the evil and not the evil doer. Marx hated both the evil and
the evil doer and pleaded for the elimination of the capital as well as the
capitalists.
Again Gandhi attached great importance to non-violence. With him Ahimsa
(non-violence) was not a method of struggle but a creed. On the other hand,
Marx favoured use of violence and argued that unless violence was used the evil
institutions of state and capitalism could not be done away with. Hence, it can be
said that Gandhism is not merely Communism shelved of violence. Though, there
appears to be some formal identity between the two in reality sharp differences
exist between the two with regard to the end as well as the means to achieve
these ends.
EVALUATION OF GANDHI'S POLITICAL THOUGHT

Though, Gandhi did not provide a systematic and well worked out political philosophy
in the western sense and merely provided empirical suggestions to deal with the
various social, economic and political issues, yet his contributions to the Indian
political thought cannot be denied. He tried to blend politics with ethics and
1. B.S. Sharma, Gandhi as a Political Thinker, p.118.
M.K. Gandhi
47
emphasised the value of truth and non-violence for the solution of the national and
international problems. In the words of Dr. Radhakrishnan, Gandhi was "the immortal
symbol of love and understanding in a world wide with hatred and torn by
misunderstanding".
On the other hand, the critics have bitterly condemned Gandhi for his efforts to
combine politics with ethics. For example, C. E. M Joad says "Gandhi is one third
politician, one third saint and one third hum bug". Gandhi has been criticised for his
soaring idealism and uptopianism, specially with regard to his concept of nonviolence in the existing context. Doubts have also been expressed about the
effectiveness of non-cooperation as a weapon to bring about a change in the heart of
the opponent and there is every possibility of such a movement being suppressed
with an iron hand by the oppressor.
Gandhi's concept of a stateless and classless society also seems quite impracticable.
Gandhi himself realised this fact and felt contended with a non-violent democratic
state believing in socialism and decentralisation. Similarly, Gandhi's opposition to the
modern industries and preference for the cottage industries was a retrograde step.
The establishment of cottage industries to supplement the income of the rural areas
may be good, but to treat as substitutes
for
modern industries is bound to prove suicidal for the country's economic progress.
Gandhi's concept of primacy of means over ends is also not in keeping with
the modern trend. As D. E. Smith has observed "The general erosion of absolutes
in the thinking and behaviour of modern man and the very urgency of the
demand for radical change make increasingly unlikely the acceptance of Gandhi's
central point that means are more important than ends.
Despite the above shortcomings and criticism of Gandhi's ideas, it cannot be
denied that his ideals are worthy of emulation and can greatly contribute to the
saving of the civilization from its complete eclipse. Boyd Orr has rightly observed
"It is possible that these great principles, these wonderful ideals could be applied
on a worldwide scale? I think, the time has come when they can be applied, they
must be applied, and they will be applied because people realized that there is
no hope with modern science and abnormal powers which the scientists have let
loose for destruction. If science be applied to violence to a global war it will lead
to the destruction of civilization". Lord Halifax also pays great tribute to Gandhi
and says "I suppose there could be few men in all history who by their own
personal character and example have been able deeply to influence the thought
of their generation".
Unit II
POLITICAL THOUGHT
Chapter
Plato
"There was much in Plato of the ephemeral and
the provisional but the mid rib of the philosophy
was timeless and universal."
-Maxey
Plato the disciple of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle is one of the greatest
philosophers produced by ancient Greece. Though much of what he said and wrote is
no more available, yet the limited material which has come down to us throws a flood
of light on his work, philosophy and time. Plato adopted the method of dialogues and
lectures to propound his philosophy. He was one of the greatest logicians and
dialecticians of the west and tried to eradicate the prevailing false beliefs and opinion
by refuting the views of his opponents through their own arguments and at the end
highlighted the truth through his own views.
According to Laski "No theory of State is ever intelligible save in the context of its
times". If we have to understand Plato's political thought it shall be desirable to have
an idea about his life and times.
EARLY LIFE
Plato was born in 427 B.C. in a noble Athenian family and could boast of royal blood
running through his veins. His period (427 B.C. to 347 B.C.) was an era of great
historical importance. Two years after his birth the great Athenian General Pericles
died and Athens had to face a humiliating defeat in the Poloponnesian War. During his
life time he witnessed the most troubled period of Greek history and before he died
he could see Macedonian militarism sweeping every thing before it. The other
important developments of his
life time were the defeat of Athens in wars against Spartas, the establishment of
tyrannical rule of reactionaries, execution of his master (Socrates) by the
reactionaries. All these developments greatly disturbed him and he was convinced
that the only way out was to establish the rule of philosopher king. The execution of
Socrates particularly filled his heart with sconi for democracy and mob. He left his
native state and spent most of the time paying visits to Greece, Egypt and Italy. He
returned to Athens in 386 B.C. and set up an Academy, which is often described as
the first university of the ancient world. In this Academy long discourses and
discussions of purely argumentative nature took place and an effort was made to find
out the causes of human discontent and political instability. This Academy continued
to flourish and Plato spent most of his time guiding and inspiring his disciples.
WORKS OF PLATO
The philosophy of Plato is contained in The Republic (386 B.C.), The Statesman (360
B.C.), and The Laws (347 B.C.). Though most of the writings of Plato have since been
lost about three dozen dialogues which have come down to us give an ample idea
about his philosophy. It is
often asserted that Plato's lectures, which he delivered at the Academy, were
more valuable expressions of his ideas because he communicated real doctrine
in these lectures, but unfortunately they have been lost. We can form a fairly
good idea
52
about the development of Plato's philosophy from his dialogues. The dialogues
are treatises of popular nature on ethics, metaphysics, etc. They do not set forth
Plato's philosophy in a systematic manner and suffer from many inconsistencies.
In all forty-two of his dialogues have come down to us, although it is largely held
that some of them are forgeries and their authenticity has been challenged.
Broadly speaking, his dialogues fall into three groups. In the first group fall
the Apology and Crito, the Meno, the Protagoras and Gorgias which he composed
before the age of 34 years. These works were the creation of his earlier period of
life. In these works Plato merely demolishes the contentions of opponents
without giving his own views. In the second category fall The Republic, the
Phaedrus and the Phaedo. These works were produced by Plato during the age of
34 and 60, and represent the middle period of his life. In these works he tries to
establish some of the positive doctrines with the help of myths. Finally, he wrote
Politicus or Statesman, the Philebus, the Critias and the Laws. These works were
produced in the later part of Plato's life, viz., after 60 years of age. The political
philosophy of Plato is mainly contained in The Republic, The Statesman and the
Laws, though the problems of individual and state are also discussed in Apology
and Crito.
INFLUENCES ON PLATO'S THOUGHT

Plato's thought was greatly influenced by the contemporary intellectual climate
and particularly by the ideas of predecessors like Pythagoras, Parmenides,
Heraclitus and Socrates. As a result of the protracted struggle, the citizens of
Athens developed a complete disregard for the established tradition. The
execution of Socrates gave a rude shock to Plato's faith in democracy and he
came to look down upon it as a foolish, corrupt, vicious, immoral and inefficient
system. Plato therefore sought to built up the moral fibre and emphasised the
idea of role of philosopher king.
Plato was greatly influenced by Pythagoras's teaching that wisdom is to
contemplation of the spirit and the idea was the chief essence behind all material
things and forms. He also picked up the
idea of transmigration of souls from Pythagoras (which the latter had picked up
from the Hindu philosophy). Plato was influenced by Heraclitus's view that life is
a continuous change and there was nothing permanent in the world. Heraclitus
emphasised that one must look into the nature of things to discover the universal
law and this could be achieved if we identified ourselves with God. From
Parmenides, Plato learned that change and motion are illusions of the senses and
that reality is eternal. Combining the views of Pythagoras, Heraclitus and
Parmenides, Plato held that knowlege was a virtue which could be achieved only
through intellect.
But probably the greatest influence on Plato was exercised by his teacher
Socrates. He accepted three doctrines enunciated by Socrates, viz., virtue is
knowledge, the theory of reality and the theory of knowledge. According to Prof.
Barker though Plato borrowed basic ideas from Socrates but he unfolded these
ideas in his own way and reached his own conclusions. However, he admits that
"the image of his teacher never faded from his mind and he actually represents
the greatest legacy bequeathed by Socrates to mankind".
THE REPUBLIC
The Republic or Concerning Justice is the greatest work of Plato and represents
his thought fully. The work was written by Plato when he was around 40 years of
age and represents the ripeness of his ideas and philosophy. It consists of 10
books and deals with both political and moral principles. It also includes within its
compass the metaphysical, educational, sociological and host of other problems.
In the words of Nettleship "The whole Republic is really an attempt to interpret
real nature, psychologically; the postulates upon which its methods rest is that all
the institutions of society, class, organization, law, religion and so on are
ultimately products of the human soul and inner principle of life which works
itself out in these outward shapes". Prof. Barker also says "It is an attempt at a
complete philosophy of man... But man is a whole, his actions cannot be
understood apart from his thinking and therefore the Republic is also a
philosophy of man in thought and of the laws of his thinking."
Plato 53
The Republic of Plato starts with the proposition what is a good man and how
one can become so. As no one can become citizen outside the state this naturally
leads him to the problem as to what is a good state? Plato says that a good state
must have a philosopher king who possesses the knowledge of good and reality.
As regards the methods through which the state can take the individual to the
ultimate good, Plato advocates the instrument of education which produces-good
citizens and solves many of our social and economic problems. Thus we find that
in Republic Plato starts with ethics and enters in the domain of politics, sociology,
metaphysics, education, etc. Plato is able to deal with so many subjects in
Republic because during his times no rigid division of subjects was made.
Further, the life in the Greek city states was so much unified that no distinction
was made between politics and religion. The use of the dialectical methods and
the system of dialogue also helped Plato to cover various subjects in his
discussion. The use of such a broad field could not have been possible under any
other method.
Plato took organic view of the state and found no conflict between the ends of the
state and those of the individual. According to him a just ruler always pursues the
good of the community unmindful of his own private interests. Therefore Plato tried
to rehabilitate a strong and impartial authority which should mean, not the rule of the
rich over the poor, or of the poor over the rich, but of something either above or at
any rate combining both". Accordingly, Plato envisaged an ideal state consisting of
three classes, each performing a special or appointed functions. These
three classes were economic class, military class and ruling class. The
economic class was concerned with the production of wealth and was said to be
composed of men having iron in their nature. The warrior class consists of
persons who defended the community and was said to be composed of persons
having silver in their nature. The ruling class was responsible for the governance
of the country and had gold in their nature. Though eadi class was important
within its respective sphe.. 2 but Plato considered the ruling class more important
than other classes because the responsibility for the making and unmaking of the
nation rested on this class. He, therefore, tried to raise a ruling class bereft of
selfishness through
proper training and community of property and wives.
For a fuller understanding of the philosophy of Plato it is desirable to fully
examine his views of Justice, Education, Rule of Philosopher King, and
Communism of Wives and Property.
PLATO'S CONCEPT OF JUSTICE

Plato attached great importance to the concept of justice is evident from the fact that
he subtitled his book Republic as 'Concerning Justice'. In fact the discovery of the
nature and habitation of justice is the fundamental issue of Republic. At the outset, it
may be pointed out that to the Greeks the term 'justice' carried wider implications
than the word justice actually connotes. While explaining his theory of justice, Plato
starts by discussing the various prevailing theories of justice and after rejecting them
puts forward his own views. For a fuller understanding of Plato's views on justice, it is
desirable to examine the various prevailing theories of justice and the grounds on
which Plato rejects them.
(a) Traditional Theory

The traditional theory propounded by Cephalus and his son Polemarchus defined
justice as "speaking the truth and paying what was due to gods and men". It also
contended that justice should be so administered that good is done to the friends and
harm to the enemies. It considered justice as an art. Plato rejects this theory by
pleading that true justice means doing good to all and harm to none. To do evil to any
body is inconsistent with the elementary principles of morality. Further it is not
always possible to distinguish between enemies and friends because the
apppearances are often deceptive. Another defect of this theory is that it treats
justice as an individualistic rather than a social concept. Justice cannot differ from
individual to individual and should have universal application. Finally, this theory by
treating justice as an art makes it a handmaid of those in power and leaves sufficient
scope for its misuse.
(b) Radicalist Theory

The radicalist theory associated with Sophists and propounded by Thrasymachus
treated justice as
54
the interest of the stronger. In other words, it believes in the principle of 'might is
right'. As the government is the strongest, it makes laws according to the
convenience of the rulers and justice for the people consists in seeking the interest of
the ruler rather than pursue their own interests. At the same time, the Sophists
assert that injustice is better than justice. As every person would like to promote his
own interests there is every possibility that he would go against justice, viz., the
interests of the ruler. It was, therefore, proper to be unjust to satisfy all, rather than
become just to satisfy the ruler alone. Therefore Thrasymachus argues that injustice
is better than justice and the unjust man is wiser than the just. According to him a
person is fully justified in disobeying the laws of the state if it promotes his interests.
Plato rejects this concept of justice also on the following grounds. Firstly, justice
can never be the interest of the stronger. The government is an art and it must aim at
the perfection of the material, viz., the subjects rather than its own perfection. A ruler
is absolutely unselfish in his dealing as a ruler; and must work for the improvement of
the governed. Secondly, justice is always better than injustice because a just man is
wiser, stronger and happier than an unjust man and knows his limitation. He tries to
operate within limits and performs his appointed functions. Thirdly, Plato also
condemns the extreme individualism of the Sophists and holds that individual is not
an independent unit but a part of an order. Fourth, there cannot be standards of
justiceone for the ruler and the other for the subjects. Thrasymachus does not give
any rational justification as to why it should be just for the ruler to get his own way
and at the same time it is unjust for others to act in the like manner. In short, this
concept has no universal application.
(c)
Pragmatic Theory
The pragmatic theory of justice is stated by Glaucan. He treats justice as an artificial

thing, a product of the social convention. Justice is the child of fear and is based on
the necessity of the weak. There was no justice in the pre-civil society and, it is the
weaker sections who joined hands to create the state. Therefore Justice is not the
interest
of the stronger but the necessity of the weak. Plato criticises this theory because it
assumes that justice is something external or an important. He, on the other hand,
holds that justice is rooted in human mind. It is an intrinsic virtue which does not
depend for its origin upon a chance convention.
PLATO'S CONCEPT OF JUSTICE

After discarding the prevailing notions of justice Plato gives his own concept of
justice. He believed that justice, resided both in the individual as well as the society.
As justice in the state exists in a bigger and more visible form he tries to explain it
with he help of state. According to Plato, like human mind, the state has three
ingredients namely reason, spirit and appetite which are represented by the rulers,
soldiers and farmers respectively. He holds that each of these three makes a valuable
contribution towards the creation of the state. Justice for the society can be realised if
each group performs the function which it is best suited to perform without nterfering
in the sphere of the others. Thus justice implies a sort of specialisation and the
principle of noninterference and harmony. "Justice is the bond which holds a society
together, a harmonious union of individuals, each of whom has found his life-work in
accordance with his natural fitness and his training. It is both a public and private
virtue because the highest good both of the state and its members is hereby
conserved."
Barker explains Plato's concept of Justice thus: "Social justice may be defined
as the principal of a society, consisting of different types of men (the producing
type, the military type, the ruling type) who have combined under the impulse of
their need for another, and by their combination in one society and their
concentration on their separate functions, have made a whole which is perfect
because it is the product and the image of the whole of the human mind. As the
principle of such a society, it consists in the full discharge by each one of these
types of the specific function for which, by its capacities, and by the place they
have given it in society, it is naturally meant. The justice of the state is the
citizen's sense of the duty of his station, issuing before the world in public
action."
Plato 55
Thus Plato's concept of justice, is based on three principles. First, it implies

functional specialisation, viz., allotment of a specific function to each according
to his capacity and merit. Second, it implies noninterference by various classes in
each other's sphere of duty and concentration on its own duties. Such an
understanding is vital for the unity of the state as well as the welfare of all the
members of the state. Third, it implies harmony between the three classes
representing wisdom, courage and temperance respectively.
Accordingly justice with regard to the individual implies harmonious operation
of each part of the individual, viz., reason, spirit and appetite. This makes the
individual virtuous and social. He held that if "every one devoted himself to his
duty then ideal society will be established in which every one will concentrate on
his own sphere of duty and not meddle with the sphere of others."
CRITICISM OF PLATO'S CONCEPT OF JUSTICE

Plato's concept of justice has been subjected to searching criticism. In the main
the following charges are levelled against it:
Firstly, Plato's concept of justice is based on moral principles and lacks legal
sanction in so far it is not enforceable. It is based on self- control and selfabnegation in the interest of the society. It does not envisage any clash of
individual wills and conflict between various interests. Our experience shows that
at no stage of history mere moral sanction has been able to protect the social
good.
Secondly, his theory of justice could be possible only in the city-state when it
was possible to rigidly enforce the principle of division of labour and expect every
one to perform the allotted duties to the satisfaction of the society. In the present
context, when the population of the state has increased so much, the three fold
class division is not possible nor can fixed funct to be assigned to members of
each class.
Thirdly, Plato concedes that each individual possesses three qualities, viz.,
reasons, spirit and appetite, but he wants that each individual should
devote to the development of only one faculty. Thus he wants the ruler class to
develop the faculty of reason and the soldier class to develop the faculty of spirit
or courage, while leaving the instinct faculty for the peasant class. Thus Plato
wants the individual to live by one-third of his personality and abandon the other
two-third of personality. This can hardly be justified.
Fourthly, Plato's justice assigns absolute ruling power to one class, viz., the
philosophers because they are the reservoirs of wisdom. Thus there is clear
scope for inequalities of power and privileges in his scheme of justice. On the top
of it he pleads that the philosopher king should enjoy absolute powers and
should not be bound by any laws. However, Plato failed to realise that grant of
absolute power in the hands of any person or class of persons, howsoever
morally and spiritually trained, was bound to lead to degeneration and
corruption.
Fifthly, to prevent the ruling classes from misusing their powers, Plato
pleaded for communism of property and wives in complete violation of human
psychology. In fact, he makes too much of a demand on human beings by
insisting that they must forego their right to family and property.
Sixthly, according to Prof. Popper, Plato's concept of justice gives rise to
totalitarianism and completely ignores the humanitarian principles like equality,
individualism and freedom. On the other hand, he emphasised the principles of
natural privileges, collectivism and the duty of the individual to preserve and
strengthen the state.
Seventhly, Plato completely subordinates the individual to the state and
reduces him to a mere means for the promotion of the interest of the state.
Eighthly, Plato's justice gives rise to a class-state in which ruling is the
privilege of a particular class. In other words as Prof. Popper has put it "Plato calls
class privilege just, while we usually mean by justice rather the absence of such
privilege."
But much of the criticism levelled against Plato's concept of justice is
unjustified and shall fall flat if we remember that "Platonic justice is not a legal
matter, nor is it concerned with any external
scheme of legal rights and duties. It belongs not to the sphere of legality or to
that of social morality". (Barker). Plato considered justice as the root of wellordered society and regarded it as "the harmony between men and men, the
orderly organisation of relationships. If all the inhabitants of his ideal state could
be imbued with this sense of justice and fair play, universal happiness could be
achieved",
PLATO'S THEORY OF EDUCATION

Plato's Theory of Education is intimately linked with his Theory of Justice in so far it is
the positive or the spiritual method for the attainment of the same. Education plays a
vital role in bringing about unity and harmony in the society. In the words of Barker it
is "an attempt to cure a mental malady by mental medicine". He believed that many
evils of the society could be eliminated through proper education and considered it a
spiritual remedy. The importance which Plato attached to education in his ideal state
is evident from the fact that he devoted a good portion of the second book of
Republic to this topic and Rousseau had to remark that Republic is "the finest treatise
on education that has ever been written".
Plato believed that virtue was knowledge and it was the duty of the state to
impart that knowledge. He held that all the three classes in the state must be
properly trained and educated so that they may be able to perform their duties
efficiently and properly. In other words, the state exists for the promotion of
education. Prof. Barker brings out intimate relationship between justice and
education thus "A system of common education will give that training for special
work and that instinct for keeping unselfishly to its performance, which justice
demands".
According to Plato, education has individual as well as social aspect. On the
one hand, it makes the individual realize knowledge which is synonymous with
virtue. It enables the individual to turn the eye of his soul to the inward reality
and truth. On the other hand, it is a social process through which the units of
society become instinct with social consciousness and learn to perform the duties
of their respective stations unselfishly. Plato makes a harmonious blending of
these two aspects of education in his scheme.
METHODS OF PLATO'S EDUCATION
At the time of Plato, two diametrically opposite methods of education were in

vogue-the Athenian and Spartan. The Athenian system of education was mainly
in private hands and left it entirely to the parents to educate their children in the
manner they liked best. On the other hand the Spartan system of education was
fully controlled by the state. The children were separated from their parents at
the age of four and were placed under the care of prefects. The parents had
nothing to do with the education of their children. The state provided them
education in harmony with the social conditions. Plato made an attempt to
combine these two systems of education and made some changes in higher
education. His system of education aimed at promoting social welfare and helped
the individual in realising the reality.
FEATURES OF PLATONIC SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

The main features of the Platonic system of education were as follows:
Firstly, Plato believed in state controlled education. In view of the importance
of education Plato insisted that all concerned must be imparted proper
education. He considered education as a positive means by which the ruler could
mould the character of the people and promote spirit of unselfish devotion
towards their duties. He therefore, did not favour the idea of leaving education in
private hands and insisted on state controlled education.
Secondly, Plato did not consider it proper to leave the education of children
entirely to the discretion of the parents and insisted on making it compulsory. As
uneducated children were likely to be a liability for the state, he insisted, it
should be made compulsory for all citizens so that they may fully develop their
mental faculties and become valuable units of the state.
Thirdly, Plato did not favour the exclusion of the women from his scheme of
education on the Athenian pattern and wanted that both men and women should
be given education. Plato did not find any difference between the native
capacities of boys and girls and therefore, favoured that both should be given
similar type of education. He was
Plato 57
in favour of women, holding public offices, like men.

Fourthly, Plato's education was meant for artisans as well as peasants also.
Though Plato does not make a clear mention in this regard, but it is quite implied
from his statement that "Men of copper can be made into men of silver and even
of gold, if they possess their attributes". However, Plato nowhere says for certain,
whether his plan of education was meant for the peasants and artisans or not.
Fifthly, Plato was in favour of strict censorship of all literary and artistic works
to ensure that the youth did not come under bad moral influence. He wanted
only the right type of literature to reach the hands of youth. The ultimate judge
of the Tightness or otherwise, of the literature was the ruler. Thus he sought to
check every piece of literature which could have adverse moral effect on the
children and insisted on clearance of the state before any piece of literature
could be brought in the market.
Sixthly, Plato's education aimed at moral, as well as physical development of
the child. He held that a healthy mind could reside only in a healthy body and it
was essential that education should develop both these faculties. Any scheme of
education which promoted only one.aspect was, according to Plato, incomplete.
Finally, the chief objective of Plato's scheme of education was to produce the
philosopher Kings. The philosophers after passing through a rigorous scheme of
education were expected to govern the country in the interest of the masses.
CURRICULUM OF EDUCATION
Plato's educational curriculum could be broadly divided into two stages-elementary
and higher. The elementary or basic education was further sub-divided into three
stages. The first stage lasted from birth to the age of six years. At this stage both the
boys and girls were to be given education in language. The children were also to be
taught basic facts of religion, religious institutions, etc., at the second stage
extending from age of 6 to 18. During this period, the child was to be taught music as
well as gymnastic. Music was essential for the development of soul and gymnastics
for the development of body. Thus during the second
sub-stage both body and soul were to be developed. According to Barker this stage
was meant "to habitate the young soul, which is still in the stage of feeling, to feel as
it should feel about such problems as it has to solve, and in the strength of feeling,
ingrained by habit to do as it ought to do without knowing the why and wherefore of
its action". The third sub-stage extended from 18 to 20 years of age. Both men and
women were given compulsory military education at this sub-stage.
The higher stage bf education lasted from 20 to 35 years of age. At the end of 20
years there was to be a test and those showing aptitude for science and philosophy,
were to be given further education for 15 years. The scheme of higher education has
been described by Sabine as "most original as well as most characteristic proposal Of
the Republic". The higher education was to make the recipient wise. The higher
education was also divided into two: sub-stages, the first extending from 20 to 30
and the second extending from 30 to 35. During the first stage included the study of
subjects like Mathematics, Astronomy, Logic and other sciences. He insisted on the
knowledge of geometry as a pre-condition for entrance to his Academy. At the
age of 30, another selection test was held and only those who qualified it,
were given a further training for five years, i.e., upto the age of 35. During the
second sub-stage emphasis was to be laid on dialectics, because according to
Plato,, dialectic was the only system of knowledge through which highest reality
could be achieved. This stage of education was essentially meant to create the
Philosopher King. The Philosopher King was expected to rule from 35 years to 50
years of his age then retire and resume study, for the contemplation of God. Thus
Plato envisaged as a life-long process for the Philosopher King.
CRITICISM OF PLATO'S SCHEME OF EDUCATION

Plato's scheme of education has been subjected to much criticism. In the main the
following charges have been levelled against it.
Firstly, it is alleged that Plato's scheme of education was meant for the guardian
class alone and the bulk of the population consisting of
peasants and artisans, were not covered by it. No system of education which ignores
majority of the people can be called a healthy system. In the words of Sabine, "It is
extraordinary that Plato never discusses the training of the artisans and does not
even make clear how, if at all, they are to be included in the plan of elementary
instructions. This fact illustrates the surprising looseness and generality of his
conclusions".
Secondly, Plato's scheme of education is a life long process. After devoting a
major portion of his life to education alone the rulers are hardly left with any time to
devote to other pursuits. In other words they are hardly left with any initiative which
operates against the interests of the society.
Thirdly, his scheme of education is far removed from reality. It can only create
academic theorists, who are incapable of dealing with the hard realities of life. It is
indeed difficult to understand, how a person who has undergone a rigorous
theoretical education for thirty-five years, shall be able to deal with the realities
effectively.
Fourthly, Plato's plea for censorship of art and literature is highly derogatory, in so
far it is not only likely to destroy the creative instinct of the artists and poets, but also
bound to influence its free flow.
Fifthly, the scheme of education envisaged by Plato is not logical, in so far as,
there is no relationship between one stage, and the other stage. During the first
stage he insists on study of music and gymnastics, which are hardly capable of
developing thinking capacities amongst the youngsters. The second stage implies the
use of reasoning faculties. It is difficult to understand how the recipients who have
not developed thinking capacity during the -firststage of education shall be able to
adjust in the second stage.
Sixthly, in Plato's scheme of education no provision exists for imparting education
in the art of administration. The philosopher king, who is required to administer the
state, is not given any training in the art of administration or other allied problems. It
is diffcult to understand how a philosopher king trained in music, gymnastics and
dialectics shall be able to deal with the real problems of administration.
Seventhly, Plato's uniform pattern of education is contrary to human psychology
and contrary to the richness of society which depends on diversity of growth. He
hardly makes any provision for technical and vocational education.
Eighthly, Plato seems to be constantly wavering between the ideal of action and
ideal of contemplation. His philosopher kings are trained to become good rulers, but
they find their fulfilment in a life of contemplation of the ideas of good. After
undergoing a training for 35 years they rule only for 15 years, to revert back to
contemplation.
Despite these shortcomings and defects of Plato's' scheme of education, it cannot
be denied that it was an improvement on the system of education found in Athens
and Sparta. "He included the good points of both the systems in his scheme. No
doubt the scheme envisaged by him was quite unrealistic in so far it was a life long
process and the curriculum was far removed from realities of life. But he certainly
deserves credit for emphasising that education must aim at the moral as well as
physical development. He insists on tests to weed out the unfit and favours higher
education only for the deserving. He tries to combine theory and practice by arguing
that mere generalizations and abstractions are worthless unless they are tested in
the furnace of experience and found enduring in competition with cunning, fraud,
deceit and sophistry."
RULE OF PHILOSOPHER KING

Plato's concept of rule of philosopher king is a corollary of Plato's concept of justice.
As already pointed out he divided the human mind into three elements reason, spirit
and appetite. He accorded a position of pride to the element of reason in mind, as
well in the organisation of the state. Second, he believed that 'virtue is knowledge'
which implied that the two must go hand-in-hand. Plato believed that one of the
major cause, of the prevailing turmoils was that the ignorant were ruling over the
wise. He held that the affairs of the state could be set right only if wise people, after
getting due training, ruled the nation. He said "Until philosophers are kings, or kings
and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy,
Plato 59
cities will never have rest from their evils". Plato was quite critical of the Athenian
practice in which the ruler were selected by draw of lots. His observation that "in
order to become a carpenter one needs some training, but in order to become a
ruler, a simple lottery will do" is an ample proof that Plato was highly critical of the
Athenian practice. On the other hand, Plato held that only competent and efficient
people should have the right to govern.
FEATURES OF PLATO'S
PHILOSOPHER KING)
RULE
OF
PHILOSOPHY
(OR
The conception of rule by the philosopher king, which is described by Prof. Foster
as "the most profoundly original conception in the entire political thought of
Plato" has some distinct features, which are as follows:
Firstly, Plato did not favour democratic system of government in which every
citizen had the right to participate in the affairs of the state. He denounced it as
a government of the ignorants. On the other hand, he wanted to give unlimited
powers to his Philosopher King in his ideal state. He was in favour of a
government by the elite. He argued that, as all persons residing in a state do not
possess equal capacity to cultivate virtue, hence all were not entitled to
participate in the affairs of the government. Only those few were entitled the
necessary capacity to rule. If there was only one top who possessed meritorious
person in the state, Plato would like to vest the entire power in that person.
Therefore, Prof. Zeller has rightly said that "the Platonic State can be an
aristocracy of virtue and intellect exercised by one or few".
Secondly, the Philosopher King being a lover of wisdom arid passionate
seeker of the truth, is in a better position to determine what is in the interest of
the community than an ordinary person. Hence the rule of the philosophy is in
the interest of the society.
Thirdly, the interests of the philosopher king and those of the state are
identical and there is no clash between the two. In fact, the philosophers have no
interests apart from the welfare of the members of the community. The element
of reason which is present in them enables them to
comprehend, that the happiness of the part depends upon the happiness of the
whole. In simple words, the philosophers possess the qualities of selfless service
and rationality.
Fourthly, Plato's philosopher rulers are the product of comprehensive and
rigorous training and education spread over a period, of thirty-five years. In fact,
the process of education continues even after the ruler retires after serving the
state (from 35 years to 50 years of age). According to Prof. Barker, Plato's ideal
site is the consequence of his System of Education. It may seem paradoxical to
speak of government as a corollary of the System of Education, but paradox is
inherent in Plato. "Instead of conceiving Education as a consequence of the
government, as one of the functions of government, he conceives government as
the consequence of Education."
Fifthly, the philosopher rulers are assigned absolute powers by Plato and the
rulers are not accountable to public opinion or bound by customs or written laws.
According to Plato since the philosopher rulers are the embodiment of virtue and
knowledge, there is no logic for public control over their actions. Further, they
know it perfectly well what is good or bad for the community, there is no need to
bind them with the rules of laws. He asserts it would be as foolish to bind the
hands of the philosopher rulers, with rules of law, as to force an expert physician
fo write down his prescriptions from a medical text-book. Finally, the rule of
philosopher king is better and more flexible than rule of law. The laws are meant
to deal with average type of cases and cannot give everybody his due. On the
other hand, the philosopher rulers through the use of their wisdom can give to
every person what he deserves. In short, it is expedient to have the government
of philosopher rulers.
Sixthly, though the philosopher rulers are assigned absolute powers, Plato
imposes a restraint on their power by insisting that they must respect the
fundamental articles of the constitution and must not change the basic principles
on which the state rests. Some of the basic principles which the philosopher
rulers are expected to observe are (i) they must watch against the excessive
inflow of property and wealth in the state; (ii) keep the size of the state
consistent with the unity and self60
sufficiency; (iii) they must ensure due performance of allotted duties by each
citizen; and (iv) they must ensure that no change is made in the system of
education. In short, Plato makes even the philosopher rulers the slave of the
fundamental social order.
CRITICISM
Plato's concept of rule of philosophers has been criticised on the following
grounds:
Firstly, by conceding absolute powers to the Philosopher Rulers it leads to
tyrannical government and runs counter to the notions of democratic
government.
Secondly, it assumes that only few persons who have undergone a rigorous
system of education are capable of governing the state. Thus it neglects the
great majority and reduces them to the status of political robots. This is quite
contrary to the ideals of free citizenship prevailing in the contemporary citystates in which, every citizen was a co-sharer in the duties and privileges of the
government.
Thirdly, Plato's assumption that knowledge is the prerogative of a handful of
persons is against the notion of equality. His scheme of education covers only a
small group of elites and neglects the majority of the people because Plato
believes that the masses of people are not capable of ruling themselves. In fact,
people possess more collective wisdom than the philosopher guardians and the
collective wisdom is certainly superior to the individual wisdom of the
philosopher king.
Fourthly, Plato's rejection of the law as the basis.of state has been condemned.
By conceding unfettered freedom to the philosopher rulers and relegating law to the
background he undermines the importance of law which is the embodiment of the
wisdom of the people accumulated through centuries. Plato realises this mistake and
accords position of pride to law in his later book The Laws.
Fifthly, Plato's concept of philosopher king runs counter to the principles of direct,
as well as indirect democracies.
Sixthly, the scheme of education outlined by Plato for his philosopher rulers is
highly defective. He thinks that the study of music, abstract mathematics, dialects
and the idea of the God
would be sufficient to produce an efficient philosopher-king. He also imparts no
education in finance, law or military tactics which have practical administrative value.
In the words of Subine he only envisages the 'rule of saints'. Philosopher rulers would
become too sublime to master the art of government.
Seventhly, Plato's assertion that there is no contradiction between the interests of
the philosopher ruler and the public interests is also dangerous. This encourages the
philosopher
king to assume unlimited powers and promote his self-interest at the cost of
the interests of other citizens. This clearly leaves sufficient scope for the
establishment of totalitarian rule. Kant says "that the king should become
philosopher king is not likely to happen; nor would it be desirable since the
possession of power invariably debases the free judgement of reason".
Eighthly, Prof. Popper says that Plato's Rule of Philosophers and a continous
supply of Philosophers through his system of Education are incompatible. He
argues that "if Philosophers were needed as permanent rulers, there would be no
need for the Educational system to produce new ones".
Ninthly, Prof. Popper says that Plato advocated the concept of Philosopher
King with a selfish motive. He had the ambition to become the ruler of Athens.
Referring to the various Personal allusions in the Republic, he says that
'Philosopher-King is Plato himself, and the Republic is Plato's own claim for kingly
powerto the Power which he thought his due, uniting in himself as he did both
the claims of the philosopher and of the descendant and legitimate heir of
Codrus the martyr, the last of Athens' kings, who according to Plato had
sacrificed himself in order to preserve the kingdom for his children."
Finally, Plato's concept of Philosopher-King is highly Utopian and we do not have
any historical evidence to prove that this sort of rule of philosophy has ever existed
in any part of the earth. It is indeed difficult to find a person posse-sing the qualities
of selflessness, devotion and high ideals as Plato preaches. No wonder such
philosopher rulers are mere imaginary things who make imaginary laws for imaginary
commonwealths.
Plato 61
Despite the above criticism of his concept of rule of philosophers it cannot be

denied that this concept is the most profoundly original conception in the entire
political thought. He rightly emphasised that only few persons who had cultivated
their faculties of mind were competent to rule. The only defect with his philosophy is
that he failed to provide practical training to his philosopher rulers. In short, he raised
an unsound and impracticable superstructure over a sound philosophy.
COMMUNISM OF WIVES AND PROPERTY

Another feature of Plato's political thought, which is intimately connected with his
theory of justice, is communism of wives and property. It may be noted that the
concept of communism was not completely unknown to the Greeks. Both in Athens
and Sparta some sort of communism existed in the form of state controlled private
property and the produce was put to common use by the community. But Plato
deserves the credit for building up theory of communism of wives and property on
political and psychological basis. He wanted that the guardian class should be free
from material worries so that it may be able to concentrate entirely on public service.
At the same time, he also realised that the acquisition of property and family would
certainly stand in the way of philosopher rulers to devote themselves fully to the
service of the community. He therefore, says that "should they (philosopher rulers)
ever acquire homes or lands or moneys of their own, they will become housekeepers
and husbandman instead of guardians, enemies and tyrants instead of allies of other
citizens, hating and being hated, plotted against, they will pass on their life in much
greater terror of internal rather than external enemies and the hour of ruin both to
themselves and to the rest of the nation will be at hand". In short, Plato held that the
combination of the political and economic power was bound to lead to corruption and
degradation in the state and an efficient system of administration could operate only
if the economic power was absolutely divorced from the political power. Therefore, he
pleads that those who exercise political power should have no economic motives and
those who
are engaged in economic activities should have no share in political power. According
to Barker, Plato starts from practical considerations and in this sense his Communism
is the most practical feature of his Ideal State. Prof. Sabine also says that "So firmly
was Plato convinced of the pernicious effect of wealth upon Government that he saw
no way to abolish the evil except by abolishing wealth itself, so far as the soilders
and rulers are concerned".
COMMUNISM OF PROPERTY
Realising that private property was a stumbling block in the way of the unity of the
state, he sought to eliminate it through Communism of Property. He feared that the
possession of private property would give rise to selfish considerations and deviate
the attention of the philosopher rulers from public service. He therefore deprived the
two ruling classes of the right to property. In the words of Sabine, Plato felt that "To
cure the greed of rulers there is no way short of denying them the right to call any
thing their own". He insisted that the rulers should live in barracks and have meals at
common tables. They should not possess private property because it was bound to
undermine the value of virtue, which was the most important ingredient of the ruling
class.
It may be noted, that Plato's communism is meant only for the guardian class and
expects them to make renunciation of private property. The guardians renounce the
property and family for the good of the society. In the words of Barker "Platonic
communism is ascetic and just for that reason it is also aristocratic". It is imposed on
the best and only on the best.
CRITICISM OF COMMUNISM OF PROPERTY

Plato's theory of communism of property has been subjected to severe criticism by
his disciple Aristotle. The main points of criticism levelled by Aristotle are as follows:
Firstly, acquisition or ownership is a natural instinct of man and an effort on the
part of Plato to deprive his guardian, class of the right to property is contrary to this
basic human nature, and can prove harmful for the development of society.
62
With the doing away of the private property there would hardly be an incentive for
hard work and the healthy struggle, which is so vital for the progress of society, shall
come to an end.
Secondly, Plato's scheme of communism is meant only for the ruling classes and
excludes
the workers, peasants, etc., who form the majority of the society. Any scheme
which excludes the majority of the members of society is foredoomed to be a
failure.
Thirdly, the abolition of the institution of private property is bound to destroy
the sentiments of charity and benevolence, the essentials of a healthy society.
Fourthly, Plato's communism of property is bound to result in loss of
production because something belonging to all is likely to be neglected. Aristotle
asserts that the practical experience has also been against communism. The
system had neither worked properly in the past (viz., in Sparta where a variant of
Plato's scheme was in operation) nor in future.
Fifthly, the communism of property is likely to create excessive unity and
sacrifice the liberty and equality at the altar of the state. It gives rise to over
centralisation and excessive state control and thus completely subordinated the
individual to the state.
Sixthly, the real progress of society depends on development of distinct
interests by individuals. Plato's communism of property prevents the
development of these diverse interests which provide richness to life. But
Aristotle seems to be wrong here because Plato does permit the individualistic
system of production in which diverse characters or individuals are represented.
Hence 'Progress' and richness is possible in Plato's society as well.
Seventhly, Aristotle criticises Plato for providing material remedy to the
spiritual diseases through communism. In fairness to Plato it may be pointed out
that he attaches more importance to the spiritual remedy, viz., the education. He
uses communism only as a supplementary measure.
Eighthly, in addition to the above points of criticism levelled by Aristotle, Plato is
also criticised because he completely neglects the slaves, who formed an important
part of the Greek
population and played an important part in the Greek economy. Some scholars have
contended that Plato abolished slavery in principle. However, Prof. Sabine does not
agree with this view and says "It is almost incredible that Plato intended to abolish a
universal institution without mentioning it". It cannot be denied that some of the
points of criticism levelled by Aristotle against Plato's concept of communism of
property are quite valid but it would certainly be wrong to underestimate the
importance of his theory. Plato rightly emphasised that the combination of the
economic and political powers in the same hands was bound to give rise to
corruption. Further, his theory is a logical and essential extension of his theory of
justice and philosopher king. These two concepts would have collapsed without
communism of private property. Prof. Sabine says "Plato's communism has, therefore,
a strictly political purpose. The order of ideas is exactly the reverse of that which has
mainly animated modern socialist Utopia: he does not mean to use Government to
equalise wealth, but he equalises wealth in order to remove a disturbing influence in
Government."
COMMUNISM OF WIVES
Plato's concept of communism of wives is the logical extension of his scheme of
communism of property. He fully realised that the abolition of the institution of
private property without the abolition of the family would result in 'the failure of his
scheme and private property would appear in some different form. He was convinced
that man always gives priority 'to the interests of his family and children over broader
interests of the nation. He therefore laid great emphasis on communism of wives.
According to Prof. Barker "Plato sees in the family on the one hand a root of
selfishness, which may grow into a family feud and civic sedition, and on the other
hand a drag on development, which prevents men and women from being what they
might be and discharging the functions which they might discharge, and therefore,
prevent them from being just themselves or making just the state in which they live.
The day of its abolition will be the day of inauguration of unity for the state, of liberty
for the individual and of justice for both." He further emphasises that "The abolition
of family life
Plato 63
among the Guardians is thus inevitable corollary of their renunciation of private

property. Plato recognises that property and the family are interdependent facts."
Plato's scheme of communism of wives is based on certain basic principles which
are as follows:
Firstly, like his communism of private property the scheme is essentially meant
for the guardian class and the vast majority of population consisting of peasants,
artisans, etc., are not covered by it.
Secondly, the family life is a serious and powerful rival to loyalty to the state
because hoarded wealth and secluded women are likely to. detract from the devotion
of the guardian class and give rise to the feeling of selfishness. Communism of wives
was bound to curb the sentiments of selfishness and emancipate the women from the
drudgery of home, and thus enable them to devote to the service of the state.
Thirdly, under the scheme there is "no system of permanent wedding among the
guardian class and all the women are to be common to all men and vice versa.
Fourthly, all guardians (both men and women) are to live together in common
barracks.
Fifthly, it was the duty of the state to arrange a temporary mating between the
best of men and best of women for one year, to produce requisite number of
children, keeping in view the population of the city state. The mating was to take
place between women of 20 to 40 years of age and men of 25 to 55 years of age.
Mating beyond this age limit was prohibited.
Sixthly, all children soon after their birth were to be separated from their
mothers. No child was to know his parents nor the parents to know their child. The
responsibility for rearing of children was to be entrusted to state nurses. The children
were also to be provided with necessary education at the state expense; to make
them good citizens.
Seventhly, the whole guardian class was converted into a big family and the
children born in a particular season were to be treated as brothers and sisters. This
ensured perfect unity.
Eighthly, the weak and disfigured children were to be killed soon after their birth
so that they
may not prove to be a burden for the state in the long run.
Ninthly, in contrast to communism of property which insisted on common
renunciation of property by the guardian class, Plato's communism of wives insists on
common ownership of women by the guardian class.
REASONS FOR COMMUNISM OF WIVES
At this stage it shall be desirable to analyse the reasons or considerations which

prompted Plato to advocate communism of wives. In the main three
considerations weighed with him:
Firstly, he wanted to create unity in the state. He was convinced that family
was the greatest stumbling block in the way of attainment of this objective
because family affection was a potent rival of loyalty to the state. However, Plato
wanted to institute family at the public level after abolishing the family on the
private level. As Prof. Barker has said Plato wished to "make the state or rather
the rulers of the statea family and the family state."
Secondly, Plato was quite perturbed by the deplorable plight of the women in
Athens and wanted that the talents of the women should be utilised for the
benefit of the society. He therefore wanted that women should be accorded due
and legitimate position in the society. Plato saw no difference of kind between
man and woman except in case of sex. He held that women had the same
capacity as men and given the necessary training, they could play of significant
role in the state as the men could play. To deprive the women of the right to
participate in the affairs of the state would be contrary to the principles of
justice.
Thirdly, on eugenic grounds also he favoured communism of wives. He was
convinced that by introducing a system of temporary marriages regulated by the
state, a better and more intelligent race could be raised. He therefore, insisted
that the best among women within a certain age-limit should be united to the
best among men within a certain age-limit for one year. This would ensure the
best off-spring which could be developed into very good citizens through state
guidance. In short, as Sabine has said Plato held that "the
64
improvement of race" demands a more controlled and more selective type of

union".
ARISTOTLE'S CRITICISM
Plato's concept of communism of wives has met with severe criticism at the
hands of his disciple Aristotle. The main points of criticism are as follows:
Firstiy, it was wrong on the part of Plato to treat state as merely an enlarged
version of family. He carried the organic conception too far and does not see any
difference between the family and the state. In fact, there are fundamental
differences between the two and it is wrong to treat the two as identical. State is
not a unity but a plurality.
Secondly, communism of wives is bound to lead to social disharmony and
cause much harm to the interest of the community, the purpose which chiefly
guided Plato in advocating the same. Distributively, one female cannot be the
wife of all guardians.
Thirdly, children under Plato's communism shall not be able to grow into
healthy and balanced children because they shall not be able to get the care and
nourishment which is possible in a family. It is well known principle that
something which belongs to all is nobody's responsibility. The children brought-up
without parental affection shall have only dwarfed personalities and shall do
more harm rather than good to the community.
Fourthly, it is absurd to apply the analogy of animals to the human beings and
plead for state controlled mating. Plato virtually reduces the human beings to the
position of prize-stock animals for the realisation of a supposed good.
Fifthly, the state controlled mating suggested by Plato is quite unworkable. It is
too much to expect from the state to bring the mating of the best men and women to
procreate the most useful breed for the betterment of the state.
Sixthly, like his communism of property, his communism of wives applies only to
the guardian class and the majority of the citizens are not covered by it. It demands
too much of a sacrifice from the guardian class and tends to make them unhappy. It
is indeed difficult to imagine how the
whole can be happy if one of its vital part is unhappy.
Seventhly, Plato wrongly treats the institution of marriage as a mechanical
process. Marriage is a social institution and its successful working depends on the
proper understanding between husband and wife. It would be wrong to treat family
as mere mating agency. On the other hand it is a springboard of national and social
growth. It exists for higher and nobler aims.
GENERAL CRITICISM
In addition to the above criticism of Aristotle, Plato's theory of communism of wives
has been criticised on certain other grounds. Some of the major grounds are as
follows:
Firstly, Plato does not differentiate between man and woman and asserts
whatever differences exist between the two are one of degree rather than kind. In
fact they fundamentally differ. Nature has not only endowed them with different
physical structure, intelligence, capacities and tasks but there are also fundamental
differences in their character. For example women are gentle, sensitive and merciful,
while men are energetic, strong and intelligent!
Secondly, the relations between husband and wife are not merely mating
relations. They are highly spiritual relations. The concept of temporary marriages is
neither logical nor desirable. It is indeed difficult to imagine that men and women
may come together for sexual intercourse and then part for good. Similarly, the
relationship between the child and the mother is one of affection and it cannot be
treated as casually as Plato wants us to treat it.
Thirdly, the abolition of the institution of family is likely to give serious setback to
the sentiments like love, charity, generosity and mercy. It is also bovmd to give a
serious set back to moral notions and do away the training ground of etiquettes.
Fourthly, as Barker has said Plato "makes the individual a mere means and that in
respect of a side of life in which he most naturally claims to be end to himself".
Fifthly, Plato by assigning an active role to the women in politics makes them
neglect the family
Plato
65
life. It is difficult to understand how a happy state can exist without happy families.
The women can render more valuable service to the state by proper upbringing of
children.
Sixthly, the abolition of family is contrary to all notions of human psychology

and the abolition of this age-old institution cannot be justified. Family is not only
a social but also a religious and ethical institution.
Despite the above criticism of Plato's theory of communism of wives we
cannot deny that Plato seems to be quite logical in emphasising that the state
could not get undivided loyalty unless the institution of family was done away
with. But his theory is highly unrealistic and devoid of hard realities of life.
According to Barker "by abolishing family and private property Plato destroys
that instrument by which an individual can be known as individual". He further
asserts that Plato is "so much alive to, and so much oppressed by, actual evils,
that he is blind to the better side and whole meaning of an institution such as
family". An appropriate summing up of Plato's theory has been given by Prof.
Sabine thus "To a modern state there is something which is a trifle startling about
the coolly unsentimental way in which Plato argues from the breeding of
domestic animals to the sexual relations of men and women...In fact, he
demands a degree of control and self- control that has never been realized
among any large population....The unity of the state is to be secured: property
and family stand in the way; therefore property and marriage must go...A family
is one thing and a state is something different, and it is better that one should
not try to ape the other."
Plato's Communism vs. Modern Communism

Before making a comparison between Plato's Communism and modern
Communism it is desirable to understand the meaning of the present
Communism. Modern Communism expounded by Karl Marx and modified by
Lenin and Stalin is based on the theory of class struggle. It considers state as an
instrument of exploitation and holds that the class struggle will culminate in the
overthrow of the present capitalist system and establishment of dictatorship of
proletariat. In course of time the state shall wither away and a stateless and a
classless society shall emerge.
Similarities
There are a number of similarities between present communism and Plato's

communism, (i) Both want to evolve a society organised on the basis of social
service and abhore differences based on birth or wealth, (ii) Both want to
eliminate the existing frictions and differences in the society and bring about
unity and solidarity, (iii) Both hold that the society is composed of a number of
classes. While Marx believes there are only two classes the haves and havenots,
Plato envisages the existence of three classes, viz., rulers, warriors, and
peasants, (iv) Both want to eliminate economic competition with a view to create
a perfect state, (v) Both relegate the individual to the position of an instrument
for the promotion of the interest of the community, (vi) Both are opposed to the
holding of private property. In modern Communism this applies to all the classes
of the society but in Plato it applies only to ,the guardian class, (vii) Both lay
great emphasis on state controlled education, (viii) Both hold that the individual
interests can be best secured by promoting the general interest and finally, both
hold faith in the principle of rule by the elites or a group of outstanding persons.
Differences
Despite the above similarities there are fundamental differences between the two.
This is inevitable in view of the different conditions under which the two
Communisms emerged. Plato's communism was the product of conditions prevailing
in fourth century B.C. Athens, while the modern Communism is the result of the postindustrial revolution conditions, viz.. capitalistic exploitation of the working classes.
The chief differences between the two are as follows:
Firstly, Plato's Communism applied only to the guardian class and the vast
majority of people consisting of peasants, workers, artisans, etc., did not come under
its purview. On the other hand the present Communism applies to the vast majority
of people consisting of workers, peasants, working classes, etc. In other words, class
consideration dominated Plato's communism whereas the modern communism does
not believe in class considerations. According to Barker, Plato's communism was
aristocratic "It is the way of surrender; and it is a surrender imposed on the
best. It exists for the sake of the whole society, but not for the whole society."
Secondly, Plato's Communism is essentially political in nature and aims at unity of
the state. Plato deprives the ruling class of private property because he considers its
possession by them is detrimental to the interest of the state. He therefore pleads for
separation of economic and political power of the state. On the other hand the
modern Communism is economic in nature. It lays emphasis on the concentration of
economic and political power in the hands of the working classes, through
nationalisation of the economic resources and equitable distribution of wealth.
Thirdly, Plato's Communism does not want to effect any changes in the existing
economic structure and leaves the producing classses intact. The individual
ownership of property for the present class is kept intact. Modern Communism wants
to effect a basic change in the economic structure of the society. It wants to replace
the individual ownership of the means of production by collective ownership, and
insists on concentration of all the economic resources in the hands of the state.
Fourthly, Plato's Communism envisages change only in the means of production
and leaves the prevailing system of consumption untouched. His guardians get a
fixed sum of money and other necessities from the peasants and use them together.
On the other hand, the modern Communism wants to bring about changes in the
means of production as well as consumption. It considers the consumer as important
as the producer.
Fifthly, Plato's Communism is ascetic in so far it lays emphasis on common
renunciation of all private property by the guardian class. Modern Communism on the
other hand lays emphasis on the enjoyment of the fruits of material resources by all
the sections of the community. In other words Plato's Communism is negative, while
the present communism is positive.
Sixthly, Plato's Communism covered not only property but also wives. Modern
Communism on the other hand deals only with the instruments of production.
Seventhly, Plato's Communism is aristocratic. It is imposed upon and practised by
the best and
only the best. Modern Communism on the other hand is Proletariat. It concerns the
workers
and peasants more than other sections of society.

Eighthly, Plato's Communism wanted to bring about only limited changes in
the existing society, viz., with regard to the ruling classes. Modern Communism
on the other hand stands for complete overhaul of the existing society. In other
words, it envisages fundamental changes and complete overhaul of the exsiting
society.
Ninthly, Plato's Communism was essentially meant for the Greek city-states.
On the other hand modern Communism is not only concerned with national
states, it is rather a world-wide movement. It insists on the unity of the workers
of the world and wants to bring about changes in the economic structures all
over the world. In short, it can be said that whereas Plato's Communism was
national (confined to city-state) the present Communism is international in
outlook.
Tenthly, Plato's Communism was highly philosophical and could never be put
into actual practice. On the other hand, the present Communism is highly
practical philosophy and has already been given a practical trial in almost onethird of the world. It may be noted that even Plato himself conceded the
impracticable and hollow nature of his Communism in the later part of his life.
In conclusion, it can be said that in view of the fundamental differences
between Plato's Communism and modern Communism, it would be unfair to
compare the two. However, Barker calls Plato's Communism as Half Communism
in so far as, it applies only to a small fraction of the total population and unlike
the modern Communism does not affect the entire population of the state".
THE STATESMAN
Plato displayed himself more of an idealist than a realist in his Republic. The Republic
does not represent the true philosophy of ploto and merely constituted a stage
towards the evolution of his philosophy. His philosophy reaches its maturity in Politics
or Statesman and the Laws -written during the last period of his life. The theory
contained in these works is in marked contrast with that of
Plato 67
Republic. According to Sabine "together they present the final results of Plato's
reflections on the problems of the city state.".
In Politics or Statesman he abandons the ideal and tries to come face to face with
realities. He admits that the ideal is the model fixed in the heavens and cannot be
realised on earth. He therefore concentrates on practicable issues. A clear change
takes place in his notions towards democracy, role of laws, etc. In Republic he had
outright condemned democracy and favoured the idea of entrusting the responsibility
of administration to the philosopher rulers. However, in Politics this hostility towards
democracy is missing. He concedes the value of democracy based on the rule of law.
Another notable change discernable in Politics or Statesman is that though he
maintains that the rule of the philosopher king is better than the rule of law, yet he
concedes that the existence of the rule of law was an indication of the health of
society. He recognised the need of law and consent in political life.
Plato also discusses the problem of the constitutions. He draws a distinction
between the law-abiding and law-less states and subdivides each of these into three
categories. The law-abiding states possess well established laws and give them due
respect, while the law-less states have no regard for the laws. Thus he says, if one
man governs according to law it is monarchy; but if he disdains law it is autocracy or
tyranny. If a handful of people run the government in accordance with law it is
aristocracy but if they violate the law it is oligarchy. Again, if a large number of
people rule according to law it is good democracy, but if they violate the laws it is
bad democracy. This can be best explained in the form of following chart:
It may be noted that later on Aristotle based his classification of constitutions on
these very
principles. According to Plato, since a law- abiding state is always better than a lawless one, the good democracy which is law-abiding must be ranked superior to
oligarchy which is law- less. Among the law-less forms, bad democracy is ranked
superior to oligarchy. In short, he treats democracy as the worst of the law- abiding
but the best of the law-less states. In the words of Prof. Barker, "Seeing the value of
law as the fruit of experience of invention of wisdom, Plato can now see the value of
democracy which is based on the rule of law, and in the Laws which carries further
many of the hints of the Politics, we shall find him advocating a union of legal
monarch and legal democracy as form of constitution next to that of an ideal state
itself."
THE LAWS
The Laws is the culmination of the development of Plato's political thought, which he
wrote in the later years of his life. This reflects his maturity of judgement which is
missing in the Republic. It shows Plato as a practical thinker and he originated a
number of ideas which have left a deep impact on the later ages. Barker ranks the
last four books of Laws "amongst the finest writings of Plato". Prof. Sabine also says
"In respect to its influence or the discussion of specifically political questions or their
theoretical aspects-such, for example, as the constitution of states, their political
organisation, and especially the theory of the so-called mixed State-it would be hard
to exaggerate the importance of the Laws".
DIFFERENCE IN APPROACH OF REPUBLIC AND LA WS

There are fundamental differences in the approach of Plato in Republic and Laws. This
was inevitable in view of the fact that Plato wrote Republic when he
Number of persons
who exercise power
state
Law-,
Lawless state
One Few Many

Monarchy Aristocracy Good Democracy
Tyranny
Oligarchy
Bad Democracy
68
was still young and had high aspirations. The Laws on the other hand was written in
the later part of his life and reflects his sobriety and maturity of judgement.
1. In Republic Plato subordinates every thing to the ideal of the Philosopher King
and asserted that he alone knows, what is good for men and states. This
naturally implied the exclusion of the law from the ideal state and vesting of
absolute powers in the Philosopher King. This was clearly contrary to the
notions of the Greek city state which attached great importance to the moral
value of freedom under law and the participation of the citizens in the
government of the state. In later age Plato was disillusioned with his concept
of Philosopher King and restored to Law the place which it occupied in the
Greek city states. He assigned due place to law in the administrative set up
and came to hold that unfettered authority could be highly dangerous, and
considered law as essential for healthy society. As Prof. Sabine has put it "The
fundamental difference between the theory of Republic and that of the Laws is
that the Ideal State of the former is a government by specifically chosen and
specially trained men, quite untrammeled by any general regulations, while
the state sketched in the latter is a government in which Law is supreme, ruler
and subject alike being subject to it."
2. Another difference is that whereas in Republic he projects himself as a radical
doctrinaire who wanted to bring about radical changes in the society even if
these changes went against the collective experience of the community.
However, in Laws he comes to realise the value of experience of ages and
restores law to a prominent position because it represents the collective
experience of the community.
3. In Republic Plato suggests communism of property and wives for the guardian
classes because he was convinced that the combination of the economic
resources and the political power in the same hands could be a serious threat,
to the interests of
the community. In Laws, however, Plato's views undergo a change. He allows
private property and family, though he pleads that they should be retained to
limited extent. In other words his hostility towards these two institutions is missing
in the Laws and he comes to hold that they are essential for the development of
the society. However, he wants to regulate private property and family so that
their evil effects are reduced to the minimum.
4. In Republic Plato subordinates self-control to justice. He holds that justice is a
virtue and self-control implies faithful submission to that virtue and performance of
its functions by each class. On the other hand, in Laws Plato pleads for the
subordination of justice to self- control. He argues that the laws of the state are the
embodiment of reason and the individual must submit to them most faithfully.
Thus, whereas in Republic Plato subordinates self-control to justice, in the Laws he
subordinates justice to control. The legislators while making the laws should
ensure that the laws enacted by them produce in the state the complete virtue of
self-control.
5. In Republic Plato envisages a monarchical or even despotic rule of the Philosopher
King who is neither responsible nor responsive to public opinion. On the other
hand, in Laws he clearly concedes the importance of democratic elements in the
state. He, not only allows the ruled, the right to elect their rulers, but also makes
them accountable to them.
6. In Republic, Plato glorified war and force and asserted that the state should try to
get by force what they can. He supported the idea of military action for the
realisation of the legitimate demands. On the other hand in Laws he preaches that
the state should try to live in peace with others and try to realise its aims and
objectives through peaceful methods. He insists on maintenance of harmonious
relations with other states.
7. The schemes of education envisaged by Plato in Republic and Laws also differ. In
Republic the education is an instrument for
4.
Plato 69
teaching the philosophers the virtue of wisdom, whereas in the Laws education
aims at teaching the citizens the virtue of self-control. Though in Laws also
education continues to be under strict state control, he gives more attention to
the organization of education. He favours the system of publicly regulated and
supervised schools with paid teachers to provide education to children at the
elementary and secondary stages. The overall charge of the education was to
vest in the Chief Magistrate of the city who exercised control over Education
Judges and examiners of gymnastic and music working under his charge.
However,.the general outlines of the curriculum remains the same. Education for
all citizens is compulsory and women are imparted education on equal terms with
men. He also retains rigorous censorship of art and literature as in Republic.
8. In Republic Plato does not see any possibility of conflict between the interests of
the individual and the state and hence does not pay any attention to the problem
of individual freedom. On the other hand in Laws he comes to realise that there
can be occasions when the interests of the individual and the state may clash,
and therefore pleads for grant of at least limited freedom to the individual.
9. In Republic, Plato accords a predominant position to the Philosopher King and
completely ignores the utility of the various classes in the society. By pleading for
complete submission of all classes before the wishes of the philosopher king he
relegates them to a very inferior position. In the Laws, however, he realises that it
is better to develop harmonious relations between various classes rather than
subordinate them to any particular class or person. Thus, he iplaces
subordination, by harmonious relations.
10. In Republic, Plato assigned no place to the Constitution. In Laws on the other
hand he insists on the need of a constitution which could rationalise the actions of
the state
and check its extremist tendencies. Plato argued that the Constitution which
combined monarchy with democracy was the best. According to Barker, "Just as in
adopting the
rule of the law he already pays homage to the principle of consent in the form of
persuasive preambles, so too in adopting the mixed constitution he accepts that
principle as the basis of administration."
PLATO'S PHILOSOPHY AS EXPOUNDED IN THE LAWS

After acquiring an insight into the difference in Plato's approach in Republic and the
Laws, it is desirable to examine the chief ideas expressed by Plato in the Laws. At the
outset it may be reasserted that Plato wrote Laws at the mature age of eighty and his
ideas represented age-long experience and maturity. He abandoned his idealistic
philosophy and came very near hard realities of life. Realising that the ideal state
contemplated by him in Republic was quite incapable of realising in actual practice
he tried to depict the second best ideal state in the Laws. This state, unlike his ideal
state as depicted in the Republic, can be realised on this earth. The institutional
framework of his second best state can be studied under the following heads:
1.
Political
The state combines the monarchical element of wisdom with the democratic element
of liberty or freedom. He assigns a very significant position to the law which both the
ruler and the ruled are expected to obey. He considers the laws important also
because they enable a person to develop sufficient self-control which is so vital for a
smooth social life. He realised that the individual is not always motivated by
nationalistic considerations and often tends to be selfish. It is therefore necessary
that there should be a check in the nature of laws. According to Plato law is "Sacred
and golden cord of Reason which is called the Common Law of the State which he
should always cling and which he should never let go". Plato held that the laws are
generally based on customs which are the accumulated wisdom of the age and
experience of generations. It is not a tool in the
hands of the rulers. It is rather above the government and aims at maximum benefit
of the maximum number of people. Plato also insisted on regulation of moral life
through laws. As regards obedience of law Plato insisted on obedience from within
rather than from without. Prof. Sabine has rightly observed that the second best state
of Plato possesses a government "in which law is supreme, the ruler and the subject
alike being subject to it".
Plato also envisages the existence of a Popular Assembly consisting of all the
citizens of the city state. He divides these citizens into four categories on the basis of
their property. Members of each class were allotted a quota of votes determined on
the basis of property held by them. It was essential for the electorate to undergo
military training and bear arms. The main functions of the Popular Assembly was to
elect 37 Guardians of Law and 360 members of the Council. The members of the
Councils were elected on the basis of classes, while the guardians of law were elected
on the basis of the triple ballot. According to this procedure in the first ballot 300
members were selected. In the second ballot 100 members were selected out of
these 300 members and in the final ballot 37 Guardians were elected out of these
100 members. The Assembly in addition to the election of the Guardians of Law and
Councillors was also expected to perform certain other functions. These included the
election of the local officials of the city and the market from amongst the members of
the third and the fourth classes; to elect three generals of the army on the
recommendation of the Guardians of Law, to suggest changes in the laws of the
state, to decide the public suits for injury to the state; to permit the aliens to stay in
the state beyond a period of 20 years. Thus the Assembly was expected to perform
both legislative as well as judicial functions.
The Guardians of Law were to be taken from amongst persons between the age of
50 to 70 and hold office for a term of 20 years. They were expected to co-operate
with the Council in governing the state.
Plato assigned to the Council purely deliberative functions. It was to be divided
into 12 parts and each part was to act as the main executive organ of the
government for a month. They were also to collaborate with the Guardians of Law.
As regards the judicial organisation, Plato proposed three grades of courts, viz.,
voluntary courts or boards of arbitration courts; tribal courts and courts of selected
judges. The voluntary courts were composed of neighbours or friends and were
supposed to possess best information about the dispute. The tribal courts consisted
of judges who were elected by lots. The idea was that all should have a share in
judicial administration. Finally there were courts of selected judges which were
elected from among the magistrates or Guardians of Law for a period of one year. It
may be noted that these courts were concerned only with private suits. The public
suits were, however, to be decided by the popular assembly.
In addition to the above political structure Plato also envisages a peculiar
institution known as Nocturnal Council. This Council was to consist of the ten eldest
of the thirty-seven Guardians of Law, the Director of Education, and certain priests
specially known for their virtue. Though this Council stood outside the political
structure of the state it was given power to control and direct all the legal institutions
of the state. The members of the Council were expected to be Philosophers who
could best guide the destinies of the State, because they were expected to know the
mysteries of Heavens. Under the Nocturnal Council certain examiners or censors
were appointed who kept an eye on the conduct of the magistrates. According to
Sabine "it is evident that Nocturnal Council stands in the place of the PhilosopherKing of the Republic, and that its inclusion in the laws is a flagrant violation of the
loyalty to the second best-state".
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Plato divided the citizens into four classes on the basis of the amount of personal
property. The first class was composed of those persons whose personal property was
equal to the value of their land. The second class consists of persons whose personal
property was more than the value of their land, but did not exceed twice the value of
their land. The third class consisted of persons whose personal property was threetimes the value of their land. Similarly, the fourth class consisted of persons whose
personal property was four-times the value of their land. It may be noted that Plato
Plato
71
insisted that under no conditions any body's property should exceed four times
the value of the original lot which is allotted to each of the 5040 citizens. The
produce of the lands was to be used in common at the public mess. Further, no
citizen could sell or mortage his original plot. Thus Plato recognises the right to
private property though he also insists that it should be used for social welfare.
Though Plato permits the citizens to hold their land and limited amount of
personal property, yet he does not leave them completely free in the economic
matters. He does not permit them to engage in industry or trade. They cannot
keep gold and silver nor can they lend money on interest. Plato leaves all these
tasks to the resident aliens who are free men but not citizens.
In Laws, Plato introduces a new type of division of labour. Unlike Republic in
which the three classes are based on psychological elements, Plato introduces
the new concept of division of labour which is applicable to the whole population.
He leaves agriculture exclusively to the slaves and trade and industry to the class
of resident aliens, assigning all the political functions to the citizens.
Plato also concedes that Communism of Wives though a quite lofty ideal is
difficult to achieve and therefore permits family life. He favours permanent
monogamous marriage under strict supervision of the state. He insists that
married people should produce children. He says it was essential that each family
should have a child and those who have none should adopt one. Plato in Laws
not only insists on having family but also proposes that bachelors over 35 years
of age should be penalised.
Plato assigns equal status to women in the society and proposes a uniform
system of education for both. He also insists on their participation in public life as
well as their military training.
Plato, assigns prominent position to religion and moral principles in his secondbest statf. However, he insists that religion should 1>. controlled by the state. He
also doos not favour the idea of individual religious exercises and insists on collective
worship in public temples. He attaches great importance to due performance of the
rites and rituals of religion and insists that authorised
priests should be appointed for this purpose. Plato also forbids atheism, which
according to him can assume three shapes, viz., denial of the existence of gods,
denial that they are concerned with human conduct and the belief that they are
easily placated for a sin committed. He prescribes very strict punishments for the
atheists and considers them to be a serious threat to the national health.
SCHEME OF EDUCATION
Plato assigns an important position to education in his Laws also, although its
objective undergoes a change. Whereas in Republic education aimed at the
development of the virtue of wisdom, in the Laws it teaches the citizen self-control.
According to Plato education always provides proper training of a healthy mind and
guides him to receive both pleasure and pain. It aims at promoting qualities of an
excellent citizenship with the quality to rule and be ruled in the interest of justice and
also training young mind for his higher ideals. In view of the importance of education,
Plato 'insisted that the educational system should be in the hands of only those
persons who were mature. They were to be elected from amongst the Guardians of
Law through an electoral system. Generally, education was to be in the over all
charge of one Minister, who was also to be the Chief Magistrate of the city. It was his
responsibility to direct administration and education in Gymnastics. He also made
arrangements for private schools with paid teachers for primary and secondary
grades of education. He was also to regulate attendance and supervise buildings.
Under the Minister of Education there were Education Judges or Examiners who
controlled competitive tests and awarded prizes both in gymnastic and music.
Commenting on this arrangement suggested by Plato, Barker says "While he thus
takes pain to secure a proper Minister for Education and proper examiners and
inspectors Plato in a way characteristically Greek, dismisses the teachers themselves
in a single phrase. They are to be the residents aliens and they are to be paid. "
Plato advocated a system of universal compulsory education. Though he pleaded
for education of both men and women, he did not
favour co-education after the age of. six. His scheme of education consisted of two
stages-primary and secondary. The primary stage of education started with the
cradle and lasted upto the age of ten. Children upto the age of three were made to
jump and play according to certain tunes. Children between three and six were taken
to the playgrounds and temples and were given light physical exercises. However,
the actual physical education started only after the age of six when the boys and
girls were separated. The secondary education lasted from the age of 10 to 16.
During this stage the children studied literature, music, astronomy, geometry and
arithmetic, etc. Plato also insisted on military training Which was so vital for the
defence of the state. According to Sabine "the theory of education in the Laws unlike
that of Republic, is theory of system of educational institutions".
It is evident from the above account that the second-best state of Plato is more
realistic, even though the element of idealism is dominantly present here as well. We
hardly find any drastic change in the foundations of Plato's philosophy, which one
could envisage in view of the. important place assigned by him to the law, customs
habits, etc., in the second-best state. However, it cannot be denied that the
institutions suggested by Plato in the Laws mark the beginning of political speculation
on the actual states. In fact it is the Laws rather than Republic which left a deep
impact on the political thought in the subsequent centuries. Some of the important
philosophers who felt his impact include Aristotle, Cicero, Augustine, Dante, More,
Rousseau, Hegel, Kant, Green, Bradley, Eliot, etc. Prof. Barker has brought out the
impact of Plato's laws on subsequent thinkers thus "Aristotle drew from it much of the
substance of his politics and most of all the sketch of an. ideal state and the theory of
ideal state contained in its Laws last two Books. The Utopia of More is based on the
Laws as well as on the Republic. Many of the lessons which Rousseau essays teach in
the Social Contract find their parallel and probably their origin in Plato's Laws."
CONTRIBUTIONS AND EVALUATION OF PLATO

Plato left a deep impact on the political thought in the subsequent centuries. Broadly
speaking Plato's
thought consists of two categories, first the one contained in his Republic in which he
works on the assumption that the government is purely a matter of scientific
knowledge and he treats the despotism of the philosopher kings as the best type of
rule. This naturally made him ignore the role of law, public opinion and consent of the
ruled. He also gave the concepts of Communism of property and family. All these
ideas of Plato did not exercise much influence on the political thought, although their
impact is visible in Hegel's eulogy of monarchy and Fascist theory of government by
the elite. But it was his other works viz. Statesman and the Laws which exercised
profound influence not only on Aristotle but also on other subsequent political
thinkers. They were particularly influenced by his ideal of constitutional rule and
participation of the citizens in the deliberative functions of the state. But probably the
maximum influence was exercised by the concept of mixed constitution, as the best
means for securing the stability of the state. According to Janet "There is in the
politics of Plato a Utopian part and an ideal part. The first is dead and will not revive,
the second is external". Some of the important ideas of Plato which have exercised
profound impact in years after him include the following.
1. Justice
His assertion that the society is always "a unity amidst diversity" and that every
member of society should perform his duties to the best of his capacities is indeed an
exceedingly penetrating analysis of society which holds good evert today.
2. Functional Specialisation
The concept of specialisation, which is intimately linked with the concept of justice, is
another important contribution of Plato. He emphasised that every member of society
should perform the functions for which he was best fitted by his aptitude and
training. His assertion that "all things are produced more plentifully easily and of a
better quality when one man does one thing which is natural to him and does at the
right time, and leaves other things" is more true today when the society has grown
complex.
3. Rule of Wise and Virtuous

Plato favoured rule of wise and wanted the state to be ruled by virtue. This principle
has been
Plato 73
universally recognised and it is accepted that only the best and the most virtuous
should rule the society in the larger interest of the community.
4. Emancipation of Women
Plato paved the way for the emancipation of women by insisting that they should be
given necessary education on equal terms with men and be permitted to take active
part in the affairs of the state. This principle has not been accepted on universal
basis. The denial of equal rights to women is now considered a symbol of
backwardness of the state.
5. Importance of Education
Plato emphasised the importance of state-controlled education and provided a
detailed scheme of education which aimed at promoting the interest of the society. In
modern times both democratic as well as totalitarian countries acknowledge the
importance of education as an instrument for the effective working of the political

systems.
6. Nationalism
Plato in his writings displayed, great sense of nationalism and placed the nation
above everything else. He was even willing to sacrifice the time honoured institutions
of private property and family in the interest of the state. His concept of philosopher
king was also designed to provide a ruler who could rule in the interest of the state
and be above selfish motives. His attempt to introduce functional specialisation,
requiring every member to devote himself to the allotted duties to the best of his
capacities, was also designed to promote the interests of the state. In short,
nationalism runs through the entire thought of Plato's philosophy.
7. Utilitarianism
Plato's thoughts also contained seeds of modern utilitarianism. In his Laws he
emphasised that the laws should aim at promoting the maximum good and
happiness of the maximum number of people. Similarly he did not consider
punishment as a media of revenge and treated it as a negative way of education for
the unhealthy mind. Plato emphasised that in a healthy socrety no section should
thrive at the cost of others and every body should remain within his specified field.
8. Socialism
Plato's thought also contained germs of socialistic thought. In fact, Plato carried the
communistic ideas to such an extreme by advocating communism of property as well
as family, that even the modern communists have not been able to come any way
near his flight of ideas. The modern communism covers only property and does not
include the family within its purview* The Socialists borrowed their basic tenet that
society is more important than the individual from Plato.
9. Organic Theory
Plato is also considered the father of the Organic Theory of State. He emphasised
that the state is a whole and the individuals constitute the part of the whole.
10. Revolutionist
Plato by openly pleading for revolt against the prevailing tyranny in Athens became
the forerunner of the modern Revolutionists. He wanted to bring about revolutionary
changes in the Athenian society because he was convinced that the existing ideas
had become outdated and were polluting the body politic. The modern revolutionists
have learnt many things from Plato.
11. Plato and Fascism
Plato is often described as the father of modern Fascism not only because he
subordinated the individual to the state and pleaded for leadership of one man
(Philosopher King) with unlimited
authority and control but also because like the modern Fascists he believes in the
principles of basic inequality among human beings, had no faith in democracy as
a system of government, thought Aristocracy of Intellect as the best practical
form of government, denied to an overwhelming portion of society the right to
express themselves in an organised form, treated education as an instrument for
equipping those qualified to rule with qualities of will, discipline and character,
laid more emphasis on duties rather than rights, etc. No doubt, there are certain
differences between Plato and the modern Fascism. Plato attached more
importance to reason whereas modern Fascism makes appeal to
passions or emotions; Plato was opposed to imperialism of all types and treated
invasion by one city-state over another state as a symptom of the city's ill-health.
Modern Fascism glorifies war and holds firm faith in policy of expansionism;
Plato's thought represents idealism whereas present Fascism emphasises political
realism; Plato subordinates politics to ethics, while present Fascists subordinate
ethics to politics; Plato conceived of government as an instrument for the wellbeing of the community, whereas the present Fascists believe in enhancing the
power of the few and regard the people as mere raw material over which the
power of few is exercised.
It is evident from the above discussion, that Plato has left a deep impact on
political thought and most of the ideologies which emerged in the subsequent
centuries felt the impact of his writings. No doubt, sometimes Plato is
condemned for giving certain Utopian ideas, but does not in any way undermine
his permanent contributions to political philosophy. Prof. Maxey has rightly
observed," There was much in Plato of the emphemeral and the provisional, but
the mid rib of his philosophy was timeless and universal".
Chapter
10
Aristo
tle
Every political philosopher is the 'epitome of his time' and for a proper understanding
of his philosophy it is desirable to have an idea of the conditions under which he lives
and the various factors which influence his political philosophy. This is also true of
Aristotle.
EARLY LIFE
Aristotle, the ablest of Plato's disciples, was born at Stagira on the Aegean Sea in 384
B.C. Thus he was not an Athenian by birth. His father was a physician to the King of
Macedon. This gave Aristotle an opportunity to acquire first-hand information about
the royal court and greatly sharpened his understanding of the working of the state.
From the very beginning, Aristotle developed an analytical and scientific bent of
mind. However, very little is known about his early life and many legends have been
built around this period of his life. But the most commonly accepted view is that,
Aristotle came to Athens at the age of eighteen and joined Plato's academy, where he
stayed for twenty years till the death of Plato in 347 B.C. This long association with
Plato naturally left a deep impact on the mind of Aristotle.
After the death of Plato in 347 B.C., Aristotle left Athens and spent almost thirteen
years visiting different parts of the world and studying different political institutions.
In 342 B.C. he was called to Macedonia to become the tutor of young Alexander. In
335 B.C. Aristotle set up a school known as Lyceum to preach his ideas, thought and
philosophies. This school continued to enjoy the partronage of Alexander. After the
death of Alexander when the anti-Macedonian party came to power, Aristotle fled to
Chalcis and died the same year.
WORKS OF ARISTOTLE
Though Aristotle wrote extensively on subjects like metaphysics, psychology,

rhetoric, poetry, biology, moral science, politics, etc., but we are primarily concerned
with his political writings. In this regard also, we are greatly handicapped in so far,
most of the works produced by Aristotle in the early part of his life, have since
perished. The only important work of Aristotle which has come down to us and
provides valuable information about his political philosophy is Politics. This work is
also not available in complete form. Further there is difference of opinion among
scholars as to who composed Politics. According to one view, the work was edited by
his students at his school. According to yet another view, it is merely a collection of
notes taken by his students. Whether the book was written by Aristotle or is a
collection of his notes, it represents his views.
There is also controversy amongst scholars regarding the usefulness of Politics. On
the one hand, Dr. Taylor says that no work of Aristotle is quite so commonplace in its
handling of so vast a subject. On the other hand, scholars like Zeller, Maxey, etc.,
have showered high praise
on the work. According to Zeller, this is the richest treasure that has come
down to us from antiquity, the greatest contribution to political philosophy that
we possess. According to Foster "mis book is, as if a single book can be the
classical representation of Greek Political Thought". According to Maxey "Our
concern is solely with the treatise on politics, which some commentators have
declared to be his masterpiece. Whether this be true or not, it clearly entitles him
to be recognised as the father of political science." According to Prof. Bowles "Of
all the books on the subject, the Politics is the most influential and the
76
most profound. It is the book which must be mastered before others.
INFLUENCES ON ARISTOTLE
Before examining the philosophy of Aristotle, it is desirable to examine the
various factors which influenced his thinking.
In the first place Aristotle was greatly influenced by his father. His biological
outlook and scientific approach to the problems, clearly speaks for this.
Aristotle's repeated comparison of the state with organism and the individuals
with organs is partly due to his biological studies.
Secondly, the prevailing anarchy in Athens also greatly influenced the
thought of Aristotle. Aristotle was convinced that the anarchy, lawlessness and
turbulent state of affairs in his times was due to the fact that the rulers were
idealists rather than realists. He therefore, concentrated his attention on political
actualities rather than political ideals.
Thirdly, Aristotle's thinking was also largely influenced by his pre-conceived
notions about the superiority of Greek philosophy. He believed that the Greeks
alone, had monopoly of culture and all others were barbarians. His attitude
towards slavery, is a clear proof of it. He not only described slavery as natural,
but also, justified it on grounds of expediency. Likewise, he considered city-state
as the best social and political organization ever conceived by human beings. His
belief that the whole was prior to the part, or society was superior to the
individual, clearly shows the impact of Greek traditions. Again, he pleaded for
conferment of citizenship rights only on few and completely excluded the slaves
from this privilege. All these pre-conceived notions, greatly influenced the
political thought of Aristotle.
Fourthly, his personal experience of a married life, which proved quite
pleasant, also greatly influenced his thinking and he turned a bitter critic of
Plato's concept of communism of property and wives. His views on property and
family life, were largely coloured by his experience.
Fifthly, his practical knowledge greatly influenced his thinking and philosophy.
It is well known that Aristot spent practically two-third, of his life studying
political institutions of his time. In
his childhood he got a chance to observe the working of the court from very close
quarters because his father was a royal physician. As a tutor of Alexander also,
he got an opportunity to collect first hand information about many royal
institutions. In addition, he also visited a number of other royal courts. All this
practical experience greatly influenced Aristotle's thought.
Finally, Aristotle felt deep impact of his teacher Plato. Though Aristotle is
highly critical of his teacher Plato, yet it cannot be denied that he is indebted to
him in many ways. He spent nearly twenty years at Plato's Academy which
greatly influenced his political philosophy. Highlighting the deep impact of Plato
on Aristotle, Prof. Foster says, "Aristotle is the greatest of all the Platonists. He is
permeated by Platonism to a degree in which perhaps no great philosopher

besides him, has been permeated by the thought of another." Plato's influence on
Aristotle is evident, in the following ideas:
(a) Man is by nature social and must live an associated life. Society being an
integral part of man's life he cannot live without it.
(b) State is indispensable for the development of human faculties. It exists for the
moral perfection of the individuals.
(c) The task of government is the prerogative of the selected few citizens who
should be specifically trained for this purpose. The art of government can be
learnt by them through self control and proper training.
(d) There is no contradiction between the interests of the individual and the state.
In fact state is a moral institution which stands for moral perfection of its
subjects.
(e) A good life could be possible in a city-state or a moderate state.
(f) Democracy is not an ideal form of government because it associates all with
government. In fact every one does not possess the capacity or power to
understand the technicalities of government.
(g) Education plays an important role in the state. It not only promotes virtue, but
also imparts training to the mind in the proper direction. Even punishment is a
sort of
(f)
Aristotle
77
education because it controls the mind which is not working properly in the
interest of the society, (h) Slavery is essential, so that the citizens may be able to
concentrate on mental work. Manual labour should be done by the slaves alone.
(i) Mixed constitution was the best guarantee for the development of a healthy
state. On the other hand, extreme constitution could create political problems
and lead to degeneration.
(j) There was a close link between the political and ethical problems and the two
could not be separated, (k) Laws were an important check, which must be applied
even to the most important and perfect person in the state, because unrestrained
freedom was likely to do more harm than good, to the society.
(1) Though war was not an end in itself, it was essential to bring about eternal
peace. There could be no peace if wars were not fought.
Highlighting the influence of Plato on Aristotle, Prof. Barker says "If Aristotle wrote the
Politics and arranged the contents under the categories and in the scheme of his own
philosophy, Plato supplied a great part of the content. There is as little

absolutely new in the Politics as there is in Magna Carta. Neither is meant to be
new both are meant to codify previous developments." Prof. W.O. Ross also says
"But of his philosophical distinction from his scientific work, there is no page
which does not bear the impress of Platonism. Even when he attacks particular
Platonic doctrines, he often groups himself with those he is criticising and
reminds them of their common principles." According to Dunning "He (Aristotle)
differs from his master Plato, much more in the form and method than in the
substance of his thought. Most of his ideas which seem characteristically
Aristotlean are to be found in Plato."
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARISTOTLE AND PLATO

Though Aristotle found in Plato the master-influence of his life, he was not blind
follower of
his teacher. He criticised numerous ideas and prouncements of his master. The
chief difference between the two are as follows:
(a) Plato was an idealist who attached great importance to 'idea' as the source
and basis of the knowledge of reality. In other words, he conceived an idea
without concrete manifestation. Aristotle as a realist loved facts and attached
great importance to their collection and examination. His scientific spirit
naturally made him deprecate an ideal, which could not be realised. In other
words, Aristotle build up his system of thought on observation, analysis of facts
and the scientific interest dominates his political thought. On this account,
Maxey describes Aristotle as the first scientist. Thus we find that there is a
basic difference between the two. While Plato built a philosophy from general
to particular, Aristotle propounded a philosophy of particular to general.
(b) Plato suggests certain radical and novel institutions which were never known
to the Greek world. His rule of the philosopher-king and the relegation of laws
and customs, to an insignificant position in the ideal state, were clearly
contrary to the existing notions. Similarly his communism of wives and
property were novel ideas. Aristotle repudiates the novel institutions
suggested by Plato and asserts that "in the multitude of years, these things, if
they were good would certainly not have been unknown, for almost everything
has been found out. He criticises Plato for the departure from common
experience. Thus, there is a fundamental difference in the approach and
temper of the two. While Plato would like to have new institutions which does
not accord with the existing political experience, Aristotle is essentially
conservative in this regard. He does not like to have any institution which does
not accord with the existing political experience.
(c) Plato over-emphasises the unity of the state. His scheme of functional
specialization, rule of philosopher king and special training and environments
for the
(a)
guardians etc. are all directed towards the goal of achieving a strong sense of
unity. Aristotle on the other hand, is opposed to the idea of such a high degree of
unity. He holds that the state is not made up only of so many men but of different
kinds of men, for the similars do not constitute the state. It is the very nature of
the state to be plurality of dissimilars. Proper unity in the state can be achieved
through proper organisation of relations among individuals possessing diverse
qualities and performing different functions. He condemns Plato's scheme of
functional specialization and asserts it would lead to disunity rather than unity. He
also does not agree with Plato that the division of labour brought the state into
existence, because this presupposes the existence of the individuals prior to the
state. Aristotle on the other hand holds that the state is by nature clearly prior to
the family and the individual.
(d) Aristotle does not agree with Plato that property and family were the chief causes
of social disharmony and the communism of property and wives would do away
with this disharmony and pave the way for unity of the state. Aristotle holds that
the unity of the state could be achieved not by abolishing the time honoured
institutions of private property and family but by proper education of the
individuals in the spirit of the constitution. He considers the ownership of property
as a natural human instinct and treats it as essential for the fullest moral
development of the individuals. He argues that if the moral development of the
individual suffers, the state shall automatically suffer. He does not agree with
Plato's contention that ownership of property will give rise to disputes among the
guardians and contends that disputes arise not due to existence of private
property but due to wickedness of human nature. He considers property as a
source of happiness and wonders how the
guardians of Plato could serve the interests of the state if they were rendered
unhappy due to denial of private property and family. Aristotle holds that the real
progress of society depends on cultivation of distinct interests by different
members and this could not be possible without private property. He also favours
retention of property and family because it gives rise to sentiments of charity and
benevolence.
(e) Aristotle also does not agree with Plato's notion of communism of wives because it
was neither scientific nor rational. He argues that the institution of family is a time
honoured institution and possesses certain obvious advantages. Abolition of this
institution would give rise to confusion and disharmony. Under the communism of
wives the children are bound to be neglected. He also finds the system of state
controlled mating as impracticable. In short, Aristotle asserts that the communism
of wives which was intended by Plato to bring about unity in the state, could not
produce any genuine unity.
(f) Aristotle does not approve of the arrangement envisaged by Plato in his Ideal
state in which the overwhelming majority of the population, viz., the peasants are
completely neglected and the scheme of education as well as communism of
property and wives is meant only for the Guardian class. Aristotle argues that "this
is bound to lead to an unbridgeable gulf between the Guardians and the nonGuardians and create two hostile states within the same state. If the majority of
the population is not given any chance to develop their personality, dissatisfaction
is bound to arise which can pose a serious threat to the unity and harmony of the
state. On the other hand, Aristotle asserts that a unity arising out of the
elimination of all diversities in individual is fatal to the State just as identity in
musical tones is fatal to musical harmony.
(e)
Aristotle
79
IDEAS OF ARISTOTLE AS EXPRESSED IN POLITICS

As already pointed out Aristotle's main political ideas are contained in his book
Politics, which has been described by Max Lerner as a "treatise on the science and art
of government". According to Barkert Politics is a collection of different essays rather
than a single treatise. The book does not, possess any systematic arrangement and
contains a number of arguments and theories which are not fully developed.
According to Sabine "the general political treatise which goes by the name of the
Politics cannot be regarded as a finished book, such as Aristotle would have
produced, had he been writing for general public. It is generally argued that the
Politics of Aristotle is nothing but a collection of his notes which he prepared for his
lectures. Some scholars even suggest that Politics is not the work of Aristotle but the
work of his pupils and successors in the Lyceum.
Aristotle's Politics has come down to us historically arranged in eight books whose
order differs in different editions. Book I introduces the treatise and deals with
slavery. Book II deals with Plato's ideal state. Book III deals with citizenship, normal
and perverted forms of constitution and monarchy. Book IV deals with various forms
of governments. Books V and VI deal with oligarchy and democracy. Book VII
discusses the constitution of an ideal state; and Book VII develops the point
discussed in Book VII. Thus, we find that the first three books form the basis and
provide material for superstructure. Books IV, V and VI, form the second part and deal
with the nature of constitutions and their distinctions with each other. Books VII and
VIII deal with the constitution of an ideal state most suited to a city state which is
Platonic in nature.
According to Prof. W. Jaegar, Aristotle's Politics is representative of the two stages
in the development of his political thought. The first part consisting of Books II, III, VII
and VIII clearly bears the imprint of his teacher on Aristotle. In this part he deals with
the ideal State and condemns the various theories prevailing at that time. The
second stage in the development of his political thought is reflected in Books I, IV, V
and VI. Aristotle probably wrote these after studying different world constitutions and
saw the things as
they were. In other words, during the first stage Aristotle was an idealist, whereas in
the second stage he turns realist. The ethical considerations are relegated to the
background and he turns entirely empirical. If Aristotle had redrafted the earlier
works in view of his subsequent views, much of the confusion in Politics would have
been avoided. Sabine rightly, says "According to Jaegar's conception, therefore, the
Politics was intended to form a treatise on a single science, but was never subjected
to the rewriting that would have been necessary to bring the parts, written as they
were over a period of perhaps fifteen years; into a well unified form". Despite the
inconsistencies and shortcomings of Politics Foster says "This book is, if a single book
can be, the classical representative of Greek Political thought".
ARISTOTLE'S VIEWS ON STATE

Like Plato, Aristotle also starts with the rejection of the Sophists view that political
society is the product of convention. On the other hand, he treats state as a natural
institution possessing moral authority. According to Aristotle, state was developed
from the family to satisfy the needs and desires of the people. The state aims at
perfection of man and there was no contradiction between the individual and the
state. In fact, an individual can achieve self-sufficiency only in the state. According to
Mcilwain, Aristotle believed that "The state is natural destination of man and as such
the men who thought of state were greatest human benefactors. He believed that it
was wrong to believe that the state was association of isolated individuals but that it
was culmination of widening circles of human associations based on human wants."
Aristotle justified the natural character of the state with the help of theological
arguments. He asserted that the true nature of man could be realised only in the
state. And since the man was a rational being the state was a rational institution. In
the works of Prof. Foster "the lower forms of society, the village, for example prove
inadequate not only because they do not supply the needs of man's animal nature,
but also because they do not supply the needs of his rational nature. These latter can
be supplied only in a political, as distinct, for
example from a purely economic society; and man's rational nature finds its proper
development only in political, as distinct from an economic activity".
Aristotle emphasised the organic of the state and asserts that a man finds his
true meaning and significance of his life only in and through relation to the state. In
the words of Ebenstein, Aristotle held that "the state is a natural community; an
organism with all the attributes of a living being". Just an organ cannot be separated
from the organism similarly an individual cannot be separated from the state. The
individual and other associations draw all their importance from the state and without
it they would stagnate and die. No person can attain his fullness outside the state.
Aristotle considers state as a supreme association because it is the highest of all
associations. Whereas every association aims at some good, the state '"embraces all
the rest, and aims in a greater degree than any other, at the highest good". The
State is a supreme association because it is the culmination of social evolution and
also because man realises his highest moral perfection in the state. Whereas family
and village exist essentially for the preservation of life and the comforts of
companionship, the state exists for the sake of a good life and not for the sake of life
only, and political society exists for the sake of noble actions and not of mere
partnership. Viewed in the context of man's own nature also, state is the highest
form of association. In the family "man reproduces himself, in the village he satisfies
elementary wants of human companionship and in the state alone he realizes his
entire self, and particularly the highest part of himself. In short, Aristotle considers
the state as an association of men for the sake of best moral life".
FUNCTIONS OF STATE
As already pointed out the main objective of the state is to promote perfect and selfsufficing
life, by which Aristotle meant a happy and honourable life. For this purpose, he
wanted the state to create essential conditions for mental, moral and physical
development of the people. He did not want to restrict the functions of the state to
mere preservation of the rights of members against infringement by others or
preservation of life and
property of the members. On the other hand, he assigns to the state most positive
function of promoting the good. It should give proper education to the members for
proper performance of their functions. It should train young minds in the way of
righteousness and make the life of citizens supreme and moral. He considered the
state like a mother to its citizens and its actions could legitimately extend to all
affairs of the individual. In short, Aristotle considers state as a supreme association
whose chief function is to make men moral.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTITUTIONS
According to Aristotle, the character of the state was determined by the 'Constitution'
or the 'polity', and a change in the constitution inevitably led to change in the state.
Aristotle says that the state is a Kiononia but the Kiononia is embodied in the
Constitution. In short, he considers the constitution as an important factor which
determines the character of the state. As regards the constitution he defines it as the
arrangement of magistracies in a State, especially of the highest offices. The nature
of the Constitution depends on the seat of other. In other words the constitution
determines which of the State shall hold the highest office. In the words of Aristotle
"the polity is an ordering of the Polis in respect of its offices and especially in respect
of the one supreme over all others. For the supremacy is everywhere in the governing
class of the Polis and the governing class is the Polity". Aristotle emphasises that the
state changes its identity when the constitution changes. According to Aristotle, no
constitution in the world is either absolutely good or bad but it is only comparatively
good or bad.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTITUTIONS OR STATES

As Aristotle takes the constitution and the state, as identical, his classification of the
former is also to be treated as the classification of the latter. His classification is
based on two principles, viz., quantitative. The first takes into account the number of
people in whom the sovereign power is vested whether it be, one, few or many. The
second
Aristotle 81
Number of
persons in
whom power is
vested
One
Few
Man
y
Pure form
Perverted form
(Normal
Government)
Monarchy
Aristocracy
Polity
Tyranny
Oligarchy
Democracy
takes into account the end which a government serves. If the government aims at the
common interest of all the people, it is a pure form of government. On the other hand
if the government serves the private and selfish interests of the ruling class it
becomes a corrupt or perverted government. Accordingly, there are three pure forms
of governments, viz., monarchy, aristocracy and polity in which the power rests with
one, few and many and the same is used for the good of the community as a whole.
On the other hand these three pure forms of governments have three perverted
froms, viz., tyranny., oligarchy and democracy. They are also based on numerical
formula but they are carried on for the selfish interests of the rulers rather than in the
interest of the community. His classification can be best understood through the
following table.
According to Aristotle, the Polity was the best and the most practicable form of
government because it possessed a healthy combination of liberty and wealth. He
held that the best constitution was the one which was practicable. He was even
willing to have a monarchy provided the Monarch was enlightened. However, he
asserts that monarchy and aristocracy have a tendency to degenerate and do not
possess the qualities of moderation and stability which is a characteristic feature of
Polity.
Aristotle says that no form of government or constitution is permanent or
everlasting and the different forms of government keep on changing. This change,
according to Aristotle, takes place in a circle. The Monarchy, which is a normal
government, gets degenerated in course of time and is replaced by Tyranny.
Similarly, Aristocracy degenerates into Oligarchy and Polity into Democracy. But
democracy is also not the ultimate solution and is replaced by Monarchy. In this way
the process of change continues. This process of change envisaged by Aristotle is
popularly known as Aristotle's Cycle of Change.
Aristotle's classification of state has been subjected to criticism on the following
grounds:
Firstly, it is said that his classification is not applicable to the present times in so
far as it does not cover a number of governments which exist at present, viz., limited
monarchy, totalitarian government, parliamentary government, federalism, etc.
Secondly, Aristotle considers democracy as a perverted form of government in
which the government is run by many poor people. However, this notion of Aristotle
is difficult to accept because the majority of people in a given society may be
prosperous. Would it then mean that if the power is vested in such people it will not
constitute a democratic government. In modern times, democracy makes no
reference to the qualification of poverty of the people and simply insists on the
principle of equality.
Thirdly, Aristotle considers democracy as a degenerate or perverted form of
government whereas in our times we consider it as the best form of government in
which the individual gets maximum opportunities to develop his personality.
Fourthly, Aristotle offers mainly a classification of governments and not states. In
this respect, he is guilty of confusing the two terms, viz., government and state.
However, in fairness to Aristotle it may be pointed out that the distinction between
the two is of recent origin and did not exist during his times.
Fifthly, it is said that this classification is not based on any scientific principles. It
is quantitative rather than qualitative. The distinction between Aristocracy and Polity
is mainly based on numbers. However, this criticism is quite charitable to Aristotle, in
so far he also distinguished between the Governments on the basis of their quality,
viz., perverted and normal.
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In conclusion, it can be said that Aristotle's classification of states has met

with severe condemnation at the hands of modern scholars and his ideas are not
fully applicable to the modern conditions, but it cannot be denied that his
classification has proved most lasting. Most of the political thinkers who offered
classification of states or governments have largely followed the basis adopted
by Aristotle. It has been asserted that in reality all the classifications of State
offered since the days Aristotle are in reality merely an improvement on
Aristotle's classification rather than new classifications.
IDEAL STATE OF ARISTOTLE

As has already been pointed out Aristotle's political thought combines the
elements of political ideals and political actualities. Broadly speaking books II, III,
VIII of his Politics deal with the Political ideals while in books IV, V and VI he deals
with the political actualities. Therefore, it is desirable to discuss Aristotle's Ideal
State as well as the best Practicable State.
In the portrayal of his Ideal State, Aristotle clearly felt the impact of Plato,
even though he was more practical and realistic than Plato. As a realist he goes
more closer to Plato's Laws rather than his Republic. Hence, Sabine rightly says
that what Aristotle calls the Ideal State is always Plato's second best state. Prof.
Barker also says "It is curious and suggestive that when Aristotle depicts his best,
he should copy Plato's Second Best. It was perhaps due to Aristotle's touch for
realism that did not take him to the flights of imagination to which Plato had
gone". However, before dealing with Idealist State of Aristotle, it may be noted
that Aristotle was not an absolutist like Plato. He asserts that it cannot be
pronounced as to which is the best government for a particular society without
taking into account the special nature of the people. For example, if a community
has a single outstanding person with predominant virtue the Monarchy shall be
an ideal government. But if it possesses a few, instead of one, men of virtue,
Aristocracy is the best suited government. But if there is a multitude of people
possessing the ability to rule, the best government for them is Polity. Hence
Aristotle would like to take into
account the special nature of the people, before prescribing an ideal state for
them. Second, though Aristotle has natural preference for Monarchy as the Ideal
state because the transcendent virtue is more likely to be found in one man than
in any large number, he realises that this ideal is almost impossible to realise and
accordingly prefers a government of high and enlightened virtue in which all men
rule and are ruled in turn. He insists that, the ultimate sovereignty must reside in
the law and even the rulers should be subject to it. If we view the things in the
light of this observation of Aristotle we find that he rules out Monarchy as an
Ideal state because in it the 'god among men' cannot be subjected to law.
FEATURES OF IDEAL STATE

Aristotle's views regarding his Ideal state lie scattered throughout books III, VII and
VIII of his books and are not presented in a systematic manner at anyone place. By a
careful examination of these scattered views we note the following feature of his
ideal state:
Firstly, the Ideal State of Aristotle is the small city-state consisting of a small and
intimate group of citizens whose social life overlaps the interests of family, of religion
and of friendly personal intercourse.
Secondly, in his Ideal State the law occupies a predominant position. He does not
favour the personal and despotic rule of even the most virtuous person and favours
impersonal rule of law, which according to him represents the wisdom of the
community since the ages. According to Sabine, Aristotle accepts the sovereignty of
law in his ideal state not "as a concession to human frailty but as an intrinsic part of
good government and therefore as a characteristic of an ideal state".
Thirdly, the ideal state of Aristotle is an ethical institution which aims to bring
about moral improvement amongst the citizens. He holds that state alone can
provide the conditions under which the individual can achieve the highest type of
moral development. The ideal state of Aristotle aims at promoting a good and happy
life, by which he means a virtuous and a moral life.
Aristotle
83
Fourthly, in the Ideal State of Aristotle education plays an important role in

making the citizens virtuous. He insists on compulsory state regulated education, to
cultivate good habits among citizens and to make the members perfect. Such
perfection can be achieved by cultivating moral and intellectual excellence, by the
citizens, which is possible only through a system of uniform, compulsory, public
education. It may be noted that Aristotle's scheme of education was meant only for
the citizens.
Fifthly, in the Ideal State of Aristotle right to private property is conceded because
he considered private property as a natural institution which must be preserved. He
pleads for equal distribution of land among the citizens. In addition to land, he
permits ownership of personal property but its value should not exceed four times
the value of the original land. Though he permits right to private property, he wants
that the products of the land should be distributed among the people and should be
used for common welfare. In short, the private property is meant for common
consumption.
Sixthly, the division of labour is another essential feature of Aristotle's ideal state.
Thus he assigns agriculture to the slaves, commerce and trade to the resident-aliens
and political functions to the citizens. He justifies the institution of slavery and insists
that only the leisured classes should actively participate in the exercise of the
sovereignty.
Seventhly, Aristotle's ideal state is neither too small nor too big. However,
Aristotle does not prescribe any maximum or minimum number of citizens to
constitute an ideal state. He simply insists that the population should be
manageable. He is certainly against large population and argues that ideal conditions
cannot exist if the population is large. As far as possible, the citizens must know each
other.
Eighthly, as regards the size of the territory of ideal state, Aristotle insists that it
should be
such so as to make it possible for the people to live a free and leisured life. It
must possess sufficient economic resources which can meet the needs of the
population. Aristotle wants that the territory of state should be small so that it is
possible to have a glance of the entire territory of the state from one
place. It should not be easily accessible to the foreigners. It should not have
abundance of wealth so as to be a source of attraction for the foreign powers.
Ninthly, the ideal state should be self-sufficient and should not entertain any
aggressive designs against other foreign countries. It should concentrate on the
fullest development of man, viz., mental, moral and economic.
Tenthly, the Ideal State of Aristotle is dominated by the middle class. Aristotle
believed that it is the middle class alone which can provide stability to the state
because, it possesses the twin qualities of obedience, as well as command. It can
strike a balance between the conflicting claims of the rich and the poor. As
Aristotle has put it "The addition of a large middle class has a great steadying
influence and checks the opposite extremes". He holds that a good government
is possible only if, the middle class out-numbers the strength of the rich and the
poor, combined together. Explaining this point Prof. Sabine says "Where such a
body of citizens exists they form a group large enough to give the state a popular
foundation, disinterested enough to hold the magistrates responsible, and select
enough to avoid the evils of government by the masses".
Eleventhly, the ideal State should have ample access to sea so that it can
receive the necessary imports. However, he insists that the state should not be
so close to the sea that its defence poses a problem or it has excessive foreign
trade, or its citizens take to sea-faring.
Twelfthly, the ideal state should possess a temperate climate which is
congenial to both mental and physical activities.
Thirteenthly, the citizens of ideal state should combine the spirit and courage,
with intellectual keenness.
Fourteenthly, the ideal state should consist of six classes, viz., agriculturists,
artisans, a war-like class, leisured class, priests, ar^d administrators. Aristotle
does not consider the members of the first two classes (agriculturists and
artisans) as citizens and therefore does not give them any share in the
administration of the state. The last four classes alone constitute the citizens and
enjoy the exclusive preogative to exercise all political power.
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The features of Aristotle's ideal state have been beautifully summed up by

Prof. Mcilwain thus "It is neither too rich nor too poor, secure from attack and
devoid of the desire for great wealth or wide expansion of trade or territory,
homogeneous, virtuous and cultured, a defensible unambitious community selfsufficient but not aggressive, "great" but not large, a tight little independent city
over which the supreme power will rest in a true aristocracy whose members rule
and obey each other in turn in maintaining for themselves a life of freedom from
mercenary pursuits devoted to the achievement of the highest possible measure
of culture and virtue of well being and true happiness attainable by each and by
all; while the work necessary to the States's mere material existence, will be
performed by those whose natural lack of virtue disqualifies them for the higher
life and for political functions but, does not unfit them for manual toil under the
direction of their moral intellectual and therefore, political superiors. These lower
classes are necessary elements of the Polis, but politically speaking, scarcely
parts of it in an organic sense, whether they be legally free or slaves".
THE BEST ATTAINABLE (OR BEST PRACTICABLE) STATE-OR
POLITY
Though Aristotle devised an ideal State, he fully realised that the ideal was often
unattainable, and therefore provided a detailed account of the best realizable or
practicable state. This best practicable state avoids the extremes of democracy and
oligarchy and is described by Aristotle as Polity or Constitutional Government.
Aristotle uses the term 'polity' in two different senses-general and particular, in the
general sense cases it for the constitution whether it be monarchy, aristocracy,
oligarchy or democracy. In the particular sense, he uses it for the fusion of the
democratic and oligarchic elements, while avoiding their extremes. Aristotle found
that in oligarchy a few rich persons rule over many poor persons for the protection of
their 'class interests'. The main qualification for holding office in such a system is
ownership of property. By concentrating the power in the hands of a comparatively
small class, this system enables that class to become
oppressive. On the other hand, in democracy many poor persons dominate the affairs
of the state. No property or other qualifications are insisted to hold any public office.
On the other hand, the offices are distributed on the basis of lot and every body gets
a chance to rule and be ruled in turn. The real problem in democracy is how to base
the government on popular support and at the same time provide an intelligent
administration. Aristotle detests both, the extreme richness and extreme poverty and
asserts that the power in the best practicable state, should vest in the middle class.
He designates such a middle class dominated state as Polity.
Aristotle justifies Polity thus: "...in all states there are three elements: one class is
very rich, another very poor and a third is a mean. It is admitted that moderation and
the mean are the best, and therefore, it will clearly be best to possess the gifts of
fortune in moderation; for in that condition of life men are most ready to listen to
reason. But he who greatly excels in beauty, strength, birth or wealth, or on the other
hand, who is very poor or very weak or very much disgraced finds it difficult to follow
reason...Again, those who have too much of the good of fortune, strength, wealth,
friends and the like are, neither willing nor able to submit to authority...On the other
hand the very poor who are in the opposite extreme are too degraded. So that one
class cannot obey, and can only rule despotically; the other knows not how to
command and must be ruled like slaves. Thus arises a city, not of freemen but of
masters and slaves...at enmity with one another. But a city ought to be composed, as
far as possible of equals and similar; and these are generally the middle classes.
Where for the city, which is composed of middle-class citizens is necessarily best
government...Thus it is manifest that the best political community is formed by the
citizens of the middle class and those states are likely to be well-administered in
which the middle class is large and larger if possible than both the other classes or at
any rate than either single; for the addition of middle class turns the scale, and
prevents either of the extremes being dominated. Great then is the good fortune of a
State, in which the citizens have a moderate and sufficient property; for where some
possess
much, and the

Aristotle
85
others nothing, there may arise an extreme democracy, or a pure oligarchy; or a

tyranny by grow out of other extremeeither out of the most rampant democracy, or
out of oligarchy; but it is not likely to arise out of a middle and nearly equal
condition."
A careful analysis of the above passage highlights the following implications of
Aristotle's thought.
Firstly, extreme richness breeds arrogance and disobedience of authority because
the rich people do not know how to be ruled.
Secondly, extreme poverty leads to complete subjection of the people because
the poor people do not know how to rule.
Thirdly, the middle class people who are neither rich nor poor know how to rule
and be ruled in turn.
Fourthly, the best practicable state is one in which the middle class is in majority,
preferably larger than the rich and the poor taken together, else it should at least be
larger than either class taken separately.
Fifthly, in a middle-class dominated society there are greater chances of a stable
government and the chances of revolution are minimum.
Sixthly, Polity avoids the oligarchical defect of irresponsibility of the rulers and
unintelligent rule of the poor selected on the basis of a simple lot. The middle class in
polity provides a popular touch to the government and at the same time avoids the
evils of mob-rule.
Seventhly, it balances the principles of wealth and number and provides a mixed
constitution combining the elements of oligarchy and democracy.
Prof. Maxey criticises Aristotle's middle-class state on the ground that "middle
class mediocrity is no shining ideal for the foundation of a state". However, this
criticism seems to be misplaced because Aristotle himself says that Polity is not the
best Ideal State, rather it is the best on the average. It is the best practicable.
Further, even the act"al experience of the working of various political society
confirms the contention of Aristotle that most of the stable, durable and welladministered states have been under the control of the middle class. Viewed in this
context his concept of middleclass rule is one of the most important contributions to the political thought.
ARISTOTLE ON SLAVERY
Aristotle as a realist justified the institution of slavery and considered it essential for
the proper functioning of the family. He considered the slaves as the living possession
of the family which was as vital for its proper functioning as the lifeless possession of
property. According to Aristotle slave is a living possession and property of his
master. Though he has sufficient power to understand and follow reason he has no
reasoning power. Since slaves have lower capacities they should obey those
possessing higher capacities.
Aristotle justified slavery on three grounds, viz., natural, usefulness and
expediency. In the first place, he rejected the view of the radical sophists who held
that slavery was contrary to nature because nature had created all men as equals. He
on the other hand, argues that nature itself has ordained slavery. He argues that all
men have not been endowed by nature with equal capacities or virtue. On the other
hand, nature endows different persons with different qualities and ordains that
superior should rule over the inferior. He took slavery as another manifestation of the
general rule of nature that the inferior should be subordinate to the superior, and
argued that just as, the soul rules over the body and reason over appetite, in the
constitution of man, similarly, in a state those persons who are endowed with a
higher degree of reason and capacity for virtue must command and direct those who
possess little or no such capacity. The former are by nature masters and the latter
slaves. Nature has endowed the masters with intellectual strength and bestowed
physical strength on the slaves. The moral and intellectual development is possible
only if the slave meets the material needs of the master and provides him necessary
leisure for the exercise of virtue. Aristotle asserts, it is as impossible for a
householder to live a good life without slaves, as it is impossible for a musician to
produce music without a musical instrument.
Secondly, Aristotle justifies slavery on grounds of usefulness. He asserts that in
the larger interest of the community it is desirable that the masters should be free
from material worries so
86
that they may be able to concentrate on public affairs. The slave, renders valuable
service to the master, by freeing him from material demands and providing
necessary leisure which he can utilise for the attainment of the virtue. According to
Aristotle, slavery is not only useful to the master, it is also useful to the slave
because he is able to share the virtues of his master and get elevated. The slave's
association with his master brings his 'derivative excellence'.
Thirdly, Aristotle justifies the institution of slavery on grounds of expediency.
During his times slavery played a vital role in the maintenance and operation of the
Greek economy. A major portion of the population residing in the city-state consisted
of states and their emancipation would have greatly upset the balance of power in
the city-state and damaged the social fabric. This would have given rise to social
disorder and chaos.
It may be observed that Aristotle did not offer unqualified justification of slavery
and approved it only under certain conditions. First, Aristotle favoured the
enslavement of only those persons who were mentally deficient. He did not approve
of enslavement of prisoners of war because victory in the war did not necessarily
mean intellectual superiority of the victor or the mental deficiency of the vanquished.
Thus, Aristotle disapproved of the idea of forcible conversion of the prisoners of war
as slaves. Second, he insisted that the masters should treat their slaves properly and
wanted the state to give necessary punishments to the masters who were cruel to
their slaves. Third, he stood for the emancipation of the slaves, who showed good
conduct and developed capacity for reasoning and virtue.
CRITICISM OF ARISTOTLE'S VIEWS ON SLAVERY

Aristotle's views on slavery, have met with severe criticism, at the hands of critics. In
the main, they have highlighted the following defects in his theory:
Firstly, Aristotle wrongly assumes that some are born to rule because they are
intelligent and virtuous. This is contrary to the modern notions of
equality which assumes that all are born equal and some develop the facilities which
equip them to rule over others.
Secondly, even if we accept Aristotle's conception that nature has ordained that
the superior should rule over the inferior, there shall be a number of classes in the
society, each superior to one and inferior to others. On the other hand Aristotle
presumes the existence of only two classes the masters and slaves.
Thirdly, his theory of slavery is largely the development of his basic notion that
the Greeks are superior to the non-Greeks or barbarians. He believes in the racial
superiority of the Greeks and would not permit their enslavement.
Fourthly, Aristotle treats slavery as a hereditary institution and asserts that some
people are by nature slaves. However, he does not lay down any criteria to
determine as to who is a natural slave and who is not. He emphasises the hereditary
character of slavery, whereas modern scholars hold that environment is a more
important factor than heredity.
Fifthly, his theory of slavery is contradictory in so far as, on the one hand he
asserts that man by nature is good and finds his perfection in the society. On the
other hand, he subjects a numerically predominant class of men to perpetual and
everlasting subjection without any hope of emancipation. Therefore, theologically his
justification of slavery is not correct.
Sixthly, Aristotle treats the slave as an animate instrument of action, who is not
capable of applying reason. If we accept his criteria, the majority of the modern day
industrial workers who hardly exercise any initiative, would be reduced to the status
of slaves. Aristotle, on the one hand, asserts that the slave is merely a piece of
property of an animate king and at the same time he holds that the slave should be
given some share in law and also provided chances of emancipation. It is very
difficult to reconcile these contradictory stands of Aristotle.
Seventhly, there is a basic contradiction between his view that men are by nature
good and social with potentialities for moral development and his effort to subject
the numerically predominant class to everlasting subjection.
Aristotle
87
Finally, his theory of slavery is also contrary to the notions of social justice. On
the one hand, he considers the slavery essential to enable the masters to devote
themselves fully to the service of the society, but on the other hand, he does not
acknowledge their importance or properly reward them for their services. This is a
clear violation of the notions of social justice.
Though Aristotle's views on slavery have met with severe criticism at the hands of
modern political thinkers, it cannot be denied that judged in the context of conditions
prevailing in Greece during his times, the institution of salvery was essential, in so
far, it provMed stability to the city-state. Further as Prof. Taylor has said "The slaves
of whom he (Aristotle) speaks were household servants in small business. He had not
before his eyes, the system of enormous industries carried by the gangs of slaves
under the conditions of revolting degradation which disgraced the later Roman
Republic and early Roman empire or the Southern States of North America." Even
Prof. Murray acknowledges the influence of Aristotle on the modern thinkers in so far
his views on slavery are concerned. He says "the modern world is not without
examples of racial discrimination which are defended by essentially the same
arguments as those employed by Aristotle".
ARISTOTLE'S VIEWS ON CITIZENSHIP

As regards Aristotle's views on citizenship he was essentially a conservative thinker
who wanted to conserve the existing institution of citizenship. The citizens of ancient
Athens were the privileged class people who held public offices and participated in
the state activities. The citizenship was based on the principle of heredity, viz., only
sons of the citizens were entitled to become citizens. The bulk of the population
consisting of slaves and resident aliens were not given this privilege and were treated
as inferior to the citizens.
Aristotle, while explaining citizenship, ctarts by asserting that residence in a
particular , lace does not entitle a person to become citizen, because the slaves and
the resident aliens also reside in the same place, but are not considered citizens.
Similarly, enjoyment of legal right of suing and being sued also does not make a
person
citizen, because such a right can also be conferred on the aliens by treaty. Likewise,
desent from a citizen also does not necessarily entitle a person to become citizen.
After specifying what does not constitute citizenship, he defines a citizen as a person
who participates in the administration of justice and in legislation as a member of the
deliberative assembly, these being the two essential functions of sovereignty. In
other words, a person holding office as a judge or enjoying membership of the
popular assembly, is a citizen. In addition to these two conditions, Aristotle insists on
three other conditions for a citizen, even though they are not absolute conditions.
These include residence, enjoyment of legal rights of suing and being sued, and
descent from a citizen. Aristotle further asserts that only such a person can become
citizen who possesses the capacity to rule and be ruled at the same time. A person
possessing neither of these two virtues cannot be a citizen. Again, he insists on
possession of leisure as an essential conditions of citizenship, because without leisure
no individual can cultivate virtue and devote himself fully to the state duties.
According to Aristotle, the possession of property and ownership of slaves, go a long
way in helping a person attain citizenship. A person who has to engage himself in
manual labour, to provide his necessities of life cannot make a good citizen. Only
those who actively share or have the leisure to share, in the government of the state
are citizens. Thus Aristotle excludes the slaves, the resident aliens (engaged in trade
and business), foreigners, mechanics and labourers, etc., from the category of
citizens because they engage in manual labour to earn their livelihood. Aristotle also
excludes the women from participation in the state activities, because he considers
them intellectually inferior. He also excludes the old people as well as the children
from the category of citizens because, the former are not physically fit to participate
in the affairs of the state and
the latter do not possess mature judgement, to take part in the affairs of the
state. Thus like Plato, Aristotle is not quite liberal in conferring citizenship rights
on all and excludes the above categories of persons from this privilege. In fact,
Plato seems to be more democratic and liberal, as compared to Aristotle in his
concept of citizenship in so far, he confers the citizenship even on the
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producing class, which Aristotle excludes from the category of citizens. However,
there is an identity between the two, in so far as both insist that, the right to
citizenship should not be conferred on all.
CRITICISM
Aristotle's views on citizenship have been subjected to following criticisms:
Firstly, he confers citizenship only on a selected aristocratic class and
excludes children, women, old men, manual workers, etc., from this category.
Secondly, he attaches too much importance to the holding of property and
asserts that only propertied persons could become citizens and act as legislators
or jurors. This naturally gives rise to class-government and leads to the neglect of
the bulk of the working class.
Thirdly, he does great injustice to the non-leisured classes by denying them
all political rights as well as facilities of education. Thus, he makes them an
instrument for the leisured class and pushes them to perpetual degradation.
Fourthly, Aristotle by denying Citizenship rights to a large section of people,
promotes the feeling of disinterestedness among them, which is certainly suicidal
for the smooth and successful working of the state. This deprives the state of a
chance to avail of the experience of the non-citizens because they are debarred
from acting as jurors or legislators. This sharp division of society into two classes
also poses a serious threat to the unity and harmony of the society.
Fifthly, his conception of citizenship is contrary to the modern notions of
citizenship. In our times all adults, barring some persons who are disqualified, are
treated as citizens whether they work with their hands or brain. The manual
labourers render no less valuable service to the society. Mere speculations and
comtemplation by the intellectual class cannot provide basic needs of people like
food, clothing, etc. Hence to condemn the manual labourer to an inferior position
is not justified.
Sixthly, his conception of citizenship is not suited to the modern nation state.
Aristotle insists on the direct participation of the citizens in the legislative and
judicial business of the state. This
could be possible in the city-states of his times when the number of citizens was
very small. In modern times, when the state consists of millions of people, it is
almost impossible to think that every citizen should have a direct share in the
legislative and judicial business.
Seventhly, his concept of citizenship does not fit in with the present day
representative democracy, in which the citizens do not take direct part in the
affairs of the state, instead they participate in the activities of the state through
their representatives elected at fixed intervals.
Eighthly, his concept of citizenship does not fit in well with his belief in the
organic nature of the state. In his theory of citizenship he completely excluded
the bulk of a population engaged in commerce, trade and other economic
pursuits from the body of citizens. This is clearly against belief in the organic
nature of the state in which every individual is a part of the state.
Ninthly, his theory of citizenship encourages class rule and neglect of the
welfare of the majority. By conceding exclusive right to rule to the propertied

classes, he paves the way for the emergence of a class state in which the rulers
are likely to utilise their power to perpetuate their interests at all costs. It is
indeed wrong to split the population in two parts in which one is merely treated
as an instrument for the welfare of the other. Since each individual has his own
moral potentialities he should be permitted to develop the same.
Finally, Aristotle is condemned for his conservatism because his scheme of
citizenship tries to conserve the state of affairs prevailing in contemporary
Athens.
Though Aristotle's theory of citizenship has been severely condemned, yet it
cannot be denied that the critics have been rather harsh to him. Aristotle offered
a theory of citizenship, which was primarily intended for the city states and
hence it shall be unfair to test the same by the notions of modern nation-state. It
is only in the present century that the idea of associating all with the
administration of the country has gained prominence and the need of granting
identical rights to all has been accepted. When Aristotle wrote only a small
section of society enjoying leisure was associated with government and a
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89
great majority of persons, who did not have any leisure, were not permitted to
participate in the affairs of the state. Judged in the light of these considerations we
find that Aristotle has rather been harshly treated and unduly condemned. His
concept of citizenship was meant for city states and should not be applied to the
modern nation states. Viewed in this context we can agree with Prof. Barker "A lower
ideal of citizenship, purchasable at a price which the money can afford to pay is
perhaps a more precious thing than the rare riches of the Platonic and Aristotlean
ideal."
ARISTOTLE ON PROPERTY
Aristotle's views on property are at complete variance with Plato. In fact, he put
forward his views on property while criticising Plato's views on communism of
property. It may be noted that Plato regarded property as dangerous for the unity of
the state and therefore pleaded for its abolition so far as the guardian class was
concerned. He also did not consider it essential for the moral, perfection of the
individual. On the other hand, Aristotle considers property indispensable for the
normal functioning of the household, as well as social progress. He justifies the
institution of private property on the following grounds:
Firstly, Aristotle says that "the institution of property is good for the individual, as well
as,
the society. It provides an incentive to the individual to work hard and

thereby contribute to social progress. He argues that when every one has a
distinct interest, men will make more progress, because every one will be
attending to his own business."
Secondly, ownership of property is a source of self-respect, self-love and pleasure.
The property may not be necessarily used for selfish ends by the owners, it can also
be used for the development of the people.
Thirdly, it promotes qualities like generosity, liberality, hospitality and
righteousness which are so vital for the development of human personality.
Fourthly, the utility of private property has been established because it has been
in existence for such a long time and has survived various upheavals in human
history. Aristotle insists that "we should not disregard the experience of the ages"
and retain the institution of private property.
Fifthly, the ownership of private property helps in the development of qualities
like skill of management and vigilance which prove very useful in the management of
the state affairs. In view of this conviction, Aristotle insists that only persons holding
private property should be treated as citizens and given the responsibility of
governing the state.
Sixthly, the ownership of private property gives rise to the sense of civic
responsibility. A person owning property will take due interest in the affairs of the
state, to ensure that the money raised by the state through taxes (to which he has
also contributed his share) is spent properly. He shall also ensure the preservation of
the state for the protection of his own property. On the other hand, the nonpropertied persons are likely to be extravagant in spending the public money and
have no stakes in the preservation of the state. In other words, possession of
property encourages the development of civic sense among the members.
Seventhly, the possessions of property is also in keeping with the natural instinct
of man. Any effort to abolish the same shall be contrary to this notion and can result
in social disharmony.
Aristotle, no doubt, offers a very strong justification for private property, but he
does not stop here. He proceeds to discuss the problem of holding and using private
property, because this to a large extent determines the healthy or, unhealthy results
of property. According to Aristotle, there are three methods for holding and using of
private property (i) it may be owned by some persons, but its produce should be used
by the community as a whole and not by the owner alone; (ii) common ownership
and use of property; and (iii) common ownership but private use of property. Of these
three methods, Aristotle favours the first, viz., the individual ownership but common
use of private property. He says "It is Clearly better that property should be private
but the use of it common. Private possession brings economic and moral advantage,
common use following from property spirit produces that unanimity which is desired
the most. Thus Aristotle tries to strike a balance between the individualistic and
socialistic view and tries to combine the advantages drawn from the individual
ownership, with those from public use of property. Private ownership has economic
and
moral advantages. The common use on the other hand creates unity. In fact, Aristotle
adopts "a middle of the road course between the two extremes of individualism and
socialism".
KINDS OF PROPERTY
Aristotle, classified property into two categories-animate and inanimate. While the
slave is an animate instrument, the other property is inanimate instrument.
Whatever be the kind of property, it is healthy only, when it helps a person in leading
a good and healthy life. It is essential for the proper functioning of the household,
because it helps in meeting man's needs of food, house, garments etc. and protects
him against the rigorous of climate. Without certain amount of necessities, no
household can function properly.
Aristotle is against amassing excessive amount of property and insisted on
acquisition of as much wealth which was sufficient to lead a good life. He held that
excessive wealth thwarts rather than helps a good life.
Aristotle talks of two methods of wealth-natural and unnatural. The necessary
methods include cattle raising, agriculture, and hunting, etc. In other words, the
methods which help in procuring necessary subsistence are natural methods. On the
other hand, the unnatural methods of acquisition of property include trade, barter,
commerce, etc., These methods do not aim at mere maintenance of life but at
endless accumulation of wealth.
ARISTOTLE'S
SIGNIFICANT
VIEWS
ON
PROPERTY
ARE
INDEED
He not only offers a strong justification for the institution of private property but also
insists that endless accumulation of wealth is bad both for the individual and the
society. According to him inequalities of wealth in the society are a major cause of
revolutions. However, his views on property are not upto-date. He draws distinction
between natural and unnatural methods of acquiring property and brands trade,
commerce, etc., as unnatural methods. This clearly indicates that he does not fully
appreciate the value of the capital. On the other hand, he regards hunting, cattleraising, etc., as natural methods. In this
respect, his approach is quite primitive. However, it cannot be denied that his views
on property are based on sound philosophy and logical foundations and have proved
to be of lasting value. The justification of private property offered by him about 2000
years back, holds good even today, in so far property is treated merely as a means to
an end, rather than as an end in itself. He also rightly emphasised, that over
concentration or accumulation of property, is dangerous for social development. In
view of the truth contained in this assertion of Aristotle, in modern times most of the
states have passed numerous laws for proper regulation of property.
ARISTOTLE ON REVOLUTION
Aristotle's views on revolution are contained in Book V of Politics and are largely
based on his study of the working of 158 constitutions of the Greek city-states.
Aristotle undertook this study because of the frequent changes in the governments of
city-states during his times.
Aristotle assigned a very broad meaning to the term revolution and offered a two-fold
meaning. First, he implied by it any major or minor change in the constitution such as
a change from monarchy to oligarchy and so on. Secondly, a change in the ruling
power, even though it did not lead to change in the government or constitution; was
also a revolution. Thus, a change from monarchy to tyranny and vice versa, meant a
revolution. It is evident from the above that
Aristotle did not restrict the revolution to political change only and assigned it
a much broader meaning.
CAUSES OF REVOLUTION
Aristotle has enumerated a number of causes of revolution which can broadly be
studied under the following three heads:
(a)
General Causes of Revolution
One of the major general cause of revolution, according to Aristotle, is the natural
desire of people to be treated as equal. They always envy the privileges and superior
position of the few and want to do away with the existing system. According to
Sinclair "Since justice and friendship are the moral basis of the state, injustice and illwill
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91
are the most potent causes of discontent and instability. The absence of
proportionate equality, of a fair deal, leads to lack of justice and splits the city into
factions. There can be no fellow feeling, when one section of the community is
convinced that its rights are being denied to it and justice is not being done. In short,
it can be said that if a substantial section of the society feels that justice is not being
done to them, there is every possibility of a revolution. Therefore, Aristotle rightly
asserts that more the equality more stable the state is. He considers that state as the
best, which is dominated by a middle class, because in such a state, there shall be
less inequality and hence very little chances of revolution.
(b) Particular Causes of Revolution

Aristotle shows great insight into the basic causes of revolution while analysing the
general causes of revolution. According to Maxey "There can be no doubt however, of
the acuteness of Aristotle's insight into the basic causes of revolutions. One or more
of the factors enumerated by him will be found to have been among the provoking
forces of virtually every political revolution of which history has any record." Among
the particular causes of revolution, Aristotle has enumerated the following:
(i) Demand for social, political and economic equality with those in authority, while
those who are in power want to acquire more privileges. This is bound to result in
revolution, (ii) Grants of undue prominence to some people is resented by the
people and they mobilise the public opinion which poses a serious threat to the
unity and solidarity of the state, (iii) Grant of absolute power to one or few
individuals, is bound to be resented by those who are deprived of the power. This
leads to tyranny of the few against the vast majority and ultimately paves the way
for revolution, (iv) Misuse of authority by those in power and attitude of defame
and disgrace adopted towards the opponents is resented and is likely to promote
the spirit of revolution.
(v) Disproportionate increase of any part territorial, social, economic or otherwise
of the state, (vi) An attempt on the part of those guilty of wrong deeds to conceal
their actions create great dissatisfaction and resentment among the people, once
these misdeeds are exposed. The resentment finds outlet in revolt for the overthrow
of these people, (vii) The use of unscrupulous methods in elections for capture of
power leaves bitter taste and the people are bound to retaliate at the earliest
available opportunity for the fraud played on them.
(viii) Careless admission of corrupt and disloyal officers to civil and military posts can
generate revolution.
(ix) The rivalry among members of various races living in a state leads to
irreconciliable interests and is bound to have serious repercussions, (x) Excessive

and irrational use of force is dangerous in so far as people may tolerate it for some
time but ultimately they are bound to rise against the authority, (xi) Dynastic
quarrels also pave the way for revolution because the different claimants come to be
supported by different factions. Those in power are so deeply involved in the
intrigues that they cannot pay sufficient attention to the interests of the people.
Such a situation is bound to culminate in revolution, (xii) The neglect of minor
changes can sometimes assume serious dimensions and culminate in revolution.
(xiii) Free flow of immigrants can also lead to revolution because this brings the
nation in contact with those persons who possess a different system of justice
and varying code of law and gives rise to dissatisfaction and ultimately end up
in revolution.
(xiv) The conquest of one nation by another nation also contains seeds of revolution.
The vanquished is always on the look out of a suitable opportunity to pay back
the conqueror in his own coin. The resentment
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against the conqueror is all the more serious when it indulges in naked
aggression of the vanquished nation and completely ignores the national
interests of the subjugated nation.
(c)
Revolution in a Particular Kind of State
Finally Aristotle also discusses the causes of revolution in particular types of states,
viz., democracies, oligarchies, aristocracies and polities. According to him, in
democracies revolutions are caused due to excessive use of powers and unwarranted
condemnation of the rich by the demagogues. In oligarchies, revolutions take place
either due to rivalry and dissensions among the ruling oligarchies or, due to
oppressive and dictatorial nature of their rule. In Aristocracy, the revolutions are
spearheaded by those who are denied honours, which are conferred only on the few.
In polity, the revolution is caused due to detective balance of the different elements
in the constitution. In other words, the revolutions in polity are due to maladmixture
of the oligarchic and democratic elements. Revolts in Monarchy and Tyranny are
caused by three factors, viz., hatred and contempt generated in the minds of the
people due to insolvent and oppressive behaviour of the rulers; personal insult
inflicted by the ruler on some notable persons; or influence of the foreign state of
opposite character.
PREVENTION OF REVOLUTION
Aristotle not only highlights the various causes which lead to revolution but also
outlines the measures that can help in preventing the revolution. A study of these
measures shows his penetrating knowledge of the existing constitutions and his love
for stable government. The methods suggested by Aristotle for checking the
revolution fall in two broad categories, viz., general and particular.
(1) General Means of Prevention. Aristotle suggests the following general
means for the prevention of revolution:
Firstly, an effort should be made to gain the confidence of all the sections of
society by eliminating all symbols of injustice and treating
the various classes with consideration. All the offices should be open to all on the
basis of merit and should not be treated as the monopoly of any particular class.
Secondly, by cultivating and maintaining a spirit of law-abidingness among the
citizens. For this purpose even small and trifling matter regarding violation of law
should be viewed seriously.
Thirdly, citizens should be imparted necessary education in the spirit of the
constitution. If they know how their constitution works, they will adjust themselves
accordingly and there shall be very little possibility of revolution. Emphasising the
importance of this factor as a preventive of revolution, Aristotle said "the greatest,
however, of all the means we have mentioned for ensuring the stability of the
Constitution, but one which is now-a-days generally neglected-is the education of the
citizens in the spirit of their constitution".
Fourthly, even petty changes in the status quo should be seriously viewed and
attended to, because their neglect can ultimately result in complete revolutions.
Fifthly, no person or class of persons should be permitted to assume too much of
power. This is not only likely to encourage him to neglect the interests of the weaker
sections of society but also give rise to resentment and thus sow seeds of sedition.
Sixthly, the government offices should not be permitted to become sources of
gain. To ensure that the public offices are not used to make money by the holders,
effort should be made to check bribery and other illegal methods. He even suggests
that all the offices should be made honorary.
Seventhly, the public offices should not be granted on permanent basis. On the
other hand, the higher offices should be awarded for short duration because the
retention of power for a long time can prove dangerous to the interest and security of
the country. However, Aristotle had no objection to the grant of less important offices
for comparatively longer duration.
Eighthly, as far as possible promotions to political posts should be gradual
because sudden
Aristotle
93
and quick promotions are likely to lead to resentment and bickering and hence prove
disadvantageous for the society.
Ninthly, high and important posts should not be given to the outsiders and
strangers, because they cannot feel as much concerned about the welfare of the
state as a native.
Tenthly, efforts should be made to keep the spirit of patriotism alive among the
citizens. For this purpose, Aristotle suggests, as Maxey has put it, that "The ruler who
has care of the state should invent terrors and bring distant dangers near, in order
that the citizens may be on their guards and like sentinels in a night watch never
relax their attention".
Eleventhly, as inequalities of wealth and honours drive men to rebel lion, the
rewards and offices should be distributed as widely as possible. No body should be
able to have the feeling that political offices and honours are not meant for him and
can be attained by considerations other than merit.
Twelfthly, the details of administration, particularly those of public finance, should
be open to public scrutiny. This contributes to the popularity of the government and
helps in promoting the feeling that the officials are not exploiting their positions for
selfish ends. If the people are kept in dark they are likely to revolt as soon as they
come to know of the reality of situation.
(2) Particular Methods for Prevention of Revolution. After suggesting general
methods for prevention of revolutions, Aristotle proceeds to suggest particular
methods for the prevention of revolutions in different forms of governments. Thus,
he suggests that in democracy, the rich should be made to feel that their property
and estates shall not be redistributed. They should also be allowed to participate in
the administration of the country. In Aristocracy and Oligarchy, the people should be
treated with fairness and no single person or group of persons should be permitted
to become too powerful. The poor people should also be associated with the
administration. In Polity, revolution can be averted by proper blending of the
democratic and oligarchic elements. Under Tyranny, the revolution can be checked
through following
methods: (i) providing good espionage system including women spies; (ii) following
policy c aggression and expansion; (iii) creating a sense of constant danger and
threat from a powerful enemy among the masses; (iv) development of intellectual life
of the citizens; (v) keeping people busy in non-political activities so that they may not
find time to indulge in political activities; (vi) keeping the people poor so that they
are constantly faced with economic problems; (vii) creating sense of hostility and
distrust among various sections of the people so that they keep busy in mutual
wrangles and cannot think of revolting against the ruler; (viii) participating in public
worship and religious ceremonies of the people and showing respect for their
religious sentiments; (ix) enlisting as large social support as possible; (x) earning
reputation for military virtues; (xi) creating an awe in the minds of the public by
leading a life of luxury and glamour; (xii) showing favours personally but punishing
through others; (xiii) personally bestow favours on others to gain popularity; (xiv)
chopping off the heads of the inconvenient powerful leaders.
The above study of Aristotle's views on revolution, shows that he possessed great
insight into the human mind and offered the most penetrating analysis of the causes
of revolutions and the means for their prevention. In this regard, he can be treated as
a fore runner of Machiavelli. Prof. Maxey pays high tributes to the insight of Aristotle
in analysing the factors responsible for revolution. He says "There can be no doubt,
however, of the acuteness of Aristotle's insight into the basic causes of revolutions.
One or more of the factors enumerated by him, will be found to have been among the
provoking forces of virtually every political revolution, of which history has any
record."
ARISTOTLE'S VIEWS ON JUSTICE

Like other contemporary Greek thinkers, Aristotle also attached great importance
to the concept of justice. It may, however, be noted that to the different Greek
philosophers, justice carried different meaning. We are not concerned with the
various meanings assigned to justice by different Philosophers. As far as Aristotle
was concerned he makes a reference to two types of justice, viz.,
94
complete justice and particular justice. The former was a moral virtue concerned
with the regulations of the public and social relations. This implied complete
obedience to law and was possible only in an ideal state. On the other hand, the
particular was concerned with the distribution of offices and observance of rules
of proportionate equality. It also implied distribution of wealth, honour and good
things.
Aristotle further divides particular justice into two groupsdistributive justice
and corrective justice. Distributive justice lays emphasis on proportionate
allocation of office according to the worth of the individual and is mainly
concerned with political privileges. According to Aristotle distributive justice was
the most powerful instrument for the prevention of revolution, because it ensures
to each person what is due to him as a member of society and keeps him
satisfied. In short, we can say "Distributive justice consists in proper allocation of
reward to each person according to his worth or desert". According to Aristotle,
each type of political organisation has its own distributive justice. For example, in
democracy it was birth, in oligrachy it was riches and in aristocracy it was virtue.
Aristotle rejects the democratic and oligarchic criterias of justice and insists on
allocation of offices to the virtuous only, because they alone could make the best
contributions to the society. He asserts that since virtuous are few, most of the
offices should be assigned to only few.
Aristotle believes that this will be true distributive justice even though it is
based on superficial inequality. He argues that as the virtuous citizens possess
more wisdom, courage and efficiency it would be unjust to give offices and
honours to persons other than the virtuous ones.
The corrective justice on the other hand, was essentially negative in
character and was concerned with the commercial transactions. It aimed at
restoring back to each person what he had lost due to social injustice and
prevented encroachment on each other's rights. He held that corrective justice
"relates to voluntary and commercial transactions like hire, sale and furnishing of
security, etc. and with involuntary actions involving aggression on life, property,
honour and freedom".
Aristotle's concept of justice suffers from numerous defects. In the first place,
he insists that the virtuous should rule because he can contribute most to the
welfare of the state. However, the term virtue is quite discreet and cannot be
accepted as a standard or measuring rod.
Secondly, there is a clear contradiction in the views of Aristotle. On the one
hand he pleads that the cultivation of virtue should be the criteria for the
distribution of office, but on the other hand, he insists that the masses should not
be ignored. He pleads for the sharing of honour by all because collective wisdom
was superior to the wisdom of the few virtuous.
Third, Aristotle's conception of justice, particularly his views on particular and
distributive justice, do not fit in well with the modern notions. It is indeed difficult
to contemplate how offices can be distributed to all the citizens. Again, in our
times distributive justice is taken as payment of due taxes to the state, rather
than distribution of offices.
In conclusion, we can say that in comparison to the Plato's views on justice,
which hold good even today, Aristotle's views have not found favour in modern
times and are treated as out dated.
CONTRIBUTIONS
THOUGHT
OF
ARISTOTLE
TO
POLITICAL
Aristotle's thought has exercised profound influence on the political thinkers of

subsequent centuries and left a deep impact on the development of political
thought. In view of his valuable contributions to the science of politics he is
rightly treated as the father of Political Science. He was the first pragmatic
thinker who based his conclusions on data, facts, figures, etc. and imparted a
scientific outlook to the study of the subject. Some of the important principles of
universal nature, which are accepted even today, contained in the thought of
Aristotle are as follows:
Firstly, the concept of rule of law and constitutional state which is universally
accepted in all the democratic states at present, was his most important legacy
to the posterity. Aristotle emphasised the supremacy of law and asserted that no
constitution could exist without law. Thus
Aristotle
95
he emphasised the principle of constitutionalism which was further developed by

thinkers like Aquinas, Hooker and Locke. According to Ebenstein "the concept of the
rule of law and the constitutional state is perhaps the most important legacy which
Aristotle has bequeathed to posterity".
Secondly, he emphasised the principle of natural origin of state. He asserted that
man is political animal and the instincts of sex and appetite have played an
important part in the creation of state.
Thirdly, Aristotle for the first time made a successful bid to reconcile the
principles of liberty and authority. He rejected the notion that liberty consists in living
as one likes and asserted that individual's salvation lies in constitutional rule. He took
liberty as "the subjection to unselfish and constitutional authority and obedience to
right and proper law". He assigned an important role to the people, in the formulation
of laws, as members of the popular Assembly. He also gives them the power to elect
their own rulers and judges and exercise necessary supervision over their working. In
short, he sought to bring about a happy blending of authority and liberty.
Fourthly, Aristotle was the first to emphasise the principle of maximum

happiness of the maximum number of people. Thus, he not only became the
forerunner of the Utilitarian philosophy but also anticipated the principles
adopted by the modern welfare state. He was not happy with the state
performing merely negative functions and assigned to it positive functions so
that the moral development of the citizens could be achieved.
Fifthly, Aristotle appreciated the importance of the public opinion and
asserted that the multitude of people have always better knowledge and
judgement than a single or a handful of persons. Thus, he emphasised the
importance of the masses and public opinion.
Sixthly, Aristotle anticipated the theory of separation of powers by dividing
the governmental functions into deliberative, magisterial and judicial. The
influence of Aristotle is quite evident in Montesquieu's Theory of Separation of
Powers.
Seventhly, Aristotle is considered as the god father of modern conservatives.
He was the first to insist that the existing institutions must be preserved,
because they represented the collective wisdom of generations. He argued that
since these institutions had existed for such a long time, it was by itself a
sufficient proof of their utility.
Eighthly, Aristotle was first to emphasise the importance of the middle-class
as a balancing force for the preservation of the political institutions. He
considered Polity as the best practicable state because it was a middle-class
state. These views of Aristotle have been testified by history because only the
states dominated by middle-class have been stable, while those dominated by
extremely rich or poor people have proved short-lived.
Ninthly, Aristotle offered most effective justification for the institution of
private property and made a strong plea for its retention. The arguments
advanced by Aristotle, are used by the supporters of private property, even
today. What is more significant than the arguments for the retention of property,
is his plea that property should be used for the good of the community. His views
on private property and its use for the good of the community, have come to be
universally accepted in our times.
Tenthly, Aristotle was the first realist who took note of the things as they were
rather than concentrating on the things as they should be. Therefore, he moved
from the particular to the general. He completely rejected the ideal state of Plato
and accepted his second best state as his ideal because it was practicable and
attaintable.
Eleventhly, his thought contains germs of separation of politics and ethics. This
idea was further developed by Machiavelli and Hobbes.
Twelfthly, Aristotle was a great individualist and held that the individual was
historically prior to the state and the latter exists for the moral development of the
former. Thus, he rejects Plato's concept that the individual was merely a means to an
end, viz., the stability of the state, and treats the individual as an end. He considers
state as a means for the moral development of the individual.
Thirteenthly, Aristotle emphasised the close relationship between politics and
economics and asserted that the economic activities were bound
96
to influence the political organisations, as well as actions. This is evident from his
assertion that where there was concentration of wealth or power, political stability
could not be possible. Again, he asserts that inequality in wealth was the main cause
of revolution. He says that political stability is possible only in state where there are
no extremes of wealth or poverty. In emphasising the influence of economics on
politics Aristotle anticipates Marx.

Fourteenthly, Aristotle also laid the foundations of the comparative method of
study of political institutions. His views were mainly based on the Study of 158
constitutions of the Greek city-states.
Scholars have showered high praise on Aristotle for his contributions to political
thought. Zeller describes Aristotle's Politics as the richest treasure that has come
down to us from antiquity, it is the greatest contribution to the field of political
science that we possess. According to Prof. Dunning, "When we look further into his
philosophy beneath the general outlines determined by Hellenic dogmas, we find a
long series of principles which are as ultimate as human nature itself and which is
almost the exact shape in
which Aristotle formulated them, are features of Political Science at the present day
today".
In conclusion we can say with Prof. Sabine "In orginality and oldness of
speculative construction he was by no means the equal of Plato and the underlying
principles of his philosophy were all derived from his master. It the power of
intellectual organisation, especially in the ability to grasp a pattern of a tendency in
the vast and completed mass of details, he was not only superior to Plato but the
equal of any thinker in the later history of science. The use of his capacity in social
studies and biology, shows Aristotle and the type of his bent, after he had freed
himself in some measure from Plato and had struck out for himself a line of thought
in accordance with his originality. It was his growth in this direction that caused him
to turn aside from the borrowed purpose of sketching an ideal State and to carry his
investigation; first towards constitutional history and second towards general
conclusions about the structure and functioning of states based upon observation
and history. Aristotle was the founder of this method, which has been on the whole
soundest, and most fruitful, that the study of politics has evolved".
Chapter
11
Machiavelli (1469-1527)
"The chief difference between Machiavelli and the writers who preceded him was his
attitude towards
religion and morality."
R.G. Gettle
With Machiavelli a new phase in the development of political philosophy sets in. In
fact, he was more of a practical politician rather than a political philosopher. As his
thought was largely determined by the historical background of his life and what
actually transpired before his eyes, it shall be desirable to have an idea about his
early life and the various influences which shaped his ideas.
EARLY LIFE AND TIMES

Niccolo Machiavelli was born in Florence (Italy), in 1469 in a family with modest
means. His father was a jurist. Machiavelli as a child could not receive proper
education and he studied, the Latin Classics, specialty on Roman history under the
guidance of his father. As he grew young be joined the government of Florence as the
Secretary of Chancery. In this new capacity, he got a chance to handle the
departments of war and interior. Most of the diplomatic correspondence also passed
through him. But with the change of power Machiavelli was not only obliged to leave
the job but was thrown in the prison on a charge of conspiracy on account of his
failure to side with the new rulers. In 1513, Machiavelli produced his masterpiece The
Prince. Eight years later he produced Discourses.
INFLUENCES ON MACHIAVELLI
As regards the factors which influenced the thinking and philosophy of Machiavelli
the following deserve mention.
(a) Conditions in Italy: At the time of Machiavelli the Italian peninsula was divided into
a number of small but independent states which were constantly at war. These
states possessed different forms of governments; while some were republics the
others were ruled by despotic rulers. No doubt by the beginning of the sixteenth
century some sort of consolidation of these states had been achieved but still they
were divided into five groups, viz., Kingdom of Naples, Territory of Roman Catholic
Church, the Duchy of Milan, the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Florence.
Apart from the internal dissensions amongst these states, there was a serious
threat to their existence due to presence of strong states like France and Spain on
the borders. Machiavelli ardently desired to unite these warring states and make
them sufficiently strong so that they could deal with the foreign powers effectively.
With this end Machiavelli wrote books like Art of War; The Discourses on Livy and
The Prince in which he laid down the principles which he wanted these states to
follow, so that they could prosper and flourish. Though Machiavelli hailed from
Florence, a Republic, he pleaded for a strong ruler who could unite the country
and expel the foreign invaders. He particularly considered the Papacy as a great
obstacle in the way of secular integration and
98
supported gradual transfer of power from the church to the monarch.

(b) Impact of Republic: The Renaissance Movement which stood for the revival of
ancient values and culture also exercised profound influence on Machiavelli
because this movement was strongest in Florence. This movement not only
revived what was ancient and had been forgotten during the medieval period,
but also create a consciousness of life, a new sense of liberty, and new values
of life. Man became the centre of all study and God was relegated to the
background. This was a sort of revolt against the authority of the church. The
impact of Renaissance on Machiavelli is quite evident from his strong plea for
gradual transfer of power from the church to the state.
(c) Emergence of Strong Monarchies: The emergence of strong monarchs who had
concentrated the entire political power in their own hands, which earlier rested
with the feudatories and corporations, also left a deep impact on Machiavelli.
Though the concentration of absolute powers, in the hands of the rulers,
meant a death knell of the medieval representative institutions, Machiavelli
saw in it as the only remedy for the unification of Italy.
Apart from these contemporary influences, Machiavelli was also influenced by the
writings of Aristotle and Marsiglio. He learnt the idea of separation of ethics and
politics from Aristotle. The other important things which he borrowed from Aristotle
were the idea that the state was the highest organisation of human beings, the three
fold division of the states as Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy, and the famous
historical method. Likewise, he felt the influence of Marsiglio in so far the idea of
secularism and the political utility of religion are concerned.
But without any doubt, he felt the maximum impact of the contemporary
conditions. It has been rightly said of Machiavelli that he was the epitome of his
times. In fact, hardly any other thinker has been more deeply influenced by the
contemporary politics as Machiavelli. Sabine also says "Clear and broad as his vision
of politics was, Machiavelli was
still in a peculiar sense an Italian of the first quarter of sixteenth century. Had he
written in any other time and place, his conception of politics must have been
significantly different."
METHOD OF MACHIAVELLI
In his methodology, Machiavelli was greatly influenced by Aristotle. However, it would
be wrong to say that his method was identical to the one adopted by Aristotle. As the
two thinkers wrote in different conditions, the methods of the two could not be
completely identical. But like Plato, his method was inductive, rather that deductive
and he borrowed a great deal from the historical method of Aristotle. Unlike the other
medieval thinkers, Machiavelli did not appeal to the revealed will of God, instead he
appealed to reasons and history. It has rightly been said that "The Prince was the first
great work in which the two authorities, the Divine and the human, were clearly seen
in collision, and in which the venerable axioms of earlier generation were
rejected as practically misleading and theoretically unsound." The reasons which

prompted Machiavelli to adopt inductive method in preference to the deductive
method, were stated by him thus: "The wise are wont to say, and not at random
or without foundation, that he who desired to foresee what is going to take place,
should consider what has taken place; because all the things in the world, at all
periods, have an essential correspondence with past time. This arises, because,
as they are the work of men who have and always have had the same passions,
they must of necessity produce the same effects. In all cities and among all
people there exist the same appetites and the same dispositions that have
always existed." In other word Machiavelli says that we can learn from the study
of past actions of men under certain circumstances and apply the same to the
similar conditions in our own times.
According to Prof. Dunning the method of Machiavelli was historical more in
appearance than in reality. His decisions were mostly based on observation of
what was taking place in his own times and he made use of the past history to
reinforce the conclusions already drawn. Sabine also says it is wrong to say that
Machiavelli followed the historical method. His method, in so
99
far as he had one, was observation guided by shrewdness and commonsense. Even if
we accept the views of Dunning and Sabine, that Machiavellis used history simply to
sustain principles suggested by critical and actual analysis of the events of his own
times, he certainly abandoned the method of relying on authority. In this respect he
was the harbinger of the new world. Despite the shortcomings and limitations of his
method Morely says "Machiavelli's merit in the history of political literature is his
method". Prof. Allen also says that "what was most new and original in the work of
Machiavelli was perhaps his method or his manner of approaching problems of
politics".
MACHIAVELLI AS A MODERN THINKER

Machiavelli was a modern thinker only in the sense that he ceased to be a medieval
thinker and ushered in certain new ideas which are symbolic of the modern age.
Some of the important ideas of Machiavelli which can be cited for this purpose are as
follows:
Firstly, Machiavelli discarded the idea of natural law and based his whole thinking
on the essentially bad nature of human beings. He argued that this badness of
human nature compels the state to come into existence and curbs the antisocial
elements existing in the human mind.
Secondly, Machiavelli completely ignored the foundations of state laid down by
the medieval political thinkers and tried to base it on human habit and fear. He
considered the state as necessary in so far it alone could provide security and peace
to the people.
Thirdly, Machiavelli emphasised the secular character of the state and completely
ignored the principle of 'divine law', so popular during the medieval times. He not
only separated the spiritual and the temporal but also made the spiritual subordinate
to the temporal authority. This was in complete contrast to the medieval way of
thinking in which spirit was treated as superior to the temporal authority.
Fourthly, Machiavelli for the first time advocated the idea of a national, and
territorial state which was completely independent of the Pope. During the medieval
times, the political
thinkers talked of only one Christian state of which the Pope was the head and all the
small principalities were completely under the control of the Pope.

Fifthly, in contrast to the medieval thinkers, Machiavelli made use of inductive
method alone with historical method. He based his conclusions on the observation of
the contemporary situation and wherever possible fortified his findings with the help
of past historical events.
Sixthly, unlike the medieval thinker who attached great importance to the ethical
factors, Machiavelli emphasised, the importance of the material motives.
Seventhly, the most important factor which separates Machiavelli from the
medieval thinkers is that he separated ethics from politics. He asserted that there
were two different codes of conductone for the individual and the other for the
state. He justifies the use of unfair means by the ruler for the security and safety of
the state. He permits him to make use of methods like murder, deceit, etc., if the
interests of the state so demand, However, he does not permit the use of these
methods to the individual, for the furtherance of his selfish ends.
Eighthly, Machiavelli's utilitarian attitude towards politics and morality also
separates him from medieval thinkers. The medieval thinkers linked the government
and moral with certain religious and metaphysical concepts. Machiavelli on the other
hand pleaded that the main force behind the government was utility. However, he
limits this utility to the protection of life and property and ignores concepts like
freedom, equality, etc. Though he conceives utility in a narrow sense, it certainly
constituted a departure from the medieval thinking. Utility becomes an important
factor in the later centuries and finds a prominent position in the writings of Hobbes
and Locke.
Ninthly, Machiavelli was the first thinker, since the collapse of the Roman Empire,
to study state as a secular institution. He, virtually, refers to all those features of the
state, which were evolved during the next two or three centuries, viz., the state is a
secular institution and the Church should be subordinate to it; the state is a power
system and it should try to dominate abroad; and a strong
100
state should have a homogenous population and should possess public spirit.
According to Allen, it is not only a description of state but a remarkable forecast of
the greatness of a state. The very fact that Machiavelli focussed all importance on
state is a recognition of the greatness of state, and the important position which the
state occupies in modern times.
According to Prof. Lerner, at the beginning of the modern nation state two things
stand out, viz., (a) element of national unity and national homogenity, and (b) the
concentration of power at the centre, i.e., absolutism. Machiavelli saw the first
element very dimly, but he saw the second element very clearly.
POLITICAL IDEAS OF MACHIAVELLI

Machiavelli was not a systematic political thinker and expressed, detached views in
his various works. We can, however, correlate these ideas in a system and study
them as under:
Machiavelli on Human Nature

Machiavelli expresses views about human nature in his Prince. According to
Machiavelli human beings are selfish, wicked, degenerate, unscrupulous and
opportunists. He says that man is not social but anti-social and always tries to
promote his own interests. For the promotion of his interest he can resort to all types
of methods. Every individual is interested in keeping what he possesses and
acquiring more. This inevitably leads to struggle and conditions of anarchy. Men are
also wicked because they are prepared to sacrifice the collective interests to promote
their own interests. In fact, love of novelty and change is the basic nature of all men
rich as well as poor.
Machiavelli says that men love their property more than their kith and kin. A
person can more readily forgive the murder of his father than the confiscation of his
patrimony. Human beings are by nature, jealous and cannot see others prosper. This
is the chief cause of strife and bickering among human beings. Man also loves liberty
and wants to be left free, to lead his own life according to his own inclinations.
It will be observed, that the concept of human nature as depicted by Machiavelli
is so despairingly uncomplimentary to human nature
and so cynically deflating to our pride that the reader is apt to forget whether he is a
human being. In fact, the human beings as depicted by Machiavelli are no less than
animals. The description of Man as "ungrateful, fickle, deceitful, cowardly, and
avaricious as mere animals driven by the motives of fear, lust for power, vanity and
scheming self-interest, who cannot do good unless forced or obliged or compelled to
do so" is indeed far stretched. Machiavelli does not make any philosophical study of
the human nature and his observations are based on the degenerated conditions
prevailing at his times. If Machiavelli had been born in some other country or at a
different time, his concept of human nature would certainly have been different.
Machiavelli's depiction of human nature is wrong. Human beings are not all
wicked but a compound of evil and good. They are neither completely good nor
completely bad. Machiavelli himself admits this in his later work Discourses. Again, if
we accept Machiavelli's views on human nature it suggests that fear is the basis of
state. In fact, the state is based on the will of the people and not on fear. Machiavelli
is also wrong in so far he does not permit any scope for improvement in human
nature. He holds that human beings cannot be reformed at all. The anti-social
elements of human nature can certainly be mitigated if not completely eliminated
through education and improvement of socio-economic environments.
Machiavelli's Views on Morality and Religion

Machiavelli differed from the earlier thinkers, in so far he attempted a formal and
conscious separation between politics and morality. No doubt, Aristotle before him
had also discussed the question of the preservation of states without reference to
their goodness or badness, but he did not separate politics from ethics. He continued
to regard politics and ethics as constituting one whole science. Machiavelli made a
deliberate and complete separation between ethics and politics. He not only rejected
the cultivation of virtues like humility, lowliness and contempt for worldly things on
which medieval thinkers laid so much stress and considered pursuit of well-being in
this life as the sole objective. For the attainment of these objectives he even
permitted the use of immoral
101
means like fraud, forgery, trickery, breach of faith, violence, etc., by the prince. In
other words, with a view to attain the unity of the country he was willing to throw the
principles of morality to the wind. He asserted "Let the prince, then look to the
maintenance of the state; the means will always be deemed honourable and will
receive general approbation." Machiavelli attaches more importance to the reason of
state than the principles of morality. According to him, the reasons of state justify
every degree of treachery and brutality. In Discourses he writes, "When the safety of
our country is absolutely at stake there need be no questions ot what is just or
unjust, merciful or cruel, praiseworthy or disgraceful but all other considerations set
aside, that course alone is to be taken which may save our country and maintain its
liberty". It may be noted that Machiavelli does not permit an individual to practice the
morality of politics in his private life. Thus, he does not permit murder or breach of
faith among individual members of the society because it infringes the life and
security of other members of the society. Machiavelli expects the individuals to keep
faith and act in an upright manner. However, he permits the prince to violate these
principles in the interest of the state. He says "a wise lord cannot, nor ought he to,
keep faith when such observance may be turned against him, and when the reasons
that caused him to pledge it exist no longer. If men were entirely good, this prospect
would not hold, but because they are bad, and will not keep faith with you, you too
are not bound to observe it with them; and no prince was ever at a loss for plausible
reasons to cloak a breach of faith. Of this numberless recent instances could be
given, and it might be shown how many solemn treaties and engagements have been
rendered inoperative and idle through want of faith in princes, and that he who has
best known to play the fox has had the best success."
Though the prince is permitted to act in violation of the moral principles in the
interest of the state, Machiavelli suggests that he &' ould appear to be the
embodiment of qualities which are held in esteem. He therefore, suggests that he
should so behave that anybody who sees or hears him, "would regard him as the
embodiment of mercy, good faith, integrity, kindliness and religion. And there is no
quality which it is more
necessary for him to seem to possess than this last". Thus while Machiavelli
considers force as the prime factor for the regulation of the affairs of the state, he
also emphasises the importance of the religion and favours the use of church as an
instrument for treating national customs and habits of thought which will help in
preserving peace and order in the society. In other words, he wants to use religion as
an instrument for the attainment of the political objectives.
It is thus evident that, Machiavelli proposes two different standards of moralityone
for the ruler and the other for the private citizens. "The first is judged by the success
in keeping and increasing his power, the second by the strength which his conduct
imparts to the social group.
Since the ruler is outside the group, or at least in very special relation to it, he
is above the morality to be enforced within the group... The ruler as the creator
of the state is not only outside the law, but if law enacts morals he is outside
morality as well. There is no standard to judge his acts except the success of his
political expedients for enlarging and perpetuating the power of his state."
Machiavelli has been severely condemned for open advocacy of immorality in
public life. But if we analyse his views more closely we will find that he was
neither moral nor immoral but unmoral. As Prof. Maxey has said "in Machiavelli's
eyes the state knows no ethics. What it does is neither ethical nor unethical but
entirely non-ethical. It is of neuter gender so far as right and wrong are
concerned". Sabine and Dunning also express similar views and hold that
Machiavelli was unmoral in politics. According to Maxey "In the realm of
statecraft and in the affairs of government there is but one criterion by which to
judge the character of an action and that is by its results. If the results are good
the action cannot be called wrong, nor is it necessarily right; the safe thing to do
is to call it expedient; and if the results are bad, to say the action was
inexpedient."
However it cannot be denied that Machiavelli's views on ethics and politics
suffer from various shortcomings.
Firstly, it puts premium on the misdeeds of politicians and permits them to
commit all sorts of crimes under the pretext of protecting the integrity of the
state.
102
Secondly/it is not essential that the interests of the ruler and the public would
always be the same. There are no fixed rules to determine the interests of the
state and the ruler may give effect to his personal whims and prejudices in the
name of state interest.
Thirdly, his understanding of the human nature is also faulty. Criticising
Machiavelli for this lapse Prof. Allen says "He lacked understanding of just what
he most of all needed to know". Despite these shortcomings of Machiavelli it
cannot be denied that he deserves credit for raising a serious question as to how
far the rules of conduct of individuals could be made applicable in the case of
state. Though Machiavelli succeeded in giving only a partially satisfactory answer
to this question, yet as Prof. Allen has put it "the mere raising of the question was
more important than any answer he could give". His views have been accepted
by most of the clear minded political thinkers in the subsequent centuries and
they have come to firmly believe that the individual and the state cannot be
subjected to the same rules of morality. Lord Acton has rightly said, "The
authentic interpretation of Machiavelli is the whole of later history. We find
everybody using Machiavelli and still denouncing him".
Machiavelli's Views on State and its Preservation

Machiavelli considered the state as the highest association to which the subjects
must completely surrender. It came into existence to check the selfish interests of the
human beings and was an artificial creation. It was expected to promote material
prosperity of the people. The success or the failure of a state could be judged by the
prosperity of the people. According to Machiavelli a successful state was one which is
founded by a single man and the laws which he created reflect the national character
of the state. In other words he favoured Monarchy and completely abhored
Aristocracy.
Machiavelli classified the states into normal and perverted. The normal state
according to him was the one in which the citizens were faithful and law abiding.
They possessed spirit of patriotism and were prepared to defend their motherland at
all costs. On the other hand, in a perverted state these qualities were conspicuously
absent. He held that a normal state had a tendency to expand and grow. In fact,
expansion was a symbol of the health of a normal state. Therefore, if a state did not
pursue the policy of expansion, it implied that there was something wrong with it. A
normal state was also expected to be self- sufficient.
Machiavelli also lays down detailed rules for the preservation and strengthening
of the state. Some of the important suggestions made by him for this purpose are as
follows:
Firstly, the state should have a reliable army composed of native troops and
should not depend on foreign mercenary soldiers.
Secondly, he considers the Republican state as the best, but under the then
prevailing conditions he favoured Monarchical State. He says "The only way to
establish any kind of order is to found a monarchical government; for where the body
of the people is so thoroughly corrupt that the laws are powerless for restraint, it
becomes necessary to establish some superior power which, with a royal hand, and
with full and absolute power, may put a curb upon the excessive, ambition and
corruption of the powerful". However, he does not consider the despotic government
permanent and argues that only a Republican government in which people have
some share in the conduct of the business of government and enactment of laws, can
be permanent. Sabine has rightly observed that Machiavelli was swayed by two
admirationsfor the resourceful despot and for the free self-governing people which
were not consistent. He patched the two together rather precariously as theories,
respectively of founding a state or reforming a corrupt state and of preserving it after
it is founded or reformed. In other words, "he had one theory for revolution and
another for government". It indeed goes to his credit that he was able to reconcile
the two apparently self-contradictory theories and to convince his readers, though
late, about the same.
Thirdly, Machiavelli's state is completely secular in so far as he does not attribute
any unearthly reason to its existence. He attached great importance to the inter-play
of materialistic interests and even subordinated the Church to the state. However,
realising that Church was still a
\achiavelli (1469-1527)
103
powerful institution he advises the prince to respect the religion followed by his
subjects. He treats religion as a convenient instrument to exercise power over the
people. It cultivates among the citizens the qualities of humility, submissiveness,
obedience of law, etc. He advises the
ruler to make use of this powerful instrument to curb the anti-social activities of
the citizens. He describes it as the "best check upon men's evil and anarchic
tendencies". He considers religion essential for the health and prosperity of the
state. In the words of Foster "He attributes to religion an important place in the
state; but a place within the state, not above it or beside n .
Fourthly, the state has a natural tendency to expand or grow in power. This
tendency is present both in the Republican as well as Monarchical states. In
Monarchy, the prince resorts to policy of expansion because of his insatiable
craving for power, whereas in Republican system it has to follow policy of
expansion per force of consideration of its existence in the competitive world. He
treats the ancient Roman Republic as the best example of healthy state. To him
the acquisition of an Empire is as natural to a state as growth to a human body.
To quote Machiavelli "All free governments have two principal ends one of
which is to enlarge their dominions and the other to preserve their liberties".
Fifthly, law occupies a prominent position in the state of Machiavelli. Though
Machiavelli regarded force and fear as important instruments in administration,
yet he also considers the good laws as the foundation stones of the state. He
holds that a law enacted by a law-giver is not only helpful in regulating and
controlling the actions of the citizens but also, helps in the growth of civil and
moral virtues among the citizens and the development of national character. The
important role as signed by Machiavelli to the legistator is brought out by Sabine
thus "There is practically no limit to what a statesman can do, provided he
understands the rule of his art. He can tear down old states and build new,
change forms f government, transplant populations, and build new virtues in the
characters of his subjects. If a ruler lacks soldiers, he need blame no one but
himself, for he should have adopted such measures to correct the cowardice and
effimacy of
hispt pie."
/giver is the architect not only of
the staê but ciety as well, with all its moral,
religious and economic institutions".
Suggestions to the Prince Regarding Retention of Power

As has already been pointed out, Machiavelli was no political philosopher and was
concerned mainly with the art of government. He, therefore, only made casual
references to the theory of state and dealt at length with the principles which the
prince should observe to maintain himself in power. Some of the suggestions offered
by Machiavelli to the prince are as follows:
1. The prince should crush all opposition to his authority with an iron hand and
should not hesitate to make use of ruthless force. He should enforce his will
without bothering about the privations of his subjects.
2. As force is an expensive and inefficient method of attaining the objective,
Machiavelli says that a shrewd ruler should also use methods of propaganda
and religion to lull the people into submission. He holds that a tactful use of
these devices can obviate the need of force. He wanted the rulers to be both
fox and a lion.
3. The prince should try to take quick and firm decisions, because hesitation can
prove very harmful. He would like the prince to act promptly and make
mistakes rather than lose initiative through delay and uncertainty.
4. A good prince should try to maintain peace and plenty in the country so that
the people can lead a comfortable and contented life.
5. The prince should maintain a well-trained regular national army of his own
citizens and should not depend on mercenary soldiers, because the national
army, alone can defend the state and make it more powerful.
6. The prince should be a good soldier and commander. He should possess
thorough knowledge of the war strategy and
1.
maintain best possible arms and equipments. He must also keep the morale of his
forces high.
7. The prince must try to maintain his popularity with the people and earn their love
and affection. In the words of Machiavelli "A prince should retain the affection of
his people otherwise in any crisis he has no remedy". A prince who is popular with
the people can easily handle hostile nobles and rich men in the state.
8. The prince should try to cultivate public spirit and patriotism among his citizens
through education, religion and propaganda. The personal qualities of the prince
can also help a great deal' in the cultivation of public spirit.
9. The prince should be better feared than loved, because people love a ruler so long
as they receive or expect certain benefits from the ruler. On the other hand by
creating a fear in their mind he can get their obedience for a longer duration.
However, Machiavelli warns that the prince should not be hated as the hatred can
be ruinous for him.
10. The prince must maintain utmost secrecy in the conduct of the state's affairs. If
his plans or strategy, etc., are leaked out they will lose their effectiveness and
prove harmful for the state.
11. It was not essential for the prince to be always honest. If the interests of the state
so demand he should not mind resort to fraud and other dishonest means. The
prince should not mind even violating his promises for the good of the state. To
quote Machiavelli "Where there is the question of safety of motherland, there is to
be no consideration of just and unjust, pitiful or cruel, honourable and
dishonourable; only that course is to be taken which will preserve the life and
maintain the liberty".
12. The prince should not under any circumstances touch the property and women of
his subjects, because people are very touchy about both these things. To highlight
this point, Machiavelli goes to
the extent of suggesting that, a person will more readily forgive the murder of his
father than the confiscation of his patrimony".
13. The prince should be a good showman and project himself as the embodiment of
qualities like generosity, kind-heartedness, chivalry, mercy, sincerity, humanity,
bravery and religiousness. It is not essential that the prince should actually
possess these qualities, but he should be able to make a show of these qualities.
In other words, he should be able to built up his reputation as a good man even
though he may not actually be so.
14.
The prince must avoid the company of flatterers because it has debasing
effect on his
sense of judgement. He therefore, wants the prince to tell every one that he wants to
know the truth and does not feel offended ever if the truth is bitter.
15. The prince does not have permanent friends or enemies. Therefore, he should not
hesitate to leave his friends any time the interests of the state so demand. He
should make friends keeping in view the degree of interest he can promote.
16. The prince should not listen to every Tom, Dick and Harry, because this could
undermine his respect with his subjects. He should mix up only with a handful of
counsellors, who have proved their sincerity and collect all necessary information
from them.
17. The prince should try to collect correct information about the strength of his
enemy through intelligence and crush him before he becomes too powerful and
pose a challenge to his authority. He should never underestimate the strength of
his enemies.
18. When a person embarks on conquest of new territories, he should completely
destroy the freedom of the people, because the people accustomed to freedom
can never reconcile to the loss of the same. This advice of Machiavelli is
applicable only when the prince conquers a free Republic.
13.
Machiaveili (1469-1527)
105
However, under the normal conditions he favoured the promotion of liberty

and public spirit.
19. The prince should be miser or lavish in keeping with the general feeling of the
subjects. This can secure for him their praise and co-operation.
20. Finally, he wants the prince to follow an expansionist policy. Failure to expand
the state shall lead to its stagnation and ultimate decline. It was therefore,
both in the interest of the prince as well as the state that he should pursue
expansionist policies.
In addition to the above suggestions, Machiaveili made numerous other
suggestions to his prince but it is not possible to reproduce all of these here. We get a
fairly good idea about the shrewd insight of Machiaveili, from these tips to the prince.
In fact some of the principles laid down by Machiaveili for his prince hold good even
today. Prof. Maxey has rightly said that Machiaveili "is the most universally
reprobated figure in the history of political literature; the man whose precepts are
universally disavowed in principle but regularly followed in practice".
SHORTCOMINGS IN MACHIAVELLI
Machiaveili is probably one of the most misunderstood political thinker. In the words
of Sabine "He has been represented as an utter cynic, an impassioned patriot, an
ardent nationalist, a political Jesuit, a convinced democrat and an unscrupulous
seeker after the favour of despots. In each of these views, incompatible as they are,
there is probably an element of truth. What is emphatically not true is that no one of
them gives a complete picture either of Machiaveili or his thought". Though he
contributed many new ideas his thought contains a number of inconsistencies and
suffers from numerous defects. Some of the inconsistencies and defects are
enumerated below: Firstly, there is inconsistency in Machiavelli's assumption about
the nature of man and the motives which guide him as outlined in The Prince and The
Discourses. In Prince he asserts that man is inherently selfish-and is incapable of
doing good unless obliged to and so. On the other hand, in
Discourses he says that men are neither utterly wicked nor perfectly good. The
human character is rather complex. If we assume that man is selfish it is difficult to
explain how he co-operates with others to form the state because the state requires
the subordination of the individual to public good. And if he was driven to establish
state in quest of security, the only form of government possible is despotic
monarchy. But Machiaveili considers republican form of government, as the best,
which can work successfully only if, there is strong public spirit or the individuals are
willing to sacrifice their selfish ends for the sake of the community. It is indeed
difficult to understand how this transformation can be possible.
Secondly, it is said that Machiavelli's ideas are highly superficial and he failed to
build up a proper political theory. He does not possess any logical and philosophical
structure. As Sabine put it "He was perhaps too practical to be philosophically
profound". He was not a political philosopher and was mainly concerned with the *
practical questions of politics. Therefore, he writes about nothing and thinks about
nothing except politics, statecraft, and the art of war. For deeper lying social
questions, social, economic and religious, he had no interest except as they bear
upon politics." His writings are of a kind of diplomatic literature.
Thirdly, his philosophy was both narrowly local and narrowly dated. He saw the
people around him behaving in utterly crooked manner and assumed that all human
beings are bad. It was wrong to generalize about human nature, from the
experience of Italian Society, which had greatly degenerated during his times. Allen
criticises Machiaveili and says "His judgement of human nature was surely
profoundly at fault. May it not be said that he lacked understanding of just what he
most of all needed to know". It has been asserted that if Machiaveili had lived
somewhere else or at a different period of history he would have held different views
about human nature. In this sense, he was narrowly local and narrowly, dated.
Fourthly, his principle that "ends justify the means" has been severally
condemned. As one writer has asserted "what is morally wrong can never be
politically right". The political crimes can
106
never lead to anything but counter offence, still graver crimes and ultimate disaster.
His doctrine went a long way in corrupting public opinion in many parts of the world
and encouraging unscrupulous political practices all over the world. It is true that in
this world of imperfect men the moral principles have to be sometimes sacrificed for
the sake of expediency, but it does not mean that the doctrine that 'end justifies the
means' always holds good.
Fifthly, Machiavelli attaches undue importance to the role of force in keeping the
people united. He wrongly underestimates the important part played by the willing
co-operation of the people in forging unity and effective working of the state.
Sixthly, he has exaggerated the role of the ruler or the law-giver in moulding the
moral, religious, and economic life of the people. In fact these factors influence and
motivate the actions of the ruler. Therefore Machiavelli seems to be guilty of
reversing the "sane order of values" and the usual order to causal efficacy. In simple
words, Machiavelli holds that the law-giver was the architect, not only of the state
but also of the society. In reality, the Society comes first and gives shape to the state.
The state in turn frames the ruler.
Seventhly, Machiavelli sees an identity between the interests of the prince and
the subjects and vests full authority in the prince, to act as he likes in the interest of
the state. He fails to understand that the prince as a human being may try to
promote his selfish interests at the cost of the public interests and may use all types
of tyrannical methods for this purpose.
Eighthly, there is an apparent contradiction between Machiavelli's appreciation of
the monarchical government and his eulogisation of the republican government. In
the words of Sabine "his judgement was swayed by two admirations for the
resourceful despot and for the self-governing people which were not consistent. He
patched the two together rather precariously..." If we accept Machiavelli's assertion
that human beings are bad, the only effective government possible is despotic
monarchy and the republican government is completely ruled out, because the
republican
government
pre-supposes
the
existence of 'public spirit' among the citizens which cannot be expected of human
beings of his conception. Further if we examine his views more critically we find that
Machiavelli recommends Princedom for forming a new state or reforming a corrupt
state but it must ultimately be replaced by Republican government. However, he
does not provide for any mechanism for smooth switchover from despotism to the
republican government. It is indeed too much to expect from the prince to find a
state or reform a corrupt state and hand-over the well deserved bounty. Machiavelli's
approach in this regard is highly illogical.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO POLITICAL THOUGHT

Thus we find that there are many contradictions and deficiencies in the political
thought of Machiavelli. However, it cannot be denied that despite these
shortcomings his political thought constituted an important stage in the development
of modern political thought. His chief contributions to the history of political thought
which left a deep impact on the political thinkers of the subsequent centuries can be
summed up as under:
Firstly, he completely rejected the feudal conception of a hierarchy of
autonomous entities and envisaged a territorial, national and sovereign state which
enjoyed supreme power over all the institutions in the society. In the words of Prof.
Sabine "Machiavelli more than any other political thinker created the meaning that
has been attached to the state in modern political usage. Even the word itself, as the
name of the sovereign political body appears, seems to have been made current in
modern language largely by his writings."
Secondly, he deserves the credit for freeing politics from the clutches of ethics.
Prior to him politics was considered a hand-maid of ethics. He for the first time
asserted that there were two distinct standards of morality for the state and the
individual and freed the state from the shackles of moral principles. However, he
insisted on the individuals to observe the ethical principles. This way of looking at
politics greatly influenced the subsequent political thinkers. In the words of Prof.
107
Maxey "All clear minded political thinkers are in substantial agreement with
Machiavelli as to the practical impossibility of subjecting states and statecraft to the
same rules of morality as private individuals". It indeed goes to the credit that he
openly endorsed the amoral principles for the conduct of the state affairs.
Thirdly, Machiavelli was the first thinker to emphatically denounce the authority
of the Church and tried to reduce it to a subordinate position to the government. In
the words of Allen "Machiavelli detached the state from the Church, making it an
organisation of force for the attainment of merely earthly ends". He also refused to
accord any prominent position to the divine law in his state. However, he was not
against the idea of using religion as an instrument for the promotion of state
interests.
Fourthly, Machiavelli for the first time offered materialist interpretation of the
origin of state, and completely ignored the metaphysical or supernatural elements.
Though Machiavelli's views in this regard were not completely identical with views of
Karl Marx, but these views exercised profound influence on Marx. In the words of Prof
Jones, Marx learnt from Machiavelli that "there is no divine order of things designed
by God in accordance with his plan for man and universe. Thus by all differences a
basic identity of view remains. Machiavelli's insight that the state can be understood
only in the form of human lusts and appetites and his supplementary recognition that
the successful ruler must learn to control these forces marks an epoch in political
thinking and constitutes basis for the whole modern development." Viewed in the
context of his times his theory that state was founded in the weakness of human
nature, insufficiency of human mind and inordinate ambitions and desire of human
beings, was a novel one.
Fifthly, he was the first exponent of the principle of 'power politics' and
propounded the theory of aggrandisement, which insisted that the state must either
expand or perish. This theory has been followed by the states in the field of
international politics even today and violation has normally proved suicidal and
caused much suffering to the mankind. For example Prof. Jones says
that
if
political leaders like Neville
Chamberlain and Wilson had followed the principles of Machiavelli, the disaster of
Versailles would not have occurred.
Sixthly, his historical method was another important contribution to the history of
political thought and has been discussed in the foregoing pages.
Seventhly, Machiavelli was a great pragmatist thinker. In the words of Maxey "His
passion for the practical as against the theoretical undoubtedly did much to rescue
political thought from the scholastic obscurantism of the Middle Ages and entities him
to recognition as the first, if not the nobles, of the great pragmatists".
Eighthly, Machiavelli attached great importance to the study of human psychology
and advised his ruler to formulate his policies keeping in view the wishes and
sentiments of the people. He wanted the ruler to keep the public opinion in mind
even at the stage of the execution of his policies. This was indeed a revolutionary
concept which has been universally
accepted in our times.

In view of his contributions to political thought much praise has been
bestowed on Machiavelli. According to Dunning, "Machiavelli was "the first
modern political philosopher. It is quite as accurate to say that he ends the
medieval era as that he begins the modern." Prof. Jones says "Machiavelli, more
than any other individual, and despite the fact that he is hardly a political
theorist, is the father of modern political theory." But probably the best
estimation of the position of Machiavelli has been given by Prof. Burd. He says
"Living at a time when the old political order in Europe was collapsing, and new
problems both in state and in society were arising with dazzling rapidity, he
endeavoured to interpret the logical meaning of events, to forecast the inevitable
issues, and to elicit and formulate the rules which destined henceforth to
dominate conditions of national life". Prof. Jones echoes almost identical
sentiments when he says that "Machiavelli's insight that the state can be
understood only in terms of human lusts and appetites and his supplementary
recognition that the successful ruler must team to control these forces, makes an
epoch in political thinking and constitute the basis for the whole modern
development."
1
2
Thomas Hobbes
(1581-1679)

Thomas Hobbes was born in the family of an Anglican clergyman in 1581, and had a
long life of ninety-nine years (he died in 1679). Thus he covered one of the most
turbulent period of English history. After receiving his early education at Malmesbury
he was sent to Oxford for higher education at the age of 15. After completing his
university education he was appointed as tutor to the heir of William Cavendish and
maintained a lifelong connection with this distinguished family. This connection not
only provided him a chance to travel extensively and establish personal contact with
great minds like Ben Jonson Bacon and Galileo, which left its impact on his political
thought.
He was also a witness to the civil war in England between the supporters of
monarchy and republicanism and sided with the king. However, in this war, Charles I
was beheaded and monarchy was abolished. As he was a witness to the whole bloody
drama of civil war, it left a deep impact on his thinking. He was convinced that man is
an animal, motivated by only two considerations, viz., fear and self- interest. Hence
he painted a very dark picture of the human nature. Secondly, he was convinced that
a strong and stable government was the basic need of a civilised life and this could
be provided only by an absolute monarch. Thus he made a strong plea for absolute
monarchy.
In addition to the influence exerted by his association with the royal family and
the political developments during his time, Hobbes also felt the impact of a number
of other political thinkers, scientists and mathematicians. Thus he took the idea of
socialist contract from Plato and Hooker,
who had made use of the same in the earlier centuries, though in a very vague
manner. The impact of Machiavelli is visible in Hobbes depiction of human nature.
Like Machiavelli, he paints a very dark picture of human nature. The impressions
about human nature which he gathered from Machiavelli were further confirmed by
the civil war. Again, Hobbes borrowed the concept of the law of nature from Grotius
and equated the laws of nature with, 'dictates of reason'. He borrowed the concept of
sovereignty from Bodin though he effected great improvement in it. The concept of
mechanical nature of the world, which formed the broad basis of Hobbes philosophy,
was borrowed by him from Gallileo. For his materialistic theory and scientific methods
he is indebted to Descartes. Likewise the impact of Euclid is visible in his love for
geometry which he liberally applied to the study of politics.
It is thus evident that the philosophy of Hobbes represents a combination of the
influences of his time and the ideas of a number of political thinkers, scientists and
mathematicians which left an impact on his mind. He was not an original thinker in so
far as Prof. Wayper has put it "Even profound and original thinkers cannot abstract
themselves from their environment as Plato and Aristotle make plain. But it is one
thing for a thinker to be influenced by his age and another for him to be limited by it.
Hobbes was no more limited by his age than Plato and Aristotle by theirs". His chief
contribution was that he universalised a particular problem.
WORKS OF HOBBES
The main works of Hobbes include De Cive which he wrote
version was
in
1642
(its
English
Thomas Hobbes (1581-1679)

109
published in 1651); the Leviathan, which he wrote while on exile in France and
was published in London on his return in 1651; the De Corpore (1655); and De
Homine (1658). In addition to these works Hobbes produced a number of
pamphlets in the course of his controversies with the theologians and University
professors, but they are not of much significance from our point of view because
they do not Contain any important political ideas.
METHODOLOGY OF HOBBES
The scientific method is one of the greatest contributions of Hobbes to political
theory. He applied it for the first time to social sciences and tried to draw
deductions from the axioms, assumptions and already established truths. No
doubt, Plato before him also applied scientific method to the study of political
thought, but he was the first thinker who asserted that political theory was based
on the existence of matter and motion. He held that everything which exists
consists of particles moving in mechanical way and the state is mechanism
resulting from the movement of those particles. Hobbes based his concept of
human nature, the formation of civil society and possible human relationship on
this principle. Hobbes admitted that state is a complex single mechanism and the
movement of particles in their case is more complicated. This mechanical
principle forms the centre of Hobbes system. Sabine explains the method of
Hobbes thus "the physical world is a purely mechanical system in which all that
happens may be explained with geometrical precision by the displacement of
bodies relative to one other. At the bottom, he held every event is a motion and
all sorts of natural processes must be explained by analysing complex
appearances into the underlying motions of which they consist. Or, as Hobbes
preferred to think of it, it begins with the simplest motions of bodies-mere
change of place-and goes on to more complex cases, which seem on their face
not to be motions but which can be built up from this simple beginning."
There are three different parts of Hobbes philosophy-the first dealing with the
physical phenomenon called 'physics', the second dealing
with mental phenomenon which is called 'psychology' and the third the civil
philosophy. The third part of his philosophy is most complex of all. According to
Hobbes all the three parts of his philosophy were the result of the moving
particles. In this scheme Hobbes tried to assimilate psychology and politics to the
exact physical sciences. This method is clearly deductive.
Hobbes mechanical method has been criticised on a number of grounds. It is
pointed out that Hobbes completely failed to deduce his psychology from physics
and he could not live upto the ideal because it was impossible. This was
inevitable in view of the fact that straight line progress from physics to
psychology is not possible. Prof. Jones has rightly said that Hobbes "Utterly failed
to deduce either his psychological theory or his sociological theory from the law
of motion as he proposed to do". Despite these shortcomings, it goes to the
credit of Hobbes that he made politics more scientific and modern than any of his
predecessors could do. We should not try to assess Hobbes on the basis of the
correctness of his conclusions. The very fact that he tried to derive his political
doctrines from the sciences of psychology and physics goes to his credit. His
methodology has three-fold significance:
First, he completely rejected the medieval conception of the existence of soul
or spirit and tried to interpret every thing in materialist terms. In this respect, he
became the forerunner of Marx, a staunch materialist.
Secondly, his method involved the rejection of the medieval theory that the
state was the result of classical Fall. He asserted that the formation of a state by
individuals was a definite step forward in so far it frees them from the fear of
endless anarchy, chaos, etc.
Thirdly, his method gave rise to the individualistic mode of thinking. He
begins with individuals and ends with individuals. In fact no better individualistic
theory could be propounded.
HOBBES ON HUMAN NATURE

As Hobbes's views on human nature form the basis of his political philosophy, it is
desirable to
110
UGC^Political Science
examine the same. Unlike the earlier philosophers Hobbes makes the individual the
springboard of his thought. He treats the individual not as a rational creature but an
embodiment of passions, emotions and desires. According to Hobbes what a man
desires he calls good and what he dislikes he calls evil. He asserts that the
conception of good or bad is not fixed or objective but subjective ever undergoing
change. According to him, there is no final end or goal of life. Therefore, every man
tries to obtain those things which he desires. In other words, the man according to
Hobbes is highly self-centred. This point has been beautifully brought out by Prof.
Sabine thus: "The rule behind all behaviour is that the living body is set instinctively
to preserve or heighten its vitality. In a word, the physiological principle behind all
behaviour is self-preservation and self-preservation means just the continuance of
individual's biological existence. Good is what conduces to this end and evil what has
the opposite effect."
Again Hobbes believes that men by birth are equal. Some may have better
mental faculties while the others may be physically superior. But reckoned as a whole
they are considerably equal. However, the desire to have the same things brings
them in clash with each other. He says that competition, glory and differences make
people brute and quarrelsome. Hobbes puts this point thus: "Nature has made men
so equal with faculties of body and mind, that though there be found men sometimes
manifestly stronger in body, or of the quicker mind than the other; yet-when all is
reckoned together, the difference between man and man is not so considerable, as
that one man there upon can claim to himself any benefit to which another may not
pretend". He further says that, every individual has "a perpetual and restless desire
of power after power, that ceaseth only in death. And the cause of this is not always
that a man hopes for more incentive higher than what he has already attained to, or
that he cannot be content with a moderate power, but because he cannot assure the
power and the means to live well which hath present without the acquisition of
more". As all men are roughly equal and desire more or less the same things there is
bound to be "war of every man against every man". In short, Hobbes says that man
is essentially selfish, contentious, quarrelsome, mean, wicked,
non-altruistic, non-rational, impulsive and self-centred. In this respect, his views are
quite close to the views expressed by Machiavelli. The only difference between the
two is that while Machiavelli did not assign any reasons for the bad nature of man,
Hobbes tries to explain it in scientific terms.
However, Hobbs views on human nature have been severely criticised. In the first
instance it
is said that, man is neither so reasonable nor so unreasonable, as Hobbes

displays him while painting the picture of state of nature and the conclusion of
the contract for the formation of the state. He depicts the man as.highly
irrational in the state of nature, but suddenly assigns him the faculty of reason
which impells him to create the state. Secondly, he depicts human beings as
antisocial, self-centred and egoistic. It is really difficult to understand how such
people become social and take initative in the evolution of the civil society.
Thirdly, Hobbes fails to deduce sensations and perceptions from the motion of
particles. Finally, his assertion that all men are equal in respect of their physical
and mental powers does not appeal to our reason and is contrary to our actual
experience.
HOBBES ON STATE OF NATURE

Hobbes views on state of nature, a period of human history preceding the
establishment of the civil state, are an extension of his view of human nature. As
already noted, he holds that all men are by nature equal in powers. None of them is
so strong as to be safe against the other. They are also moved by the same three
passions, viz., desire for safety, desire of gain and desire of glory. The desire of gain
leads to violence when the object of desire can neither be divided nor enjoyed in
common. Naturally the human beings develop distrust towards each other. This
distrust is evident from the fact that a man goes around against his fellow-human
beings with arms in hands, closes his doors against his neighbours and closes his
chest against his children and servants. Naturally under the circumstances the state
of nature is a state of war. There is no place for industry in such conditions because
the fruits thereof is uncertain and consequently no culture of the earth, no
navigation, no arts, no letters, no
Thomas Hobbes (1581 -1679)
111
society. In short, the life of man was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. As there
was no common superior which could held all the people in check, there is a constant
war of all against all.
According to Hobbes there could be no distinction between right and wrong in the
state of nature because such a distinction presupposes the existence of common
standards of conduct, a common law to judge that conduct and a common law giver.
Again, there was no distinction between just and unjust in the state of nature
because there was no common superior (sovereign) or law. When there is no law
there can be no justice. There was no right to private property in the state ot nature
because the possession of a thing depended upon the power of a person to keep it.
THE SOCIAL CONTRACT

People were greatly fed up with the state of uncertainty prevailing in the-state of
nature and motivated by the instinct of self-preservation were keen to have a state.
Thus Hobbes believes that the state had its origin in the foresight of men in their own
preservation, and the rational desire to escape from the natural condition of war. The
ceaseless conflict and strife were inevitable so long men were guided by the dictates
of appetite. They could escape from it only by setting up a common power which
could at the same time restrain and protect every individual. Therefore, it was felt
desirable to establish a common for which could take the place of multitude of wills
previously active. In the words of Hobbes "The only way to erect such a common
power as may be able to defend them (i.e. men) from the invasion of foreigners, and
injuries of one other...is to confer all their power and strength upon one man or upon
assembly of them that may reduce all their wills...which is as much as to say to
appoint one man or assembly of men to leave their person... This is more than
consent or concord, it is real unity of them all, in one and supreme power."
Accordingly, they proceeded to finalise the contract. According to Hobbes each
individual says to others "I authorise and give up my right of governing myself to this
man or to this assembly of men, on this condition that thou give the right to him and
authorise all his actions in the like manner".
Conceived in this manner, the state Hobbes holds, is a real unitya single
personality taking the place of many. Instead of a multitude of wills possessing in
perpetual disharmony and conflict for the preservation of life and the attainment of
happiness, there appears a single will determining the common welfare and
achieving it through the irresistible might that inhers in the joint powers of all. The
individual resigns his natural rights and the state assumes, them.
Thus we find that 'Social Contract' is characterised by the following features:
Firstly, the parties to the contract are individuals (the natural men), not groups of
any sort. The Sovereign is not party to the contract but rather the product of the
contract. He therefore not only stands outside it but is also above it. In this way,
Hobbes tries to justify absolute or despotic rule and denies all rights of resisting the
state to the individual. According to the writer, instead of becoming a charter of
human freedom the contract becomes in the hands of Hobbes a bond of human
slavery."
Secondly, the Commonwealth or State is based on reason and not on fear. People
render obedience to the authority of the state because of the rational apprehension
that the end of self-preservation is better served within the state. However, Hobbes
further points out that the persons who obey and respect the authority of the state
purely on rational grounds are very few. The effective agency which socialises the
man is the fear of punishment and not reason. The efficacy of the law depends on the
extent to which the state has the power to enforce it. As Hobbes himself puts it
"Covenants without sword are but words".
Thirdly, the Sovereign is not a party to the contract and hence cannot be guilty of
violating the contract. Justice lies in adherence to the contract and the sovereign
cannot be unjust. Though the sovereign is the creature of the contract, he is above it.
Fourthly, the contract once concluded by the individuals cannot be revoked
because once the individuals submit their wills to the will of the sovereign, they have
no right to withdraw their consent without the permission of the sovereign. If people
try to conclude a fresh contract it would be a violation of the original social contract
and
112
would mean return to the pre-contract conditions, viz., the state of nature.
Fifthly, the minority has no right to object to the choice of the majority in the
selection of the sovereign. The minority by becoming a part of the
commonwealth tacitly accepts the will of the majority. If the minority does not
accept the authority of the Commonwealth, it remains outside it and can be
justly destroyed by it.
Sixthly, as the contract was concluded primarily for the protection of
individual's life, it implies that the individual surrendered all his rights, except the
right to life to the sovereign. Thus the sovereign can encroach on all the rights of
the individual, except the right to life.
Seventhly, the people are bound to submit to the will of the state or the ruler
and enjoy no right against the sovereign. This is why it has been said that instead
of being the charter of liberty, it is a bond of slavery for the people. However,
Hobbes does concede to the people to withhold obedience to the sovereign
under some special circumstances. Thus he permits the individual to disobey the
sovereign if the latter commands him "to kill, wound or maim himself", or not to
resist those that assault him or to abstain from the use of food, air, medicine or
any other thing without which he cannot live. In short, Hobbes permits
disobedience to a command which frustrates the end of self-preservation for
which the sovereign authority was created.
HOBBES ON SOVEREIGNITY
As noted above the sovereign was created as a result of the contract and enjoys all
the powers which were surrendered by the people at the time of concluding the
contract. As Hobbes puts it "By this authority given to him by every particular man in
the commonwealth, he has the use of so much power and strength conferred on him,
that any error thereof, he is enabled to form wills of them all, to peace at home and
mutual aid against their enemies abroad. And in him consists the essence of
commonwealth and he shall think expedient, for the peace and common defence." In
simple language it means that, the sovereign enjoys the power to determine on
behalf of the entire community, as to what should be done to maintain peace and
order and promote their
welfare. He has the right to make laws which are binding on all the subjects. In short,
Hobbes vests the sovereign's with absolute and supreme powers. The sovereign's
authority cannot be challenged by the people because, they voluntarily surrendered
their rights to him, and once they have surrendered these rights without condition
they cannot claim them back.
According to Hobbes, the individuals cannot lawfully enter into a new contract to
create a new Leviathan, because the contract concluded by them with the first
sovereign is irrevocable. As the sovereign was not a party to the contract, it cannot
be quoted against him, without his own approval. The people also do not possess any
power to revolt against the authority of the sovereign because this would mean
reverting back to the conditions prevailing in the stateof nature.
The sovereign enjoys absolute powers to make laws and this power of the
sovereign is not limited by any human authority, superior or inferior. The sovereign is
not bound by the opinion and wishes of the people because they have made a
complete surrender of their power to the sovereign. The sovereign is not only the
chief source of all laws but also their sole interpreter. Even, the laws of nature do not
constitute any restriction on the authority of the sovereign, because according to
Hobbes they are not laws in the strict sense of the term. Even the law of God does
not curtail the authority of the sovereign because he is not sole interpreter of these
laws. Thus, Hobbes concedes to the sovereign absolute powers and rules out all the
limitations in the nature of laws of nature, or laws of God.
The sovereign is the source of distinction between good and bad, moral and
immoral, just and unjust. These distinctions did not exist in the state of nature and
emerged only after the creation of the civil society. Whatever was in conformity with
the laws of the sovereign was just and fight and whatever was against them was
unjust and wrong. Again it is for the sovereign to decide what is moral and what is
immoral. Even the right to property was created by the sovereign. This implies that
he can resort to taxation without the consent of the people.
The Sovereign is the chief source of justice and enjoys exclusive powers to
declare war and make
113
peace. Hob bes gives to the sovereign all sorts of powers, viz., executive, legislative
and judicial and thus completely discards the theory of separation of powers.
Emphasising the ultimate authority of the sovereign to make war and peace Hobbes
says "making war and peace with other nations and commonwealths, that is to say of
judging when it is for the public good and how great forces are to be assembled;
armed and paid for that end; and to levy money upon the subjects, to defray the
expenses thereof".
Another prominent feature of Hobbes' sovereign is that he vests it with indivisible,
inseparable and incommunicable powers. He does not permit the sovereign to share
its powers with others. Hobbes also does not concede to his subjects any rights
against the sovereign. People cannot call him to account, threaten to punish or
depose him and choose another ruler in his place, or put him to death.
In short, Hobbes created an absolute, indivisible and inalienable sovereign.
CRITICISM
Hobbes theory of sovereignty has been criticised on the following grounds:
In the first place it is pointed out that his theory is unreal and untrue to facts. No
actual sovereign has wielded such absolute and unlimited powers as Hobbes ascribed
to his sovereign. Concentration of such enormous power is bound to give rise to
frustration at one stage or the other. Hobbes himself admitted that the sovereigns do
not for the most part exercise such vast powers. However, it may be noted that
Hobbes chief objective was not to give a factual description of the powers actually
wielded by the sovereign in the seventeenth century England, but to determine the
powers which should be vested in the sovereign authority if it were to adequately
discharge the functions for which the civil society was instituted.
Secondly, Vaughan rejects the theory as 'pernicious' and 'impossible'. It is pernicious
in so far as it leads to despotism pure and simple, in so far as it gives the subjects no
right to demand themselves against oppressive and tyrannical rule and reduces the
whole herd to
slavery. It is
impossible in so far as it holds that the sole bond of union between the members
of Leviathan is common terror; the fear of relapsing into state of nature. It must
be conceded that the entire trend of Hobbes political philosophy is towards
absolutism. However, there is an element of constitutionalism in his absolutism.
He defends the absolute sovereignty in the interest of the social security and
welfare of the individuals. He concedes to the people the right to disobey the
ruler when he is not in a position to realise these ends.
Thirdly, Hobbes concedes right of resistance to the individual in extreme
cases. According to Prof. Jones, the grant of right to the individual is inconsistent
with the doctrine of absolute sovereignty. Either a subject has a right against the
sovereign or he has no such right. If he has this right, Hobbes's major thesis that
the Sovereign is and must be sovereign, collapses. On the other hand, if the
sovereign is absolute and supreme, the individuals do not have the right to resist
the sovereign. There is a clear inconsistency because Hobbes cannot have it both
ways. If there is any limitation the sovereign cannot be sovereign and if he is
absolute his power cannot be conditioned by anything whatsoever.
Fourthly, the right of resistance conceded by Hobbes to the individual is
nothing but capacity to resist. The decision to resist the authority of the
sovereign on the ground that his particular action endangers the individual's life
rests with the individual. Therefore, Hobbes leaves the individual completely free
to decide whether to obey the sovereign or to resist him. This can be possible
only in a democratic government which Hobbes never conjectures.
Fifthly, Rousseau described Hobbes' theory of sovereignty as both selfcontradictory and revolting. He argues that the gifts of nature, like life and
liberty, can never be renounced for any supposed benefit. A person who
renounces his freedom, in fact renounces his manhood and such renunciation is
inconsistent with man's nature.
Despite these shortcomings of his theory of sovereignty we have to agree
with Sabine, that his theory of sovereignty was the most revolutionary theory of
sovereignty, at the time of its inception and was one of his most important
contribution to
114
the political thought. It exercised profound influence on the development of political

philosophy in the subsequent years. It provided the ground for Austinian theory of
legal sovereignty, which has come to be accepted all over the world. It stirred the
contemporary continental thinking and found enthusiastic supporters like Spinoza.
Hobbes by basing his theory of sovereignty on the self-interest of the individuals
anticipated the utilitarian and libera! thought of the years to come. But in an indirect
way it also helped in the growth of totalitarian theories in Germany and Italy.
HOBBES ON LAWS
According to Hobbes power to make laws, which are binding on all the subjects, is
one of the important attributes of sovereignty. It is an important instrument which
regulates the behaviour of the individuals and lays down the norms or standards by
which the goodness and badness, Tightness and wrongness of human conduct is
judged. As Hobbes says it is "to every subject, those rules, which the commonwealth
had commanded him, by word, writing or other sufficient sign of the will, to make use
of, for the distinction of right and wrong". It is the word of him that by right hath
command over others. The sovereign of Hobbes earns this right of commanding over
others by virtue of the contract through which the individuals authorise the sovereign
to make and enforce laws on their behalf, with the coercive power. In fact, it is this
coercive power which distinguishes the civil law in the natural law, divine law and the
moral law.
There are no limitations on the laws enacted by the sovereign in the nature of
natural law, divine law or the international law. In case the law enacted by the
sovereign clashes with anyone of these, it shall reign supreme. The law not only
emanates from the sovereign, but the final authority regarding its interpretation also
rests with him.
The sovereign is above and beyond the law. He is not accountable to any body
about the nature and contents of the laws. Thus Hobbes does not give any right to
the individual to discuss the laws framed by the sovereign and to find out whether
they are in accord with the precepts of reason or
not. A question is often raised that why Hobbes abandoned the principle of reason,
which operated in the pre-civil society, after the creation of the civil society. Probably
Hobbes did so because he thought that right reason finds its embodiment and
expression in the reason of the sovereign. He therefore, could not think of the
existence of any right reason separate and distinct from the reason of the sovereign.
It may be noted that Hobbesian concept of law was an improvement over Bodin's
concept of law. Unlike Bodin he does not permit the constitution, law of God or the
right to property, etc., to act as limitations on the authority of the sovereign. In this
way he paved the way for the development of Austin's theory of positive law.
HOBBES ON RIGHTS AND LIBERTY

Hobbes emphasis on absolute and unlimited character of the sovereignty is likely to
give the impression that he does not concede any rights or liberty to the people
under the Leviathan. This feeling is further strengthened by the fact that he does not
concede to the individual any rights against the sovereign. The only freedom or rights
which an individual is permitted, include the freedom to do what the laws of the state
do not forbid and secondly, the rights which the individual could not have
surrendered under any covenant. Liberty in the first sense is not of much
consequence because it does not constitute any limitation on the authority of the
sovereign. As regards the freedom in the second category Hobbes allows the
individual the right to disobey the state if he is asked to do anything which endangers
his life or body. However, it would be wrong to infer from the above that Hobbes does
not permit liberty to the individual under Leviathan. He does permit liberty, but this
liberty is essentially of a negative nature. Hobbes justifies the grant of liberty within
the limitations of laws and does not find any contradiction between the two. To quote
him "the use of laws is not to bind the people from all voluntary actions; but to direct
and keep them in such a motion, as not to hurt themselves by their own impetuous
desires, rashness and indiscretion; and hedges are set not to stop travellers but to
keep them in their way". Therefore, so long the sovereign does not interfere
Thomas Hobbes (15811679) 115
with the individual he can do anything, but once there is a clash between the
individual and the sovereign, the former has to become subservient to the latter.
According to Prof. Maxey "Of rights and liberties, therefore, Hobbes could not concede
the members of the commonwealth a very generous portion. Every member
according to his reasoning, retained his freedom of will, in so far that he might follow
his own inclinations if he choose, but all had agreed to submerge their wills, in that of
the sovereign and to sanction every act of the sovereign, as their own. Hence, it
followed that a man's liberty to follow his own inclinations gave him the right to
oppose his will to that of the sovereign, and when in the pursuit of his own
inclinations he came into conflict with the will of the sovereign, the latter must of
right prevail."
In so far as the right to life is concerned, Hobbes accords it a prominent position
in his scheme and permits this right, even against the will of the sovereign. As
regards the other rights which the individual enjoys through silence of law, Hobbes
refers to the right "to buy and sell and otherwise contract with one another; to
choose their own abode, their own diet, their own trade of life and educate their
children as they themselves think fit and the like". Prof. Oakeshott says that in
Hobbes state, man has liberty enough and to spare. Liberty is to be found in the
silence of the law and the individual is free to do anything where the law is silent. To
quote him, "The absolutism attributed to the sovereign authority implies no frenzy for
regulation or passion for interference. The silence of will, brood over large tracts of
the subject's life, and wherever there is liberty, the liberty of being not subject to
unnecessary laws. But still further, absolutely regulated society, one from which this
liberty is excluded, is contrary to the nature of a legally organized society. Law is a
command, the expression, not of reason but of will. And a command implies liberty in
the person commanded. First, it implies liberty of the mental activity...and secondly,
it implies liberty of the initiative."
In short, we can say that Hobbes concedes liberty and freedom to the individual
but, it is essentially of a negative character and is conceived in relative terms. As
Prof. Hacker has observed "Freedom for Hobbes, is the sphere of action which the all
powerful state allows to its citizens.
And freedom, for that reason, is the creation of the state; it does not exist
independently of it. Just as justice must grow out of law, so liberty must grow out of
political power."
INDIVIDUALISM AND ABSOLUTISM IN HOBBES

Hobbes has been carried up and down for his political theory which has been
described "as pure and naked despotism by some, while the others consider him as
the greatest individualist. The first view seems to be based on superfluous reading of
the philosophy of Hobbes. In reality, he was a great individualist and the theory of
absolute sovereignty with which the name of Hobbes is so generally associated, was
really the necessary compliment of his individualism. Even Prof. Vaughan who is
highly critical of Hobbes says "By a strange irony it was reserved for the deadliest
enemy of individualism, to give the first formal statement of theory upon which in the
hay of its power, individualism was universally held to rest. The whole work of
Hobbes breathes the bitterest hatred, not only of individualism as a theory, but even
of those elementary rights, which none but the most backward nations now deny to
the individual in practice, Yet this preposterous system is itself based, consciously or
unconsciously on assumptions representing an extreme form of individualism, an
individualism more uncompromising than that of Locke himself." Prof. Sabine also
says "Individualism is thoroughly modern element in Hobbes and the respect in which
he caught most clearly the note of coming age, Hobbes was at once the complete
utilitarian and a complete individualist. It is his clear cut individualism which makes
his philosophy the most revolutionary theory of his age." Prof. Wayper says "Hobbes,
so frequently portrayed as the greatest absolutist is perhaps the greatest individualist
in the history of political thought".
Hobbes no doubt built a theory of most thorough going absolutism but the
rational of such absolutism was the peace and security of the person and property of
the individual, which gives the theory of Hobbes the tinge of individualism. Hobbes
does not talk of vague things, like public good or general good and talks of
individuals who
desire to live and enjoy protection for the means of life. The prominent position
accorded to the individual by Hobbes, is evident from the fact that he allows his
individual, the right to resist the sovereign if the latter attacks his life, for whose
preservation the contract was finalised. In certain contingencies the individual is
permitted to refuse to serve as a soldier which might endanger his life. He also allows
the individual to withdraw allegiance from the sovereign who is incapable of securing
his life. The right of resistance granted to the individual carries with it the right of the
individual to judge for himself when his life is endangered. Even the contract which
creates the sovereign is concluded by the individuals who are willing to transfer all
their power of a single representative, who is "hence forth authorised to will and to
act in place of each individual. Hobbes does not think in terms of collective wills or
common will. As Sabine has said "A general or political good like a public will is a
figment of imagination, there are merely individuals who desire to live and to enjoy
protection for the means of life".
It is evident from the above account that Hobbes' philosophy is pregnant with
strongest seeds of individualism. He makes the individual the centre of his thought.
After raising the individual to such heights Hobbes felt that if the individual was not
kept in proper check it would lead to the destruction of the civil society and give rise
to anarchy. This would tantamount to return to the state of nature, a war of all
against all. To check such a possibility, Hobbes felt the need of a supreme power
which possesses all the power to take appropriate action to prevent such a
degeneration of the individual. It is in this sense that Prof. Sabine says "The absolute
power of the sovereigna theory with which Hobbes' name is more generally
associatedwas really the necessary complement of his individualism". Hobbes
realised that covenants without swords are but words, and to make sure that the
covenants were observed by the people, he concedes absolute authority to his
sovereign.
Hobbes does not stop with the grant of absolute powers to the sovereign but also
ensures
that he is not able to use it for his selfish ends. He gives him the power to
make laws or rules by which it may be possible to determine what is just
and
what
is
unjust;
or
what
is
good
and
what
is
evil.
The
civil
laws
enacted
by
the
sovereign
are
largely
based
on
the
laws
of
nature
and
therefore
his
laws
cannot
be
absolute.
Again,
the
laws
are
made
with
the
sole
objective
of
maintenance
of
peace,
for
which
the
individual
gave
up
his
natural
liberty.
The
sovereign
makes
the
laws
for
the
benefit
of
the
individual
and
are
subject
to
the
judgement
of
the
individualism.
In
this
way
Hobbes
removes
the
right
of
absolutism.
Hobbes
grants
to
the
individual
certain
rights
and
liberties
and
imposes
certain
obligations
on
the
sovereign
towards
his
subjects.
All
this
clearly
shows
that
Hobbes
is
more
interested
in
the
individual
than
the sovereign.
In view of the above facts, it would be sheer mockery of Hobbe's political

philosophy to charge him of absolutism. In fact, as Prof. Wayper has said "He is
perhaps the greatest individualist in the history of political thought".
CRITICAL ESTIMATE OF HOBBES

It is indeed very difficult to give a fair estimation of Hobbes' contributions to political
thought, because he has continued to be a controversial figure ever since the
publication of Leviathan. As one writer has put it "no great writer has suffered more
at the hands of little men as Hobbes. No giant has been abused more by pigmies."
But if Hobbes has his critics, he has his admirers too. In view of the conflicting
opinions expressed by the scholars about the rank of Hobbes amongst political
philosophers and the value of his political doctrines the task of giving a fair
estimation becomes quite difficult.
Mainly there are two extreme views about Hobbes. On the one hand Prof. C.E.
Vaughan says "so far as the vital development of political thought is concerned,
Leviathan has remained and deserves to remain, without influence and without fruit;
a fantastic hybrid incapable of propagating its kind." Prof. Gettel also says that the
theory of Hobbes had little immediate following in English political thought.
On the other hand Prof. Sabine describes Hobbes as "probably the greatest writer
on political philosophy that the English speaking people have produced". Prof.
Dunnings says "Hobbes' works placed him at once in the front
117
rank of political thinkers and his theory became, from the moment of its appearance,
the centre of animated controversy and enormous influence throughout the western
Europe".
Prof. Wayper highlights the influence exercised by Hobbes on the subsequent
political philosophers despite his severe condemnation. He says "Succeeding
generations have usually disagreed with him, but it is no exaggeration to say that
they have found in him a mine, well worth their while to work for the riches of the
one that it yields". Prof. Oakeshott in his introduction to Leviathan describes it as "the
greatest, perhaps the sole masterpiece of political philosophy in the English
language".
In view of these conflicting and extreme views, it is indeed very difficult to arrive
at a commonly acceptable assessment of Hobbes. The same book cannot be

regarded as "the greatest masterpiece of political philosophy in the English
language" and as "a fantastic hybrid which has remained and deserves to remain
without influence and without fruit". For proper appreciation of these views it is
desirable to discuss the shortcomings of Hobbes.
SHORTCOMINGS OF HOBBES
First, the gross materialism, atheism and despotism of Hobbes failed to appeal to his
contemporaries as well as succeeding generations.
Secondly, it is difficult to understand how the masters of Hobbes' state of nature
became the law-abiding and docile citizens of the society. The sudden transformation
of the individual from savage to the civilized seems quite illogical.
Thirdly, Hobbes is wrong in insisting that the sole bond of union among the
individuals is common terror.
Fourthly, his theory leads to despotism pure and simple, and the individual is
virtually reduced to the position of a slave, with no right to offer resistance to the
oppressive and tyrannical rule of the absolute sovereign.
Fifthly, the so called scientific method applied by Hobbes has not been found
practicable by the modern thinkers. They have found it difficult to apply geometry to
the study of social sciences in general and the science of politics in particular.
Sixthly, Hobbes philosophy was mainly influenced by his personal predilections
and prejudices. He was motivated by the sole consideration of defending the royal
absolutism. Though there is some truth in some of the points made by Prof. Vaughan
it is certainly wrong to say that Hobbes' political philosophy has not exercised any
influence on the history of political thought.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF HOBBES
As regards the contributions of Hobbes to political thought, his admirers have
emphasised the following points:
In the first place he is credited to have offered a theory of absolute sovereignty
and freed his sovereign of all the shackles. In this respect he clearly saw the note of
the modern state.
Secondly, he was the first thinker to conceive state as a human institution. Thus
he sounded the death knell of the doctrine of 'divine rights of the kings'.
Thirdly, he was the first great individualist and emphasised that the state is merely a
means
for the promotion of the interests of the individual. The details of his
individualist philosophy have already been discussed and need not be repeated.
Fourthly, the utilitarianism, which was a logical corollary of his individualism,
was another important contribution of Hobbes to political thought. He justifies
the powers and actions of the state, only in so far as they contribute to the
security of the human beings. Bentham who developed the utilitarian philosophy
drew inspiration from Hobbes.
Fifthly, Hobbes for the first time emphasised the supremacy of the matter in
relation to mind. He asserted that matter affects the sensation as well as the
whole chain of perception, memory, imagination, etc. In this respect he
anticipated Marx.
Sixthly, he applied the true scientific method to the study of political science
and emphasised that all human ideas and social phenomena was derived from
the moving particles. Though his method is no more accepted by the modern
scholars, it cannot be denied "his system was the first wholehearted attempt
to treat political
118
philosophy as part of a mechanistic body of scientific knowledge". (Sabine).

Seventhly, Hobbes brought moral at par with politics, and effected a complete
severance between the two. Though generally Machiavelli is given the credit of
separating ethics and politics, but it was Hobbes, who provided a rational basis to this
separation.
Eighthly, Hobbes repudiated the classical doctrine of the law of nature and
advocated the concept of positive law. He asserted that only man-made law can be
effective in human affairs. In this way he anticipated the great movement for
scientific legislation which was later on evolved by Bentham.
Ninthly, according to Prof. Dunning, the idea of contract of individual with
individual was one of the most distinctive innovations of Hobbes. No doubt, before
Hobbes the idea of contract was known but it was mainly envisaged in terms of
certain conditions stipulated by the King for the proper conduct of the government.
Hobbes innovated the idea of contract among individuals to which the King or the
ruler, was not a party. On the other hand the Sovereign or the King emerged as a
result of this contract.
Tenthly, Hobbes for the first time conceived the theory of fictitious Corporation. In
his contract the individuals surrender all their powers to a
person and authorise him to will and act on behalf of all the constituents. Hobbes
argues that the multitude cannot have rights and cannot act. Only individual
members can do so- "Consequently, to say that a body of men acts collectively, really
means that some individual acts in the name of the whole group as its accredited
agent and representative. Unless there is such an agent the body has no collective
existence... it is union which makes a corporation and union means the submission of
the wills of all to the will of one. A corporation is not really a collective body at all but
one person, its head or director whose will is to be received for the will of all its
members" (Sabine). Judging the collectiveness of a group by the singleness of the
head of the group was a very fertile idea of Hobbes.
In view of his numerous contributions to political philosophy we can agree with
Hacker that Hobbes "created a theory which embraces a psychology, a sociology and
a political science and which integrates these into a coherent theoretical framework".
Prof. Wayper has brought out his contributions thus "Succeeding generations have
usually disagreed with him (Hobbes), but it is no exaggeration to say that they have
found in him a mine well worth their while to work for the riches of the ore that it
yields".
13John Locke (16321704)
EARLY LIFE
John Locke was born in the family of a puritan Somerset lawyer, in 1632. He received
his early education at Westminister and Oxford, but could not distinguish himself as a
student. After receiving his M.A. degree he took up appointment as a tutor at Oxford.
However, he did not find teaching to his taste and gave up the same to learn
medicine. After two years of apprenticeship he established himself as a medical
practioner. In this capacity, he came in contact with Lord Ashley and became his
personal physician and confidential secretary. Lord Ashley played a dominant role in
the civil war as well as restoration of Charles II. Lock's intimate links with Lord Ashley,
provided him an opportunity to come in contact with all the great men of the times in
politics, science and letters. He also came to acquire a deep insight in the political
affairs of his time. Subsequently, when Lord Ashley was charged with treason
because of his alleged support to the case of Restoration, Locke was obliged to leave
England and take refuge in Holland. In Holland, he came in contact with William of
Orange. In the wake of Bloodless Revolution of 1681 when William of Orange was
invited to occupy the throne of England following its vacation by King James II, Locke
also returned to England and was appointed as Commissioner of Appeals. Locke died
in 1704. Thus, he was the later contemporary of Hobbes and was a witness to the
restoration of Charles II in 1660 and the Bloodless Revolution of 1' 8 of which he
became the theorist.
WRITINGS OF LOCKE
Locke wrote as many as 35 books dealing with different walks of life, but all these
books are not of
interest to us. The main books which provide us an insight into his philosophy and
political thought, include Essays Concerning Human Understanding (1690), His
Letters on Toleration (1689, 1690, 1692 and 1706), Two Treatises of Government
(1690) and Fundamental Constitution Concerning California (1706). It will be
observed that his Fourth Letter on Toleration as well as Fundamental Constitution
Concerning California were published in 1706 after two years of his death.
INFLUENCES ON LOCKE
Apart from the contemporary conditions which greatly influenced the thought of
Locke, he was also influenced by a number of earlier and contemporary thinkers. As
already noted his intimate contact with Earl of Shaftsbury (Lord Ashley) exercised
profound influence on Locke. This association, in the words of Wayper "was to
influence Locke's life first as his connection with Devonshire had influenced Hobbes
and it gave him what Hobbes lacked, direct experience of practical political affairs."
Secondly, Locke was greatly influenced by the Glorious Revolution which resulted
in the replacement of absolute monarchy by responsible government. This convinced
him of the goodness of the human nature on which his entire political philosophy
rests. He learnt from the revolution that men are "basically decent, orderly, socialminded and quite capable of ruling themselves." To a large extent his family and
social environment also convinced him of the basic goodness of human nature. As
Jones has put it "there is no, doubt that the existence of wide circle of warm and
enduring friendship must itself in turn have contributed to his sympathic view of
human nature."
120
In addition to the social and political environments, Locke was also influenced by
the writings and philosophy of thinkers like Filmer, and Hobbes. Both these thinkers
had strongly justified an absolute government, though on different grounds. Locke,
who favoured constitutional government, was determined to refute the views of both
these philosophers. Accordingly, he wrote the First Treatise on Civil Government to
refute Filmer and the Second Treatise on Civil Government to refute Hobbes.
According to Prof. Vaughan the Treatise of Locke is a gun with two barrelsone
directed against Filmer and the other against Hobbes.
In the fourth place, Locke was greatly influenced by Sydney's 'Discourses
Concerning Government' published in 1683. In his book he forcefully pleaded that the
institution of government was created by men for their own security and interest and
it rests on the consent of the people. Thus, he emphasised the principle of
sovereignty of the people and insisted that the government, whether it was in the
hands of a monarch or a group of men, should be subject to overall control of the
people. The deep impact of Sydney's philosophy on Locke's is evident from the
observation of Prof. Dunning that there is in Locke's philosophy but little that had not
been found in Sydney, the form and spirit is all Sydney's." However, Locke presented
these ideas more systematically and presented a constructive theory of state and
government.
Fifthly, Locke also felt the impact of Hooker and borrowed the theory of consent
and theory of contract from him. Locke also borrowed the idea of supremacy of the
people over the government from Hooker, but provided it a new twist to suit the
changed environments. There is also lot of identity in the conclusions of Hooker and
Locke.
In short, Locke collected ideas from different sources, assimilated them and
presented them in a plausible political philosophy. Highlighting this point Prof. Sabine
says "The chief mark of his genius was neither learning nor logic but an incomparable
common-sense by which he gathered together the chief convictions in philosophy,
politics, morals and education, that the experience of the past had generated in the
more enlightened minds of his generation. By
giving them a simple and sober yet presuasive statement, he passed them on to the
eighteenth century, where they became the matrix from which grew the later political
philosophy both of England and continent."
LOCKE ON HUMAN NATURE

Like other political thinkers, we start the study of his philosophy with his views on
human nature. However, unlike Hobbes, Locke does not express his views about
human nature in a systematic manner and one had to collect his views from the
scatterd ideas in the Essays Concerning Human Understanding and the Second
Treatise. Locke holds that human beings are basically decent and have been
endowed with a natural social instinct. They are essentially peace-loving and not
quarrel-some. They are not always selfish. Sometimes they are altruistic also. Locke
considers all human beings as equal, in the moral sense and asserts that every
individual enjoys certain natural rights viz. the right to life liberty and property. He
enjoys these rights not because of any position, strength, wealth etc., but because he
is a human being and possesses reason. Thus Locke's views about human nature are
just the opposite of Hobbes'. However, unlike him he fails to provide any scientific
basis for his views about human nature. This is why Prof. Wayper says that his view is
"nothing like so profound, and certainly nothing as consistent, as that of Hobbes."
Though like Hobbes he holds that desire is the spring or all human acts and that a
feeling of pleasure ensues when desire is satisfied and that of pain of uneasiness
when it is thwarted, but he does not agree with him that man is egoistic, competitive,
quarrel-some and aggressive in nature. On the other hand he assumes that, men are
basically decent, orderly, social-minded, quite capable or ruling themselves.
LOCKE'S VIEWS ON STATE OF NATURE

Locke's views on the state of nature are a logical extension of his views of human
nature. He does not consider the state of nature as the state of war of each against
all. On the other hand he considers it as an era of "peace, good-will, mutual
assistance
John Locke (1632-1704)

121
and preservation." He conceives the state of nature as a pre-political rather than a

pre-social condition. The state of nature was not a period of eternal warfare but an
era of peace in which reason prevailed. This reason manifested itself in the law of
nature, which are based on the principle of equality. To Locke law of nature means a
set of rules for human behaviour which does not describe as to how men behave, but
as to how they ought to behave.
LOCKE ON LAW OF NATURE

The concept of the law of nature occupies a vital place in the thought of Locke. Locke
believed that it governed the lives of men, not only in the state of nature, but also
continued to govern them in the civil society. With a view to refrain men from
invading each other's rights the law of nature is observed, and the execution of the
law of nature in the state of nature is entrusted to all the members of the community.
Every member has the right to punish the transgressor of the natural law and
maintain it. Thus, he gives to every individual an equal right to enforce the law of
nature and safeguard his rights as well as rights of his neighbour. These laws of
nature assure to each individual, certain inalienable rights like right to life, health,
liberty and property. According to Prof. Vaughan, the concept of law of nature
occupies an important position in the political thought of Locke. It is "the controlling
link in the chain forged by Locke... It is that which determines the character both of
the state of nature and of the civil state which eventually follows."
LOCKE ON SOCIAL CONTRACT

In view of the very bright picture of state of nature painted by Locke, a natural
question arises as to what was the reason which compelled men to leave the state of
nature. Locke does not provide any logical answer and asserts that the deficiencies in
the law of nature made man leave the state of nature and enter into a contract for
the formation of the state. He highlights three deficiencies of the law of nature viz.
lack of an established, settled and known law, which could be interpreted by each
individual in his own way and lead to lot of confusion; second lack of an impartial
judge who could interpret and execute the law of nature
without personal stakes; and third, lack of an executive organ which could enforce a
just decision. It was chiefly to remove these inconveniences and uncertainties of the
law of nature that individuals agreed into a contract and created the state. This was a
contract of each with all; it was a social contract under which each individual agreed
to cede to the community as a whole (and not to an individual or a group of
individuals as was the case with Hobbes) only those of his natural rights whose
exercise introduced an element of distraction in the state of nature and made its
peace insecure. Thus the individuals surrendered only the rights to interpret the law
of nature for themselves, to execute it and to punish anyone who transgressed this
right. The rest of the rights remain intact even in the civil society. It may be noted
that the civil community which is to interpret and execute the law of nature was as
much bound by it, as the individual in the state of nature. In short, unlike the social
contract of Hobbes which accorded absolute and unlimited powers to the sovereign
ruler, the contract of Locke gives only limited powers to the community. Unlike
Hobbes's contract it is not a bond of slavery but a charter of freedom. In Locke's
contract the sovereign is a party to the contract and is as much bound by the
interpretation of the natural laws as other members. As Locke was convinced that the
monarchs too suffered from feeling of love and hatred he was not willing to grant
absolute powers to the monarch. He says "I easily grant that civil government is the
proper remedy for the inconvenience of state of nature...But I desire those who make
this objection, to remember that absolute monarchs are all bad men, and
government is to be the remedy for those evils which necessarily follow men's being
judges in their own cases, and the state of nature is therefore not to be endured, I
desire to know what kind of government that is and how much better it is than the
state of nature." Therefore, Locke does not vest the powers in the hands of any
individual rather he gives it to the entire society.
Another noteworthy feature of Locke's contract is that it was unanimous. Since
men are free and independent in the state of nature, no one can be compelled to join
the body politic against his will. He permits those who wish to remain
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outside the civil society, to remain in the state of nature. In other words, his contract
is based on the consent of the people. But if we accept this view of Locke the social
contract should be binding only on the original signatories and it should be renewed
by each generation. Locke provides an answer to this problem by suggesting that the
individuals must be considered to give their consent if upon reaching maturity they
continue to accept the benefits of the government in which they are born. Though
theoretically this line of argument may appear to be sound, it is certainly not correct
and realistic.
The contract of Locke is also irrevocable in the sense that once the people have
entered into contract they cannot revert back to the state of nature unless the
government, under whom they are placed, is dissolved.
AMBIGUITIES IN CONTRACT
The contract of Locke suffers from numerous ambiguities and shortcomings. In the
first place, he frequently speaks of 'the original contract' but no where makes it clear
as to what was the outcome of this contract. According to Prof. Sabine, Locke
presumably assumes two contractsone between individuals giving rise to the
community and the other between the community and its government. However,
Locke does not explicitly assert this double contract although it is implied in some of
the phrases used by him.
Secondly, Locke suggests that the minority must accept the judgement of the
majority without assigning any valid reasons. This is clearly against his notion that
the government must be based on consent of the people. It is not clear how the free
and equal minority are really governed by their consent when they are expected to
accept the verdict of the majority with which they may not agree. It is indeed difficult
to understand why an individual should abandon his private judgement simply
because those who differ from him are numerous. Locke does not provide any
rational answer to this question. Again, the majority can be as tyrannical as a
single ruler. If the rights of individual are taken from him, it does not matter much
for him whether these are taken by a single individual or by the majority. As Sabine
puts it "If an individual's rights are really indefeasible, it is
no better for him to be deprived of them by a majority than by a single tyrant;
apparently it did not occur to him that a majority could be tyrannous.
LOCKE ON STATE
Locke's views on state are at quite variance with the views of Hobbes on state.
Whereas Hobbes treated it as a necessity for the protection of the life of the
individuals and assigned it absolute powers, Locke holds it was created only to
remove certain inconveniences of the law of nature. Accordingly he assigns quite a
different role to it. His views on state boil down to the following points:
Firstly, he assumes that the state is composed of three powers viz. legislative,
executive and federative. He considers the legislative power as the most important
one and designates it as "the supreme power of the commonwealth". He assigns
supreme power to the legislature but does not grant it absolute powers. Its authority
is limited by the acts of the community and the people can curtail its power if it acts
contrary to the trust reposed in it. Though normally the community does not assert
itself but if the legislative power transgresses its limits, the community asserts its
supremacy. Locke describes the relationship between the community and the
government as a trust, with a view to emphasise the subordinate position of the
government to the community. In this way, says Prof. Vaughart "Locke makes very fair
provision not only for popular control of Government -but alsowhat is yet more
importantfor a progressive extension of that control, as experience may dictate."
The executive power, which also includes the judicial power, though quite vital to
the operation of the government is accorded a subordinate position to the legislature
by Locke. He assigns it the duty of enforcing the law of nature and the statutes made
by the legislative wing and permits it to impose necessary penalties in accordance
with the laws. Locke limits the power of the executive wing by making it dependent
on the legislature. The third power of the state is designated by Locke as federative
power, which includes the duty to protect the interests of the community and the
individual citizens in relations to other communities and citizens. It also includes
state's
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external affairs. It may be noted that while Locke insists on the need of separation
between the executive and legislative function, he does not insist on the separation
of the executive and the federative powers. Another point which deserves attention is
that Locke considers the legislative branch as supreme because it is representative of
the majority and can act as ultimate protector of those natural rights for whose
security the original contract was made. In this way Locke becomes the philosopher
of parliamentary government. However, he is not willing to make it absolute or
arbitrary and places numerous limitations on its authority. Thus it can exercise power
only for the purpose for when it was constituted and can exercise power over
jurisdiction committed to the government by the community. It cannot make laws
contrary to the laws of nature, it cannot deprive the people of their property without
their consent, and cannot assume power to rule through extraordinary decrees. It has
to respect the natural rights of the citizens and to apply them equally to all persons
and groups. Thus Locke made a strong plea for constitutional or limited government
as against despotic or absolute rule.
Secondly, Locke does not devote much attention to the classification of
Government and merely devotes a short chapter to this problem. This was probably
due to the fact that he was more interested in the principles of government rather
than its institution. However, following Aristotelian tradition Locke divided the
governments into three categories viz. monarchy, aristocracy and democracy
depending on the number of persons exercising legislative powers. Thus if the
legislative authority is exercised by one man, it is monarchy. On the other hand if the
legislative power is vested in few selected persons and their heirs the government is
aristocracy. But if the community retains the legislative power in its own hands and
merely appoints a few officers to execute these laws, the government is democracy.
Locke considered democracy as the best government because it provides adequate
safeguards of a good rule and best secures the observance of the principle of
consent. . Thirdly, Locke holds that the state exists for the people who constitute it.
He takes a purely mechanistic view of state and asserts it is "an
artifice which is created for and it continues to exist, for the better living of the
individuals."
Fourthly, the state according to Locke rests on the consent of the people. As
already pointed out this consent may be express or implied. He asserts that
individuals obey the state because they have given their consent to be ruled by it at
the time of the original conduct. This also implies the acceptance of the principle of
majority rule.
Fifthly, Locke's state is a constitutional state in which government is carried on
according to law. The government is not permitted to rule with the help of
extemporary decrees and insists that the laws should be reduced in writing so that
members of the community know these laws. If man are subjected to uncertain
unknown arbitrary will of another man, there can be no civil liberty. However, in case
of emergency, Locke permits the use of prerogative but, as Prof. Wayper puts it "they
should be only supplementary to, and never a substitute for the rule of law."
Sixthly, Locke's state is not absolute like that of Hobbes. On the other hand its
authority is limited by a number of factors. In the first instance it is restricted by the
purpose for which it was created. If it fails to attain its objective, the people shall
overthrow it. Secondly, it is limited by the Law of Nature. If it acts contrary to the
laws of nature it shall lose its validity. Thirdly, the natural rights of the individual also
restrain the authority of the state because these rights existed prior to the creation of
the state and the individuals created the state for the preservation of these rights. As
Sabine has put it "It is a right which each individual brings to society in his own
person, just as he brings the physical energy of his body. Hence society does not
create right and except within limits, cannot justly regulate it, for both society and
government exist, in part at least, to protect the prior private right of property." It
may be pointed out that Locke uses the term 'property' in a very comprehensive
sense and includes the right to life, liberty and property. Fourthly, the Government
cannot raise taxes without the consent of the people, either direct or indirect.
Seventhly, Locke's state operates on the principle of religious tolerance and is

opposed to all type of religious persecution. He wants the state to be neutral in
religious matters. He pleads for
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tolerance because of the frailty of the human intellect. Locke does not want any
interference in any body's soul by the state. However, if the religious views of an
individual pose a threat to the peace of state he would like its suppression and
even repression. Laski says "Locke makes of the church an institution radically
different from the ruling conception of his time. It becomes a merely voluntary
society, which may exert no power save over its members. It may use its own
ceremonies; but it cannot impose them on the unwilling.
Eighthly, Lock's state is assigned purely negative functions. It is merely
concerned with the prevention of violation of right by the various members of the
communtity and protection against external aggression. It is not concerned with
the moral and material development of the individual.
Finally, as Wayper says Locke's state is a transformer' state. It transforms the
individual's self interests into public goo d. To quote Wayper "the state holds in
check self interest and the mechanism whereby men acting as they must are in
the end brought to act as they ought to do-that is, for public happiness." 1
LOCKE ON REVOLUTION
Locke as the great, defender of the Glorious Revolution discussed the problem of
resistance to the authority of the government in great details and justified the right of
the people to revolt against the sovereign, He asserts that the government is a trust
which has been set up for the fulfilment of certain objectives and if it fails to carry out
those objectives, the people have a right to revolt against the government and
change it. Similarly if the government transgresses the limits prescribed for it and
violates basic rights which the people retained with them at the time of the creation
of the state, the people have a right to revolt. To quote Locks "The legislative being
only...power to act for certain ends, there remains still in the people a supreme
power: to remove or alter the legislative when they find the legislative end contrary
to the trust reposed in them. And the community perpetually retains a supreme
power of saving themselves from the attempts and designs of anybody even of their
legislators
whenever they shall be so foolish or so wicked as to lay and carryon designs against
the liberties and properties of the subjects." He again says "Government is dissolved
when the legislature is so transformed as to bring the law making power into the
hands of other than those to which it was entrusted by the community and its
organisation or when either legislature or executive acts contrary to its trusts."
A question may be raised as to who is to decide whether the legislature has
betrayed the confidence of the people or not. Locke says this question is to be
decided by the society as a whole and its decision was final and undisputable. It is
the people who have to take a final decision whether the conditions have reached
such a stage that the dissolution is warranted or not.
In view of Locke's above views on the right of the people to revolt against the
sovereign, it has often been alleged that he did not formulate a theory of government
but a theory of rebellion. However, this view is not fully correct. Locke himself says
that by, allowing right of revolution he was not necessarily encouraging rebellion. He
argues that the people on the while are very conservative and are likely to put up
with many ills for long before they embark upon the path of revolution. They will take
to arms only when they are oppressed to the hilt. Locke further makes the right to
revolution difficult by insisting that decision in this regard should be taken by the
majority. The minority, under no circumstances is permitted the right to revolt. The
revolution is justified only when a change is effective in the legislative power or the
trust which the people reposed in the sovereign is violated. In the words of Prof.
Sabine "Any invasion of the life, liberty or property of subjects is ipso facto void, and
a legi-lature which attempts these rights forfeits its power." Locke put it thus "when
the legislature, or the prince either of them act contrary to their trust, by breach of
trust they forfeit the power the people had put into their hands for quite contrary
ends, and it devolves so the people, who have a right to resume their original liberty,
and by the establishment of a new legislature, provide for their own safety and
security, which is the end for which they are in society"
1. Wayper Political Thought.

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LOCKE ON PROPERTY
Before discuss Locke's views on property it is desirable to note that he uses the term
property in two senses. In the broad sense, he implies by it the right to life, liberty
and estate. In the narrow sense he uses it for the right to possess and retain one's
estate. We shall deal with both these views of property.
In the narrow sense he says that in the state of nature people possessed property in
common and no body originally had private property. As he puts it "Property is
without any express compact of all the commoners. The Earth, and all that is therein,
in given to men for the support and comfort of their being. And...all the fruit it
naturally produces, and beasts it feeds, belong to mankind in common, they are
produced by the spontaneous hand of Nature and no body has originally a private
dominion." Locke says that in addition to this external property which is owned in
common by all the persons, every person has his private property which cannot be
taken away by anybody. The private property is the property which a person
produces by his labour or sweat. Locke explains this point thus "every man has a
property in his own person. Thus no body has any right to but himself. The labour of
his body, and the work of his hands, we may say are properly his. Whatsoever then
he removes out of the state that
hath provided and left it in, the hath mixed his labour with, and joined to it
something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property. For this labour
being the unquestionable property of the labourers, no man but he can have a
right to what that is once joined to". In short, Locke says that individuals property
consists of anything with which he has mixed his labour. This labour theory of
Locke ultimately became the basis of modern socialism. It may be noted that
Locke does not prescribe any limit for the private property a person can own,
except that insists that he should not spoil or destroy it. This concept of property
is however defective in so far it can apply only to a simple and agrarian society
and does not fit in well with the modern complicated economic system.
In the broader sense Locke uses the term property to include three natural
rights of life, liberty and property. At a number of places Locke states that the
individuals enter into contract and
institute the state so preserve property. Here, he is clearly using the term in the
broader sense of the three rights referred to above. Thus Locke envisages that
property existed in the pre-civil society and the institution of state was created to
preserve this right. It is not the state which creates the right to property (life,
liberty and property) but is itself created to protect this right. The state can
protect the property of the individual through interpretation of law of nature,
through an application of this interpretation between the members of the society
and enforcement of this right through use of its authority for repelling the
aggression.
Locke says that the right to private property has received the approval and
sanction of the society in so far as it has existed for such a long time. According
to Locke, property is legitimate because men who must live in its midst have
consented to its existence... Rousseau will insist that consent must be an active
process, one renewed each day in men's lives, while Burke will claim that
genuine consent is found in the established customs which men unconsciously
develop over generations and centuries. Furthermore, Locke defends property
throught consent only part of the way; he has also said that property is
sanctioned by God and earned by men."
Locke considered the institution of private property as a guarantee for
individual liberties. He asserted that only those people have suffered under
tyrannies who did not possess private property. According to Maxey "Guarantee
every man freedom of property and according to the Lockeian theory, there
would be little cause to worry about his other liberties. He would be amply able
to took out for himself".
LOCKE AS AN INDIVIDUALIST
Locke in his writings displays himself as a thorough-going individualist. According to
Vaughan "Everything in Locke's system revolves round the individual; every thing is
disposed so as to ensure the sovereignty of the individual." The main features which
are a pointer to the individualist philosophy of Locke can be summed up as follows. In
the first place he accords a fundamental position to the innate and natural
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rights in his scheme and asserts that the natural rights of life, liberty and property
belong to the individual due to the fact of his very personality. In other words he says
that the natural rights are prior to the state.
Secondly, the state was created for the protection of the natural rights and the
happiness of the individual. It may be noted that Locke sought rights and freedom for
all men without distinction. As Prof. Dunning puts it "Locke's equal rights...are so in-
wrought in his explanation of political institutions as to appear indispensable to the

very existence of an actual political community."
Thirdly, Locke bases the government on the consent of the individuals. He
considers only that government as the legitimate government which is based on the
consent of the individual. Viewed in this context, he does not consider an absolute
government as a true government because it is based on caprice rather than reason.
The belief in the consent theory also implies that the people can withdraw their
consent if the state commits a breach of its trust.
Fourthly, Locke assigns to the state purely negative functions. It interferes only
when the rights of the individual are endangered. Otherwise the individual is left
completely free to pursue his moral, material and intellectual pursuits. As a staunch
individualist Locke could not reconcile with the idea of assigning positive functions to
the state which could lead to state intervention in the personal affairs of the
individual. By assigning only negative functions to the state Locke proves himself a
great individualist.
Fifthly, Locke's views on property further confirm him as an out-and-out
individualist. He says that property which was initially owned in common becomes
private property of an individual after he mixes his labour with it or imparts a bit of
his individuality to the common object. This is probably the best way to emphasise
the importance and worth of the individual.
Sixthly, Locke assigns a prominent position to the law of nature and insists that
even the state law must conform to it under all circumstances. Thus he places the
state completely at the mercy of the individual and authorises even the minority to
challenge the moral justification of a law passed by the majority. In this way, says
Prof. Vaughan, "Locke lays a perpetual ferment for rebellion against the state on the
part of any and every individual."
Seventhly, Locke displays his strong individualist bias in his views on revolution.
He authorises the individual to rise in revolt against the state if it transgresses its
limits or fails to carry out its part of obligation. Thus in his scheme of things the state
is reduced to the position of a hand-maid of the individual, who rules supreme.
Eighthly, his faith in the pleasure and pain theory, which forms the starting point
of his philosophy, is a further pointer to his individualism. He says that all the actions
of an individual are motivated by the desire for pleasure and avoidance of pain.
Ninthly, Locke advocates division of power, because he was convinced that it was
an essential pre-condition for the preservation of individual freedom.
It is evident from the above discussion that Locke was a thorough-going individualist.
In fact some of the scholars have criticised Locke for carrying individualism to such
an extreme. For example, Prof. Laski says Locke reduced the state to "a negative
institution, a kind of gigantic limited liability company". By assigning purely negation
functions to the state Locke in fact
ensures the domination of the strong over the weak and the rich over the
poor. He does not pay any attention to the idea of ensuring social justice nor
does he pay any attention to the moral upliftment of the individual.
ESTIMATION OF LOCKE
It is generally held that Locke was not an original political thinker and made no
significant contribution to political thought. He merely collected different political
ideas from various sources and presented them in the shape of a coherent
philosophy. However, it cannot be denied that he possessed one extraordinary quality
viz., commonsense. Prof. Sabine has rightly observed "The chief mark of his genius
was neither learning nor logic but an incomparable commonsense by which he
gathered together the
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chief convictions, in philosophy, politics, morals and education, that the experience
of the past had generated in the more enlightened minds of his generation. By giving
to these simple and sober yet persuasive statement, he passed them on to the
eighteenth century, where they became the matrix from which grew the later
political philosophy both of England and the Continent." 1 As Locke's philosophy, like
the philosophy of any other thinker possessed both merits and demerits, we shall
deal with them separately.
SHORTCOMINGS IN LOCKE'S PHILOSOPHY

In the main the following shortcomings of Locke's philosophy have been highlighted
by various scholars:
Firstly, he takes a mechanistic view of state and society which is not correct. The
state and society are not so simple institutions which can be created or destroyed by
the individual at will. There were certainly more complicated motives which were
involved in the formation of the community than Locke wants us to believe.
Secondly, Locke's philosophy suffers from logical inconsistencies and he does not
stick to any particular opinion. For example, at various times he asserts that the
sovereignty resides with the individual, the community, the government and the
legislature. At the very initial stage of his theory of social contract he gives us the
impression that the individual and his rights are absolute. But a little he attributes
supremacy to the community as a whole. As he proceeds further he vests the
supreme power in the government as a trustee of the community. And finally he
asserts that the supreme power inside the government rests with the Legislature. At
another stage he even suggests that a single person can have supreme power if the
executive power is vested in him and he has a share in the legislature. It is indeed
difficult to make out what Locke actually wants to convey.
Thirdly, Locke refers to the 'original contract' without specifying the outcome of
this contract-whether it is the society or the state. Probably to overcome this
difficulty he envisages a second contract, though he does not make a specific
1. Sabine, A History of Political Theory
mention of it. Obviously Locke tried to combine the views of Hooker (who regarded
the community is capable of holding magisterial powers for the protection of
individual's rights) and Hobbes (who believed that only a powerful government could
protect the rights of the individual) but he miserably failed to bring about proper
synthesis of these views resulting in utter confusion.
Fourthly, there is a clear contradiction in his denial of innate ideas and belief in
inborn Natural Rights. This has been highlighted by Prof. Maxey thus: "Locke, the
denier of innate ideas, should be the doughty champion of inherent rights, is one of
those curious paradoxes which attest the human quality of even the greatest
intellects. In the realm of metaphysics Locke dealt objectively with things as he
thought they were; in the realm of politics he dealt subjectively with things as his
Whiggish preoccupations subtly guided him to believe they were...".
Fifthly, Locke gives supreme powers to the majority and treats its acts as the acts
of the community as a whole. In this way he commits the same mistake which
Hobbes committed in conceding absolute powers to one single individual. It really
does not matter whether a person is deprived of his so called natural rights by a
single individual or the majoirity. In a way Locke fails to realise that even the majority
can be despotic.
Sixthly, Locke wrongly assumes that natural rights could exist in the pfe-civil
society in the absence of an enforcement agency. Prof. Jones calls Locke's theory of
natural rights as 'hopelessly idealistic and impracticable'. He also questions the
ability of the people living in the primitive state of nature to comprehend
sophisticated concept of rights to life, liberty and property. However, certain other
scholars do not find any defect with his theory of natural rights and consider it as his
most significant contribution to political thought.
Seventhly, his theory of natural laws is also deficient in so far he fails to explain
how and wherefrom the Law of Nature originated and why it should be binding even
without power of enforcement. His views on Law of Nature are quite unconvincing.
128
Eighthly, Locke after painting a very bright picture of the state of nature fails to
give any convincing arguments as to why the people decided to descend from
'golden age to iron age'. As Prof. Vaughan puts it "Neither materially nor morally,
therefore, is there any sufficient motive for the individual to go to the cost and
trouble of removing such slight fences as divided them (viz. divide the state of nature
and the civil society).
Ninthly, Locke's theory of tacit consent is defective in so far as it contains no
provision for continuity of consent and the contract once concluded is binding on all
the succeeding generations. Even if we accept the contention of Locke that the very
being of a person within the territories of a government implies his consent to that
government, it could mean that every
government which has ever existed could legitimately claim to have been
based on consent.
Tenthly, Locke has depicted the man of his state of nature leading a highly
moral and civilized life, enjoying certain rights and duties. This is more of a
picture of a civil man than a man living in the primitive society.
Eleventhly, Locke has been criticised for depriving the state of all moral
authority and assigning it purely negative functions. He specifically debars the
state from undertaking functions like promotion of education, morality, scientific
and intellectual development. In this way his theory is contrary to the notions of
modern welfare state.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF LOCKE
Despite the above noted deficiencies in the thought of Locke, it cannot be denied
that he was one of the most influential thinkers in the realm of modern political
thought. His chief contributions to the development of political thought can be
enumerated as follows:
Firstly, he was the first to draw a distinction between society, state and
government, and to put them in proper chronological order. He says the society
existed in the state of nature and was followed by the state and ultimately the
government came into existence to-exercise the powers of the state as its
trustee.
Secondly, he contributed to the political theory the doctrine of natural rights,
which according to Prof. Dunning is the most distinctive contribution of Locke. To
quote Dunning "Life, liberty and property he (Locke) represents as inalienable
rights of every individual. The peculiarity of his treatment of this familiar concept
is in the definiteness with which these rights are made to appear as the concrete
privileges of actual living men...Locke's equal rights...are so inwrought in his
explanation of political institutions as to appear indispensable to the very
existence of a political community. The happiness and security of the individual
figure, not as essential to perpetuity of a government, but as the end for which
alone government is ever called into existence."
Thirdly, Locke emphasised the doctrine of supremacy of the community on
which later on Rousseau based his theory of General Will. In the words of Laski,
"Rousseau's philosophy is nothing more than widening the channel dug by
Locke." The only difference between the two is that whereas in Locke the
sovereign power is exercised by the community through the majority, in
Rousseau the sovereignty remains permanently, perpetually, and constantly in
the community.
Fourthly, his views on right to revolt exercised profound influence on the
people of America and France and they tried to put these views into actual
practice. Though these two revolutions basically differed from each other, alteast
they had common heritage from Locke.
Fifthly, Locke is the father of liberalism in the sense that he for the first time
emphasised that the people are the source of all authority and the state must
formulate its policies in accordance with the wishes and interests of the people. If
the state goes beyond its jurisdiction, its authority must be resisted.
Sixthly, Locke worked on the concept of separation of powers and his ideas
provided the basis for Montesquieu to present his classical theory of separation
of powers. Prof. Laski says "there still remains the tribute to be paid by
Montesquieu when he made Locke's theory of separation of powers as the
keystone of his own more splendid arch."
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Seventhly, Locke's thought contains seeds of utilitarianism. He greatly

emphasised the principle of general happiness of the people which was later on
adopted by Bentham. Bentham adopted Locke's concept of state as a machine, but
he brushed aside Locke's theory of natural rights. In this we can say that though
Bentham did not blindly follow Locke, he is indebted to Locke for the basic principles
of utilitarianism.
Eighthly, Locke provided the basis for the development of the idea of a
democratic state based on popular institutions and constitutional government. He
also emphasised the principles of consent of the governed and majority rule which
form the basis of the modern democratic institutions. Prof. Laski says "If Hobbes's
theory of sovereignty is today one of the common places of jurisprudence, ethically
and politically, we occupy ourselves with erecting about it a system of limitations
each one of which is in some sort due to Locke's perception. It goes to the credit of
Locke that he provided a systematic and rational philosophy of popular sovereignty
and constitutional government.
Ninthly, Locke laid great emphasis on the principles of toleration and secularism.
He for the first time reduced Church to a voluntary society which can exert no powers
save over its members. The state was expected to remain neutral in religious matters
unless the views expressed at the religious meetings posed a threat to the peace and
existence of the state.
Tenthly, Locke laid the foundation of the labour theory which not only influenced
the classical economists but also greatly influenced Marx's labour theory of value.
Eleventhly, Locke gave a death blow to the prevailing notions of Divine rights and
asserted that state is human institution. He did not favour interference of God or
religious leaders in the affairs of the state.
We can conclude this discussion with the following observations of Prof. Maxey,
"Laying hold of obstruse and important concepts that had been floating around in the
back eddies of European political thought for many generations, he wove them into
coercive kinetic body of doctrine that has gripped the political consciousness of
Europe and America for two tremendous centuries. He further says "if, as critics are
want to opine, there is little that is absolutely original in the political philosophy of
John Locke-few ideas and doctrines that had not been previously conceived and
declared to the world-it is none the less a fact that this frail and bookish physician of
seventeenth century England, must be ranked as one of the few political thinkers
whose work will never die." It does not matter that he was a mediocre, it does not
matter that his political ideas originated in the minds of other thinkers. What matters
is that he became one of the "foremost combiners of ideas and compounder of
systematic thought that the world has ever known".
Chapter
14
Jean Jacques Rousseau (17121778)
'...in political thought he (Rousseau) represents the passage from a traditional theory
rooted in the middle ages
to the modern philosophy of the state... He is, in fact, the great fore-runner
of the German and English Idealism."
Ernest Rays
EARLY LIFE
Rousseau was born at Geneva in 1712 in a middle class French family. His mother
died while giving him birth and the burden of upbringing the child fell on his father.
Being a man of unstable character his father could not give proper attention to the
education of Rousseau. When Rousseau was hardly ten years old, his father had to fly
from Geneva and the child was entrusted to the care of an uncle. Rousseau worked
as an apprentice under a cruel engraver for about three years. At the age of sixteen,
he left his home and took to life of a vagabond. Thus unlike Hobbes and Locke he
could neither receive proper education nor, find a patron. He, on the other hand, led
a life of poverty and deprivation.
Rousseau made a mark in political thought in 1749 when he wrote an essay "Has
the Progress of Sciences and the Arts helped to purify corrupt morals" for the Dijon
Academy which not only won him the first prize but also made him well known in the
literary circles of Paris. Five years later, he wrote the Discourse on the Origin and
Foundation of Inequality, in which he severely attacked the institution of private
property and held it responsible for the inequality in the society. The other important
works of Rousseau include an article on political economy which he contributed to the
'French Encyclopaedia in 1755; the Social Contract or the Principles of Political Right
published in 1762; La Nouvelle Heloise published in 1761; the
Entile (a treatise on education) published in 1762; the Confessions, Dialogues and
Reveries. The last three books were produced during the period 1762 and 1778. It
may be observed that Rousseau was a very popular writer in his own times as well as
in the later years. His writings had great mass appeal because he stood for the
abolition of rights for the privileged classes and favoured their extension to the
middle and lower middle classes.
INFLUENCE ON ROUSSEAU
The political thought of Rousseau reflects the influence of his environments as well as
the various political philosophers who had preceded him. Because of the hard life he
had to lead he could well appreciate the problems and difficulties of ordinary men
and enunciated a philosophy to suit them. As Maxey has put it "his lowly origin and
his humble, mendicant way of life" was a source of his power. "He was not merely the
people's advocate, he was bone of their bone and flesh of their flesh." His long
association with Geneva was responsible for his love for democracy and democratic
institutions. Among the political philosophers- he was profoundly influenced by Plato,
Locke, Montesquieu, Hobbes etc.
Rousseau is indebted to Plato for two basic ideas viz. political subjection is
essentially ethical and that the community is itself the chief moralising agency and
hence represents the highest moral order and value. But the chief
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
131
moulding influence on Rousseau's thought was exercised by Locke. He was

particularly influenced by Locke's concept of natural rights, the sovereignty of the
community, theory of consent etc. Rousseau started with the same premises as
Locke did, but he arrived at different conclusions. Rousseau also tries to avoid some
of the inconsistencies and anamolies, present in the thought of Locke. For example,
Locke failed to realize that the majority could be as brutal and ruthless as an
individual tyrannt. Rousseau improved upon this and put forward the concept of
General Will. Prof. Laski brings out the impact of Locke on Rousseau thus "Rousseau's
teaching is only a broadening of the channel dug by Locke." Similarly, Rousseau
borrowed the idea of constitutionalism from Montesquieu. It was his influence which
made Rousseau democratic rather than despotic.
ROUSSEAU ON HUMAN NATURE
According to Rousseau, man was basically good and it is only the wrong social actions
which make him wicked. He holds that man is governed by two instinctsself love
and mutual aid or sympathy. His first preference is always to attend to his own
presentation; his first cares are those which he owes himself. The second instinct
though less significant from individual's point of view is also vital and prompts us to
do more good than harm. He admits, that there are always possibilities of these
instinct coming into clash. This clash gives rise to another instinct known as
'conscience.' This conscience helps in resolving the conflict between the first two
instincts. A question may naturally arise that if man is good by nature and is gifted
with sentiments of love and sympathy, what makes him bad? Rousseau says that
when self interest
goes astray it gives rise to pride, and his pride is the root cause of most of the
evils. If we can get rid of this pride and cease from all comparison with other men
and simply go about our destiny "we can renounce a lot of imaginary desires and
hold fast to the true things, needful cast away a world of illusion and disord our
own self. We can be meek, and inherit our soul. In a word, we can return to
nature. This is all the famous phase means" (Wright).
ROUSSEAU ON STATE OF NATURE
Rousseau's views on state of nature are quite different from the views expressed by
Hobbes and Locke. According to him in the state of nature all men were equal and
lived peaceful life. There was joint ownership of all property and people led a very
simple and natural life. As the things were available in plenty and the institution of
private property had not yet come into existence, people led a happy and carefree
life. Though it was a period of peace, the people were not yet organized. The man
was leading solitary, happy, free and independent life. There was no law, no morality.
As these institutions imply the existence of reason, they could not exist due to its
conspicuous absence.
The social instinct of man ultimately compelled him to give up solitary life and
take to group life. Gradually the social institutions also developed. The instinct of self
love began to take shape of pride and the idea of private property emerged.
According to Rousseau. "The first man, having enclosed a piece of ground, he thought
himself of saying 'This is mine' and found other people simple enough to believe him,
was the first real founder of civil society". Thus he emphasises that it is only with the
emergence of the institutions of private property that the pre-civil state had to be
abandoned, because "the scramble for land and other private property resulted in
war, murder, wretchedness and horror. The capacity of individuals to own and
produce being different there came into existence inequality in every sphere of life".
To quote Rousseau again "So long as men remained content with rustic huts...and
confined themselves to such arts as did not require several hands, they lived free,
healthy and happy lives so long as their nature allowed, and as they continued to
enjoy the pleasure of mutual and independent inter-course. But from the moment
one man began to stand in need of the help of another; from the moment it appeared
advantageous to anyone to have provisions for two, equality disappeared, property
was introduced; work., became indispensable, and the vast forest became smiling
fields; which man had to water with the sweat of his brows, and where
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slavery and misery were soon seen to germinate and grow up with the crops." Thus
we find that Rousseau envisages two stages of the state of nature viz. the preproperty state and the post-property state. While the pre-property state of nature
was an ideal stage, the post-property state of nature was wretched.
ROUSSEAU ON SOCIAL CONTRACT

Like Hobbes and Locke, Rousseau also assumes that the people entered into a social
contract to get out of the wretched and unbearable conditions of the post-property
stage of nature. However, his contract is quite different from the one envisaged by
Hobbes and Locke and in a way constitutes an improvement over both. He combined
the methods of Hobbes and the substance of Locke. According to Rousseau the
contract is thus finalised:
"Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme
direction of the general will, and our corporate capacity, we receive each member as
an individual part of the whole. At once in place of the individual personality of each
contracting party, this act of associating creates a moral and collective body
composed of as many members as the Assembly contains votes and receiving from
his act its unity, its common identity, its life and its will. Yet each person in the state,
possessing equal and inalienable position of the sovereignty of the whole, gains back
under state protection the rights he has given up." Thus Rousseau merges the
individual completely in the state and creates a political society which is based on
the consent of all the members. His contract is double-sided. His individual, as a part
of the sovereign, is bound to other individuals and as a part of the state he is bound
to the sovereign.
The basic features of Rousseau's contract can be summed up as under:
1. The individual is made to surrender everything to the society but receives back
what he surrenders as a member of the society. In this sense he is not a loser
but a gainer.
2. The individual surrenders all his rights not to any individual but to a body of
which he himself is a part.
3. The contract gives rise to an organic society. It is a moral "being possessing its
own life, will and entity". Rousseau calls it public person.
4. The contract leads to material and moral transformation of the individual.
ROUSSEAU ON GENERAL WILL

The theory of General Will advocated by Rousseau has been described as the most
revolutionary, distinguishing, impressive and influential doctrine of Rousseau.
According to Prof. Jones "The notion of the General Will is not only the most central
concept of Rousseau's theory, it is also the most original, the most interesting and
historically the most important contribution which he has made to Political Theory."
As already noted, the chief problem which confronted Rousseau's man in the state of
nature was "to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole
common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while
uniting with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before." For the
creation of this association each person put his person and all his power in common
under the supreme direction of the General Will, and received in corporate capacity
as an indivisible part of the whole. As a result of this act to form association a moral,
collective entity having its own identity, life and will, is created. Rousseau describes
this as General Will. In the words of Rousseau "the public person, so formed by the
union of all other persons is called by its members state when passive, sovereign
when active." According to Prof. Sabine, Rousseau's theory of General Will implies
that "a community has a corporate personality or mot commn the organic analogy for
a social group, the doctrine that the general will of the corporate self sets the moral
standards valid for its members and the implied reduction of government to a mere
agent of the general will."
To understand Rousseau's concept of General Will, it is desirable to understand the
difference between the terms actual will and real will. According to Rousseau
the actual will was the will which was selfish, irrational and thought of the good
of the individual alone without bothering about the welfare of the society. On the
other hand
133
the real will was higher, nobler and supreme, which impelled the person to think of
the well-being of all rather than his self interest. It was more social than anti-social,
collective than individualistic. In other words it thought of the well-being of the
individual as well as the society. As this was based on reason it was not momentary
but the permanent. The General Will of Rousseau is nothing but the sum, total of all
the 'real wills' of the individual which were based on reason and farsightedness of the
individuals.
Rousseau distinguished his General Will from the Will of all. He says that whereas
the will of the all was merely a majority will, which considered about the welfare of a
few only, the General Will thought in terms of the good of the community as a whole.
The differences between these two wills can be best explained in the following words
of Rousseau: "There is often a considerable difference between General Will and the
will of all, the former aims at the common interest, the latter aims at private interest
and is these wills only a Sum of particular wills. But if we take away from the various
particular interests which conflict with each other, what remains as the sum of
difference is General Will."
ATTRIBUTES OF GENERAL WILL

The General Will of Rousseau has following attributes.
Firstly, it is indivisible. Just like the personality of an individual cannot be divided
the General Will cannot be divided. Once it is divided it shall cease to be 'General
Will' and become merely sectional will.
Secondly, like the human will, the General Will cannot be represented by any
body else.
Thirdly, the General Will is supreme and no body can disobey it. According to
Rousseau "whosoever refused to obey the General Will shall be compelled to do so by
the whole body...he will be forced to be free."
Fourthly, the General Will is a single unit * d cannot be alienated. To alienate it
tantamounted to its death.
Fifthly, the General Will was unrepresentable. Therefore, Rousseau believed in
direct democracy through General Will.
Sixthly, the General Will is always correct. It always wills the good of the
community even though we may not be able to see what this is. It is based on
reason, wisdom and experience and could not be swayed by currents of time.
CRITICISM OF ROUSSEAU'S THEORY OF GENERAL WILL

Rousseau's theory of General Will has been criticised on the following grounds:
Firstly, the concept of General Will is quite vague and confusing. Even Rousseau
uses the term 'general will' in different senses at different places in his writings.
Sometimes he identifies it with the will which wills the good of all, at other times he
equates it with the will of the majority. Again, he also equates it with the will of wise
legislature.
Secondly, Rousseau talks of General Will as distinct from the Will of All, but in
practice it is almost impossible to draw a line of distinction between the two.
Thirdly, Rousseau tries to divide the individual will into two partsthe essential
and non-essential. The essential part is rational while the non-essential part is selfish.
But as the individual's will is a corporate will it is impossible to divide it into two
parts.
Fourthly Rousseau asserts that the General Will coincides with justice. In this way
he makes the things still more complicated. It is indeed impossible to reconcile two
abstract concepts like justice and general will.
Fifthly, Rousseau by assigning absolute powers to the General Will paves the way
for the rise of dictatorship. It leaves sufficient scope for the person or group in power
to promote his own interests or interests of a particular group under the cloak of
popular good.
Sixthly, Rousseau's theory of General Will implies that the state is a super-entity
distinct from its organic elements, the individuals. In fact the interests of the
individual and the state are identical and it is not possible to separate the two.
Seventhly, Rousseau says that liberty for the individual is possible only if he
obeys the General Will. He further asserts that if a person goes against the General
Will he shall be forced to obey
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the General Will for his own good. This force may be in the shape of imprisonment or
death. It is really difficult to understand how liberty and force can go together or the
individual can be deprived of his life and liberty in his own interest.
Eighthly, Rousseau held that the General Will is not representable. This implies
the existence of direct democracy. In modern states the theory cannot apply because
of the prevalence of system of indirect democracy or representative democracy.
Therefore the theory is possible only in small communities where personal contact
among the members is possible.
Ninthly, the theory expects too much from human nature. It is well known that
men are essentially selfish. It would be too much to expect from them that they shall
forgo their selfish ends for the collective good.
Tenthly, Rousseau merely gives the theory of General Will without suggesting how
the General Will is to be but into actual practice.
Finally, his theory of General Will has been considered as contrary to his theory of
social contract. For example Prof. Wayper says "if the General Will is Supreme, the
Social Contract is unnecessary and meaningless, and if the Social Contract is
necessary and significant, the General Will cannot be supreme". Prof. Sabine also
says "Rousseau's whole argument
depends upon the fact that a community of citizens is unique and coeval with
its members; they neither make it nor have rights against it. It is an association
not an aggregation; a moral and collective personality".
It is true that Rousseau's theory of General Will suffers from numerous
paradoxes and shortcomings, but still it has been regarded as Rousseau's most
profound contribution to political theory. According to Prof. Maxey, the concept of
General Will is the crux of Rousseau's system and probably his most distinctive
contribution to political thought." The value of the theory lies in the fact that it
asserted the importance of human beings and the need of their cooperation for
the smooth working of the state." It also emphasised the principle "will, not force,
is the basis of State." The propagation of these principles proved helpful for the
growth of democracy. It also emphasised the principle that the social good
must get precedence over
individual interests and thus contributed to the growth of idealist theory of state.
The idea of Nation State was also largley the contribution of Rousseau.
Highlighting the contributions of Rousseau, Prof. Dunning says "Through these
concepts, a way was opened by which the unity and solidarity of a population
became necessary pre-supposition of a scientific politics. Rousseau thus,
contributed largely to promote the theory of nation state."
ROUSSEAU ON SOVEREIGNTY
As already noted, while formalising the contract Rousseau vests the sovereignty
not in any single person or group of individuals but in the community as a whole
through the medium of the General Will. Thus he gives the impression that he
believes in the sovereignty of the people. But a deeper study of his writings
shows that he merely gave the semblance of popular government, but in reality
he gives absolute powers to the ruler. He says "Whoever refuses to obey the
General Will, shall be compelled to do so by the whole body". Thus he vests the
General Will with absolute powers. However, with a view to impart popular
character to the sovereign he asserts that the General Will is always right and
tends always to the public advantage." As the general will operates for the
general welfare, the people are morally committed to carry out its verdict. On
legal grounds also the people are expected to render full obedience to the
General Will because at the time of the contract they surrendered all their rights
to the General Will without any condition. He argues that "as nature gives to
every man an absolute power over all its members, the social pact gives to the
body politic absolute power over all its members". In short, in his scheme there
are no limitations on the authority of the sovereign General Will.
Thus the Sovereign of Rousseau is as absolute as the sovereign of Hobbes
with the only difference that while Hobbes confers all the powers in a single
person, Rousseau vests the sovereign power in the community or the General
Will. However, the sovereigns in both the cases are vested with absolute powers
and their authority cannot be defied under any circumstances. It is in this sense
that it has been said that "Rousseau's
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Sovereign is Hobbes' Leviathan with its head chopped off".
INDIVIDUALISM AND ABSOLUTISM IN ROUSSEAU

Scholars are sharply divided on the issue whether Rousseau was an absolutist or
individualist. On the one hand Prof. Vaughan says that Rousseau's ideas lead straight-
away to collectivism and he was "the determined foe of individualism-sworn foe not
only of individualism, but of individuality." He admits that in his Discourses Rousseau
projects himseii ai an individualist, but in his later work Social Contract he becomes
an outright collectivism He prefers to assess him on the basis of his later word. Prof.
Wayper also holds that in Social Contract Rousseau propounds the organic theory of
state and insists that just as all the organs of the body work under the control of
mind, similarly all the constituents of society should function under the indisputable
command of the General Will. He asserts, that if we go through his Social Contract
minutely we cannot arrive at any other conclusion except that Rousseau was a
collectivism He believes in the supremacy of the state over the individual and does
not leave any scope for the individual to defy the authority of the state. It is
noteworthy that even Hobbes, who is considered an out-and-out absolutist,
authorised the individual to disobey the state if his life was endangered by rendering
obedience to the commands of the Leviathan. Rousseau, under no circumstances
permits the individual to act contrary to the dictates of the General Will because he is
convinced that the individual's actions are dictated by actual will which represents
the selfish interests as against the interests of the whole society as represented by
the General Will.
On the other hand, Prof. Alfred Cobban considers Rousseau as an individualist outand-out. In support of his contention he argues that Rousseau aimed at promoting
the moral life -nd liberty of the individual. The community is meic-ly a means for the
moral development of the individual. The state is created by the individuals and
exists for them. This is proved by the fact that Rousseau starts with the individual
and not the
state. No doubt the ultimate solution offered by Rousseau, implies the merger of
individual's personality into the state's personality, but it is created for the moral
development of the individuals. It exists merely to promote the moral and material
well-being of the individuals which compose it.
However, both these views seem to be extreme and it is not possible to fully
subscribe to anyone of them. Rousseau was neither an individualist nor a collectivist,
rather both. He made a sincere effort to reconcile the interests of the individual and
the state so that both could acquire fuller meaning.
ESTIMATE OF ROUSSEAU
Rousseau is one of the most controversial political thinker of modern times and
diametrically opposite views have been expressed about his contributions. On the
one hand, certain scholars regard him as a great philosopher whose insight into the
nature of the state was deeper than that of any other thinkers with the exception of
Plato and Aristotle. On the other hand he is described as a 'charlatan savage' whose
views lacked clarity and logic. It is therefore desirable, to have an idea about the
views expressed about Rousseau.
Prof. Hearnshaw says "From numerous and varied sources we get an

impression of a man of high originality and undoubted genius; an intense
individualist impatient at any sort of restraint-sensitive to noble impulses, full of
fury against tyranny and injustice, capable of copious weeping on any convenient
occasion. He loved the human race, although he quarrelled with every specimen
of it with which he was brought into but the most transient contact." Similarly
Prof. Cole says "As new generations and new classes of men come to study his
works, his conceptions, often hazy and undeveloped but nearly always of lasting
value. Will assuredly forms the basis of a new political philosophy, in which they
will be taken up and formed".
On the other hand Lord Morley remarked "Would it not have been better for
the world if Rousseau had not been born?" Burke characterised Rousseau's
speculations as valueless. Sabine's estimation of Rousseau is quite suggestive.
He
136
says "Rousseau's political philosophy was so vague that it can hardly be said to point
in any specific direction".
In view of the contradictory estimations of Rousseau offered by various scholars it
shall be appropriate to study his inconsistencies and contributions to political thought
in details.
INCONSISTENCIES AND SHORTCOMINGS OF ROUSSEAU

Rousseau's political philosophy suffers from serious contradictions. In his Discourses
on the Origin of Inequality as well as Emile he condemns private property but
subsequently he makes it one of the duty of the state to defend private property.
Similarly, he makes a strong plea of democracy and maximum rights for the people,
but actually creates an absolute sovereign with dictatorial powers. Numerous other
instances can be quoted to substantiate the charge but it is not possible to do so due
to limitation of space. As regards the reasons which contributed to these
contradictions mention may be made of his split personality his immoral character,
transformation of his thought in the later years of life, belief in two contradictory
theories of Mechanistic and Organistic theories of state, the habit of using epigrams,
failure to define his terms clearly and precisely, and absence of proper mooring or
education.
First, his concept of General Will suffers from numerous defects which have
already been listed above and need not be repeated here.
Secondly, his political thought lacks proper logical development and has been
woven round certain axioms. As a result there are numerous contradictions. Quite
often his earlier affirmations and subsequent statements do not go together.
Thirdly, he conceives state in purely idealistic terms which do not go well with the
instinct and desires of human beings. It is too much to expect that there would be no
clash of individual interests and the various wills shall be able to operate in perfect
harmony. Rousseau is rather Utopian to assume that men will desire common good
instead of self-good.
Fourthly, Rousseau holds that as a result of contract a state with a personality of
its own emerged which possesses a separate will. In fact it
is difficult to imagine a separate entity independent of the individuals constituting
the state. The state is something impersonal and cannot possess an independent
personality of its own.
Fifthly, Rousseau holds faith in two contradictory theories of state viz. organic and
mechanic. These two theories are incompatiable with each other. If the state is man
made, it could never be an organism. On the other hand if it were organism, it could
never be created by human ingenuity.
Sixthly, Rousseau's theory contains elements of both individualism as well as
collectivism and it is very difficult to group Rousseau in either of the two categories.
This aspect has already been discussed in details, and need not be repeated.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO POLITICAL THOUGHT

Despite the numerous flaws and contradictions in Rousseau's political thought
discussed above, it cannot be denied that his writings have exercised profound
influence on the subsequent political thinkers. As Prof. Lanson has observed "He left
the stamp of his strong and original genius on politics, education, religion, literature
and it is hardly an exaggeration to say that he is to be found at the entrance to all
the paths leading to the present." Laski also says there are not half a dozen men in
the modern world who have so intimately affected the ways of its mind. His works,
particularly Social Contract exercised profound influence on the French people and
prepared them for the Great French Revolution. His contributions to the development
of political thought can be summarised as follows:
Firstly, Rousseau emphasised the importance of the state in the life of the
individual and asserted that the fullest development of individual's personality was
possible only within the state. However, he refused to treat state as an end in itself. It
was retained as an instrument of general welfare of the individual.
Secondly, his theory of popular sovereignty is another outstanding contribution.
No doubt other thinkers before Rousseau gave theory of sovereignty but none of
them emphasised the
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doctrine of popular sovereignty. His influence is clear from the fact that in the later
years it became a fashion to talk of popular sovereignty. Prof. Maxey says "It is
beyond dispute that in the sphere of political That was his formulation of a plausible
and largely realisable theory of popular sovereignty".
Thirdly, Rousseau developed the concept of Nation-State by laying emphasis on
the principles of common good, common interest, general will, as well as unity and
solidarity of the people.
Fourthly, Rousseau left deep impact on the idealist school of thought. His concept
of General Will greately influenced idealist thinkers like Kant and Hegel. The latter's
Spirit of Nation was nothing but a reformed form of Rousseau's concept of General
Will.
Fifthly, Rousseau gave the concept of common good which was, subsequently
developed by the
utilatarian thinkers like Bentham and Mill into the concept of "greatest good of
the greatest number". We may conclude this discussion with the following
estimation of Rousseau's contribution to political theory by Prof. Hearnshaw. "He
(Rousseau) displays the people as the ultimate source of political authority, he
proclaims the common good to be the proper end of government, he stresses the
view that the State is a social organism; he develops the idea that as an
organism, it has a common conscience and a general will; he maintains the
doctrine that the true basis of political obligation is consent; he proclaims the
possibility of the ultimate reconciliation of freedom and authority...He takes a
high place among political idealists".
15-
John Stuart Mill

(1806-1878)
Early Life and Influences

John Stuart Mill, who is considered as the last of the utilitarians and the
foremost of the individualists, was the eldest son of James Mill. He was
subjected to a very hard training by his father and spent most of his time as
a child with his books. He learnt Greek, Latin and French languages and was
greatly influenced by the dialogues and dialectic methods of Plato. He also
studied the history of Roman Government and felt its influence. But probably
the maximum influence on the young child was exercised by the utilitarian
philosophy of Bentham. At the age of 16 Mill founded Utilitarian Society. He
also became member of Speculative Debating Society and the Political
Economy Club. His association with these societies greatly influenced his
thinking. The other thinkers and writers who exercised profound influence on
Mill were Coleridge and Wordsworth. Above all his own wife Mrs. Taylor, with
whom he discussed most of his ideas, greatly stimulated him. Mill himself
acknowledge that she was the originator of most of his ideas.
Mill wrote a large number of books, pamphlets and articles. Some of his
important works include System of Logic (1843); Principles of Political
Economy (1848); Enfranchisement of Women (1848); On Liberty (1859);
Dissertations and Discussions (1859); Thoughts on Parliamentary Reforms
(1859); Considerations on Representative Government (1860); Utilitarianistn
(1863); Women Sufrage (1873); Subjection of Women (1869); Three Essays
on Religion (1874), etc.
MILL AND UTILITARIANISM

During his youth Mill was a great supporter of Bentham's doctrines and
radical politics. His

unreserved faith in the doctrines of Bentham is evident from the observation
"The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, utility or the greatest
happiness principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to
promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.
By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain, by unhappiness,
pain and the prevention of pleasure. To give a clear view of the moral
standard set up by the theory, much more requires to be said; in particular,
what things it includes in the idea of pain and pleasure and to what extent
this is left an open question. But these supplementary explanations do not
affect the theory of life on which theory of morality is grounded namely that
pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends; and
that all desirable things (which are as numerous in the utilitarian as in any
other scheme) are desirable either for the pleasure inherent in themselves or
as means to the promotion of pleasure and the prevention of pain". However,
in his later years he made modifications in the principles of utilitarianism. In
the process he not only repudiated the utilitarian philosophy but practically
overthrew the whole of it. Mill restated the doctrine of utilitarianism in his
famous, essay Utilitarianism and introduced many elements which ran
counter to the hedonist doctrine. In this way he greatly softened down the
harshness of Bentham's ethics and harmonised utilitarianism with common
sense. As Ivor Brown has observed "he made utilitarianism at once more
human and less consistent".
The main modifications made by Mill in utilitarianism can be summed up
as follows:
First, he asserted that pleasures differed not only in quantity but also in
quality. He drew a
John Stuart Mill (1806-1878)
139
distinction between higher and lower pleasures. He said "It is better to be a human
being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool
satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, is of a different opinion it is because they only
know their own side of the question. The other party to the comparison knows both
sides". He did not agree with Bentham
that "push pin was as good as poetry" and asserted that pleasures differ in
quality and we should prefer a smaller amount of a superior pleasure to a large
quantity of the lower quality of pleasure.
Secondly, Mill did not agree with Bentham that pleasure was the only cause
and motive for individual's actions. He held that individual pleasure did not give
him maximum pleasure, on the other hand it was the collective pleasure, which
gave maximum happiness and joy to the individual. Thus, he believed that
pleasure comes from outside and not from within. This was in complete contrast
to Bentham's view that pleasure comes from within.
Thirdly, Mill greatly narrowed down the gulf between self-interest and general
happiness. He held that the utilitarian standard is not the agents own greatest
happiness, but the greatest amount of happiness altogether. To quote Mill "As
between his own happiness and that of other sectarianism requires him to be
strictly impartial as a disinterested and benevolent spectator. In the golden rule
of Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility. To do as
you would be done by, and to love your neighbour as yourself, constitute the
perfect ideal of utilitarian morality. As the means of making the nearest approach
to this ideal utilitarian would enjoin, first, that laws and social arrangements
should place the happiness or (as speaking practically it may be called) the
interest of every individual as nearly as possible in harmony with the interest of
the whole, and secondly that education and opinion, which have so vast a power
over human character, should so use that power as to establish in the mind of
every individual an indissoluble association between his own happiness and the
good of the whole." The distinction between the two has been brought out by
Prof. Maxey thus "Bentham's principle of utility in a society of wolves would exalt
wolfishness; in a society of saints it would exalt saintliness. Mill was
determined that saintliness should be the criterion in any society whatsover".
Thirdly, Bentham considered personal happiness as the sole criteria for all
human actions. Mill introduced the concept of good life as more than a life
devoted to pleasure. In other words he placed the moral ends above the
individual happiness and thus tried to promote virtuous life. He also transformed
the state into a moral end.
Fourthly, Mill's conception of liberty also differed from Bentham's concept of
liberty. Whereas Bentham did not attach any importance to the liberty because it
did not in any way contribute to the greatest happiness of the greatest number
of people. He attached more importance to security than liberty. Mill, on the
other hand considered liberty essential for the attainment of the principle of
utility and asserted that minority rights could be protected only when all enjoyed
liberty.
Fifthly, Bentham tried to establish identity between public and personal
interests through the concept of super-added pleasures and pains. Mill
considered these as external sanctions and therefore wanted to find this
relationship on the basis of some internal sanctions and sentiments of
conscience. He therefore asserted that the pleasure and pain concepts when
confined to oneself alone were external, but when these related to 'others' these
were internal and as such have bearing on conscience.
Sixthly, in many other respects also Mill took a different stand. Tims he stood
for public voting as against secret voting advocated by Bentham. He favoured
special treatment of women, while Bentham did not contemplate anything of the
sort. Mill was more concerned with the eradication of defects in the existing legal
system. Mill was more concerned with the social and economic problems facing
the society. Both justified democracy but for different reasons. While Bentham
justified it because of nature of man, Mill justified because of the condition of
man. Bentham was in favour of unicameral legislature while Mill favoured
bicameral system.
MILL ON LIBERTY
Mill was a great champion of the individual liberty and stood for restricting
government interference
140
in the life of the individual to the minimum possible. He held that democracy,
public opinion and collectivism were dangerous to individual liberty and must be
kept within their sphere of activity. He believed that if every individual was
allowed to develop his personality as he liked, it would enrich the world by
providing a variety of characters. This way alone the human beings shall be able
to get the maximum happiness. To quote Mill "Such are the differences among
human beings in their sources of pleasure, their susceptibilities of pain and the
operation of their different physical and moral agencies, that unless there is a
corresponding diversity in their modes of life, they neither obtain their fair share
of happiness nor grow up to the mental, moral and aesthetic stature of which
they are capable". He argued that individual should be left free to provide variety.
Any effort on the part of the government was bound to lead in monotony and
mediocrity, which was no sign of the progress of society.
Mill argued that so long the actions of an individual concerned him alone and
did not in any way prejudice the interest of others, he should be free and there
should not be any limitations o'n him. However, he permitted the state to impose
restrictions on the liberty of the individual if it resulted in an injury to the
interests of other members of the community. Mill gave an exposition of this
principle thus:
"The sole end for which mankind are warranted individually or collectively in
interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number is self-protection. The only
purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized
community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either
physical or moral is not a sufficient warranty. The only part of the conduct of any one
for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which
merely concerns himself, his independence is absolute. Over himself, over his own
body and mind, the individual is sovereign."
It will be observed from the above statement of Mill that he divides the
individual's actions into two parts, viz., self-regarding and others-regarding. He
permits the individual complete freedom with regard to actions falling with-in the
first category. But he permits the state or the society to put necessary restrictions on
those actions of an individual which effect other members of the community. This
division of human actions, though quite fascinating, is defective in so far as it is
indeed difficult to draw a line between the self-regarding and other-regarding actions
of man. Further, there is hardly any action of individual (may be self-regarding) which
does not effect other members of the society.
Further, even Mill permits the state to interfere in the self-regarding actions of
the individual in his own interest. For example, it can prevent a person from
crossing a bridge which is dangerous. In doing so, Mill argues, the state actually
promotes the self-interest of the individual and this action does not constitute
denial of liberty in any way. This contention of Mill has met with severe
condemnation, because once we allow the state to interfere in individual's liberty
there is no end to it. It was this fact which made Prof. Barker remark that Mill's
concept of liberty was empty.
Mill while defining the appropriate sphere of human liberty included in it the
inward domain of conscience, liberty of thought and feeling, absolute freedom of
opinion and sentiment of all subjects, scientific, moral, theological, practical or
speculative. The individual must also have freedom of taste and pursuits as well
as right to unite for any purpose which does not harm others. Mill also made a
forceful plea for freedom of thought and asserted that the state has no
justification to suppress the independent thinking of an individual even if it be
wrong, because the truth emerged out of collision of opinions. He says that in
history, we find, that these very things which were not tolerated by the
authorities in the past are now recognised as good. To quote Mills:
"If all mankind minus one were of one opinion and any one person were of the
contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person
than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind". In support of
his convention that suppression of opinion is an evil, he quotes the examples of the
execution of Socrates and Jesus Christ. He further argues that "the peculiar evil of
silencing the expression of an opinion is that it is robbing the human race, posterity
as well as the existing
John Stuart Mill (18061878) 141
generation: those who dissent from the opinion, still more than those who hold it. If
the opinion is right, they are derived of the opportunity of exchanging error, for truth,
if wrong they lose, what is almost as great a benefit, the clever collusion perception
and livelier impression of truth produced, by its collusion with error."
According to Prof Maxey "Mill's chapter on freedom of thought and discussion is
one of the finest, things of that subject in the annals of political literature, fully
equalling the heights attained by Milton, Spinoza, Voltaire, Rousseau, Paine, Jefferson
and other doughty champions of liberty to think and speak". Likewise Prof. Wayper
says about the Essay on Liberty that "No finer defence of liberty of thought and
discussion has ever been written", Commenting on his Essay on Liberty, Prof. Sabine
says "His Essay on Liberty was an appeal not for relief from political oppression or for
a change to political organisation, but for a public opinion that is genuinely tolerant,
that values differences in point of view, that limits the amount of agreement it
demands and that welcomes new ideas as source of discovery. The threat to liberty
which Mill chiefly feared was not the government but a majority that is intolerant of
the unconventional, that looks with suspicion on divergent minorities and is willing to
use the weight of numbers of repress and regiment them."
But Mill's views on liberty have met with severe criticism at the hands of scholars
like Barker, who describes him as the "prophet of empty liberty". This charge is
levelled against Mill chiefly because he hedged big doctrine of liberty with many
restrictions. Some of the restrictions which Mill envisaged on individual liberty were
as follows:
In the first place, his doctrine applies only to human beings in the maturity of the
faculties and not to children or to young persons, below a certain age. The validity of
this exception cannot be refuted. However, it is difficult, to agree with Mill when he
refuses to give the benefit of liberty to the backward peoples or races. This point was
fully exploited by the Imperialist powers to defend or justify their despotic rule over
the colonies.
Secondly, though Mill considers absolute and unfettered freedom of thought and
expression as necessary for the development of civilization, he
does not favour grant of absolute liberty in the field of action. It cannot be denied
that it would be improper to give the same degree of unlimited freedom to the
individual in the sphere of action as in the domain of thinking.
Thirdly, the free play of individual is likely to give rise to inequality among men.
Barker has rightly said "Mill remained the prophet of an empty liberty and of an
abstract individual, because he could never outgrow the definition of liberty as "being
left to oneself, as absence of restraint and rise above the atomistic conception of
society which he inherited from Bentham and his father".
MILL ON STATE
Mill considered state as a product of the will of people who compose it rather than an
instrument for the promotion of their interests. He thus rejected mechanistic theories
of state because they completely ignored the human will and neglected the
personality of men. According to Mill, political institutions are the result of human
voluntary agency and do not act by themselves. They require the active participation
of men who work it and must adjust according to the capacities and qualities of men
who work it. Thus he affirms faith in historical relativism which is completely absent
in Bentham's theory. Mill also does not emphasise the negative character of the state
like Bentham and asserts that state interference is indispensable for the development
of the individual's personality. He wanted that the state should be so regulated that
the best intellectual and moral qualities of the citizens could be stimulated and
utilized for the service of the society. However to Mill, the pursuit of individual
happiness does not necessarily mean the promotion of the social happiness.
MILL ON REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT

According to Mill the best form of Government was not one which was most efficient
but the one which serves in the highest degree the purpose of a school of citizenship
for the political education and training of the citizens. Thus he asserted that the first
important criteria of a good government is
that it must promote the virtue and intelligence of the people. He says that
Government is not only a set of organised arrangement for public business. It is
also a great influence acting on the human mind. Its value should be judged by
its action. The first thing to be considered in this regard is "how far does the
Government tend to foster the moral and intellectual qualities of the citizens". In
other words according to Mill the main criterion of a good government is the
degree to which it tends to increase the sum of good qualities among the
governed, collectively and individually, rather than efficiency of its administrative
body.
Mill considered the representative government as the best government
because "it was a means of bringing the general standard of intelligence and
honesty existing in the community, and the individual intellect and virtue of its
wisest members, more directly to bear upon the government and investing them
with greater influence on it, than they would in general have under any other
mode of organization." It may, however, be noted that Mill favoured
representative government only for the advanced nations and did not favour it
for the backward and colonial people. Mill was also aware of the shortcomings in
the representative government prevailing in England at that time and therefore
suggested a number of reforms to improve its working and to make it fully
representative and democratic. Some of the shortcomings noted by Mill in the
existing democratic system and suggestions made for the removal of these
defects are as follows:
Firstly, he was quite unhappy with the inadequate representation accorded to
the minorities and the tyrannical attitude of the majority. He therefore advocated
the system of Proportional Representation, to ensure that each section of the
society got representation in proportion its voting strength. He argued that in a
really equal democracy every section of the community must be represented
proportionally. He said that only under this system "a majority of the electors
would always have a majority of the representatives; but a minority of the
electors would always have minority of representatives. Man for man, they would
be as fully represented as the majority. Unless they are, there is not equal
government but a government of inequality and privilege; one part of the people
rules over the rest; there is a part whose fair and equal share of influence in the
representation is withheld from them, contrary to all just government, but above
all, contrary to the principle of democracy, which professes equality as its very
root and foundation."
Secondly, though Mill wanted to give the right to vote to all without
distinction, he was also equally convinced that all were not competent to
exercise this right properly and intelligently. He therefore, pleaded for greater
weightage in voting for persons with better abilities and capabilities. He insisted
on property and educational qualifications for the voters. In the words of
Davidson, he believed that "Intelligence, education and superior virtue count for
more than ignorance, stupidity and indifferent character. Hence, he advocated
plurality of votes to higher educated citizens. Emphasising the importance of the
educational qualifications Mill said "I regard it as wholly inadmissible that any
person should participate in the suffrage without being able to read, write, and I
will add, perform the common operations of arithmetic. Justice demands, even
when the suffrage does not depend on it, that the means of attaining these
elementary acquirements should be within the reach of every person, either
gratutously, or at an expense not exceeding what the poorest who earn their own
living can afford." To ward against the possibility of educated classes behaving in
a tyrannical manner he provided that "It be open to the poorest individual in the
community to claim its privileges if he can prove that in spite of all difficulties
and obstacles, he is, in point of intelligence, entitled to them."
Mill also insisted on property qualifications for the voters. Justifying his stand
he asserted "It is important that the assembly which votes the taxes, either
general or local, should be elected exclusively by those who pay something
towards the taxes imposed. Those who pay no taxes, disposing by their votes of
other people's money, have every motive to be lavish and none to economise as
far as money matters are concerned, and any power of voting possessed by
them is a violation of the fundamental principle and free government, a
severance of the power of control from the interest in its beneficial exercise."
143
Thirdly, Mill advocated open or public voting, in contrast to secret ballot. He

argued that the value and effectiveness of voting depended upon the manner in
which the franchise was exercised and asserted "the duty of voting, like any other
public duty, should be performed under the eye and criticism of the public". On the
other hand, he argued, secret ballot was likely to encourage selfishness.
Fourthly, Mill stood for equal treatment of women and favoured similar position
for them as was enjoyed by men. He argued that sex alone should not be a
disqualification, because the differences based on sex were solely due to external
circumstances which could easily be removed. These differences were the product of
long domination of men over the women and were bound to disappear once the
women were given political and social freedom. Justifying right of franchise for
women, Mill said "I consider it entirely irrelevant to political rights, as difference in
the colour of the hair...if there be any difference, women require it more than men,
since, being physically weaker, they are dependent on law and society for
protection."
Fifthly, Mill was against payment to the members of the Parliament. He asserted
that membership of Parliament was an honour and service for which the members
need no payment. This, according to him, would not only ensure efficiency and purity
in administration but also lead to economy. In view of non-payment to the members,
he insisted that the elections should not be a charge on the candidate. Once elected,
he wanted the representative to be completely free to guide and instruct the state.
He should not act merely as an echo of the people and try to judge the matters
according to his own intelligence. He did not want that the people of high calibre
should be governed by the people of low calibre. On this count he also did not favour
the idea of annual elections to the Parliament. According to Doyle "He advocated an
extension of local government in order to place such responsibility on an increasing
number of people that they might respond to the new stimulus and develop their
latent abilities. Mill had diverged fundamentally from Bentham's premises and his
theory of the state."
MILL AS A DEMOCRAT
In view of Mill's advocacy of restricted adult franchise and weightage in voting for the
educated and propertied classes, it has been alleged by certain critics that he was
not a true democrat.
However, this charge seems to be rather unfair to Mill. In fact, he was an ardent
follower of democracy and believed that democracy alone could give pleasure
and happiness to the people. He not only held firm faith in democracy but also
tried to draw a distinction between true and false democracy. He argued that a
system in which one counts for oneself and not for others is selfish. Such a
system was a false democracy. On the other hand a system in which men of
intelligence ruled for the common good was true democracy. He said "The
democracy of numbers, which is the degeneracy of all governments is false
democracy.... On the other hand, a democracy which gives weight to all the
different elements of society and thereby obviates the undue preponderance of
any is true democracy". No doubt, Mill held that democracy was not suited to all
the societies and could prove dangerous for the immature and backward
societies, but this does not in any way show his lack of faith in democracy. On the
other hand, he highlighted the problems confronted by democracy and sought to
find a solution for the same. As Prof. Maxey had said "Today even the warmest
supporters of democracy admit those weaknesses. A half century of experience
with demagogism, bossism and pressure politics has brought democratic
thoughts face to face with reality."
Mill suggested certain cautions about democracy not because he did not have
faith in the system but with a view to make it more effective. As Sabine has put it
"Mill's fear of oppressive and intolerant public opinion was in part a realisation
that the individualism of early liberty theory was inadequate...Probably in part it
reflected also the stinking of a sensitive, fastidious and highly intellectual
personality from the contact with mediocrity, implied by practical politics."
MILL AS INDIVIDUALIST AND SOCIALIST

Mill has been described as one of the bigoted individualists because he strongly
opposed all
'**"*&..,
144
state-interference on the ground that it led to infringment of individual liberty. At the

same time he acknowledged the importance of the state in so far as it helped in the
development of the individual's personality by removing inequalities and providing
adequate opportunities for development to all. He defended the institution of private
property and considered it necessary for the good and progress of the mankind. He
admitted the right of the individual to use his own faculties and to bequeath what
was his own to another. However, he considered property as a social institution
necessary for the good and progress of mankind. He therefore advocated the
abolition of the law of promogeniture and modification of the system of entails and
restricting the right of bequests. He had held that landed proprietors were
functionaries and the state was at liberty to deal with the land in the general interest
of the community.
Mill did not consider the right to private property in land as sacred on the ground
that "no man made the land; It is the original inheritance of the whole species". He
was for taxation of rent which was the effect of a natural monopoly. At times Mill fully
sympathised with the labouring classes and thus gave the impression of being a
socialist. He favoured the partnership of the labourers either among themselves or
with the capitalists. In his later years he particularly looked forward to the socialistic
ideal when there might be a common ownership in the raw materials of the globe and
an equal participation of all in the benefits of combined labour. In fact he combined

political liberalism with economic socialism. However, Mill was averse to extreme
socialism. As Davidson has put it "In general he did not accept the socialism that
swamped the individual; nor did he share the socialist's dislike of competition; he
regarded competition as essential to successful trade and as a security against the
evils of monopoly. But he approved of trade unionism, and the socialist idea of
voluntary co-operation he accepted unreservedly." He saw in the socialist system the
best possibility to effect improvement in the existing economic system. However, he
was not willing to sacrifice his individual for the social good. In fact he wanted to
promote social well being and at the same time preserve the individuality of the
members of the society. Prof.
Ivor Brown has beautifully brought out this point. He says "Mill's political ideas are
perfectly compatible with socialism so long as that socialism is based on a philosophy
of individual welfare".
ESTIMATE OF MILL
Though Mill's political thought suffers from numerous inconsistencies and logical
contradictions, Mill has been assigned a very high position among the political
philosophers by scholars like Maxey, Bowel and Wayper. According to Maxey "Mill
made penetrating comments on such matters as election methods, second chamber,
executive organisation, local government, federal government and the government of
dependencies. On each of these subjects he was deeply provocative and made a
contribution which modern students of government cannot afford to ignore." John
Bowel says "if the calibre of writer is to be judged by his effect on policy, Mill must
rank high. As logician, economist and political philosopher he was regarded as a
prophet in his own age." Similarly Prof. Wayper says "with the passage of time, On
Liberty grows in stature and meaning because its predictions have come to life more
realistically and more tragically than seemed possible in the middle of the 19th
century when belief in the progress of liberty was well nigh universal." He further
asserts that "with all the criticism that can be brought against him (Mill) he remains
far and away the most satisfactory of the utilitarians. He touches depths that
Bentham and his father never knew existed. He has his own unreality, but he is much
closer to life than they are. Indeed, not to the least of his importance is that, though
unintentionally, he so completely demonstrates the inadequacy of utilitarianism, its
ethical aridity, its blindness to the emotions." It indeed goes to the credit of Mill that
he made necessary improvements in Benthanism to make it more humane and
consistent with the times. Because of these contributions to Utilitarianism, he is
described as the last of the great utilitarians.
To recount his important contribution to political thought it may be pointed out
that he was more analytical rather than synthetic; he was one of the foremost
individualists or liberal thinker who emphasised the principles of human progress

145
as the goal of civilization; he realised the danger to society from the tyranny of
majority over the minority and suggested necessary remedial measures; he offered
one of the best vindication of the liberty of thought and expression; he highlighted
the evils of bureaucracy and opposed government interference in the economic life of
the community beyond a set limit; he strongly advocated women rights; and so on
and so forth. The profound influence exercised by Mill on the contemporary
intellectuals as well as those who
followed him has been best brought out by Lord Morley thus: "For twenty years no
one at all open to serious intellectual impressions, has left Oxford without having
undergone the influence of Mill's teachings." Davids to the extent of remarking that
"His wisdom has had its effect and even now appeal is constantly being made to
Mill's teachings when ever progressive measures, affecting the character as well as
the material interests of the nation, fail to be considered."
^16.
Karl Marx
(1818-1883)

Karl Marx is probably one of the most controversial political thinkers. He is revered by
half of the world as a god while the other half condemn him as a devil. It shall indeed
be fascinating to study the political thought of such a controversial writer.
Karl Marx was born in 1818 in the Rhineland (Germany) in the family of a German
Jew Herschel Marx. After completing his early education he joined Bonn University as
a law student. He specialised in Jurisprudence and Philosophy and obtained his
doctorate from Jena University in 1841. Though Marx wanted to be a Professor at the
University, but he could not succeed in his mission and fell to the profession of his
second preference, viz., journalism. In October 1842, he took up job as an editor with
a liberal newspaper known as Rheinsche Zeitung. Marx contributed slashing articles
to this newspaper and earned great reputation. However in 1843 the government
banned his newspaper and Marx was thrown on the road. Thereafter Marx decided to
proceed to France. In France he came in contact with eminent scholars like Etienne
Cabbet, Pierre Leroux, Louis, Baluc Proudhon, Bakunin and Potkin. He also felt the
impact of the French Revolution. But probably the greatest outcome of his French visit
was that he came in contact with Friedrich Engles, with whom he developed life long
friendship and closely collaborated in the production of various works. In another way
also this friendship proved very beneficial. Marx who was economically worried, found
a solution of his problem in Engles who became his regular financer.

In 1845 both Marx and Engles went to England, where they were introduced to the
Workers' Education Union of German residents. Marx studied the working of the
association and was greatly impressed by it. On his return to Brussels he set up a
similar association and named it German Working Men Association. This association
provided a forum to Marx to preach his political philosophy. In 1847 a Congress of all
such associations was held at London which culminated in the formation of the
International Communist League. At the second meet of the International Communist
League, Marx and Engles were assigned the formidable task of preparing its
manifesto. In 1848 the two drafted the famous Communist Manifesto, which contains
clearest and most compact statement of Marx's philosophy. Prof. Sabine describes it
as "one of the most revolutionary tracts of all times".
The Manifesto appeared at a time when chaotic conditions prevailed in France,
Belgium as well as Germany. The authorities were greatly alarmed by the Manifesto.
Belgium Government was so much alarmed that it arrested Marx and deported him
from its territory. Then Marx moved to Germany and brought out "Demands of the
Communist Party in Germany", which provided the base for revolution in the country.
In view of his revolutionary and radical views Marx was expelled from Germany in
1849. Thereafter Marx moved to England and stayed there till his death. During his
stay in England his economic condition was quite miserable and he and his family
members had virtually to live on the mercy and bounty of his friend Engles. In
England Marx studied English economic system and analysed the same in his book
Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Thereafter Marx along with Engles
became a regular contributor to the New York Tribune. Through his writings he
reaffirmed
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
147
his blind faith in the ideas which he had set forth in his earlier writings.
WRITINGS OF MARX
Marx wrote extensively, but his most important writings include The Poverty of
Philosophy (1847); The Communist Manifesto (in collaboration with Engles) (1848);
The Critique of Political Economy (1859); Inaugural Address of the International
Workingmen's Association (1864);
Value, Price, and Profit (1865); Das Capital (1867); and the Civil War in France
(1870-71).
SOURCES OF MARXIAN PHILOSOPHY

According to Prof. Frey "The component parts of Marxian thought can be traced to a
multitude of sources. He collected his bricks from many masons, yards, but he used
them to construct a building which was very much according to his own design". In
the main, Marx drew inspirations from three ideological currents of the nineteenth
century, viz., the German Classical Philosophy; the classical school of British economy
and the French Revolutionary Tradition. The German Classical Philosophy formed the
basis of Marx's doctrine of historical materialism; the classical English school
provided basis for his labour theory as well as the doctrine of surplus value. The
French revolutionary tradition influenced his theory of state and revolution. It shall be
desirable to examine these influences in some detail.
Marx came under the influence of Hegel as a student and learnt from him that
nature was dynamic and moved in a zigzag way. He was greatly influenced by Hegel's
dialectic which explained the progress through the process of 'thesis, anti-thesis and
synthesis'. However, Marx did not like Hegel's idealism and therefore replaced it by
materialism. Marx made this change under the influence of Feuerbach, a pioneer of
the nineteenth century materialist revival. Marx himself asserted "My dialectic
method is not only different from the Hegelian, but is its direct opposite".
Though Marx was not a great economist, he was greatly influenced by the
classical school of British Political Economy. He borrowed the idea of
theory of value and surplus value from the classical economists and assigned it a new
meaning by changing the motive force. While the English classical economists used
these theories, to promote and protect the interests of the capitalists, Marx tried to
use them for promoting the interests of the wage-earners. For this purpose Marx drew
extensively from the writings of Adam Smith, Ricardo and William Thompson.
According to Prof. Grey "the Marxian theory of value is nothing but Ricardo
transcribed".
Finally, Marx was greatly influenced by the French socialist philosophy. Cabet in
France had preached complete state control over every individual and institution and
Marx was greatly impressed by him. Again Marx got the idea of 'class war' from the
French socialists who talked much about the clashing interests of the rich and the
poor. He developed this into his doctrine of class war. In short, he built up his theory
of state and revolution chiefly on the basis of the ideas he borrowed from the French
thinkers.
THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO

As already noted the Communist Manifesto was jointly drafted by Marx and Engles at
the behest of the Communist International League in 1848. This Manifesto contains
the clearest and most compact statement of Marx's conceptions of past struggle
between economic classes, the modern bourgeoisie Proletariat conflict, the inevitable
movement of present day capitalism towards division, destruction and the
programme of action working classes must adopt in order to fit their efforts with the
actual march of the events. According to Prof. Laski the Manifesto "gave direction and
philosophy to what had been before little more than an inchoate protest against
injustice. It began the long process of welding together the scattered groups of the
disinterested into an organized and influential party. It freed socialism from its earlier
situation of a doctrine cherished by conspirators in defiance of government and gave
to it at once a purpose and an historic background."
The Communist Manifesto is broadly divided into four parts. The first part deals
with the history of social evolution. It starts with the assertion that "the history of all
hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle" and proceeds to say that
150
tensions and strains. To quote Marx "All the social and intellectual relations, all
religious and legal system, all the theoretical outlooks which emerge in the course of
history, are derived from the material conditions of life". He further says "Upon the
several forms of property, upon the social conditions of existence, a whole
superstructure is reared of various and peculiarly shaped feelings, illusions, habits of
thought and conceptions of life. The whole class produces and shapes these out of its
material foundations and out of the corresponding social conditions."
According to Marx the progress of society from one stage to another is not the
result of a chance, but the result of the law of history. In each stage each dominant
class develops its opposite and as a result of clash between these two opposites
(barons and serfs, freeman and slave, burgess and journeymen) the new ruling class
emerges. At the final stage, the capitalist and the proletariat stand face to face
against each other. As a result of clash between the two, classless society shall
emerge. However, before the emergence of the classless society there shall be a
transitional stage known as dictatorship of the proletariat which shall socialise the
natural resources and destroy the last remains of capitalism.
Marx offers the theory of materialistic interpretation of history thus: In the social
production of their material life, men enter into definite relations that are
indispensable and independent of their wills; these relations of production correspond
to a definite stage of the development of their material force of production. The sum
total of these relations of production makes up the economic structure of society-the
real foundation on which arises a legal and political superstructure and to which
correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of
material life determines the social, political and intellectual life process in general. It
is not the consciousness of men that determines their (social) existence, but rather it
is their social existence; that determines their consciousness. At a certain stage of
their development, the material forces of production of society come into conflict with
the existing relations of production orwhat is but a legal expression of the same
thing-with the property relations within which they have been at
work before. From forms of development of the productive force these relations turn
into their fetters. Then begins an epoch of social revolution. With the change of the
economic foundation the entire immense superstructure is more less transformed."
Thus Marx finds a close relationship between the, social relations and the productive
forces.
Marx's materialistic interpretation of history is defective in so far as it ignores the
part played by the non-economic factors in the shaping of history. It also does not
attach any importance to human passions, sentiments, emotions, religion, etc. No
doubt the economic
factors influence human affairs, but it is certainly wrong to say that they
exclusively influence all human actions. Laski says Marx's insistence upon an
economic background as the whole explanation was radically false. He says "The
love of power, herd instinct, rivalry, the desire of display, all these are hardly less
vital than the acquisitiveness which explains the strength of material
environment". Despite the above defect in Marxian concept of materialistic
interpretation of history, it cannot be denied that it greatly broadened the study
of history to include within its purview things other than the stories of kings and
battles. Thus Marx deserves the credit for broadening the basis of the study of
history.
THEORY OF CLASS-WAR
Marx's theory of class-war is a logical corollary of his theory of economic
interpretation of history. According to Marx the history of all hitherto existing
society is the history of class struggles: free man and slave, patrican and plebian,
lord and serf, guildmaster and journeyman, in short, oppressor and oppressed. A
feeling of bitterness existed between these rival classes which could not be
reconciled. He further asserts that this class antagonism exists even in the
modern bourgeois society, although the conditions of oppression and the nature
of struggle have undergone a change. The society has split more clearly into two
hostile camps. He believes that the bitterness and the hostility between the
bourgeois and proletariat shall ultimately end with the victory of the workers.
Marx's theory of class-struggle has met with severe criticism on numerous
grounds. Prof.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
151
Lancaster says "As propaganda this is excellent, if for no other reason than that it
puts the workers on the side that it informs him is sure to win. As 'science' it is
considerably less satisfactory, since there are grave difficulties about the term 'class'
and therefore about the reality of the class struggle." The main criticism against the
theory is as follows. First, Marx does not offer any clear conception of class. It was
this vagueness of the social class which was responsible for some of his worst errors
in predictions. Secondly, Marx's theory wrongly assumes that the real cause of
conflict between people in the society is the realization by the proletariat that their
misfortunes are due to capitalist system and would come to an end only with the
abolition of capitalist society. In fact the real cause of conflict in the society is the
inevitable opposition between the claims of the individual and the society, which can
certainly not be interpreted in terms of class struggle. Thirdly, Marx wrongly assumes
that society is divided into two sharp classes. In fact, the society is a pyramidical
structure with a number of layers of classes, with each enjoying a superior position of
some and inferior position to other. Fourthly, the idea of class struggle is harmful, in
so far it encourages hatred and violence. Fifthly, the theory is historically false. If we
view the actual course of human history we find that there was never a period of
history in any country when the people were divided into clear-cut classes of rich and
the poor. On the other hand in all periods of history, human beings have freely
intermingled and intermarried. The history of the classes has been more synthetic
than analytical.
INEVITABILITY OF DESTRUCTION OF CAPITALISM

According to Marx capitalism was ultimately bound to disappear because it contained
in itself the seeds of self-destruction. He argues that under capitalist system of
production there is a tendency towards large-scale production and monopoly which

results in concentration of wealth in the hands of fewer and fewer persons. As a
result, the number of capitalists keeps on declining and the number of proletariat
keeps on increasing. In another way also capitalism sows the seeds of self
destruction. By resorting to concentration of industries at one place it encourages the
labourers to come closer and organise themselves. The concentration of labour at
one place not only helps the development of class consciousness among them but
also enables them to negotiate with the capitalists for better conditions in an
organised manner. The capitalism develops means of transport and communication
for the supply of finished products to various national as well as international markets
as well as for the collection of essential raw materials. These means enable the
worker to develop a sense of solidarity and come closer. Finally, capitalism leads to
misery and dependency of the workers. It not only reduces their purchasing power
but also resorts to increasing exploitation of the workers. AH this ultimately compels
the workers to revolt and overthrow the capitalist system.
Marx's views regarding the inevitable destruction of capitalism are also riot quite
correct. The actual experience shows that with the development of capitalism the
number of the rich has not declined nor has the number of the poor grown more
numerous. There has been an over all improvement in the standard of the people and
their hostility towards capitalism has not in any way increased. In view of the various
welfare measures taken by the capitalists for the benefit of the workers, the hostility
and antagonism of the workers towards the capitalists, as anticipated by Marx, is not
a universal phenomenon*: As Lichtheim has observed "The emergence of new forms
of dependence and control both under corporate management and state-controlled
planning has 'sublated' the historic antagonism of capital and labour and established
a new perspective from which to view the conflict of classes.
MARX'S THEORY OF VALUE

According to Marx the labour is the chief determinant of value. To quote him "The
value of each commodity is determined by the quantity of labour expended on and
material used in it, by the working time necessary, under given social conditions for
its production". In simple words he asserted that the value is a quality which is
152
inherent in a thing or commodity which is entirely due to labour. The other factors are
rather unimportant and unessential.
Marx's theory has been criticised on a number of grounds. In the first place, it
wrongly asserts that labour alone determines the cost of production. In addition
to labour, other factors like land, capital, organisation, etc., also contribute
towards the cost of production. This theory is also defective in so far it does not
take into consideration the factor of demand. According to Prof. Simckhovitch
"There are few theories that have been carefully examined, so thoroughly sifted
and so completely condemned upon their own documentary evidence as Marx's
theory of value."
MARX'S THEORY OF SURPLUS VALUE

Marx's theory of surplus value was an extension of his labour theory discussed
above. According to Marx as the value of a commodity was produced by the
labour, the whole of the price should be paid to him. But in actual practice the
capitalist gives to the labourer much less than what he produces by labour and
pockets the rest of it. This difference between the exchange value of
manufactured commodity and the amount paid to the workman for his labour is
called surplus value. In a way it is the product of the unpaid labour. According to
Marx the appropriation of surplus value by the capitalist constitutes the
fundamental injustice of the modern industrial system. But as the workman does
not possess any means of production he has no alternative but to sell the
commodity he possesses, viz., the labour to the capitalist.
Marx's theory of surplus value has been severely condemned. In fact all the
points of criticism levelled against his theory of value are applicable to this
theory as well. In the first place it has been asserted that labour alone does not
create the value and hence the labourer is not entitled to the whole of the price
fetched by a commodity produced by him. Labour may be an important factor of
production but there are other equally important factors, viz., land, capital and
organization. In fact in modern times the skill, industry, enterprise, knowledge
and organizational capacity of the entrepreneurs are more important factors for the creation
of wealth than the employment of labour. According to Prof. Wayper "If his theory
of surplus value is an attempt to explain prices it soon runs into difficulties. For, if
as Marx says, surplus value is produced by the consumption of labour power, in
industry in which capital is invested in labour would be more profitable than one
in which capital is invested in machinery-which is absurd". Max Beer says that
Marx's theory of surplus value has significance only as a political and social
slogan rather than as an economic truth. Popper also says that Marx treated his
doctrine of value and surplus value in a highly abstract way. Therefore Marxian
theory stands rejected. But it cannot be denied that his theory has a value in so
far as he tries to explain the exploitative character of capitalism and asserts that
labour does not get his fair share under capitalism.
MARX'S THEORY OF STATE AND REVOLUTION

Marx considered state as a class institution which reflected the interests and ideas of
the dominant class. It is an organized political power of one class for oppressing
another. According to him, the modern bourgeoisie state was "nothing more than the
form of organisation which the bourgeois necessarily adopt both for internal
purposes, for the mutual guarantee of their property and interest". In the words of
Prof. Hunt "In Marxist theory the state per-eminently embodies that superstructure
which is created by the productive force of society, and reflects the productive
relations as defined by the class struggle; and it thus stands guardian over the
economic order, which, it protects with its army, legal system, police and other
organs of physical or moral compulsion. The democratic state is therefore a
contradiction in terms, as democracy cannot exist in any society which is divided, as
it is under Capitalism, into two antagonistic and irreconcilable groups". Marx argued
that with the disappearance of capitalism the state shall also disappear and a
classless and stateless society shall emerge.

Similarly Marx considered the government as an obstructive rather than a
creative force in social
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
153
evolution. He described it as an agency through which the ruling class imposed its
will upon the subject classes and maintained its privileged position in economic
matters. Because of the control of government the ruling class was able to make its
will into law and enforce it over all. The Government is described in the Communist
Manifesto as the executive of the modern state or a committee for the management
of the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.
Marx held that the ruling classes always tried to perpetuate their position and
used all the authority at their command to resist the changes. The major changes
could be brought about only by the working classes by organising themselves. Marx
envisaged two stages of the revolution. During the first phase the bourgeoisie would
be engaged in a struggle with Feudalism as represented by absolute monarchy and
its various survivals. In this struggle the proletariat must support the bourgeoisie and
then look forward for an opportunity to capture power from the bourgeoisie. Marx
asserted that as there existed fundamental antagonism between the bourgeoisie and
the proletariat this alliance was merely a tactical move. In the second phase of
revolution, the bourgeoisie which destroyed Feudalism would itself be destroyed by
the proletariat in alliance with the left-wing bourgeoisie elements, which would be
later on discarded by the proletariat. Thus in the words of Prof. Hunt "the role of
bourgeois democracy was to act as the foster mother of the proletariat during the
stage of pre-emancipation. The reforms that it affected, such as extensions of
franchise or of the workers' right to combine, not only softened the reactionary crust
of society, but also provided the conditions under which the proletariat gained the
experience required to enable it to fulfil its historic mission.
DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT

Though the ultimate purpose of Marx's revolution was to abolish the state and
establish a stateless and classless society, but this could not be attained straight
way. Therefore Marx envisaged the phase of Dictatorship of the Proletariat as a
transitional stage. During this period the state was to be retained but now the
dominant class was to be
proletariat. In the words of Marx "Between capitalist and communist society lies the
period of revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. There corresponds to
this also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the
revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat." During this period the proletariat shall
gradually socialise the natural resources and
destroy the last remnants of capitalism. According to Marx, the dictatorship of

proletariat shall be as repressive and ruthless as the capitalist system which
preceded it, with the only difference that whereas the capitalist system aims at
the maintenance of class distinctions and its predominant position for all times,
the dictatorship of the proletariat shall aim at the abolition of all the classes and
thus prepare the way for its own extinction. Another difference between the two
shall be that whereas in the former system the minority exploited the majority in
the latter one the majority shall resort to oppression of the small group of former
exploiters.
It may be observed that the dictatorship of proletariat, according to Marx,
was only a transitional period. With the extinction of the classes it was to
automatically wither away.
Marx's views on state and revolution have been severely condemned. In the
first place Marx is criticised because he treated the state as an instrument of
oppression against the weaker classes. This is not always correct. The state does
not always represent the interests of the economically better classes. Quite often
it works for the welfare of the weaker and deprived sections of the society. For
example, the modern democratic states care more about the interests of the
common people rather than the interests of the ruling class.
Secondly, Marx's theory of state and revolution is mainly based on the
assumption that the interests of the working classes and capitalists are irreconcilable,
and they are quite antagonistic to each other. This is however, not proved by the
actual experience. In the modern times we find that the conflicting interests of the
labourers and capitalists have been reconciled, through the use of devices like labour
tribunals, trade unions, etc., Thirdly, though Marx condemns capitalism on the
ground that it is based on exploitation, but he fails to suggest any alternative system
free from
154
exploitation. On the other hand, he permits the proletariat to continue the

exploitation of the former exploiters when they come to power. Fourthly, Marx
believed that changes could be brought about only through revolution and
completely neglected the peaceful and constitutional methods for bringing
about the change. Transition from capitalism to socialism can be effected
through peaceful and constitutional methods. For example, in India effort is
being made to bring about such a change through peaceful methods. Further
the use of revolutionary methods is bound to encourage counterrevolutionary forces and thus add to instability in the society. Changes
effected through revolutionary and violent methods are also likely to be less
durable. Finally, it is difficult to agree with Marx's contention that the state
shall ultimately wither away and a classless society shall emerge. It is indeed
against human nature that those who capture power will be willing to
surrender the same voluntarily. Further, Marx does not specify how long the
dictatorship of the proletariat shall continue. The actual experience shows
that even in those countries where dictatorship of proletariat was established
long back the state has not withered away as yet. On the contrary we find
that its roots are getting stronger day by day due to addition of more and
more functions to the list of state functions.
MARX ON RELIGION AND MORALITY

Marx considered religion as the opium of the people and therefore denied the
existence of any eternal and immutable principles upon which a system of
ethics could be founded. He asserted that men's ideas of good and bad were
determined by the economic structure of the social organism of which they

formed a part. He treated even religion as a part of the super-structure
created by the conditions of production. Thus morality derived from God's
commandments finds no place in his thought. He held that such a morality
was a big hoax and fraud perpetuated in the interests of the landlords and
capitalists. However, this should not lead as to the conclusion that Marx had
no faith in ethics or morality. His morality was positive and he laid emphasis
on practical ethics. According to Popper, "He (Marx) wanted to
improve society and improvement meant to him more freedom, more
equality, more justice, more security, higher standards of living...It was his
hatred to hypocrisy, his reluctance to speak about these 'high ideals' together
with his amazing optimism, his trust that all this would be realized in the near
future, which led him to veil his moral beliefs behind historicist formulations:"
Prof. Hallowell also says "in theory Marxism rejects religion but in practice the
passion which informs it is religious in character...God. Marx substitutes
Historical Necessity for the Chosen people, the proletariat, and for the
Messianic Kingdom, the Realm of Freedom".
MARX AND INTERNATIONALISM

Marx held that the working men have no country and made an appeal to the
workers of the world to unite. Though he believed in international
brotherhood of the workers, he wanted that the struggle by the proletariat
against the bourgeoisie should be first launched at the national level and
once they had settled the matter with the bourgeoisie at the national level
they could think of promoting an international movement. His
internationalism is further reflected from his observation that "National
differences and antagonisms between people are daily more and more
vanishing, owing to the development of the bourgeoisie, to freedom of
commerce, to the world market, to uniformity in the mode of production and
in the conditions of life corresponding thereto. The supermacy of the
proletariat will cause them to vanish still faster. United action of the leading
civilized countries at least, is one of the first conditions for the emancipation
of the proletariat. In proportion, as the exploitation of one individual by
another is but an end to the exploitation of one nation by another, will also be
put an end to. In proportion as the antagonism between classes within the
nation vanishes, the hostility of one nation to another will come to an end." In
short, Marx laid emphasis on extending the revolution fronvone country to
another country until the unity of the world proletariat was effected. One of
the serious implication of Marx's theory of international proletariat has been
that the world has come to be divided into two hostile camps led by Soviet
Union and U.S.A. respectively.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)

155
ESTIMATE OF MARX
According to Prof. Maxey "It is hard to deal temperately with a man whom millions
revere as a god and other millions despise as a devil. To speak dispassionately of Karl
Marx is to invite denunciation as a black reactionary by all who worship at the
Marxian shrine and denunciation as a Red or Red-sympathizer by all who fear and
hate the Marxian cult. If Marx could be ignored, there would be no need to run his
gauntlet of violent antipathies; but there is no ignoring a man whose thought has
divided the world into two hostile camps. The only honest way to with such a thinker
is to throw emotion out of the window and try to understand him." For a proper
estimate of Marx's contributions to political thought it is desirable to note the
shortcomings of his thought as well as his contributions.
SHORTCOMINGS OF MARX
In the main, the critics have noted the following shortcomings in the philosophy of
Marx. In the first place, it is alleged that Marx is a dogmatic philosopher who
completely relaxed the logical rigidity of the theory. All his propositions are neither
supported by logic nor historical evidence. According to Coker although Marx
opposed doctrainnaire way of thinking and was willing to make many compromises in
tactics, he never abandoned the position that emancipation of the workers would
come only through complete political and economic transformation of existing
national societies.
Secondly, Marx wrongly emphasises that the economic forces operate
independent of the will of man, and the economic factor is the only factor which
moves the whole world. This view is not wholly correct. No doubt, the economic
factors play an important role in the shaping of things but there are other social and
political factors as well which greatly influence the course of history. Even religion
and morality play a vital role even though Marx completely denied the role of religion
and described it as the opium of the people. Marx made politics as the hand-maid of
economics, but in actual life the economics is the hand-maid of politics and it is the
latter which determines the former.
Thirdly, Marx's theory of class and class struggle is basically wrong. His thesis that
the economic position always determines the social eminence is not supported even
by the history of western civilization. Quite often the position is quite the reverse of
that Marx contended. Marx is also wrong in emphasising the static character of the
classes. The classes are not fixed and rigidly maintained blocks. Constant movement
takes place from one class to another.
Fourthly, Marx had assumed that in course of time the capitalists and the
proletariat shall be pitched in opposite camps, but this has not happened. Marx did
not anticipate the possibility of emergence of a new class of managers and expert
technical advisers. His view that the capital would be concentrated in fewer hands
and the condition of the workers would steadily deteriorate and compel them to
overthrow the capitalist system have also not come true. In fact, at present the
capital is more extensively spread in the community than at any other period,
because of the development of trusts and corporations. The condition of the working
classes has not deteriorated. On the other hand, the capitalists have introduced
numerous social welfare schemes for their benefit. Thus the hostility between the
capitalist and the proletariat, as expected by Marx, is not so extensively present.
Fifthly, Marx believed that the state will ultimately wither away. This prophecy of
Marx has not come true. In fact, the state with the passage of time, has assumed
more and more powers. It is no more the police state of Marx's time which was
concerned only with the maintenance of law and order, but has transformed itself
into a welfare state which looks after all aspects of man's life.
Sixthly, Marx believed that social change can be effected only through revolution.
But in actual practice we find that great many changes have been brought about
through non-violent methods and by change of mind.
Seventhly, Marx assumed that the establishment of the classless society will be
marked by an end to all violence. It is difficult to accept this contention of Marx. It is
indeed difficult to understand how a party coming to power through violence will at
once abandon violence
117
M.N. Roy (18931954)
M.N. Roy, considered as one of the most systematic thinkers of modern India,
took keen interest in Indian National Movement and advocated untraditional
methods of struggle. Originally named Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, he was
born in Bengal in 1893. He received his early education in Calcutta. From the
very childhood he was fascinated by the activities of the Indian
revolutionaries and wanted to take active part in national movement. The
partition of Bengal and the bitter agitation which followed it
provided him this opportunity. While he was only 14 years old he was
arrested on the charge of political dacoity in Calcutta but the judge
acquitted him. Thereafter he continued to take keen interest in
revolutionary activities and visited a number of countries like Japan,
China, Mexico, Germany, USSR and U.S.A. In 1915 he organised the Indian
students at San Francisco to carry on national struggle. He changed his
original name to M.N. Roy at this stage.
However, M.N. Roy found that the USA Government on account of its
neutrality did not approve these national activities of the Indians and
even contemplated his arrest. Therefore, he escaped to Mexico
wherefrom he continued his revolutionary activities. During his stay at
Mexico he also contributed several articles highlighting the poverty of
India and the methods of exploitation adopted by the British in India.
Soon he became a well-known socialist and organised the Communist
Party of Mexico. Thus he became the founder of the first Communist Party
outside Russia. In view of his activities he was invited to attend the
Second World Congress of the Communist International. He took keen
interest in the Congress and even pointed out certain defects in the
resolutions sponsored by the official group
headed by Lenin. Roy was elected a member of the Central Asiatic Board
constituted by the Communist Party to propagate the cause of
Communism in India.
During the next few years Roy made bid to organise the Indian
national revolutionaries in Germany and started journal entitled Vanguard
of Indian Independence. Roy was also made a member of the Presidium of
Commintern at its 4th Conference. He was sent to propagate the cause of
Communism in China, but could not achieve much success. In course of
time he developed differences with the Communists and did not
participate in the Sixth Congress of the Comintern. Thereupon Roy
returned to India.
M.N. ROY IN INDIA

On arrival in India Roy tried to establish contacts with the Indian
revolutionaries and consolidate his position. He attended the Karachi Session
of the Indian National Congress at the invitation of Jawaharlal Nehru. In 1931
he was arrested and sentenced to six years imprisonment. After his release in
1936 he joined the Indian National Congress with a view to organise it on
revolutionary basis. In 1939 he formed a League of the Radical Congressmen
which continued to work for decentralization of authority and freedom from
British imperialism within the Congress. During the war, however, Roy
developed sharp differences with Congress. He favoured full support to the
British Government in their struggle against Nazism and Fascism. He also
condemned the Quit India Movement of Gandhi. As a result he grew quite
unpopular with the Congress. In 1940 he left the Congress and formed the
Radical Democratic Party. He was so
M.N. Roy (1893-1954)
159
much disgusted with the Congress that he even challenged the right of
Congress to succeed as ruler after the British withdrawal. In fact he preferred
anarchy over Congress rule. Towards the closing years of his life Roy was a
dejected man and died in 1954.
INFLUENCES AND WORKS

M.N. Roy was greatly influenced by Marx. He studied Marx thoroughly and
was greatly impressed by his ideology. However, he did not fully subscribe to
Marxian point of view and differed from it in many respects. The Indian
leaders like Swami Ramtirth, Vivekanand, etc. Amongst the literary influences
Bankim Chandra Chatterji's Anand Math exercised profound influence on him.
Amongst the international events the victory of Japan over Russia in 1905 left
a deep impact on his mind and convinced him that colonial subjects of Asia,
including India, could also gain their independence through determination
and proper organization.
The political philosophy of M.N. Roy is contained in his works like India in
Transition; Revolution and Counter-Revolution in China; Materialism; Science
and Philosophy; On the Congress Constitution; People's Plan; National
Government; Rise, Romanticism and Revolution, etc. M.N. Roy also
established his own journals and contributed large number of articles in
various papers. His ideas can be gleaned through all these writings.
MAIN IDEAS OF M.N. ROY

Individual Freedom and Nature of Man
As noted above M.N. Roy was greatly fascinated by the ideology of Marx. But
he was convinced that Communism could not provide a solution to the
individual liberty. Therefore, he developed his own philosophy known as
Radical Humanism. He considered the individual as an end in itself and held
that the other organisations of society were only means to an end. He
attached great importance to individual freedom and was not willing to
subordinate it to any other factor such as religion, morality or even super
natural power. According to him the state was also created to
check the impediments and hindrances in the way of the growth of man
even, though at present it was trying to subordinate the individual. Roy
considered man as a rational being and as such superior to the other living
beings. The thinking power possessed by man enabled him to test the
phenomenon before accepting it.
VIEWS ON DEMOCRACY AND ORGANISED DEMOCRACY
Roy was opposed to the western type of democracy and asserted that it did
not grant either economic or social or political freedom. On the contrary it
sacrificed the individual for the sake of collective good. He favoured a
democracy based on built up from below rather than imposed from above. In
such a democracy every individual
was to be given a share. Roy was also highly critical of the political parties
which formed a part of the parliamentary democracy because the leaders
in the party expected the members to work like dead machines blindly
carrying out their commands. He said under parliamentary democracy
politics was becoming a scramble for power and morality was being
completely sacrificed. He therefore, pleaded for the replacement of the
existing democracy by the system of organized democracy in which
individual freedom shall be better protected.
According to Roy organised democracy was to be based on principle of
decentralization. There were to be no political parties in it and the real
power was to rest in the masses. However, the successful working of
organized democracy demanded that the people should be educated; and
should possess high sense of responsibility and moral character. As the
people did not possess the requisite qualifications to work the organised
democracy. Roy pleaded for the introduction of selective democracy at
the initial stages, which was to be ultimately replaced by organized
democracy. In the organized democracy the ultimate sovereignty was to
vest in the people. In each village and city there were to be local
committees elected on the basis of adult franchise for one year. To give
adequate representation to minorities he pleaded for proportional
representation. He also favoured separate
electorates. These local committees were to elect members of higher legislative

bodies, viz., provincial and federal legislatures. Roy also favoured introduction of
institutions of referendum, initiative, etc., on the pattern of Switzerland to make
democracy real.
M.N. Roy's concept of organised democracy has been severely criticised on
numerous grounds. In the first place it is pointed out that Roy in his love for ths
individual freedom failed to appreciate the proper relationship between the individual
and the society. He describe the bondages of society as a penalty which the
individual had to pay for agreeing to join the civil state. Thus he clearly falters in
realising that man i s a social animal and society is necessary both for the existence
as well as development. In fact Roy's concept of individual freedom developed logical
conclusion would take the individual back to the state of nature. Secondly, Roy
discarded religion and considered it as contrary to reason. No doubt, religion is based
on faith but it would be wrong to assert that all religion is irrational. Further we
cannot deny that religion has played a significant role in the preservation of our
culture and civilization'and also contributed to political advancement. Thirdly, Roy's
portrayal of individual as a social being living in harmony with other members of the
society without any possibility of conflict with other members is difficult to accept. It
offers only a one sided picture of man's nature. Roy completely forgets that the
individual can have conflicts with other members of society if his interests come in
conflict with other interests. Fourthly, Roy emphasised the importance of only outer
freedom and completely ignored the inner freedom. This is a defective approach and
naturally Roy failed to give a complete harmonious theory of this important aspect of
life.
Finally his theory of Organised Democracy is far from practicable. His organised
democracy can work successfully only if intelligent people with high moral character
and integrity come to power. The actual experience shows that such people rarely
come to power and hence his theory is far from practicable. No doubt Roy rightly
highlighted the defects of the party system, but it is difficult to agree with him that
the party system
should be completely discarded. Further, he failed to suggest any suitable alternative

to the party system. His idea of People's Committee is also not practicable. In short,
we can say that due to his emphasis on the individual freedom his theory greatly
appeals, but it is quite unrealistic and unpracticable.
ECONOMIC DEMOCRACY
M. N. Roy not only insisted on introduction of organized democracy but also made a
strong plea for economic democracy. He held the existing economic system
responsible for crushing the individual freedom and insisted that the industry should
be controlled by the people and there should not be exploitation of the poor by the
rich. He therefore, pleaded for adoption of a cooperative economy in which the
various sections were to work in co-operation with each other. He held that, such a
system would lead to production being geared according to the social needs and
ensure equitable distribution of goods. He argued that such a system would put an
end to exploitation and enable the profits to be utilized for national development.
M.N. Roy was not opposed to private property, provided it did not lead to
exploitation. Therefore he insisted that for sometime the industry, particularly the
higher basic industries, should not be passed on to the private sector and the state
should act as co-ordinating agency both in the public and private sector. The other
features of his economic set up include network of consumers and producer
cooperatives which were to take full advantage of the scientific and technological
advancement and a planning body which was to allocate priorities to the national
resources and plan social utility services.
In case of under-developed countries like India (which was predominantly an
agricultural country) he emphasised the need of large scale industrialization.
However, he was opposed to the introduction of agricultural machinery in the country
because of the fear of thousands of peasants and workers being thrown out of
employment. He stood for state financed agricultural and industrial enterprises and
permitted freedom of enterprise to the individual
M.N. Roy (1893-1954)

161
on the condition that the production would be carried to satisfy the requirements of
the people. To quote him, "In planning the economic life of society the State has the
right to fix the prices of goods produced and exchanged, the remuneration and
working conditions of wage-earnerr and salaried employees, and to take over private
enterprises under State ownership by paying fair compensation to the owners
thereof".
His cooperative economic theory has also been severely criticised. He assumed that
the cooperatives will work as independent bodies and did not pay any attention to
the problem of
coordination. Accordingly he did not envisage any coordinating authority. He

also did not provide for any organisation to settle the disputes between various
functional groups, which were bound to arise. His concept of cooperative
enterprises at the national level seems to be quite impracticable. So far no
country in the world has successfully implemented the cooperative schemes at
the national level. To think of such an arrangement, in a poverty stricken country
like India, was not in keeping with the realities of life. In short, we can say that
though Roy's programme looked quite sound in theory, it was quite
impracticable.
M.N. ROY AND MARXISM

Though M.N. Roy was greatly influenced by the Marxian philosophy, he was also
one of its bitter critics. He criticised Marxism for denial of individual liberty and
complete regimentation which hardly left any scope for individual freedom. Roy
also did not agree with Marxian theory of dialectical materialism as well as
historical interpretation. He did not consider the history merely as a class
struggle and asserted that many other factors as well influence the course of
history. He also did not agree with the Marxian view which overstressed the role
of the working classes in the future set up of the society and prophesied the
disappearance of the middle class. In short, though Roy continued to adhere to
the ideas of increasing participation of the people in the administration which
formed a basic principle of Marxian philosophy, he bitterly criticised
Marxists for keeping the common masses aloof from the administration.
ROY'S VIEWS ABOUT GANDHI

M.N. Roy greatly admired the role of Mahatma Gandhi in the national movement,
specially his association of the masses with the movement. He also praised
Gandhi's efforts to raise the standard of the down trodden and poor people.
Likewise he fully approved Gandhi's programme of civil disobedience, specially
non-payment of taxes. He also endorsed Gandhi's ideas for achieving
independence through non-violent methods. But he also bitterly criticised
Gandhism on account of lack of coordinate thought. He did not consider the
Gandhian programme in the economic field as logical and could not reconcile
with the idea that India could attain independence through spinning wheel. He
also considered the attempt of Gandhi to reconcile the interests of the
landowners and the peasants as impracticable and held that the two could not go
side by side. He also criticised Gandhi for his failure to offer a solution for the
economic problems of India.
M.N. ROY ON REVOLUTION

Roy's views on revolution also fundamentally differed from those of Marx. Whereas
Marx believed that radical changes could be brought about only through use of force,
M.N. Roy held that revolution was not the sole method to bring about radical social
changes. Again, he did not agree with Marx that revolution could be brought about
only by the middle classes. On the other hand, Roy held that revolutionary forces
must include people of all shades and opinions (with the exception of members of
vested classes). A revolution could also be brought about by appealing to the good
sense of the rulers. M.N. Roy laid emphasis on certain pre-requisites and, conditions
for bringing about revolution. These include educating the people, wiping out mass
illiteracy, creating consciousness about political rights among people, highlighting the
highhandedness of those in power, etc.
162
M.N. ROY ON NATIONALISM

Roy considered nationalism as an evil because it was based on hatred and created
unnecessary problems. He held that if the national borders amongst the various
states were abolished most of their social, economic and political problems would be
automatically resolved. Roy was strongly opposed to narrow nationalism and
described it as one of the greatest problems of modern times. It may be noted that in
actual practice M.N. Roy did not strictly adhere to these views. This is evident from
the keen interest he evinced in the national movement.
A look at the ideas of M.N. Roy clearly shows that he was a great proponent of
individual freedom. He withdrew from the Communist Organisation only because they
were opposed to individual liberty. He was also a great advocate of
democracy, although he stood for the replacement of the existing democratic system
by organisational democracy. He also laid great emphasis on the principle of
decentralization of authority. His ideas on decentralization of authority left a deep
impact on other national leaders and ultimately led to the introduction of Panchayati
Raj. His ideas on economic planning also left a deep impact on the national leaders
and ultimately led to the establishment of the Planning Commission and the planned
development of the country. Above all he contributed the idea of peaceful revolution,
or social changes through non-violent and peaceful methods. Despite their novel
nature, the ideas of M.N. Roy could not gain much popularity on account of lack of
mass appeal. His ideas were far removed from realities and possessed an Utopian
character.
18.
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
(1872-1950)

Sri Aurobindo, described by Romain Rolland as 'the prince of Indian thinkers' was
a versatile person, a great poet, a great metaphysician, a great seer, a great
patriot and above all a great systematic thinker. He was born on 15th August
1872. His father Krishnadhan Ghosh, who spent some years at Aberdeen
University, was a great admirer of the western habits, ideas and ideals. He
therefore tried to impart European type of education to Aurobindo and sent him
to Loretto Convent School at Darjeeling. At the age of seven Aurobindo was taken
by his parents to England and put under the care of an English family. Aurobindo
remained in England for about fourteen years and received his education at
Manchester, London and Cambridge. Thus Aurobindo was completely divorced
from the Indian culture and did not know any Indian language except Bengali.
Aurobindo returned to India in 1893 deeply imbued with the nationalistic
fervour and full of partriotism. This was due to the fact that his father Dr.
Krishnadhan Ghosh, who had been greatly disillusioned with the way of the
British Government in India, used to write regularly to Aurobindo about the
maltreatment of the Indians by the Englishmen. He also sent him cuttings from
the Bengalee (an Indian newspaper) containing details of the maltreatment of
the Indians by the Englishmen. All this contributed to the growth of patriotism in
his heart. In addition the patriotic activities of the Irish freedom fighters like
Parnell, and the writings of Mazzini and other Italian patriots also left a deep
impact on his mind. While at Cambridge, Aurobindo became a member of the
Indian Majlis and acted as its Secretary. He also
joined a secret revolutionary society known as 'The Lotus and Dagger and took a
vow to liberate the country. In short, though he spent long years in England his
faith in European civilization was greatly shattered.
AUROBINDO IN INDIA
Aurobindo returned to India in 1893 and worked in various capacities. First of all
he took up job under Gaekward of Baroda. He served him in different capacities
for about thirteen years. First he was given certain administrative assignments.
Then he took up job as Lecturer in French at Baroda College. Later, he became
Professor of English and Vice-Principal. While Aurobindo was in the service of
Gaekwad of Baroda he studied Indian languages and Sanskrit. This provided him
an opportunity to know about the ancient Indian culture. Aurobindo, who had
been exclusively subjected to European education during the childhood and
youth became re-Indianised and gained an insight into the soul of India. He also
started practising yoga during his stay at Baroda. The practice of yoga helped his
soul to blossom and he took concrete steps for the realisation of his life's mission.
In 1906 when movement against partition of Bengal started he joined the
national movement. However, he remained in politics only till 1910 when he
withdraw himself from politics and devoted himself to spiritual pursuits.
SPIRITUAL BASIS OF AUROBINDO'S THOUGHT

The ideas of Sri Aurobindo were quite different from other political leaders. He saw a
very intimate relationship between spirituality and
164
politics. As Dr. Karan Singh has observed his thought "was firmly grounded in and
grew out of his deep spiritual convictions. Politics for him were an extension, as it
were, of his theory of personal, national and universal spiritual development".
Aurobindo held that India had a missionthe mission of giving spiritual lead to
mankind and showing it the path leading to a new creative synthesis of the march of
human civilization. He asserted that a subject and dependent India could not deliver
the message of sprituality to the world and act as the guide and helper of mankind.
She could accomplish this mission only if she shook off bondage to the foreign yoke
and became independent. Thus he set his goal as freedom of the country rather than
self-government of the colonial type. In other words, Aurobindo treated national
independence not as an end in itself but as a means to a higher end viz. to provide
spiritual leadership to the world. He wanted India to be free and strong not merely
with a view to promote the material welfare of the people and occupy an honoured
place in the community of nations, but with a view to ensure that her ancient
spirituality should triumph and may become a guide and helper to the whole of the
human race. He warned India against yielding to the temptation of becoming a strong
nation in terms of industrial development, military strength etc. and warned this way
India would lose her soul and spiritual heritage and become one more nation like
others. Aurobindo laid emphasis on the preservation of ancient Indian spiritual
heritage.
The scholars have tended to take the view that Aurobindo took part in politics
only for a short-while and then withdrew to devote himself to spiritual pursuits. But
this view is not correct. Aurobindo did not completely quit politics and merely
changed his methods. He was convinced that the liquidation of the foreign rule and
the improvement of the social and economic conditions of the people would not by
themselves be enough. It would be more important to awaken the spiritual power
lying dormant in the soul of India and raise her to the position of full spiritual leader.
Thus Aurobindo's spirituality should not be taken to mean his withdrawal from life. He
did not decry the world as unreal or illusory and sought to raise mankind to a higher
level throught the descent of the Supermind in man's life.
CRITICISM OF CONGRESS
Soon after his return to India in 1893, Aurobindo adopted a highly critical attitude
towards the Congress. He wrote anonymous articles in Indu Prakash in which he
bitterly criticised the Congress for its narrow and restricted aims, defective and futile
methods and its leadership. Aurobindo said about Congress "its aims are mistaken,
that the spirit in which it proceeds towards their accomplishment is not the spirit of
sincerity and whole-heartedness, and that the methods it has chosen are not the
right methods, and the leaders, in whom it trusts are not the right sort of men to be
leaders: in brief, that we are at present the blind led, if not by the blind, at any rate
by one-eyed. " Aurobindo held that our real enemy was not the British government
and the bureaucratic system but "our own crying weakness for cowardice, our
selfishness, our hypocrisy, our purblind sentimentalism". He emphaised the need of
developing manhood and fellow feeling for the poor and downtrodden people of the
country and not to hanker after the soiled crumbs which England may cast to us from
her table. In simple words, we can say that whereas Congress at that time believed in
getting concessions by convincing the Government of
British India and British Parliament about the justness of their demand, Aurobindo
pleaded for self-help for the realization of national independence. As one writer
has observed the greatest service rendered by Aurobindo to Indian nationalism
was that he placed before the people of India the ideal of complete national
independence and made them conscious of the moral degradation involved in
subjection to foreign rule.
Aurobindo also criticised the methods of Congress based on the providential
character of the political link between India and England; faith in sense of justice
and fair-play of the British people, and efficacy of constitutional methods.
Aurobindo said that the Britishers were very ordinary people who were managing
the affairs of Indian Empire for their selfish ends and not for the good of the
people. He did not believe in the efficacy of consitutional methods and held that
since the interests of India and Britain were radically diffeient, it is futile to hope
that the British would be willing to share power with the
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh (18721950) 165
Indians. On the contrary, they would like to avoid it as long as they could help it.
Aurobindo also criticized the Congress leadership and alleged that they were not
inspired by the longing for national freedom and their main aim was only to make the
burden of English yoke, light. He said "the most disheartening feature in the present
political leadership...is an almost utter absence of this sense (longing for
emancipation). Our leaders are not at all conscious of their own country and their
country's present political bondage. They do not, notwithstanding all their ravings
against the Government, really fe~' the utter degradation and misery of their present
position in the constitution of their State." He criticised the Congress leaders for lack
of sense of humiliation involved in subjection to foreign rule and their professions of
loyalty to the British Crown. Aurobindo said that the attitude of the Congress leaders
towards the British Government was influenced by purely personal and selfish
considerations. To quote him "They complain because they are not appointed to high
offices in the administration; and the appointment of a Bengali as the Chief Justice of
the Calcutta High Court, or of a Madrasee as Advocate General in Madras, sends up a
chorus of congratulations from the whole of the Indian press, who have not as yet
arisen to a perception of elementary truth that such isolated instances of official
advancement do not and can never compensate for the serious intellectual and moral
wrong which the government of one people by another, an alien people, always
inflicts. The leader who today leads a most violent attack on the Government, is
therefore found, the moment that Government admits him into its counsels or woos
him with offers of honour and perferment, to support and defend it most
enthusiastically".
Yet another ground on which Aurobindo criticised Congress was that it completely
neglected the interests of the proletariat and was essentially a middle-class
organisation. He asserted that the proletariat was a potential force and emphaised
the need of their upliftrru it and enlightenment. He wanted to elevate the proletariat
and make them feel the divine fire that lay dormant in them. Thus he was one of the
first Indian thinkers to emphasise the need of educating and enlightening the
masses.
CRITICISM OF THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT

Aurobindo also bitterly criticised the British Government. At times his criticism of the
British Government was so bitter that it ran the risk of being branded as sedition and
consequent prosecution. Aurobindo criticised the British with two objectives. Firstly,
he wanted to undermine the faith of the Indians in the superiority of the British
institutions. He asserted that the British political institutions did not represent the
best in the Occidental culture and civilization and considered the French institutions
much better. He said "owing to the accident of British domination our intellects have
been carefully nurtured on a purely English diet. Hence, we do not care to purchase
an outfit of political ideas properly adjusted to our natural temper and urgent
requirements but eke out our scanty wardrobe with cast off rags and threadbare
leavings of our English masters. "Secondly, he wanted to assert that the British
administrative system was not suitable for the Indian conditions. He also condemned
the British officials for this arrogance and rudeness. He even criticised the British
system of education because it killed the very soul of people.
METHODS
Aurobindo rejected the liberal methods of prayer, petition and protests and described
them as unworthy of the self respect of India. He rejected constitutional methods and
advocated, the method of passive resistance. He emphasised the need of secret
revolutionary propaganda and organisation to organise armed insurrection against
the British. He said that a nation is entitled to win its freedom by violence if it can do
so or if there is no other way. However, he held that passive resistance was most
suitable method for the Indian conditions.
Aurobindo held that passive resistance was most suitable in countries where the
government depended upon the voluntary help and acquiescence of the indigenous
people for carrying on its work. He said "Since the British were in India mainly for her
economic exploitation, the passive resisters sought to withdraw their help and cooperation in the process of exploitation by
166
refusing to purchase British goods". In other words, he insisted on boycott of British

goods, and adoption of Swadeshi. Similarly be advocated boycott of government
educational institutions and establishment of national schools and colleges for the
education of Indian people. Even the courts of justice were to be boycotted and the
disputes to be settled outside these courts through arbitration. In short, he insisted
that the people should withdraw all the help they were giving to the government in
various forms. Above all, he also advocated the social boycott of those persons who
refused to fall in with the programme of passive resistance and continued their
association with the government. Aurobindo, however, did not advocate refusal to
pay taxes because the people as yet were not fit to take recourse to such a method.
Further, it could invite arrest by the government and imposition of heavy fines. But if
the government tried
to suppress the passive resistance of the people by use of force, the people could
use violence. He said "If the instruments of executive choose to disperse our
meetings by breaking the heads of those present, the right of self-defence
entitles us not merely to defend our heads but to retaliate on those of the headbreakers".
AUROBINDO ON NATIONALISM
Aurobindo advocated a new type of nationalism, which was quite different from the
nationalism advocated by the other nationalist leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal
Krishan Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjee etc. No doubt the earlier nationalist leaders
loved their, country and suffered much hardship for this cause, but they were not
inspired by the idea of kindling in the nation a consciousness of its own genius or
awaken the soul of India. They pleaded for political rights for the Indians on the plea
of their being British subjects and not as Indians or human beings. Aurobindo raised
nationalism to lofty heights. He said "Nationalism is not a mere political programme;
Nationalism is a religion that has come from God; Nationalism is creed which you
shall have to live If you are going to be a Nationalist; if you are going to assent to this
religion of Nationalism, you must do it in the
religious spirit. You must remember that you are the instruments of God...Nationalism
is not going to be crushed.
Nationalism thrives in the strength of God and it is not possible to crush it,
whatever weapons are brought against it. Nationalism is immortal". Thus Aurobindo
provided an element of spiritualism to nationalism. It may be noted that the
nationalism preached by Aurobindo was not narrow or chauvistic. It was world wide
and a part of the Divine plan. He wanted India to be free so that she could serve the
cause of humanity and carry the will of God.
AUROBINDO ON HUMAN UNITY

Aurobindo believed in the ideal of human unity and considered the division of
mankind into large number of mutually suspicious and hostile sovereign nation states
as the sole cause of horrors and disasters of world war I. In his treatise The Ideal of
Human Unity he argued that the ideal of human unity was a part of the Nature's
eventual scheme. He asserted that this ideal of human unity can be realised either
through the formation of world-state or by uniting the nation states into some sort of
federation. He also envisaged the possibility of achieving world unity through some
type of a confederation. Aurobindo said "the ideal unification of mankind would be a
system in which, as a first rule of common and harmonious life, the human peoples
would be allowed to form their own groupings, according to their natural divisions of
locality, race, culture, economic convenience and not according to the more violent
accidentsof history of the egoistic will of powerful nations". He held that if the
principle of free and natural groupings was accepted there would be no room for
internal discords, conflicts and incompatibilities which mar the human relations at
present.
Aurobindo was however, quite conscious of the difficulties in the way of the
realisation of the free world union in the nature of selfishness and egoism of the
states, but hoped that these could be overcome by placing before the mankind at
large the spiritual religion of humanity. He was confident that the realisation of the
spiritual
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950)
167
oneness of all humanity will produce, the feeling of psychological oneness which is so
essential for the attainment of the human unity. Aurobindo said "The increase of
human unity, on which the very survival of the human race depends, can be attained
only as we realise within ourselves that deep truth of our being, the oneness of
creation and the essential unity of mankind and live out its implications in all our
relationships. It is within ourselves that we shall find the springs of creative altruism
or resourceful brotherly love". Thus Aurobindo emphasised the principle that the
people of the world must learn to live together as brothers.
EVALUATION OF AUROBINDO
Aurobindo has been described by Romain Rolland as "the foremost of Indian thinkers
who has realized the most complete synthesis between the genius of the West and of
the East". He was not only a thinker but also a yogi and saint who showed the path to
a New Heaven and a New Earth. Since we are primarily concerned with Aurobindo as
a political thinker, we shall concentrate on his contributions to the political thought.
In the first place, he was the first thinker to place before his countrymen the ideal of
complete independence and highlight the degradation and humiliation involved
in
subjection to foreign rule. Secondly, he imparted a new direction to the nationalist
movement by lifting it from the low material plane to higher spiritual level. He did not
merely lay emphasis on attainment of social, economic and political freedom but also
their spiritual emancipation. Thirdly, Aurobindo was the first to emphasise the need
of involving the masses in the national movement. Before him the national
movement was essentially a middle-class movement. He roped in the masses in this
movement, and transformed the national movement into a mass-movement. The
idea of mass involvement was further developed by leaders, like Tilak and Gandhi.
Fourthly, he deserves credit for advocating the doctrine of passive resistance long
before Gandhi started his non-violent non-cooperation and civil-disobedience
movements. Fifthly, he also provided inspiration to the revolutionary movement in
Bengal and asserted that every nation has the right to resort to violence to attain
independence if other methods failed. Finally, he advocated the concept of human
unity. He said "Our ideal of patriotism proceeds on the basis of love and envisages
the ultimate unity of mankind...it is a unity of brothers, equal and free men that we
seek, not the unity of master and serf, of devourer and devoured".
Unit HI COMPARATIVE POLITICS AND

POLITICAL ANALYSIS
19.
Approaches to the
Study of
Comparative
Politics
Comparative politics is a subject of very recent origin. It developed only in the 1950's
when the American political scientists took to the study of political systems in place
of foreign governments. With the emergence of a number of independent nations in
Asia and Africa in the post World War II period flood-gates of information regarding
the working of the social systems in these countries and their peculiar problems were
opened, which obliged these writers to adopt new techniques for the understanding
of these political systems and to compare their political systems with the western
political systems. In short, they tried to study political reality through new techniques
and approaches.
It may be noted that, the study of comparative governments has been in
existence since the times of Plato and Aristotle. In fact it was Aristotle, who first
assigned politics a primacy among the sciences and raised problems and adopted
methods which are identical to those current in the present day political studies. After
Aristotle a number of other philosophers like Cicero, Polybious, Machiavelli,
Montesquieu, J.S. Mill, Henry Maine, Laski, De Toqueville etc. also made a
comparative study of governments and tried to classify and analyse the political
institutions. However, the credit for making a systematic analysis of the political
institutions goes to writers like Finer, Fredrich, Bryce etc. These writers shifted
emphasis from structure and power of government to comparative study of the
present role and the theoretical analysis for the future, and are regarded as the
forefathers of the modern comparative politics. It may be observed that though their
approach marked an improvement
over the existing approach it was not very systematic. It was only in the post World
W/fr II period that a systematic study of comparative politics started and a "search
for a new Political Science with its emphasis on the structure and functions of political
behaviour really came into prominence." The scholars who made significant
contributions in this regard include David Easton, G.A. Almond, Karl Deutsch, Harold
Lasswell, Robert A. Dahls, Henry Eckstein, David Apter, Jean Blondel, James Coleman
etc. The main factor which encouraged these writers to develop new methods of
study of politics was their disappointment and dissatisfactions with the traditional
methods of study which were essentially descriptive, non-comparative, parochial,
static and theoretical rather than practical.
MEANING OR COMPARATIVE POLITICS

For understanding the meaning of comparative politics, it shall be desirable to first
understand the meaning of 'politics.' Term politics has been drawn from the Greek
word 'Politikos' meaning relating to a city. Thus politics in ancient .Greece was
regarded as a study of the exercise of pcfcwer in the city-state. The modern scholars
have refined politics differently. Price defines politics as "the study of the general
principles on which government can be carried on successfully". He asserts that
politics is the study of the exercise of power. Laswell defines politics as "the study of
the forms of political organisation, their properties, correlates, variations and modes
of change."
172
Viewed in the above context comparative politics may be defined as the study of
"the political experience, institutions, behaviour and processes of the major systems
of modern government." It involves study of the political organisations or political
systems of different countries with a view to identify the similarities and
dissimilarities which characterise them. The comparative study of the various political
systems brings to surface the best and the worst features of political systems, the
nature of political culture, the extent of structural functional differences and the
efficiency of interest articulation. It may be noted that comparative politics also
includes within its purview the studies of individual countries conducted with the help
of inter-disciplinary tools. Blondel highlights this aspect of comparative politics when
he defines it as "the study of patterns of national governments in the contemporary
world."
Comparative study has assumed great importance in recent years. With the
advancement of the means of transport and communication people of different
countries have come in intimate conduct with the political systems of various
countries. This has encouraged them to acquire knowledge about the working of
various political systems. Comparative politics helps the citizens to gain knowledge
about the various political systems and develop their own institutions in the light of
the experience of other countries. Highlighting the need and desirability of the study
of Comparative Politics, Gunner Hecksher says "If we regard our field of study as
mainly descriptive, comparisons are required to help us refine our tools or
description. If we have hopes of establishing a general theory on an inductive basis
we can do so only through comparison. If
we attempt to test specific hypothesis, this is possible only if we bring in a

sufficient number of examples to be investigated by the comparative method."
Thus we find that the study of comparative politics is significant in so far as it
helps us to classify and interpret the data at our disposal and to draw
generalisations. These generalisalions can be helpful in policy formulation as well
as discerning the trends in other countries with a view to finding out their
implications on one's own country.
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
As noted above, in recent years political scientists have attached more

importance to the study of political systems than government. They do not
confine themselves to mere governmental institutions and view politics as an
interaction of all political activities. Accordingly they have tried to evolve new
approaches which do not concentrate only on the study of political institutions
but also take into account the informal processes of politics. We shall, therefore,
proceed with the study of the various approaches.
THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH

The traditional or the historical approach for the study of political science was
very popular before the advent of the present century. This approach apart from
history made use of ethics, philosophy and law. All the political thinkers from
Plato to Burke made use of this approach to study the principles of political
theory. Some of the important thinkers who adopted the traditional approach
include Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Kant, Hegel, Bentham, Grotius,
Austin, etc. These thinkers concentrated on concepts like liberty, equality, rights,
justice, law etc. It may be noted that though all the above referred political
thinker, adopted the traditional approach there were fundamental differences in
their attitude. While Plato, Kant and Hegel tried to idealise the state and present
the picture of an ideal community, thinkers like Aristotle, Machiavelli and Hobbes
adopted a realistic approach to explain the nature of power and its operation.
Certain other philosophers like Grotius, Marine, Bentham, Austin and Dicey
attached great importance to law and evolved theories which sought to establish
close connection between politics and law. However, one thing was quite
common to "these thinkers that they tried to examine the past events and draw
some sort of tentative conclusions about the contemporary political activity. No
wonder these political thinkers mainly concentrated on the examination of the
major political institutions of the state such as the executive, legislature, the civil
service, the judiciary, the local government etc.
Approaches to the Study of Comparative
Politics 173
The main features of the traditional approach can be summed up as follows:

Firstly, the political thinkers following the traditional approach tried to study the
political institutions of the various states separately and fell contented with mere
comparison with the political institutions of other states.
Secondly, the political thinkers mainly concentrated on the study of the political
institutions of the western countries and completely neglected the study of the
political institutions of the developing and underdeveloped countries.
Thirdly, these thinkers laid more emphasis on legal and formal institutional
studies. In other words they made only a formal study of the formal institutions.
Fourthly, the traditional scholars attached great importance to their own norms
and tried to judge the various institutions according to these norms. Naturally they
condemned the political institutions which did not accord with their accepted norms.
Finally, their approach was merely descriptive and lacked the qualities of
explanation and analytical study.
Traditional Methods for Study of Comparative Politics:
The traditional scholars adopted various methods for the study of comparative
government which are as under.
1.
Philosophical Method
In the first instance scholars tried to examine and analyse the various types of
political institutions and lay down certain general principles. This approach was
adopted by philosophers like Plato, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel etc. and is popularly
known as philosophical approach. Sidgwick considered the philosophical as the best
method for the study of comparative governments. The followers of this method tried
to examine the purpose and nature of state on the basis of certain preconceived
ideas. Thus Plato built up his ideal State on the basis of his belief in the triplicity of
soul. Likewise Sir Thomas Moore also based his Utopia on the theory of ideas. It is
true that these philosophers envisaged an ideal state which is imaginary, unrealistic
and unscientific, but it cannot be denied that their approach has enabled
us to understand the merits and defects of the existing political systems.
2. Historical Method
The historical method is another prominent method for the study of comparative
governments. This method was adopted by philosophers like Aristotle, Montesquieu,
Hegel, Marx etc. All these writers tried to study the historical events and factors as
well as the existing conditions and made predictions about the future. In the words of
Zimmern the historical method emphasises that "It is conflict with the past which
equips men and communities for the task of the present." It was under the impact of
the historical method that a number of outstanding works like Ancient Law and Early
History and Institutions (both by Sir Henry Maine), A Short history of Politics and The
State and the Nations (by Edward Jenks), and The State (by Maclver) were produced
which greatly contributed to the development of comparative politics. It is true that
at present evolutionary political studies are out of fashion but their importance
cannot be denied. As Harry Eckstein has observed the evolutionary political studies
"constituted a tremendously important phase in the development of comparative
politics. Above all they kept comparatively itself alive in a period, when it was
threatened from every direction."
However, it cannot be denied that historical method of comparative government
suffers from numerous shortcomings. In the first place the view of the investigator
may be greatly influenced by his religious beliefs, by his political partisanship, his
racial prejudices etc. and therefore the same historical incidents may be presented in
different ways by different scholars. Secondly, this method attaches too much
importance to the past incidents and experiences.
Thirdly, historical method raises more questions than it answers. In the

words of Eckstein the scholar of historical method "tries too early to do too
much and so in the end, contributes very little except some interesting
problems and theoretical approaches, and some very far ranging
misinformation."
3.Formal and Legal Method

In the 19th century, effort was made to study the political institutions on the basis
of their formal
and legal structure and greater emphasis was laid on the understanding of the
political actualities. Some of the prominent thinkers who adopted this method include
Wilhelm Roscher, Woolsey, Woodrow Wilson, Dicey, G.M. Carter, Harold zink,
Neumann etc. These writers tried to make a comparative study of the legislature,
executive, judiciary, bureaucracy, administration etc. in various countries and tried to
find out how far a legal reality was an actual reality. Thus they tried to develop
comparative government and politics along scientific lines, through formal and
legalistic studies.
The formal and legal method of study of comparative governments has also been
severely criticised. It has been argued that this method attaches too much
importance to the study of formal institutions, laws, and constitutions and completely
neglects the social, religious, economic and other factors which influence the working
of these institutions. Further, a legal truth can be a political untruth. For example, in
Britain even today the Queen is legally all powerful and can assume dictatorial
powers, but in reality she is only a constitutional ruler and does not enjoy any real
powers. The other defects of this approach are that, it is descriptive rather than
analytical and it mainly concentrated on the study of western political systems.
Despite these shortcomings, it cannot be denied that the formal and legal method
greatly contributed in making comparative government an interesting field of study.
4.
The Configurative Method
Under this method of study of comparative governments, the scholars treated the
different political systems as independent entities. They studied these political
systems analysed them and examined their principal features. They also made a
simultaneous comparative analysis of these institutions. This method was adopted by
R.G. Neumann in European Comparative Government, and Carter and Herz in Major
Foreign Powers. The other scholars who made use of configurative method were
Rosher, Fichte, Dragnich etc. In this method, the scholars presented a configurative
description of a number of governments in one volume and tried to find out
similarities and dissimilarities between the various governments.
This method of study has been criticised on the ground that it is descriptive,
parochial and cannot be genuinely regarded as comparative. Further, it concentrates
only on formal-legal structure and confines itself only to the governments of western
countries. Despite this criticism, it cannot be denied that the configurative method
has greatly contributed to the popularity of comparative government. It has enabled
the average student to acquire basic knowledge about the various governments and
thus provided a sound basis for the study of comparative governments.
5. Area Studies
In the post World War II period certain scholars undertook comparative study of
cluster of countries in a particular area on account of their cultural uniformity. Some
of the prominent studies of this type include Governments and Politics of South East
edited by Kalin, Governments and Politics in Latin America by Davis, and Government
and Politics of Middle East by Harari. The Area Studies constituted an improvement
over the configurative method in so far as they provided a deeper understanding
about the socio-economic and political systems prevailing in countries of a particular
region. The Area Studies are important in so far as they enable us to know which
particular political institutions can be successful under different kinds of conditions.
On the basis of this study, we can determine the factors which contribute to the
successful working of democracy and those which give rise to military dictatorships.
6. Problem Method
Comparative study has been made through problem approach. Under this method
scholars take up certain set problems like bi-carmeralism, federal system,
parliamentary or presidential governments etc. and try to examine them through the
study of their operation in a number of countries. In the post World War II period
scholars have adopted the problem method to deal with the questions of poverty,
unemployment, industrialisation, nationalisation prevailing in different countries of
Asia, Africa and Latin America and try to put forth certain set principles for their
resolution. It may be observed that comparative study on the basis of problem
method
Politics 175
can be effective only if the study is based on analytical observations and an interdisciplinary approach is adopted.
7.
Institutional Functional Approach
Finally certain scholars like Herman Finer, Char J. Friedrick etc. tried to make a
comparative study of governments by concentrating on the study of various political
institutions like political parties, legislatures, cabinets etc. in different countries with a
view to determine their role and functions in different conditions. This method of
study of comparative government and politics, though an improvement over some of
the earlier traditional methods, also suffers from a serious shortcomings in so far it
tried to study the various institutions by removing them from their natural context.
CRITICISM OF TRADITIONAL APPROACH
The traditional approach for the study of comparative governments is deficient in so

far as it
concentrates only on the study of political institutions, constitutional structure

and rules, and pays no attention to political interactions and political behaviour.
Usually the following shortcomings of the traditional approach are highlighted.
Firstly, it has been alleged that traditional approach is essentially noncomparative in so far as scholars adopting this approach have concentrated on
the study of political institutions existing in different countries and hardly makes
any attempt to relate the discussion of politics, in various countries with each
other.
Secondly, the scholars adopting traditional approach have mainly
concentrated on the study of political institutions like legislature, executive,
judiciary and bureaucracy, and completely ignored the non-political factors which
influence the working of these institutions. They also did not take into account
the social, economic and cultural factors which influence the working of these
Thirdly, the traditional approach is essentially descriptive rather than analytic.
As a result it has only dealt with the various problems but not offered any
solutions for these problems. Further,
it has also failed to put forth general principles or explain the real nature of the
Fourthly, the traditional approach is narrow in the sense that it concentrates
only on the study of western political systems and hardly pays any attention to
the study of political systems of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Further, it did not
attach much importance to the study of non-democratic political systems of
Europe.
Fifthly, the traditional approach is deficient in so far as it offers only a
description of the political institutions and hardly pays any attention as to how
these institutions actually work.
Sixthly, the traditional scholars failed to appreciate the value of interdisciplinary approach. They failed to realise that for a proper understanding of
the political institutions it is vital to understand the social, cultural and economic
factors which influence these institutions.
Despite the various shortcomings of the traditional approach, it cannot be
denied that it played a significant role in the development of comparative
government and politics. It encouraged detailed study of the various political
institutions in different countries which greatly helped in the understanding of
their true nature. It was only with the advancement in the field of technology and
science and greater political development that political institutions grew
complex. They began to be influenced by numerous economic, social, cultural
and political factors. In the light of these developments the traditional approach
lost its utility and new approaches for the study of political systems made their
appearance.
MODERN APPROACHES
The term 'modern approach' for the study of comparative politics refers to the
approaches developed by scholars in the present century for the study of political
institutions. Unlike the traditional approach the modern approaches do not
concentrate only on the study of political institutions but also take into account the
informal process of politics which greatly influence the working of these institutions.
The lead in the development of modern approaches was provided by the American
scholars, although soon it was
176
adopted by scholars in other countries. The scholars adopting modern
approach for the study of comparative politics tried to build up a theory on

the basis of scientific analysis.
One of the major factors which obliged the scholars to develop new
approaches for the study of political systems was the emergence of large
number of independent countries in Asia and Africa. It was no more possible
to study their political institutions with the help of traditional approach.
Highlighting this point Merkl says "The most momentous single factor for the
current transformation of the study of comparative politics... was the rising
importance of the politics of the developing areas... With the great rush of
former colonies to independence and nationhood and their increasing
importance in world politics, they simply could no longer be ignored. Legions
of social scientists visited developing countries in Asia, Afrifca, the Middle
East and Latin America and their research reports and theorising had a
revolutionary impact on the study of comparative politics."
MAIN FEATURES OF MODERN APPROACHES

The modern approach to the study of comparative politics is characterised by
following features:
1. It does not confine itself to the study of legal institutions alone but also
takes into account the political process and the various factors which
influence this political process. Thus it is essentially inter-disciplinary.
2. It lays great emphasis on theory building and is not merely descriptive.
It holds that descriptive method is not helpful in understanding the true
nature of political process and lays great emphasis on analysis and
explanation. On the basis of such an examination it draws certain
conclusions and enunciates certain principles. ~
3. Modern approach is essentially interdisciplinary. It tries to understand
the political phenomena with the help of features borrowed from other
disciplines, and lays great emphasis on field work and empirical
observations.
4. In contrast the traditional scholars who concentrated on the study of
constitutional and legal aspects of political institutions, the modern
approach tries to study the political systems by envisaging a close
relationship between the structure and functions of these institutions.
In other words, it attaches more importance to political system rather
than the law and the constitution.
VARIOUS MODERN APPROACHES

After understanding the main features of the modern approaches, it shall be
desirable to know about some of the prominent modern approaches in some
details.
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

The structural functional approach in political science developed in the
second decade of the present century. This approach started in
Mathematics by Leibriz found its way into Political Science through
Sociology and Anthropology. The chief exponents of this structural
functional approach were Marion Levy, Robert Merton, Talcott Parson,
Mitchel, Apter, Almond, David Easton etc. Under the structural-functional
approach the state or government are not treated as units, rather the
political system is treated as a unit and an effort is made to find out the
centre of authoritative decisions. Accordingly this approach is helpful in
making a systematic study of the functions performed by the political
system and their mutual relations. In short, this approach seeks to make a
study of the political systems and institutions and tries to impart
knowledge about the similarities and dissimilarities of the various
systems
The structural-functional approach assumes that the political system is
merely a sub-system of the main social system, which performs
distinctive function of making legitimate policy decisions or which works
for 'goal attainment' for the society of which it is apart. This approach is
based on the following basic assumptions:
1. The society is a single inter-connected system in which each element
performs a specific function. As a result of the
Politics 177
interaction of the various components of the system a sort of equilibrium is

maintained. "The functional analysis seeks to understand a behaviour pattern
or a socio-cultural institution in term of the role it plays in keeping the given
system in proper working order and thus maintaining it as a going concern."
2. Secondly, the various parts of the main system (society) are interrelated and
the social system has a built-in tendency for stability. As a result, the
deviations and tensions within the system are automatically resolved. In other
words the system undergoes constant and gradual adjustments.
3. Thirdly, there are certain broad aims and principles of the system which are
observed by the members. In other words value consensus and on-going
usefulness of the system are important factors.
As the very title of this approach suggests, it revolves round two key concepts
structures and functions. To understand this approach fully, it shall be desirable to
understand these two concepts. Structure generally refers to those arrangements
within the system which perform the functions. For example, a political party is a
structure which performs important functions within the system. Similarly the
pressure groups and other formal institutions of the government also constitute the
structure. The functions, on the other hand are "those observed consequences which
make for the adaptation or readjustment of a given system; and dys-functions those
observed consequences, which lessen the adaptation or adjustment of the system."
According to Edwin Fogelman "In its widest usage functionalism means simply that in
analysing some phenomena the political scientists will be concerned with, among
other things, their functions in the sense of purpose served by the phenomena." In
short functionalism has three basic features viz. (a) a fact or event which needs
explanation; (b) events in which that fact is being reflected; and (c) the relation of
that fact with the whole event.
Some of the important works based on structural-functional approach include

Almond and Coleman's 'The Politics of Developing Areas'
Almond and Powell's 'Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach' Mitchell's
'The American Polity' etc.
Merton made special contribution to the structural-functional approach. He draws
a distinction between functions and dys-functions. He also makes a distinction
between manifest functions and latent functions. He says 'functions' are those
observed consequences which make for the adaptation or adjustment of a given
system, 'dys-functions' are those observed consequences which lessen the adaption
or adjustment of the same. Similarly he means by manifest functions those functions
whose purposes and consequences are both intended and recognised. The latent
functions are those whose purposes and consequences are covert, unintended and
unrecognised. But probably the most important contribution of Merton to the
structural-functional approach was that he emphasised that the structuralfunctionalism could throw considerable light on the process of political modernisation
in the name of conservatism. Merton also emphasised that we should not confine to
the study of the manifest alone but also pay attention to what is latent. However,
Merton's approach suffered from certain drawbacks. Firstly, he asserted that
government and politics should aim at achieving some social objectives, but did not
explain those social objectives. Secondly he failed to establish a clear link between
the political and social methods and functions. Thirdly, though Merton drew a
distinction between governmental and political methods, he did not discuss their
relations in detail. Fourthly, Merton took only government and politics into account
and neglected other elements of social system. He also failed to explain the
relationship between the social system and the government or administrative
agencies.
Mitchell was another prominent American political writer who made valuable
contributions to the structural functional approach. He was greatly influenced by
Talcott Parson, the great sociologist. Mitchell described the policy as a subsystem
which was primarily concerned with the mobilisation of the resources to meet the
goals of the system. He did not limit himself to the consideration of the mobilisation
of resources to
178
meet systems goals alone but also pointed out the ways in which political processes
contribute to performance of all the functions.
After Mitchell, Apter gave a new direction to the structural functional approach. He
made a study of the political system in systematic terms and gave the classification
and analysis of types of government. He also tried to bring about a workable
reconciliation between the
normative and empirical dimensions of political theory. He paid special

attention to the study of the political system of the third world countries. He tried
to study the political system in three respects nature and purpose of the
government types and models of the government, and functions of the
government.
As regards the nature and purpose of the government, Apter insists it is the
business of a political scientist to see conditions under which a government can
maintain itself during the period of transition, without causing loss to its
legitimacy. With regard to the models of government, he suggests that the
modernising governments should be placed in the category of pre-democratic
rather than anti-democratic category. Apter holds that all political systems are
characterised by a number of functions. He says all political systems must act as
(i) the loci of sanctions in a society (ii) providers of symbols linking a people's
past and future; (iii) the responsible agents for the orderly arrangement and
performance of roles in the system; and (iv) the providers of criteria for deciding
on membership and participation in the society. Thus Apter, like other Structuralfunctionalists tries to make a search for the functional and structural requisites of
the Government.
Accourding to Almond a political system has four basic characteristics which
he designates as 'legitimate patterns of interactions'. These are as follows:
(i) Every political system has its structures some more specialised and others
less specialized which perform more specialised functions and less specialised
functions respectively, (ii) Despite the differences between the system and its
structures, same political
functions are performed by all the political
systems, (iii) Political
functions which can be
designated as 'multifunctional', (iv) All political systems being part of the
society have a culture of their own which
is a mixture of the traditional and modern. Almond holds that the environmental
factors greatly influence the roles, structures and subsystems and offer an inputoutput analysis with seven variables. Out of these four are designated by him as
input functions viz. political socialisation and recruitment; interest articulation;
interest aggregation; and political communication. The three output functions
mentioned by him include rule making, rule-application and rule adjudication. Almond
holds that the input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-system viz.
the society and the general environments, while the output functions are performed
by the three organs of the government viz. the legislature, the executive and the
judiciary.
CRITICISM OF THE STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

Though the structural functional approach proved very popular, it suffers from serious
shortcomings. Some of the important defects of this approach are enumerated below:
Firstly, the structural functional approach is primarily applied to static relationship
and aims at systems maintenance. In other words, it is alleged that this approach is
anti-change. It is primarily concerned with the present and has no perspective of the
future.
Secondly, it is alleged that this approach is not helpful in understanding the
political systems of the developing countries. It is indeed difficult to understand how
the principles of empirical investigation devised in sophisticated societies of the west
can be applied to the Afro-Asian countries. As Edward Shills has said that the basic
problem of the "new states" is that they do not form a single civil society: they are
scarcely able thus far to produce a polity that can supply the personnel necessary to
run a modem society. They lack the affirmative attitude towards rules,
Politics 179
persons and actions that is necessary for consensus". This approach is not helpful in
analysing the problems of religion, caste, poverty, linguism etc. which pervade the
countries of the third world.
Thirdly, the structural-functional approach is wrong in so far as it tries to explain
the origins of a condition of pattern of action in terms of it being a functional
necessity for the survival of the system. It leads to an unwarranted twisting and
distorting of empirical realities in the interests of conceptual and theoretical
neatness.
Despite the above defects of the structural functional approach, it cannot be
denied that it has helped in dealing with most parts of the manageable collection of
variables; and provided a set of standardised categories that can be applied
successfully over widely disparate political systems.
2.
Systems Approach
This approach envisages the political system as a sub-system of the larger social
system which is constantly engaged in communication with entities and systems
outside its own boundaries. Scholars have viewed political systems in three different
contexts viz. as a guided missile, as a convertor of inputs into outputs, as a kind of
structure performing particular kinds of functions. Those who regard the political
system as a 'guided missile' hold that the political system operates in a particular
way and automatically adjusts the course of the systems in the light of pressures,
both internal and external, towards a target. Those who treat the political system as a
convertor hold that the political system operates on the same principles as an
automatic machine and converts the inputs into outputs. The input are made in the
nature of demands (viz. opening of educational institutes or hospitals) on the political
system. These demands are supported in the form of payment of taxes and
obedience to the system. The demands and support culminates in the form of outputs (policies). As a result of these policies certain changes take place in the
environments and new demands emerge which are again fed into system and, given
necessary support, which leads to new output. This process of feed back continues.
Finally, some scholars have viewed
political system as a kind of structure which performs particular kinds of functions
which are vital for the survival of the system.
The systems approach despite its enormous popularity suffers from numerous
defects. Firstly, it is not helpful in the study of political aspects of such matters as a
perception, exception, formation or cognition. Secondly, the approach is defective
because it is concerned
only with the present and does not view the social reality in historical terms.
Thirdly; the approach is not helpful for the study of political systems of third
world countries because the models based on the western political systems are
not applicable to them. However, despite these shortcomings, it cannot be
denied that the systems approach has opened up "new question and carved new
dimensions for investigations into the political processes and several of them can
be used to great advantage by political scientists in their own analysis of political
phenomena".
3.
Decision-Making Approach
The decision making approach envisages a continuous process which involves

selection of a problem, followed by search for full information and consideration
of various alternatives before a final decision emerges. According to Lasswell
there are seven functional stages in the decisionmaking process. At the first
stage, known as information stage the problem is identified. At the second stage
known as recommendation various alternatives are considered. At the third stage
known as prescription, selection is made from various alternatives. At the fourth
stage known as innovation, provisional enforcement of the selected alternative is
made. At the fifth stage, the specific alternative is applied or implemented. At the
sixth stage a review of decision or its effect is made. At the final stage known as
termination stage, the decision is renewed, revised or repealed. However, March
and Herbert hold that only four kinds of processes are involved in decisionmaking
viz. problem solving, persuasion, bargaining and politics.
The decision-making approach is considered defective in many respects.
Firstly, there is no unanimity amongst scholars regarding the methods and
techniques of decision-making.
Secondly, it wrongly assumes that the decisionmakers act only in a rational manner
and their idiosyncracies do not effect their decisions. Thirdly, there is a possibility
that the decisionmakers may delegate their authority to subordinates who may act
on their behalf and their action may be legitimatized by the legal authority. But it
cannot be denied that despite its shortcomings the decision-making approach has
made valuable contribution to the study of political system.
4.
Political Economy or Marxist Approach
Finally the Marxian approach tries to examine the political systems with reference to
their economic systems. It asserts that the political systems are merely expressions
of the economic requirements of the society and the social groups and changes in the
economic system automatically lead to changes in the political system. The Marxian
approach is also highly defective and suffers from
following shortcomings. Firstly, it attributes all the misfortunes to the capitalist
system and asserts that these misfortunes would automatically come to an end with
the disappearance of the capitalist system. It represents the conflict purely in terms
of class struggle which is wrong. The main cause of conflict in life is the opposition
between the claims of the individual and the society. Secondly, the approach is
defective in so far as it makes only macro level study of the political system. Thirdly,
it attaches more importance to the motives rather than the methods. Despite these
shortcomings it cannot be denied that the approach provides "guidance in asking and
answering questions concerning virtually every phase of political life. It is an allembracing and all-pervasive system of thought."
Though the different modern approaches suffer from various defects they have
certainly contributed to the growth of systematic and scientific study of political
science.
_20Constitutionalism in
Theory
and Practice
Every country must have a constitution according to which the government of the
country is carried on. A constitution can be defined as a body of rules, written or
unwritten, according to which the governsment of a state is carried on. These rules
not only lay down the form of the government, the structure and functions of the
various organs of government but also prescribe the rights and duties of citizens.
According to Woolsey constitution is the collection of principles according to which
the powers of the government, the rights of the governed and the relations between
the two are adjusted.
According to Friedrich "The constitution is the process by which the governmental
action is effectively restrained." Herman Finer says "The state is a human grouping in
which rules and certain power relationship between its individual and associated
constituents. This power relationship is embodied in political institutions. The system
of fundamental political institutions is the constitution."
Jean Blondel gives a threefold definition of constitution. In the first place constitution
has a prescriptive connotation. In this sense 'constitutional' rule is one which
emphasises restraint on the powers of the government and gives maximum freedom
to the citizens. Secondly,
constitution may refer to the 'document which creates the structures which
may or may not embody the forms. Thirdly, constitution may refer to the actual
organisation of the polity, a mere description of the institutions.
Wade and Philips describe the constitution as "a document having a special
legal sanctity which
sets out the framework and the principal functions of the organs of government
of a state and declares the principles governing the operation of these organs."
Brewster defines constitution as "the basic law of a state which outlines the
framework and procedures of government, defines its powers and functions,
provides how constitutional changes may be made and in a democracy, usually
guarantees the citizens certain protections against arbitrary governmental
action. Whether in so-called written or unwritten form, a constitution serves as
the foundation of a state's political institutions and practices." Prof. C.F. Strong
has given a very elaborate definition of constitution. He describes a Constitution
as a collection of principles according to which the powers of the government,
the rights of the governed and the relations between the two are adjusted. It may
be deliberate creation on paper; it may be found in one document, or it may be a
bundle of separate laws given special authority as the laws of the constitution.
Or, again, it may be that the bases of the constitution are fixed in one or two
fundamental law while the rest of it depends for its authority upon the force of
custom. But whatever its form, a true constitution will have the following facts
about it very clearly marked: (1) how the various agencies are organised; (2)
what power is entrusted to those agencies; (3) in what manner such power is to
be exercised."
A perusal of the above definitions of constitution highlights the following
features of a constitution.
1. First, it is a collection of principles or laws which enjoy special sanctity.
182
2. Secondly, it is available in the form of written document or documents. Some

of the laws may also be based on customs, usage or conventions.
3. Thirdly, the laws of constitution determine the structure of the main organs of
government, distribution of sovereign power between various authorities, the
manner of effecting change in the constitution, and relations between the
citizens and various organs of government.
4. The Constitution generally contains a statement of objectives, structure of
government, and distribution of power among different organs of government
and various levels of government as well as rights of individuals and limitations
of the authority of government.
In short, the constitution aims at defining the operations of the sovereign power
by guaranteeing the rights of the governed and limiting the arbitrary action of the
government.
WRITTEN AND UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTIONS

Broadly speaking, there are two types of constitution-written and unwritten. A written
constitution is one in which the fundamental rule of governance are laid down in
writing in one or more documents. A written constitution is the result of conscious
effort, and is generally created by a Constituent Assembly. India, U.S.A., France and
many other countries possess a written constitution.
An unwritten constitution of one which has not been reduced to writing. It is the
result of slow process of growth and is mainly dependent on customs and
conventions. An unwritten constitution is not created by any particular body at any
particular period. The Constitution of Britain is an unwritten one.

It has been contended by scholars that the difference between the written and
unwritten constitutions is one of degree rather than of kind, because no constitution
is wholly written or unwritten. A written constitution has many unwritten rules in the
shape of conventions, while
an unwritten constitution also possesses some written parts in the form of
documents. Therefore, Leacock has observed "the distinction between states with
written and those with unwritten constitution is on illusory basis of division". Michael
Stewart also says "Although a distinction is sometimes drawn between 'written' and
'unwritten' constitutions, all constitutions are, in fact, a mixture of written law and
unwritten customs." Even if it is conceded that the distinction between a written and
unwritten constitution has no scientific validity, it has to be admitted that a written
constitution is generally considered to be more sacred and enjoys greater rigidity
than unwritten constitution.
RIGID AND FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTIONS

On the basis of the amendment procedure, the constitutions are classified as rigid
and flexible. Generally, the constitution which have grown organically and consist of
variety of laws, conventions and customs are flexible. On the other hand, the
constitutions which are created through systematic, exhaustive and conscious labour
are rigid. A rigid constitution requires a special procedure for amendment which is
more complicated than the ordinary law-making procedure. The Constitution of USA
is an example of rigid constitution. A flexible constitution can be amended through an
ordinary law making procedure. The Constitution of Britain is flexible.
It may be noted that the above distinction between the rigid and flexible
constitution is not absolute and the so-called rigid constitution. For example, the
Constitution of Britain, even though known as flexible constitution, has undergone
very little changes since the basic principles of the Constitution were settled. On the
other hand, the provisions of a rigid constitution may be more frequently amended.
Further at present there is tendency to have flexible constitutions. Hence the
distinction between the rigid and flexible constitution merely rests on the presence or
absence of a special procedure for the amendment of the constitution. However, it
cannot be denied that the rigid constitution, possessing special procedure for
amendment, possesses greater stability and permanence and cannot be easily
Constitutionalism in Theory and
Practice 183
changed according to the whims of the political rulers or popular

passions. It also evokes greater popular respect. But the rigid constitution
certainly obstructs the growth of society by preventing changes in the
constitution according to the requirements of the time.
On the other hand, a flexible constitution can mould itself according to
the requirements of the times. As Bryce has put it, the flexible
constitution "can be stretched or bent so as to meet the emergencies
without breaking their framework; and when the emergency has passed,
they slip back into their old form like a tree whose outer branches have
been pulled aside to let a vehicle pass". The flexibility reduces the
chances of revolutions because it is easy to effect changes through
constitutional methods.
ENACTED AND EVOLVED CONSTITUTIONS

Some writers also classify the constitutions as evolved and enacted. The
evolved constitution means a constitution which has grown imperceptibly
over the years. The evolved constitution is based on experience and is
also described as historical constitution. The constitution of Britain is an
evolved constitution. On the other hand, an enacted constitution is
framed by a constituent Assembly at a particular time and is based on
some philosophical principles. Generally the provisions of an enacted
constitution are pieced in one or more documents. The Constitutions of
U.S.A. and a number of other countries are enacted constitutions.
Similarly the Constitution of India is an enacted constitution because it
was framed by a constituent Assembly specially set up for the purpose.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD CONSTITUTION

A good constitution has some special
characteristics which are as follows:
1. It must be definite. In this respect written constitutions, carefully
worded are considered better than an unwritten constitutions based on
customs and practices.
2. The constitution should be comprehensive and cover the whole field of
government.
3. A good constitution should be brief because comprehensive
constitutions offer greater possibilities of disputes regarding
interpretation of provisions of constitution.
4. The constitution should have a fair amount of elasticity so as to mould
itself according to the changed conditions. As such details regarding
governmental organisation and policy, which strictly speaking do not
constitute constitutional matters, should be left to be determined by
the government through ordinary laws.
5. In democratic countries a good constitution invariably contains a
chapter on fundamental rights and liberties of citizens.
6. Finally, the constitution should be inkeeping with the social, political
and economic conditions prevailing in the country.
CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT
After acquiring a brief idea about the meaning and kinds of constitutions, it
shall be desirable to know the meaning of constitutional government. A
constitutional government is a government by law rather than men. Naturally
it is carried on for the public or general good as distinguished from the good
of a particular perscth section or group. It is also carried on through general
regulations rather than through arbitrary decrees. A constitutional
government is also based on willing support of the subjects rather than force.
In short, it is a limited government in as much as the government is not
permitted to perform certain kinds of activities and also not allowed to
interfere in the sphere of private activity. Further the various organs of
government have to work in accordance with the procedure outlined by or
under the constitution. In the words of Prof. Wheare "Constitutional
government means something more than government according to the terms
of a constitution. It means government according to rule as opposed to
arbitrary government; it means
184
government limited by desires and capacities of those who exercise power."

Verney says there are three basic postulates of constitutional government. First,
the electorate participates in the selection of the rulers. Second, there is division of
powers between the executive and the legislature even though it does not mean
separation of power. Third, the legislature must not be inferior to the executive in
respect to their powers.
GROWTH OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENTS

The origin of the constitutional governments is generally traced back from the times
of the early Greek City States. Plato first of all discussed about constitutional
government in his Politics, even though he regarded it as the second best
government. He considered rule by philosopher, unhampered by law, as the best
government. However, he conceded that such a government was only an ideal of
which an actual state can never be more than an approximation and usually not a
very close approximation. But it was Aristotle who made significant contributions to
the development of constitutionalism and provided a definition of constitutional rule.
Aristotle considered the observance of the laws or the constitution as the test of good
citizenship.
The Roman State also greatly contributed the development of constitutional rule by
emphasising the principles that the people alone are the source of all laws and the
king ultimately derive his authority from the people. But probably the greatest
contribution to the development of constitutional rule was made by the Conciliar
Movement during the middle ages. This movement tried to discover the means for
establishing constitutional government in the church. This provided a fillip to political
philosophers like Marsiglio of Padua, William of Ockham
etc. to discuss the problems of sovereignty, nationalism, limitation of

monarchy etc. Thus they clearly sowed the seeds of constitutionalism. However,
during the renaissance period constitutionalism suffered a set-back.
Constitutional government received a new fillip with the Glorious Revolution
of 1688 in England. As a result of this revolution the sovereignty shifted from the
King to the King-in Parliament. Though the King still continued to enjoy extensive
executive power, the emergence of the Cabinet System during the eighteenth
century led to decline in the powers of the king and enhancement in the control
of Parliament over the executive. Soon after the principle of 'rule of law' was also
established. Thus by the end of the constitutional government, even though this
yet it was not wholly democratic.
The American War of Independence (1775-83) and French Revolution (1789)
also greatly contributed to the growth of constitutional government. The thirteen
colonies after declaring themselves independent of the British introduced a
series of democratic changes and drafted a constitution. This marked the
beginning of modern documentary constitutionalism. In the wake of French
Revolution of 1789, the French National Assembly drew up the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of Citizens asserting faith in principles of popular sovereignty
and individual rights like right to liberty, property, security and resistance to
oppression. It asserted that law is the expression of general will and no one
ought to be disturbed on account of his opinions. However, constitutional
government in France suffered a quick decline due to anarchy created by reign of
terror and paved the way for despotic rule of Napoleon.
In the wake of industrial revolution in England a new middle class emerged
which led a movement or extension of Franchise. A number of Reform Acts like
Act of 1832,1867 and 1884 were passed which greatly extended the franchise
and thus strengthened the constitutional government. Thus extension of
franchise in Britain led to demand for constitutional government in other
countries of Europe. As a result a number of European countries produced written
constitutions and adopted parliamentary institutions on the model of Britain.
However, their experiment proved short-lived and by the time the First World War
started in 1914, these countries had abandoned constitutional government.
Constitutionalism in Theory and
Practice 185
After First World War democratic and constitional governments were once again
established in a number of states. However these governments could not effectively
tackle the economic problems facing their country and thus opened the door for the
rise of dictatorships in Germany and Italy. This gave a serious setback to
constitutional governments. After the Second World War the dictatorships in Germany
and Italy disappeared and constitutional governments were introduced in these
countries. A number of Afro-Asian countries which became independent after the
Second World War also adopted democratic governments. But constitutional
governments could not work smoothly in most of these countries and they reverted
back to authoritarian rules.
FEATURES OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT

After a brief review of the growth of constitutional government, it shall be desirable to
have an idea about its main features.
The constitutional government means a limited government. It is not permitted to
perform
certain functions or undertake activities which interfere with the private activities of
the individual. In other words it protects the liberties of certain restraints on the
authority of the government.
It may be noted that the presence of a written constitution is no guarantee of

constitutional government. For example, though Great Britain does not possess any
written constitution it is considered as a model of constitutional government. On the
other hand, a number of countries which have written constitutions (specially in Asia
and Africa) have established tyrannical rules within the provisions of the Constitution.
The three prerequisites of a constitutional government are:
1. desire to preserve the stability of the political community;
2. desire for liberty combined with limitation of authority; and
3. desire for justice through general and equal application of laws to everybody
and presence of procedural safeguards.
1.
The
Legislature
The term 'Legislature' has been used for long to designate the organ of the
government, which proposes, alters, and makes laws, although in our times its
functions are not exclusively confined to legislation and it no longer enjoys monopoly
over law-making functions, because this power is also shared by the other two organs
viz. the executive and the judiciary. The Legislature is the most important of the three
organs of the government because it represents the people and tries to represent
their hopes and aspirations in the shape of laws. In fact the modern democratic
system of government cannot be envisaged without representative legislative bodies.
In its absence there are only two alternatives viz. direct democracy, which is hardly
practicable in modern times; and an absolute government, which is obviously a
negation of the popular government. Therefore, it can safely be said that the growth
of modern democracy is inseparably linked with the popular participation in the
election of the legislators and extension of the powers of the Legislature.
ORGANIZATION OF LEGISLATURES
The legislatures of different countries differ in their organisation and operation

according to the national traditions, but there are fundamental similarities in the
organisation of the legislatures of
Britain, United States, Russia, India, etc. All these countries possess Legislatures
with two houses. Thus the British Parliament consists of the House of Commons
and the House of Lords; the American Congress consists of the Senate and the
House of Representatives, the Supreme Soviet in Soviet Union consists of Soviet
of Union and the Soviet of Nationalities and in India the Parliament
comprises of the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. This system of two chambers
(bi-cameralism) originated in England as a result of historical accident but was
adopted by most of the other countries deliberately. For example in U.S.A., the
framers of the constitution adopted bi-cameralism because they were scared of
despotism of a single chambered legislature. They set up the Senate, as an
advisory chamber, to advise the President and to act as a check on the
radicalism of the House of Representatives. However, in certain quarters there
was strong opposition to the idea of bicameralism and it was alleged that the two
chambered legislature was harmful for the country because the two pulled in
opposite directions. In the post revolutionary France the idea of unicameral
legislature was given a practical shape and the French Constitution of 1971
provided for a single-chambered legislature. However, the idea could not take
deep roots. In other countries also the idea of unicameral legislature did not find
favour. For example in Switzerland bicameralism was thought desirable to
provide equal representation to the cantons in the upper house. The other
countries like Canada, Australia, India also fell in line and provided bi-cameral
legislatures.
Generally in a bicameral legislature one house consists of the directly elected
representatives of the people. This house is known as popular or first house. The
other house is organised on different basis in different countries. For example, in
Britain the House of Lords is chiefly a hereditary house, although it also contains
men of high merit like former prime ministers, ambassadors, governors-general,
writers, scientists etc. The members of the Senate in U.S.A. are elected by the
States and act as representatives of the States. In Canada, the
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187
members of the Senate are appointed for lifetime and are supposed to represent an
elite. In India, the Rajya Sabha contains representatives of the states although it also
contains some members who are nominated by the President of India on the basis of
accomplishments in the field of art, literature, culture, social service, etc.
In Soviet Union, the Soviet of Union is constituted on territorial basis, while the
Soviet of Nationalities is constituted on the basis of the nationalities. The Soviet
Constitution, however, does not accord status of lower or upper house to either of the
two houses, even though for all practical purposes the Soviet of Union is regarded as
the lower house and the Soviet of Nationalities as the upper house.
CONTROVERSY REGARDING COMPOSITION OF UPPER HOUSE

(SECOND CHAMBERS)
There is no unanimity among scholars regarding the composition of the second
chamber and no satisfactory formula regarding their composition has been devised
so far. No wonder, in different countries considerable diversity in the structure and
composition of the upper houses is found. Some of the important methods for the
formation the second chamber adopted in different countries are listed below. It may
be noted that more often than not more than two or more methods of these
composition are followed.
(a) Hereditary Principle
This principle has been followed in the formation of House of Lords. Almost ninety
per cent members of the House of Lords consist of hereditary peers. Generally the
eldest son of the deceased member of the House of Lords succeeds him in the same
manner as he succeeds to the family estate under the law of promogeniture. No
doubjt, certain members of the House of Lords are appointed for life like the Law
Lords, the Spiritual Peers, and the Life Peers etc. The Spiritual Peers are elected on
the basis of seniority. But by and large the major part of the House of Lords consists
of hereditary members. The principle of hereditary chamber is considered contrary to
democratic norms and has been condemned. For example, Thomas Paine said "The
idea of hereditary
legislators is as inconsistent as that of hereditary judges or hereditary juries, and as
absurd as hereditary mathematician or a hereditary wise-man, and as ridiculous as a
hereditary Poet Laureate." But the English people despite this criticism have
persisted with hereditary principle of formation of the House of Lords.
(b) Nominated House

In certain countries like Canada the upper house consists of members nominated or
appointed by the executive either for life or for a given term. This method is
considered advantageous in so far the executive can select the best persons
available in the country and appoint them as members of the Legislature. Generally
talented men are reluctant to contest elections because they are not willing to
indulge in mud-slinging, which is inevitable in public elections. Thus the country can
utilise the services of such talented people. However, this method has been criticised
because the nominations are not always made purely on the basis of merit and other
considerations like party loyalty, favouritism etc. come to dominate these
nominations. The nominated membership of the Canadian Senate has come in for
sharp criticism at the hands of Prof. Dawson. According to him the membership of the
Canadian Senate is regarded as "the choicest plums in the patronage basket, and
they have been used without compunction or rewards for faithful party service." No
wonder members appointed on such considerations cannot be held in esteem by the
people. This inevitably undermines the influence of the Senate. Being the 'yesmen' of
the ruling party such members are hardly able to command any respect or play any
effective role.
(c) Direct Election

In certain countries the upper house is directly elected by the people. For example,
the Senate of U.S.A. is a directly elected upper house. Each of the fifty states of the
American federation elects two members of the Senate. Similarly, in Australia the
members of the Senate are directly elected by the people of each of the six states.
This method of constituting the upper house has been condemned because it is
merely a duplication of the lower house. If both the
houses are directly elected, there shall be greater chances of conflict between
the
188
two because neither of the two houses shall be willing to accept a position of
subordination. This would result in frequent constitutional deadlocks. Therefore, this
method of constituting the upper house has not found much favour.
(d) Indirect Election

In certain countries the members of the upper house are indirectly elected through
an electoral body, commonly known as electoral college. This involves double
election. In the first instance the general voters elect a small group of electors, who
in turn elect the members of the Legislature. Therefore, the final choice regarding the
members of the legislature does not rest with the general voters but with the
members of the electoral college, who are elected by the people. The Rajya Sabha is
constituted in this manner. The members of Rajya Sabha are elected by the members
of the various state Legislatures. American Senate was also indirectly elected before
1913. The indirect method of electing the members of the second chamber has been
severely criticised. It is alleged that it limits the powers of the voters. According to
Prof. Laski "of all methods of maximising corruption, indirect election is the worst". He
says that an indirectly elected chamber is at the time of its election, hostile to the
government of the day, it is destructive of the quality of the work, while if it is
favourable it is probably superfluous."
It is evident from the above discussion that there is no fool-proof method for the
constitution of the second chamber. As a result, no single method has found favour
with the various countries. However, Prof. Bluntschli says that while composing
second chamber a distinction between the aristocratic and democratic elements
cannot be ignored. He insisted that both these elements should find representation in
the upper house. J.S. Mill insisted on a second chamber composed of persons having
political experience and training. He said that if one chamber was composed of the
people, the other should be a chamber of statesman i.e. a council composed of all
living public men who have passed through important political offices or employment.
He asserted, that such a Chamber would be "not merely a moderating body or a
simple check, but also an impelling force."
Prof. Sidgwick believes that the best method for the composition of the second
chamber is combination of the principles of nomination and indirect election. He
argues that the indirect election gives to the house a representative character while
nomination helps in adding talent and experience to the legislature. The Rajya Sabha
in India is constituted on the basis of these two principles. While majority of its
members (238) are indirectly elected by the State Legislatures, it also contains
twelve nominated members who are appointed by the President of India from
amongst persons having special knowledge or practical experience of literature,
science, art, culture, social service etc. The Constitutions of South Africa and Italy
also contain provision for the association of certain experienced and outstanding
persons with the upper house of the Legislature.
Bi-Cameralism vs. Uni-cameralism

For a long time a controversy has persisted among scholars whether a bi-cameral
legislature is better or a uni-cameral legislature. While some consider the bi-cameral
legislature good for a democratic state, the others consider the second chamber as
superfluous and contrary to the notions of popular sovereignty. Both the groups of
scholars and philosophers have advanced weighty arguments in support of their
contention, but the issue has not been resolved as yet. It shall, therefore, be
desirable to examine the merits and demerits of the bi-cameralism to arrive at some
conclusion.
ARGUMENTS FOR BI-CAMERALISM

The following arguments have been advanced in
favour of bi-cameralism.
1. Bicamerdlism avoids undue concentration of political power in a single body
and thus prevents its despotism. In the words of J.S. Mill there should be two
chambers so that "neither of them may be exposed to the corrupting influence
of undivided power, even for the space of a single year." Similarly, Lecky has
observed "Nothing can be worse than the government of a single omnipotent
democratic chamber. A second chamber will be able to stop bills aimed at the
betterment of a particular section of people." Bryce also supports this
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contention and says "The necessity of two chambers is based on the belief that the
innate tendency of an assembly to become hateful, tyrannical and corrupt needs
to be checked by the co-existence of another house of equal authority."
2. In the second place the second chamber is considered as a check on hasty and
rash legislation. It is argued that the popularly elected house has a tendency to be
impatient and over-zealous to introduce sweeping changes. These proposals may
be rash, ill-conceived and impractical and may cause damage to the interests of
the people. The second chamber acts as a check on the popular house by
reconsidering and revising the proposals approved by it and thus prevent the harm
which can be done by the rash law enacted by the popular house. This point has
been brought out by Kent thus "One great object of the separation of the
legislature into two-houses, acting separately and with co-ordinate powers, is to
destroy the evil effects of sudden and strong excitement and of precipitate
measures springing from passion caprice, prejudice, personal influence and party
intrigues, which have been found by sad experience to exercise a potent and
dangerous sway in single assemblies."
3. The second chamber interposes some delay between the enactment of law by the
popular house and its implementation. This delay enables the public opinion to get
crystallised on the bill before it is placed on the Statute book. The people get
sufficient time to express their views on the bill before it is finally adopted. Thus
the second chamber exercises a "controlling, modifying and steadying influence."
4. The second chamber is useful because it provides dual basis of representation.

Usually the lower house is directly elected by the people. The second chamber
provides representation to different areas, various institutions, subordinate levels
of government etc. The second chambers are
particularly indispensable for the State having federal system of government.
Generally in a federal system the federating units are provided equal
representation in the. upper house to prevent domination of the national
legislature by the bigger and stronger states. For example, in U.S.A. each
State, sends two representatives to the Senate irrespective of its size.
5. Second chamber is also helpful to provide representation to special classes
and interests. Thus eminent educationists, artists, scientists etc. who are
generally shy of contesting the election can be provided representation in the
second chamber. For example, in India the President is authorised to nominate
12 members of the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament,
from among persons who have distinguished themselves in the field of art,
literature, culture social service etc. The presence of such outstanding persons
in the upper house accords preponderant position to the chamber and more
than counterbalances the popular element of the lower House.
6. The second chamber is practically also desirable. The present day legislature is
so much burdened with work that it can not devote sufficient attention and
time to deliberate upon all the important issues. The presence of the second
chamber leads to division of labour. The Upper House can relieve the popular
House of a part of its burden by taking up for consideration certain noncontroversial bills and thus enable the popular House to concentrate on more
important issues. As the second chamber generally contains very experienced
politicians, statement etc. as members they can fully examine the bill before it
is finally passed.
In view of these advantages of the second chamber scholars like Henry Maine and
Finer have favoured bicameralism. According to Sir Henry Maine "Almost any second
chamber is better than none; on the ground that a well constituted second chamber
provides not a rival
infallibility but an additional security." Prof. Finer

also says "If the two assemblies agree, so much the
better for our belief in the wisdom and justice of
the law, if they disagree, it is time for the people to
reconsider their attitude."
Arguments against Bicameralism (or in Favour of
Unicameralism).
Equally weighty arguments have been advanced
against bicameralism by the critics.
1. In the first place it is argued that since sovereignty resides in the people and is
indivisible, only a single chamber can represent the will of the people. Division
of the legislature into two houses tantamounts to division of the sovereignty
and the will of the people which is not only impracticable but also
unwarranted. In the words of Abbe Sieyes "The law is the will of the people; the
people cannot at the same time have two diferent wills on the same subjects;
therefore, the legislative body which represents the people ought to be
essentially one. Where there are two chambers discord and division will be
inevitable and the will of the people will be paralysed by the inaction."
2. Secondly, on practical grounds also the bicameral system is not favoured. For
example, Abbe Sieyes argues that, "If a second chamber dissents from the
first, it is mischievous; if it agrees with it, it is superfluous." Almost identical
views are expressed by Laski when he argues that if the two houses agree with
each other on every bill, the idea of having a second chamber stands
defeated. If on the other hand, the second chamber impedes the legislation
passed by the first chamber, deadlocks and divisions are likely to occur, which
makes it obnoxious."
3. Thirdly, the reconsideration of a bill passed by one house by the second house
constitutes merely a waste of time and energy. The law making procedure
existing in most of the democratic countries is such that the law is thoroughly
discussed at the various stages before it is finally passed by the House. The
existence of the second chamber leads to duplication
of the deliberations and undue delay in the enactment of urgent laws. If at all any
revision of the bill passed by the popular House is required, this task can be
entrusted to a committee of experts rather than to have a second chamber. Laski
also challenges the utility of the second chamber in this regard. He says "The
necessary checks are always present in the inertia of the masses, and the desire of
a government to avoid large changes which may be disastrous. Any other checks
will almost inevitably be a premium not upon improvement but upon opposition in
terms of vested interests."
4. Fourthly, the second chambers have tended to become the strongholds of the
vested interests and represent the reactionary and conservative forces in the
society. The second house generally tends to block the progressive laws passed by
the popular House and thereby thwart the will of the people. This is certainly
against the democratic norms of government.
5. Fifthly the second chamber is not always in a position to act as a check on the
despotism of the popular House, Generally the upper house consists of indirectly
elected members who cannot claim equality with the directly elected members of
the popular house. For example, the House of Lords in England and the Rajya
Sabha in India cannot exercise any effective restraints on the powers of the lower
houses and are expected to play only a secondary role. The despotism of the
single chamber can be more effectively checked through devices like suspensive
veto of the executive, and second chamber in the same house after some interval
etc.
6. Sixthly even under a federal system the utility of the second chamber is doubtful.
Though ostensibly the members of upper house in a country with federal system
are expected to represent and safeguard the interests of the units, in reality the
members of the upper houses in such countries work along party lines and on
4.
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191
the line indicated by the party bosses. They are hardly able to protect the
interests of the state. On the other hand an independent judiciary can protect
the interests of the units of the federation better than the second chamber.
7. The second chamber is highly expensive proposition and is a serious drain on
the national exchequer. The expenses on the maintenance of the second
chamber are out of proportion to the little good that it may sometimes be able
to do. From the economic view point the second chamber is considered a
luxury and its abolition has been favoured. On this very count second
chambers have been abolished in most of the states of India.
8. The existence of bi-cameralism leads to division of responsibility. Not only the
two Houses tend to be inactive in the hope that the other House will take due
care of the things, it is also difficult to fix the responsibility.
9. Finally, the existence of the second chamber has also been criticised because
there is no satisfactory method for its composition. While a hereditary or
nominated second chamber is considered as undemocratic, the directly
elected second chamber is merely a duplication of the popular house. Again, if
the second chamber consists of indirectly elected representatives, favouritism,
and nepotism shall play a pre-dominant role in the election of the members.
In view of the shortcomings of the bicameralism Prof. Laski has strongly pleaded
for a single-chambered legislature. He says "it is better to have directly singlechamber government and to throw the burden of control upon the electorate which
chooses the chamber and the executive which directs its activities." But the views of
Laski have not found favour. In actual practice, however, the second chambers have
been established in most of the democratic countries and have come to be
recognized as essential feature of a representative government. Most of the leading
countries of the world have adopted
bi-cameralism, even though the issue whether bicameralism is better or the
unicameralism is better has not been finally resolved. By and large the scholars have
come to share the views of J.S. Mill that "If all other constitutional questions are
rightly decided it is but of secondary importance whether the parliament consists of
two chambers or only of one."
FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATURE

The functions of the Legislature to a large extent depend on the system of
government prevailing in a country. In a despotic system of government the
legislature is merely a consultative body and occupies a subordinate position to the
executive. It merely performs those functions which the executive head wants it to
perform. On the other hand, in a parliamentary system of government the legislature
occupies a pre-eminent position. It exercises control over the executive and can oust
it from office by a vote of no confidence. In other words, the executive is not only
accountable to the legislature but also stays in office as long as the legislature wishes
it to stay in office. In a Presidential system of government based on the principle of
separation of powers, the executive and the legislature are independent of each
other. The legislature is neither subordinate to the executive nor can it exercise any
control over the executive. For example, the President of U.S.A. is not accountable to
the legislature nor does he enjoy any effective control over the Congress (the Federal
Legislature). In short, it can be said that there is no uniformity in the functions
performed by the legislatures of different countries. However, the following functions
are performed by most of the Legislatures:
1.
Legislative Functions
One of the basic function of the legislature is to make laws in accordance with the
requirements of the society and to make necessary amendments in the existing laws
according to the changed circumstances. It also repeals old and unwanted laws which
have become obsolete. The task of legislation is a two fold processdeliberation and
drafting of laws. The legislature deliberates on issues of public importance and
reduced them to
laws. It may be noted that deliberation is not done by the legislature alone.
Numerous individuals, organizations etc. also take part in this process. Opinions are
expressed on various public issues through press, platform etc. and the legislature
tries to formulate this opinion into laws. As regards the formulation of the laws the
initiative has largely slipped into the hands of the executive. Under a Parliamentary
system of government the laws are drafted by the executive and the legislature
merely accords its approval. In view of the highly technical nature of laws in modern
times generally the bills are formulated in general terms and the details are filled by
the various departments of the government through its power of formulating the
rules. No doubt, these rules are subject to the approval of the legislature, but due to
paucity of time the legislature can hardly exercise any effective supervision. In the
Presidential system of government where the executive is not directly concerned with
the making of laws, the executive exerts influence on the law making process
through presidential messages and issuing necessary party directive to the members.
2. Financial Functions
In most of the democratic countries the legislature exercises complete control over
national finances. No expenditure can be incurred or taxes raised without the
approval of the legislature. This is based on the principle of "no taxation without
representation." In all countries the legislature passes annual budget and earmarks
funds for various departments. This exclusive power to control the finance of the
country gives the legislature a position of ascendancy over other branches of
government.
3. Administrative Functions
The Legislature also performs important administrative functions. Under almost all
types of governments, the legislature exercises supervision and control over the
administrative wing of the government. Under Parliamentary system of government
this control is more direct and
effective. The Cabinet is accountable to the legislature for all its acts of omission
and commission. The legislature can seek information from the government on
various matters of
administration. It can critisise its policy and action and in extreme cases even
can oust it from office by passing a vote of no confidence. The legislatures in
India, England, Canada etc. enjoy this kind of power. On the other hand, under a
Presidental system of government the Legislature is not given specific power to
exercise control over the executive. Still the legislature exercises important
administrative functions. For example in U.S.A. the Senate, the upper house of
Congress, approves all the federal appointments made by the President.
Similarly, all the treaties and agreements concluded by the President of U.S.A.
must be approved by the Senate by two-thirds majority before they become
valid. The Congress also enjoys the power to appoint investigating committees to
look into various scandals and lapses of the government. Through these
investigating committees the Congress is able to exercise full control over the
executive.
4.
Judicial Functions
In most of the countries the legislature also enjoys important judicial power. For
example in Great Britain, the House of Lords is the highest court of appeal. In
countries like U.S.A. and India the legislatures enjoy important powers to
impeach the high political officials. For example in U.S.A., the Senate sits as a
court of impeachment for the trial of the President and the Vice-President, when
the charges of impeachment are preferred by the House of Representative.
Similarly in India charges for impeachment of the President can be preferred by
either of the two Houses of Parliament and the other house investigates these
charges. The impeachment can be effected only if the charges preferred by one
house are upheld by the other House. In most of the countries the legislature also
enjoys the right to recommend the removal of the corrupt judges. The executive
can take action in this regard only on the recommendation of the legislature. For
example, the Parliament of India can recommend to the President the removal of
judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts on grounds of proved
misbehaviour and incapacity by two-thirds majority of the two Houses. In
England also the judges can be removed by the Crown only on address of both
Houses of Parliament.
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193
5. Constituent Functions
The legislature also plays a vital role in the amendment of the constitution. The
British Parliament being a sovereign body acts as a legislature as well as a
constitutional convention. It can modify or repeal any law at will because there does
not exist any difference between the constitutional and ordinary laws. In U.S.A. the
Congress plays a vital role in the amendment of the Constitution. No amendment to
the Constitution is possible unless at least two-thirds members of the Congress pass
a resolution to this effect, or the Congress convenes a special convention at the
request of legislatures of three-fourth of the states. In USSR the amendment to the
Constitution can be effected by the Congress of People's Deputies by two-thirds
majority. This body was set up as a result of amendments to the Soviet Constitution
in 1989 and is often described as Super Parliament. Earlier the constitution could be
amended by the two houses of the Supreme Soviet by two-thirds majority. There is no
need for the consent of the units for effecting an amendment in the Soviet
Constitution. In India, also the amendments to the Constitution can be initiated by
the Parliament most of the provisions of constitution can be amended by Parliament

alone either by simple majority or by two-thirds majority. Even with regard to other
provisions the legislatures of states play a vital role. In short, the legislature has a
vital role in the amendment of the Constitution.
6. Electoral Functions
The legislatures in certain countries perform electoral functions. For example in India
the elected members of the two Houses of the Indian Parliament along with the
elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies participate in the election of the
President of India. In U.S.A. also if in the election of the President and the VicePresident no candidate is able to secure majority of the electoral votes, the House of
Representative elects the President from among the three candidates who have
secured maximum of votes. The Senate enjoys similar powers with regard to the
election of the Vice-President.
It is evident from the above discussion that the legislature in modern times is not
merely a law making body but also performs numerous other functions.
THE DECLINE OF THE LEGISLATURE

It has been alleged by scholars that there has been a decline in the powers of the
legislature in recent years. This feeling has emerged because though the legislature
performs a wide range of functions but it does not enjoy any effective powers. There
is a general trend all over the world that the powers are flowing from the Legislature
to the Executive, and there has been a steady decline in the position of the
Legislature. For example, in Britain the powers have shifted from the Parliament to
the Cabinet. Likewise in U.S.A. the President has come to occupy more powerful
position than was envisaged for him under the Constitution. In case of America the
decline in the position of the Legislature has not been as sharp as in the case of
Legislatures under Parliamentary system of government. But by and large the powers
of most of the legislatures have declined in relation to executive. Professor Peter
Campbell brings out the reasons of this decline thus: "National policy is made by the
governing party's leaders, subject to influence of their back-benchers and their
supporters outside parliament, the civil service, and the various sectional interests
and opinion groups; the fate of governments is decided mainly by the voters at the
general elections. The Government, the majority party, the civil service, the pressure
groups and the electorate at largeit is from their discussions that decisions emerge;
only a small part of these discussions take place in the two chambers and their
lobbies."
The rise of the delegated legislation has also resulted in assumption of extensive
law making powers by the executive. The legislature due to paucity of time and lack
of technical knowledge makes only skeleton laws, leaving the details to be worked
out by the executive. Through this rulemaking power the executive has been able to
make important inroads in the field of law-making.
In the financial sphere also the legislature is no more able to exercise that
effective control, which it once enjoyed. No doubt, even at present the approval of
the legislature is needed for raising funds and incurring public expenditure, but the
executive has come to exercise too tight a control over the finances. Under
Parliamentary government all the financial proposals are worked out by the executive
and the legislature merely approves them. It has neither power to suggest new
expenditure nor can it refuse the money demanded by the executive because it is
taken as a vote of no-confidence against the Ministry, which can have serious
repercussions. Further there is a sizeable portion of public expenditure which does
not fall under the formal control of the legislature. In Presidential system of
government, however, the legislature still retains effective control over the finances
and is free to modify and amend the Budget proposals.
Finally, the traditional methods of control over the executive have not been able
to cope with the new conditions when there has been an enormous increase in the
powers and activities of the government. As a result the executive is not subjected to
an effective control. More often than
not the opposition tries to air spectacular but petty grievances rather than perform
the hard work of systematically surveying a government's policies and proposing
reasonable alternatives. The members of the ruling party on the other hand cannot
indulge in fair criticism of the government's policies due to rigid party discipline. Even
the devices of control like the investigating committees operate along partisan lines
and have failed to act as effective checks on the executive.
In view of the decline in the position of the Legislature, doubts have been
expressed in certain quarters that the legislatures may ultimately be dissolved.
However, these doubts are ill-founded. The legislatures perform certain functions
which cannot be performed by any other agency of the government. What is really
needed is that efforts should be made to restore the legislature to an effective
position. This can be achieved by raising the representative character of the
legislative bodies, streamlining and modernizing their procedure, forging more
effective devices of supervision over executive and improving the quality of
legislators.
11
C HAP TE R
The
Executive
The Executive is that part of the organisation of the government which is concerned
with the enforcement of the laws enacted by the legislature as well as general
administration. In the words of Prof. Gamer "In a broad and collective sense, the
executive organ embraces the aggregate or totality of all the functionaries and
agencies which are concerned with the execution or the will of the state as that will
been formulated and expressed in terms of law." However some writers consider the
executive as something distinct from the administration. For example Prof.
Willoughby draws a clear distinction between the executive and the administrative
functions. He says "The executive power, or rather functions is that of representing
the government as a whole and of seeing that all of its laws are properly complied
with by its several parts. The administrative function is that of actually administering
the law as declared by the legislative and interpreted by the judicial branch of the
government. This distinction is usually made by declaring the executive function be
essentially political in character; that is, one involving the exercise of judgement in its
use; and the administrative function to be one concerned with putting into effect of
policies and the carrying out of orders as determined or given by other organs."
Accordingly some people try to equate the executive functions with the political
executive and the administrative functions with the permanent civil services.
However, this is not correct because the higher civil services also play a significant
role in the formulation of the policy although the final direction and responsibility
rests with the political executive.
KINDS OF EXECUTIVE
The executive can assume various shapes on the basis of its actual position.
Generally we come across the following kinds of executives:
1. Political and Permanent

Executive
In the first instance the executive is divided into political and permanent. By political
executive we mean the body of political leaders who are elected by the people and
hold office for fixed tenure. While they are in office they formulate policy and give
direction the administration. On the other hand, the permanent executive means the
civil servants who have received special training of administrative. The members of
the permanent executive are career servants. They enter the service at an early age
and continue to serve till they reach the age of superannuation. In other words the
political executive holds office for a fixed term and leaves the office as soon as it
loses the confidence of the elected representatives. The permanent executive on the
other
hand is permanent and continues in office for sufficiently long time. The change
of government does not affect their continuance.
2. Nominal and Real Executive

Again, a distinction is drawn between the nominal and real executive on the basis
whether they exercise nominal powers or real powers. The nominal executive, also
known as titular executive, is vested with enormous powers in theory and the whole
administration is carried on in its name. However, in reality it does not exercise
196
these powers. These powers are actually exercised by a different body of persons.
Thus the Queen of England and the President of India are the nominal executives.
They are vested with very extensive powers in theory and the whole administration is
carried on in their name. But in reality all these powers are exercised on behalf of the
nominal executive by the Prime Minister and his collegues. The Emperor of Japan is
also a constitutional or nominal head of the executive.
3. Hereditary and Elected Executive

The Executive can either be hereditary or elective, depending on the manner of its
appointment. If the executive head is appointed on the basis of the principle of
heredity it is known as Hereditary Executive. The Queen of England is a hereditary
executive. On the other hand if the head of the executive is elected, directly or
indirectly, for a fixed term it is known as Elected Executive. Generally the hereditary
principle of appointment of executive prevails in countries having monarchical
system of government. In most of the democratic countries, however, elected
executive is found.
4. Singular and Plural Executive

Executive is also distinguished on the basis of the number of persons in whom the
executive power has been vested. If the executive power is vested in a single person,
such as the President of U.S.A., the executive is known as singular. Similarly, if the
executive authority is vested in a number of persons as a unit, such as the British
Cabinet, the executive is known as singular, because the Cabinet works on the basis
of principle of collective responsibility. On the other hand if the executive authority is
not exercised by a single individual or team but by a group of persons enjoying an
equal and independent authority, the executive is known as Plural. The Federal
Council of Switzerland is the best example of the plural executive. It consists of seven
councillors who enjoy equal powers and are incharge of independent departments.
Each one of' these councillors is elected as Chairman of the Council, by turn.
5. Parliamentary and Non-Parliamentary (Presidential)
Finally, on the basis of relationship between the legislature and the executive the
executive can either be Parliamentary or Presidential. If the Legislative and Executive
Departments are unified and co-ordinated under the control of the same person and
they work in harmony with each other, the executive is designated as parliamentary.
This type of executive is also known as responsible executive because the Cabinet is
responsible to the legislature for all its policies and acts, and remains in office as long
as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature. In this system clearly the legislature
enjoys legal supremacy over the executive. Another important feature of this type of
executive is that the head of the state is only a symbolic head and the real power is
exercised by the elected ministers. This type of Executive is found in Britain, India,
France etc. The Presidential or non-Parliamentary executive, on the other hand
envisages complete independence between the legislative and executive
departments and none of them is subordinate to the other. In this system the head of
the executive is constitutionally independent of the legislature and it is not

accountable to it, for his policies and actions. In the words of Prof. Garner the
Presidential or non-Parliamentary Executive is "that system in which the executive
(including both the head of state and his ministers) is constitutionally independent of
the legislature in respect to the duration of his or their tenure and responsible to it for
his or their political policies. In such a system the chief of state is not merely the
titular executive but he is the real executive and actually exercises the powers which
the constitution and law confers upon him." The Presidential executive is found in
U.S.A.
METHODS FOR THE APPOINTMENT OF EXECUTIVE

The following five methods are in vogue for the appointment of executive in different
countries of the world.
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197
1. Hereditary
The principle of hereditary appointment of the executive is found in countries having
monarchical system of government. Under this system the executive head acquires
the office for life as per law of succession of the country. The Queen of England and
the King of Japan are the examples of hereditary executive.
2. Directly Elected Executive

In certain countries the executive is directly elected by the people. This system
prevails in the South American Republics of Chile, Mexico, Peru as well as Republic of
Ireland. Even the President of U.S.A., though elected through an electoral college, is
virtually the direct choice of the people.
3. Indirectly Elected Executive

In certain countries the executive is elected through a special body known as
electoral college. The members of this body are elected by the people. These
members in turn elect the head of the executive. The President of India is elected in
an indirect manner. Similarly, the President of U.S.A. is also indirectly elected through
an electoral college, although due to rigid party
discipline his election has virtually become direct.
4. Election by the Legislature

Yet another method for the appointment of the executive is election by the
Legislature. This system is followed in Switzerland, Italy etc. The real executive in
countries with Parliamentary system of government also generally consists of
persons who enjoy the confidence of the majority of the members of the popular
house. The President of India is also elected by the members of the Central and State
Legislatures.
5. Nominated Executive
Finally there exists the nominated executive. For a long time the executive heads of
the Dominions of Britain were nominated by the King (Queen) of England. In India the
governor, who is the executive head of the state, is nominated by the President of
India.
FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE

With the conversion of the modern state into a welfare State, the functions of the
executive have
enormously expanded. The functions which are performed by the executive in
different parts of the world can be studied under the following heads:
1. Maintenance of Law and Order

Maintenance, of law and order is one of the basic functions of the executive. For this
purpose each state maintains an army of civil servants who supervise, direct and
control the administration. It also maintains necessary police force to maintain law
and order in the country. It may, however, be observed that the modern executive is
not satisfied with the maintenance of law and order alone and undertakes extensive
public utility activities such as administration of educational institutes, hospitals and
other schemes of social security.
2. Protection of Country and

Maintenance of Diplomatic
Relations
It is the responsibility of the executive to protect the territorial integrity of the
country and promote national interests. For this purpose the executive makes use of
the defence forces. Every country maintains defence forces to meet any possible
attack from foreign countries. The right to declare war and conclude peace, in
accordance with the rules, also rests with the executive. In certain countries the
supreme command of the armed forces is vested in the Chief Executive. For example
in India the President is the commander in-chief of the defence forces. All the forces
are at his command and he has the right to deploy these forces to meet the possible
threats from enemies. Generally, the executive is vested with extraordinary powers
to deal with emergencies arising out of war etc. It can suspend the ordinary laws of
the land and govern the country with the help of the martial law. It can also suspend
the fundamental rights of the citizens.
The executive also maintains diplomatic relations with other countries with a view
to protect and promote national interests. It sends ambassadors, Commissioners and
other types of diplomatic representatives to other countries and receives their
diplomatic representatives. The executive is also empowered to conclude treaties
with foreign countries. However, these treaties and agreements generally come into
force only after they are ratified by the Legislature.
3. Legislative Functions
The Executive also plays a significant role in the enactment of the laws. Under a
parliamentary system of government the executive provides leadership to the
Legislature. It summons, prorogues and can dissolve the popular house. Most of the
bills are introduced and piloted in the legislature by the Ministers and become laws
after receiving the assent of the chief executive. Under the Presidential system of
government also the executive exercises a decisive influence on legislation even
though the influence is exercised indirectly. For example in U.S.A. the President has
the right to convene special sessions of the Congress for consideration of certain
proposals. He also enjoys the right to veto the bills passed by the Congress. Through
these devices he is able to exercise considerable influence on legislation. The
Executive also plays an important role in the legislative process through its power to
work out the details of the various laws passed by the Legislature in skeleton form.
This development, which is popularly known as delegated legislation, has
considerably added to the legislative powers of the executive. Finally, the executive
in certain countries, like India, has the power to issue ordinances to meet unforeseen
eventualities. Such ordinance, issued during the recess of the legislature, give to the
Executive extensive powers of legislation.
4. Judicial Functions
In almost all the leading countries the Chief Executive enjoys the right to grant
pardon, amnesty, reprieve etc, to the persons punished by the law courts. The Chief
Executive also appoints the judges of the various courts. In certain countries like
Great Britain, the Executive Departments have assumed important judicial functions
due to the rise of administrative adjudication. As a result of this development the
various departments have acquired quasi-judicial functions and in certain matters
their decision is final and no appeal can be taken to any court.
5. Miscellaneous Functions
The modern executive performs certain other miscellaneous functions like
formulation of national plans for greater prosperity of the
country, distribution of honours and titles to the persons who distinguish in their
respective fields or render meritorious services to the state, etc. Above all, the chief
executive performs important ceremonial functions and personifies the abstraction
which is the state. This is not only true of the monarchical country Great Britain
where the personal presence of the Queen lends dignity to the various ceremonial
functions, but also the Republic system prevailing in U.S.A. The U.S. President acting
as the executive head also performs usual ceremonial duties such as personal
appearance before the Congress to deliver his message on the State of the Union,
entertaining of the diplomats, inspection of military forces etc.
GROWTH OF EXECUTIVE POWERS IN MODERN TIMES

One of the outstanding features of the working of the Executive in modem times has
been tremendous growth in the powers of the executive. Explaining the reasons for
this development Prof. Carlton C. Rodee observes "on the one hand, the earlier
enthusiasm for the wisdom and competence of representative assemblies has
declined; on the other, a century or more of experience with popularly elected (or
popularly controlled) executive power has dissipated earlier suspicions and
established confidence. Moreover, the rapidly multiplying problems of functions of
democratic governments have virtually compelled the transfer of many powers from
the legislature to the executive. The growing need for prompt governmental action in
the field of domestic and foreign policy has caused the modern legislature to
delegate much legislative authority to the executive, subject as a rule, to guiding
principles and limitations set forth by the legislature." It may be observed that this
growth in the powers of the executive is a feature of both dictatorships and
democracies. In a dictatorships the entire governmental powers are concentrated in
the executive's hands and the legislature does not possess any real share in the
political process. In Parliamentary democracies though the executive is still under
legislative control and all the important issues retaining to domestic, foreign and
fiscal policies are subject to the approval of the legislature, but the initiative has
passed into the
The Executive
199
hands of the executive viz. the Cabinet. Technically even now the legislature has the
exclusive power to declare war and set the limits within which the executive must
operate, but in reality the executive under Parliamentary system provides the
direction and the legislature is hardly able to exercise any real control in this regard.
Similarly, the legislature reviews the working of the various departments while
discussing and voting the demands. In case the executive transgresses its limits or
misuses its powers, the legislature can oust it from office by passing a vote of no
confidence. But all this is possible only in theory. In reality, in modern times the
national will is more accurately expressed in the choice of the chief executive than in
election of the representatives. As Brown has observed, in democratic system
whether Parliamentary or Congressional, the voters are now called upon to choose
essentially between continuation, replacement or modification of the existing
administration. It is now being realized that the success of democracy depends on
strong and dynamic leadership.
The main factors which have contributed the increase in the powers of the
executive in Parliamentary democracies like England have been as follows: (1) In the
present century the Cabinet was given very extensive powers to deal with
emergencies arising out of the First and Second World Wars. The Defence of the
Realm Acts of World War I and the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act of World War II,
vested the Cabinet with full powers to prosecute the war effectively. At the end of the
wars the Cabinet did not relinquish all the powers given to it to deal with the
unprecedented situations and thus gained on the balance. The development of the
practice of allowing the Cabinet to legislate through administrative rules and orders
also greatly increased the powers of the executive and even brought forward charges
of new despotism against the Executive. Above all, the policy of nationalization of key
industries, expansion of public corporations also contributed to the increase in the
powers of the executive. In short, there was enormous growth in the powers of the
executive in England due to two great wars, economic depression and adoption of
collective and socialist policies. Similarly, under Presidential
system prevailing in U.S.A. there was a substantial increase in the powers of the
President. The mobilization of the nation during the two World Wars resulted in
tremendous increase in the authority of the President through grant of powers to
control transportation, communications manpower, foodstuffs and raw materials. The
New Deal measures undertaken to deal with the economic depression also greatly
added to the powers of the President. The powers wielded by the President to deal
with the difficult economic situation invited charges of dictatorship against the
American President.
In France the increase in the powers of the Executive under the Fifth Republic was
so great that doubts began to be expressed whether France still possessed a
Parliamentary government. The President could make a personal choice of the
Premier and acquired great power to dissolve the National Assembly. In times of
emergency, he was given virtually unlimited authority to govern.
Thus we find that the powers of the executive have not only increased in
dictatorial countries but in all the leading democratic countries viz. Great Britain,
U.S.A., and France. This enormous extension in the powers of the executive has
largely been due to change in the notions of government. The modern government
does not merely perform functions of a nigh-watch-man. On the other hand it
provides positive leadership. The executive can perform this task better than the
legislature because it can deal with the changing situations better than the
legislature. As a result, in most of the countries the legislative bodies have left a large
share of policy application, even policy determination to the executive.
The growing tension in the conduct of international relations in the modern times
has also strengthened the position of the executive. It has been entrusted with the
responsibility for the security of the country and all the resources of the country have
been placed at the command of the executive to enable it to deal effectively with the
threats of war and aggression. The need to deal with the modern economic crises
also necessitated extension in executive powers. The executive in most of the
countries was permitted great latitude to prevent the collapse of national economy.
The control exercised over the large battalion of civil servants, engaged to deal with
the ever growing
functions of the government, also gives the executive a pre-eminent position over
other organs of government. Above all, the executive head of the state represents
the nation better because he stands above party politics and thus acquires an
unrivalled position.
In view of the enormous increase in the powers of the executive in modern times,
doubts, have been expressed in certain quarters that it carries the dangers of
executive dictatorship.
However, these doubts are difficult to sustain. The executive in most of

democratic countries has to operate within the constitutional and legislative
limitations prescribed by the Constitution and the statutes. The public opinion
also acts as a serious check on the authority of executive. In extreme cases it can
even demand the removal of the
executive. Further, the executive has to operate through officials whose actions
are subject to control of legislature and the judiciary. In conclusion we can say
with Hitchner and Harbod "so long... as the democratic executive is responsible
and responsive to popular control achieving his position within the framework of
established constitutional arrangements, and performing his duties in accordance
with the law, the concentration of authority he represents is not in itself a threat
to democratic institutions or processes. The dictator appears after, and not
before, representative and responsible government fails, Indeed, the absence of
adequate executive power and the failure of the executive to provide leadership
are the far greater dangers to the successful continuation of democracy."
Chapter
23
Judicia
ry
The Judiciary is the most important organ of the government because through it is
realised the justice as defined by law, both as between one private citizen and
another and as between private citizens and members of government. The term
judiciary is generally applied to designate those officers of the government whose
function is to apply the existing law to individual cases. It is the responsibility of these
officers to discover the relevant facts in any case and protect the innocent from injury
by either the legislatrise or the executive branch of govenment. According to Prof.
Bryce "There is no better test of excellence of a government than the efficiency of its
judicial system, for nothing more nearly touches the welfare and security of the
average citizen than his sense that he can rely on the certain and prompt
administration of justice. Law is respected and supported when it is trusted as the
shield of innocence and the impartial guardian of every private civil right... if the law
be dishonestly administered, the salt has lost its flavour, if it be weakly or fitfully
enforced the guarantees of order fail... if the lamp of justice goes out in darkness how
great is that darkness."
Prof. Marriot highlights the significance of judiciary thus "It matters not how
elaborate the machinery of legislation may be, how scientific the product, how
perfect the organization of the executive, the life of the individual citizen may
nevertheless be rendered miserable, his person and his property will be alike insecure
if there be any defect or delay in the administration of justice or any partiality or
ambiguity in the interpretation of law."
In fact, no civilised state can be envisaged without a Judiciary. According to Kent
"Where there is no judicial department to interpret and
execute the laws, to decide controversies and to enforce right, the government must
usurp powers for the purpose of commanding obedience to the destruction of liberty."
FUNCTIONS OF JUDICIARY
The main functions performed by the judiciary are as follows:
(a)Administration of Justice
The administration of justice is one of the chief functions of judiciary. It decides the
disputes between the individuals as well as individuals and the state. It tries to
investigate and determine the facts on the basis of examination of witnesses and
evidence and tries to decide the case in accordance with the existing laws. The
disputes which cannot be decided in accordance with the existing laws are decided
by the judges on the basis of their common-sense, knowledge and experience. Such
decisions serve as precedents and are followed in similar cases. "The process of
adjudication thus amounts to a supplemental form of legislation, and a large part of
existing law is said to be made by the judges."
(b)
Protects the Rights and Liberties
In all democratic states the citizens are granted certain rights and liberties which are
enshrined in the Constitution. It is the judiciary which protects these rights against
injury and usurpation. It may be observed that the judiciary does not protect the
individual rights only when they are actually violated but can take necessary
remedial measures even when there is the possibility of such a violation. Thus an
individual can appeal to the court, if he has sufficient reasons to believe that attempt
would be made to violate his right, and
the Court can issue necessary injuctions or restraining orders to the concerned
authority to
desist from such violation of individual rights. When such an injuction has been
issued the concerned authority cannot go against the directions of the courts
because any such action would tantamount to contempt of the judiciary and can
be punished.
(c) Protects and Interprets the

Constitution
The judiciary also acts as the interpreter and guardian of the constitution. In
countries with written constitution the judiciary generally vested with the authority to
interpret the constitution and to ensure that the constitution is not violated. If the
judiciary finds that any law of the legislature of any order issued by the executive
infringes any provision of the constitution it can declare the same as ultra vires. This
power of the judiciary is popularly known as power of 'judicial review' and is enjoyed
by the courts under a federal system. On the other hand, in the unitary state of
England where the Parliament has been vested with Supreme Powers, the judiciary
does not enjoy any such powers. It has to apply the laws enacted by the Parliament
without going into their constitutional validity.
(d)
Protector of Federation
In countries with federal system of government, the judiciary acts as the guardian of
the constitution and ensures that both the centre and the states remain within their
respective spheres and operate in the jurisdiction earmarked for them by the
Constitution. In case there is any conflict of jurisdiction between the two, the decision
of the highest court is binding on all the parties. Thus the judiciary plays a vital role in
the functioning of the federal system.
(e)Advisory Powers
In certain countries the judiciary has been vested with certain advisory powers. For
example, the President of India can refer any case of the Supreme Court for its
advisory opinion regarding constitutionality of an act. However, the advice tendered
by the Supreme Court is not binding on the President. In U.S.A., however, the
Supreme Court does not enjoy any advisory powers. It
pronounces upon the constitutionality of a law or act only when the matter is brought
to it in the shape of a specific case of dispute.
(f) Miscellaneous Functions

In addition to the functions enumerated above the courts in different countries
perform certain other kinds of functions which are strictly speaking not judicial in
character. Some of these functions are as follows:
(i) In certain states the Courts are entrusted with the administration of a property
pending the final settlement. The Court appoints certain officials as receivers or
administrators who administer the property in accordance with the orders of the
Court, (ii) In England the Courts enjoys the power to make declarations regarding
the actual requirements of law on the request of the interested parties. In such
cases there is no need to go through the legal formalities of a trial. (Hi) In certain
countries the courts are empowered to grant licences, naturalize aliens, perform
civil marriages, appoint guardians of minors and the administrators of estates, (iv)
In certain countries like India the judiciary decides cases of election. Under Article
71 of the Indian Constitution the Supreme Court of India functions as an election
tribunal with regard to the disputes arising out of the election of the President or
the Vice-President.
(v) In socialist countries the judiciary acts as
the protector of the socialist order. For
example in Soviet Union, the judiciary acts
as a wing of the government and deals
firmly with the enemies of the socialist
system.
It is thus evident that the judiciary in modem

times does not perform only judicial functions and
its area of operation has greatly expanded.
INDEPENDENCE OF JUDICIARY
If the judges have to perform their duties honestly and with integrity it is essential
that they should be
Judiciary
203
independent and should enjoy unfettered freedom in the administration of justice

interpretation of laws. This can be possible only if certain conditions are provided
under which they are able to perform their duties without fear or favour. The judges
must be free from political influences and pressures and should be men of keen
intellect, high legal acumen, integrity and independence of judgement. Some of the
conditions on which the independence of judiciary rests are discussed below:
1.
Mode of Appointment
In the first instance the independence of judiciary is dependent on the mode of

appointment of the judges. In the main three methods for the appointment of judges
are in vogue.
Firstly, in certain countries the judges are elected by the people. This method is
found in certain Cantons of Switzerland and some of the states of U.S.A. In Soviet
Union also the judges of the People's Courts are directly elected by the people.
However, this method of appointment of judges has not been favoured. According to
Prof. Laski "of all the methods of appointment that of election by people at large is
without exception the worst. Popularly elected judges can never be impartial, honest,
independent and dignified." Such judges are likely to be elected on political lines and
shall tend to give their decisions which shall find favour with their electors. This
method of appointment of judges is also defective in so far as ordinary people cannot
fairly weigh the qualities which a judge should possess.
Secondly, in certain countries the judges are elected by the members of the
Legislature. For example in Switzerland the judges of the Federal Court are elected by
the Swiss Federal Assembly. Similarly, in Soviet Union the judges of the Supreme
Court are elected by the members of two houses of the Supreme Soviet. This method
is also defective in so far it leads
to the violation of the principle of separation of powers and subordinates the

judiciary to the legislature. Further, it leads to appointment of judges on party
lines and thus jeopardizes the impartiality of the judiciary. It is well known that
the judges of the Supreme Court in U.S.S.R. are only formally elected by the
Supreme Soviet and in reality their choice is made
by the bosses of the Communist Party. It is indeed difficult to expect such judges
to act independently and they invariably carry out the directives of the party
bosses in the administration of justice.
Thirdly, in most>f the countries the judges are appointed by the executive
head. This method is considered the best of all the prevailing methods in so far
the executive head of the state is best qualified to appoint the right type of
people to the posts of judges. However, even this method suffers from certain
defects. There is every possibility that the head of the executive may make the
appointment of the judges on the basis of party loyalties. Therefore, the best
method for the appointment of the judges would be that the head of the State
should appoint the judges on the recommendations of persons holding high
judicial offices in the State. In India this method has been adopted. The President
of India appoints the judges of the Supreme Court in consultation with Chief
Justice of India and such other judges as he may deem fit. In U.S.A. the judges of
the Supreme court are appointed by the President but their appointment is
subject to the approval of the Senate.
2.
Long Tenure
Another measure which largely contributes to the independence and impartiality

of the judges is their long tenure. If the judges are appointed for a short duration
there is every possibility that they shall try to oblige the appointing authority to
secure their reappointment or extension. There is also a possibility that they may
be tempted to give populist judgements and even indulge in party politics and
intrigues. Similarly, if the judges are appointed for life and there is no provision
for their removal, there is every possibility that corrupt and undesirable judges
may carry on in office. Therefore, the general rule is to appoint the judges for life
during good behaviour. It ensures security of tenure as well as independence of
judgement. According to Hamilton "The standard of good behaviour for the
continuance in office of the judicial magistracy is certainly one of the most
valuable of the modern improvements in the practice of government. In a
monarchy, it is an excellent barrier to the despotism of the prince; in a republic, it
is no less excellent barrier to the
204
encroachment and oppressions of the representative body. And it is the best

expedient which can be devised in any government to secure a steady, upright
and impartial administration of laws." In India the judges of the Supreme Court
hold office till they reach the age of 65. In U.S.A. also the judges of the Supreme
Court hold office for life during good behaviour.
3. Security of Office
The judges should not only be appointed for a long tenure, but must enjoy security of
tenure. If the tenure of a judge is dependent upon the sweet will of a particular
person or body, there is every possibility that he shall not be able to discharge his
duties independently and shall always be on the outlook for an opportunity to win the
favour of that person or body. The judges can act in an upright manner if they are
assured security of tenure and the method for their removal is cumbersome. In
England the judges can be removed from office by the Queen only after an address to
this effect is presented by both the House of the Parliament. In U.S.A. the judges of
the Supreme Court can be removed only through the process of impeachment. In
India also the judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts can be removed from
their office only if both the Houses of the Parliament, by a majority of the total
membership and a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting, present
an address to the President of India requesting him to remove such judges on
grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
4. Handsome Salary
The judges must be paid handsome salaries so that they are able to lead a decent
standard of life and are not attracted by illegal gratifications. Bryce favours very high
salaries for the judges so that their social position and mode of living may inspire
confidence and attract really capable and deserving men from the bar. It is also
desirable that the salaries, allowances and other privileges of the judges should not
be altered to their disadvantage during their tenure of office. In India the judges are
not only paid handsome emoluments but their emoluments etc. are charged on the
Consolidated Fund of India and are not
subject to the vote of the Parliament. The salaries of the judges of the Supreme Court
and the High Courts cannot be reduced during their tenure, except during financial
emergency.
5. Separation or Judiciary and

Executive
For the independence of the judiciary it is desirable that the judges should not be
entrusted with any executive responsibilities. The combination of the executive and
the judicial powers in the same hands can jeopardise the liberties of the people. In
view of this danger the Constitution of India has enshrined in the Chapter on
Directive Principles of State Policy that the state should try to separate the judiciary
from the executive. This has since been accomplished in most of the states. Apart
from the separation of the executive and the judiciary, it is also desirable that both
the executive and the judiciary should "as far as possible, abstain from mutual
criticism of each other's work.'
6. High Qualifications of Judges

Apart from the above mechanical devices for attaining independence of judiciary, it is
essential that the judges should be competent and possess necessary legal acumen
to impart proper justice. In U.S.A., though the Constitution does not lay down any
qualification for the judges of the Supreme Court, but generally only persons
conversant with legal technicalities are appointed to this office. In U.K. also the
judges are picked up from among persons who are experts of law. The Constitution of
India lays down specific qualifications for the judges of the Supreme Court and the
High Courts. Only persons who have served as judges of High Court for five years, or
are otherwise outstanding jurists can be appointed judges of the Supreme Court.
7. No Practice after Retirement
Finally, it is also desireable that the judges should not be permitted to carry on any
practice after retirement to ensure that they do not abuse their authority or show
undue favour to certain people in the hope of future gains. In India, a ban has been
placed on private practice by the retired judges of the Supreme Court.
Judiciary
205
In conclusion we can sum up the conditions for the independence of judiciary, as

highlighted by Prof. Willoughby thus "that judges shall be selected, without regard to
their political affiliations, that once selected, they shall hold office for a long term, for
life, or during good behaviour, that they shall not be subject to
dismissal by the executive, may be removed only for misconduct as established by
the formal process of impeachment or address on the part of both Houses of
Legislature and that their compensation shall not be withheld or diminished during
their term of office."
24Party System
and Role
of
Oppositio
n
The political parties are indispensable for the proper functioning of all kinds of
government, but they have a special importance under the democratic
system. According to Prof. Bryce "No free large country has been without
them. No one has shown how representative government could work without
them." In modern times when the people are being involved more and more
in the political process the importance of the political parties has further
increased. Maclver has rightly observed "Without... party organization there
can be no unified statement of principles, no orderly evolution of policy, no
regular resort to the constitutional device of parliamentary elections, nor of
course any of the recognized institutions by means of which a party seeks to
gain or to maintain power."
MEANING OF POLITICAL PARTY

A political party, according to Maclver is "an association organised in support
of some principles or policy which by constitutional means it endeavours to
make the determinant of government." Edmund Burke defines political party
as "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national
interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed."
According to Prof. Gilchrist, political party is "an organized group of citizens
who profess to share the same political views and who by acting as a political
unity try to control the government. The chief aim of a party is to make its
own opinions and policy prevail." Yet another definition of political party is
offered by Leacock who says it is "a more or less organized group of
citizens who act together as a political unit. They share or profess to share
the same opinions on public questions and by exercising their voting power
towards a common end, seek to obtain control of the Government." Neumann
defines a political party as "the articulate organization of society's active
political agents, those who are concerned with the control of government
powers and who compete for popular support with another group or groups
holding divergent views. As such, it is the greater intermediary which links
social forces and ideologies to official government institutions and relates
them to political action within the larger political community." Crotty defines
political party as "a formally organized group that performs the functions of
educating the public.. .that recruits and promotes individuals for public office,
and that provides a comprehensive linkage functions between the public and
governmental decision-makers."
As examination of the above definitions of political parties shows that it
has following features:
(a) A political party is a voluntary association.
(b) A political party is formed by persons who hold common views on
certain basic political, economic and other matters.
(c) The political party must be organized and must posses well laid-down
rules and regulations.
(d) The members believe in peaceful and constitutional methods.
(e) The member aim at capturing political power with a view to promote
the public rather than narrow party interests.
(a)
Party System and Rule of Opposition
207
Kinds of Party System

The party system can be of three types. One-party system, as found in USSR, China
and other Communist countries. The two party-system as found in Britain and U.S.A.,
and multi-party system as found in India and France.
One Party System

One Party system is generally found in totalitarian states. There is only one political
party in the country. No other political party is allowed to come into existence. Even
the slightest opposition is dealt with a heavy hand. One party system is considered
undemocratic in so far as there is no scope for an alternative government and the
people are not able to exercise any influence on the political decisions of the country.
The salient features of the One-Party system are:
(a) membership is restricted to a very small fraction of the total population. These
members are recruited on the basis of strict scrutiny and are expected to
follow the iron discipline of the party. Even slightest deviation from the
directions of the party is dealt with severely;
(b) The system of election prevailing under one-party system is a farce. Only the
trusted members of the party are permitted to contest elections and are
returned with an overwhelming majority;
(c) All the medias of communication are completely under the control of the party;
(d) The legislature is merely a rubber stamp and endorses all the proposals
submitted by the party.
MERITS OF ONE-PARTY SYSTEM

Though one-party system is considered undemocratic, it possesses the following
merits.
1. It ensures prompt and efficient government because no time is wasted in
unnecessary
discussions
and controversies.
2. It ensures high degree of discipline in the country and there is singleness of
purpose.
3.It ensures all round progress.
DEFECTS OF ONE-PARTY SYSTEM

The single-party system also suffers from serious drawbacks.
1. It leads to dictatorship of one section of the society and the liberties of the
people are ruthlessly suppressed.
2. It makes the state authoritarian and totalitarian and completely jeopardizes
the liberties of the people. In the absence of any alternative government the
individuals are hardly able to express themselves against the government and
have to toe the line indicated by the party in power. This hampers the
development of human personality and tramples human values.
3. Finally, one-party system generally encourages violence, aggressive
nationalism, war etc. For example, the Nazi Party of Germany and the Fascist
Party in Italy because of faith in violence, war and aggressive nationalism
involved the world in the Second World War.
Bi-Party System
Bi-Party or two party system implies that there are two major political parties in the
country out of whom one forms the government while the other forms the opposition.
As already noted both in USA and UK there is two-party system. It may be noted that
under this system there can be more than two political parties but the other political
parties are so insignificant that they are hardly able to play any effective role in the
political life of the country.
Merits of Bi-Party System

The bi-party system has following advantages.
1. It ensures smooth working of the Cabinet system of Government. The
government is formed by the majority party, which is able to carry on the
administration smoothly with the help of the majority support at its command.
2. The government under bi-party system ensures efficiency of administration.
Being sure of majority support it can formulate
1.
208
policies and programmes with confidence and pursue them effectively.

3. Under a bi-party system the opposition behaves in a responsible manner. It
avoids irresponsible criticism of the policies of the government because it
knows it very well that if the government is defeated it will be called upon to
shoulder the responsibility and implement those very points. The government
also pays due regard to the views and criticism of the opposition because it
knows it very well that the opposition can provide an alternative government.
4. Under bi-party system changes in government can be brought about smoothly.
The moment the party in power tenders resignation, the Opposition takes over
the reins of the government.
5. Bi-party system is very easy to operate. It is quite convenient for the voters to
elect one out of the two rival parties. After the election, the formation of the
government also does not pose any problem because one out of the two
parties is always able to get clear-cut majority.
6. Finally, it is very easy to fix the responsibility for failures and lapses, because
the government is always formed by a single party and it cannot shift the
blame elsewhere.
Prof. Laski has summed up the merits of bi-party system very well. He says it "is
the only method by which the people can at the electoral period, directly choose its
government. It enables the government to drive its policy to the statute book. It
makes known and intelligible the results of its failure. It brings an alternative
government into immediate being."
Defects of Bi-Party System

The bi-party system are suffers from certain shortcomings. It paves the way for
dictatorship of
the Cabinet. As the cabinet is sure of its strength; it hardly pays any attention to
the views of the opposition. Secondly, it leaves a very limited choice before the
electors. They have to vote for either of the two parties, even they may not
approve of the programme and policies of either of
the two. In this respect the multi-party system offers a wider choice. Thirdly, the
division of country into two parties is unreal and arbitrary and seems to suggest
that there are only two schools of thought in a nation. In fact, in every nation
there are varieties of schools of thought Fourthly, the bi-party system
undermines the importance of the individual because he has to pick one out of
the two political parties. This enhances the importance of the leaders and
undermines the position of the individual.
MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM
Multi-party system implies that there are more than two political parties which
influence the political life of the country. As noted above, multiparty system is found
in France, Italy, Switzerland, Canada, India etc.
MERITS OF MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM

The supporters of multi-party system highlight its following advantages:
1. It is more democratic because it provides wider choice to the electors, and
they can elect the best out of the number of candidate fielded by different
political parties.
2. It checks the possibility of dictatorship of the Cabinet. As the Cabinet is
generally formed by a combination of a number of political parties, none of
which possesses a clear-cut majority, it cannot afford to act in a dictatorial
manner. It has to carry all the groups in the legislature with it because the
withdrawal of support by any group can lead to the fall of the government.
Thus the Cabinet cannot behave in an autocratic manner.
3. Multi-party system generally permits the individual greater freedom of action.
Unlike bi-party system where the individual members are bound by rigid party
discipline the members under multiparty system are comparatively free. They
can express themselves freely against the party leadership knowing it fully
well that if they are expelled from the party they can join some other party
with somewhat
1.
Party System and Rule of Opposition
209
identical policy and programme. In a bi-party system where the two parties
believe in diametrically opposite programmes, this is not possible. 4. Multi-party
system ensures adequate representation to various interests in the country and
possesses an elasticity which is not possible under bi-party system.
Defects of Multi-Party System

The multi-party system also suffers from serious defects. First, it leads to instability of
the government. As no single party is able to secure absolute majority, generally
coalition governments are formed. The coalition governments by their very nature
are unstable and are not able to last long. They fall as soon as anyone component of
the coalition decides to leave the government. This naturally effects the efficiency of
administration.
Secondly, the opposition behaves in a very irresponsible manner knowing it fully
well that it will never be called upon to form the government singlehanded. More
often than not it indulges in very wild and irresponsible criticism of the government
policies. It also keeps on participating in various intrigues to bring about the downfall
of the government in the hope that it may be included as a coalition partner in the
next government. Thus the legislature is converted into hot-bed of intrigues and an
arena of conflicting factions.
Thirdly, due to large number of political parties, it is not possible to secure an
organized and sound opposition which is so vital for the successful working of
parliamentary democracy.
Fourth, the presence of large number of political parties often gives rise to
manipulation and maneuvering among the various political groups to keep
themselves in power. This naturally results in the promotion of the narrow group
interests and the neglect of the general interest.
Though all the three party systems have respective merits and demerits by and
large scholars have favoured bi-party system. For
example Prof. Finer says "The two parties are better for the happiness and duty of
nations than many parties and two parties contesting seats everywhere. For them
lies and errors may be in all places challenged. While destruction of will and
destruction of outlook are reduced." However Maclver has observed "In any event the
advantages and disadvantages of either system are relative to the intelligence and
culture of the community. The essential thing is that government should rest on as
broad a basis of opinion as possible, maintaining in spite of its party character, the
unity of a whole people."1
Functions of Political Parties

The political parties constitute the backbone of democracy and perform the following
functions.
1. One of the first function of the political party is to formulate a programme or
public policies on the basis of which it contests the election. As the problems
facing the modern state are so complicated that an ordinary voter is not able
to understand them fully. The political parties try to formulate their policies in
such a way that an average voter can understand them. Once these policies
have been formulated the political parties try to popularise and propagate
them through pamphlets, regular meetings etc. According to Lowell "A party
acts as a vehicle of ideas and opinions of the people and a powerful
instrument for holding elections. Without political parties the electorate would
be highly diffused and atomised and opinions too variant and dispersive.
Hence the true reason for the existence of the party is bringing public opinion
to a focus and framing issues for the political verdict."
2. As the political parties aim at capturing power, they select candidates to
contest elections. Generally there are a number of candidates for the party
ticket. The party tries to select a candidate which in its opinion is likely to poll
maximum of votes. Thus the party works as a huge sieve,
1.
1. (Maciver, The Modem State.)
210
3.
4.
5.
6.
through which the competing types of personnel are sifted and choices are finally
made.
After selecting the candidate the political parties conduct election campaigns and
carry on nation-wide propaganda in favour of the party candidates. In fact the
modern election has become such a complicated affair that it is not possible for a
candidate to contest the election without the support of party workers. The parties
also provide them necessary finances.
The political party securing majority at polls forms the government and tries to put
into practice the programme and policies included by it in its manifesto. Under
parliamentary system of government it is the party majority which keeps the
government in power. Likewise, in Presidential government the party plays a vital
role in bringing about coordination between the policies of the legislature and the
executive which is otherwise not possible due to the principle of separation of
power.
The minority party plays a vital role as opposition. It keeps an alert eye on the
actions and policies of the government and highlights its actions of omission and
commission. Through constant criticism it keeps the government on the right path.
In view of the importance of the Opposition, in Britain the Leader of the Opposition
is given facilities of a Cabinet Minister.
Political parties act as a check against despotism by highlighting the various acts
of omission and commission of the ruling government. Both in England and USA
the heads of government were forced to quit office due to criticism of the
opposition parties (viz. Macmillian in UK and Nixon in USA). In the words of Lowell
"The parties enable the people to hold the government in check. The constant
presence of a recognised opposition is an obstacle to despotism... The existence of
a party in opposition, with a programme fairly within the limits of possible public
opinion is a bulwark against the tyranny,
not only of a despot but also a practical political majority."
7. Political parties impart political education to the people. They focus the
attention of the people on the various problems facing the country and try to
increase the number of their sympathisers and supporters. While the ruling
party tries to highlight the achievements of the government, the opposition
party focusses attention on its lapses. In this way the average citizen is able to
form a fair idea about the various social, economic, and political problems
facing the country.
8. Finally, the political parties serve as a useful link between the government and
the people. The party workers try to explain the various policies of the
government to public and communicate the wishes and reactions of the public
to the government. Thus they serve as a useful link between the government
and the people.
DEFECTS OF PARTY SYSTEM

No doubt, the political parties are indispensable for the successful working of the
democracy, yet they suffer from serious defects. Some of the prominent defects of
party system are as follows:
1. In the first place, the political parties try to divide the people into opposing
groups and thereby vitiate the atmosphere. The whole country is divided into
two hostile camps pitched against each other, which poses serious threat to
the unity of the country.
2. Secondly, party system gives rise to political nepotism and favouritism. All the
important government offices are offered to the leaders or supporters of the
party, and the talented people belonging to the opposition parties are
excluded from such position. Thus the country is deprived of the services of
such talented persons.
3. Thirdly, party system encourages sectional interests at the cost of national
interests. The parties view all the issues purely from party angles. The
animosity
1.
Party System and Rule of Opposition 211
and rivalry of the election continues even after the elections. The opposition tries
to oppose all the policies of the government unmindful of the national interests.
Likewise the ruling party tries to promote the interests of Ihose sections of society
which are known to be its supporters, unmindful of the interests of the other
sections. In this way the national and public interests suffer. Marriott has rightly
observed "Party allegiance, if carried to excess, may easily obscure the claims of
patriotism. Concentration upon the business of vote-catching may tempt leaders
and managers to ignore or to postpone the higher call of the country."
4. The party system curbs the individuality of members. The members of party are
expected to blindly to the line indicated by the party leaders and are not permitted
to express independent views. The individual members become mere cogs in the
party machinery. Highlighting this point Leacock says "individual judgement
remains frozen tight in the shape of the party mould. This kind of unanimity
seems to the critics false and injurious, it
suppresses that very freedom of
individual opinion and action which is
meant to be the vital principle of
democratic government."
5. The political parties become convenient
tools in the hands of vested interests for
promotion of their interests because they
receive necessary finances to contest the
elections from these interests. As a result
often the political leaders pursue policies
which are desired by their patrons
unmindful of the interests of the common
people.
The defects of the party system, should not
lead us to the conclusion that the political parties
should be done away with. In fact, the modern
democratic system cannot be imagined without
political parties. The remedy does not lie in ending
the party system, but in mending the same. Efforts
should be made to remove the various defects of
the party system. Above all people should develop
a high moral standard so that the political parties
are not able to exercise any corrupting influence.
Chapter
25
Electoral
Process
The modern democracy is an indirect or representative democracy in which people

do not directly participate in the affairs of the government. Instead they periodically
elect their representatives who carry on the work of legislation on their behalf and
exercise necessary control over the activities of the government. This right to
participate in the election of the representatives is popularly known as franchise or
suffrage.
UNIVERSAL ADULT FRANCHISE

Till the beginning of the present century this right was granted only to certain
privileged sections of society, viz., those possessing property qualifications,
educational qualifications etc. However, in the present century the right to
participate in the election of the representatives has been greatly extended and it is
no more the privilege of a small minority. Most of the qualifications which were
insisted before granting the right to vote are no more considered necessary. In other
words the principle of Universal Adult Franchise has been accepted in most of the
countries, and qualifications like property, education, sex, etc. have been done away
with. It may be noted that 'universal adult franchise' does not mean that all the
persons who have attained adulthood are entitled to participate in the elections.
Certain categories of persons such as lunatics, criminals, bankrupts, paupers, aliens,
etc. are excluded from the category of voters in almost all the countries.
Though the system of Universal Adult Franchise has been adopted in most of the
countries, it has been condemned on numerous grounds. In the first place it is
alleged that it leads
to rule by the ignorant masses which is greatly harmful to the country. The masses
are not able to choose the right type of people because they are not qualified to do
so. On the other hand it is desirable that the right to vote should be given only to
those persons who possess property and educational qualifications. The propertied
classes have stakes in the country and therefore take full interest in the affairs of the
state. They also show due prudence in spending the public money. On the other hand
the non-propertied persons have no stakes in the country and have a tendency to be
lavish in spending the public funds because they have not to bear the burden of
taxation. Again, it is suggested that right to vote should be given only to the
educated persons so that they may be able to exercise the franchise judiciously.
Despite the above shortcomings of universal adult franchise, it is favoured on the
following grounds:
1. If the right to vote is confined only to the propertied or educated classes, they
shall try to run the government for their own interests and completely ignore
the interests of the people. In a true democracy the government should try to
promote the interests of all sections of society. The poor sections of the society
deserve a special treatment. This can be possible only if universal adult
franchise is introduced.
2. It is wrong to assume that the common, people do not possess sufficient
intelligence to express their views on the political issues facing the country. On
the other hand it has been seen that common people are able to take right
decisions in the light of the facts placed before them by the opposite parties.
Further, with the
1.
Electoral Process
213
introduction of universal and compulsory education in most of the countries

the argument that universal adult franchise leads to rule by ignorant masses
has lost force.
3. Universal adult franchise imparts reality to the principle of 'sovereignty of the
people', which forms the basis of all democratic governments.
4. Finally, universal adult franchise stimulates the people to take interest in the
affairs of the country. They take more active part in Uic various activities and
contribute their bit to the progress of the country.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT METHODS OF ELECTIONS

Broadly speaking there are two methods for the election of the representative-direct
and indirect. Under direct election the voter directly participates in the election of
representatives. On the other hand in an indirect method of election the voter does
not directly participate in the election of his representative. He, in the first instance,
elects a number of intermediate electors who in their turn elect the representatives.
Thus in indirect method the final choice regarding the election of the representative
does not rest with the general body of citizens but with the intermediate electors.
Both the methods have their respective merits and demerits. Generally, the
indirect method of election is resorted to avoid the possible evil of unworthy
representatives being elected by the ignorant people. It is argued that the
intermediate electors are better qualified to elect the right type of candidates than
the general mass of voters. Further, as these intermediary electors are quite
intelligent they cannot be easily led astray by the clever politicians. They are not
carried away by the emotional speeches of the candidates and elect the
representatives after fully weighing their qualifications and shortcomings.
On the other hand the supporters of direct election do not consider the indirect
method as democratic. This gives rise to a feeling among the general voters that the
final choice rests with the intermediary electors and hence they stop taking
due interest in the affairs of the state. The direct method of election encourages the
people to take keen interest in the public affairs. Further, it is difficult to bribe such a
vast mass of electors. On the other hand, the small group of intermediary electors
(under the indirect method of election) can be easily bribed and influenced.
In recent years due to rise of nationwide party system in most of the democratic
countries, the indirect method of election has gone in disuse and the direct method
of election is being practised everywhere for the election of the members of
legislature. Even in case of those offices where the election is still indirect, due to
rigid party discipline it has virtually become direct. For example, under the American
Constitution, the President is elected through an electoral college, constituted by the
representatives elected by the people. But due to predominance of the political
parties at all levels the election of the President has virtually become direct. The
voters while electing the members of the electoral college know it fully well that their
vote is being cast in favour of a particular Presidential candidate. Therefore, it has
been pleaded that direct method of election should be preferred and undue
duplication of election procedure and delay be eliminated.
Open vs. Secret Ballot

Another proposition regarding the election procedure which deserves consideration is
whether the election should be open or by secret ballot. Generally, public voting, is
not favoured for the election of representatives not only because it poses certain
practical problems, but also because it is felt that under open voting a voter cannot
exercise his true choice openly due to fear of intimidation and undue influence. On
the other hand the secret ballot has been favoured because it protects the voter from
threat and influence of others and enables him to exercise his franchise fairly and
fearlessly.
Constituencies
For the purpose of holding elections the whole area is divided into a number of
constituencies. These constituencies may be single member constituencies or multimember constituencies. If only one representative is elected from a constituency, it is
known as a single member
constituency. Most of the democratic countries have adopted single member

constituencies. On the other hand, if several representatives are elected from the
same constituency, the constituency is known as multi-member constituency.
The single-member constituency is considered good because it can properly
represent the local interests, a continuous contact between the electors and the
representative is ensured, it ensures the election of the best candidates, it provides
representation to each region, it can ensure representation to minorities in areas
where they predominate and above all this system is simple and easy to operate. The
single-member constituency is defective because it greatly restricts the choice of
representatives, the local interests are given precedence over national interests, it
encourages the majorities to overwhelm the minorities, it may lead to over,
representation of minorities, and the elected representative may not necessarily
represent the majority of the votes.
On the other hand, the multi-member constituency has certain advantages such
as it ensures better representation because the constituency is comparatively large;
it promotes the general interests of the states, and makes the legislature the exact
mirror of the nation.
The main drawbacks of the multi-member constituency are-it leads to mushroom
growth of parties; it makes difficult for the voters to elect the right type of
representatives; makes a contact between the representative and the electorate
difficult; prevent the poor people from contesting elections, etc.
Though both the single-member and multimember constituencies have certain
merits and demerits, but by and large the trend is in favour of single-member
constituencies and is in vogue in most of the democratic countries.
ELECTORAL PROCESS
A well, structured election system is the sine quo non of a representative democratic
system of any country. Different countries have adopted different electoral systems
according to their conditions and needs. It is not possible to say for certain which is
the best electoral system because each system has its own virtues and defects.
However, all electoral systems operate on the basis of certain well defined rules.
Generally, these rules specify the public officials who have to be elected through
electoral process; the delimitation of constituencies; preparation of electoral rolls and
the actual conduct of election for the selection of representatives. As it is not possible
to discuss the electoral process in
different countries, we shall try to understand it with reference to India. The

electoral process in India operates through following stages.
1. Delimitation of constitutuencies
The first step in the conduct of elections is delimitation of constituencies. This task in
India has been assigned to a Delimitation Commission which is appointed by the
President after every census. Generally, while delimiting the constituencies the
Commission tries to ensure that population in each constituency is approximately
equal. The decision of the Delimitation Commission are final and cannot be
challenged in any court.
2. Preparation of Electoral Rolls

The preparation of electoral rolls, which contains the names of all eligible voters, is
another important part of the electoral process in almost all the countries. Only those
voters whose names appear on the electoral roll are permitted to take part in the
elections. The electoral rolls are prepared, and updated by the Election Commission.
All eligible voters are permitted to get their names enrolled in the Electoral List
during the notified period. The voters are also permitted to file objections against the
presence of names of certain voters in the Electoral List, who have either left the
constituency or died. After taking into account the requests for the inclusion or
deletion of names in the Electoral List, revised electoral rolls are published. Only
those voters whose names appear in the electoral rolls are permitted to take part in
the Election process.
3. Notification of Elections
The elections are notified by the Election Commission on the commendation of the
President. After a communication is received by the Election Commission from the
President it holds consultations with the Central and State Governments
and
announces the election
Electoral Process
215
schedule. The Election Schedule contains the dates for filing nomination papers,
scrutiny of nomination papers, withdrawal of names by the candidates.
4. Appointment of Returning
Officers etc.
While announcing the election schedule the Election Commission also appoints
Returning Officers for the various constituencies. The Regional Election
Commissioners also play an important role in the conduct of elections.
5. Filing of Nomination Papers

The candidates who wish to contest elections have to file their nomination papers
with the Returning Officers of their respective constituencies in the prescribed form
by the stipulated date. The nomination paper must be proposed and seconded by
prescribed number of voters. Further it must also contain the consent of the
candidate who wishes to contest. Generally, the candidates who wish to contest are
sponsored by different political parties and contest election with the election symbol
allotted to that party. The candidates not sponsored by any political party can contest
elections as independent candidates. While filing their nominations they have to
apply for allotment of some symbol out of the list of symbols released by the Election
Commission. The final decision with regard to allotment of election symbol rests with
the Election Commission. It may be noted that while filing their nomination papers
the candidates have to deposit prescribed security, which is forfeited in case the
candidate fails to secure at least one-sixth of the votes polled.
6. Scrutiny of Nomination Papers

On the allotted date all the nomination papers filed by the candidates are scrutinised
by the Returning Officers in the presence of the candidates. This scrutiny is made to
ensure that the nomination papers have been properly filled; the candidates possess
prescribed qualifications for contes ng elections; and other rules and regulations have
been complied with. The names of all the candidates whose nomination papers are
found in order are notified by the Returning Officer. The candidates whose names are
rejected as a result of the scrutiny can make petition to the High Court.
7. Withdrawal of Nominations
The candidates whose names have been cleared by the Returning Officer can
voluntarily withdraw by the stipulated date. For this purpose the concerned candidate
has to submit an application to the Returning Officer. The security of all such
candidates is returned. In case after the withdrawal if only one. contestant is left in
the field, he is declared elected unopposed and no election is needed.
8. Election Campaign
After the list of contestants is finalised, the sponsoring political parties and
independent candidates undertake election campaign in a big way to win over the
elections. Each political party issues an Election Manifesto which outlines its policies,
programmes and promises. The various candidates also make use of posters,
cartoons, public meetings, press messages, personal appeals, hand-bills. They also
undertake door to door canvassing and adopt other methods to impress the voters.
The recognised political parties are also allotted time on radio and TV to put forth
their programmes and policies before the electors. The election campaign is stopped
48 hours before the time of actual polling.
9. Polling of Votes
Several polling stations are put up in each constituency. Each polling station is under
the charge of a Presiding Officer who is assisted by several Polling Officers. The
voters cast their votes at the allotted polling station. The candidates contesting the
election or their nominated polling agents are permitted to sit in the room where the
votes are being polled. They can challenge the identity of a voter or irregularity on
the part of the polling staff. After verification of the identity of a voter, a ballot paper
bearing the names of all the contestants as well as their election symbols, is given to
him. While handing over the ballot paper the polling officer makes a mark with
indelible ink on his first finger just below the nail. After recording his preference for
the candidate the voter deposits his vote in the Ballot Box. After the polling is over,
these ballot
boxes are sealed in the presence of candidates or their agents and sent to the
office of the Returning Officer, for counting.
10. Counting of Votes and Results

On the date of counting the ballot boxes are opened by the Returning Officer and his
staff in the presence of the agents of the candidates and the votes are counted. The
invalid votes are not taken into account. A candidate who secures more valid votes
than all other candidates is declared elected. The announcement of the result is
made by the Returning Officer and necessary intimation is sent to the Election
Commission.
11. Election Disputes

The election result of a candidate can be challenged by a defeated candidate or a
voter or group of voters. For this purpose an election petition has to be filed before
the High Court within a stipulated period. The petition can be preferred on the
grounds of electoral malpractices or irregularities in the conduct of elections. The
High Court can accept the petition and if convinced after due investigation that the
charges levelled are correct, it can set aside the election of the candidate. However,
such a candidate can make an appeal to the Supreme Court against the decision of
the High Court. The decision of the Supreme Court in this regard is final.
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
In a representative democracy generally the majority alone is able to get
representation and a sizeable section of the population goes unrepresented. This is
contrary to the true spirit of democracy, in which all the sections must get due
representation. Therefore, philosophers like Mill strongly advocated that in a really
equal democracy, every section of the people must be represented not
disproportionately but proportionately. While the majority should get a majority of
seats, minorities should also have due representation. The need of according due
representation to the minorities was also emphasised by other writers and scholars,
who also came forward with certain schemes or methods of minority representation.
Methods of Minority Representation

Some of the important methods suggested with a view to accord representation to
the minorities in the legislative bodies are as follows:
1. Proportional Representation
This method aims at providing representation to various groups and parties in

proportion to their voting strength. In other words, it insists that while the majority of
the voters should have a majority of representatives, the minority of voters should
not go unrepresented and should have minority of representatives. There are two
variants of the Proportional Representation viz. the Hare Scheme and the List System.
(i) Hare Scheme. This scheme was suggested by Thomas Hare of England and is
popularly known as Hare Scheme. This scheme envisages multi-member
constituencies with minimum of three seats. Each voter is granted one effective
vote irrespective of the number of seats in the constituency although he is
permitted to indicate his first, second, third preference etc. on the ballot paper.
The candidate securing the quota is declared elected. The quota is determined by
dividing the total number of valid votes polled by the number of seats to be filled
and adding one to the quotient. Thus if there are four candidates to be elected
from a constituency and there are 1,00,000 valid votes, the quota shall be 25,001.
First of all the first preference votes are counted and the candidate reaching the
quota is declared elected. The surplus votes are transferred to the second
preference candidates. This process is continued till the requisite number of
candidates are elected. As this method involves the transfer of vote from one
candidate to another it is also known as Single Transferable Vote System, (ii) List
System. The List system is the other variant of proportional representation. In this
also there are multi-member constituencies, but the voter is entitled to as many
votes as there are seats to be filled up. Each political party prepares a list of
candidates equal to the number of seats to be filled. Each voter is entitled to cast
all his votes in favour of the list. Seats are allotted to the different political parties
on the basis of the votes polled by the various lists on the basis of the quota.
Electoral Process
217
The above scheme of proportional representation ensure that various minorities

get fair representation in the legislature and thus make the legislature a true mirror
of the nation. But the system suffers from certain serious drawbacks. It encourages
the growth of multiparty system which hampers the smooth working of the Cabinet
system of government. Generally, it leads to coalition governments which are quite
unstable. The system is also quite complicated and quite difficult for the voters to
understand. Again, as the scheme envisages multi-member constituencies the
constituencies are very large which make a direct contact between the
representatives and the voters difficult.
2. Limited Vote Plan

Under the limited vote plan also multi-member constituencies with at least three
seats are envisaged. Each voter is allotted fewer votes than the number of
candidates to be elected. Thus, if there are four candidates to be elected from a
constituency the voter shall be entitled to cast only three votes. As a result of this
arrangement the minorities are assured of some representation, because no party is
able to capture all the seats. This system can ensure representation only to the large
and well-organised minorities, while the small minorities cannot hope to get any
representation.
3. Cumulative Vote Plan

The Cumulative Vote Plan also operates under multi-member constituencies with at
least three seats. Each voter is permitted as many votes as there are seats to be
filled up. However, the
voters are permitted to give all their votes to anyone candidate or divide their
votes between two or more candidates as they like. Under this scheme the
minorities can secure some representation by pooling all their votes in favour of
their candidate.
4. Reservation of Seats
Under this method seats are reserved for the minorities to ensure their
representation in the legislature. For example, under the Indian Constitution seats
have been reserved for
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, etc. both in the Parliament and the State
Legislatures. Accordingly certain constituencies are reserved and only candidates of
reserved categories can contest elections from these constituencies.
5. Communal Representation
This method of according representation to other minorities was introduced, by the
British in India with a view to provide representation to the Muslims and other
religious communities. Under it communal electorates were introduced and members
of each community elected their own candidates. As this method of minority
representation encouraged feeling of separatism and fostered communal tension, the
system was abolished after India gained independence.
6. Functional Representation
Certain scholars have favoured functional representation in place of the territorial
representation which exists in most of the countries. According to the system of
functional representation the representatives are elected on the basis of their
vocation. Thus the doctors elect their representative, while the teachers elect their
own representatives. It is argued that such representatives can represent the
interests of their vocation more effectively than a representative elected on the basis
of territorial constituencies. It is asserted that this system is superior to the territorial
representation because each interest is adequately represented in the legislature and
the legislature becomes a true mirror of the feelings of the nation. However, the
system also suffers from serious defects. It leads to election of representatives with
narrow and limited outlook, who concentrate on the promotion of the interest of their
class at the cost of the national interest. As a result of Functional Representation the
legislature becomes a battle ground for various conflicting interests and it is not
possible to reconcile these interests. Finally, the system encourages class thinking
and poses a serious threat to the unity and solidarity of the country. In view of its
shortcomings, the system has not found favour.
26Separation of
Powers
The theory of separation of powers is mainly associated with the French philosopher
Montesquieu, who propounded it in his book The Spirit of Laws published in 1748.
This theory implies that the three organs of government viz. Legislature, Executive
and Judiciary should perform their respective functions without interfering in the
sphere of the other. Within their spheres these organs should be independent and
supreme. Montesquieu happened to pay a visit to England where he made a casual
study of the working of the British constitution. He came to the conclusion that the
Englishmen were able to enjoy their liberty mainly because their constitution was
based on the principle of separation of powers. Montesquieu arrived at the conclusion
that for the enjoyment of liberty it was essential that the power should not be
concentrated in single hands or single body.
Explaining the theory of separation of powers Montesquieu argued "When the
legislative and executive powers are united in the same persons, or in the same body
of the magistrates, there can be no liberty because apprehension may arise, least the
same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws and execute them in a
tyrannical manner. Again, there is no liberty, if the judicial power be not separated
from the legislative and the executive. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and
liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control; for the judge would be
then the legislator. Were it joined to the executive power the judge might behave
with violence and oppression. There would be an end of everything, were the same
man or the same body, whether of the nobles or of the poeple, to exercise those
three powers, that of enacting laws, that of executing the public resolutions; and of
trying the cases of
individual. Montesquieu further held that if the three powers of government viz.
legislative, executive and judicial were combined in the same hand or same body of
persons, it would lead to the negation of liberty. It may be noted that Montesquieu
never insisted on complete separation of powers. He only insisted on the
modification of the concentration of powers.
Montesquieu's theory of separation of powers exercised profound influence on the
fathers of the American Constitution. In fact the theory of separation of powers and
the system of checks and balances of powers became the political axioms of the
American constitution. The theory also greatly influenced French Declaration of the
Rights of the Man. In fact the successive revolutionary governments in France were
organised on the basis of this principle.
Blackstone, an eminent English Jurist, also elaborated theory of separation of
powers in his famous work. Commentaries on the Laws of England. Blackstone
argued that whenever the right of making and enforcing the laws is vested in the
same person or the same body of men, there can be no public liberty. If the power of
legislation is vested in a judge he can enact tyrannical laws and execute them in a
tyrannical manner.
CRITICISM AND EVALUATION
The theory of separation of powers has been criticised on several grounds. In the first
place
complete separation would lead to frequent deadlocks because each organ would try
to safeguard its own interests and powers and would not co-operate with the other
organs. This would naturally impair the efficiency of the different organs of
government. The various organs must
Separation of Powers
219
co-operate in the interest of harmonious working of the government.

2. Secondly, as the government is an organic whole, the three organs of the
government should work in cooperation with each other and it is impossible to
effect complete separation between the three organs. Each organ has to
perform certain functions belonging to the other organ. Thus the executive
enacts certain laws in case of emergency. Similarly, the legislature has to
interfere in the executive sphere when the administrative measures affect the
basic principles. Similarly, the judges formulate laws while interpreting the
existing laws. Hence it can be said that complete separation of powers is
neither possible nor desirable.
3. Thirdly, the advocates of theory of separation of power wrongly assume that
individual liberty is dependent on separation of powers alone. This is however,
contrary to the effect. It is admitted at all hands that the people of Britain
enjoy maximum liberty even though their system is not based on separation of
powers. In fact the liberty of the people is to a large extent dependent on the
spirit of the people and how far they are vigilant. No government can deprive
such people of their rights and liberties.
4. The theory of separation of powers wrongly assumes that the three organs of
the government are of equal importance. In fact in a representative democracy
the legislature is most important organ because it translates the will of the
people into laws, which are executed by the executive and interpreted by the
judiciary.
Further, the legislative wing of the government controls the executive and
judiciary through its power to control the finances of the country.
Fifthly, strict adherence to the theory of separation of powers has not been
possible and in actual practice the theory of separation of powers has undergone
complete transformation. Though the Congress was granted several prerogatives,
including the right to modify or reject the programme of the President, in actual
practice, the
President has emerged the chief driving force behind the constitutional system of
USA. Thus in some respects the American constitutional practice militates against the
theory of separation of powers.
Sixthly, Montesquieu's theory of separation of powers was based on
misunderstanding and misreading of the British Constitutional system. When
Montesquieu visited England the Cabinet System, based on co-operation between the
legislature and the executive, was completely operational. The people of England
were also enjoying genuine liberty due to the prevalence of rule of law, rather than
the assumed existence of separation of powers.
Seventhly, the theory of separation of powers operate only in the eighteenth
century when the government performed only limited functions. In the modern
context, when the economy is quite complex, the theory of separation of powers
seems hardly plausible.
Finally, the theory is misnomer in so far as it deals with separation of functions
rather than separation of powers. Therefore some critics have suggested that the
theory should most appropriately be described as theory of separation of functions.
Despite the above criticism of Montesquieu's theory of separation of powers it

cannot be denied that it has a fair amount of truth in it. It highlights the dangers of
concentration of powers and the necessity of providing adequate checks or
safeguards to secure the individual's liberty. It is well known that under dictatorships,
where the three powers are concentrated in the same hands, the liberty of the people
is always jeopardized.
In the second place Montesquie never favoured rigid compartmentalization of the
government functions. No doubt he assigned a lion's share of functions to each
branch of government, but at the same time he also gave a slice of powers of the
other branches to each of them. In the third place, it cannot be denied that the
theory of separation of powers is vital for ensuring rule of law and independence of
judiciary. Finally, even partial application of. the theory of separation of powers has
contributed to the improvement of administrative efficiency of government.
Chapter
27Rule of
Law
MEANING OF RULE OF LAW

Rule of law is one of the important features of the British political system. The
term 'rule of law' means that the British people are governed according to the
principles of law and not according to the arbitrary will of the rulers. In the words,
of Wade and Phillip, rule of law means that "In the exercise of powers,
government shall be conditioned by law and that the subject shall not be
exposed to the arbitrary will of his rulers." In short, rule of law secures
supremacy of regular law and establishes equality of all persons before law. The
concept of 'Rule of Law' was given a classical formulation by A.V. Dicey in his
book Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution. He emphasised
three principles of rule of law.
(1) No person can be punished or made to suffer in body or goods except for the
violation of a law. Such a violation must be established in an ordinary legal
manner before the ordinary courts of the land.
(2) Secondly, no person is above law and every person, whatever be his rank or
condition, is subject to the ordinary law of the realm and amenable to the
jurisdiction of ordinary tribunals. He says "With us every official, from the
Prime Minister down to a constable or a collector of taxes, is under the same
responsibility for every act done without legal justification as any other
citizen."
(3) Thirdly, the principles of the constitution are the result of judicial decisions
determining the rights of private persons in particular cases brought before
the courts.
It may be observed that rule of law is the product of centuries of struggle by the
people of Britain for recognition of their fundamental rights. It provides ordinary
citizens guarantees against undue interferences with his rights by any other person
or any government servant.
LIMITATIONS ON RULE OF LAW

The concept of rule of law has undergone great changes since it was advocated and a
number of limitations appeared which have greatly undermined the rule of law. Some
of the limitations are as follows:
1. Firstly, the British Queen is above law and enjoys personal immunity from civil
action and criminal prosecution. No proceedings can be instituted against the
Queen before any court of law nor can she be asked to appear before any
court of law.
2. Secondly, the Judges enjoy immunity from personal responsibility for all their
official acts.
3. Thirdly, the Justices of Peace are immune from any proceedings for their
official acts.
4.Fourthly, the rise of delegated legislation due to enormous increase in the
functions of the state has also greatly undermined rule of law. The Parliament
passes only skeleton laws and the detailed rules are provided by the various
departments. Violation of these rules is punishable. This is certainly contrary to
the notions of rule of law.
5. Fifthly, the rise of administrative justice on account of delegation of certain
judicial powers to the administrative officials to decide certain type of cases
also constitutes
1.
Rule of Law
221
a violation of the principles of rule of law in so far as their decisions
cannot be challenged in any court of law.

6. Sixthly, the civil servants enjoy certain privileges and immunities in the
discharge of their duties. Proceedings can be instituted against them
only under special conditions. Further, proceedings against an illegal
act of civil servant can be initiated within six months. Moreover, if the
suit filed against civil servant is discharged the concerned citizen has to
pay the full cost. These privileges and immunities constitute a clear
violation of the rule of law.
7. Seventhly, the foreign diplomats and rulers are not subject to British
law and no proceedings can be constituted against them. Likewise,
diplomatic immunities are also provided to the members of the
International Commissions etc.
8. Finally, during periods of emergencies also the rule of law is not fully
operative and is suspended partially.
Despite the above limitations on the rule of law, it cannot be denied that
still in Britain the government is carried on in accordance with law rather than
the whims of any individual.
RULE OF LAW AND INDIA

The rule of law, which is one of the fundamental principles of British
constitution and has played an important role in protecting the rights of
British people, has been adopted in India with certain modifications. In fact,
the Indian constitution has tried to reconcile the seemingly contradictory
principles of supremacy of legislature and judicial supremacy which form the
basis of the constitutional systems of Britain and U.S.A., respectively. In
Britain, the Parliament is supreme and can do everything that is not naturally
impossible and the courts cannot nullify any Act of Parliament on any ground
whatsoever. In other words, the judges do not enjoy any power to sit on
judgement over laws enacted by the Parliament. On the other hand, in U.S.A.,
the principle of judicial supremacy forms the basis of political system and the
judiciary enjoys the powers to declare any law passed by the legislature as
unconstitutional if it is enacted in violation of the provisions of the
Constitution, or contravenes any of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the
Constitution. The Constitution of India adopts the via media. On the one
hand, it vests in the judiciary the power to declare a law as unconstitutional if
it is beyond the competence of the legislature as per the Constitution. On the
other hand, the judiciary is not given any power to review the wisdom of the
legislative policy. The legislature is also vested with the power to frame
regulations regarding fundamental rights pertaining to liberty and property.
The supremacy of the legislature is further evident from the fact that the
Union Parliament can amend major portion of the Constitution by special
majority if the judiciary proves too obstrusive. This position was summed up
by Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru thus:

"No Supreme Court, no Judiciary, can stand in judgement over the
sovereign will of parliament, representing the will of the entire
community. It can pull up that sovereign will if it goes wrong, but, in the
ultimate analysis, where the future of the community is concerned, no
Judiciary can come in the way.. .Ultimately, the fact remains that the
Legislature must be supreme and must not be interfered with by the
Courts of Law in such measures as social reform." In simple language the
Indian constitution vests supreme powers in the legislature within the
bounds of a written constitution.
The Constitution of India assures to its citizens under Article 14
'equality before law' or 'the equal protection of laws' within the territory
of India. The phrases 'equality before law' and 'equal protection of laws'
seem to convey the same meaning, but actually they carry different
meanings. While equality before law, which has been taken from Britain is
a negative concept implying absence of special privileges in favour of any
individual and subjection of all classes to the ordinary law the expression
'equal protection of laws' (taken from U.S.A.) is a positive concept which
implies equal treatment in equal circumstances. Let us examine the
implications of these concepts in some detail.
Equality before law means that no person is above law of the land and
every person irrespective of rank or status is subject to ordinary law and
law courts. It also means that the law does
222
no make any distinction between the officials and private

citizens. However, the Constitution of India, like the British
practice, also makes certain deviations from the rule of equality
in the public interest. Thus, (a) the President or the Governor of
a State is not answerable to any court for the exercise and
performance of the powers and duties of his office; (b) no
criminal proceedings can be instituted or continued against the
President or Governor in any court of law during his term; (c) no
civil proceedings in which relief is claimed against the President
or the Governor of a State can be instituted during his term of
office unless a two months notice has been served on him stating
the nature of proceedings and cause of action therefor. Again,
like Britain the foreign sovereigns and ambassadors also do not
fall within the jurisdiction of the law.
On the other hand, 'equal protection of law' means that
amongst equals the law should be
equal and equally administered, and that the like should be
treated alike. Differentiation can be made only in different
circumstances. Thus, the state can classify persons for legitimate
purposes. However, the classification should not be arbitrary. It
should be reasonable and rational.
The constitution of India again tries to balance the supremacy
of the legislature with supremacy of the constitution by
embodying the fundamental rights in the constitution. However,
it makes a bid to balance these rights with the needs for the
security of the state itself. Accordingly, the constitution instead
of leaving the fundamental rights to the off-chance of judicial
protection in particular cases, makes the fundamental rights
subject to legislative control. The legislature can under the terms

of the constitution exclude the application of fundamental rights
in the interest of national unity. In short, we can say that 'rule of
law' operates in India in a limited sense only.
HffiWfi
Zni
Judicial
Review
Judicial Review is an important feature of the U.S. Constitution. It implies that

the Supreme Court in USA acts as the guardian of the constitution and has
been vested with the power to review the laws passed by the legislature and
the orders issued by the executive to ensure that they do not contravene the
constitution. In simple words judicial review refers to the power of a court to
inquire whether a law passed by the legislature or order issued by the
executive or the official action conflicts with the written constitution. If the
court finds that it conflicts with the main constitution it can declare the law or
act as unconstitutional. It may be noted that in USA the Supreme Court also
enjoys the power to examine that the provision of a state constitution or a
law enacted by the state legislature or any executive order is in keeping with
the provisions of the Federal constitution or not.
The Supreme Court of USA takes up the issue regarding constitutionality of a
law or order only if some one adversely affected by the law or act, challenges
its validity in the court. Even the aggrieved states can also bring the matter
before the Court. The
Court, after hearing the arguments on both sides, decides whether the
concerned act or act is in conformity with the Constitution. If the court
finds the law or a particular provision of law is contravening the
constitution, it can declare the same as ultra vires. In simple words it can
punish a person charged of violating the law which the court considers as
unconstitutional.
JUDICIAL REVIEW IN INDIA

The Supreme Court of India has also been vested with power of judicial
review. In exercise of this power it can declare the laws passed by the
Parliament of State Legislature and orders issued by the President and the
Governor of the State, as unconstitutional if they contravene the
provisions of the Constitution. It may be noted that though the word
'judicial review' has not been used anywhere in the Constitution, the
framers of the Constitution certainly wanted this power to be exercised by
the courts while interpreting the Constitution. They wanted the judges of
the Supreme Court and High Courts to "uphold the Constitution and the
laws". While assuming office the judges of the Supreme Court and High
Courts have to make an affirmation to this effect and undertake
responsibility to protect the Constitution against attacks from the
legislature and the executive. In this respect the Indian Supreme Court
resembles the American Supreme Court rather than the British Courts,
which are obliged to enforce the laws enacted by the Parliament, without
going into their constitutionality. The adoption of the federal system and
the incorporation of the Fundamental Rights granted by the Constitution
also enjoins upon the Supreme Court to ensure that these are not
violated. For this purpose it has been granted the powers to pronounce on
the constitutionality of Federal as well as State laws. The power of judicial
review enjoyed by the Supreme Court is much narrower than the power of
judicial review enjoyed by the Supreme Court of U.S.A. The Indian
Supreme Court can declare a law as invalid only if it is contrary to the
letter of the Constitution. It cannot go behind the law to find out its
objectives and to declare it as unconstitutional. In other words, it does not
possess any power to question the wisdom or propriety of the laws
enacted by the Parliament or the State Legislatures.
224
This point was emphatically made clear by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in the
Constitution. He said "Within limits no judge and no Supreme Court can make
itself a third chamber. No Supreme Court and no judiciary can stand in
judgement over the sovereign will of the Parliament representing the will of the
entire community...Ultimately the whole Constitution is a creature of Parliament".
This clearly implied that the framers of the Constitution wanted the Indian courts
to exercise the power of the judicial review with restraint.
However, the Supreme Court considerably widened the scope of judicial
review in India through its judgement in Maneka Gandhi's case. The Court held
that mere prescription of some kind of procedure is not enough to comply with
the mandate of Art. 21. The procedure prescribed by law has to be fair, just and
reasonable, not fanciful, oppressive or arbitrary. It further held that the procedure
to be fair or just must embody the principles of natural justice. Thus the Supreme
Court by accepting the concept of natural justice as one essential component of
law, imparted the American concept of 'due process of law' into our Constitution.
The working of the Supreme Court for more than five decades has shown that
it has generally tried to construe the law in favour of the legislature on the plea
that the Legislature consists of the representatives of the people and as such
these representatives are the best judges of the suitability of a law. In the case of
Charanjit Lai vs. The Union of India, Justice Mukerjee observed: "The court should
prima facie lean in favour of constitutionality and should support the legislaturer
if it is possible to do so on any reasonable ground. In pursuance of this attitude
the Supreme Court of India has enunciated the doctrine of severability, which
implies that only those portions of the law are declared as void which are
inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution and the rest of the law is
permitted to operate. The Courts in India have exercised power of judicial review
with great restraint and attached more importance to the express words of the
Constitution rather than the spirit of the Constitution. In Gopalan's case Chief
Justice Kania of Madras High Court observed: "The courts are not at liberty to
declare any Act void, because in their opinion, it is opposed to a
spirit supposed to pervade the Constitution but not expressed in words. Where
the fundamental law has not limited either in terms or by necessary implication
the general powers conferred upon the legislature, we cannot declare a limitation
under the notion of having discovered something in the spirit of the Constitution,
which is not even mentioned in the instrument."
OPERATION OF JUDICIAL REVIEW

Since the inauguration of the Constitution in 1950, the Supreme Court has
exercised power of judicial review in numerous cases and greatly elaborated the
principle of judicial review through its varied interpretations. It is not possible to
deal within the limited space available with us to examine all the cases where
the Supreme Court applied its power of judicial review, and we can only refer to
some of the important cases.
One of the most significant cases decided by the Supreme Court was
Golaknath case of 1967 in which the Supreme Court held that the Parliament has
no right to abridge or abrogate the Fundamental Rights granted by the
Constitution through an amendment of the Constitution. Thus it made the
Fundamental Rights transcendental and superior to the constituent power of the
Parliament through its power of judicial review. However, to avoid unnecessary
legal complications the Supreme Court upheld the validity of several
constitutional amendments already made in this regard by applying the doctrine
of perspective overruling. The Supreme Court continued this attitude in - the
Bank Nationalisation and Privy Purses cases and challenged the right of the
Parliament to curtail the Fundamental Rights by the Parliament.
The attitude of the Supreme Court in Golak Nath, Bank Nationalisation and Privy
Purses cases obliged the Congress Government to effect 24th, 25th and 26th
amendments in the Constitution. It also made a bid to curtail the right of the
Supreme Court to declare a law affecting Fundamental Rights under Articles 14,19
and 31 as void of the law was passed to give effect to the Directive Principles under
Article 39(b) or (c). These amendments were challenged in the Keshavnand Bharati
case. Nine of the thirteen judges who heard the case upheld
Parliament's right to amend the

Judicial Review
225
Constitution including the Fundamental Rights. Thus the Court reversed its earlier
decision of Golak Nath's case. However, the Supreme Court held that the Parliament
could not change the basic structure or framework of the Constitution.
During the emergency a bid was made to restrict the scope of judicial review
through the Forty-Second Amendment. The power to determine constitutional validity
of "the central laws was exclusively vested in the Supreme Court and the High Courts
were deprived of their right in this regard. High Courts, powers with respect to issue
of writs were also restricted. Parliament's right to carry out amendments in the
Constitution, including Part III dealing with Fundamental Rights was asserted. It was
specifically declared that "there shall be no limitation whatever on the constituent
power of the Parliament to amend by way of addition, variation or repeal the
provisions of the Constitution under this Article (Article 368)". This means that the
Supreme Court could no longer declare the amendments to the Constitution made by
the Parliament as invalid.
The Janata Government on assumption of power made a bid to restore the powers
which were taken away from the judiciary during the emergency. But due to lack of
necessary majority in the Rajya Sabha it could not go very far. By the Forty-Third
Amendment passed in December 1977 it restored to the Supreme Court preemergency position with regard to power of judicial review over the laws passed by
the Parliament as well as the State Legislatures. However, no change could be
effected with regard to Parliament's right to amend the Constitution.
What could not be achieved through legislation was accomplished through the
judgement of the Supreme Court in Minerva Mills case of 1980. The Supreme Court
by 4 to 1 majority held sections (4) and (5) of Article 368 inserted by the FortySecond Amendment Act as void, on the ground that they removed all limitations on
the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and conferred unlimited powers
upon Parliament so as to damage or destroy its basic structure or essential features.
It held that 'limited amending power' is the basic feature of the Constitution. Thus the
Supreme Court asserted in very clear
terms that it is the Constitution, not Parliament, which is Supreme in India.
The Congress (I) which had come in power by this time did not feel quite happy
about this judgement and hinted that it would move against this judgement before
the full bench. However, no further action was taken in this regard. It is desirable that
the government should not take the judgement of the court as a challenge to its
authority and should take the same in the spirit of compromise and co-operation.
As a result of the Supreme Court judgement of March 1994 in the case of S.R.
Bommai and others vs. the Union of India, also known as Assembly dissolution case,
the scope of judicial review was further widened. In this judgement the Supreme
Court took the view that the proclamation of emergency made by the President under
Art 356(1), which had so far remained immune from judicial review, was "judicially
reviewable to the extent of examining whether it was issued on the basis of any
material at all or whether the material was relevant or whether the Proclamation was
issued in the malafide exercise of Power".
In recent years the judiciary has further widened its field of operation by declaring
'judicial review' as a basic feature of the Constitution. This implies that till this view is
reversed, no government can enact a law or amendment which takes away or dilutes
the right of judicial review from the judiciary. Thus the Supreme Court in India has not
merely interpreted the language of the Constitution but also pronounced on issues
which involve matters of policy viz., whether foreign owned newspapers can be
started in India or whether Doordarshan could block a foreign T.V. Company from
transmitting the coverage of a cricket series etc.
CRITICISM OF JUDICIAL REVIEW

Supreme Court's power of judicial review has come in for sharp criticism. Generally
the following shortcomings of judicial review are emphasised:
Firstly, it is charged that judicial review has greatly undermined the position of
the Parliament which is a representative body of the people and
226
final authority under the parliamentary system of government. It is indeed difficult to

understand how the judges of the Supreme Court are better qualified to sit on
judgement over the laws enacted by the elected representatives of the people.
Secondly, it has been argued that the judges generally belong to the elitist
section of the society and try to protect and promote their class interests. No wonder
they have often knocked down progressive laws which were prejudicial to their
interests.
Thirdly, the judges do not always decide the case strictly in accordance with law.
Quite often their decisions are influenced by their ideology and political views.
Fourthly, the principle of judicial review is violative of the principle of popular
sovereignty enshrined in the Constitution because it has struck down a number of
Constitutional amendments made under Art. 368 of the Constitution.
Finally, judicial review has encouraged litigation and promoted friction among
various
organs of government. The curtailment of the authority of the Parliament following
Supreme Court's judgement in Golak Nath case, met with great resentment and
Parliament proceeded to enact certain amendments to overcome the restrictions on
its authority. This naturally caused friction between judiciary and the legislative wings
of government.
Despite various shortcomings of judicial review, it cannot be denied that it has played
an important role in ensuring constitutional government in the country by keeping
the centre and the states in their respective spheres. It has also enabled the
Constitution to change according to changed conditions by imparting new meaning to
the Constitution. Above all, through the exercise of this power, the Supreme Court
has protected freedom of citizens and protected their Fundamental Rights against
encroachment by the legislative and executive wings of the
government.
Unit IV POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT
...29Political
Modernisation
The concept of 'modernisation' is very spacious one and has been used iii the social,
economic as well as political relations. The process of modernisation such refers to
"changes in all institutional spheres of a society resulting from man's expanding
knowledge and control over his environments. However, the students of political
science are primarily concerned with the political aspects of modernisation only. In
this respect modernisation refers to "the ensemble structural changes in the political
system of modernisation societies." According to Almond and Powell "Political
modernization refers to those processes the differentiation of political structure and
secularization of the political culture which enhance the capabilitythe effectiveness
and efficiency of performanceof a society's political system."
APPROACHES FOR THE STUDY OF MODERNISATION

In the main three approaches have been adopted for the study of the process of
modernization viz. descriptive trait lists; single dimension reduc-tionalism; and idealtype continua. It shall be desirable to know about these approaches in some details.
1.
Descriptive Trait Lists Approach
This approach identifies the major structural and cultural features generic to those
contemporary politics regarded as modem by the observer: This approach was
adopted by Almond and Coleman, Black, Kornhauser etc. This approach has been
criticised on the ground that it is highly multidimensional and includes some traits
which are independent of one another and completely differ.
2. The Reductionist Approach
This is a single dimensional approach and focusses upon single antecedent factor.
Different single characteristics have been highlighted by different scholars. These
include capacity or capability (Brzezinski, Almond, Holt and Turner); differentiation
(Riggs); institutionalization (Huntington); national integration (Binder); participation
(Lerner); populism (Fallers); political culture (Almond and Verba); psychological traits
(Lerner and Dobb); social mobilisation (Deutsch) and socio-economic correlates
(Lipset and Coleman). However, these scholars do not deny the multivariate
causation.
3. Ideal Type Continua Approach

This approach views the process of political modernisation as a movement from the
traditional pole to the modern pole of the continuum. It assumes that the trait list of
the modern political system are opposite of the traditional polity, with the transitional
polity providing a continuum of political modernization. According to this approach
the characteristics of a traditional polity are predominantly ascriptive, particularistic
and diffused while the modern polity is essentially achievement oriented,
universalistic and specific. This approach has been severely criticised. In the first
instance, it is said that this approach wrongly assumes that the traditional and
modern political systems stand at opposite poles. In fact they are mixed and the
degree of their modernity is determined by the tendency which predominates.
Secondly, this approach suggests that the movement between traditionality and
modernity is unilinear and does not provide for negative political
developments.
Thirdly, it seems to
suggest that modernisation process is final and there cannot be any further
or continuous modernisation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERNISATION
Generally the process of modernisation is said to possess three main
characteristics-differentiation, equality and capacity.
Differentiation means the process of progressive representation and
specialization of roles, institutional spheres and associations in the
development of political system. In the words of Coleman "It implies greater
functional specialization, structural complexity and inter-dependence, and
heightened effectiveness of political organization in both administrative and
political spheres.1
The equality is another important characteristic of the process of
modernisation. This includes universal adult franchise; regulation of relations
between the
government and citizens on the basis of universal legal norms;

allocation of political administrative roles, on the basis of achievement
criteria. It is true that these criterias are not always realized in modern
politics, still modernisation is measured by these criterias.
Thirdly, the growth of political capacity is also a characteristic of
modernity.
This includes increase in the functions of the polity; in the efficacy of
the implementation of political and administrative decisions; in the
penetrative
power
of
central
government
institutions
and
comprehensiveness of the aggregation of interests by political
associations.
Democracy and Nation-State as Symbols of Modernity.

Some scholars have tried to equate modernity with democracy and
considered only those political systems as modern which are based on the
western pattern or possess the traits generic to the western political
systems^ The nation-state is considered as another condition of
modernity; and nation building is considered as an essential condition of
political modernity.
PATTERNS OF MODERNISATION
There is no universal pattern of modernisation, nor does there exist any

common structural arrangement for the same. On the other hand each
country has tried to evolve its own process of modernisation and tried to skip
the stages and preconditions of modernisation through which other countries
passed. Black has noted seven patterns of political modernisation in different
countries, on the basis of antecedence and consolidation of modernising
leadership; economic and social transformation; and integration of society.
These patterns of modernisation are.
1. Britain and France, which were early modernisers and provided model
for later modernisers.
2. United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand-the off shoots of
Britain and France in the New World.
3. Other societies of continental Europe where modernisation occurred
after the French Revolution.
4. Independent countries of Latin America.
5. Societies which, though influenced by of the earlier modernisers,
modernised without direct outside intervention such as Russia, Japan,
China, Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, Ethiopia and Thailand.
6 and 7. Former and residual colonial territories distinguished on the
existence of pre-colonial institutions which are adaptable to modern
conditions.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO MODERNISATION OF

DIFFERENT SOCIETIES
In the main, the following four factors have affected the course of political
modernisation in different societies.
1.
Tradition
Each society has its own traditional political structure and culture. The form of
modernisation will, to a large extent, depend on how these
1. Coleman, in Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Vol. 10, p. 397.
Political Modernisation
231
traditions and cultures interact to the process of modernisation. For example, if a

society has a strong centralised government which supports changes and
innovations, it would contribute to the modernising process.
2. Timing
The timing of modernisation is another important contributory factor because on it
will depend so many other variables like international environment, political
manipulatibility, social and political mobilisation of the population and the resulting
demand load upon the polity etc.
3. Leadership
The leadershipthe individual political leaders and political elitesalso play a
significant role in the process of modernisation. It can expedite or retard the process
of modernisation by adopting a supportive or obstructive attitude. According to
Coleman "The rate and direction of that (modernisation) process, as well as the
political structure and culture which emerge reflect in large measure values and goal
orientations of the leadership; its adaptive and creative capacities; and its reaction to
the modernisation crisis it confronts."
4. Crisis
Finally, the sequence of the major crises, which the process of political modernisation
encounters and surmounts constitutes an important factor. Though these problems
vary a great deal, the following six problems can be helpful in conceptualising the
process of political modernisation viz. national identity, political legitimacy,
penetration, participation, integration and distribution. "The modernisation of a
political system" says Almond "is measured by the extent to which it has developed
the capabilities to cope with these generic system-development problems."
PROBLEMS OF POLITICAL MODERNISATION

The third world countries have not found the task of modernisation an easy one and
had to encounter a number of problems. Some of the most common problems which
confront the third world
countries in achieving political modernisation have been as follows:
1. Problem of Unity and Consensus

In the first place most of the third world countries are confronted with the problem of
geographical and social unity. The problem of physical barriers are small as compared
to social barriers. For example in India the presence of different ethnic elements,
social classes and linguistic groups has resulted in riots and demands for slate
autonomy. Under such societies it is always difficult to arrive at a consensus
regarding the form of government; the rules of political process; and common
concepts of justice etc. because some ethnic groups would certainly suspect the
other group of wielding too much influence. This is bound to give rise to bitter
disputes, over public policies. The factional strifes may even take violent turn or may
involve the country with neighbouring country.
2. Government Stability and

Effectiveness
Another problem which is confronted by the third world countries is that they lack
stable and effective government machinery. No doubt, most of these countries
possess the requisite constitutional framework within which they are expected to
operate, but they are not always able to operate within this framework. The
numerous problems facing their societies such as public health, road building,
education for a large number of people, community development etc. put a serious
strain on their administration (as their trained manpower reserves are extremely
limited and cannot cope with the responsibilities). The presence of problems like
status, nepotism, corruption etc. among the administrations further render them
ineffective.
3. Lack of Communication between

Leadership and Masses
Most of the third world countries lack normal channels of communication between the
leaders and the people. No doubt, certain organs of public opinion or interest groups
exist in these countries but they are not adequate to transmit the demand and
grievances of the masses to the leaders. Further, the leaders in these countries
chiefly come
from the urban elites who have no link with the illiterate peasant masses. This
naturally results in lack of proper communication between the two. No doubt these
leaders love their people but due to communication gap between them and the
people they cannot fully reflect the popular aspirations. As a result there have often
been peasant revolts, military barrack uprisings or urban riots.
4.
Lagging Interest Articulation
Another problem faced by most of the developing countries is that they lack interest
articulation groups which could voice the specific demands. Even where such groups
are available, the people in the third world countries have shown a tendency to resort
to direct action on the basis of charismatic leadership. For example, the Buddhist
clergy in South East Asia, the government clerks in India, the military in the Near East
etc. have preferred direct action over resort to institutional groups. Even the various
interest groups do not confine themselves to the functions for which they have
specifically been formed and tended to go beyond their field. Thus the Labour Unions
propound ideological doctrines and actively assist in the elections. The Buddhist
monks have openly campaigned for broad issues of foreign policy and the political
parties have involved themselves in wage disputes and strikes.
5.
Psychological Aspects
Finally the process of modernisation has been greatly hampered due to psychological
reasons. People in most of the third world countries do not possess any particular
predisposition towards a democratic way of life. For example in India though all the
villagers have been given right to discuss the decision of the village elders in public
meetings, but they are not able to do so on account of pervasive social stratification,
the hierarchy of age, sex etc.
However, despite all these limitations the process of modernisation can make
steady progress provided the political development is not intercepted by the
subversion from without or oligarchic dictatorship from within. The process can be
further accelerated by procuring aid from other advanced countries.
30Political
Socialisation
One of the major problem which confronts all political systems is how to prepare the
members of the system for the political responsibilities. This problem has existed
since earliest times and attracted the attention of the political scientists. Plato, the
father of Political Science in his Republic made a bid to arrest political change
through appropriate socialisation of the young. Also showed keen interest in the
political socialisation and insisted on civic education as preparation for active
participation in the affairs of the city state. However, with the rise of Christianity,
politics began to be considered as primarily a matter of morality and the civic
education was not given any importance. The secular writers of the PostReformation period also did not attach much importance to the problem of
political socialisation.
With Rousseau, once again, the problem of political socialisation began to be
given greater attention. But it was only in the present century that the problem
has received sustained attention due to two reasons. First, the popularisation of
the formal schooling system has resulted in relative uniformity in the socialising
experiences to which children are subject. Secondly, there is a growing ethos of
participating among the members of the modern political systems. The political
leaders of modern politics are under pressure to derive their theoretical right to,
govern from those who are bound by their decisions.
MEANING OF POLITICAL SOCIALISATION

The term 'political socialisation' is generally used to describe the process of formation
of political values, attitudes and beliefs. In the words of
Dennis Kavanagh it is the "process whereby the individual learns about and develops
orientation to politics." According to Almond "Political Socialisation is the process of
induction into the political culture. Its end product is a set of attitudescognitions,
value standards and feelings-towards the political system, its various roles and role
incumbents. It also includes knowledge of values affecting, and feelings towards the
inputs of demands and claims into the system, and its authoritative outputs."
Certain political systems attain stability and solidarity because of the attitude^f
responsiveness and co-operation on the part of the members. This co-operation is
extended in the form of loyalty to the government, ready obedience of laws,
maintenance of peace and order, payment of taxes, implementation of economic
plans, conduct of war and so on. The members extend co-operation because of their
orientation to politics and crystallization of particular beliefs and values. On the other
hand, certain other systems do not operate that effectively because the people are
not in a mood to obey the laws of the government, which they think is not functioning
in their interest. These tendencies create instability and are highly detrimental to the
political system. Observing in this context Almond and Powell say "Political
socialisation is the process by which political cultures are maintained and changed.
Through the performance of this function individuals are inducted into the political
culture; their orientations towards political objects are formed. Changes in the
pattern of political culture also come about through political socialisation."
The process of political socialisation is a continuous process which operates in a
casual or imperceptible manner. It starts in the childhood
234
and comes to an end only with the death of an individual. It includes all the political
learning, both formal as well as informal, deliberate as well as unplanned, which
cover the whole span of an individual's life. Dennis Kavanagh brings out this point
thus: "'Socialisation is a continuous process; it does not stop with a childhood or with
school. Indeed, it can be argued that overtly political experiences such as relations
with the police and the civil service and perception of politicians and government
policies are decisive shaping agents of the political culture because they are more
likely to occur in adulthood, at a time when the individual plays a more important
political role."
One of the basic objectives of the process of political socialisation is to transmit
political values from one generation to another and to bring about political stability.
Only the citizens of a stable social or political system believing in society's political
norms can transmit these values to the future generations. In the words of Roberta
Sigel "The goal of political socialisation is to so train or develop individuals that they
become well-functioning members of the political society...For without a body politic,

so in harmony with the ongoing political values and the political system would have
trouble functioning smoothly and perpetuating itself safely. And survival, after all, is a
prime goal of the political organism just as it is of the individual organism."
Another appropriate definition of political socialisation is provided by Michael
Rush and Philip Althoff. They describe it as the process by which the individual
"becomes acquainted with the political system and which determines his reaction to
political phenomena. It involves the examination of the social, economic or cultural
environment of society upon the individual and upon his political attitudes and
values. Political socialisation is the most important link between the social and
political systems, but may vary considerably from one system to another. From a
political point of view, political socialisation is extremely important as the process by
which the individuals become involved in varying degree in the political system-in
political participation.
Another point which deserves attention is that the process of political
socialisation does not take place at a uniform pace. Sometimes it is very slow,
while at other times it becomes very fast. Generally during normal times the process
is slow, but during period of crisis it becomes fast. Similarly if there is growing
inefficiency and corruption in the political system the process of political socialisation
becomes very rapid. It is a matter of common knowledge that before the Jallianwala
Bagh tragedy of 1919 the people of India were somewhat indifferent towards national
struggle, but after this incident they started taking keen interest in the political
activities and got actively involved in the political struggle. It is important to note
that a quick political socialisation process greatly disturbs the society and the
political system. On the other hand, if the process of political socialisation is slow, the
system is able to adjust itself according to the changed political conditions and work
effectively.
TWO STAGES OF POLITICAL SOCIALISATION

The process of socialisation, passes through two different stages. The first stage
covers the childhood and the adolescent stage and the second stage covers the
young age. The process starts in the childhood when the child becomes aware of the
wide environments and develops a coherent outlook. During this stage the general
attitude of the child towards authority, obedience, resistance co-operation,
aggression etc. is germinated. What the child learns in the family is further,
cemented by the school. According to Easton Dennis, the process of political
socialisation at the childhood stage passes through four stages viz. (i) recognition or
authority through particular individuals such as parents, policemen, President of the
country (ii) distinction between public and private authority; (iii) recognition of
impersonal political institutions like legislature, judiciary, voting behaviour etc. (iv)
distinction between political institutions and persons engaged in the activities
associated with those institutions so that
idealised images of particular persons such as the President or the Congressmen

are transferred from die Presidency and the Congress.
At the second stage of political socialisation, factors like environment and
experimental influences play a significant role. It is not essential that the process of
political socialisation should
Political Socialisation
235
conform to the process of socialisation followed during the first stage. According to
Rush and Althoff, at this stage "The knowledge, values and attitude acquired during
the childhood and adolescence will be measured against the experience of adult life:
to suggest otherwise is to suggest a static political behaviour. If the process of adult
socialisation tends to reinforce those of the childhood and adolesence, the degree of
change may be limited to that of increasing conservatism with age, but where
conflict occurs, the radical changes in political behaviour may result, such conflict
may have its roots in early political socialisation, but it may also be attributable to
the experiences of later socialisation."
POLITICAL SOCIALISATION UNDER DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

The basic process of political socialisation is identical under all the systems even
though the system of mechanism may vary both in kind and in its effectiveness. In a
democratic society which permits dissent and opposition and allows multifarious
interests to operate, variety of political norms and values flourish. On the other hand,
in a totalitarian society where the leaders in power try to impose their own values on
the people, the degree of control exercised over information which influences the
process of political socialisation is greater in totalitarian society than in a democratic
society. However, the objective of political socialisation under both the systems is the
same viz. the maintenance of the existing political system or status quo.
AGENTS OF POLITICAL SOCIALISATION

The process of socialisation is channelised through numerous agencies and it shall
be desirable to know about their respective contributions in this regard.
1.
The Family
The family is the first important agency of political socialisation. It exercises both
latent and manifest influence on the child from the very beginning of his life. As the
basic and innate requirements of the child are satisfied by the family he tends to
identify
himself with his parents and adopt their outlook towards the political system.
According to Davies "The family provides the major means for transforming the
mentally naked infant organism into adult fully clothed in its own personality. And
most of the individual's political personalityhis tendencies to think and act
politically in particular wayshas been determined at home, several years before he
can take part in politics as an ordinary adult citizen and as a political prominent.
Robert Lane says that the family provides the foundations of the political beliefs of a
child in three ways viz. by overt and covert indoctrination, by placing the child in a
particular social context, and by moulding the child's family in the process of political
socialization seems obvious. The family is the child's first window on the world
outside; it is the child's first contact with the authority: it is here that the first
differences in the role expectation between the sexes are implanted, and surveys
have shown the strong link between the voting behaviour of the parents and their
children."
2.
School
Next in importance to the family, is the school which exercises profound influence on
the process of political socialisation. Every school has a definite educational pattern
which greatly influences the attitude of the child towards a system. During the
formative years at the school the conduct and character of the child can be moulded
and certain beliefs, values etc. can be implanted in his mind which take deep roots in
his personality and greatly influence his actions and behaviour. According to Dennis
Kavanagh "The amount of schooling children receive and their experience with
teachers appear to be a major influence on the development of an individual's sense
of political competence...The obvious amenability of schools to political direction has
heightened their importance in many new states and in East European communist
states engaged in remaking a political culture. Often, the result is a challenge to
traditional authority pattern in the family. The younger children are socialised into the
norms of the new regime more effectively than parents who may retain values
associated with an earlier regime. The education received at the colleges and other
educational institutions also
236
greatly influences the political socialisation process.

As Almond and Verba have observed, the more extensive an individual's
education, the more likely he is to be aware of the impact of government, to
follow politics to have more political information, to possess a wider range of
opinions on political matters, to engage in political discussions with a wider
range of people, to feel a greater ability to influence political affairs, to be a
member of and to be active in voluntary organisations and express
confidence in his social environment and exhibit feelings of trust.
3. Peer Groups
The peer groups or reference groups which a child joins at the school or
college level also greatly influence the process of political socialisation. These
groups include organisations like student unions, branches of political parties
etc. These groups hold discussions about the political system prevailing in the
country as well as other countries of the world. These discussions leave a
lasting impact on the individual and he learns a great deal from the
knowledge and experience of his group mates. The groups leave a deep
impact on the mental attitude of the individual and often change
the attitude of aggression and hostility into attitude of co-operation and

vice-versa.
4. Impact During Employment

During the course of his employment the individual gains rich experience in
the process of political socialization. While in employment he comes in
contact with people of different castes, religions, regions etc. and thus comes
in touch with the different attitudes and approaches towards the political
system. The attitude of the employer as well as the Trade Union leaders also
exercises deep influence on him. For example, if his employer behaves in a
mean manner he may develop a sense of resentment and violence. On the
other hand, if the employer behaves decently the employees may adopt cooperative and sympathetic attitude towards him. Similarly, as member of the
trade union, he learns about the process of collective bargaining as well as
the various methods of political participation such as strikes, demonstrations,
picketing etc.
5. Mass Media
The channels of mass communication such as newspapers, radio, television

etc. are very powerful media of political socialisation and exercise a deep
impact on the personality of the individual. The young minds constantly
exposed to these medias develop certain norms and values. In a free society,
where the means of mass media are comparatively free the individual
develops different sets of values in contrast to a system with controlled mass
media. In the latter system the mass media is used mainly to achieve
conformity of views amongst various members of state towards the political
system.
6. Political Parties
The political parties also influence the process of political socialisation in a
big way. The political parties not only bitterly criticise the working of the
government with a view to convert more people to their line of thinking but
also control newspapers and other mass medias to mould the opinion of the
people.
7. Impact of Political System

Finally, the political system prevailing in a country also greatly influences the
process of political socialisation. If the political system operates in the
interest of public welfare the people are bound to adopt co-operative attitude
towards the authorities. On the other hand if the political system is indifferent
to the people's demands, it is bound to alienate them. Under the two
circumstances, different kind of socialisation shall take place. The impact of
the political system on the process of political socialisation has been brought
out by Prof. Almond and Powell thus "No matter how positive the view of
political system which has been included by family and school, when a citizen
is ignored by his party, cheated by his police, starved in the bread line, and
finally conscripted into the army, his views on the political realm are likely to
be altered. Direct formal and informal relationship with specific elites in the
political system are inevitably a powerful force in shaping orientations of
individuals to the system."
31-
Power and
Authority
The attempt to study and explain politics in relation to 'power' was first of all made
by Aristotle. He classified the constitutions on the basis of the location of the power.
After him Hobbes further developed the idea, He said "I put for a general inclination
of all mankind, a perpetual and a restless desire for power that ceases only in death.
And the cause of this is not always that a man does for a more intensive delight, than
he has already attained to; or that he cannot be content with a moderate power; but
because he cannot assure the power and means to live well, which he has present,
without the acquisition of more" He asserted that "search for power is the root cause
of competition among the individuals. This competition even persists in the civil
society with every person involved in constant competitive struggle for power over
others or at least to rest his power being commanded by others."
The concept of power was further elaborated by Hegel. He absolutised the
sovereign power of the state to such an extent that he discarded all ethics of internal
morality. After Hegel the other prominent German writers who elaborated the theory
of power were Nietzsche, Treitschke and Bernhardi. However, the other political
thinkers by and large did not attach much importance to the concept of 'power'.
With the rise of the modern nation state the political theorists realised the
importance of power in politics. The realists defined the state in terms of its power. A
new phase in the study and analysis of power started with Max Weber. He said
"Power is the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be, in a
position to carry out his at own will despite the resistance, regardless of the be basis
on which this probability rests."
Accordingly, he said "A compulsory political association with continuous organization
will be called a 'state' if and in so far as its administrative staff successfully up-holds
a claim to the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force, in the enforcement of
its order." It may be observed that Weber was not so much concerned with power in
general and was more concerned with legitimate power or authority.
The subsequent scholars who were directly or indirectly influenced by Weber, greatly
expanded the range of power relations. The important scholars who made
contribution to the
development of concept included Catlin (1930), Marrian (1934), Lasswell

(1936), Goldhamer and Shils (1939). In 1948, Morgenthau extended the concept
to the international politics. In the post world war II period these ideas spread
very rapidly in America and other countries.
MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER

It is indeed difficult to give a precise definition of the term 'power' because different
scholars have viewed it from different angles. While Tawney identifies power with the
'capacity of an individual or a group of individuals, to modify the conduct of others in
the manner which one desires'. Friedrich views it as 'a certain kind of human
relationship'. Robert Dahl says that the term 'power' in modern social science refers
to subsets of relations among social units so that the behaviour of one or more units
depends in some circumstances on the behaviour of other units. Dahl excludes the
relations with the inanimate or even non-human objects from the purview of power
relationship. Similarly, other scholars have
-jsfe&^sa&ft
238
also laid emphasis on the ability of an individual or group to affect the behaviour of
others in conformance to his or its wishes. On the basis of this broad view, Roseman
and others refer to several aspects of power. Firstly, it is a relationship among men
and not a quality possessed by them. Secondly, it is issue based and cannot be
evaluated as indivisible unit. Thirdly, it is unevenly distributed among all the
members of the society and all men do not essentially enjoy equal amount of power
over others. Fourthly, it is situational in as far as its exercise is greatly influenced by
the surrounding circumstances. Fifthly, it is based to some extent on the
acquiescence of the influenced power. This implies that the master has power over
slave because the latter accepts slavery. Sixthly, power ends where violence begins.
Unless compliance is secured without use of physical violence no power exists.
According to the traditional view the power generally rests with the few at the top,
while the many at the bottom have little power. In other words, there is grossly
inequitable distribution of power in the community or organization. As a result of the
introduction of the process of democratisation and wider participation of people in all
organised life, this power relationship has greatly changed in the present times. A
new leader-follower relationship has emerged. Not only the followers identify
themselves with the leaders, the leaders have also become increasingly dependent
on their followers. This has given rise to equal leader-follower power relationship.
SOURCES OF POWER
The main sources of power are as follows:
Formal Authority
In the first place, power emanates from formal authority, such as constitutions,
charters, statutes, regulations, delegations and official decisions. To be meaningful
such a power must be accepted by those who are subject to the influence of the
authority of the holders. Sometimes, the power may be acquired by usurping
authority through unauthorized acts and seeking legitimatisation of authority
subsequently.
Wealth
Wealth is another source of power. As most of other sources of power such as media
communication, which are instruments of persuation, can be mobilized through this

instrument, it assumes greater significance. In most of the societies the wealthy
persons or organizations acquire as certain aura of authority on the basis of wealth
alone. In other words, those who control the wealth they need not own it, such as the
managers of corporations and top government officials, enjoy power.
Human Resources
People are another important source of power. In fact, it is the people who convert
the physical resources to wealth by developing them and fruitfully utilising them. The
power of a political party or a trade union to a large extent depends on the number
of their supporters. However, sheer number is not enough. The quality of the people
is also important. The people must have greater potentialities, which in turn depend
on their age, health, education, knowledge etc. Above all the quality of leadership
provided by the major actors greatly contributes to the power. They exploit the power
potential of the large majority of the people.
Organisation
Finally, the organisation is an important source of power. The individuals by joining
together in some sort of organisation develop power to do certain things which they
cannot do by themselves. An organisation can exploit the special capacities and
knowledge of its members. Therefore, the major actors in political process always
devote great attention to the maintenance, expansion and reorganisation of the
existing organizations and try to build new organisations. A complex network of
support for the organization exists which may include a large variety of shifting and
overlapping coalitions, or may be crystallised into one pattern of alliances.
Use of Power
The use of power can assume two forms viz., persuasion and pressure. Persuasion
takes place when a person is persuaded to take action without
Power and Authority
239
promise of reward or a threat of punishment. The common methods of persuasion are

self-example, proposals, education, propaganda, information etc. A leader can
influence others
by self-example of honesty, loyalty and devotion. The people tend to follow the
leader. Again the leader can exercise influence by open advocacy of proposals in
accordance with the established customs or codes. Education can be helpful in
exercising long-term influence on the behaviour of the people. This is specially
helpful in promoting confirmity. Propaganda is another method of persuasion. In
it, appeal is made to the people's interests by raising their emotions and feelings.
It is admitted at all hands that sustained propaganda can have a deep impact on
the values and attitudes of the people. Finally, the behaviour of the people can
also be shaped by structuring the information in a particular manner.
The other method of use of power is pressure. This method involves promise
of rewards or threat of punishment. In pressure, use of force, commands,
manipulation and bargaining are some of the methods which are commonly
resorted to. Force is the most extreme form of power which can assume the form
of imprisonment, torture, destruction of life and resources etc. It is used to
eliminate the capacity of the adversary to act in an undesirable manner.
Sometimes, the mere threat of use of force can serve the purpose. In almost all
states, force is one of the important sanctions behind enforcement of law. The
revolutionary groups, separatists and criminals etc. also make use of force. The
promise of rewards in the shape of pecuniary gains like money, positions, higher
status, cooperation, withdrawal of an anticipated punishment etc.; or
punishments like fines, reduction in status, withdrawal of anticipated reward etc.
are less blunt instruments of pressure.
Command is yet another method of pressure, though it operates within
certain limitations viz., it can be used only by those whose authority to give order
is accepted. Yet another method is manipulation, which is very helpful in creating
permissive situation. It combines the rewards and punishments without making
any statement regarding the type of action. Finally, bargaining is an effective
method of pressure in which all sides exercise power upon each other through
reciprocal promises or threats.
Measurement of Power
The task of measuring power presents another problem. The classical thinkers left
this to the realm of common sense and intuition. However, in our times efforts have
been made to develop systematic measures of power. In the main, three types of
criterias for measurement of power have been suggested. Firstly, Shapley and Shubik
suggest measurement of power through committee system in which the votes are
the chief determining factor. They hold that as the ruler prescribes what the majority
of the members of the committee prescribe, each member voter occupies a pivotal
position. They thus contend that each voter makes a decisive contribution to the
outcome. This criteria can be helpful in measuring power in those cases only where
other elements of political power or criteria are lacking.
Secondly, certain analysists like Simon, Dahl, Oppenheim etc. have tried to
measure power by applying Newtonian principle. They measure the power with
reference to the change in the respondent which the controlling person is able to
bring about or the changes which the respondent is able to bring about in the
controlling person. Thirdly, Harsanyi tries to measure power in economic terms. He
holds that complete measurement of power should include the opportunity cost of
the controlling person trying to influence the respondent as well as the opportunity
cost of the respondent if he refuses to comply with the orders of the controlling
person. Actually, Harsanyi does not refer to the economic cost but the strength of the
controlling person over the respondent.
Factors which Influence the Exercise of Power

Finally, let us have an idea about the factors which influence the exercise of power.
This is important because quite often there is difference in the exercise of power
under different political systems. This difference is on account of the following
reasons.
Firstly, it is on account of differences in the distribution of resources or base

values among the individuals, strata, classes and groups in different countries,
communities etc. Philosophers like Aristotle, Harrington, Marx, Engles have
emphasised this point. They contend that greater one's resources the greater is one's
power. However, it is difficult to give a list of universally acceptable bases of
resources, as different scholars have suggested different resources of power.
Secondly, the resources alone do not determine the power. The political skill plays
no less significant role. This explains why two persons having access to
approximately the same resources may not be able to enjoy same degree of power.
However, it has not been possible to give an analysis of the political skill and this
aspect of analysis of power has proved elusive.
Thirdly, the motivations can also contribute to the increased or decreased use of
power. Thus, while one person may use the resources of his power to increase his
power, the other may not. Further, as the controlling unit is dependent on the
respondent unit the motivation of both the controlling person and respondent are
significant in this regard.
Finally, the difference in the resources of the controlling persons also affects his
capacity to exercise power.
The Political
Elite
MEANING OF POLITICAL ELITE

The term 'elite' has been taken from the Latin word 'eligere' meaning to choose. In
course of time the term came to refer to, eminence. The Chamber's Twentieth
Century Dictonary defines political elite as "a chosen or select part; the pick or flower
of anything," The Random House Dictionary defines political elite as (1) "the choice
or best of anything considered collectively, as of a group or class of persons; (2)
persons of highest class; (3) a group of persons exercising the major share of
authority or influence within a large organisation." In simple words political elite
includes "all those who are holding high political offices at a given time. Also
important are those who have held offices and who are considered to be supporters
of the current leaders and thus might be able to influence their decisions. Those
whose future leadership seems likely are also to be considered. Active opposition
leaders, whose views may have to be taken into account are another part of the elite
as well as influential leaders of political parties, interest groups and so on. In short, in
the broadest sense a political elite includes those who over a space of time of
perhaps a generation, can have a marked effect on decision-making.
According to Suzemne Keller "Elites are those minorities which are set apart from
the rest of the society by their pre-eminence in one or more of these various
distribution."1 It may be observed that in modern society which is very complex,
there is not one class of elites but several classes of elites such as elites of soldiers,
artists, bankers etc. Pareto used the term in this sense. These elites differ from each
other so much that they seldom possess enough features and affinities. However,
1. International Encyclopedia ol Social Sciences, Vol. 5, p.26.
certain elites have more social weightage than othersand they are described as the
power elite or ruling elites. As they are principle movers and models for the entire
society they are also described as strategic elites.
It may be noted that the concept of elites is not a new concept and has been
known since the earliest times. Even in the early societies the leading minorities of
elders, priests or warrior kings exercised the elite social functions. But with the
advancement of the society and the growth of its functions the activities of the state
greatly expandedwhich led to the emergence of specialised leadership.
It may be observed that the whole concept of 'elite' is based on the assumption
that the men are inherently unequal and only a few selected persons have a valid
title to rule over the many. This may give the impression that elite rule is identical
with the aristocratic or oligarchical system. This is however, not so. The two are quite
distinct from each other. The elite rule lacks the traditional grandeur and tendency of
self-perpetuation which is a dominant feature of the aristocratic rule. As Verney has
observed, "an elite appears to combine some of the characteristic of both an
oligarchy (government by the few) and an aristocracy" (government by the best) but
it is not to be confused with either. It is a minority like an oligarchy, and consists of
superior people like an aristocracy, but there is neither the sense of self-perpetuation
and selfishness which surrounds the former, nor the pomp and grandeur which often
is associated with the latter." The only similarity between elite rule and oligarchy or
aristocracy is the rule of few, but they differ from each other in
242
the manner in which the power is used by the two. The Elite rule depends upon the
appreciation of the masses, while the rule of oligarchy depends upon the apathy,
ignorance or weak and meek attitude of the down-trodden people. To quote Verney
again "In contrast to elite theories, where there is a psychological barrier to general
participation on the tacit approval of the masses. It results from their failure to assert
themselves against their rulers and to challenge the 'never ending' audacity of the
elected persons in both instances, society is regarded as a pyramid, the few who rule
being at the top and the many who are ruled at the base, but the relationship of the
rulers and the ruled is intimate. Whereas elites especially celebrities and royal
families lend to thrive on the interest of the masses in their doings, oligarchies
flourish when people are apathetic about the democratic process and ignorant of the
realities of political power."
A person can get into the ranks of political elite due to either of the following or
combination of factors like birth in great family, good education, training to rule,
tremendous influence, sound common sense etc. According to Pareto the political
elite combines in itself the qualities of a lion and a fox and all the political power is
concentrated in its hands. By the exercise of this power it is able to keep all the
advantages that power brings. He asserts that though the elite uses all the political
power in accordance with the laws and constitution of the land, they try to promote
their own interests while giving an impression to be governed that they are working
for their welfare. The masses are deliberately kept out of all orbits of power.
Burnham, another prominent exponent of the elitist theory tried to interpret it in
economic terms and asserted that it is chiefly due to control over the principal means
of production and distribution that a group manages to capture power and prevents
others from gaining power. He says that the easiest way to discover the ruling class
in a society is to find out the people with biggest income. C. Wright Mills on the other
hand asserted both the economic and social basis of political elite and said that the
people who hold top economic and social positions constitute the 'power elite'.
On the basis of the views expressed by various scholars about political elite we
can deduce the following features of political elite:
1. In every political system a small group of people who enjoy high prestige and
widespread influence occupy key positions and control the decision making
mechanism.
2. The elite possesses superior qualities like intellectual ability; administrative
capacity, higher positions, military power or moral authority.
3. There are various kinds of elites such as governing elite, power elite, national
elite etc. who represent the highest indices in their own branches of activity.
4. A continuous competition mid adjustment goes on between different elite in
society which results in circulation of elites.
CHANGE IN CHARACTER OF ELITES

In India, like many other Afro-Asian countries, the general character of the elite
has undergone change. When the British established their colonial rule there
were two distinct classes in Indian societya great mass of rural people and a
Small group of Aristocracy, which was concentrated in the cities. The latter
constituted the elite in the sense that it was an exclusive group with superiority
based on caste, cultural qualifications as well as religion. This elite acted as the
guardian of the ancient traditions and customs and standard-bearers of the
cultural pattern of the society.
With the advent of the Europeans, a large number of merchants, soldiers,
missionaries and civil servants came to India. They hailed from different social
classes and came to constitute a new class of whitemen. Again, though these
people were not the best representatives of the Western civilization, they
nonetheless came to be regarded as the standard bearers of Western civilization
in India. In the true sense these whitemen could not be considered as elites
because they (with the exception of missionaries) had very little contact with the
Indian masses and their superiority was based on gun-in-hand approach. But
slowly with the increase in their number and change in policies (which laid
greater emphasis on the welfare of the people) they were transformed into elite
and their prestige greatly increased. In every walk of life they became ideal for
the Indians.
i
The Political Elite 243
With a view to cope with the growing responsibilities of administration, the

British inducted into the administrative apparatus certain indigenous elites as
well as young Indians as a lower-grade civil servants, clerks, policemen etc. This
led to the creation of a new-western-educated indigenous elite. This new
indigenous elite which received education in western countries provided the
leadership to the independence movement.
CHANGES AFTER INDEPENDENCE

After attainment of independence India adopted parliamentary democracy based
on the principle of universal adult franchise, but the political power fell into the
hands of the political elite which was western educated. Further most of the
political elites hailed from the civil services, professional classes. The adoption of
parliamentary, democracy also gave rise to the political parties. The political
parties developed with such a remarkable speed that soon the country came to
have multi-party system. All these parties were not formed on the basis of
ideology or economic progress and very many parties were formed on the basis
of religion, language, region etc.
The temptations of power to which the politicians were open after
independence, gave rise to numerous corrupt practices. The business and
commercial firms tried to bribe the government officials and political leaders. It
may be noted that during the initial years after independence the problem of
corruption was not that serious and the political elite acted with a great sense of
responsibility. As a result the country was able to successfully handle some of the
serious problems like food shortage, rehabilitation of refugees etc. However,
slowly the political elite degenerated and fell victim to corruption. Certain splits
also took place among the intellectual elite.
Thus we find the elite in India has certain features which are as follows:
Firstly, the political elite in India is the outcome of the social changes which
have taken place during the colonial rule. It has generally come from a new
group, the middle class which with the growth of the cities, the development of
trade and commerce, of liberal professions and of administration, sprung up in
the country during the colonial rule and thereafter. Secondly, this elite is the
product of western education and it is this western education which distinguished
the elite from the rest and accords him authority and power. This is particularly
so because in India the education is still the privilege of the relatively small
section of the society. Thirdly, after having sparked the nationalist feelings in the
country the elite have ridden the crest of nationalistic wave towards
independence. Fourthly, the aristocratic group of elites (which was accused of
being the stooge of colonialism) has continued to play an important role, if not
spectacular role in the civil services of the country and greatly contributed to the
smooth transition from the colonial regime to an independent state. Fifthly, of
late even the new western educated elite is being managed by the new groups,
the mass leaders. Finally, the change in traditional norms and values has also
produced a change in the political elite. In this respect Lasswell has rightly
observed that as modern societies are becoming more and more critical of the
traditional values, the elite has come to assume a broader complexion to include
not only those who are at the top but also those who constitute the strata of
society from which the leaders usually emerge.
The change in the nature of the political elite in India has been nicely
summed up by Prof. Rajni Kothari thus "The electoral and democratic process has
shifted the levers of power from the hands of the first generation leadership to
those in charge of state and district organizations, caste federations, rural
panchayats and co-operatives... The new organisation men... are to be found in
small towns and district capitals, closer to the traditional social order, and
exhibiting a new style in Indian politics. They are pragmatic men less oriented to
the modernist idioms but modernizers in their own way, men who understand the
subtleties of nuances of local society, powerful persons who have taken time in
coming up, and who are therefore, confident of their own strength. Some of them
are popular leaders ruthless, but they control the vote. The focus of power has
shifted."
UnitV
INDIAN CONSTITUTION
033Making of Indian
Constitution
The idea of a Constituent Assembly in the sense of a representative body specificity

constituted for the formulation of the fundamental law of a country has a long history
in the West. In India the demand for a Constituent Assembly was first of all made by
M.N, Roy in 1934. This demand was endorsed by Swarajist Party which was revived in
the same year. The Party inter alia claimed for India the right of self-determination in
common with other nations and maintained that "the only method of applying that
principle is to convene a Constituent Assembly representative of all sections of the
Indian people to frame an acceptable Constitution". In December 1936 the Indian
National Congress at its Faizpur session passed a resolution stating, "The Congress
stands for a genuine democratic state in India where political power would be
transferred to the people as a whole and the Government would be under their
effective control. Such a state could only come into existence through a Constituent
Assembly elected by adult suffrage and having the power to determine finally the
constitution of the country". Thereafter the demand for Constituent Assembly was
reiterated with mounting insistence year after. In November 1939 the Working
Committee of the Indian National Congress passed another resolution asserting that
"recognition of India's independence and the right of her people to frame their
constitution through a Constituent Assembly is essential in order to remove the taint
of imperialism from Britain's policy and to enable the Congress to consider further cooperation. They held that the Constituent Assembly is the only democratic method of
determining the Constitution of a free country, and no one who believes in
democracy and freedom can possibly take exception to it. The
Working Committee believes that the constituent Assembly is the only adequate
instrument for solving communal and other difficulties".
It may be noted that the Princes and Landlords were opposed to the idea of
Constituent Assembly because they saw in it a threat to their privileged position.
Even the Muslim League favoured a Constituent Assembly but it insisted on having a
separate Constituent Assembly for Pakistan. The British Government, though initially
not favourably inclined to accept a Constituent Assembly for India, were forced by the
exigencies of the war to concede the demand for a Constituent Assembly in March
1942. This was clearly included in the Cripps Proposals and was reiterated in the
Cabinet Mission proposals of 1946,
THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

According to the Cabinet Mission Proposals a Constituent Assembly for making
constitution of India was to be set up. This body was to consist of representatives of
all the principal communities of India. The seats were distributed among the
provinces and states on the basis of their population, one member being elected for a
million of population. The seats allocated to the various provinces were to be divided
into three sectionsGeneral, Muslims and Sikhs. The Constituent Assembly was to
consist of 389 members, Out of this 292 seats were allotted to the British Indian
Provinces 210 General; 78 Muslims and 4 Sikhs, while 93 seats were allotted to the
States. Three seats were allotted to the Chief Commissioner's provinces and one to
British Baluchistan. The representatives of the states were to be elected in
accordance with the system to be
248
settled by negotiation, while the members of the provinces were to be elected by the
Legislative Assemblies of the respective provinces on the basis of single transferable
vote.
The elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946. Out of the 210
General seats Congress captured 199 seats. Out of the 78 seats reserved for the
Muslims, the Muslim League secured 73 seats. The representatives of the Princely
States came to be associated with the Constituent Assembly at a later date after the
merger of the states with the Indian Union. It may be observed that the
representatives of the states joined at different stages. For example, eight Princely
states sent their representatives to the Assembly on 28 April, 1947. Further between
December 1946 and November 1949 a number of small states either merged in the
Provinces or united to form bigger states. As a result of these developments the
numerical strength of the Constituent Assembly continued to fluctuate before it
finally settled down at 324-235 representing the British India and 89 representing the
Indian states as against 389 suggested by the Cabinet Mission Plan (296 for British
India and 93 for the Indian states). Hyderabad, a princely state, which was allotted 16
seats in the Assembly did not send its representative to the Constituent Assembly at
all.
The Constituent Assembly thus constituted was not a sovereign body. Not only it was
set up by the British Government, which could also abolish it, its authority was also
limited. It was to work within the framework of the Cabinet Mission Plan and expected
to formulate a constitution within the outlines provided in the Cabinet Mission
Scheme. However, the character of the Constituent Assembly underwent great
transformation after the enactment of the Indian Independence Act 1947. Under the
Act the demand for a separate state of Pakistan was conceded and naturally the
Muslim League members withdrew from the Constituent Assembly. Further, as a
result of this Act all the external restrictions on the powers of the Constituent
Assembly automatically disappeared. Thereafter the Constituent Assembly acquired
complete
freedom to frame a Constitution for India as it pleased, and it was no more to

work within the framework stipulated in the Cabinet Mission Plan. The withdrawal
of the Muslim League members
also rendered its working more smooth. The scope of the functions of the
Constituent Assembly was also widened in so far as it was also to act as
Provisional Parliament till a new Parliament was constituted under the new
Constitution in 1952.
The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9 December,
1946. Dr. Sachhidanand Sinha, the oldest member of the Assembly was elected a
provisional president. On 11 December, 1946 the Assembly elected Dr. Rajendra
Prasad as its permanent Chairman. For the first few months the Constituent
Assembly worked in an atmosphere of uncertainty because the Muslim League
decided to boycott the Constituent Assembly and insisted on a separate
Constituent Assembly for framing a constitution for Pakistan. The Congress as
well as the British Government made numerous effects to persuade the League
to cooperate with the Constituent Assembly but the Muslim League remained
adamant. Despite this the Assembly continued its work.
OBJECTIVES RESOLUTION
On 13 December, 1946 Jawaharlal Nehru moved the Objectives Resolution which
was unanimously adopted by the members on 22 January, 1947. This resolution
contained the main objectives that were to guide the deliberations of the
Assembly. The Resolution stated:
1. This Constituent Assembly declares its firm and solemn resolve to proclaim
India as an Independent Sovereign Republic and to draw up for her future
governance a Constitution.
2. Wherein the territories that now comprise British India, the territories that now
form the Indian States, and such other parts of India as are outside British
India and the States as well as such other territories as are willing to be
constituted into the Independent Sovereign India, shall be a Union of them all;
and
3. Wherein the said territories, whether their present boundaries or with such
others as may be determined by the Constituent Assembly and thereafter
according to the law of the constitution, shall possess and retain powers, and
exercise all powers and functions of Gcvernment and
1.
Making of Indian
Constitution 249
4.
5.
6.
7.
administration, save and except such powers and functions, as are vested in or
assigned to the Union or as are inherent or implied in the Union or resulting
therefrom: and
Wherein all powers and authority of the Sovereign Independent India, its
constituent parts and organs of Government are derived from the people; and
Wherein shall be guaranteed and secured to all the people of India justice,
social, economic and political; equality of status, of opportunity and before the
law; freedom of thought expression, belief, faith, worship, vocation, association
and action, subject to law and public morality; and
Wherein adequate safeguards shall be provided for minorities, backward and
tribal areas and depressed and other backward classes; and
Wherein shall be maintained the integrity of the territory of the Republic and
its sovereign rights on land, sea, and air according to justice and the law of
civilized nations; and
8. This ancient land attains its rightful and honoured place in the world and
makes it a full and willing contribution to the promotion of world peace and the
welfare of mankind.
It is evident from the object resolution that it emphasised the fundamentals which
were long cherished by the people of India. In the words of B. Shiva Rao the
Objectives Resolution "was a declaration, a firm resolve, a pledge, an undertaking
and a dedication".
COMMITTEES OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

As formulation of a Constitution in keeping with the objectives outlined above was
quite a complicated affair, the Constituent Assembly set up a number of committees
to consider procedural and substantive matters. The Committees concerned with the
consideration of procedural matters included the Rules of Procedure
Committee; Finance and Staff Committee-Credentials Committee; Steering
Committee, Hindi Translation Committee; Press Gallery Committee; House Committee
and Committee on Independence Act.
The committees concerned with the substantive matters included committee for
negotiating with States; Advisory Committee; Union Powers Committee; Union
Constitution Committee; Drafting Committee; Ad Hoc Committee on National Flag; Ad
Hoc Committee on Supreme Court etc. The most important of all the committees on
substantive matters was the Drafting Committee, which was constituted on 29
August, 1947 under the Chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. The other important
members of the Drafting Committee included Shri N. Gopala-swami Ayyangar, Shri
Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar, Shri K.M. Munshi, Shri Saiyid Mohd. Saadulla, Shri N.
Madhava Rau and Shri D.P. Khaitan (after his death he was replaced by Shri T. T.
Krishnamachari). In all there were ten committees on procedural affairs and twelve
committees on substantive affairs. Some of these committees were chaired by the
same persons who naturally served as a connecting link between the various
committees.
The reports submitted by the various committees were considered by the Constituent
Assembly at the plenary session and most of the decisions were unanimously arrived
at in all, the Constituent Assembly held eleven plenary sessions. The task of
preparing a draft of the Constitution, in accordance with the decisions taken on the
reports of the various committees was entrusted to the Drafting Committee under
the Chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. The Drafting Committee submitted its report
on 21 February, 1948. Thereafter a sufficient time gap was allowed to enable the
people, the press as well as the provincial legislatures to hold free and frank
discussions on the report. The Drafting Committee presented a draft Constitution to
the Constituent Assembly which started general discussion on the draft constitution
on 4 November, 1948. The second reading on the draft constitution was completed
by the Assembly
on 17 October, 1949. In all as many as 7635 amendments to the Constitution

were tabled, out of which 2473 were
250
actually moved and discussed. The Constituent Assembly finally adopted the
Constitution on 26 November, 1949 and the President of the Assembly formally
appended his signatures to the Constitution. Thus the Constituent Assembly
which held its first meeting on 9 December, 1946 took 2 years, 11 months and
18 days to complete the work, though some of the provisions of the Constitution
came into force on 26 January, 1950. The total expenditure on the framing of the
Constitution of India amounted to Rs. 6.4 crores.
The adoption of the Constitution of India was indeed an event of great
constitutional significance and Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the President of the
Constituent Assembly expressed satisfaction over the stupendous job
accomplished by the Assembly. He said: "I desire to congratulate the Assembly
on accomplishing a task of such tremendous magnitude. It is not my purpose to
appraise the value of the work that the Assembly has done or the merits or
demerits of the Constitution which it has framed. I am content to leave that to
others and to posterity". Prof. Granville Austin describes the adoption of the
Constitution of India as "the greatest political venture since Philadelphia". He
says "With the adoption of the Constitution by the members of the Constituent
Assembly on 26th November, 1949, India became the largest democracy in the
world. By this act of strength and will, Assembly members began what was
perhaps the greatest political venture since that originated in Philadelphia in
1787".
How far the Constituent Assembly was a Representative Body?

Ever since the formation of the Constituent Assembly a controversy has existed
about its representative character. It has been alleged by the critics that as the
Constituent Assembly was not elected on the basis of the adult franchise and was
indirectly elected by the Legislative Assemblies of the provinces, which themselves
were elected on the basis of a restricted franchise, it was not a truly representative
body. Some of the members of the Constituent Assembly like Damodar Swarup Seth
not only questioned the representative character of the Assembly but also proposed
a motion demanding postponement of discussion on the
Draft Constitution on the ground that "the Constituent Assembly was not elected on
the basis of adult franchise".
However, others have tended to describe the Constituent Assembly as a
representative body. For example, it has been argued that Sarojini Naidu was a
member of the Constituent Assembly. Though she was not elected through a popular
vote but she certainly represented the viewpoint of the women of India. Further
almost all the political parties as well as various interests were represented on the
Assembly. The only party which did not find representation in the Constituent
Assembly was the Communist Party. In fact most of the outstanding men and women
who had achieved discriminations in various walks of life were represented in the
Constituent Assembly. Some of the prominent leaders which were associated as
members of the Constituent Assembly included Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. Rajendra
Prasad, Sardar Vallabhhai Patel, C. Rajagopalachari, G.B. Pant, B.G. Kher, Babu
Purshottamdas Tandon, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Asaf Ali,
Rafi Ahmad Kidwai, Krishna Sinha, K.M. Munshi, Acharya Kripalani, T.T.
Krishnamachari, Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, B.R. Ambedkar, Prof. K.T. Shah, Liaqat Ali Khan,
H.N. Kunzru, M.R. Jayakar, Smt. Sarojini Naidu, Mrs. Hansa Mehta and Smt. Durgabai
Deshmukh. These members represented the cross-sections of the Indian society and
were acknowledged intellectual giants of the time. Viewed in this context they
describe the Constituent Assembly was a truly representative body.
How far was the Constitution a Congress Document?

Again, it has been asserted that the Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly
was essentially a Congress Document because the Assembly was throughout
dominated by the Congress members. In the election to the Constituent Assembly
held in July 1946, the Congress captured 204 out of 296 seats. Subsequently with the
withdrawal of the Muslim League, the position of the Congress in the Constituent
Assembly was further strengthened. This overwhelming majority of the Congress was
a
Making of Indian Constitution 251
natural corollary of the dominant role played by this party in the Indian freedom
struggle. Not only this even the members of the Constituent Assembly belonging to
other communities and groups were also greatly influenced by the Congress ideology.
No wonder, under the circumstances most of the decisions regarding various features
of the Constitution such as federalism, fundamental rights, secularism, adult
franchise, democratic socialism etc. were taken at the meetings of the Indian
National Congress in accordance with the well known policies and programme of the
party. In fact, it was not the Congress Party as such but a small section of the top
Congress leaders like Nehru, Patel, Rajendra Prasad, Maulana Azad who constituted
the core of the Congress Working Committee, who took most of the decisions and
prompted the Drafting Committee to incorporate the same in the Draft Constitution.
But the Congress Oligarchy, the term used by Austin for these top Congress leaders,
made no bid to curb the views of the members even if they happened to be against
their known stand. They were merely concerned with achieving consensus on
important matters. As Granville Austin has observed "The Oligarchy certainly used its
almost irresistible influence to promote consensus. By replying to questions about,
and opposition to, various provisions, with full explanation, and by relying on
persuasion rather than force, the members of the Oligarchy reinforced the effect of
their power and prestige usually winning over their opponents, even high-ranking
ones. There were times, however, when the shoe was on the other foot, when, in
search of a workable lasting agreement, the Oligarchy retreated from its position tomeet the mood of the assembly".
The significant role played by the Congress in the formulation of the Constitution is
further evident from the fact that it was existence of strong Congress party inside the
Assembly which rendered the proceedings of the Constituent Assembly in an ordered
and disciplined manner possible. But for the sizeable strength of the Congress
members in the Assembly, the Assembly would not have been able arrive at various
decisions. It was the discipline of the
Congress party which enabled the Drafting Committee to pilot the Constitution in
the Assembly with the
sure knowledge as to the fate of each article and each amendment. Viewed in this
context the Congress party deserves credit for making the smooth sailing of the Draft
Constitution in the Assembly possible.
Prof. K.V. Rao is of the opinion that the real authors of the Indian Constitution were
jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Patel, and he is reluctant to bestow the title of Father of
the Constitution on Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. To quote him "My reading of the Constitution
makes me feel that it is inappropriate to call Dr. Ambedkar the "Father of the
Constitution". If any people are entitled to be called so, they are Nehru and Patel, but
I would like to call them the Presiding Deities, the sources of the ideas of the
Constitution, the real makers of the Constitution. I would like to attribute fatherhood
to them as well as to the members of the Drafting Committee in common, but would
not like to single out Dr. Ambedkar for this honour. We may call him, more
appropriately, the 'mother' of the Constitution and I am not using it in any
deprecating or jocular sense. Dr. Ambedkar had to bear, in fact others ideas, and
nurture them and bring them out as his own, and this he did remarkably well".
No doubt, the Congress Party played a vital role in the formulation of the
Constitution, but it would certainly be wrong to allege that the Congress party used
its majority to impose provisions. The Congress party was chiefly guided by the
considerations of national interest and its motives were generally pure. Prof. K.V. Rao,
who has made a serious study of the working of the Indian Constituent Assembly also
admits that "Though made by the Congress Party, the Constitution does not contain
even a single article that favoured the party at the expense of the other political
parties". Granville Austin also shares this view and says: "The oligarchy certainly
used its influence to promote consensus. By replying to questions about, and
opposition to various provisions with full explanations, and by relying on persuasion
rather than force the members of the oligarchy reinforced the effect of their power
and prestige, usually winning their opponents, even the high ranking ones". He
further asserts "Democratic decision-making by the members of the Congress
Assembly Party and the oligarchy's refusal to arrogate to itself all wisdom and
252
authority helped to make possible a generally acceptable constitution".

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar also admitted that "the task of the Constituent Assembly would
have been a difficult one if it had been merely a motley crowd, a tasselled pavement
without cement, a black stone here and a white stone there in which each member or
each group was a law unto itself. There would have been nothing but chaos. This
possibility of chaos was reduced to nil by the existence of the Congress party inside
the Assembly which brought into its procedure a sense of order and discipline. It is
because of the discipline of the Congress Party that the Drafting Committee was able
to pilot the Constitution in the Assembly with the sure knowledge as to the fate of
each article and each amendment. The Congress party is, entitled to all the credit for
the smooth sailing of the Draft Constitution in the Assembly".
Shortcomings in the Composition and Working of the Constituent

Assembly
The critics have noted a number of shortcomings in the composition and working of
the Constituent Assembly. In the first place they argue that the Constituent Assembly
of India was not a representative body of the people of India. No doubt the members
of the Constituent Assembly were eminent people from different walks of life and
worked in the best interests of the country, yet it cannot be denied that they were
not elected by the people for the specific purpose of formulating a constitution for
the country. They were elected by the legislatures of the provinces. Some of the
members of the Constituent Assembly, especially, those nominated after the
withdrawal of the Muslim League members, were not even indirectly elected. Further,
no effort was made to get the names of the members of the Constituent Assembly of
India approved from the people through any referendum. In short, it was not a
representative body of the people in the true sense of the term.
Secondly, it is argued that the Constituent Assembly could not work freely and
had to operate under numerous limitations and pressures. During the init'al stages
the Constituent Assembly was under the influence of the British
Parliament which could even dissolve it. This handicap was removed after the
passage of the Indian Independence Act 1947, but even thereafter it continued to be
under the pressure of Congress Oligarchy. All the proceedings and deliberations of
the Assembly were dominated by the Congress Oligarchy. Almost all important
decisions were first taken by the Congress Working Committee and then it prompted
the Drafting Committee to give these proposals the shape of a draft constitution. In
the debates of the Assembly also this Congress Oligarchy played an effective role and
generally succeeded in getting the things approved. Mahavir Tyagi, a member of the
Constituent Assembly rightly charged that the "Constitution was given by the
majority party to the country". Prof. Shibban Lai Saxena also expressed the view that
due to dominance of Congress in the Consituent Assembly, the Constitution very
much suffered. According to him 'The Congress Party meetings became meetings of
the real Constituent Assembly, and the real Assembly became the mock Assembly,
where discussion arrived at by the Congress Party meetings were registered'.
Thirdly, it is alleged that there was no vocal and effective opposition inside the
Constituent Assembly and as a result the various viewpoints could not be adequately
represented in the deliberations of the Assembly. Whatever little opposition existed in
the Assembly was further rendered ineffective by the rigid control exercised by the
Congress over its members. No doubt, some members of the Constituent Assembly
acted as adamant critics and the Congress leadership gave them patient hearing and
tried to accommodate their viewpoint. The Congress leadership made minor
accommodation in various issues in the light of the demands put forward by these
critics, however, they stuck to the basic principles. Recording his impressions about
the working of the Constituent Assembly one member of the Assembly records that
the Congress Oligarchy "never yielded to the temptation of attempting to carry any of
its provisions or of imposing any of its ideas through the weight of its party majority".
The Congress Party was chiefly guided by the consideration of national interest. Prof.
Rao says, "Though made by the Congress Party, the Constitution does not contain
even a single article
Making of Indian Constitution
253
that favoured the party at the expense of other political parties".

Fourthly, it is charged that the Constituent Assembly was greatly dominated by
the lawyer-politicians, and the other sections of the society did not get adequate
representation on it. It may be true that the members of these two sections were
more actively involved in the freedom struggle and were therefore nominated as
members of the Assembly, but their dominance in the Assembly resulted in the
production of a very bulky constitution which in the words of Jennings proved a
"lawyer's paradise," and was largely responsible for confrontation between the
Parliament and the judiciary in the subsequent years.
Fifthly, it has been alleged that the Constituent Assembly took unduly long time to
frame the constitution. As compared to the Constitutions of USA, South Africa which
were framed within four months and one year respectively, the Constituent Assembly
of India took almost three years to frame the Constitution.
Sixthly, some critics, specially the British leaders like Winston Churchill and Lord
Simon, alleged that the Constituent Assembly was a Hindu body, which represented
the interests of the Hindus alone. But this criticism is very uncharitable in view of the
fact that the population of India at the time was predominantly Hindu. Further as Dr.
Rajendra Prasad pointed out that the Constituent Assembly of India represented all
the communities viz., the Anglo-Indians, the Pars-is, as well as the Muslims and tried
to promote and protect the interests of all sections of the society.
Finally, it has been alleged that the constitution framed by the Constituent
Assembly of India was not submitted to the referendum before final adoption as was
done in certain other countries like Ireland where the constitution was submitted to
the people for their approval before actually being enforced. The critics argue that
such a referendum would have given greater sanctity to the constitution and made it
genuinely a people's constitution. Failure on the part of the Constituent Assembly to
secure the approval of the people through referendum was indeed a serious lapse.
A superfluous study of the various points of criticism levelled against the
composition and
working of the Constituent Assembly may give the impression that the criticism is
quite valid. But if we take into account the prevailing conditions and practical
difficulties involved in the formation of the Constituent Assembly and its working, we
shall find that much of the criticism loses validity. For example, it is indeed difficult to
imagine how the members of the Constituent Assembly could be directly elected by
the people when the country was involved in serious communal riots and the forces
of disintegration were in full swing. It is doubtful that in the prevailing conditions free
and impartial elections could be possible. Under the circumstances only two
alternatives could be possible, viz., to postpone the task of enactment of constitution
till an elected Constituent Assembly could be formed, or to constitute an indirectly
elected Constituent Assembly and go ahead with the task of formulathe task of
formulation of the constitution for India.
Again it would be wrong to allege that the Constituent Assembly worked under
constant pressure of the Congress Oligarchy. No doubt the Congress Oligarchy played
an important role in the formulation of the Constitution but they gave due regard to
the view of the opponents and framed a constitution which best promoted the
national interests of India. The Congress Oligarchy never made an attempt to impose
its ideas through the weight of its party majority.
The allegation that the Constituent Assembly of India took unduly long time to
frame the Constitution is also not correct. No doubt, it took more time than the
Constituent Assembly of United States and South Africa to frame the constitution, but
it is also true that the size of the Constitution it produced was much bigger than the
Constitution produced by the other two Constituent Assemblies. Further, in certain
other countries like Canada and Australia the Constituent Assemblies took much
longer to produce comparatively shorter constitution. Thus the Constituent Assembly
of Canada took about two years and six months to produce a constitution containing
only 147 articles, while the Constituent Assembly of Australia took almost nine years
to produce a constitution containing 188 articles. The charge of delay is further
mitigated by the fact the Constituent Assembly also simultaneously functioned as
provisional Parliament of India.
254
Even the criticism that the constitution was not submitted to the referendum of
the people before adoption is only partly correct. No doubt, no formal referendum
was held on the Constitution, but the general elections of 1952 was a sort of
referendum on the Constitution and its results indicated the approval the people of
the Constitution. On the eve of the elections of 1952 a number of members contested
the election with an open assertion that if they won the election they would scrap the
constitution and frame a new constitution. In the elections of 1952 most of such
members were defeated. This can very well be taken as a support for the existing
constitution. Further, most of the members of the Constituent Assembly who
contested for the Parliament or State Legislature were successful at the polls. This
can also be taken as an approval of the principles endorsed by these members.
In fact, it goes to the credit of the Constituent Assembly that despite various
tensions prevailing in the country at the time of the enactment of the Constitution it
succeeded in providing a constitution which received unanimous support from the
various sections of society and thus succeeded in maintaining the unity of the
country. Failure on the part of the Constituent Assembly to produce a constitution
acceptable to various sections of society would have let loose fissiparous tendencies
and plunged the country into chaos and disorder. The Constituent Assembly indeed
did the Herculean task of providing a constitution, in the midst of serious problems,
which could satisfy the aspirations of the various sections of the Indian population.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the President of the Constituent Assembly, felt greatly satisfied
with the task accomplished by the Assembly and said "I desire to congratulate the
Assembly on accomplishing a task of such tremendous magnitude. It is not my
purpose to appraise the value of the work that the Assembly has done or the merits
or demerits of the Constitution which it has framed. I am content to leave that to
others and to posterity".
SOURCES OF THE CONSTITUTION

The framers of the Indian Constitution were keen to learn from the experience of
other countries as well as their own past experience. Therefore, they
freely borrowed from the constitutions of other countries keeping in mind the needs
and conditions of India. As a result the Constitution which was ultimately adopted
contained features of a number of constitutions. This encouraged the critics of the
Indian Constitution to describe it as "hotch-potch constitution" or "a bag of
borrowings". It was alleged that the draft of the Constitution was prepared by a group
of eminent men after ransacking all the known constitutions of the world. However,
these remarks are quite uncharitable. It was too much to expect from the framers of
the Constitution that they would be able to evolve an absolutely new type of
constitution at this stage of political development. In fact the framers of the
Constitution were not so much concerned with the production of an original or unique
constitution as with drafting a good and workable constitution. Consequently they
borrowed from the experience of other countries but at the same time maintained a
secular sovereign character.
IMPACT OF BRITISH CONSTITUTION

The constitutional systems and practices prevailing in Britain exercised great
influence on the framers of the Indian Constitution. This was quite natural in view of
India's long association with Great Britain. India's Parliamentary system of
government is based on the British Parliamentary pattern. Like Britain, in the Indian
system the head of the State (President) is only a nominal ruler and the real
executive power is ex-system the head of the State (President) is only a nominal ruler
and the real executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers which is
accountable to the Parliament. The Indian Constitution not only followed the British
Parliamentary system but also decided to observe the British conventions concerning
the Parliamentary system of government. Some of these conventions were even
reduced to writing. The indebtedness of the Indian Parliamentary system to the
British Parliamentary system is evident from the fact that the Constitution itself
provides in Article 105(1) that unless legislated, the members of the Parliament shall
enjoy the same power, privilege and immunities as are enjoyed by the members of
the British House of
Making of Indian
Constitution 255
Commons. It may be noted that so far the privileges and immunities of the members
of the Indian Parliament have not been codified and they continue to enjoy the
powers, privileges and immunities enjoyed by the members of the British House of
Commons.
Even the Cabinet system of government provided under the Indian Constitution
operates along the lines of the British Cabinet system. The principles of collective
responsibility of the ministers, secrecy of cabinet decisions, ministers must belong to
either house of Parliament otherwise they cease to be ministers after six months; and
the Prime Minister should preferably be taken from the popular house, are some of
the principles which govern the working of the Cabinet system in India. They have all
been borrowed from Britain.
The other important features borrowed by India from Britain include rule of law,
the superior position of the Lok Sabha (popular House) over Rajya Sabha, etc.
IMPACT OF THE U.S. CONSTITUTION
The framers of the Indian Constitution also felt the impact of the U.S. Constitution.
This impact is visible in the preamble, particularly in the use of the words "We the
people of India... do hereby... enact and give to ourselves this constitution". The
Fundamental Rights of the Indian Citizens are based on the U.S. Bill of Rights. The
functions of the Vice-President of India also seem to have been borrowed from the
U.S. Constitution. Above all the role of the Judiciary as well as its independence has
largely been designed along the American system.
IMPACT OF THE IRISH CONSTITUTION

The impact of the Irish Republic's Constitution is in the main visible on the Directive
Principles of States Policy. Even the Preamble bears an imprint of the Irish
Constitution. The provision for the nomination of certain members of Rajya Sabha
from amongst persons who have attained distinction in the field of art, culture,
science, social service etc. also seems to have been taken from the Eire Constitution.
IMPACT OF THE CANADIAN CONSTITUTION
The Federal System in the Indian Constitution is largely based on the Canadian
pattern although it also carries the imprints of Australian and South African
Constitutions. Like Canada the residuary powers have been vested in the Centre. The
term 'Union of India' has also been borrowed from Canada. In fact the Indian
federalism, has been created with a very strong centre, on the pattern of Canada.
IMPACT OF OTHER CONSTITUTIONS

The other constitutions of the world also exercised considerable influence on the
Indian Constitution. The provisions concerning the election of the Rajya Sabha and
amendment of the Indian Constitution were greatly influenced by the Constitution of
South Africa. The provisions pertaining to President's right to suspend the
fundamental rights of the Indian citizens during emergencies were virtually
reproduced from the Weimar Constitution of Germany.
IMPACT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT 1935

But probably the greatest influence on the new Constitution of India was exerted by
the Government of India Act of 1935. As Prof. Jennings has observed "the Constitution
derives directly from the Government of India Act of 1935 from which in fact, many of
its provisions are copied almost textually". Similarly, N. Srinivasan also says that the
Constitution of India is "both in language and substance" "a close copy of the Act of
1935". Some of the Articles of the Constitution which have been copied from the
Government of India Act 1935 include Article 251 dealing with the conflict between
the Central laws and the State laws; Article 256 which provides that executive power
of every state shall be so exercised as to ensure compliance with
the laws made by the Parliament... and the executive power of Union shall
extend to the giving of such directions to a state as may appear to the
Government of India to be necessary for the purpose; Articles 352 and 353
relating to the declaration of emergency by the
256
President. These Articles were borrowed from Sections 107, 126, 102 and 93
respectively of the Government of India Act 1935. Again even the pattern of
dividing the powers between the Centre and the States into three lists is based
on the pattern of the Act of 1935. The impact of the Act of 1935 on the new
Constitution was so great that Prof. M.P. Sharma remarked "the whole of existing
set-up of the country has been accepted by the Constitution expressly or by
implication". Dr. Punjab Rao Deshmukh highlights the impact of the Government
of India Act 1935 on the new Constitution by asserting that the Constitution of
India is "essentially the Government of India Act with only adult franchise added".
However, this is rather an exaggeration. No doubt the present Constitution was
greatly influenced by the Government of India Act 1935, but it would be certainly
wrong to describe it as the glorified edition of the same. The two differ in spirit.
The new Constitution makes India a Sovereign Democratic Republic and enjoins
full liberty on the Indian citizens, which the Act of 1935 never did.
It is evident from the above survey that the fiamers of the Constitution
borrowed the best features of various existing constitutions. However, while
adopting these features they avoided the shortcomings of the other constitutions
and modified these features in accordance with the requirements of their
ingenuity. Though the Constitution framed by the Constitution's Fathers was not
wholly new it certainly best served the needs of the country. In fact, as Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar has put it "there can hardly be anything new in a Constitution framed
at this hour in the history of the world. More than hundred years have rolled by
when the first written Constitution was drafted. It has then been followed by
many other countries reducing their Constitutions to writing... Given these facts,
all Constitutions in their main provisions must look similar. The only new things, if
there be any in a Constitution framed so late in the day, are the variations made
to remove the faults and to accommodate it to the needs of the country".
CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY DEBATES

The deliberations of the Constituent Assembly which framed the Constitution are yet
another
important source of the Indian Constitution. The various aspects of the Constitution
were thoroughly deliberated upon the Assembly. These deliberations provide us a
useful insight into the actual working of the mind of the members of the Constituent
Assembly. They serve as a useful guide for clarification of several constitutional
points. Realising the importance of these deliberations the Supreme Court has often
referred to the Constituent Assembly debates while clarifying and interpreting certain
provisions of the Constitution. Hence it can be safely said that the Constituent
Assembly debates are an important source of the Indian Constitution and enable us
to understand the true intentions of the framers of the Constitution.
CONSTITUTIONAL COMMENTARIES
The commentaries on Indian Constitution written by Indian as well as foreign
constitutional experts are yet another important source of the Constitution. These
commentators have tried to interpret the various provisions of the Constitution and
highlight the outstanding features as well as shortcomings of the Constitution. These
Commentaries are often consulted by the judges while interpreting the Constitution
and have inadvertently exercised some influence on their judgements. Thus these
analytical works have served as a useful source for the Indian Constitution.
JUDICIAL REVIEW
The judiciary through its power of judicial review has also greatly contributed to the
growth and development of the Indian Constitution, by interpreting the various
provisions of the Constitution and assigning new meaning to them in the context of
the changing conditions. It would not be wrong to say that the courts have provided
practical basis to the constitution. Further, through its judgement on various issues, it
has prompted the Parliament to carry out certain amendments in the Constitution
from time to time. A noteworthy feature of the courts in India has been that they
have often reviewed their own decisions in the light of the changing conditions and
thus enabled the Constitution to keep pace with the changing conditions.
Making of Indian
Constitution 257
CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS
The constitutional amendments carried out since the inauguration of the constitution
have also greatly contributed to the growth and development of the Constitution.
Through these amendments several new clauses have been added and several outdated provisions have been deleted to enable the Constitution to keep pace with the
times. The deliberations held at the time of carrying out of these of amendments
provide useful insight into the working of the minds of the members sponsoring and
supporting these amendments as well as the ultimate objective which they intend to
achieve.
ORDINANCES
The ordinances promulgated by the President from time to time (during the recess of
the Parliament) have also greatly contributed to the growth and development of the
Constitution. It is true that these ordinances can be issued only during the recess of
the Parliament and are valid for a maximum period of six weeks after the reassembly
of the Parliament. Generally these Ordinances are approved by the Parliament. These
ordinances have exercised profound influence on the nature and spirit of the
Constitution.
IDEOLOGICAL BASIS OF CONSTITUTION

In modern times ideology has come to occupy such a prominent position that it
invariably finds its way into the constitutions of different countries. In fact, the
constitutions ^>f different countries are based on one ideology or the other.
However, the Indian Constitution does not represent any particular ideology. On the
other hand it makes an attempt to reconcile different ideologies.
IMPACT OF LIBERALISM
When the Constituent Assembly undertook the task of framing the Constitution of
India, it was confronted with a hard choice of adopting a constitution based on
indigenous institutions of village panchayats at the base with a superstructure of
direct, decentralized government envisaged by Gandhiji or to adopt the
Euro-American constitutional system based on directly elected government, which
had been implanted in India during the colonial period. The two alternatives were
supported by different sections of the Constituent Assembly. Ultimately after long
deliberations, lasting over two years and six months, the Assembly decided in favour
of a centralized Parliamentary Constitution and the Panchayats were relegated to the
Directive Principles. In fact, it became very clear from the beginning that the Indian
leaders were not contemplating a Gandhian Constitution because all the time the
members in the Constituent Assembly talked of democracy, socialism and the
responsibilities of the legislature and never insisted on the necessity of an Indian
form of government. A perusal of the deliberations of the various committees of the
Assembly appointed to discuss the principles on which the constitution should be
based, shows that while they discussed about the problems of Parliamentary and
Federal constitutions, they never discussed about the Gandhian constitution or
Panchayat or indirect government. The question of decentralization did come up for
discussion, but it was considered in the context of Euro-American constitutional
system only. It may be noted that the Congress never considered the Gandhian view
of society as outlined in Hind Swaraj, much less adopted it. Therefore, there was very
little reason for the Congress to build institutions based on Gandhiji's views.
The Congress leaders since 1920's had been presenting their demands in terms of
Parliamentary Democracy and representative government as is confirmed by Nehru
Report. The party continued to hold faith in the same principles during the thirties.
Even the Political scientists and other intellectuals continued to express the opinion
during the early forties that the future Constitution of India should be moulded in the
Euro-American traditions. Further, in view of the unusually long and relatively
successful experience, India should have favoured a Parliamentary Constitution.
"They had been associated with the local self-government since the late nineteenth
century and from the 1909 Government of India Act, through those of 1919 and 1935,
Indians came to play an increasing role in both the executive and legislative sides of
258
provincial and central government. The members who had participated in these
fields of government could not have exceeded several thousand, but their influence
was considerable. They had learned to work the system well and to like it despite the
difficulties engendered by their lack of final authority".
Another reason, which according to Austin, had committed the Indian intellectuals
to the liberal democratic traditions, was that through their travel and education their
commitment to liberal tradition was strengthened. This was further confirmed by the
victory of the democracies over the Nazis and the Fascists. To quote him "In the year
just after 1945, the stock of representative democracyespecially that of Britain and
the United Statesprobably stood higher than at any time before or since".
SOCIALIST COMMITMENT
In addition to their firm belief in parliamentary government some of the members of
the Constituent Assembly were firmly committed to Socialism. This was also reflected
in the Objectives Resolution of the Constituent Assembly which clearly stated that the
Constitution must be dedicated to some form of Socialism and to the social
regeneration of India. Only the Communist members insisted on introduction of
socialism without democracy. The growing popularity of Socialism all over the world,
the manifest needs of India and tremendous influence of Nehru also contributed
towards the strengthening of faith in Socialism. Though Nehru was a professed
socialist his activities were mainly guided by ideals of democracy and economic
betterment of the masses. Though the term 'Socialism' was not included in the
Objective Resolution, chiefly due to opposition of Sardar Patel, but by and large, the
members of the Assembly were keen that a democratic constitution with a socialist
bias should be framed and there should be scope for the country to become socialist
if its citizens so desired or the situation so demanded. Thus the Constitution which
ultimately emerged reflected the humanitarian bases and some of the techniques of
social democratic thought.
It is noteworthy that the Constitution of India is not wedded to any creed, theory
or doctrine in
the sense that we do not find words like 'Individualism' or 'Socialism' anywhere in the
original constitution. But a cursory look at the provisions of the constitution will show
that the ideology of liberal democracy runs through its pages. It pleads for individual
liberty with equality of opportunity for all. Similarly, the dignity of the individual is
juxtaposed with unity of the nation. The Fundamental Rights and liberties of the
citizens have been subjected to necessary restrictions. The Federal system
represents the features of centralisation as well as decentralisation. The
Parliamentary Government has been imparted flexibility to assume Presidential form,
and so on. Clearly the framers of the Constitution were motivated by the sole
consideration of providing a constitution which could best promote the interests of
the country.
IMPACT OF CONTEMPORARY CONDITIONS

The conditions prevailing at the time of the enactment of the Constitution also
greatly influenced the decision of the framers of the Constitution. For example, when
Interim Government took over, near famine conditions existed in certain parts of the
country; there was a low reserve of food grains and the prices of food were rising
fast. This necessitated firm action on the part of the national government and thus
demanded a strong central government. The partition of the
country and large scale migration of the refugees from Pakistan presented a
serious administrative problem of their rehabilitation. The growing communal
tension and large number of incidents of violence and arson which could not be
properly brought under control by the provincial governments also convinced the
constitution framers that the centre must be vested with extensive powers to
preserve law and order. The problem of India's external security, specially after
Pakistan's aggression in Kashmir, also dictated the need of a strong central
government. With the withdrawal of the Muslim League members from the
Constituent Assembly a great hurdle in the way of accomplishing a strong centre
was removed.
Above all, the Assembly considered the presence of a centralized authority as
absolutely
essential for quicker economic progress of the country, because only through central
planning and provision of modern techniques, electric power, heavy and light
industry etc. the objective could be attained.
On the basis of the above discussion, we tend to agree with Prof. M.P. Sharma that
the purpose of our constitution-makers was not to produce an original or unique
Constitution. What they wanted was good and a workable Constitution. They
certainly did not hesitate in borrowing from other countries what suited the need and
conditions of India. The natural result was that the Constitution which emerged out of
the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly was not based on any particular
ideology. It contained certain traditional Indian principles as well as the EuroAmerican principles, which the framers of the Constitution picked up from the British
and American Constitutions as well as the Government of India Act 1935.
PREAMBLE OF CONSTITUTION
Like other democratic constitutions the Indian Constitution also starts with a
Preamble, which outlines the main objectives of the Constituion. It may be noted
though the Preamble is not a part of the Constitution and is not justiciable, yet its
significance cannot be denied. It serves as a key to the Constitution. Whenever the
judiciary is in doubt about any particular provision of the Constitution it refers to the
Preamble to find out the real intentions of the framers of the Constitution.
The Preamble reads.
We, the People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens:
Justice, social economic and political; Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith
and worship;
Equality of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all Fraternity
assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation;
In Our Constituent Assembly this twenty-six day of November, 1949, do Hereby
Adopt, Enact and Give to Ourselves This Constitution.
(Note: The italicised words in the above preamble were added by the FortySecond Amendment Act, 1976.)
A perusal of the Preamble shows that it intends India to be a "Sovereign Socialist
Secular Democratic Republic". It means that like other states India is a sovereign
state and is free to conduct its internal as well as external relations as it deems
desirable. The terms 'Socialist' and 'Secular' were added by the Forty-Second
Amendment and assert that the government must adopt socialistic policies to ensure
decent life for all Indian citizens. The inclusion of word 'Secular' likewise emphasizes
that the state must abstain from giving preferential treatment to any religion.
Democrat ic government implies the government is to be carried on by the elected

representatives of the people, and the government stays in office as long as it enjoys
the confidence of their elected representatives. Republic, implies that the highest
executive authority in India shall vest in a person directly elected by the people. In
other words, there is no place for monarchical or feudal system in India.
Analysis of the Preamble highlights the following main principles of the Preamble:
1. People as source of all Authority

The Preamble asserts, "We the people of India... adopt, enact and give ourselves this
Constitution". This clearly shows that the people are the real source of all political
authority. The Constitution has been framed and promulgated by the people of India.
This is an indirect acknowledgment of the principle of sovereignty of the people, even
though the word sovereignty of people has not been used in the preamble. Again it is
implied that since the Constitution of the Union as well as the states has been
created by the people, the states have no right to secede from the Indian Union, in so
far as the same was created by the people and not by the states through any pact.
Constituent Assembly which framed the Constitution was not truly a
representative body of the people in as much as some critics have objected to the
use of term, "We the people..." in the preamble on the plea that the members were
not directly elected by the people on the basis of universal
adult
franchise.
Further, even the
260
Constitution which was framed by the Constituent Assembly was never submitted to
the people for their approval through a referendum. However, this criticism is not
valid because under the existing conditions no other method for the formation of the
Constituent Assembly was practicable or feasible. As regards the approval of the
Constitution by the people this was conveyed in an indirect manner in the general
election of 1952 because almost all the members of the Constituent Assembly who
contested the election were returned to Parliament. On the other hand, most of those
members who had openly pledged to scrap the Constitution were defeated in the said
elections. This in a way constituted an acceptance of the Constitution by the people.
Viewed in this sense the Constitution could very well claim to be People's
Constitution.
2. Sovereign State
In the second place, the Preamble declared India as a sovereign state. This
implied that India was free to conduct her internal as well as external affairs as
she deemed desirable. Some critics have challenged the Sovereign character of
the Indian state by alleging that India's membership of the Commonwealth of
Nations, which made it obligatory for her to accept the British Queen as the
overlord, acted as a limitation on India's sovereignty. But it must be noted that
India's membership of the Commonwealth of Nations was a voluntary action and
India could withdraw from the same at her sweet will. Further, the British Queen
was in no way, directly, or indirectly, connected with the conduct of government
in India.
3. Socialist State
The term 'socialist' was added in the Preamble by the Forty-Second Amendment in
1976. Though the original Constitution did not use the term 'socialist' in the preamble
yet the Congress government had come to accept the principle of Socialism and had
been consistently working for the establishment of a socialistic pattern of society
since the Avadi Session. Further the Constitution also emphasised the need of
establishing a socialist society by placing emphasis on social, economic and political
justice by including specific Directive Principles of State Policy to this effect. The
inclusion of the term 'socialist' in the preamble was significant that now the
government was constitutionally obliged to bring about socioeconomic changes with
a view to ensure decent life to all citizens.
4. Secular State
The term 'secular' also did not find place in the original Preamble and was included
by the Forty-Second Amendment enacted in 1976. Ever since the inauguration of the
Constitution the people of India had been assured religious freedom and the state
accorded equal treatment to all religions without showing preference for any
particular religion. Though 'secularism' was quite clearly implied in the Constitution,
the inclusion of word 'secular' in the preamble is significant in so far as it accorded
constitutional sanctity to secularism, which was otherwise an established fact. Some
constitutional experts like D.D. Basu have expressed the opinion that little
improvement will be effected by inserting the word 'secular' in the preamble.
However, it cannot be denied that the addition of word 'secular' in the preamble
highlights that the state in India possesses no religion and the vast majority of the
population professing faith in a particular religion do not enjoy superior position over
other religions.
5. Democratic State
The Preamble declares India a Democracy, which means that the government is
carried by the elected representatives of the people, all the power emanates from the
people and the government is accountable to the people through their elected
representatives. It also implies the system of Universal Adult Franchise and periodical
elections. It also implies availability of a number of fundamental rights which are
justiciable. Another feature of democratic state is presence of an independent
judiciary.
6. Republic
The Preamble declares India a Republic, which implies that the highest executive
authority in India is vested in a person who shall be either directly or indirectly
elected by the people. In other words, the preamble does not envisage the rule of a
hereditary monarch or a dictator. Thus, the President of India has been made the
head of
the State. He is elected for a period of five years and can be removed from his office
before the expiry of this term if it is found that he is not discharging his obligations in
accordance with the rules and provisions of the Constitution.
OBJECTIVES OF THE CONSTITUTION

The Preamble also outlines the objectives of the Constitution. The main objectives
emphasised in the Preamble include Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. It shall
be desirable to know about these objectives in some details.
1. Justice - Social Economic and

Political
As India was subjected to injustice of all kinds political, economic and social, under
the foreign rule, the Preamble naturally insisted on the need of providing justice to
the people of India in the political, social as well as economic spheres. Justice implies
a harmonious reconciliation of individual conduct with the general welfare of the
society. This means that the government does not pay attention only to the wellbeing of a particular section of society, rather it tries to promote the welfare of all the
sections of the society. The Fundamental Rights enshrined in the Constitution seek to
provide justice by abolition of inequalities and discrimination among the Indian
citizens and by making special provisions for the betterment of weaker sections of
society. Economic justice is assured through equal wages for equal work, abolition of
beggary, and non-discrimination on the basis of sex. Economic justice is also sought
to be achieved by improving the working conditions and ensuring a decent standard
of living for all. Political justice is assured to the people through adoption of universal
adult franchise and introduction of democratic system of government in the country
in which all have an equal chance to influence the policies of the government and all
are assured equal treatment before law.
2. Liberty of Thought, Expression,

Belief, Faith and Worship
The second objective emphasised in the Preamble is Liberty of thought, expression,
belief, faith and
worship. Citizens are given full freedom to express their ideas so long as they do not
jeopardise the interests of the country. The people also enjoy the right to assemble
peacefully and form association of various kinds. People are assured freedom of belief
and are free to profess, practice or propagate any religion. The state has no religion
nor does it discriminate between members of various religions, in the manner of
extending patronage or assistance.
3. Equality of Status and

Opportunity
The third objective emphasised by the Preamble is related to equality of status and
opportunity. All the citizens are assured equality under Articles 14 to 18 and no
discrimination is made in the political, economic or legal field on the basis of the
status of a person. All are equal in the eyes of law irrespective of their status and
enjoy equal opportunity in the matter of employment. To make equality a reality, the
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes have been assured
special protection through reservation of seats and other special concessions.
Equality is also sought to be achieved by doing away various kinds of titles and
distinctions amongst the members of the society.
4. Fraternity assuring dignity of

Individual
In the next place the preamble promises to establish a fraternity in which dignity of
the individual exists and the various factors like caste, class, privilege, disability etc.
which divided the society vertically as well as horizontally are eliminated. The
Constitution tries to promote feeling of brotherhood or fraternity among the people of
India by trying to raise the standard of the backward sections of the society and
promoting a feeling among the people that they are sons of the same soil.
5. Unity and Integrity of the Nation

Finally, the Preamble emphasises the need of preserving the unity and integrity of the
country. Realising that India is inhabited by people with different languages, cultures,
regional backgrounds, castes, sections etc., it was considered vital
262
that the integrity and unity of the country must be preserved. For the attainment of
this objective feeling of brotherhood has been promoted among various sections of
the society to preserve the unity and strength of the country. It has been emphasised
time and again that activities of various groups and parties which pose a threat to
the integrity of the country shall not be tolerated. Special amendments have been
carried out in the Constitution to keep such forces under check which pose a threat to
the unity and integrity of the country.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PREAMBLE

After analyzing the contents and objectives of the Constitution as outlined in the
Preamble, it is imperative to know the significance of the Preamble. No doubt, as
noted above, the Preamble is neither part of the Constitution nor the courts take
cognizance of the same, yet it has been of tremendous help in clarifying the
ambiguities in the Constitution. On a number of occasions the Supreme Court has
acknowledged that the Preamble proved quite helpful to them in understanding the
true intentions of the framers of the Constitution and resolving ambiguous
constitutional points. For example, in the Kerala Education Bill 1957, the Supreme
Court expressed the view that "where the enacting part is explicit and unambiguous,
the Preamble cannot be resorted, to control, to qualify or to restrict it but where the
enacting part is ambiguous, the preamble can be referred, to explain and to elucidate
it". Pandit Bhargava described the Preamble as the key to the Indian Constitution. He
asserted it was "the most precious part of the Constitution. It is the soul of the
Constitution. It is key to the Constitution... It is jewel set in Constitution. It is a superb
prose poem, may be it is perfection in itself.
Justice Hidayatullah observed, "The Preamble is more than a declaration. It is the
soul of the Constitution and lays down the pattern of our political society. It contains a
solemn resolve which nothing but a revolution can alter."
Granville Austin says, that the Indian Constitution is a social document. It aims at
establishing a better society on the basis of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity
and the Preamble
commits the Constitution to a social revolution. The whole of the Indian Constitution
is an elaboration or an elucidation of the Preamble.
However, the critics have not approved of the use of elastic terms in the Preamble
and alleged that the terms 'liberty', 'equality' and 'social justice' used in the Preamble
are quite vague and carry different meanings with different people. This criticism,
however, is not valid. The framers of the Constitution deliberately used flexible
expressions to enable the Constitution to adapt itself according to changed
conditions without any formal amendment.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

The Constitution of India possesses certain distinct features which are discussed
below:
1. Written Constitution
The Constitution of India is not only a written one but also one of the lengthiest
constitutions of the world. The main reason for the bulkiness of the Indian
Constitution is that the framers not only incorporated the basic principles of
governance in the Constitution but also made elaborate provision to deal with the
various administrative problems with a view to prevent unnecessary wrangling. At
the time of the enactment of the Constitution there were various types of
administrative units in India viz., British Provinces, Indian states, centrally
administered areas under Chief Commissioners. It was not possible to provide an
identical structure of these units. The provisions of different types of administrations
necessitated incorporation of detailed provisions with regard to each. Further, unlike
other countries, the states in India do not possess an independent Constitution. The
other factors which contributed to the bulk of the Constitution include the presence of
the Directive Principles of State Policy; special provisions for scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes; incorporation of a chapter on Fundamental Rights, etc.
2. A Unique combination of Rigidity

and Flexibility
The procedure for the amendment of the Constitution is neither too rigid nor too
flexible.
Broadly speaking, there are three different methods for the amendment of various
provisions of the Constitution:
1. Some provisions can be amended by the Parliament by simple majority such
as creation of new states; creation or abolition of upper houses in the states,
etc.
2. Certain provisions can be amended by the Parliament by a two-third majority
of the members present and voting, but this must also form a majority of the
total membership of each House.
3. Finally, there are certain provisions of the Constitution which can be amended
by two-thirds majority of the members of the Parliament and need ratification
by the legislatures of the majority of the states.
Thus, the amendment procedure is a rare combination of rigidity and flexibility.
While some of its provisions can be amended as easily as in Great than the U.S.
Constitution. Justifying the amendment procedure in the Indian Constitution, Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru said "While we want this Constitution to be as solid and permanent,
as we can make it, there is no permanence in constitutions. There should be certain
flexibility. If you make everything rigid and permanent, you stop the nation's growth,
the growth of a living vital, organic people... In any event, we could not make this.
Constitution so rigid that it cannot be adapted to changing condition."
3. Parliamentary System of
Government
The Indian Constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government both at
the centre as well as the states. The President of India, like the Queen of England, is
a constitutional ruler and the real executive authority is exercised by the Council of
Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. The members of the Council of Ministers, who
wield real executive authority, are taken from the Parliament and remain in office as
long as they enjoy the confidence of the Lok Sabha.
4. Blending of Federal and Unitary

Features
The Constitution provides for a federal government, though the term 'federation' has
nowhere
been used. Instead it describes India as 'Union of States', which implies two things.
First, the Indian federation is not the result of agreement among the units. Secondly,
the federating units have no independent existence and their names and territories
can be modified by the Parliament without their consent. The federal features of the
Indian Constitution include a written constitution, supremacy of constitution, special
position of the judiciary, division of powers between centre and states, bicameral
Parliament. But along with these federal features certain non-federal features are
also found in our Constitution. The non-federal features of the Indian Constitution
include a strong centre, flexibility of constitution, single constitutional frame for the
union and states; inequality of representation of states in Rajya Sabha, single
citizenship, special position of the union territories, conversion of federal structure
into unitary one during emergencies, special powers of Rajya Sabha over the state
list, common All-India Services, appointment of Governor by the President,
centralised electoral machinery, single judiciary etc. The presence of these
nonfederal features has made the critics remark that the Indian Constitution is
federal in form but unitary in spirit. According to Prof. K.C. Wheare "the New
Constitution establishes a unitary State with subsidiary federal features rather than
federal State with subsidiary unitary features."
5. Makes India a Secular State

Another feature of the Indian Constitution is that it makes India a Secular State. A
secular state is neither religious nor irreligious nor anti-religious, but is wholly
detached from religious dogmas and activities and thus natural in religious matters.
Under the Constitution all the Indian citizens have been granted freedom of
conscience and are free to profess, practice and propagate religion of their choice. No
person can be compelled to pay any taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any
particular religious denomination. No religious instructions are to be provided in any
educational institution wholly maintained out of state funds or receiving aid out of
state funds. In matters of appointment also, no discrimination is made on grounds of
caste, colour or creed. In short, the state is completely neutral in matters of religion
and faith.
6. Fundamental Rights
Like other democratic constitutions of the world the Constitution of India also
contains a chapter on Fundamental Rights. These Rights are contained in Articles 13
to 35 and broadly fall into six categories.
1. Right to Equality
2. Right to Freedom
3. Right against Exploitation
4. Right to Freedom of Religion
5. Cultural and Educational Rights and
6. Right to Constitutional remedies
These rights have been made justiciable. This means that a citizen can approach the
courts for th*. enforcement of these rights if they are violated by the legislature or
the executive. The Supreme Court of India has been made the guardian of the rights
and liberties of the Indian people and possesses the necessary power to issue writs
for the enforcement of these rights. It may be noted that the Rights granted under
the Indian Constitution are not absolute and are subject to two types of restrictions.
During normal times the state is authorised to impose reasonable restrictions on
these rights in the general interest of the society. For example Article 15, which
prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex,
place of birth or any of them, does not prohibit any restrictions on grounds of
residence. Again the State has been authorised to make special provisions for the
advancement of the socially and educationally backward classes. Secondly, during
the times of war or internal disorder, if an
emergency has been proclaimed, the seven freedoms granted under Article
19 are automatically suspended in the times of war or internal disorder. If an
emergency has been proclaimed, the seven freedoms granted under Article 19
are automatically suspended. The President can also suspend other fundamental
rights by issuing specific orders in this regard.
7. Fundamental Duties
Another feature of the Indian Constitution is that outlines the Fundamental Duties of
the Indian citizens. It may be noted that the original constitution did not contain any
fundamental duties and these were incorporated in the
Constitution by the Forty-Second Amendment passed in 1976. Explaining the reason
for the incorporation of Fundamental Duties in the Constitution the then Law Minister
(H.R. Gokhale) said, "In post-Independent India, particularly on the eve of emergency
in June 1975, a section of the people showed no anxiety to fulfil their fundamental
obligations or respecting the established legal order...the provision of a chapter on
fundamental duties would have a sobering effect on these restless spirits who have
had a host of anti-national, subversive and unconstitutional agitations in the past."
The Fundamental Duties which were outlined in Article 51-A include: (1) Abidance by
the Constitution and respect for its ideals and institutions, the national flag and
national anthem; (2) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our
national struggle; (3) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of the
country; (4) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so: (5) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India; (6) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(7) to protect and improve the natural environments; (8) to develop scientific temper,
humanity and spirit of inquiry and reform; (9) to safeguard public property and abjure
violence; and (10) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and
collective activity.
The Fundamental Duties were incorporated in the constitution with the hope that
they would help in establishing democratic balance.
8. Directive Principles of State Policy

Another distinctive feature of the Indian Constitution is the chapter on Directive
Principles of State Policy contained in Part IV of the Constitution. The idea of Directive
Principles of State Policy has been borrowed from the Constitution of Free Irish State.
These principles are a sort of directive to the Government to keep the welfare of the
people in mind while formulating its policies. They aim at providing the social and
economic basis to the democracy. Some of the important Directive Principles
enshrined in the Constitution direct the government to provide
Making of Indian Constitution
265
adequate means of livelihood; equitable distribution of wealth with a view to prevent

its concentration into few hands; equal pay for equal work for both men and women;
protection of children and young men against exploitation; free and compulsory
education for children: separation of judiciary from the executive; promotion of
international cooperation and world security through peaceful methods: promotion of
the interests of the backward classes and weaker sections raising the standard of
living and level of nutrition of people, enactment of a uniform civil code for the whole
of the country, etc.,
It may be noted that the Directive Principles of State Policy are not justiciable and
no action can be taken against the State if it fails to implement them. However, it
cannot be denied that it is the moral duty of the government to implement these
principles.
9. Independence of Judiciary
The independence of judiciary is another outstanding feature of the Indian
Constitution. The judiciary has been made independent with a view to protect the
individual against arbitrary rule. The Supreme Court which stands at the apex of the
judiciary has been made free of all political influences and acts as the true guardian
of the Constitution. It ensures that the various organs of the government operate
within the limits prescribed by the Constitution. Any violation of these limits can be
declared as ultra vires by Court. It also enjoys final authority to pronounce on the
constitutionality of a law or executive order. To ensure the independence of judges
their salaries and service conditions have been protected and their removal has been
made quite difficult Restrictions have been imposed on their taking up practice after
retirement before any court in India. All this ensures an independent and impartial
judiciary.
10. Universal Adult Franchise

The Constitution of India has introduced Universal Adult Franchise for the first time.
All the adults above the age of 18 years, irrespective of their castes, colour and sex
are entitled to participate in the elections. The Constitution has done away with the
system of communal electorates which had been introduced in India by
the British under the Acts of 1919 and 1935. However, to ensure adequate
representation to the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, etc. it has made provision
for reservation of seats. Initially this reservation was up to 1970, but now it has been
extended. As a result of the introduction of Universal Adult Franchise India has
emerged as the largest democracy of the world.
11. Single Citizenship

Another peculiar feature of the Indian Constitution is that unlike the American
Constitution, it introduces a single citizenship. In this respect, the Indian Constitution
resembles the Constitution of Canada. All the persons residing in different parts of
the country are entitled to identical citizenship. This was done to promote the feeling
of unity and fraternity among the people residing in various parts of the country.
12. Special Provision for Backward

Classes
The Constitution makes special provision for the protection of the backward classes.
A number of provisions have been incorporated in the Constitution with a view to
promote social, economic and educational interests of these classes. With the same
intention seats have been reserved for them in the State Legislative Assemblies, the
Parliament, and civil services. It may be noted that these arrangements were initially
made up to 1960 but they have been extended up to 2000 A.D. We can hope that
soon the members of these sections will attain parity with other
members of society and there would be no need for these provisions.

The Constitution also tries to protect the language and culture of the minorities
and permits all minorities to conserve their language, culture, and way of life, and
the government affords them every possible encouragement in this regard.
13. Emergency Provisions of the

Constitution
Another feature of the Indian Constitution is vesting of extraordinary powers in the
President of India to deal with the emergency situations. The Constitution envisages
three types of emergencies, viz., national emergency, constitutional emergency and
financial emergency. If the President is
266
satisfied that it is not possible to run the administration of the country or any part
thereof, in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, he can declare
emergency and assume administration of the country or part thereof in his own
hands. As a result of this emergency, the President comes to exercise extensive
powers. The fundamental rights of the citizens, including the right to move the court
for the enforcement of these rights are curtailed. The Central Government comes to
acquire extensive control over the states in the legislative sphere and no bill can be
introduced in a state legislature without the prior approval of the President. The
national emergency can be declared on account of external aggression or possibility
of external aggression as well as threat arising out of internal disturbances. National
emergency was declared in 1962 and again in 1971 on account of aggression by
China and Pakistan respectively. In 1975, the emergency was declared on account of
internal disturbances. This emergency lasted till 1977. Similarly, if the President is
satisfied on the basis of the report of the Governor of the State or otherwise that the
administration of the state cannot be carried on in accordance with the constitution
he can declare constitutional emergency. During this type of emergency the President
comes to exercise direct control over the administration of the state concerned and
carries on government through his representative. Finally, the President can declare
financial emergency if the financial stability or credit of India is endangered. He can
order reduction of salaries of the central as well as state civil servants. He can also
order reduction in salary of High Court judges. In short, the emergency provisions
bestow very extensive powers on the President and he can assume dictatorial powers
without violating the provisions of the Constitution.
14. Creates Certain Autonomous Organisations

The Constitution of India provides for the establishment of certain autonomous
organisations like the Election Commission, the Finance Commission, and the
Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, the Attorney General of India, etc. These
organisations not only exercise effective check on the activities of the various
organs of government but also ensure complete freedom with regard to conduct of
elections, allocation of finances between the Centre and the States, proper control
over national finances to ensure that the money is spent only in accordance with the
sanction of the Parliament, etc. These autonomous organisations have completely
been freed from control of the government so that they may be able to work in an
impartial manner in their respective spheres.
15. Constitutional Status of Panchayats and Urban Local

Bodies
The Constitution provides great importance to democracy at the grass-root level. For
this purpose, it has provided constitutional status to the Panchayat Raj and Urban
Local bodies. This was achieved through the 73rd and 74th amendments of the
Constitution carried out in 1992. With regard to the Constitution, elections devolution
of powers and authority of these bodies the final authority has been left with the
state governments.
AMENDMENT PROCEDURE OF THE CONSTITUTION

In contrast to the practice in other Federal Constitutions of the world, the process of
amending the Constitution of India is much simpler. The framers of the Indian
Constitution deliberately avoided the rigidity of the U.S. Constitution because they
shared the views of Macaulay, that the Constitution should be flexible so that it can
change with the call of the time. A rigid constitution, they felt, would fail to mould
itself according to the needs of the time and would not only bring about its own
destruction but also result in revolution. Accordingly they adopted a procedure of
amendment which is rather flexible. Justifying stirring the amendment provisions of
the Constitution Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru said "While we want this Constitution to be
as solid and permanent as we can make it, there is no permanence in a Constitution.
There should be certain flexibility. If you make any constitution rigid and permanent
you stop the nation's growth, the growth of a living, vital, organic people."
Making of Indian
Constitution 267
The amendment process of the Indian Constitution has been outlined in Article
368 of the Constitution, which is neither as rigid as the process of amendment in
U.S.A. nor as flexible as in Britain. Further, unlike U.S.A. and Britain there is no single
procedure for the amendment of the constitution, instead there are three different
methods for the amendment of various provisions of the Constitution.
First, certain provisions of the Constitution can be amended by simple majority of
the two houses of the Indian Parliament without the approval of the states. Some of
the important provisions which can be amended through this process include creation
of new states, reconstitution of existing states, qualifications of Indian citizenship,
creation or abolition of upper chambers in states; provisions regarding the
administration of scheduled areas and scheduled tribes etc.
Secondly, there are certain provisions which can be amended by the Parliament by
two-thirds majority and also require the approval of majority of the states. The
provisions which
can be amended through this process include election of President, the

executive powers of the Union, executive powers of states, High Courts for Union
Territories, the Union Judiciary, the High Courts in the States, legislative relations
between the Union and the States, the representation of States in Parliament,
provisions concerning amendment of the Constitution, etc.
The remaining portions of the Constitution can be amended by two-thirds
majority of the members present in each House of Parliament. But, this majority
of the total membership in each House of Parliament.
A look at the above provisions regarding amendment of Constitution shows
that the consent of the states is required only with regard to those provisions of
the Constitution which effect the federal character or powers of the states.
Secondly, all amendments can be initiated in the Union Parliament alone and the
states do not possess any initiative in this regard. Their approval is sought only
after the amendment has been adopted by the two Houses of the Parliament by
two-thirds majority of its members present and voting. Another peculiar feature
of the amendment procedure in India is a strange mixture of flexibility and rigidity.
DEFECTS IN THE AMENDMENT PROCEDURE

The amendment procedure under the Indian Constitution has met with severe
criticism at the hands of critics. The chief charges levelled against it are as follows:
Firstly, unlike U.S.A., there is no provision for Constitutional Conventions for
initiating the amendments. All amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by
the Parliament alone. The states have a share in the amendment of the Constitution
only with regard to those provisions which require ratification by majority of the state
legislatures.
Secondly, the states do not possess any power to initiate amendments to the
Constitution. They can only propose to the Central Government to initiate measures
with regard to the establishment or abolition of the Upper Houses in the states.
Thirdly, majority of the provisions of the Constitution can be amended by the
Parliament single-handed, either by two-thirds majority or by simple majority. Only
very few provisions can be amended after obtaining the approval of the state
legislatures. But no time-limit has been prescribed by the Constitution for this
approval by the states. An effort has been made to overcome this defect through the
enactment of a law under which the President can fix the time-limit within which the
states have to convey their approval.
Fourthly, the Constitution is also silent on the point whether a proposal regarding
amendment can be withdrawn or not. Similarly, it is silent on the issue whether the
states can withdraw their approval after according the same. Likewise, the
Constitution is not clear as to what would happen if the two-houses do not agree on a
particular amendment or if the President refused to. accord his approval to the
amendment.
Finally, the provisions concerning amendment are too sketchy that there is
always a possibility of the same being challenged before the courts. Often the
government is not clear on the need of amendment to the constitution. For example
the Government did not consider a
constitutional amendment necessary to abolish the privileges and privy purses of the
Indian Princes and sought to achieve the same through an Ordinance of the
President. But subsequently when the Ordinance was held ultra vires by the Court,
the Government went ahead with the twenty-sixth amendment. At this stage another
doubt arose in the mind of the Government whether it was essential to seek the
approval of the state legislatures or not. Ultimately, the Government decided to seek
the approval of the state governments so that the Supreme Court may not knock
down the amendment on this ground.
Despite the above shortcomings and defects in the amendment procedure, it
cannot be denied that the process has proved to be very simple and easy. This is
borne out by the fact that during the fifty years of its existence the Constitution has
been amended fifty-four times. So many amendments could be possible because for
most of the time the Congress enjoyed a clear-cut majority at the Centre as well as
majority of the states. Commenting the
amendment procedure in India Prof. Jennings says "What makes the Indian
Constitution so rigid is that in addition to somewhat complicated process of
amendment, it is so detailed and covers so vast a field of law that the problem of
Constitutional validity must often arise." He further asserts "What the Constituent
Assembly has done is to produce a long and complicated document which cannot
easily be amended. It is quite obvious that there are clauses which do not need to be
constitutionally protected. An example taken at random is Article 224 which
empowers a retired judge to sit in a High Court. Is this provision of such constitutional
importance that it need to be constitutionally protected and be incapable of
amendment except with the approval of the two-thirds of the members of each
House sitting and voting in the Union Parliament." Prof. K.C. Wheare has admired the
variety of amendment procedures contained in the Indian Constitution. He says "This
variety in the amending process is wise but rarely found."
34-
Fundamental Rights and Duties

and Directive Principles of
State Policy
Ever since the enactment of the U.S. Constitution it has become customary for all
democratic countries to incorporate a Chapter on Fundamental Rights in their
Constitutions. The Constitution of India also outlines the Fundamental Rights of
its citizens in Part III of the Constitution, which are more 'elaborate and real' than
those found in any other Constitution. These rights are fundamental in the sense
that they are paramount and superior to all laws, executive orders and judicial
decisions. No branch of the government can abridge, curtail or violate them. A
law or order is considered as void to the extent it is inconsistent with the
fundamental rights enshrined in the Constitution. Chief Justice Patanjali Shastri
considers these rights as fundamental, because their insertion in the fore-front of
the Constitution coupled with an express prohibition against legislative
interference with these rights and the provision of the constitutional sanction for
the enforcement of such prohibition by means of judicial review...is a clear and
emphatic indication that these rights are to be paramount to ordinary Statemade law.
Durgadass Basu defines the fundamental rights in the process of drawing a
distinction between the legal and fundamental rights. He says "A legal right is an
interest which is protected by the law and is enforceable in the courts of law.
While an ordinary legal right is protected and enforced by the ordinary law of the
land, a fundamental right is one which is protected and guaranteed by the
written constitution of the state. These are called 'fundamental' because while
ordinary rights may be changed by the Legislature in its ordinary process of
legislation, a fundamental right, being guaranteed by the Constitution, cannot be altered by any
process shorter than that required for amending the Constitution itself. Nor can it
be suspended or abridged except in the manner laid down in the Constitution
itself".
According to Chief Justice Gajendragadkar a fundamental right is a legally
enforceable right governing the relations between the State and the individual. It
has both negative and positive aspects. It must, as the words indicate, be
fundamental. It does not mean a right of liberty permissible under the law; it also
means a right of liberty in a positive sense which enables an individual to
develop his personality and faculties and to live his life in his own interest find in
the interest of the community as a whole:
The fundamental rights enshrined in the Indian Constitution possess certain
basic features, which are as follows:
First, these rights have been placed at a higher pedestral than ordinary laws.
Secondly, adequate machinery has been provided to ensure that these rights
are actually available to the citizens.
Thirdly, these rights are not absolute and are subject to restrictions. While
some of these restrictions have been outlined by the Constitution, the others can
be imposed by the Parliament according to the requirements of the situations.
Fourthly, the courts enjoy the right to investigate whether the restrictions
imposed on these rights by the Parliament are reasonable or not.
Fifthly, the Fundamental Rights can be suspended during emergency. At such

a time the President can also suspend the right of the citizens to move the courts
for the enforcement of these rights.
Sixthly, the Parliament can make changes in the Fundamental Rights through
an amendment to the Constitution. Such an amendment, however, requires the
majority of the total membership as well as two-thirds majority of the members
present and voting.
The Fundamental Rights contained in the Constitution have been classified in

the following six categories:
2. Right to Freedom
3. Right against Exploitation
5. Cultural and Educational Rights
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies.
The original Constitution incorporated right to property also in the list of
fundamental rights, but the same was eliminated from the list of fundamental rights
by the forty-fourth amendment in 1928.
Articles 14 to 18 deal with the right to equality. The Constitution clearly provides that
the State shall not deny to any person equality before law or the equal protection of
law within the territory of India. It cannot discriminate against any citizen on grounds
only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. It means that every
citizen has access to shops, public restaurants, hotels, places of public
entertainment, etc. and is free to use wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of
public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of
general public.
In matters of employment or appointment to offices under the State also equal
opportunity shall be provided to all the citizens, and no person shall be denied
employment on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth,
residence or any of them. Again, to make the right to equality a reality,
untouchability has been abolished and its practice in any form has been made an
offence punishable in accordance with
law. All titles with the exception of academic and military distinctions have been
abolished. The citizens of India are also not permitted to accept any title from a
foreign state without the permission of the President of India. In matter of admission
to government aided schools also equality has been ensured by providing that no
citizen shall be denied admission to schools run by the State or getting aid from the
State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste or language.
It may be observed that the right to equality granted by the Indian Constitution is
not absolute. This does not deny the State the right to make special provisions for
women and children or take special steps for the advancement of the socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens. Similarly the State can make provision for
the reservations of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens
which in its opinion is not adequately represented in the services under the State.
2. Right to Freedom
Articles 19 to 22 deal with the Right to Freedom. Initially Article 19 of the Constitution
enumerated the following seven freedoms:
(a) Freedom of speech and expression;
(b) Freedom of peaceful assembly without arms;
(c) Freedom of association;
(d) Freedom of movement throughout territory of India
(e) Freedom of residence and settlement; of property; and
(f) Freedom of acquiring, holding and disposing of property; and
(g) Freedom of profession, occupation, trade or business.
However, the freedom concerning property as enumerated at (f) above has since
been omitted by the Forty-fourth Amendment Act 1978.
Like the right to equality the right to freedom is also not absolute and reasonable
restrictions can be imposed on its enjoyment. Thus the right to freedom of speech
and expression can be restricted in the interest of the sovereignty and integrity of
India, the security of the State, the friendly relations with foreign States, public order,
decency
Fundamental Rights and Duties and Directive Principles of State
Policy 271
or morality or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an

offence. Similarly freedom of assembly and association can be curtailed on the
grounds of public order, morality, and sovereignty and integrity of India. The freedom
to move throughout the territory of the country and to reside and settle in any part of
the territory of India can be curtailed in the interest of general public or for the
protection of the interests of any Scheduled Tribe. Likewise, the freedom to practise
any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business does not prevent the
State from enacting laws relating to the professional or technical qualifications
necessary for carrying on any occupation, trade or business or to exclude completely
or partially any citizen from any trade or business, industry or service being carried
on by the State or by a Corporation owned or controlled by the State.
The citizen's right to freedom is further guarded under Articles 20 to 22. Article 20
provides that no person shall be convicted of any offence except for the violation of
law in force at the time of the commission of the act charged as an offence, nor be
subjected to a penalty greater than that which, might have been inflicted under the
law in force at the time of the commission of the offence. No person can be punished
for the same offence more than twice nor can he be compelled to be a witness
against himself. Article 21 protects the life and personal liberty of the citizens and
provides that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except
according to the procedure established by law. Article 22 provides protection against
arrest and detention in certain cases. It lays down that no person who has been
arrested, shall be detained in custody without being informed, as soon as may be, of
the ground for such arrest. He shall also not be denied the right to consult and to be
defended by a legal practitioner of his choice. Each arrested and detained person has
to be produced before the nearest magistrate within a period of hours of such arrest
and cannot be kept in custody beyond that period without the authority of the
magistrate.
The Constitution, however, permits the State to curb the right to freedom under
exceptional circumstances. For example, under the Preventive
Detention Act a person can be detained on the grounds of suspicion of committing
anti-national activities. However, no law providing for preventive detention can
authorise the detention of a person for a longer period than two months unless an
Advisory Board constituted in accordance with the recommendations of the Chief

Justice of the appropriate High Court has reported before the expiration of the said
period of two months that there is in its opinion sufficient case for such detention.
The Advisory Board shall consist of a Chairman and not less than two other members.
The Chairman shall be the serving Judge of the appropriate High Court while the
other two members shall be serving or retired judges of any High Court. When a
person is detained under the preventive detention, the authority making the order
shall communicate to such person the grounds on which the order has been made
and offered him an opportunity to make a representation against the order. However,
such an authority can refuse to disclose those facts which it considers to be against
public interest to disclose. The authority to prescribe the maximum period for which
any person can be detained and the procedure to be followed by the advisory Board
rests with the Indian Parliament.
3.
Right Against Exploitation
Articles 23 and 24 are concerned with the right against exploitation and are designed
to check the utilization of persons for one's own ends, and to prevent the exploitation
of the weaker sections of society by unscrupulous person or even by the state. Article
23 prohibits traffic in human beings and begar and similar forms of forced labour and
makes the contravention of this provision an offence punishable in accordance with
law. However, this does not prevent the state from introducing compulsory service
for public purposes. But while imposing such service the State cannot make any
discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste or class or any of them. To
prevent the exploitation of the children, Article 24 prohibits the employment of
children below the age of 14 years in factories, mines or other hazardous jobs. Any
violation of this provision is an offence which can be punished according to law.
272

Articles 25 to 28 deal with the freedom of conscience and religion. Under Article 25
all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and right freely to profess,
practise and propagate any religion subject to public order, morality and health. The
state also enjoys the right to restrict any economic, social or political or other secular
activity which may be associated with the religious practice. All persons have also
been granted the right to establish institutions for religious and charitable purposes,
manage their own affairs and to own, acquire and administer
movable and immovable property.

There is no 'state religion' nor can the state confer any special patronage on
any particular religion. It cannot compel the citizens to pay taxes for the
promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious denomination. No
religious instructions can be provided in an educational institution wholly
maintained out of State funds or receiving aid from the State.
5. Cultural and Educational Rights

Articles 29 and 30 deal with cultural and educational rights. These rights were
incorporated in the Constitution with a view to protect the interests of minorities and
to enable them to conserve their, culture. All groups possessing distinct language,
scripts or culture of their own have the right to conserve the same. No citizen can be
denied admission to any educational institution maintained by the State or receiving
aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of
them. The Constitution also gives all the minorities, whether based on religion or
language, the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice. The State while granting aid to such educational institutions, is expected not
to make any discrimination against any educational institution on the ground, that it
is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.
Under the 44th Amendment, the state while making a law for the compulsory
acquisition of any property of an educational institution established and administered
by a minority, shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for
the acquisition of such property is such as would
not restrict or abrogate that right guaranteed under the Constitution.
6. Right of Constitutional Remedies

Last but not the least the Constitution grants right of constitutional remedies to the
citizens. This right has been described by Dr. Ambedkar as the 'heart and soul of the
Constitution'. In fact the mere declaration of fundamental rights is useless unless
effective remedies are available for their enforcement. This has been ensured under
Article 32 which grants the right to move the Supreme Court by appropriate
proceedings for the enforcement of the rights conferred by the Constitution. The
Supreme Court has been vested with the authority to issue directions or orders or
writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo
warranty, and certiorari whichever may be appropriate, for the enforcement of any of
the rights conferred by the Constitution. The Parliament can also confer similar power
on other courts.
SUSPENSION OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

The fundamental rights guaranteed under the Indian Constitution can be suspended
by the President during emergency arising out of threat to the security of India or any
part of its territory, or due to actual external aggression. It may be noted that the
President has to issue specific order for the suspension of the fundamental rights and
such orders must be placed before the Parliament at the earliest possible. The
President of India can also suspend the right to move the court for the enforcement
of these fundamental rights, except the rights available under Articles 20 and 21.
When such orders have been issued the State has the authority to make any law or
take any executive action with regard to the fundamental rights, but such law shall,
to the extent of incompetency, cease to have effect as soon as the orders aforesaid
cease to operate. It may be noted that in other democratic countries like U.S.A. the
fundamental rights of the citizens cannot be suspended even during emergencies. No
wonder, these provisions of the Constitution met with severe criticism at the hands of
some of the members of the Constituent Assembly. For example, H.V. Kamat strongly
Fundamental Rights and Duties and Directive Principles of State Policy
273
opposed the inclusion of this provision in the Constitution and expressed the fear that
the Executive may exploit this provision to impose a dictatorship on the people. But
by and large the members favoured the incorporation of this provision in the
Constitution keeping in view the national interests. They argued that the interests of
country must get precedence over the individual interests and there was no question
of fundamental rights for the Individual when the very existence of the country was
at stake. They further argued that these were exceptional provisions to deal with
exceptional circumstances, viz., emergency.
EVALUATION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

Difference of opinion exists amongst scholars regarding the significance of the
fundamental rights granted by the Constitution. On the one hand there are critics
who plead that the Constitution does not make any mention of some of the vital
fundamental rights like right to work, right to education, etc. On the other hand, it is
argued that the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution are more
real and genuine, even though they are not absolute. It shall be desirable to examine
these views in some details.
The chief points of criticism against the fundamental rights are as follows:
First, some of the economic and social rights which are available to the citizens of
advanced democratic countries do not find any place in the in list of fundamental
rights. While this charge seems to be quite valid, we have to keep in mind peculiar
conditions prevailing in the country. In view of the limited resources available in the
country, the framers of the Constitution did not think it advisable to incorporate these
fundamental rights in the Constitution. Mere inclusion of these rights in the
Constitution, without giving them practical shape would have made a mockery of the
Constitution. The frame of the Constitution, therefore, incorporated economic and
social rights in the Chapter on Directive Principles of State Policy so that these rights
may be made available to the citizens at some future date when the country would
be in a position to give them practical shape.
Secondly, the fundamental rights granted the Constitution have been hedged by
so many restrictions and limitations that they virtually come ineffective. The citizens
make a reference to the American Constitution, which does not impose any
restrictions or limitations on the fundamental, rights. However, it cannot be denied
that even in U.S.A. the fundamental rights are not absolute and numerous restrictions
have been imposed on then through Congressional laws and Supreme Court
judgements. In India not only the Parliament and the judiciary can impose restrictions
on fundamental rights, but the Constitution itself also contains elaborate restrictions.
Thirdly, some of the Fundamental Rights have been couched in so difficult
language that they are beyond the comprehension of ordinary citizens.
Fourthly, the remedies for the protection of the fundamental rights are very
expensive and beyond the capacity of ordinary citizens. As a result only well-off
people can seek legal protection against violation of their fundamental rights.
In conclusion it may be pointed out that though the Fundamental Rights
guaranteed by the Constitution are very extensive but they are subject to many
restrictions. Most of the criticism against these fundamental rights has been due to
these restrictions. However, it has to be admitted that absolute rights are not
possible in any civilized society and certain restrictions must be placed on them so
that these can be made available to all the citizens. Further, the judiciary in India has
been bestowed with the power to act as the guardian of the fundament rights and
has played an important role in making these rights a reality by protecting them
again undue encroachment by the government.
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
The Fundamental Duties were incorporated in the Constitution by the 42nd
Amendment in 1976 and the original Constitution did not contain them. These duties
have been included in Part IV A, Article 15A. It is noteworthy that the Indian
Constitution is not the only Constitution to incorporate duties of its citizens. The
constitutions of several other countries like Italy, People's Republic of China, Albania,
Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands,
the
U.S.S.R.
also
contain
ddd`274
dfundamental duties. A question may naturally arise as to why these duties were
added to the constitution, after twenty-six years of the inauguration of the
Constitution. The reasons were explained by H.R. Gokhale, the then Law Minister,
thus; "...In post-independent India, particularly on the eve of emergency in June
1975, a section of the people showed no anxiety to fulfil their fundamental
obligations of respecting the established legal order...the provisions of chapter on
fundamental duties would have a sobering effect in on these restless spirits who have
had a host of anti-national subversive and unconstitutional agitations in the past."
The duties of citizens as outlined in Article 51 A are as follows:
(a) To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National
Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) To cherish and follow the noble ideals which are inspired our national struggle
for freedom.
(c) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional
diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers
and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) To safeguard public property and to abjure violence; and
(j) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity
so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and
achievement.
The then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi justified the incorporation of the
Fundamental Duties in the Constitution and argued that the Chapter on Fundamental
Duties would not smother rights but would help in establishing democratic balance.
She regretted that these duties had not been included in the original constitution by
the framers of the Constitution.
In certain other quarters the incorporation of the fundamental duties in the
Constitution met with severe condemnation. Mr. C.K. Daphtary the ex-Attorney
General of India argued that the people are by and large law-abiding and there was
no need to tell them about their duties. He argued that "so long the people are happy
and contended they continue to perform their duties. To tell them what their duties
are implies that they are not content. If that is the case after 26 years, it is not their
fault."
A.K. Sen in an article in The Statesman seriously condemned the inclusion of the
Fundamental Duties in the Constitution and observed: "A democratic set up, instead
of thriving on the willing co-operation and confidence of its people, is reduced to the
position of a harsh school master asking the student to stand up on the classroom
bench because he had not done the homework. To begin with it were the people of
India who created the Sovereign Democratic Republic of India in 1950; but the
Republic is now claiming to be the master of the citizens enjoining habitual obedience
to its command to do his duty. The State's confidence in the citizens is obviously
shaken."
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

The Directive Principles of State Policy which have been enshrined in Part IV of the
Constitution aim at realizing the high ideals of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity
as outlined in the Preamble to the Constitution. These are the ideals which are to
inspire the State to work for the common good of the people and establish social and
economic democracy in the country. The phrase 'Directive Principles of State Policy'
means the principles which the States should keep in mind while framing the laws
and formulating policy.
Fundamental Rights and Duties and Directive Principles of State
Policy 275
The framers of the Constitution borrowed this feature from the Constitution of
Irish Republic. The Charter of the United Nations and the Charter of Human Rights
also inspired them a great deal in the drawing up of the list of Directive Principles.
Above all the ideas and thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi also influenced them. It may be
noted that though the Directive Principles of State Policy are not legally enforceable
by any court of law, and the State cannot be compelled through the courts to
implement them, yet they have been declared as fundamental in the governance of
the country and it is the duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws.
Articles 39 to 51 contain the various directive principles. These principles are
amalgamation of socialistic, Gandhian and liberal principles. It shall be desirable to
divide them into three categories to understand their true implications.
SOCIALISTIC PRINCIPLES
The Socialistic Principles were incorporated in the Chapter on Directive Principles of
State Policy with a view to provide the economic basis for the democratic system
envisaged under the Constitution. These principles direct the State:
(a) To provide adequate means of livelihood for all the citizens.
(b) To secure equal pay for work to both men and women.
(c) To protect the workers, especially children.
(d) To regulate the economic system of the country that it does not lead to
concentration of wealth and means of production
(e) To make provision for securing right to work, to education and to public
assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and similar other
cases.
(f) To ensure a decent standard of living and facilities of leisure for all workers.
(g) To provide opportunities and facilities for children so that they may develop in
a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and to protect the
childhood and youth against exploitation and against moral and material
abandonment.
The main objective of the above noted directive principles is to enable the
individual to lead a good and satisfying life.
GANDHIAN PRINCIPLES
The Chapter on Directive Principles also contains certain principles which were dear
to the Father of the Nation and represent the Gandhian programme of reconstruction.
Some of the prominent Gandhian directive principles are as follows:
(a) To organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and
authority as may be necessary to enable to function as units of selfgovernment.
(b) To promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the
weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and
the Scheduled Tribes and to protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation.
(c) To promote cottage industries in the rural areas.
(d) To prohibit the use of intoxicants, except for medicinal purposes.
(e) Prevention of slaughter of cows, calves and other milch cattle.
MISCELLANEOUS PRINCIPLES
This set of Directive Principles largely represents the liberal thinking. Some of the
provisions falling in this category are as under:
(a) To secure for the citizens an uniform civil code throughout the territory of India.
(b) To provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of the
Constitution, free and compulsory education for all the children up to the age
of fourteen years.
(c) To take steps for the separation of the judiciary from the executive in the
public services of the State.
(d) To ensure that the legal system promotes justice, on a basis of equal
opportunity and to provide free legal aid by suitable legislation or schemes or
in any other way.
(a)
to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen
by reasons of economic or other disabilities.
(e) To organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines
and in particular to take steps for preserving and improving the breeds of cows
and other milch and draught cattle.
(f) To take steps, by suitable legislation or in any other way, to secure the
participation of the workers in the management of undertakings,
establishments or other organisations engaged in any industry.
(g) To protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild
life of the country.
(h) To protect every monument or place or object of artistic or historic interest

declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance,
from spoliation, disfigurement, destruction, removal, disposal or exports, as
the case may be.
(i) To promote international peace and security and maintain just and honourable
relations between nations.
(j) To foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the
dealings of organised people with one another, (k) To encourage settlement of
international disputes by arbitration.
IMPORTANCE OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES

There is no unanimity amongst scholars and constitutional experts regarding the
importance of the Directive Principles. On the one hand citizens describe them as
'pious wishes' devoid of all
constitutional significance. For example, Prof. K.T. Shah compared them with a
cheque on a bank payable at the convenience of the bank. The nonjusticiable nature
of directive principles also makes them superfluous. On the other hand, some
scholars consider them as more important than the fundamental rights in so far as
they provide the social and economic basis for democracy and aim at establishing a
welfare state in the country. They also ensure a continuity in national policies.
It is true that the Directive Principles of State Policy have not been accorded the
same position by the Constitution which is enjoyed by the Fundamental Rights in so
far as they are nonjusticiable. But this does not take away from their significance.
They are very much a part of the Constitution and their violation is as much
unconstitutional as the violation of any other provision of the Constitution which is
justiciable. If the Government acts contrary to the directive principles enshrined in
the Constitution, it's act can be declared as unconstitutional. As has rightly been
pointed out, it is the duty of the courts to safeguard the Directive Principles "from
vicissitudes of fortunes of political parties who may come into and go out of power
from time to time".
The people also play an important role in making the Directive Principles of State
Policy effective. The success of any Constitution to a large extent depends on the
civic sense, conscience and vigilance of the people. Even the best of the
Constitutions are bound to fail if the people do not take keen interest in their working.
On the other hand, even a defective Constitution may yield the best possible results
if the people are alert and Conscientious. Similarly, if the people of India take keen
interest, the Government cannot afford to ignore the Directive Principles of State
Policy. The actual operation of the Constitution during the past fifty years has also
shown that the Government has attached due importance to these principles. It
attached some of the directive principles an over-riding position even over the
Fundamental Rights by formally amending the Constitution. The Supreme Court and
the High Courts have also accorded recognition to these principles and tried to
enforce them so long they did not come into conflict with the Fundamental Rights.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES AND FUNDAMENTAL

RIGHTS
The Directive Principles of State Policy and the Fundamental Rights outwardly
resemble each other in so far as they aim at securing the common good of the
people of India, but there are vital differences between the two.
Fundamental Rights and Duties and Directive Principles of State Policy
277
Firstly, while the Fundamental Rights are in effect negative injunctions to the
State not to do certain things, the Directive Principles of State Policy are positive
instructions to the State to work for the attainment of certain set objectives.
Secondly, the Fundamental Rights are justiciable and can be enforced by the
courts, while the Directive Principles are non-justiciable. It is a moral obligation of the
State to fulfil these obligations. The courts cannot declare any law as void on the
ground that it ignores or violates a Directive Principle.
Thirdly, in case of conflict between the Fundamental Rights and tne Directive
Principles, the former get precedence. Emphasising this point the Supreme Court
observed, "The Directive Principles of State Policy have to conform to and run as
subsidiary to chapter of Fundamental Rights. In our opinion, that is the correct way in
which the provision found in Parts III and IV have to be understood, However, as long
as there is no infringement of any Fundamental Right, to the extent conferred by the
provision in Part III, there can be no objection to the State acting in accordance with
the Directive Principles set out in Part IV, but subject again to the Legislative and
Executive powers and limitations conferred on the State under different provisions of
the Constitution".
Effort was made to accord a position of primacy to the Directive Principles of
State Policy under the 25th Amendment as well as the Forty-Second Amendment. The
25th Amendment laid down that no law pertaining to Directive Principles contained in
Article 39 (b) or (c) can be declared void on the ground that it infringes rights
conferred by Articles 14, 19 or 31. The Forty-Second Amendment accorded a clear
position of primacy to the Directive Principles over the Fundamental Rights and
provided that no law passed to give effect to all or any of the Directive
Principles could deemed to be void on the grounds that it violated the Fundamental
Right of Equality, the seven Freedoms or the Right to Property. Any legislation
containing a declaration that it seeks to implement the Directive Principles cannot be
challenged before any court of law. The Janata Government, however, once again
restored primacy to the Fundamental Rights over the Directive Principles.
Despite this tussle for primacy between the Directive Principles and the
Fundamental Rights it cannot be denied as Justice Chandrachud has put it "Our
Constitution aims at bringing about a synthesis between 'Fundamental Rights' and
'Directive Principles of State Policy' by giving to the former a place of pride and to the
latter a place of permanence. Together, not individually, they form the core of the
Constitution. Together not individually, they constitute its true conscience".
Justice Hegde and Justice Mukerjee bring out the relationship between the
Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights and the significance of the Directive
Principles of State Policy thus "The Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles
constitute the 'conscience' of our Constitution. The purpose of the Fundamental
Rights is to create an egalitarian society, to free all citizens from coercion or
restriction by society and to make liberty available for all. The purpose of the
Directive Principles is to fix certain social and economic goals for immediate
attainment by bringing about a non-violent social revolution. Through such a social
revolution the Constitution seeks to fulfil the basic needs of the common man and to
change the structure of our society. It aims at making the Indian masses free in the
positive sense. Without faithfully implementing the Directive Principles, it is not
possible to achieve the Welfare State contemplated by the Constitution.
35The Union
Executive
The executive is the second important organ of government which is responsible

for the enforcement of laws enacted by the legislature as well as general
administration. The Constitution of India has provided an Executive at the Centre and
one in each of the twenty-two states. At the centre though the formal executive
authority has been vested in the President, it is enjoyed by the Council of Ministers
headed by the Prime Minister. Likewise, in the states also though the formal
executive power is vested in the Governor, in reality this power is exercised by the
Chief Minister and his Council Ministers. It shall be desirable to have an idea about
the Executive at the Centre as well as the states.
THE PRESIDENT
The Constitution of India provides for a Parliamentary System of Government in
which the formal executive power of the Union is vested in the President and which
he can exercise either direct or through officers subordinate to him in accordance
with this Constitution. The Constitution also vests the supreme command of the
Defence Forces of the Union in the President.
Qualifications
According to Constitution no person can contest for the office of the President of
India unless (a) he is a citizen of India; (b) he has completed the age of thirty-five
years; (c) he possesses qualifications laid down for election as a member of the Lok
Sabha.
On the other hand, a person is not eligible for election as President if he holds any
office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or
under any local or other authority
subject to the control of any of said Government. It may be noted that for this
purpose a person shall not be deemed to hold any office of profit if he is working as
the President, the Vice-President, Governor of State, Minister of Central or State
Government etc. Similarly, a candidate for the office of the President must not be a
member of either House of Parliament or a State Legislature. If any such person is
elected to the office of the President he is deemed to have vacated his seat in the
House on the date on which he enters upon his office as President.
Election of President
The President of India is indirectly elected through an electoral college consisting of
(a) the elected members of both the Houses of Parliament; and (b) the elected
members of Legislative Assem-blies of the States. However, the Constitution tries to
ensure uniformity in the scale of representation of the different states at the election
of the President by providing that the number of votes which each elected member of
the Legislative assembly of a State, shall be entitled to cast shall be determined by
the multiples of one thousand in the quotient, obtained by dividing the population of
the State by the total number of the elected members of the Assembly. While working
out the total number of votes to be cast by each member the fraction exceeding half
is counted as one.
At the same time, the Constitution also tries to maintain a parity between the
States as a whole and the Union, and ensures that the voting strength of the two
Houses of the Parliament is equal to that of the Legislative Assemblies of all the
States taken together. Accordingly, it provides that each elected for member of either
House of
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279
Parliament shall have profit such number of votes as may be obtained by dividing the
total number of votes assigned to the members of the Legislative Assemblies of the
States, by the total number of the elected members of both Houses of Parliament,
fractions exceeding one-half being counted as one.
The election of the President is held in accordance with the system of proportional
representation by means of the single transferable vote, the voting at such election
being by secret ballot.
Another point which deserves attention is that the candidates for the office of the
President of Indian Union must be sponsored by at least 50 electors and seconded by
an equal number of electors. Each candidate is required to deposit a security of Rs.
15,000.
Term of Office
The President holds office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters
upon his office. However, this term can be cut short if he resigns his office either by
addressing his resignation to the Vice-President of India; or he is removed from office
through impeachment on grounds of violation of the Constitution. Similarly, his term
stands automatically extended beyond the expiry date if his successor is not elected
or does not assume office.
Oath
Before entering upon office every President and every person acting as President or
discharging the functions of the President shall, make the subscribe in the presence
of the Chief Justice of India or, in his absence, the senior most judge of the Supreme
Court available, an oath or affirmation.
Emoluments and Privileges

The constitution provides that the President shall be entitled to such emoluments,
allowances and privileges as may be determined by the Parliament by law and until
provision in that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances <nd privileges as
are specified in the Second Scheaule of the Constitution. Accordingly, the Parliament
fixed his salary at Rs. 10,000 per month. The emoluments of President were raised to
Rs. 15,000 per month in December 1985 which was raised to Rs. 20,000 in May 1990.
In 1998 the salary of the
President was raised to Rs. 50,000 per month. In addition the President is entitled to
other allowances. The salary and expenses of President are charged on the
Consolidated Fund of India and cannot reduced during his term of office. On
retirement, the President is entitled to annual pension of Rs. 3,00,000 and expenses
for the maintenance of secretarial staff and office. He is also entitled to rent-free
house. The President House is reserved for his official residence. The President enjoys
complete legal immunity within the country and is not answerable to any court of law
for his
actions. No criminal proceedings can be brought against the President during his
term of office.
Impeachment of the President

The President of India can be removed from his office before expiry of his normal
term through the process of impeachment. Impeachment proceedings can be
instituted against the President only on grounds of violation of Constitution. For this
purpose the charges shall be preferred by either House of Parliament in the form of a
resolution passed by the two-thirds majority of the total membership of the House.
However, a fourteen days notice must be given to the President in writing by not less
than one-fourth of the total number of members of the House regarding their
intention to move the resolution. When the charge has been preferred by one House,
the other House shall investigate the charge or cause. If the charge to be
investigated and the President shall have the right to appear and to be represented
at such investigation. If as a result of the investigation a resolution is passed by the
majority of not less than two-thirds of the total membership of the House, by which
the charge was investigated or caused to be investigated, declaring that the charge
preferred against the President has been sustained, such resolution shall have the
effect of removing the President from his office as from the date on which the
resolution is so passed.
Vacancy
If the Office of the President falls vacant due to death, resignation or removal of
the President, fresh elections must be held within six months of
the occurrence of the vacancy. During the interval between the date of vacancy
and the date when the new President assumes office, the Vice-President of India acts
as the President. Simllary, if the President is unable to discharge his functions owing
to absence, illness or any other reason, the Vice-President discharges his functions
until the date on which the President resumes his duties. While the Vice-President
acts as the President or discharges the functions of President, he enjoys all the
powers and immunities of the President and is entitled to such emoluments,
allowances and privileges as are enjoyed by the President. If the Vice-President is not
available to discharge the duties of the President, the Chief Judge of India and in his
absence the senior-most Judge of the Supreme Court acts as President.
POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

The President is the Executive head of the State and has been vested with variety
of powers. For the sake of convenience these powers may be studied under the
following heads:
1. Executive Power
The Constitution vests all the executive authority of the Union in the President
which he may exercise either directly or through officers subordinate to him. The
executive power of the President extends to all those matters with respect to which
the Parliament has the exclusive power to make laws. All executive orders are
expressed to be taken in his name. All contracts of the Union Government are also
executed in the name of the President. The President is also the supreme commander
of the armed forces of India and has the power to declare war and make peace. All
the major executive appointments of the Union Government are also made by the
President. Some of the important appointments made by the President include the
Prime Minister and other members of Council of Ministers; the Governors of States;
Attorney General of India; Chairman and Members of the Union Public Service
Commission; the Comptroller and Auditor General; Chief Justice and Judges of the
Supreme Court; the Chief Justices and Judges of the state High Courts; the
Commissioner for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tribes and Backward Classes; Members of finance Commission; Ambassadors and
other diplomatic envoys etc. It may be observed that though formally all the above
executive powers are vested in the President, he exercises them on the advise of the
Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers. Earlier it was not obligatory for the
President to accept this advice but the Forty-Second Amendment makes it obligatory
for the President to exercise his functions in accordance with the advice of the
2. Legislative Powers
The President is an integral part of Parliament and as such enjoys extensive
legislative powers. He has the power to summon from time to time each House of
Parliament subject to the condition that there should not be a gap of more than six
months between the two sessions of the Parliament. He also reserves the right to
dissolve the Lok Sabha. As the Rajya Sabha is permanent House the President has
not been given any power to dissolve it. The President can prorogue either or both
the Houses.
The President can address either House separately or both the Houses jointly. He
can also send messages to either House from time to time. The first session of the
Parliament of the year starts with a speech by the President in which he outlines the
policy of the government for the ensuing year.
The President reserves the right to nominate 12 members of the Rajya Sabha
from amongst persons who have distinguished themselves in the fine arts literature,
social service etc. The President can also nominate two Anglo-Indian members to the
Lok Sabha if he is satisfied that the community has not received adequate
representation in the House as a result of the election.
All the bills passed by the Parliament require the assent of the President to reach
the statute book. When a bill is presented to the President for his assent he may
either sign it or refuse his signatures, or return the bill to the originating house for
reconsideration. If on reconsideration the bill is repassed by the Parliament, the
President has to append his signatures to it. Thus he enjoys only suspensive veto
power. Further, this veto can be applied only to the non-money bills.
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281
Certain types of bills can be introduced in the Parliament and the State Legislatures
only with the prior sanction of the President. Thus all the money bills, bills concerned
with redistribution or
alteration of the names and boundaries of the States etc. can be introduced in the
Parliament only with the prior sanction of the President. Similarly, the bills seeking to
impose restrictions on freedom of trade, commerce or intercourse within the State
can be introduced by the State Legislatures only with the prior sanction of the
President.
Finally, the President enjoys the right to promulgate ordinances during the recess
of the Parliament. These ordinances possess the force of an ordinary law. However,
they must be placed before the Parliament within six weeks of the reassembly of
Parliament. The ordinance ceases to operate six weeks after the Parliament
reassembles or earlier if the two Houses of the Parliament pass a specific resolution
disapproving the ordinance. It is well known that the President issued an ordinance
for the nationalisation of fourteen banks in July 1969. The President also enjoys the
right to issue regulations with regard to the Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands and the Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands which have the same force
as acts of Parliament.
3.
Financial Powers
The President also enjoys substantial financial powers. No money bill can be
introduced in the Parliament except on his recommendation. Every year at the
beginning of the Financial year the President causes to be laid before the Parliament
the annual Financial Statement showing the estimated recepits and expenditure of
the Union Government. Similarly, no bill imposing or altering any tax or duty in which
the States are interested can be introduced in the Parliament without the
recommendation of the President.
The Constitution places the Contingency Fund of India at the disposal of the
President who is authorised to make advances out of it to meet the unforeseen
expenditure pending its final authorisation by the Parliament. The President
determines the share of the States in the income tax receipts. He also decides about
the grants-in-aid to be made to the States of Assam, Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa in lieu of their share of the jute export duty. Every five years the President
appoints a Finance Commission, consisting of a Chairman and four other members, to
make recommendations to him regarding, the distribution of such taxes as are to be
divided between the Union and the States. The Finance Commission also allocates
the grants-in-aid to the States out of the Consolidated Fund of India. The President
can also seek the advice of the Finance Commission on any other issue concerning
the sound finances.
4.
Judicial Powers
As already pointed out the President appoints the Chief Justice and other Judges of
the Supreme Court of India, as well as the Chief Justices and other Judges of the State
High Courts. He also administers the oath of office to Chief Justice and Judges of the
Supreme Court. The Chief Justices and Judges of State High Courts are administered
the oath of their office by the Governors of respective States. However, the power to
accept the resignation of the judges of the Supreme Court as well as State High
Courts rests with the President. He can also remove them from their office after
successful impeachment proceedings against them by the Parliament. The President
reserves the right to consult the Supreme Court on any question of law or fact which
is of public importance. The Supreme Court is bound to render necessary opinion to
the President. Likewise, the President can also refer any dispute between the Union
and the States or amongst the States themselves to the Supreme Court and the
latter is bound to give its opinion thereon.
The President enjoys the power to grant pardons, reprieves and respites or to
remit, suspend or commute the sentence of any person convicted by the Court
Martial; or where the punishment or sentence is for an offence against any law
relating to the matter to which the executive authority of the Union extends; or
where the sentence is a sentence of death.
The President enjoys legal immunity and is not answerable to any court of law for
anything done in the exercise of his official duties. He can neither be arrested, nor
judicial proceedings can be instituted against him in any court of law. Civil suits can
however, be brought against the
President only after giving him a written notice of at least two months. So far no such
suit has, been brought against the President.
5. Diplomatic Powers
The President represents India in the international affairs and enjoys extensive
diplomatic powers. He sends Indian diplomatic envoys to foreign states and receives
their envoys accredited to India. He can also ask the foreign diplomats to leave the
country by declaring them as persona non grata. All the international treaties and
agreements are concluded by India on behalf of the President and are subject to his
final signatures.
6. Emergency Powers
The President of India has also been vested with extensive emergency powers to
deal with abnormal conditions. The Constitution envisages three types of
emergencies:
(a) Emergency caused by war or external aggression or internal disturbances. If
the President is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security
of India or of any part of the territory thereof is threatened, whether by war or
external aggression or armed rebellion, he may, by Proclamation, make a
declaration to that effect in respect of the whole of India or of such part of the
territory thereof as may be specified in the Proclamation. It may be noted that
the President can make such a Proclamation of emergency even before the
actual occurrence of war or of any such aggression or rebellion, if he is
satisfied that there is imminent danger thereof.
(b) Emergency due to failure of constitutional machinery in a State. Article 356 of
the Constitution lays down that if the President on receipt of report from the
Governor of a State or otherwise is satisfied that a situation has arisen in
which the government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with
the provisions of this Constitution, the President may by proclamation (a)
assume to himself all or any of the functions of the government of the State
and all or any of the powers vested in or exercisable by the
Governor or any body or authority in the State other than the Legislature of the State;
(b) declare that the powers of the Legislature of the State shall be exercisable by or
under the authority of the Parliament; (c) make such incidental and consequential
provisions as appear to the President to be necessary or desirable for giving effect to
the objects of the Proclamation, including provisions for suspending in whole or in
part the operation of any provision of this Constitution relating to any body or
authority in the State. However, the President is not authorized to assume to himself
any of
the powers vested in or exercisable by a High Court or to suspend in whole or in

part the operation of any provision of the Constitution relating to the High Courts, (c)
Emergency due to threat to the financial stability or credit of the country. If the
President is satisfied that a situation has arisen whereby the financial stability or
credit of India or of any part of the territory thereof is threatened, he may by a
Proclamation make a declaration to that effect. During the various kinds of
emergencies the powers of the President are greatly extended. It shall be desirable to
have an insight into the powers of the President during various kinds of emergency.
During the emergency arising out of external aggression or internal disturbances,
the President acquires the right to issue directions to the State with regard to the
exercise of their executive powers. The Parliament can be authorised to make laws on
all matters and for all persons throughout the country. The distribution of revenue
between the Union and States can also be modified. The President can also suspend
the operation of the fundamental rights contained in Part III of the Constitution. The
President can also take any other step he deems necessary to meet the emergency.
In case of emergency arising due to breakdown of constitutional machinery of a
State the President can assume to himself the entire
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executive authority of the State. He can delegate this authority to the Governor of
the State which he has to use in consultation with the advisor appointed by the
President. The President can also authorise the Parliament to exercise the powers of
the State Legislature. He can suspend or dissolve the State Legislative Assembly. He
can also take other steps to meet the emergency.
In case of Financial Emergency the President can direct the Union as well as the
States to observe such canons of financial propriety, as he may deem desirable. He
can, issue directions for the reduction of salaries and allowances of all or any class of
persons serving in connection with the affairs of a State: ask the States to reserve all
the money bills passed by them for his consideration after these are passed by the
State Legislatures. The President can also order the reduction of the salaries of the
Supreme Court and High Court judges during the financial emergency.
It is thus evident that the President has been given sweeping powers to deal with
the emergencies. The grant of so extensive emergency powers to the President met
with severe criticism at the hand of some of the members of the Constituent
Assembly. For example K.T. Shah described the provisions concerning emergency as
grand finale and crowning glory of this chapter of reaction and retrogression".
Likewise, H.V. Kamath found "no parallel to the chapter of the emergency in any
constitution of democratic countries of the world."
POSITION OF THE PRESIDENT

Ever since the inauguration of the Constitution a controversy has persisted amongst
scholars regarding the real position of the President. This controversy assumed new
dimensions after Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the First President of India suggested to the
scholars to examine the powers of the Indian President in the course of his address at
the Indian Law Institute.
Broadly speaking, the scholars have taken two opposite views regarding the
position of the President. Those who take purely legalistic view argue that the Indian
President has been bestowed with real powers by the Constitution and could
establish an authoritarian while without violating
the provisions of the Constitution. The Constitution vests all the executive powers of
the Union in the President which he is to exercise either directly or through officers
subordinate to him. There was no mention in the Constitution before the enactment
of the Forty-Second Amendment that President was bound to act on advice of the
Council of Ministers. Therefore, the scholars assumed that the President could act on
his own and could establish authoritarian rule.
The other group of scholars have contended that since the framers of the
Constitution opted for a Parliamentary system of government for the country, the
President was expected to be a mere nominal ruler with the real power resting with
the popularly elected Council of Ministers. The collective responsibility of the Council
of Ministers also confirms this view because the power and responsibility must go
hand in hand. The power to take decision was given to Council of Ministers and the
President is in no way associated with the process of decision making. Thus, it was
expected that the President would play the role of a constitutional ruler like the King
of England. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, categorically told the Constituent Assembly that
the President's position is intended to be one of authority and dignity, but at the
some time strictly constitutional.
It may be noted that the whole controversy about that position of the President
persisted because the Constitution did not contain any clear provision binding the
President to act on the advice of the Council of Ministers, although it was clearly
implied and inherent in the scheme of government provided in the country. This
anomaly was removed by the Forty-Second Amendment Act which clearly lays down
that "There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as the head, to aid
and advise the President who shall in the exercise of his functions act in accordance
with such advice." Scholars and constitutional experts like M.C. Chagla, N.A. Palkivala
etc, have not approved of this change and taken the view that the original provisions
of the Constitution under which the President was normally expected to act according
to the advice of the Council of Ministers was better. It at least added status of the
President without conceding him any real powers.
Even after the above changes in the position of the President it cannot be said that
the President is merely a figure head, a cipher or a rubber stamp, whose role is
confined to the mere performance of ceremonial functions and signing on the dotted
lines. Like the Monarch of England he still enjoys three rights-the right to be
consulted, the right to encourage and the right to warn. Though the President is not
connected with the decisionmaking process of the Cabinet, yet it is the duty of the
Council of Ministers to keep him posted with all the Cabinet decisions. The President
can also ask the Prime Minister to submit a matter on which a decision has been
taken by individual minister but which has not been considered by the Council of
Ministers, for its
consideration. Through advice and criticism also he can influence the decisions of
the Cabinet. It is well known that the consideration of the Hindu Code Bill was
postponed chiefly due to the strong opposition of the then President Dr. Rajendra
Prasad. However, it has to be admitted that this influence of the President is purely of
an advisory character.
The President can exercise effective discretionary powers under certain
circumstances. For example, if no single political party is able to muster a clear cut
majority in the Lok Sabha the President can show some discretion in the selection of
the Prime Minister. It is well known that after resignation of Morarji Desai as Prime
Minister, when no political party had a clear cut majority in the Lok Sabha, the
President first invited Y.B. Chavan of Congress (U) to form the Ministry and after he
expressed his inability to do so, the invitation was sent to the Lok Dal leader Charan
Singh, bypassing the claims of Jagjiwan Ram, the leader of the Janata Party. Thus the
President used his discretion in the appointment of the Prime Minister.
It has to be admitted that the President is the symbol of the nation and enjoys
considerable authority. No doubt, the Forty-Second Amendment sought to water
down his position and prestige by making it obligatory for the President to act on the
advice of the Council of Ministers. This position has been to some extent retrieved by
the Forty-fourth Amendment which gives the President the right to refer back such
advice for reconsideration to the Council of
Ministers. However, the President is expected to act according to the advice tendered
to him after such reconsideration.
THE VICE-PRESIDENT
The Constitution provides for a Vice-President. This office was created with a view to
maintain the political continuity of the state because the Vice-President exercises the
executive power of the Union as and when the President is unable to do so due to
sickness, resignation, death, removal etc.
Election of Vice-President
The Vice-President is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of the
members of both the Houses of Parliament in accordance with the system of
proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote and the voting
at such elections is by secret ballot. The electoral college constituted for the election
of the Vice-President differs from the electoral college constituted for the election of
the President, in so far as the members of the State Legislatures are not included in
it. Further, in his election even the nominated members of the Parliament also form a
part of electoral college. Another point which deserves attention is that, each
member of the electoral college enjoys only one vote.
Qualifications
A candidate for the office of the Vice-President must possess the following
qualifications:
(a) He must be a citizen of India;
(b) He must have completed the age of thirty-five years;
(c)He must possess the qualifications prescribed for the election of a member of
the Rajya Sabha;
(d) He must not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or the
Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the
control of the said Governments. However, the offices of President, the VicePresident, the Governor, a Minister of Union or State are not treated as offices
of profit;
(a)
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(e) He must not be member of either House of Parliament or a House of the

Legislature of any State. If any such person is elected as Vice-President, he
shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in that House on the date on which
he enters upon his office as Vice-President;
(f) He must not be a person of unsound mind;
(g) He must not be an undischarged bankrupt or insolvent.
Term of Office
The Vice-President holds office for a term of five years from the date on which he
enters upon his office. However, he can relinquish his office earlier by addressing his
resignation to the President of India. He can also be removed from his office by the
Rajya Sabha by passing a resolution by a majority of all the theh"members of the
House and agreed to by the Lok Sabha. However, no such resolution can be moved
unless at least fourteen days' notice has been given to the President regarding the
intention to move the resolution. The Vice-President stays in office even after the
expiration of his term until his successor enters upon his office.
The Constitution is absolutely silent about the re-election of the Vice-President,
which implies that he is eligible for re-election. In fact Dr. S. Radhakrishnan held the
office of the Vice-President for two terms before being elected to the office of the
President. So far no candidate has held office of the Vice-President for more than two
terms. It can be hoped that like the President's office, a convention will also develop
with regard to the office of the Vice-President that no person shall contest office for
more than two terms.
The Vice-President before entering upon his office has to make and subscribe
before the President or some person appointed on that behalf by him, an oath or
affirmation.
The salary of the Vice-President is not specified in the Constitution and is
determined from time to time by the Parliament. At present the Vice-President as the
ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha draws a salary of Rs. 40,000 per month. In
addition he is also entitled to other facilities.
POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF VICE-PRESIDENT
The Vice-President of India occupies the second highest office in the country and
enjoys a rank next to the President in the Warrant of Predence. However, he has not
been entrusted with any special constitutional powers or functions. As the ex officio
Chairman of the Rajya Sabha he exercises legislative functions of the Chief Presiding
Officer. He presides over the meetings of the Rajya Sabha and conducts its business.
No bill, resolution, motion or question can be moved in the House without his
permission. All the members address him and he reserves the right to allocate time
for debate. He protects the privileges of the members of the Rajya Sabha and
maintains order and decency in the House. He also acts as the spokesman of the
House to the President and the Lok Sabha.
The Vice-President discharges the functions of the office of the President in case
his office falls vacant due to death, resignation or removal. When he discharges the
duties connected with the office of the President he ceases to act in his capacity as
the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. It may be noted that unlike the Vice-President of
U.S.A., who assumes the responsibilities of the office of the President for the unexpired term, the Vice-President of India acts as President until the date on which his
successor enters upon office. Under the Constitution, it is obligatory to hold election
to fill such casual vacancy within six months of the occurrence of the vacancy. In
short, he can hold the office of the President for a maximum period of six months. So
far only one casual vacancy in the office of the President arose, when Dr. Zakir
Hussain died. The then Vice-President Mr. V.V. Giri acted as the President for a period
of just four months. In the meanwhile fresh elections were held and V.V. Giri was
elected as regular President.
The position of the Vice-President of India very much resembles the position of
the Vice-President of U.S.A., who is often described as His Superfuous Highness. The
position of the Indian Vice-President is still weak, in so far he does not assume the
office of the President, when it falls
vacant due to death, resignation or impeachment, for the unexpired term. He merely
serves as a stop gap arrangement and a regular appointment has to be made within
six months. Hence his position is certainly weaker than that of the Vice-President of
U.S.A., who has every possibility of being a potential President. In short, we can say
that though the office of the Vice-President is one of great dignity, no power
patronage or responsibility is attached to this office.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
The real executive authority of the Union is exercised by the Council of Ministers.
Article 74 of the Constitution provides "There shall be a Council of Ministers with the
Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President, who shall, in the exercise
or his functions act in accordance with such advice." It may be noted that the original
Constitution was absolutely silent on the point whether the President was bound by
the advice of the Council of Ministers or not. However, generally the President acted
on the advice of the Council of Ministers in keeping with the conventions of
Parliamentary government. This convention was given a formal legal status by the
Forty-Second Amendment, which made it obligatory for him to act on the advice of
the Council of Ministers.
Composition
The Council of Ministers consists of the Prime Minister and such other Ministers as
may be considered desirable by the Prime Minister keeping in view the requirements
of the time. Generally, the Council of Ministers consists of about 50 to 60 members.
The formation of the Council of Ministers starts with the appointment of the Prime
Minister. The other members of the Council of Ministers are appointed by the
President on the advice of the Prime Minister. It may be noted that the President has
very little discretion in the selection of the Prime Minister. He has to invite the leader
of the majority party in the Lok Sabha for this purpose. But if no single party
possesses a clear cut majority in the Lok Sabha, the President may be able to
exercise some discretion in the selection of the Prime Minister. But in the
appointment of other Ministers, the
President has to go by the recommendations of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister
also has to keep the names of the members of the Council of Ministers. He has to
ensure that all prominent leaders of his party, various interests, communities, states,
etc. get due representation in his Council of Ministers. Another limitation on the
Prime Minister is that he has to include only those persons in his Council of Ministers
who are members of either House of Parliament. If any such person is included as a
member of the Council of Ministers, who is not a member of the Parliament at the
time of his appointment, he has to secure the membership of either of the two
Houses within six months; otherwise he ceases to be a member of the Council of
Ministers at the expiry of this period.
The members of the Council of Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the
President. However, the Council as a body is collectively responsible to the Lok
Sabha. This implies that President may remove an individual minister but he cannot
dismiss the Council of Ministers as a whole. The Council holds office as long as it
enjoys the support of the majority of the members of the Lok Sabha. It is not
essential that when a vote of no confidence is passed against the Council of
Ministers, it must quit office immediately. It can as well advise the President to
dissolve the Lok Sabha and order fresh elections to seek a fresh mandate from the
people.
The Council of Ministers works on the principle of the collective responsibility and
its members swim or sink together. A vote of no-confidence against any Minister, on
an issue of policy, is taken as a vote of no-confidence against the entire Council of
Ministers.
The Council of Ministers and Cabinet

Though the Council of Ministers and the Cabinet are often treated as identical, they
differ from each other. The Council of Ministers is a much wider body consisting of
about 50 to 60 ministers, as against the Cabinet which consists of 15 to 20 more
important ministers who constitute the Cabinet. The Council of Ministers does not
meet as a body to transact government business. It is the Cabinet which meets for
the purpose and works on the principle of collective responsibility of its
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members. Generally, the Ministers heading more important departments like Finance,
Home, Defence, Foreign Affairs, Railway, etc. are members of the Cabinet while the
less important ministers are members of the Council of Ministers.
Oath
Before entering upon their office the Prime Minister and other members of the
Council of Ministers have to take an oath of office and secrecy.
Salary and Allowances
The salary and allowances of the members of the Council of Ministers have not
been fixed by the Constitution and have been left to the Parliament. At present, the
ministers receive same salaries and allowances which are paid to the MPs. They are
also entitled to constituency allowance at the rate to which the Members of
Parliament are entitled. In addition, they are entitled to sumptuary allowances at
different rates. The Prime Minister Rs. 1,500 per month; Cabinet Minister Rs. 1,000
per month; Minister of State Rs. 500 per month and Deputy Minister Rs. 300 per
month. The ministers and members of their family accompanying them are entitled
to travelling allowance in respect of not more than six return journeys performed
during each year within India. The ministers are exempted from liability to pay
income tax on certain perquisites received by them, viz., rent free and furnished
residence (including maintenance thereof) provided to them.
FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

Constitutionally all the executive authority of the Union Government is vested in
the President and the Council of Ministers is there simply to aid and advise the
President in the exercise of his functions. But in reality all these powers are exercised
by the Council of Ministers on behalf of the President, who merely acts as a nominal
or constitutional executive head of the Union. The powers of the council of Ministers
are indeed extensive and can be studied under the following heads:
1. Executive Functions
One of the major executive functions of the Council of Ministers is the formulation of
the executive policy of the country, on the basis of which the administration of the
country is to be carried on. Once the policy has been formulated and duly approved
by the Parliament, that members of the Council of Ministers try to give it a practical
shape. Each member of the Council of Ministers is incharge of one or more
departments and is responsible for its smooth and efficient working. The minister
incharge of a department is free to take decision on routine matters although the
policy matters are decided by the Council of Ministers as a whole. Sometimes the
Ministers may take with policy decisions also but these must be approved by the
Council of Ministers subsequently.
The Council of Ministers or the Cabinet acting on its behalf, tries to coordinate the
policies, in programmes and activities of the various ministries. The necessary
supervision over the working of the various Ministers is exercised through the Cabinet
Secretariat. The Council of Ministers also play important role in filling up various
political, judicial and ambassadorial appointments. All these appointments are
effected by the President, on the advice of the Council of Ministers; which is generally
routed through its leader the Prime Minister. The various awards and distinctions for
meritorious services in different fields are also bestowed by the President on the
advice of Council of Ministers. The reports of the various Commissions and
Committees are also considered by the Council of Ministers before these are
presented before the Parliament.
In the formulation of the legislative programme of the country also, the Council of
Ministers plays an important role. Almost all the important bills and resolutions are
introduced in the Parliament by the members of the Council of Ministers, who also
pilot them through the Parliament. With the support of the majority of the members
of the Parliament at its disposal, it hardly finds any difficulty in getting these
measures through. In fact, all the proposals initiated by the Council of
Ministers are readily accepted by the Parliament. Even the proposals mooted by the
private members of the House, have a chance of reaching the statute book only if the
Ministry extends its support to them. In the face of ministerial opposition, they are
bound to be defeated by the Parliament.
The budget of the country, showing estimated income and expenditure for the
ensuing year, is also prepared by the Council of Ministers and presented to the
Parliament for its approval. It may be noted that the Constitution specifically provides
that no money bill can be introduced in the Parliament without the recommendation
of the President. This clearly implies that all money bills can be introduced in the
Parliament by the members of the Council of Ministers alone. While formulating the
budget proposals the Council of Ministers is entirely free to determine as to what
taxes are to be levied and how the funds of the Union Government are to be spent.
Though formally the Parliament reserves the right to modify the recommendations of
the Council of Ministers with regard to revenue and expenditure, in actual practice
this can be done only with the consent of the Ministry. Any effort to force such a
modification on the Ministry is taken as vote of no confidence in the Ministry and may
entail its resignation or even recommendation for the dissolution of the Parliament.
4. Foreign Relations
In the field of foreign relations also, the Council of Ministers plays an important role. It
determines the foreign policy of the country and decides what type of relations she
should have with other countries of the world. AH the international treaties and
agreements are considered and approved by the Council of Ministers. Similarly all the
ambassadorial appointments and questions regarding recognition of state are also
decided by the Council of Ministers.
It is thus evident that the Council of Ministers enjoys far reaching powers both
with regard to the formulation and implementation of internal as well as external,
policies of the country.
THE PRIME MINISTER
Though formally all the executive powers of the Union Government are vested in the
President, in reality these powers are exercised by the Council of Minister's under the
leadership of the Prime Minister. The office of the Prime Minister in India has
constitutional basis and is not based on conventions as in England. Article 74 (1)
clearly mention that there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at
the head to aid and advise the President. The position of the Prime Minister has been
made effective under the Forty-Second Amendment which provides that it shall be
obligatory for the President to accept the advice of the Council of Ministers.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. However, it does not mean that the
President is free to appoint anyone as the Prime Minister. He has to invite the leader
of the majority party in the Lok Sabha to become the Prime Minister. Under normal
circumstances the appointment of Prime Minister by the President is just a
constitutional formality. The President has hardly any discretion in the matter of the
appointment of Prime Minister. However, if no single
political party possesses a clear cut majority in the Parliament or there is no

acknowledged leader of the majority party, the President may have some discretion
in the appointment of the Prime Minister. It may be noted that even under such
circumstances, the President has to ensure that only such person should be
appointed as Prime Minister who in his opinion shall be able to muster the support of
the majority of the members of Lok Sabha and carry out the policies and programmes
of his party.
Generally, whenever the President appoints a person as Prime Minister, who does
not enjoy clear cut majority in the house, he directs him to seek the vote of
confidence in the house within a stipulated period. Thus, the President used his
discretion in the appointment of the Prime Minister, after the Lok Sabha elections of
1996, when none of the three political formationsCongress, BJP and National Front
could secure a clear cut majority. He invited Atal Bihari Vajpayee, leader of BJP the
largest party in Lok Sabha, to form the
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government. He gave him two weeks to prove his majority. However, Vajpayee
tendered his resignation after a debate in the Parliament without formal vote.
Thereupon, President invited H.D. Deve Gowda, leader of the United Front, to form
the government. It may be noted that, while making use of his discretionary powers
in the appointment of the Prime Minister, the President generally invites the leader of
the opposition to form the government, after the defeat of the existing government.
He prefers to offer the office of PM to the leader of a coalition formed before the
election. First of all, invitation is extended to the leader of the largest single party in
the House.
Term of Office
The Prime Minister holds office during the pleasure of the President, which seems to
suggest that the President can remove him any moment without assigning any
reasons. In practice it is not so and the President cannot remove a Prime Minister, so
long he enjoys the support of the majority of the members of Lok Sabha. If the
President in violation of this principle, dismisses the Prime Minister, it may not be
possible for him to find out another person who may be able to secure the confidence
of the Lok Sabha and form a stable government. Therefore, the term of the Prime
Minister is generally equal to the term of the Lok Sabha viz., 5 years. If the term of
the Lok Sabha is extended, the term of the Prime Minister is automatically extended.
Likewise, if the Lok Sabha is dissolved earlier than its fixed term the term of the
Prime Minister is automatically cut-short. In short, it can be said that the term of the
office of the Prime Minister is co-terminus with that of the Lok Sabha.
Oath
Before assuming his office the Prime Minister has to take oaths of office and secrecy
like the other members of the Council of Ministers.
Salary and allowances

Till December 1985 the Prime Minister received a monthly salary of Rs. 5000 and
other allowances. However, in that year it was decided that the Prime Minister would
receive the same salaries and allowances which were paid to the Members of
Parliament. In addition he was granted a
sumptuary allowance of Rs. 2,250 per month, free house, medical facilities, travelling
allowances etc. The salary, allowances and privileges of the members of Parliament
were revised in August 1998. At present an M. P. receives a salary of 4,000 per
month; daily allowance for each sitting in Lok Sabha of Rs. 2,500 per month;
Secretarial allowance of Rs. 6,000; one lakh free telephone calls per year; interest
free car advance of Rs, one lakh: single air journey (linked to mileage) with wife or
companion; etc. A notable feature of this revision is that salaries and perks have
been linked to the rate of inflation, which implies that in future there would be no
need to pass proposal for raise in MPs salaries.
POWERS OF PRIME MINISTER

The Prime Minister as the chief advisor of the President and the Chairman of the
Council of Ministers enjoys very extensive powers. The Constitution acknowledge the
primary position of the Prime Minister in the Council of Ministers by specifically
providing that "there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at its
head" to aid and advice the President. Even if the Constitution has not specifically
assigned a primary position to the Prime Minister, he would have assumed that
position in actual practice. Emphasising this point Dr. B.R. Ambedkar told the
Constituent Assembly "there can be hardly any objection to giving statutory
recognition to the position of the Prime Minister which is established for long by
convention in England". It is a well-known fact that in parliamentary system of
government, the Prime Minister is the centre of executive and imparts content and
meaning to the policies of the government. The powers of the Prime Minister can be
conveniently studied under the following heads:
1.
In Relation to the Council of Ministers
As noted above, the Prime Minister occupies a preeminent position in relation to the
Council of Ministers. The formation of the Council of Ministers starts with the
appointment of the Prime Minister and the other members of the Council of Ministers
are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Though
technically the power to appoint the members of the Council of Ministers is vested by
the Constitution in the President, but in actual practice, he has hardly any say in the
matter. It is the prerogative of the Prime Minister to prepare a list of the ministers to
be included in the Council of Ministers and the President merely appoints those
ministers. It is a different matter that the Prime Minister is also not completely free to
include anyone in the list and has to keep various considerations mind while
formulating the list. For example, he has to ensure that various communities,
interests, areas, etc. find due representation in it. Likewise, he has to pick up all the
ministers from the two Houses of the Parliament and accommodate most of the
leading members of his party. The previous experience of the persons and their field
of specialisation is also taken into account while preparing the list.
Once the Council of Ministers has been formulated it is the prerogative of the
Prime Minister to allocate the portfolios amongst the members. With a view to ensure
that the administration is carried on efficientiy the Prime Minister can also reshuffle
the Council and reallocate the portfolios. A Minister can stay in the Council of
Ministers only as long as he enjoys the confidence of the Prime Minister. In case of
differences, the Prime Minister can ask a Minister to tender his resignation or ease
him by reshuffling the Council of Ministers. In extreme cases, the Prime Minister can
even recommend the dismissal of a Minister to the President. It may be noted that
the Prime Minister is likely to avoid such extreme action.
The Prime Minister is the Chairman of the Council of Ministers and presides over
its meetings. The agenda and the proceedings of the Council of Ministers is also
largely determined and regulated by the Prime Minister. Though in the Council of
Ministers all decisions are taken by consensus, it cannot be denied that the views of
the Prime Minister have a decisive effect on the decisions of the Council of Ministers.
2.
Co-ordination of Administration
As leader of the Council of Ministers the Prime Minister is responsible for the general
coordination of the work of various ministries. He
exercises general supervision on the working of the various ministries and resolves
the interdepartmental disputes. The Prime Minister with the assistance of the Cabinet
Secretariat ensures that the policies and programmes of various departments do not
clash with each other.
3. In Relation to the President

The Prime Minister is the chief channel of communication between the President and
the Council of Ministers. It is a constitutional obligation of the Prime Minister
communicate all the decisions of the Council of Ministers to the President. Similarly, if
the President so desires, the Prime Minister has to submit matter for the
consideration of the Council of Ministers if a decision has been taken by an individual
Minister but no decision has been taken by the Council of Ministers as such. The
Prime Minister is also duty bound to supply such information the President regarding
proposals of legislation and administration of the Union, as the President may need. It
it significant to note that, no other member of the Council of Ministers is authorised
make any direct communication with the President, unless he is so authorised.
The Prime Minister also assists President in making all important appointments
and shares his power of patronage. Some of the important appointments made by
the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister include the Chief Justices
and Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, Comptroller and AuditorGeneral, Attorney general, Election Commissioner, Chairman and members of the
Union Public Service Commission, Governors, Chiefs of the Army, Navy, and Air Force,
Ambassadors and High Commissioners and other high officials. It may be noted that,
in reality all these appointments are made by the Prime Minister, although they are
formally made in the name of the President.
4. In Relation to Parliament
The Prime Minister is also the chief link between the Parliament and the Council of
Ministers. In fact he is appointed as Prime Minister because, he is the leader of the
majority party in the Lok Sabha and is responsible to the Parliament for all his
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actions along with other members of his Council of Ministers. As such, he has to
justify the policy and programme of the government on the floor of the Parliament. All
important policy announcements in the Parliament are made by the Prime Minister.
He also offers clarifications on matters pertaining to policy. He also comes to rescue

of other ministers in the Parliament when they are in a tight corner and defend their
actions in the Parliament. This is essential in view of the principle of 'collective
responsibility' on which the Council of Ministers work. The sessions of the Parliament
are summoned and prorogued by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
The Prime Minister also reserves the right to advice the President about the
dissolution of the Lok Sabha. In exercise of this power the Lok Sabha was dissolved in
1970, as well as 1979 on the recommendations of the then Prime Ministers viz., Mrs.
Indira Gandhi and Shri Charan Singh.
5. Conduct of International
Relations
The Prime Minister also plays an important role in the conduct of India's international
relations. Generally the Prime Minister keeps the portfolio of external affairs with him.
Even if some other Minister is incharge of this department, he works in complete cooperation with the Prime Minister and keeps him posted with all the developments.
The Prime Minister represents the country in the various international conferences. In
short, the Prime Minister plays a vital role in the conduct of country's international
relations.
6. Leader of the Party

Finally, the Prime Minister is an important leader of the party and greatly influences
its working and decisions. He keeps in constant touch with the other important
members of his party to ensure the party solidarity and support, for he knows it too
well that, his existence in office depends on the support of his party. Often the Prime
Minister also acts as the President of the party. It is a well known fact that at times
Prime Ministers like Jawaharlal Nehru, Mrs. Indira Gandhi and Charan Singh were also
the presidents of their respective political parties.
POSITION OF THE PRIME MINISTER
A perusal of the powers of the Prime Minister clearly demonstrates that he enjoys
tremendous power and influence both in the executive and the legislative sphere. As
Chairman of the Council of Ministers he plays a decisive role in the formulation and
implementation of the policy by the various ministers. The nominal or constitutional
position of the President of India under the Indian political system further adds to the
powers and prestige of the Prime Minister. In fact, all the powers vested in President
by the Constitution are exercised by the Prime Minister. In this respect, the position of
the Prime Minister of India very much resembles the position of the Prime Minister in
Great Britain and all those appethets which are used for the British Prime Minister are
applicable to him as well. Some of these appethets are 'primus inter pares' (first
amongst equals), 'steerman of the ship of the state', 'the moon among the lesser
stars' and 'sun around which all other planets revolve'. In fact, the position of the
Indian Prime Minister is superior to the position of the British Prime Minister in
so far as his office enjoys a constitutional basis and is not a product of the
conventions.
The position of the Indian Prime Minister does not entirely rest on the various
powers bestowed by the Constitution. To a large extent it depends on his personality
and prestige and the support he can muster within his party. Persons with magnetic
personalities like Jawarharlal Nehru and Mrs. Indira Gandhi have enjoyed greater
prestige in comparison to the other occupants of this office. Similarly, if the Prime
Minister's party enjoys a clear cut majority in the Parliament and he has a hold on the
party, he may assume dictatorial powers. The case of Mrs. Indira Gandhi after 1971
elections and Rajiv Gandhi after the elections of 1984, is clear proof of this. Hence we
can say that the position of the Prime Minister to a large extent depends on his
personality and his hold on the party.
The position of the Prime Minister underwent change after the formation of the
National Front Government, in 1989. The National Front comprising of diverse groups
and lacking clear-cut
292
majority (it formed government with the support of BJP and the Leftist parties)
obliged the Prime Minister to carry on the government with the support of various
factions of the front as well as the parties which were extending support to the
National Front Government from outside. Under the circumstances the role of the
Prime Minister was greatly undermined. During his brief spell as Prime Minister,
Chandra Shekhar could not be an effective Prime Minister because he headed only a
splinter group of the Janata Party and depended for continuance in office on the
support of Congress (I). P. V. Narasimha Rao also failed to play any effective role as
Prime Minister during initial months because he was heading a government which did
not enjoy majority in Parliament. Further the internal bickerings among various
groups of Congress further rendered his position weak. His position somewhat
improved following admission of a splinter group of 6 members belonging to Telugu
Desam Party into the Congress and its merger with the ruling party in August 1992.
His position further improved in December 1993, when Janata Dal headed by Ajit
Singh merged itself with Congress with 10 of its members, which converted his
minority government into a majority government.
The position of the Prime Minister suffered a further setback in the wake of
elections of May 1996. Initially A.B. Vajpayee, as the leader of BJP,
the largest party in Parliament, was invited to become Prime Minister in May 1996,
but he stayed in office for only 13 days. Thereafter, H.D. Deve Gowda, leader of the
United Front, a coalition of 13 parties became Prime Minister in June 1996. However,
in view of the diverse nature of the components of the coalition government, he
could not assert himself. His position was further rendered weak because of the
dependence of U.F. Government on Congress support from outside. The same was
true for Prime Minister I.K. Gujral, who headed the UF Government till it was
dissolved.
The position of Atal Behari Vajpayee, who became Prime Minister of the BJP led
coalition government after the elections of 1998, was no different. Major energy of
Vajpayee was wasted in cobbling majority in the House and placating hostile alliance
partners like Jayalalitha etc. As a result, he was never able to assert himself and his
major energy was lost in keeping the coalition together, which ultimately lost
confidence by one vote, after AIADMK withdrew support from the government. As a
result of elections to 13th Lok Sabha, Vajpayee led National Democratic Alliance was
able to capture over 300 seats and formed government. It is hoped that the present
coalition government may prove more stable but Vajpayee would have to display
great skill in keeping the coalition partners together.
Chapter
36
Parliame
nt
The Constitution of India provides legislature at the Centre as well as in each of the
twenty-five states of India. At the federal level the legislature is known as Parliament
and consists of the President, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. While the Rajya
Sabha in the main consists of representatives of the states of the Indian Union, the
Lok Sabha is a popularly elected house containing representatives elected by the
people on the basis of universal adult franchise. The President of India is also an
integral part of the Parliament, even though he is not a member of either of the two
Houses of the Parliament. He discharges numerous legislative functions and plays an
important role in the working of the Parliament.
At the state level the legislature consists of either a single chamber or two chambers.
In fifteen states the legislature is unicameral and is known as Legislative Assembly. In
seven other states the state Legislature has two houses known as Legislative
Assembly and Legislative Council respectively. The seven states which have
bicameral legislatures as are Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Tamilnadu and Uttar Pradesh. In this chapter we
shall deal with the legislature at the federal level in details and also briefly review
the working of the legislature at the state levels.
UNION PARLIAMENT
As noted above, the Union Parliament consists of President and two houses. Let us
briefly examine the composition and powers of the two house of the Parliament.
RAJYA SABHA
Rajya Sabha is the upper house of the Indian Parliament. It consists of 250 members.
Out of these 238 members represent the states, while the other 12 are nominated by
the President of India from amongst persons with special knowledge or practical
experience in the field of literature, science, art and social services. The
representatives of the states are elected by the elected members of the state
Legislative Assemblies.
In the Union Territories, which do not possess Legislative Assemblies, these
members are elected by electoral college specially constituted for the purpose. The
election of the members of Rajya Sabha is held in accordance with the principle of
proportional representation by means of single transferable vote. It is thus evident
that the Rajya Sabha, unlike the Senate of U.S.A. does not exclusively contain the
representatives of the States alone, because there are 12 nominated members as
well. Further all the units of the Indian Union have not been given equal
representation in the Rajya Sabha. The various states have been allotted seats in
accordance with their population. No wonder therefore, the representation of the
states varies from 1 to 34.
At present the various states have been accorded representation in the Rajya
Sabha as follows:
Andhra Pradesh 18; Assam 7; Bihar 22; Gujarat 11; Haryana 5; Himachal Pradesh
3; Jammu and Kashmir 4; Karnataka 12; Kerala 9; Madhya Pradesh 16; Maharashtra
19; Manipur, Meghalaya and Nagaland one each; Orissa 10;
Punjab 7; Rajasthan 10; Sikkim 1; Tamil Nadu 18; Tripura 1; Uttar Pradesh 34; West
Bengal 16; Arunachal Pradesh 1; Delhi 3; Mizoram and Pondicherry 1 each. In
addition, it contains 12 nominated members.
Qualifications
A person seeking membership of Rajya Sabha must possess the following
qualifications: (1) He must be a citizen of India. (2) He must not be less than 30 years
of age. (3) He must be parliamentary elector in the state from which he is seeking
election. (4) He must make and subscribe before some person authorized in that
behalf by the Election Commission an oath or affirmation asserting his allegiance to
the Constitution of India and undertake to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of
India. (5) He must possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by the
Parliament for that purpose from time to time.
Term
The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and is not subject to dissolution. But as nearly
as possible, one-third of the members of Rajya Sabha retire after every two years in
accordance with the provisions made by the Parliament by law. Thus the members of
the Rajya Sabha are elected for a term of six years. This arrangement ensures
continuity as well as representation of the changing public opinion.
Presiding Officer
The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha. In addition the
house also elects a Deputy Chairman from amongst its members. The Deputy
Chairman presides over the meetings of the house in the absence of the VicePresident. The Chairman does not enjoy, the right to vote except in case of a tie. As
Presiding Officer the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha is responsible for maintaining
order and decorum in the House and conducts the proceedings in accordance with
the rules. As the Chairman is not a member of the House he is not entitled to vote,
except in case of a tie. However, he has the right to speak and otherwise take part
in the proceedings of the House.
Quorum
One-tenth of the total membership of the Rajya Sabha constitute the quorum for
holding a meeting of the house.
LOK SABHA (THE HOUSE OF PEOPLE)

The Lok Sabha or the House of People is the popular house of the Indian Parliament
and contains elected representatives of the people. Its maximum strength has been
fixed at 550. Out of these not more than five hundred and thirty members are directly
elected from the territorial constituencies of the states; and not more than twenty
members are elected from the Union territories in a manner as prescribed by
Parliament by law. The number of members each state is expected to elect is
determined on the basis of the population. Within the state also the constituencies
are so drawn that as far as practicable the population of each constituency is roughly
the same.
Qualifications
A person seeking election to the Lok Sabha must possess the following qualifications:
(1) He must be a citizen of India. (2) He must be at least 25 years of age. (3) He must
possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by the Parliament. (4) He
must not hold any office of profit under the Union or State Governments. (5) He must
not be a person with unsound mind or undischarged insolvent. (6) He must make and
subscribe before some person authorised in that behalf by the Election Commission
an oath or affirmation asserting his allegiance to the Constitution of India and
undertake to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India.
TERM OF THE HOUSE

The Lok Sabha enjoy a term of five years from the date of its first session. The term
of the House was fixed at six years under the Forty-Second Amendment, but it has
since been reduced to five years by the Forty-Fourth Amendment. The term of the
House can be cut short if the President
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dissolves it earlier on the advice of the Prime Minister. Thus the Lok Sabha
was dissolved before the expiry of its normal term in 1979. While a
proclamation of emergency is in operation the term of the House can be
extended by one year at a time. However, the House must be dissolved
within six months of the expiry of such a proclamation. The life of the Fifth
Lok Sabha was extended twice, although it was dissolved before the second
extension.
Presiding Officer
The presiding officer of the Lok Sabha is known as Speaker. He is elected
by the House at its first meeting from amongst its own members. In addition
the House also elects the Deputy Speaker who discharges the duties of the
Speaker during his absence or leave. The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker
have to vacate their office if they cease to be members of the Lok Sabha.
They can also vacate their offices by tendering resignation. The Speaker and
the Deputy Speaker can be removed from office before the expiry of their
term if the House passes a resolution to this effect by a majority of the
members. However, no resolution for the removal of the Speaker or Deputy
Speaker can be moved unless at least fourteen days notice has been given of
the intention to move such a resolution. Likewise, the term of the Speaker
automatically gets extended if the term of the Lok Sabha is extended beyond
five years. Even where the Lok Sabha is dissolved on the completion of its
normal term, the Speaker stays in office until immediately before the first
meeting of the Lok Sabha after the dissolution. The Speaker has the right to
speak and take part in the proceedings of the house, but has no right to vote
except in case of a tie. It may be noted that when the House is considering a
resolution for the removal of the Speaker from this office, he does not preside
over the meetings of the House. The same applies to the Deputy Speaker.
The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha are entitled to a
sitting allowance and constituency allowance as applicable to memb; s of
Parliament. In addition, they are entitled to a sumptuary allowance of Rs.
1000 and Rs. 500 per month respectively. They are exempted from tax for the
rental value of the free furnished houses
provided to them. They are also entitled to medical and travel facilities. The
salaries and allowances of Speaker and Deputy Speaker are charged to the
Consolidated Fund of India and are not subject to the vote of the Parliament.
Privileges and Immunities of Members of Parliament

The members of the two Houses of Parliament enjoy complete freedom of
speech in the Parliament. No proceedings can be instituted against any
member in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given by him in
the Parliament or any Committee thereof. The Constitution further provides
that the powers, privileges and immunities of the members shall be such as
may from time to time be defined by Parliament by law, and until so defined,
shall be those of its members before the coming into force of Section 15 of
the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978.
The members of Parliament are entitled to such salaries and allowances as
may be fixed from time to time. In addition they are entitled to medical
facilities for themselves and members of their families and such housing,
telex, phone, water, electricity facilities or such amounts in cash in lieu of all
or any of such facilities as may be prescribed. The members of Parliament are
entitled to a pension on retirement. They are also entitled to advances for the
purchase of conveyance.
POWER OF THE PARLIAMENT

The Parliament of India enjoys very extensive powers, which can be
1.
Legislative Powers
Parliament enjoys the right to legislate on all the subjects enumerated in the
Union List as well as the Concurrent List, However, in case of subjects in the
concurrent list the states also enjoy similar powers. In case of clash between
the Union and the State Law on a concurrent subject, however, the Union law
gets precedence. It also reserves the right to legislate on any subject not
included in any of the three lists. Under certain circumstances the
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Parliament can also legislate on the subjects enumerated in the State List. Thus it
can legislate on a state subject (a) if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a twothirds majority of its members present and voting, that it is necessary or expedient to
legislate on a state matter in the national interest; (b) when a proclamation of
emergency has been made either due to threat to the security of India or break down
of constitutional machinery in a state; (c) if the Legislatures of two or more states
recommend that the Parliament should legislate on a subject included in the State
List; (d) for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with foreign countries
or any decision taken at an International Conference or Association.
In the matter of legislation the two Houses of Parliament have been placed on a
footing of equality and the proposals can be initiated in either of the two houses.
However, the approval of both the Houses is essential to place the bill on the statute
book. The differences between the two Houses are resolved through joint sitting of
the two Houses where the issue is resolved by majority vote. It is obvious that this
arrangement gives a dominant position to the Lok Sabha in view of its greater
numerical strength.
2. Financial Powers
The Parliament has been vested with complete control over the finances of the Union
Government. No expenditure can be incurred or taxes levied without the approval of
the Parliament. Though the budget is formally prepared by the executive, the power
to sanction the same rests with the Parliament. It may be noted that in the financial
sphere the Lok Sabha has been accorded a
superior position. The Constitution specifically provides that a money bill cannot
be introduced in the Council of States. After it is passed by the Lok Sabha it is
transmitted to the Rajya Sabha for its recommendations. The Rajya Sabha is obliged
to return the bill to the Lok Sabha within fourteen days of the receipt of the bill along
with its recommendations. It is up to the Lok Sabha to accept those
recommendations or not. If the Lok Sabha accepts the recommendations of the Rajya
Sabha, the money bill is deemed to have been passed by both the Houses with the
amendments recommended by the Rajya Sabha
and accepted by the Lok Sabha. However, if the Lok Sabha does not accept any
of the recommendations of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) the bill is deemed to
have been passed by both the Houses in the form in which it was passed, by the Lok
Sabha without any of the amendments recommended by the Rajya Sabha. In case,
the Rajya Sabha fails to return the money bill transmitted to it by Lok Sabha with its
recommendations within fourteen days, it is deemed to have been passed by both
the Houses at the expiration of the said period in the form in which it was passed by
the Lok Sabha. It is thus evident that in the financial sphere the Rajya Sabha stands
at a lower pedestal. It can at the most delay the passage of a Money Bill for a
maximum period of fourteen days. It has rightly been said that the Rajya Sabha can
only touch the purse strings of the nation; it can neither widen its opening nor block
the flow from it. The Parliament also keeps an eye on the expenditure of the
Government through its Committees like the Public Accounts Committee, Estimates
Committee, etc.
3. Control over Executive

In the Parliamentary System of government provided under the Indian
Constitution, the Council of Ministers, which is the real executive, stays in office as
long as it enjoys the confidence of the Parliament. This accountability of the Council
of Ministers to the Parliament in effect means its accountability to the Lok Sabha, the
popular House of the Parliament. The Parliament reserves the rights to criticise the
policy of the Government and seek information on all matters falling under the
jurisdiction of the Union Government. Such control over the Ministry is exercised
through questions, supplementary questions, resolutions and adjournment motions.
In case the Parliament is dissatisfied with the working of the Ministry it can pass a
vote of no confidence and compel it to tender its resignation. It is noteworthy, that in
actual practice it is the Council of Ministers which actually controls the Parliament.
The Parliament may discuss, debate, criticise and sometimes bitterly attack the
policies of the Government but it ultimately approves what is done by the Ministry.
The rigid party discipline has further reduced the control of the Parliament over the
Ministry and the
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proposals submitted by the Cabinet are readily accepted by the Parliament. Thus
the Parliament has virtually become a decision-approving and policy sanctioning
body,
As regards the position of the two Houses with regard to control over the
Executive, the Rajya Sabha certainly enjoys an inferior position. Though like the Lok
Sabha it has right to seek information from the Ministers and criticise their policies,
but it does not enjoy any power to oust them from office by passing a vote of 'no
confidence', a power which exclusively rests with the Lok Sabha.
4. Constituent Powers
The Parliament of India has been vested with extensive powers to amend the
Constitution, leaving apart certain provisions of the Constitution concerning the
federal character, powers of the Union and State Governments, the election of the
President, the Supreme Court and the High Court, representation of States in
Parliament, etc. The Parliament can amend the Constitution either by a simple
majority or by a two-thirds majority of its members present and voting. Further, all
the amendments can be initiated only in the Parliament and the States do not
possess any power in this regard. As regards the respective position of the two
Houses with regard to amendment of the Constitution, the two Houses have been
given equal powers.
5. Miscellaneous Powers
The Parliament also possesses extensive miscellaneous powers which do not fall in
any of the above enumerated category of powers. It elects the Vice-President of India
and can initiate impeachment proceedings against the President. All the elected
members of the Parliament take part in the election of the President along with the
elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies. The Parliament also enjoys the
power to recommend the removal of judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts to
the President. The Proclamation of Emergency made by the Parliament also needs the
approval of the Parliament. Unless the Parliament accords its approval the emergency
ceases to operate after 30 days of the proclamation.
The Parliament can assume power to legislate on any subject in the State List if
the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a two-thirds majority of its members present
and voting that it is necessary or expedient in national interest that the Parliament
should make laws with regard to any matter enumerated in the State List. Though
initially such a resolution is valid only for a period of one year, but its duration can be
further extended by one year at a time. Similarly the Parliament can create new All
India Services on the basis of the resolution passed by the Rajya Sabha to this effect.
This obviously gives greater control to the central government over the
administration of the states. It may be noted that with regard to both these powers
the Rajya Sabha has been given a position of priority.
A perusal of the powers of the Indian Parliament shows that it has indeed been
vested with very extensive powers. But its real importance lies in the important role it
plays in controlling the government and getting the public grievances ventilated and
redressed.
HOW FAR THE INDIAN PARLIAMENT IS A SOVEREIGN BODY?

Scholars have often tended to draw a comparison between the Indian Parliament and
the British Parliament. At the outset it may be pointed out that the position of the two
Parliaments fundamentally differs. The British Parliament is considered to be a
sovereign body in so far as there do not exist any legal restrictions on its authority.
The Indian Parliament cannot advance any such claims. According the to Dicey in
England, the sovereignty of Parliament the implies two things. In the first place in
England no distinction is made between an ordinary law and a constitutional law, in
so far as the procedure by for the enactment and amendment of the two is same. In
the second place, there is no law which the British Parliament cannot enact, repeal,
or modify.
On the other hand, the Indian Parliament cannot, claim to be a sovereign body
due to following reasons.
Firstly, the Constitution provides a federal structure for the country in which the
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been distributed between the Union and the State Governments. The Central
Government has the exclusive powers to legislate on the subjects in the Union List,
while the States enjoy exclusive powers on the subject in the State List. As both the
Centre and the States draw their powers from the same source viz., the Constitution,
none of them can claim to be superior. On the other hand in England all the powers
are vested in the Centre and units draw all their authority from the Centre, which also
reserves the right to withdraw them at will.
Secondly, the written character of the Indian Constitution is another limitation on
the authority of the Parliament. The Parliament has been given specific power by the
Constitution and it has to operate within the prescribed sphere. No doubt under
certain circumstances, the Parliament can also legislate on the subjects listed in the
State List but it has to operate within the limits prescribed by the Constitution.
Parliament is not free to amend all the provisions of the Constitution. Some of the
vital provisions of the Constitution concerning the federal character of the
Constitution can be amended only with the approval of the State Legislatures. This is
a clear restriction on the authority of the Parliament, if we remember that in Britain,
the Constitution is flexible and the Parliament can amend it any way it likes.
Thirdly, the presence of the doctrine of judicial review also restricts the
sovereignty of the Indian Parliament. The Supreme Court of India has been authorised
to examine the constitutionality of laws enacted by the Parliament and to declare
them as unconstitutional if they contravene the provision of the Constitution. There is
no such restriction on the authority of the British Parliament and the courts are
merely expected to apply the laws enacted by the British Parliament, without going
into their legality or reasonableness.
Fourthly, the incorporation of a chapter on Fundamental Rights in the Constitution
also restricts the power of the Parliament. While enacting laws, the Parliament has to
ensure that they do not infringe the Fundamental Rights of the citizens due to the
fear of such laws being declared ultra vires by the courts. The absence of a chapter
of Fundamental Rights in the British Constitution further imparts greater freedom of
action to it.
In view of the above limitation and restrictions it can be observed that the Indian
Parliament, can by no stretch of imagination claim to be a sovereign body, in the
sense in which the British Parliament is a sovereign.
THE WORKING OF THE PARLIAMENT

The Parliament works in accordance with the rules and regulations formulated by the
Parliament in this regard. The power to summon the session of the two Houses of
Parliament rests with the President, who can also prorogue the two Houses and
dissolve the Lok Sabha. However, under the Constitution it is obligatory for the
President to summon at least two sessions of the Parliament every year and the gap
between these two sessions should not be more than six months. In actual practice,
the Indian Parliament has three sessions in a year. These sessions are generally held
in months of January-February, July-August and October-November respectively.
Generally, the first session of the Parliament every year starts with an address of
the President. In this address the President makes a review on the conditions
prevailing in the country and out lines the policy and programme of the Government
during the ensuing year. This speech is in fact prepared by the Prime Minister and is
approved by the Cabinet and the President simply reads in out on the floor of the
Parliament. After due discussion, the Parliament passes a 'Vote of Thanks' to the
President, which tantamounts to the approval of the policy of the Government. But
before the 'final vote of thanks' is passed by the House lot of discussion takes place
on Government's policy. It only after the 'vote of thanks' that the House proceed with
its normal work viz., legislation.
LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE
An identical legislative procedure is followed in both the Houses. Under the provisions
of the Constitution a bill, other than the financial or money bill, can originate in either
House of Parliament. It is submitted to the President for his assent only after it has
been passed by both the Houses. However, if the two Houses are not able to agree
on a particular bill, the issue can be
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resolved by the President by summoning a joint sitting of the two Houses. At such a
joint sitting the decision is taken by majority of both the Houses present and voting.
An ordinary or non-money bill has to pass through the following stages in each
House.
First Reading
At this stage the mover of the bill reads out the title. Generally, he makes a brief
speech explaining the aims and objectives of the Bill. After this the opponents of the
bill are permitted to make a brief speech. This is followed by a vote of the House and
the bill is published in the Gazette. It may be noted that the bills introduced by the
Ministers (viz., Government Bills) are straight away published in the Gazette and the
formal leave of the House is not sought.
Second Reading
After sometime the Second Reading of the bill takes place. At this stage the general
principles of the bill are discussed. It is noteworthy the bill as a whole is discussed
and no amendments are permitted at this stage.
Committee Stage
After the Second Reading the bill is referred to the appropriate committee. The
committee considers the various provisions of the bill thoroughly and suggests
suitable improvements and amendments.
Report Stage
After the committee has completed its deliberations it submits a report to the
House. This report is then thoroughly discussed by the House. Discussion is held on
the various clauses of the bill and separate voting takes place on each clause. At this
stage amendments can be proposed to the bill.
Third Reading
At this stage only general discussion on the bill takes place and the final voting on
the bill is held. No amendments can be introduced at this stage.
After the bill has been passed by one House it is transmitted to the other House,
where it has to go through all these stages once again. If the other House approves
the bill, the same is sent to the President for his assent. On the other hand, if the
other House refuses to pass the bill or proposes certain amendments which are not
acceptable to the first House, the differences are resolved by the President through a
joint-sitting of the two Houses.
FINANCIAL PROCEDURE
The procedure for the enactment of the money or financial bill is slightly different. It
can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha and that too on the recommendation of the
President, which implies that only the Ministers can introduce money bills. After a
money bill is passed by the Lok Sabha, it is transmitted to the Rajya Sabha for its
recommendations. The Rajya Sabha is obliged to make these recommendations
within a period of 14 days. If the Rajya Sabha fails to make any recommendations
within this period or does not take any action, the bill is considered to have been
passed both the Houses is transmitted to the President for his assent. Even if the
Rajya Sabha returns the bill with certain recommendations within 14 days, it is up to
the Lok Sabha to accept them or to ignore them. In short, the Rajya Sabha can at the
most delay the passage of a money bill for a maximum period of 14 days.
PRESIDENT'S ASSENT
After a bill is passed by the Parliament it is presented to the President for his assent.
In the case of money bills the assent of the President is just a formality and he has
hardly any discretion. In case of non-money bills, however, the President may
withhold his assent and return the bill for the reconsideration of the Parliament
repass the bill with or without amendments, the president has to append his
signature to the bill. It is noteworthy that the Constitution does not prescribe any
time limit within which the President has to communicate his assent. This obviously is
a serious drawback in so far as the President can block the passage of bill approved
by the two Houses of parliament by simply pocketing it viz., not taking my action on
it.
PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEES
In modern times, the work of the Parliament has increased so much and become so
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that it is not possible for it to deal with the same. Therefore, it has perforce to take
the help of committees for the detailed discussion of various matters. The
Committees are able to deal with the work more effectively as compared to the
Parliament which is quite an unwieldy body. The Members of the Committee, who are
taken from among the Members of the Parliament on the basis of their aptitude and
interest, impart expertise to the deliberations on the various proposals. However, the
Committees are subservient bodies and have to work under the directions of the
Parliament, and have to submit their reports to the House.
The Committees are able to discuss the matters in more dispassionate
atmosphere and are able to accommodate the views of various groups and sections
in an atmosphere of mutual give and take, which may not be possible in the
Parliament where the various political parties tend to take more rigid stand. Further,
the committees also provide valuable training to future ministers and presiding
officers. The Committees also act as liaison between the Parliament and the people
on the one hand and between the government and the people on the other. The
Committee system enables general public and various institutions to express their
views on matters of public importance and thus, influence the decisions of the
Parliament on those matters. Further, the Committees also ensure control over
governmental activities on regular and continuous basis.
The Constitution does not contain any specific provision with regard to
Parliamentary Committees, even though a mention is made about them in various
articles viz., Art. 88 and Art. 105. This obviously implies that the framers of the
Constitution wanted the House to make provision for the Committees under their
rules of procedure.
TYPES OF PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEES

There are two types of Parliamentary CommitteesStanding and ad hoc. Standing
Committees are permanent committees which are elected by the House or
nominated by the Speaker/Chairman from time to time or every year. The Ad hoc
Committees on the other hand are constituted by the House or the Speaker/
Chairman to consider and report on specific matters. These committees cease to
exist as soon as they complete their work.
STANDING COMMITTEES
Each house has a number of Standing Committees. Sometimes, Joint Standing
Committees comprising of representatives of both the Houses of Parliament are also
set up. The important standing committees of the House are as under;
1. Business Advisory Committee
Each House of Parliament has a Business Advisory Committee. In case of Lok Sabha
the Business Advisory Committee comprises of 15 members, including the Speaker,
who is its ex-officio Chairman. In case of Rajya Sabha the Business Advisory
Committee comprises of 11 members, including the Deputy Chairman of Rajya
Sabha. The Chairman of the Rajya Sabha acts as the ex-officio Chairman of the
Committee. The Business Advisory Committee recommends allocation of time for
legislative and other business. Though all shades of opinion in the House are
represented on the Business Advisory Committee, but generally the committee takes
unanimous decisions which are readily accepted by the whole House. The Committee
also decides when the
session of the Parliament should be called.
2. Committee on Private Members'

Bills and Resolutions
This Committee exists only in the Lok Sabha. It consists of 15 members nominated by
the Speaker for a year. The Deputy Speaker acts as its Chairman. The Committee
performs the same function in relation to Private Members' Bills and Resolutions as
the Business Advisory Committee does with regard to Government Business. It
classifies the bills submitted by the members according to their importance.
3. Committee on Absence of
Members from the Sitting of the
House
According to the Constitution if a member of Parliament absents himself from the
meetings of the House for a period of sixty days without the
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permission of the House his seat can be declared vacant. This committee consisting
of 15 members considers the requests from members for leave of absence from the
House. It examines the cases where a member has been absent for a period of sixty
days or more without permission and reports whether the absence should be
condoned or the seat of the member should be declared vacant. The Committee also
performs such other functions in respect of attendance of the members in the House
as may be assigned to it by the Speaker from time to time. It may be noted that this
Committee exists only in the Lok Sabha, and all such matters with regard to
members of Rajya Sabha are considered by the House itself.
4. Rules Committee
Both the Houses have a Rules Committee. The Rules Committee of Lok Sabha
consists of 15 members. The Speaker is the ex-officio Chairman of this Committee. In
case of Rajya Sabha the Rules Committee consists of 16 members, including the
Chairman and the Deputy Chairman. The Chairman of Rajya Sabha is the ex-officio
Chairman of Rules Committee of Rajya Sabha. The main functions of the Committee
include consideration of matters of procedure and conduct of business in the House
and to recommend additions or amendments to the rules that may be deemed
necessary.
5. Committee on Petitions
Each House of Parliament has a Committee on Petitions. In case of Lok Sabha the
Committee consists of 15 members, while in case of Rajya Sabha it has 10 members.
This committee examines the petitions referred to it by the House and suggests
remedial measures. The Committee also considers representations, including letters
and telegrams received from various individuals 'and associations which are not
covered by the rules relating to petitions and gives directions for their proper
disposal.
6. Committee on Privileges
The members of Parliament are entitled to certain rights and immunities without
which they cannot discharge their functions effectively and smoothly.
All violations of these rights and immunities are referred to the of Committee of
Privileges in each House. In Lok Sabha the Committee on Privileges comprises of 15
members, while in the Rajya Sabha it consists of 10 members. The Committee is
constituted every year by the Presiding Officer of the concerned House. The
Committee looks into all cases regarding the violations of the privileges of the
Members of Parliament and recommends appropriate action. Although the findings of
the Committee are subject as to the ultimate decision of the House, its
recommendations are seldom rejected.
7. Committee on Government
Assurances
Each House of Parliament has this Committee. In case of Lok Sabha it comprises of 15
members, while in case of Rajya Sabha its strength is 10. The Committee examines
how far the assurances and undertakings given by the ministers on the floor of the
House have been implemented within the stipulated period.
8. Committee on Subordinate
Legislation
Both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha have a Committee on subordinate legislation. The
Committee is constituted every year by the Speaker/Chairman and has 15 members.
The main function of the committee is to examine the rules and regulations enacted
by the executive to fill the gaps in the laws enacted by the Parliament and to
ascertain how far these rules are within the limits prescribed by the main law. The
Committee also examines all Bills which seek to delegate powers of legislation to a
subordinate authority with a view to seeing whether suitable provisions for laying of
rules or orders on the table of the House have-been made therein. In view of the
important role played by the Committee on Subordinate Legislation G.V. Mavalankar,
the first Speaker of Lok Sabha, described the Committee as the Custodian of the
duties of Parliament, which keeps the administration within bounds intended by the
Parliament.
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9. Committee on Welfare of Scheduled Castes and

Scheduled Tribes
This Committee comprises of 30 members20 from Lok Sabha and 10 from the Rajya
Sabha. These members are elected by the respective Houses of Parliament from
amongst their members. The Committee considers the report of the Commissioner
for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and reports to the Parliament the
measures which should be taken by the government to implement the same. It
examines and reports on all matters pertaining to the welfare of the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes including their representation in the services, working of
their welfare programmes etc. The Committee also ensures the effective
implementation of the constitutional safeguards for the backward communities.
FINANCIAL COMMITTEES
In addition to the above committees, there are three financial committees viz. The
Estimates Committee, the Public Accounts Committee, and the Committee on Public
Undertakings. These Committees play important role as the watch dogs of Parliament
and bring to light inefficiencies, waste and indiscretion in the implementation of
policies and programmes approved by the Parliament. These Committees make
recommendations to tone up the administration for economic, efficient and speedy
execution of the policies and programmes.
The members of the three Financial Committees are elected by the House for one
year. The Ministers can neither become members of these committees, nor appear
before them to give evidence. The Chairman of these committees are nominated by
the Speaker. A notable point about these financial committees is that they examine
the administration ex post facto, and their recommendations do not possess any
binding force.
The Estimates Committee

The Committee in consists of 30 members drawn from the Lok Sabha and the
members of the Rajya Sabha are not associated with it. The members of the
Estimates Committee are elected every year
from among the members of the House on the basis of proportional representation
and single transferable vote. The Chairman of the Committee is appointed by the
Speaker. However, if the Deputy Speaker happens by to be the member of this
committee he ipso facto becomes the Chairman. The Committee makes a detailed
examination of the annual budget estimates and reports what economies,
improvements in organization, efficiency or administrative reform, consistent with
policy underlying the estimates can be effected. It suggests alternative policies to
bring about efficiency and economy in administration. It ensures that the money is
well laid out within the limit of the policy implied in the estimates. It also suggests
the form in which the estimates should be presented to the Parliament. In short, the
Committee plays an important role in examining the annual estimates and suggests
alternative policies to the government to ensure efficiency and economy in
administration.
The Public Accounts Committee

This is the oldest Financial Committee and comprises of 22 members15 from Lok
Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha. It may be noted that the Rajya Sabha members are
only associate members and are not entitled to vote. The members of the Committee
are elected for one year, but by convention they generally remain in office for at
least two years. The members are elected on the basis of proportional representation
through single transferable vote. The Ministers cannot be members of this
committee. The Chairman of the Public Accounts Committee is appointed by the
Speaker from amongst its members. If the Deputy Speaker happens to be the
member of this Committee, he ipso facto becomes its Chairman. However, as a
matter of practice since 1967 a member of the Opposition is appointed as the
Chairman of the Committee. The main function of the Committee is to examine the
report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India and to ascertain that the
expenditure has not exceeded the grants made by the Parliament and the money has
been spent for the purpose for which it was granted by the Parliament. If it finds that
any money has been spent on any service during a financial year in excess of the
amount granted by the Parliament for that purpose, the Committee
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303
examines the circumstances leading to such excess expenditure, it makes such

recommendations as it deems fit. It may be noted that such excess expenditure has
to be brought by the government before the Parliament for regularisation. The
Committee also sees that the financial rules and regulations have been followed by
the executive. The Committee is assisted by the Comptroller and Auditor General,
who also participates in its meetings.
The Public Accounts Committee works under two obvious limitations viz., it is not
concerned with the question of policy and highlights the irregularities only after they
have been committed. However, it cannot be denied that the investigations of the
Committee are taken very seriously by the officials and have a deterrent effect on the
administrative waste and extravagance. The recommendations made by the Public
Accounts Committee from time to time have led to valuable improvement in the
financial machinery.
The Committee On Public Undertakings

The Committee comprises of 22 members-15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya
Sabha. The Chairman of the Committee is appointed by the Speaker from among the
members of the committee drawn from Lok Sabha. The Committee examines the
reports and accounts of the Public Undertakings in the context of autonomy and
efficiency. It examines whether the affairs of the Public Undertakings are being
managed in accordance with sound business principles and prudent commercial
practices. The Committee also examines such matters which may be specifically
referred to it by the Speaker or the House. However, the Committee is barred from
examining and investigating matters of major government policy.
JOINT PARLIAMENTARY SUBJECT COMMITTEES

Significant changes were affected in the Committee system in 1993 when 17 Joint
Parliamentary Subject Committees of both the
Houses were set up. The Committees are expected to scrutinize, the grants of various
ministries well before they are presented to the Parliament for its approval. As per
the earlier practice, the grants were made to various ministries without the elected
representatives of the people examining them in details. The changed system seeks
to remove this drawback and also save the valuable time of the House which it earlier
spent in scrutinising the grants of various ministries. Each Joint Parliamentary Subject
Committee consists of 45 members30 from Lok Sabha and 15 from Rajya Sabha.
The 17 Committees set up are as under:
1. Commerce: for Commerce and Textiles.
2.
Home Affairs: for Home Affairs, Law, Justice and Company Affairs, Personnel,
Public
Grievances and Pensions.

3. Human Resource Development: for Human Resource Development, Health and
Family Welfare.
4. Industry: for Industry, Steel and Mines.
5.Science Technology: for Environment and Forests, Science and Technology,
Electronics, Space, Ocean Development and Biotechnology.
6. Transport and Tourism: for Civil Aviation, Surface Transport and Tourism.
7. Agriculture for Agriculture Water Resources and Food Processing.
8. Communications: for Communications, Information and Broadcasting.
9. Defence
10. Energy: for Coal, Power and Atomic Energy.
11. Finance: for Finance, Planning and Programme Implementation.
12. External Affairs.
13. Labour and Social Welfare.
14. Petroleum and Chemicals: for Petroleum, Natural Gas and Fertilizers.
15. Railways.
16. Urban and Rural Development.
17. Parliamentary Affairs.
10.
PROCEDURE FOR WORKING OF COMMITTEES

The 17 standing committees work during the recess of the Parliament. They take up
for discussion individual demands for grants for each ministry or department, and
have to complete the discussion on each demand within a stipulated time period and
submit report to the Parliament. These reports are placed before the Lok Sabha and
Rajya Sabha and the two Houses discuss the demands in the light of these reports.
Under the new arrangement the number of the sittings of the Parliament has not
been curtailed.
The main advantage of the new committee system is that the Parliament is able
to examine the grants of all the ministries and departments in detail. Earlier, the
Parliament examined the demands of only some of the ministries, while the demands
of most of other ministries were accepted without detailed scrutiny. Under the new
system the Committee not only minutely scrutinises the annual grant of each
ministry but also examines their performance in detail. The committee scrutinizes
whether the funds provided in the budget have been properly utilised by the
government in accordance with the policy, and if not why. The Committee can also go
into the justification of supplementary grants, if sought by the department. In short,
the committees make deeper scrutiny of the budget on behalf of the Parliament.
JOINT COMMITEES
Joint Committee, containing representative of both the houses, are set up to avoid
duplication of work. Generally in Joint Committee the members of Lok Sabha and
Rajya Sabha are given representation in the ratio of 2 :1 respectively. Such
committees can be formed only when one house makes a proposal for such a
committee and the other house concurrs through a formal motion.
CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEES
In addition to Parliamentary Committees in India certain consultative committees
also exist which are attached to various Ministries and Departments. The members of
these committees are also
taken from among the members of the Parliament. These committees work purely as
informal bodies and hold periodical meetings to exchange ideas and to seek
information on various problems and issues falling within the jurisdiction of the
department. The Consultative Committees differ from other Parliamentary
Committees in so far as they cannot summon witnesses or examine official records.
The main aim of these committees is to promote closer relations in between the
government and the members of Parliament.
STATE LEGISLATURE
The state legislature in India consists of the Governor and one or two Houses. At
present five states in India have bi-cameral legislatures, while 17 states have
unicameral legislatures. In the states with bi-cameral legislatures the two houses are
respectively known as Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly. In the states
having single-chambered legislature, the house is known as Legislative Assembly. The
Legislative Council can be established or abolished in a state by the Parliament of
India through an ordinary law if the Legislative Assembly of state concerned passes a
resolution to this effect by two-thirds majority of the members present and voting.
Let us now briefly examine the composition of the state legislature.
1.
Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad)
According to the Constitution the Legislative Council of a state generally consists of

one-third of the total membership of the Legislative Assembly. However, the
minimum strength of the council should not be less than forty. The strength of the
Legislative Councils in the various states is as follows: Bihar 96; Jammu and Kashmir
36; Karnataka 63; Maharashtra 78; and Uttar Pradesh 108.
Generally, the Legislative Councils are constituted as follows: (a) one-third of its
members are elected by the members of the self-governing local bodies; (b) one-third
of the members are elected by the state Legislative Assembly from amongst persons
who are not members of the Legislative Assembly; (c) one-twelfth members are
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305
elected by the registered graduates of at least three years standing or persons of

equivalent qualifications residing in the state; (d) one-twelfth members are elected
by registered teachers with three years teaching experience in recognised schools
not lower in standard than secondary
schools (e) the remaining members are nominated by the Governors from
amongst persons with special knowledge or practical experience in respect of
literature, science, art, the co-operative movement and social service.
The Legislative Council is a permanent house. However, one-third of its members
retire every two years. The quorum of the Legislative Council is one-tenth of its total
membership or 10, whichever is greater. The Council elects from amongst its
members a Chairman and a Deputy Chairman, who presides over its meetings and
enjoys all the powers of a presiding officer.
2. Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha)

The Legislative Assembly of a State consists of not more than 500 and not less than
60 members. These members are directly elected by the people of the state on the
basis of universal adult franchise. There is also provision for seats for members of
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and members of Anglo-Indian community. The
qualifications prescribed for a member of Legislative Assembly are identical to those
prescribed for members of Lok Sabha viz., he must be a citizen of India, not less than
25 years of age; must not hold any office of profit under the state; and must possess
such other qualifications as may be prescribed by the Parliament by law.
The Legislative Assembly has a Presiding Officer, who is elected by the members
from amongst themselves for a period of five years. He is known as Speaker. In
addition the Assembly also elects Deputy Speaker who discharges the duties of the
office of Speaker in the absence of Speaker.
POWER OF STATE LEGISLATURE 1. Legislative Powers

In the legislative sphere, the two houses of State Legislature do not enjoy co-equal
powers. Though
an ordinary bill can originate in either of the two houses of state legislature and it
becomes a law only after it has been passed by both the Houses. Yet in reality the
position of the Legislative Assembly is certainly superior to the Legislative Council in
this regard. If a bill is passed by the Legislative Assembly and referred to the
Legislative Council which either does not take any action on it for three months or
rejects the same, the Assembly can repass it and refer back the same to the Council.
If the Council rejects the bill again or passes it with amendments which are not
acceptable to the Assembly, the bill is deemed to have been passed by both the
houses after the lapse of one month from the date of its presentation to the Council
the second time. In short, the Council can delay the final passage of a bill for a
maximum period of four months.
2. Financial Powers
In the financial sphere the Legislative Assembly enjoys a pre-eminent position. All
money bills can originate only in the Assembly. After their passage they are sent to
the Council which can make necessary suggestions and recommendations within
fourteen days. However, it is up to the Assembly to accept or reject these
recommendations. If the Council fails to return the bill within the stipulated period of
fourteen days the same is considered to have been passed by the two houses in the
form in which it was originally communicated to the Council. In short, the Council can
delay the enactment of a money bill for a maximum period of fourteen days only.
3. Control Over Executive

In matter of control over the Executive also the Constitution accords a pre-eminent
position to the Assembly. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the
Assembly alone, which can oust it from office by passing a vote of no confidence. No
doubt, the Council can also exercise some indirect control over the executive by
raising questions and debates on issues of public importance, but it certainly cannot
oust the ministry.
The dominant position of the Assembly over the Council is further evident from
the fact that it can seek abolition of the Council by passing a

306
resolution by two-thirds majority of members, present and voting, which must also be
the majority of the total membership and request the Parliament to make necessary
law to this effect. It may be observed that such an action can be taken by Parliament
through ordinary law and does not require any amendment to the Constitution.
ARGUMENTS FOR ABOLITION OF LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

In view of the ineffective position of the Legislative Council, a demand has been
made in certain quarters for its abolition. In the main the following arguments are
given for its abolition:
1.Firstly, it does not enjoy any effective
i
powers. As a result it has failed to exercise
any effective check on the popular
Assembly. The Council take can merely
delay the enactment of ordinary bills the
v
for months and money bills for a period of
fourteen days. In view of this it has only doubtful the value.
2. Secondly, the Council has tended to be stronghold of vested interests and
blocked enactment of progressive laws causing great harm to the interest of
the people.
3. Thirdly, its existence constitutes a financial burden on the state exchequer,
which can easily be saved by doing away with this ineffecitive house.
4. Fourthly, the Council has become the refuge for members defeated at polls.
Quite often members who are defeated at the polls are nominted as members
of the Council by the Governor. This is certainly against the spirit of
Despite these drawbacks, it cannot be denied that the Councils do play a useful role.
In the first place they have acted as a useful check on the popular house and
prevented hasty legislation. It has exercised sobering influence on the passions of
popular house. Secondly, the Council has provided a convenient platform for the
representation of minorities, professions and other economic groups and thus made
democracy more real. Thirdly, it has made available to the state the services of
experienced persons who are shy of contesting elections by permitting the Governor
of the State to nominate one-sixth of its members from amongst persons with special
knowledge or practical experience in the fields of literature, art, science, co-operative
movement, social service, etc. Fourthly, the Council has provided relief to the popular
House by taking up for consideration certain non-controversial bills and thus enabled
it to concentrate more time and attention on consideration
of more important issues. Finally, the Council has acted as a revisory chamber. It
not only reconsiders the bills passed by the Assembly afresh, but also poses some
delay in its enactment thus enabling the public opinion to get crystallised on the
issue before the bill finally reaches the statute book.
Despite these arguments, which seem to be quite weighty, by and large the
opinion has been in favour of doing away with Legislative Councils in the states,
because they do not serve any useful purpose and constitute a big financial strain in
a poor country like India. It is wrong to draw a parallel between the Legislative
Councils and the Rajya Sabha for the simple reason that the Rajya Sabha is an
important adjunct of federal system and provides representation to the states. No
such justification exists for continuation of the Legislative Councils.
37The Supreme CourtJudicial

Activism
The Constitution of India has provided for a single and integrated judiciary with the
Supreme Court at the apex. Below the Supreme Court exist High Courts in the states
and lower courts at the district level. All these courts apply the same civil and
criminal law. The Constitution of India not only outlines the organisation, jurisdiction
and powers of the Supreme Court and the State High Courts, but also lays down the
organisation and functions of the courts at the lower levels. In this chapter we shall
deal with the judiciary at the federal, state and district levels.
THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA

The Supreme Court at present consists of Chief Justice and 25 other Judges. The
Constitution originally fixed the number of ordinary Judges at seven which was raised
to 10 in 1956, thirteen in 1960 and 17 in 1977 in accordance with the powers vested
in the Parliament in this regard. The strength of the Supreme Court was raised to 26
(including the Chief Justice) in 1985. In addition the President can also appoint ad hoc
judges. President also reserves the right to invite the retired judges of the Supreme
Court to attend the meetings of the Court. The Chief Justice and the Judges are
appointed by the President in consultation with such of the judges of the Supreme
Court and the High Courts in the States as he may deem necessary for the purpose.
However, in the appointment of the ordinary judges the Chief Justice of India is
always consulted.
It may be noted that while under Article 124(2) the President is expected to
consult the Chief Justice of India while appointing judges of the Supreme Court, he is
not bound to consult
anyone while appointing the Chief Justice of India, But actually he makes the
appointment of the Chief Justice of India on the recommendation of the Council of
Ministers. For a long time the convention of appointing the senior most judge of the
Supreme of India as the Chief Justice of India was followed. But in 1973 this
convention was violated and Justice A.N. Ray was appointed as the Chief Justice of
India after superseding three senior judges, viz., Justice J.M. Shelat, Justice A.N.
Grover and Justice K.S. Hegde. As a result, all of them tendered their resignations in
protest. This action of the Government was bitterly criticised by the jurists and they
accused the Government of deliberately undermining the independence and
impartiality of the judiciary and lowering the prestige of the Supreme Court. However,
the Government justified its action by arguing that under the Constitution the
President was given absolute discretion in the matter of appointment of the Chief
Justice of India. It further argued that the Law Commission in its recommendation had
also supported the appointment on the basis of ability and experience, and not on
the basis of seniority alone. Yet another argument in support of its action by the
Government was that the Executive is entitled to take into consideration the mental
outlook or the social philosophy of judges. As the Government in a democracy is run
on the party basis, it naturally followed that the judges should subscribe to the social
philosophy of the ruling party.
The convention of appointing the senior most judge of the Supreme Court as
Chief Justice of India was once again violated in 1977 when Justice H.M. Beg was
appointed Chief Justice in supersession of Justice Khanna, who forthwith tendered
his
resignation.
Under
Janata
308
Government the policy of appointing the senior most judge of Supreme Court as
Chief Justice was revived. It now by and large felt that the principle of seniority is
more conducive to the independence of judiciary.
In 1993 the Supreme Court delivered a majority judgement which denied the
executive a say in the matter of appointment of Supreme Court and High Court
judges and conferred this power exclusively in the judiciary. As per judgement of the
Supreme Court (1993) the proposal for appointment of the Chief Justice of India is to
be initiated by the sitting Chief Justice Accordingly, the appointments to the office of
the Chief Justice of India have, by convention, been of the senior most judge of the
Supreme Court considered fit to hold the office, and the proposal, is initiated in
advance by the outgoing Chief Justice of India.
With regard to appointment of other judges a controversy cropped up between
the government and Chief Justice M.M. Punchhi which necessitated a reference to the
Supreme Court by President K.R, Narayanan. On 29 October, 1988, the Constitution
Bench of the Supreme Court said that the Chief Justice of India should consult a
collegium of four senior most judges of the Supreme Court, before recommending
appointment of a judge.
Qualifications
According to Constitution a person is eligible for appointment as judge of the
Supreme Court only if: (a) He is a citizen of India; (b) He has been a Judge of a High
Court or two or more such Courts in succession for a minimum period of five years; or
(c) He has been an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in
succession for at least ten years; or (d) He is in the opinion of the President, a
distinguished jurist.
Term
The Judges of Supreme Court hold office until they attain the age of 65 years.
However a judge can relinquish his office earlier by writing under his hand to the
President. The President can also issue order for the removal of a Judge if an address
has been presented to him in the same session for the removal of a Judge on the
ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity by the two Houses of
the Parliament. Such a resolution must be supported by a majority of the total
membership of the House which should also constitute two-thirds-majority of the
members present and voting in the House.
According to the procedure laid down in the Judges Inquiry Act 1968, the Speaker
of Lok Sabha or Chairman of the Rajya Sabha can appoint a committee of three
members to look into charges against the judges of Supreme Court/High Court for
their removal only if 100 members of Lok Sabha and 50 members of Rajya Sabha
request him to do so. This committee comprises of one judge of Supreme Court, one
Chief Justice of a State High Court, and an eminent jurist. The Committee informs the
judge, against whom proceedings have to be instituted, of the charges against him
and gives him an opportunity to defend himself. If the Committee after hearing
comes to the conclusion that the charges are true, reports the matter to the House. If
both the Houses of Parliament pass a resolution by necessary majority in the same
session, the judges can be removed under Presidential order.
So far only once impeachment proceeding was instituted against a sitting judge of
the Supreme Court (Mr. JusticeV. Ramaswami) following appearance of reports in
newspapers about audit objections to purchase of furniture, carpets and airconditioners far in excess of limits prescribed for Judges, when he was Chief Justice of
Punjab and Haryana High Court. There were also charges against him for exceeding
limits on telephone expenses and misuse of official cars. A motion sponsored by 108
MPs of the Lok Sabha for his impeachment was admitted by the Speaker on 12 March
1990 and he instituted a three judge Committee of the Supreme Court Judges to
inquire into the allegations of financial irregularities against him. However, before the
impeachment proceedings could be taken up, V.P. Singh Government fell. After fresh
elections to Lok Sabha when the motion was taken up for consideration by the
House, Justice Ramaswami not only challenged its right to take up the motion but
also refused to appear before the three Judges Committee. However, the Supreme
Court held that Justice Ramaswami had no right to challenge the findings of the
Inquiry Committee. The
The Supreme CourtJudicial Activism
309
Committee came to the conclusion that there was wilful and gross misuse of office,
purposeful and persistent negligence in the discharge of his duties international and
habitual extravagance at the cost of the public exchequer and moral turpitude by
using public funds for private purposes in diverse ways. According to the Committee
these acts constituted misbehaviour. The impeachment motion was however
defeated in the Lok Sabha on 11 May, 1993 when the entire Congress party
(comprising 205 members) abstained from voting. The motion fell because as against
273 votes needed, for its adoption, only 196 votes could be mustered in its support.
The motion was rejected on the plea that if it was adopted it would disturb the
delicate balance between the judiciary and the legislature.
A person who has held office as judge of the Supreme Court is not permitted to
practice in any court or authority within the territory of India. However, he can be
appointed as ad hoc judge of the Supreme Court by the Chief Justice of India. There is
no constitutional bar on judges seeking retirement and contesting elections. It is well
known that Justice K. Subha Rao, the then Chief Justice of India, tendered his
resignation in 1967 and contested election for the office of President of India as a
candidate of opposition. Likewise in 1984, Justice Bahar-ul-Islam, a judge of Supreme
Court tendered resignation to contest election to Lok Sabha as a Congress candidate.
Salary and Privileges

The salaries of the judges of Supreme Court were specified in Part D of the second
Schedule of the Constitution. Initially, the Chief Justice and other judges received a
monthly salary of Rs. 5,000 and 4,000 respectively. In addition they were entitled to
rent-free accommodation, medical facilities and other allowances. The salaries of
Chief Justice and other judges of Supreme Court were raised to Rs. 10,000 and 9,000
respectively in 1986. In 1996 they were allowed sumptuary allowance and
conveyance facilities. These salaries were further revised with effect from 1 April,
1996, first through a Presidential Ordinance and subsequently through a new law
enacted by the Parliament in July 1998. At present the Chief Justice and other judges
receive a monthly salary of Rs. 33,000 and
Rs. 30,000 respectively. In addition they are entitled to a rent-free official residence,
staff car, and other allowances and rights in respect of leave of absence and pension
determined by the Parliament by or under a law made by it. It may be noted that the
privileges and allowances of the judges cannot be changed to their disadvantage
after appointment. However, there is no ban on the extension of these privileges. For
example, some time back the judges were granted car allowance and family pension.
SEAT OF COURT
The Court has its permanent seat at Delhi. However, the Court can sit at such other
place or places which may be decided by the Chief Justice of India in consultation
with the President of India.
INDEPENDENCE OF JUDICIARY
The framers of the Indian Constitution were quite conscious that only an impartial
and independent judiciary could ensure constitutional government in the country and
protect the rights of the citizens without fear or favour. Therefore, they incorporated
number of provisions in the Constitution to ensure the independence of the Supreme
Court.
1. Qualifications Prescribed
Under the Constitution of India the judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by
the President of India. However, the framers of the Constitution sought to limit the
discretion of the President by laying down certain minimum qualification for persons
eligible to hold office as judges. The qualifications are such that only qualified and
able persons are able to reach this position. It may be noted that under the U.S.
constitution, the Constitution does not lay down any qualification of the judges of
Supreme Court and the executive has much discretion in the matter of their
appointment.
2. Security of tenure
The judges of the Supreme Court have been assured security of tenure. They are
appointed for life and hold office till they attain the age of sixty-five. They can be
removed from their office earlier only on grounds of proved misbehavior incapa310
city. The procedure for their removal from office is also quite complicated. A Judge
can be removed from his office only if each House of Parliament passes a resolution
supported by two-thirds of the members present and voting, which should also
constitute the majority of the total membership of the House, on the grounds of
proved misbehavior or incapacity. Such a resolution is presented to the President in
the same session and he can take necessary action for the removal of the judges.
This is obvious from the procedure of removal of judges that it is well highly
impossible to remove a judge. So far not even a single judge of the Supreme Court or
High Court has been removed in this manner.
3. Salaries etc., not subject to

Reduction
The Constitution has fixed the salaries and allowances of the judges of Supreme
Court. The salaries and service conditions of the judges cannot be changed to their
disadvantage during their tenure of office. Only during the times of the Financial
Emergency the salaries and allowances of the Supreme Court judges can be
curtailed. So far no such occasion has arisen.
4. Expenses of Supreme Court not

Subject to Legislative Vote
The salaries and allowances of the judges of the Supreme Court as well as other
expenses for the administration of the Supreme Court are charged on the
Consolidated Fund of India and are not subject to the annual vote of the Parliament.
The Parliament can discuss these expenses but has no authority to refuse them.
However, the Parliament has the right to increase the salaries and allowances of the
judges.
5. Parliament can extend but not

Curtail Powers of Supreme Court
The powers and jurisdiction of the Supreme Court has been laid down In the
Constitution. The Parliament has been given the authority to change the pecuniary
limits for appeals to the Supreme Court, enhance its appellate jurisdiction, or confer
supplementary powers to enable it to work ore
effectively. However, the Parliament cannot curtail the jurisdiction or powers of the
Supreme Court.
6. Prohibition on Practice
To ensure the independence of judges, the Constitution prohibits practice by the
retired judges before any court of law in India. However, this does not prevent them
from taking specialized form of work under the government. This arrangement has
not found approval of the Law Commission, which has found a serious danger to
judicial independence in this arrangement. The Law Commission in its Report has
observed: "It is clearly undesirable that the Supreme Court Judges should look
forward to other Government employment after their retirement. The Government is
a party in a large number of cases in the highest court and average citizen may well
get the impression that a judge, who might look forward to being employed by the
Government after his retirement, does not bring to bear on his work that detachment
of outlook which is expected of a Judge in case in which Government is a party. We
are clearly of the view that the practice has a tendency to effect the independence of
the judges and should be discontinued"1.
7. Freedom regarding Appointment

of Administrative Staff
The Supreme Court is also completely free in the matter of recruitment of its
administrative staff. It determines the service conditions of its staff without any
interference from outside authority.
8. Power to Punish for its Contempt

All the actions and decisions of the judges are immune from criticism. No motives can
be imputed to the judges and even the Parliament is not permitted to discuss the
conduct of the judges in the discharge of their duties. The court also enjoys the
power to initiate contempt proceedings against a person who imputes motives to the
judges for the discharge of their official duties. This greatly contributes to the
maintenance of impartiality and independence of the judiciary.
^Law Commission XIV Report, p.46

311
9.
Conduct of Judges Cannot be Discussed in Legislature
The conduct of the judges of Supreme Court in the discharge of their duties cannot
be discussed in Parliament or a State Legislature.
All these provisions adequately ensure independence of the judiciary.
JURISDICTION OF THE SUPREME COURT

The Supreme Court of India enjoys three types of jurisdictions which may be
1.
Original Jurisdiction
The original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court extends to all those cases which
can originate only in the Supreme Court.
These include disputes, (a) between the Government of India and one or more
States; or (b) between the Government of India and any State or States on the one
side and one or more other States on the other; (c) between two or more States.
It may be observed that the disputes involving the above parties are brought
before the Supreme Court only if a question of law or fact is involved.
Even the cases involving disputes over the enforcement of Fundamental Rights
fall within the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is
authorised to issue directions, orders or writs for the enforcement of these rights.
Some of the writs which can be issued by the Supreme Court for this purpose include
Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo Warranto.
However, the Supreme Court does not enjoy any original power with regard to
disputes arising out of any treaty, agreement, covenant, engagement, sanad or other
similar instruments which had been entered into or executed before the
commencement of the Constitution and which continued in operation even after the
commencement of Constitution.
The Parliament can by law exclude the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in
disputes with respect the use, distribution or control of the water
of any inter-state river or river valley. The other matters which do not fall under the
original jurisdiction of Supreme Court include matters referred to the Finance
Commission (Art. 280) and adjustment of expenses between the Union and States
(Art. 290)
APPELLATE JURISDICTION
The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court extends to those cases which are
brought before it in the shape of appeal against the judgement of lower courts, viz.,
the High Courts of the States. The Supreme Court is the highest appellate court in the
country and hears appeals against the judgement of the High Courts of States in both
civil and criminal cases. Such a case can be brought before the Supreme Court only if
the High Court certifies under Article 134A that the case involves a substantial
question of law as to the interpretation of this Constitution. Where such a certificate
is given any party in the case may appeal to the Supreme Court on the ground that
any such question as aforesaid has been wrongly decided. Even if the certificate is
not granted by the High Court, the Supreme Court has the right to grant special leave
to appeal from any judgement, decree, determination, sentence or order in any case
or matter passed or made by any court or tribunal in the territory of India.
In the civil cases an appeal can be made to the Supreme Court against the
judgement of the High Court, if the High Court certifies that the case involves a
substantial question of law of general importance and that in its opinion the said
question needs to be decided by the Supreme Court. Even the concerned parties
have a right to appeal to the Supreme Court on the ground that a substantial
question of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution has been wrongly decided.
It may be noted that before the 30th Amendment Act of 1972, appeal in civil
cases could be taken to the Supreme Court from any judgement decree or final order
of the High Court if the High Court certified that the amount or value of the subject
matter of the dispute both in the first instance and also on an appeal is not less than
Rs. 20,000 or that the judgement, decree or final order involves directly or indirectly
some claim or
312
question respecting property of the like amount or value. After this amendment the
condition of monetary value of more than Rs. 20,000 in a dispute is no more insisted
and the appeal to the Supreme Court can go only if the High Court certifies that the
case involves the substantial question of law of general importance. The mere grant
of certificate by the High Court does not make it obligatory for the Supreme Court to
entertain the appeal. The Supreme Court is still entitled to determine whether the
certificate has been rightly granted and whether the conditions pre-requisite to grant
of such certificate were present. If the Supreme Court has, any doubt, it can either
remit the case or exercise its discretion itself.
In the criminal cases an appeal against the judgement of final order or sentence
in a criminal proceeding of a High Court in the territory of India can be taken to the
Supreme Court, if the High Court (a) has on appeal reversed an order of acquittal of
an accused and sentenced him to death; or (b) has withdrawn for trial before itself
any case from any court subordinate to its authority and has in such trial convicted
the accused person and sentenced him to death; or (c) certifies that the case is a fit
one for appeal to the Supreme Court. The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
in the criminal cases can be further extended by the Parliament. Thus the Parliament
can authorise the Supreme Court to entertain and hear appeals from any judgement,
final order or sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High Court in the territory of
India subject to such conditions and limitations as may be specified in such law.
In pursuance of the power vested in it under Article 134(2), the Parliament
enacted the Supreme Court enlargement of Criminal Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1970,
which inter alia provides that "without prejudice to the powers conferred on the
Supreme Court by clause (1) of Article 134 of the Constitution an appeal shall lie to
the Supreme Court from any judgement, final order or sentence in a criminal
proceeding of a High Court in the territory of India if the High Court (a) has on appeal
reversed an order of acquittal of an accused person and sentenced him to
imprisonment for life or to imprisonment for a period of not less than ten
years; (b) has withdrawn for trial before itself any case from any court subordinate to
its authority and has in such trial convicted the accused person and sentenced him to
imprisonment for life or imprisonment for a period of not less than ten years.
The Forty-fourth Amendment has also contributed to the extension in the appellate
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court by making it obligatory for the High Court to
consider the question of granting certificate for appeal immediately on delivery of the
judgement, decree, final order or sentence concerned either on oral application by
the party aggrieved or, if it deems fit to do so, on its own motion. Prior to this
amendment the High Court could grant this certificate on the formal application
fit.
of the aggrieved party only. Now it can grant this certificate suo molu if it thinks
ADVISORY POWERS
The Supreme Court of India has also been vested with certain advisory powers.
Article 143 of the Constitution dealing with the power of President to consult the
Supreme Court specifically lays down "If at any time it appears to the President that
question of law or fact has arisen or is likely to arise, which is of such a nature and of
such public importance that it is expedient to obtain the opinion of the Supreme
Court upon it, he may refer the question to that Court for consideration and the Court
may, after such hearing as it thinks fit, report to the President its opinion thereon."
However, the advice of the Supreme Court, is not binding on the President.
The President has sought Supreme Court's advisory opinion a number of times.
Some of the prominent cases where the President sought Supreme Court's advisory
opinion include Kerala Education Bills (1958), Transfer of Berubari to East Pakistan
(1960), The Sea Customs Act (1962), Keshav Singh Cases (1965), Presidential Poll Bill
(1974), The Special Court Reference case (1978); the Jammu and Kashmir Settlement
Bill which was twice passed by the Jammu and Kashmir Assembly. The latest cases
referred to the Supreme Court for advisory opinion include Cauvery Disputes Tribunal
and Ayodhya Dispute.
The Supreme CourtJudicial Activism 313
A COURT OF RECORD
MISCELLANEOUS POWERS
The Constitution (Art. 129) specifically makes the Supreme Court of India a court of
record and confers all the powers of such a court on it, including the power to punish
for contempt of itself. If any person criticises the decisions of the Supreme Court or
the conduct of the judges or fails to abide by its orders, the Supreme Court can
initiate proceedings against him and punish him for the contempt of the court. The
Records of the Supreme Court are admitted to be of evidentiary value and cannot be
questioned when they are produced before any court. Till 1971, the Supreme Court
enjoyed very extensive powers to try cases of contempt of court because the powers
to define contempt of court rested with it. This naturally left wide scope for misuse of
the power. Therefore, in 1971 the Parliament enacted the Contempt of Courts Act
1971 which not only defined the powers of the courts for punishing contempt of the
courts but also tried to regulate the procedure. It also laid down the limits of the
punishments which could be inflicted for such contempt of courts. The punishment
could range from simple imprisonment for a term up to 6 months or a fine up to Rs.
2000 or both.
SUPREME COURT NOT BOUND BY ITS OWN DECISIONS

The Supreme Court is not bound by its own decisions and can reverse its previous
decisions. In the case of Bengal Immunity Co. vs. State of Bihar (1955), the Supreme
Court held that "there is nothing in the Indian Constitution which prevents the
Supreme Court departing from its previous decisions if it is convinced of its error and
its beneficial effect on the general interest of the public". However, the Court held
that it should not lightly dissent from its previous decisions and its power of review
must be exercised with due caution and for advancing the public well being in the
light of the surrounding circumstances of each case. In Golak Nath v. State of Punjab
(1967) the court reversed two of its earlier decisions viz., decision given in the case
of Shankari Prasad and Sujjan Singh. In the Fundamental Rights (Kesavanand
Bharati) case, the Supreme Court reconsidered its decision in the Golak Nath case
and overruled it.
In addition to the above powers, the Supreme Court enjoys certain other powers
which can be conveniently studied under the head of miscellaneous powers. These
include the following:
(a) The decisions of the Supreme Court are binding on all the courts and are
enforceable through-out the territory of India. The Supreme Court can also
issue orders for the purpose of securing the a ttendance of any person, the
discovery or production of any documents or the investigation or punishment
of any contempt of itself.
(b) The Supreme Court is authorised to make rules for regulating generally the
practice and procedure of the Court with the approval of the President. Thus it
can make rules with regard to person practising before the Court, procedure for
hearing appeals; proceedings in the Court for the enforcement of the
Fundamental Rights; review of judgements pronounced by the Court; fees to
be charged in respect of proceedings; any appeal which appears to the Court
to be frivolous or grant to bail; stay of proceedings: summary determination of
vexatious acts; the minimum number of judges who are to sit for the purpose
of deciding any case involving a substantial question of law as to the
interpretation of Constitution etc.
(c) It has complete control over its own establishment. The Chief Justice of India
can appoint officers and servants of the Supreme Court in consultation, with
the Union Public Service Commission. The Chief Justice can also determine the
conditions of service of officers and servants of the Supreme Court with the
approval of the President. It may be noted that all the administrative expenses
of the Supreme Court, including all salaries, allowances and pensions payable
to the officers and servants of the Court are charged to the Consolidated Funds
of India and are not subject to vote of the Parliament.
(a)
(d) Articles 257 and 258 of the Constitution authorise the Chief Justice of India to
appoint arbitrator to decide cases and disputes relating to extra costs incurred
by a State Government in carrying out the directions of the Union Government
regarding construction and maintenance of the means of communications;
protection of railways within the State and powers and duties conferred upon
the State Government or its officers with their consent.
(e) All the disputes regarding the election of the President or the Vice-President
are investigated by the Supreme Court and its decision in this regard is
considered as final.
(f) The Supreme Court can recommend to the President the removal of the
Chairman and other members of the Union Public Service Commission if it finds
them guilty of misbehaviour. The President cannot take any action in this
regard on his own.
(g)
When the office of the President falls vacant due to inability of the VicePresident to
discharge the duties of the office, the Chief Justice of India acts as President of
India. Such a situation arose when Vice-President V.V. Giri, who was officiating
as President of India, following death of Zakir Hussain, tendered his resignation
to contest for the office of the President, and the then Chief Justice of India
(Mohammad Hidayatullah) acted as President from July 20,1969 to 24 August
1969.
(h) The other judges of Supreme Court can
also be assigned special duties. For
example judges of Supreme Court have
been appointed as Commissions of Inquiry
to look into variety of cases. For example
Justice J .C. Shah was deputed to inquire
into excesses of emergency between 197577; Justice J.C. Gupta and Justice
Jagmohan Reddy were asked to inquire in
the Maruti scandal, etc.
A look at the powers of the Supreme Court of
India shows that it has indeed been vested with
very extensive powers. In his book Parliamentary
Democracy in India, Prof. K.V. Rao brings out the pre-eminent position of the Supreme
Court by comparing it with its counterparts in other countries of the world. He says
"Our Supreme Court is said to be in a way the most powerful in the world having the
largest jurisdiction. The Swiss, French and Russian Constitution explicitly withhold
from the courts the power to interpret the Constitution. In England, the courts do not
have any power to interpret the Constitution. Our Supreme Court, therefore, must be
compared in this respect only with the highest judiciary of the U.S.A., the
Commonwealth of Australia and Canada. But here again there are differences. The
U.S. Supreme Court has limited jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters no appeal lies
to the Supreme Court from the State High Courts in matters concerning the exclusive
jurisdiction of the States. In our Constitution we have only one set of courts for all
purposes." In view of the vast powers vested in the Supreme Court we can agree with
the assertion of Sir Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar that "The Supreme Court of India has
more powers than any other Supreme Court in any part of the world".
THE SUPREME COURT AND THE JUDICIAL REVIEW

The Supreme Court of India has been vested with power of judicial review, which
implies it can review the laws passed by the legislature and orders issued by the
executive to determine their constitutionality. Though the word 'judicial review' has
not been used anywhere in the Constitution, the framers of the Constitution certainly
wanted this power to be exercised by the courts while interpreting the Constitution.
They wanted the judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts to "uphold the
Constitution and the laws". While assuming office the judges of the Supreme Court
and High Courts have to make an affirmation to this effect and undertake
responsibility to protect the Constitution against attacks from the legislature and the
executive. In this respect the Indian Supreme Court resembles the American
Supreme Court rather than the British Courts, which are obliged to enforce the laws
enacted by the Parliament, without going into their constitutionality. The adoption of
the
315
federal system and the incorporation of the Fundamental Rights granted by the
Constitution also enjoins upon the Supreme Court to ensure that these are not
violated. For this purpose it has been granted the powers to pronounce on the
constitutionality of Federal as well as State laws. The power of judicial review enjoyed
by the Supreme Court is much narrower than the power of judicial review enjoyed by
the Supreme Court of U.S.A. The Indian Supreme Court can declare a law as invalid
only if it is contrary to the letter of the Constitution. It cannot go behind the law to
find out its objectives and to declare it as unconstitutional. In other words, it does not
possess any power to question the wisdom or propriety of the laws enacted by the
Parliament or the State Legislatures.
This point was emphatically made clear by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in the
Constitution. He said "Within limits no judge and no Supreme Court can make itself a
third chamber. No Supreme Court and no judiciary can stand in judgement over the
sovereign will of the Parliament representing the will of the entire
community...Ultimately the whole Constitution is a creature of Parliament". This
clearly implied that the framers of the Constitution wanted the Indian courts to
exercise the power of the judicial review with restraint.
However, the Supreme Court considerably widened the scope of judicial review in
India through its judgement in Maneka Gandhi's case. The Court held that mere
prescription of some kind of procedure is not enough to comply with the mandate of
Art. 21. The procedure prescribed by law has to be fair, just and reasonable, not
fanciful, oppressive or arbitrary. It further held that the procedure to be fair or just
must embody the principles of natural justice. Thus the Supreme Court by accepting
the concept of natural justice as one essential component of law, imparted, the
American concept of 'due process of law' into our Constitution.
The working of the Supreme Court for more than four decades has shown that it
has generally tried to construe the law in favour of the legislature on the plea that
the Legislature consists of the representatives of the people and as such these
representatives are the best judges of the
suitability of a law. In the case of Charanjit Lai vs. The Union of India, Justice Mukerjee
observed: "The court should prima facie lean in favour of constitutionality and should
support the legislation if it is possible to do so on any reasonable ground. In
pursuance of this attitude the Supreme Court of India has enunciated the doctrine of
severability, which implies that only those portions of the law are declared as void
which are inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution and the rest of the law
is permitted to operate. The Courts in India have exercised power of judicial review
with great restraint and attached more importance to the express words of the
Constitution rather than the spirit of the Constitution. In Gopalan's case Chief Justice
Kania of Madras High Court observed: "The courts are not at liberty to declare any
Act void, because in their opinion, it is opposed to a spirit supposed to pervade the
Constitution but not expressed in words. Where the fundamental law has not limited
either in terms or by necessary implication the general powers conferred upon the
legislature, we cannot declare a limitation under the notion of having discovered
something cannot declare a limitation under the notion of having discovered
something in the spirit of the Constitution, which is not even mentioned in the
instrument."
Operation of Judicial Review
Since the inauguration of the Constitution in 1950, the Supreme Court has
exercised power of judicial review in numerous cases and greatly elaborated the
principle of judicial review through its varied interpretations. It is not possible to deal
within the limited space available with us to examine all the cases where the
Supreme Court applied its power of judicial review, and we can only refer to some of
the important cases.
One of the most significant cases decided by the Supreme Court was Golaknath
case of 1967 in which the Supreme Court held that the Parliament has no right to
abridge or abrogate the Fundamental Rights granted by the Constitution through an
amendment of the Constitution. Thus it made the Fundamental Rights transcendental
and superior to the constituent power of the Parliament through its power of judicial
review. However,
to
avoid
unnecessary
legal
316
complications the Supreme Court upheld the validity of several constitutional

amendments already made in this regard by applying the doctrine of perspective
overruling. The Supreme Court continued this attitude in the Bank Nationalisation
and Privy Purses cases and challenged the right of the Parliament to curtail the
Fundamental Rights by the Parliament.
The attitude of the Supreme Court in Golak Nath, Bank Nationalisation and Privy
Purses cases obliged the Congress Government to effect 24 th, 25th and 26th
amendments in the Constitution. It also made a bid to curtail the right of the
Supreme Court to declare a law affecting Fundamental Rights under Articles 14,19
and 31 as void of the law was passed to give effect to the Directive Principles under
Article 39(b) or (c). These amendments were challenged in the Kesliavnand Bharati
case. Nine of the thirteen judges who heard the case upheld Parliament's right to
amend the Constitution including the Fundamental Rights. Thus the Court reversed
its earlier decision of Golak Nath's case. However, the Supreme Court held that the
Parliament could not change the basic structure or framework of the Constitution.
During the emergency a bid was made to restrict the scope of judicial review
through the Forty-second Amendment. The power to determine constitutional validity
of the central laws was exclusively vested in the Supreme Court and the High Courts
were deprived of their right in this regard. High Courts, powers with respect to issue
of writs were also restricted. Parliament's right to carry out amendments in the
Constitution, including Part III dealing with Fundamental Rights was asserted. It was
specifically declared that "there shall be no limitation whatever on the constituent
power of the Parliament to amend by way of addition, variation or repeal the
provisions of the Constitution under this Article (Article 368)". This means that the
Supreme Court could no longer declare the amendments to the Constitution made by
the Parliament as invalid.
The Janata Government on assumption of power made a bid to restore the powers
which were taken away from the judiciary during the emergency. But due to lack of
necessary majority in the Rajya Sabha it could not go very far. By the Forty-Third
Amendment passed in December 1977
it restored to the Supreme Court pre-emergency position with regard to power of
judicial review over the laws passed by the Parliament as well as the State
Legislatures. However, no change could be effected with regard to Parliament's right
to amend the Constitution.
What could not be achieved through legislation was accomplished through the
judgement of the Supreme Court in Minerva Mills case of 1980. The Supreme Court
by 4 to 1 majority held sections (4) and (5) of Article 368 inserted by the FortySecond and Amendment Act as void, on the ground that they removed all limitations
on the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and conferred unlimited
amending powers upon Parliament so as to damage or destroy its basic structure or

essential features. It held that 'limited amending power' is the basic feature of the
Constitution. Thus the Supreme Court asserted in very clear terms that it is the
Constitution, not Parliament, which is Supreme in India.
The Congress (I) which had come in power by this time did not feel quite happy
about this judgement and hinted that it would move against this judgement before
the full bench. However, no further action was taken in this regard. It is desirable that
the government should not take the judgement of the court as a challenge to its
authority and should take the same in the spirit of compromise and co-operation.
As a result of the Supreme Court judgement of March 1994 in the case of S.R.
Bommaiand others vs the Union of India, also known as Assembly dissolution case,
the scope of judicial review was further widened. In this judgement the Supreme
Court took the view that the proclamation of emergency made by the President
under Art 356(1), which had so far remained immune from judicial review, was
"judicially reviewable to the extent of examining whether it was issued on the basis
of any material at all or whether the material was relevant or whether the
Proclamation was issued in the malafide exercise of Power".
In recent years, the judiciary has further widened its field of operation by
declaring 'judicial review' as a basic feature of the Constitution. This implies that till
this view is reversed, no government can enact a law or amendment which takes
away or dilutes the right
The Supreme CourtJudicial

Activism 317
of judicial review from the judiciary. Thus the Supreme Court in India has not merely
interpreted the language of the Constitution but also pronounced on issues which
involve matters of policy viz., whether foreign owned newspapers can be started in
India or whether Doordarshan could block a foreign T.V. Company from transmitting
the coverage of a cricket series etc.
CRITICISM OF JUDICIAL REVIEW

Supreme Court's power of judicial review has come in for sharp criticism. Generally
the following shortcomings of judicial review are emphasised:
Firstly, it is charged that judicial review has greatly undermined the position of the
Parliament which is a representative body of the people and final authority under the
parliamentary system of government. It is indeed difficult to understand how the
judges of the Supreme Court are better qualified to sit on judgement over the laws
enacted by the elected representatives of the people.
Secondly, it has been argued that the judges generally belong to the elitist section of
the society and try to protect and promote their class interests. No wonder they have
often knocked
down progressive laws which were prejudicial to their interests.

Thirdly, the judges do not always decide the case strictly in accordance with law.
Quite often their decisions are influenced by their ideology and political views.
Fourthly, the principle of judicial review is violative of the principle of popular
sovereignty enshrined in the Constitution because it has struck down a number of
Constitutional amendments made under Art. 368 of the Constitution.
Finally, judicial review has encouraged litigation and promoted friction among
various organs of government. The curtailment of the authority of the Parliament
following Supreme Court's judgement in Golak Nath case, met with great resentment
and Parliament proceeded to enact certain amendments to overcome the restrictions
on its authority. This naturally caused friction between judiciary and the legislative
wings of government.
Despite various shortcomings of judicial review, it cannot be denied that it has
played an important role in ensuring constitutional government in the country by
keeping the centre and the states in their respective spheres. It has also enabled the
Constitution to change according to changed conditions by imparting new meaning to
the Constitution. Above all, through the exercise of this power, the Supreme Court
has protected freedom of citizens and protected their Fundamental Rights against
encroachment by the legislative and executive wings of the government.
JUDICIAL ACTIVISM
The rise of 'Judicial Activism' in the nineties has also greatly enhanced the powers
and prestige of Supreme Court. As the executive and the legislative wings of the
government were not discharging their constitutional duties which gave rise to
instability, the judiciary assumed more active role and gave directions to the various
authorities-governmental and civic, to discharge their legally assigned duties. Thus
the court directed the civic authorities of Delhi to dispose off the garbage that was
daily accumulating on the roads and lanes on an alarming scale and threatening the
health of the people. It asked the Central government to explain the criteria followed
by it to allow certain persons to retain government accommodation after retirement
or after ceasing to hold public office. Likewise in the Hawala case the Supreme Court
issued a mandamus to Central Government and CBI that they must complete inquiry
into the allegation within stipulated period against several cabinet ministers and
other politicians who had illegally accepted huge amounts of money from two Jain
brothers. In fact, at the instance of Supreme Court several high and mighty people
were booked in various cases of cheating, forgery and corruption viz., Lakhubhai
Pathak case, St. Keats case, allotment of petrol pumps and gas agencies etc.
The active role being played by the judiciary has been subjected to criticism on
various grounds. In the first place, it has been alleged that entertainment of public
interest litigations on relatively trivial grievances-real or imaginary, is bound to lead
to further piling up of the arrears in
318
the courts. Secondly, the Court has tended to impose fines on ministers like Satish
Sharma and Shiela Kaul, without proper trial, which has doubtful legality. Thirdly,
there is every possibility of the courts getting drawn into positive policy making role,
a role which has been assigned by the Constitution to the elected representatives of
the people.
The growing activism of the courts evoked strong protests from large number of
Members of Parliament who felt that their powers were being curtailed by the
judiciary. They also felt upset about the manner in which the courts directed the CBI
to report to it rather than to the Prime Minister's office. No wonder several members
of Parliament demanded the convening of a special session of Parliament with a view

to check the growing judicial activism. However, the move did not succeed. In fact,
there is nothing wrong with judicial activism because of the growing perception that
judiciary, has the last right to right the wrongs done by the bureaucracy and the
inability and reluctance of the Parliament to decide issues which it alone should.
George Fernandes has justified the growing judicial activism and observed "Before
sharpening our knives against the judiciary we should analyse the reasons for this
activism. I agree that the courts cannot be a substitute for political parties and the
peoples' action, but I am afraid at this point in our history it is inevitable because
political parties are dead. They have ceased to be concerned with the people's
problems". Likewise Jaswant Singh, a BJP leader also favoured judicial activism. He
said "what is being termed as judicial activism is really the judiciary doing its duty in
a given situation and I am sure some good will come of it." By and large, the feeling
is that 'judicial activism' is forcing politicians and bureaucrats to behave themselves
and it does not pose any threat to the democratic system of India.
Further, it is wrong to assume that the elected Members of Parliament and State
Legislatures have the exclusive right to speak about the people's rights. The judges
of High Courts and Supreme Court are also public servants and are equally duty
bound to protect the individual and public rights. In fact, the judges enjoy a much
higher degree of public confidence than the politicians and it would be counterproductive to curtail their jurisdiction directly or indirectly.
ROLE OF THE SUPREME COURT

Under the Indian political system a very significant role was assigned to the Supreme
Court. Sh. Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar rightly observed "The future evolution of the
Indian Constitution will...depend to a large extent upon the work of the Supreme
Court and the direction given to it by that Court". The above assertion of Alladi
Krishnaswami Ayyar has proved quite correct and the Supreme Court has played a
very important role in ensuring constitutional government in the country and
protecting the fundamental liberties of Indian citizens. The role of Supreme Court can
be conveniently studied under the following heads:
1. Supreme Court as the Guardian of the Constitution
The Supreme Court acts as the guardian of the Constitution, which is the
fundamental law of the land. It ensures that both the Union and the State
Governments act according to the provisions of the Constitution. For this purpose the
Constitution-gives the Supreme Court the power to review the laws passed by the
legislature and orders issued by the executive and to declare them as ultra vires if
they contravene any provision of the Constitution. It may be noted that the Supreme
Court cannot pronounce upon the constitutionality of a law or executive action on its
own. It pronounces judgement only when the law or the executive action is actually
challenged. The final authority to
interpret the Constitution also rests with the Supreme Court, which has been
described as the mouth piece of the Indian Constitution.
In the exercise of these powers the Supreme Court has accorded new meaning to
the Constitution through its judgement. For example, it greatly curtailed the powers
of the Parliament to amend the Constitution by laying down in the Golak Nath case
that the Parliament cannot amend provisions relating to Fundamental Rights.
Subsequently, the Supreme Court in the
319
Keshavananda Bharati case conceded to the Parliament the authority to amend the
Fundamental Rights, but denied it the authority to make changes in the basic
structure of the Constitution. Thus the Supreme Court has tried to impart new
meaning to the Constitution according to changed conditions.
2. Guardian of Fundamental Rights

The Supreme Court also acts as guardian of the Fundamental Rights of the Indian
citizens enshrined in the Constitution. For this purpose the Supreme Court can issue
orders, directions and writs in the nature of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition,
Quo Warranto and Certiorari, as may be appropriate. This power has been specifically
vested in the Supreme Court by the Constitution under Articles 13(2) and 32. Article
13(2) prohibits the state from making any law which takes away or abridges the
rights granted to the citizens by Part III of the Constitution. Any law aiming at the
curtailment of any of the Fundamental Rights is void to the extent it contravenes
these rights. The Supreme Court acts as the guardian of the Fundamental Liberties.
Art. 32 makes right to constitutional remedies a Fundamental Right and authorises
the citizens to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of the Fundamental
Rights.
The Supreme Court has consistently tried to protect the Fundamental Rights of
the Indian citizens. In Subodh Gopal Bose and Bela Banerji case the Supreme Court
protected the individual's right to private property by insisting that the compensation
for acquisition of property must be paid at the 'market rate'. In Gotak Nath's case the
Supreme Court deprived the Parliament of the right to amend the provisions of the
Fundamental Rights. Again in the Bank Nationalisation and Privy Purses cases the
Supreme Court upheld the rights of the citizens and knocked down these laws. No
doubt, under the Indian Constitution the Parliament has been given the power to
impose reasonable restrictions on the rights of the people, in public interest but it is
for the Supreme Court to determine whether these restrictions are really reasonable
and warranted in public interest or not. In short, we can say that the Supreme Court
acts as the guardian of the Fundamental Rights of citizens.
3. Supreme Court and Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
The role of the Supreme Court of India has been further widened due to rise of Public
Interest Litigation (PIL) in India since mid-eighties. Under the principle of public
interest litigation, the petition can be filed in the court by any conscious person or
organisation to seek relief on behalf of the aggrieved person or a group of persons.
The Courts took quite a liberal view and took the stand that matters could be raised
even without formally filing a suit. Even letters or telegrams to the Supreme Court by
socially conscious citizens were treated as writ petitions. Though some judges have
not favoured the idea of admitting letter petitions on the ground that it may bring the
judiciary in jurisdictional conflicts with the executive or the legislative, by and large
the principle of Public Interest Litigation has come to be accepted. As a result of
Public Interest Litigation persons who were victims of illegal detention or excesses
during the incarceration have got relief and rights of undertrial prisoners or
prisoners serving sentences have been upheld. In many cases Compensation was
given to victims of administrative wrongs. It cannot be denied that the PIL is heavily
weighted in favour of the poor, the weak, the ignorant. The Supreme Court by
encouraging PIL has not only protected the right of the weaker sections of society but
also tried to ensure socioeconomic justice to weaker sections of the society.
Commenting on the importance of the PIL Justice P.N. Bhagwati of the Supreme Court
observed "Public Interest Litigation is meant to bring justice to the doorsteps of the
weak, the unorganised and exploited sections of society who have no access to the
courts because of the prohibitive cost of litigation. PIL is a means by which justice can
percolate down to the masses and be made more accessible and available to the
poor and the victims of injustice. PIL is brought before the court not for the purpose
of enforcing the right of one individual against another, but it is intended to promote
and vindicate public interest which demands that violation of constitutional or legal
rights of a large number of people who are poor and ignorant socially and,
economically in a disadvantageous position, should not go unnoticed or
unredressed."
4.
As Legal Adviser to the President
Supreme Court acts as legal adviser to the President of India and tenders him
necessary advice whenever he asks for the same. According to Art. 143 the President
can call for Supreme Court's opinion on any matter if it appears to him that "a
question of law or fact has arisen, or is likely to arise, which is of such a nature and of
such public importance that it is expedient to obtain the opinion of the Supreme
Court." The Supreme Court after such consideration as it deems fit renders necessary
advice to the President. It may, however, be noted that the opinion of the Supreme
Court is not binding on the President and he may or he may not accept it. On a
number of occasions the President sought the opinion of the Supreme Court, viz., on
the Kerala Education Bill in 1957, on the issue of conflict of jurisdiction between the
Allahabad High Court and Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly in 1964 etc. The latest
case where the President sought Supreme Court's legal opinion is related to the
location of the Babri Masjid. The Supreme Court took the view that the Presidential
reference was superfluous and unnecessary and opposed to secularism because it
favoured one religious community. It refused to give any opinion. However, the Court
upheld the validity of acquisition of 67 acres of land in Ayodhya by the government.
At the same time the Court held that till the title suit pertaining to disputed site
pending before the Allahabad High Court regarding ownership of land (on which Babri
Masjid stood) is disposed, the government would act as a receiver of this portion of
land. The government cannot transfer this part of the acquired land to any
third party and would return it to whosoever was found to be original owner by
the Allahabad High Court. It cannot be denied that the advisory opinions of the
Supreme Court have proved beneficial and reduced litigation to a greait extent.
Thus, we can say that the Supreme Court of India has been assigned an important
role undeir the Constitution and it has played its role quite; effectively as the
guardian of Constitution, the protector of the liberties of people and as the Legal
Adviser to the President.
THE STATE HIGH COURTS
The High Courts stand at the apex of the States judicial administration, even though
they form a part of the single integrated judicial system headed by the Supreme
Court of India. Under the Constitution every State has a High Court which operates
within the territorial jurisdiction of the State. However, the Parliament can set up
common High Court for two or more States. For example there is a common High
Court for the States of Punjab, Haryana and the Union Territory of Chandigarh.
Composition
Every High Court consists of a Chief Justice and such other judges as the President
may from time to time, determine. Since the number of the judges of the High Courts
has not been fixed by the Constitution there is variation in the strength of the various
High Courts. For example the Allahabad High Court has thirty-three judges as against
three judges of the Assam High Court.
The Chief Justice of a High Court is appointed by the President by warrant under
his hand and seal. However, the President makes the appointment of the Chief Justice
of the High Court in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of
the concerned State. In the appointment of the other judges of the High Court, the
President, in addition to the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the concerned
State also consults the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned.
The President of India is authorised to appoint additional judges if there is
temporary increase in the business of the High Court or the work of the High Court is
in arrears. Such appointments can be made only from amongst persons who possess
due qualifications and their appointment cannot be, for a period exceeding two
years. In case of exigency even retired judges can be invited to participate and they
are entitled to all facilities available to a High Court Judge.
Qualifications
A person to be eligible for appointment as judge of the State High Court (a) must be
citizen of India;
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(b) has been the advocate of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in
succession for at least ten years; (c) has held a judicial office in the territory of India
for at least ten years. Earlier even those persons could be appointed as judges of
High Courts who in the opinion of the President of India were distinguished jurists.
However, this qualification has since been omitted from the Constitution by the Fortyfourth Amendment carried out during the Janata Party rule.
Term
Once appointed the judges of the State High Court hold office till they attain the age
or 62 years. However, a judge can resign his office earlier by addressing his
resignation to the President of India. He can also be removed from his office on
grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. For this purpose both the Houses of
the Parliament must pass a resolution for the removal of the Judge of a High Court by
two-thirds majority of the members present and voting in each House, and request
the President to remove such a judge. While such a resolution is under consideration
of the Parliament, the concerned judge must be given a chance to defend himself, if
he so desires.
Salary and Allowances

The Chief Justice of a State High Court receives a monthly salary of Rs. 30,000 while
the other judges draw a salary of Rs.27,000 per month. In addition they are entitled
to free car and such allowances and right in respect of leave of absence and pension,
as may from time to time be determined by the Parliament. It may be noted that the
salary, allowances of judges and their rights with regard to leave of absence or
pension cannot be varied to their disadvantage during their tenure. However, during
the Financial Emergency, the President is empowered to reduce the salaries of the
judges of the High Courts. The salaries and allowances of the judges of the High
Court and the other expenses in connection with the maintenance of the State High
Court are charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State and are not subject to the
vote of the State Legislature. However, the pensions of the High Court judges are
charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
Oath of Office
Every person appointed as a judge of High Court has to take before the Governor of
the State or some person appointed by him, oath of affirmation.
Immunities and Restrictions

The judges of the State High Courts are entitled to same immunities which are
enjoyed by the judges of the Supreme Court. Their conduct cannot be examined by
the State Legislature. Only the Parliament can examine their conduct and that too
only when a motion for the removal of a judge of High Court is under consideration.
The Judges of the High Courts are not permitted to practice before the State High
Court after their retirement. However, they are authorised to practice before the
Supreme Court of India and other High Courts.
POWERS AND JURISDICTION OF THE HIGH COURTS
The Constitution does not make any detailed provision regarding the powers and
jurisdiction of the High Court. Article 225 of the Constitution which deals with the
jurisdiction of the State High Courts states "Subject to the provisions of this
Constitution and to the provisions of any law of the appropriate Legislature made by
virtue of powers conferred on that Legislature by this Constitution the jurisdiction of,
and the law administered in, any existing High Court, and the respective powers of
the Judges thereof in relation to the administration of justice in the Court, including
any power to make rules of Court and to regulate the sittings of the Court and of
members thereof sitting alone or in Division Courts, shall be the same as immediately
before the commencement of this
Constitution, provided that any restriction to which the exercise of original

jurisdiction by any of the High Courts with respect to any matter concerning the
revenue or concerning any act as ordered or done in the collection thereof was
subject immediately before the commencement of this Constitution shall no longer
apply to the exercise of such jurisdiction."
322
In simple language this provision clearly lays down that the powers of the High
Courts shall be same as they were immediately before the commencement of the
Constitution.
Thus the High Courts are the highest courts of appeal in both civil and criminal
matters. Cases relating to admiralty, matrimonial matters and issues concerning the
contempt of the court can be taken directly to the High Courts. Further, the
restriction which operated with regard to certain High Courts in cases pertaining to
revenue collection has also been removed. Now these cases fall within the original
jurisdiction of the State High Courts and the Courts have been given full powers to
make rules to regulate the business before them.
In addition the Council has vested the following four powers on the State High
Courts:
Power to Issue Writs

Under Article 226 of the Constitution the State High Courts are authorised to issue
directions, orders or writs to any person or authority within its territorial jurisdiction.
This includes the power to issue writs in the nature of habeas corpus; mandamus,
prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari for the enforcement of any of the rights
conferred by Part III and for any other purpose. It may be noted that the High Courts
were deprived of the power to issue the above writs under the Forty-Second
Amendment. However, this power was restored to them under the Forty-Fourth
Amendment because it ensures to the citizens an opportunity for speedy and
effective redress against unconstitutional enactments and unwarranted executive
actions.
Power of Superintendence
Every High Court has the power to superintend the working of the courts and
tribunals throughout the territories in relation to which it exercises jurisdiction. For
the discharge of this function the High Courts can call for reports from such courts,
make and issue general rules and prescribe forms for regulating the practice and
proceeding of such courts; and prescribe forms in which the books, entries and
accounts shall be kept by the officers of any such courts. The High Courts
can also settle tables of fees to be allowed to the sheriff and all clerks and officers of
such courts and to attorney, advocates and pleaders practising therein. However, the
High Court does not enjoy any power of superintendence over the courts or tribunal
constituted by or under any law relating to the Armed forces.
The power of judicial superintendence granted to the State High Courts also
implies that they can take necessary steps to ensure that the lower courts discharge
their duties in a legal manner. The High Court can, therefore, transfer cases from one
lower court to another lower court or dispose of the case itself. In this regard Article
228 of the Constitution provides "If the High Court is satisfied that a case pending in
a court subordinate to it involves a substantial question of law as to the interpretation
of the Constitution the determination of which is necessary for the disposal of the
case, it shall withdraw the case and may (a) either dispose of the case itself; or (b)
determine the said question of law and return the case to the Court from which the
case has been so withdrawn together with a copy of its judgement on such question,
and the said court shall on receipt thereof proceed to dispose of the case in
conformity with such judgement.
Court of Record
Article 215 of the Constitution declares every High Court as a Court of record which
has all the powers of such a court including the power to punish for contempt of
itself.
Power to Regulate its Working

The Chief Justice of the High Court is authorised by the Constitution to appoint
officers and servants of the High Court. However, the Governor of the State can
require him to consult the State Public Service Commission in this connection. The
conditions of service of the officers and servants of the High Court are also laid down
by the Chief Justice of the Court or some other judges or officers of the Court
authorised by the Chief Justice to make rules for the purpose. However, the rules
relating to salaries, allowances, leave or pension require the formal approval of the
Governor of the State.
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Extension of High Court's Jurisdiction

The jurisdiction of the High Court can be further extended under law of the
Parliament. However, the State Legislature does not enjoy any power to increase,
restrict or abolish the jurisdiction of the High Court. The Parliament can also restrict
or curtail the powers of the State High Courts, as it did under the Forty-Second
Amendment. It is a different matter that subsequently these powers were restored to
the High Courts by the Janata Government.
A survey of the powers and functions of the State High Courts shows that it is
primarily a supervisory court which exercises supervision over the subordinate courts
and tribunals within its jurisdiction. At the same time it also acts as the guardian of
the fundamental liberties of the people against possible encroachment by the
Legislature and the Executive. The actual working of the High Courts since the
inauguration of the Constitution has amply demonstrated that they have given
precedence to the writ petitions over other works and knocked down a number of
statutes and executive orders on the ground that they encroached on the
Fundamental Rights of the citizens. In short, it has played a vital role in protecting the
freedom of the Indian citizens and acted as guardians of their rights.
SUBORDINATE COURTS
The Constitution of India has also made detailed provisions regarding subordinate
courts and tried to ensure the independence of the Executive. It not only prescribes
the qualifications for the subordinate judges but also vests the necessary control over
these courts in the State High Courts.
It may be observed that the structure and functions of the subordinate courts in
various parts of India are almost uniform. Each state has been divided into a number
of districts each under a District Judge. Below the District and Session Courts there
exist civil, criminal and revenue courts. Let us examine the organisation of the
subordinate courts in some details.
CIVIL COURTS
The subordinate civil courts have been organised in a hierarchical order with the
District Court at the apex. The District Judge, who heads the District Court, exercises
supervision over the working of the civil courts in the district. He also enjoys certain
original as well as appellate powers. However, appeal against decision of the District
Court can be taken to the State High Court. In the civil cases the District Court enjoys
jurisdiction over all matters relating to marriage, divorce, guardianship of minors and
lunatics, etc.
The other minor courts include the Small Causes Courts, Courts of Sub-Judges and
Courts of Senior Sub-Judge. The Small Causes Courts also known as Munsif's Courts
exist in big towns and can dispose ordinary cases involving sums below Rs. 500.
Above the Small Courts exist the Sub-Judges Courts which try all the cases involving
sums not in excess of Rs. 5,000. Above the Sub-Judge Courts exist Senior Sub-Judge
Courts which deal with cases involving any amount. It may be observed that all these
courts enjoy only original jurisdiction. Appeals against their judgements can be taken
to the District Courts.
CRIMINAL COURTS
Like the subordinates* criminal courts are also organised in hierarchical order with
Court of Session Judge at the top. The Session Judge Court can try all the criminal
cases involving murder and other serious offences which are committed to it by the
First class Magistrate. It can award any punishment in accordance with law. However,
a death sentence passed by the Session Court must be confirmed by the High Court
of the State. Below the session court exist First Class Magistrates, Second Class
Magistrates, and Third Class Magistrates. The Third Class Magistrates try minor
criminal cases and can award punishment up to one month imprisonment or fine upto
Rs. 50. The Second Class Magistrate Courts try more serious cases and can inward
punishment up to six month's imprisonment and fine upto Rs. 200. It may be noted
that both the Third and Second Class
324
Magistrate Courts enjoy only original jurisdiction and cannot entertain appeals. The
First Class Magistrate Court on the other hand, hears appeals against the decisions of
the Second and Third Class Magistrate Courts. They can award punishment upto two
years imprisonment and a fine upto Rs. 1,000.
It is noteworthy that at the District level the District and Sessions Courts are one
and the same person acts as the District and Sessions Judge. When the court deals
with the civil cases it is known as District Court but when it tries the criminal cases it
is known as Sessions Court.
REVENUE COURTS
In addition to the civil and the criminal courts each district has certain revenue courts
which deal exclusively with the revenue matters. The lowest revenue court is that of
Tehsildar. Appeals against the decisions of the Tehsildar's court can be taken to
Magistrate's Court of the Deputy Commissioner. Above the Deputy Commissioner
stands the Court of the commissioner. The highest authority in the revenue matters
rests with the Board of Revenue, which can hear appeals against the decision of all
the lower revenue courts.
Chapter
38
Indian Federalism:
Theory Practice
and Problems
The Constitution of India provides for a Federal System of Government though the
term 'federation' has nowhere been used in the Constitution. On the other hand,
Article 1 of the Constitution describes India as a 'Union of States' an expression which
implies two things. Firstly, unlike U.S.A. the Indian federation is not the result of an
agreement between the units. Secondly, the units have no right to secede from the
federation. In fact the units of the Indian federation have no independent existence of
their own. The parliament can alter their names and territories without their consent.
Broadly speaking, there are two methods for the formation of a federation. First, the
hitherto independent and sovereign states may form a federation by a voluntary
agreement. Under this
method the states transfer certain subjects of common concern and interest to
the newly created central government, while retaining the rest of the subjects with
themselves. Thus, the states while forming the union preserve their independent
existence. The Federation of U.S.A. was formed through this method. Under the
second method the unitary state is broken up into a number of units or provinces and
certain functions or powers are assigned to them. The Federation of Canada came
into existence through this method. A particular method for the formation of a
federation is adopted by the country keeping in view ^he circumstances prevailing in
the country. For example, the framers of the Canadian Constitution provided for a
strong central government because they could see the tension prevailing between
the North and South in United States of America and
wanted to ward against such tendencies in their own country. The Federation in India
is also based on the pattern of Canada. The founding fathers of the Indian
Constitution were convinced that a vast country like India could not be efficiently
governed from a single centre and thought it desirable to adopt a federal system of
government. The diversity of race, religion and language also impelled them to go for
a federal policy, because it could ensure unity of the country while assuring
autonomy in matters of local importance. It may be observed that the Indian
Constitution does not possess all the features of a typical federation and makes many
deviations. In view of these deviations the critics have challenged the federal
character of the Constitution, and described it as 'quasi-federal'. For example Prof.
K.C. Wheare says "Indian Union is a Unitary State with subsidiary federal features
rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary features."
For resolving the controversy regarding the true nature of the Indian Federal
System it is desirable to understand as to what is implied by a federal system, what
are its special features and how far these features are present in India. According to
Prof. Garner 'Federalism is a system of Government in which all the administrative
powers are divided between the Central and state governments by the Constitution
and both are supreme within their respective spheres. The State Governments are
not agents of the Central Government nor do they draw their authority from them. On
the other hand, both the Central and State Governments draw their authority from
the Constitution.
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FEDERAL FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUTION

The main federal features of the Indian Constitution are as follows:
1. Written Constitution
The first essential feature of a federal system is a written constitution which defines
the structure, organisation and power of the Central as well as state governments, so
that the two operate within their respective spheres without interfering in each
other's jurisdiction. The Indian Constitution is a written document containing 395
Articles and 10 Schedules. It stands at the top of hieraichy of all laws and all the
authorities in India are legally bound to respect it. The Constitution is also one of the
lengthiest documents in comparison with the constitutions of other federations.
2. Rigid Constitution
Another essential feature of a federation is a rigid constitution which can be amended
either by the joint action of the federal and state legislatures or by an independent
authority. The Indian Constitution is rigid to a large extent. Those provisions of the
Constitution which concern the relations between the Federal and State Governments
as well as the judicial organisation of the country can be amended only by the joint
action of the Federal and State Governments. These provisions not only require two-
thirds majority of the two houses of Parliament but also approval by the majority of
state legislatures.
3. Independent Judiciary
The existence of an independent judiciary is another important feature of the Indian
Federal System. The Supreme Court of India, which is the highest court in India acts
as the guardian of the Constitution and can declare any law or order ultra vires if it
contravenes any provision of the Constitution. The Supreme Court also ensures that
the Federal and State Governments operate within the spheres allotted to them by
the Constitution.
4. Division of Powers
Another feature of a federation is statutory division of powers between the federal
government and the state governments. In contrast
to a unitary state where the states draw all the powers from the Centre, which
reserves the right to withdraw them at discretion, the federal government as well as
the states draw their authority from the Constitution. However, the procedure for the
division of powers between the Centre and the States is not same everywhere. For
example in U.S.A. the Constitution enumerates the powers of the Centre and leaves
the residue to the states. On the other hand, in Canada the Constitution contains two
lists one for the States and the other for the Centre. The residuary powers are also
left in the hands of the Centre. The Indian Constitution divides the powers on the
pattern of the Canadian Constitution. All the powers have been divided into three
lists-the Union List, the State List and Concurrent List. The Union List contains ninetyseven items of national importance such as foreign affairs, defence, interstate trade,
coinage and currency etc. The Federal Government has exclusive power to make laws
on these subjects. The State List contains sixty-six items like public order; police
administration of justice, prisons, public health etc. over which the state possesses
exclusive power to legislate. The Concurrent List which contains forty-seven items
contains items like marriage and divorce, books and printing presses, etc. Both the
Federal Government and the State Government possess right to legislate on the
subjects contained in the Concurrent List. However, in case of clash between the
Central and State laws the former prevails. The residuary powers have been vested
by the Constitution in the Central Government.
5. Bicameral Legislature
Like other Federations the Constitution of India provides for a bicameral Parliament
consisting of the Lok Sabha contains representatives directly elected by the people
on the basis of universal adult franchise, the Rajya Sabha mainly consists of
representatives of the States. Thus, the Constitution maintains a balance between
direct representation of the people and the representation of the units.
6. Supremacy of the Constitution
The Supremacy of the Constitution, another feature of federalism, is also present in

India. The
Constitution of India stands at the top of the

Indian Federalism: Theory Practice and Problems
327
hierarchy of all laws-both national and state. The Central as well as the State
Governments have to operate within the limits prescribed by the Constitution. If they
pass any law which does not conform to the Constitution, the same can be declared
as ultra vires by the Supreme Court of India.
NON-FEDERAL OR UNITARY FEATURES

In addition to the above federal features, the Constitution contains certain nonfederal or unitary features which have led the critics of the Indian Constitution to
challenge its federal character and charge that it is merely federal in form but unitary
in spirit. At the outset it has to be admitted that the framers of the Indian
Constitution have deviated from the traditional federal system and incorporated a
number of unitary features. Some of the important unitary features of our
Constitution are as under:
1. A Strong Centre
In the first instance the Constitution provides for a very strong centre, a feature of
unitary government. In the division of power ninety-seven items have been included
in the Union List, while the state list contains only 66 items. Further even on the
subject contained in the Concurrent List (47 items) both the Centre and the States
have power to legislate, but the Central Government enjoys an over-riding position.
The residuary powers have also been vested in the Centre. In short, the Constitution
provides for a very strong centre. But if we keep the conditions prevailing in the
country at the time of the enactment of the Constitution in mind, we will tend to
endorse the wisdom of the framers of the Constitution in making the Centre strong.
2. A Single Constitution for Union

and States
Unlike other Federations of the world the St. *es in India have not been given any
right to maKe or unmake their own constitutions. The framers provided a single,
common unified Constitution for both the Centre and the State. It has rightly been
said that "the Constitution of the Union and the States is a single frame from which
neither can
get out and within which they must work". Further, the states have not been given
any power to initiate amendments to the Constitution, a power which exclusively
vests in the Indian Parliament. This has enhanced the powers and prestige of the
Centre at the cost of the states.
3. Flexibility of the Constitution

In comparison to the other Federations the Constitution of India is flexible. In other
federations amendments to the Constitution can be made only with the consent and
approval of the units. In India on the other hand, the Parliament can amend most of
the provisions of the Constitution single handed either by simple majority or by a
two-thirds majority. Only in case of some of the provisions the approval of the
legislatures of majority of the states is also required. Moreover, the States do not
possess any power to initiate amendments to the Constitution. All this has
contributed to the strengthening of the Centre at the cost of the States.
4. Single Citizenship
Usually in other Federations there is provision for double citizenship viz., each citizen
is not only the citizen of the country as such but is also a citizen of a particular state
in which he resides. The Indian Constitution on the other hand creates a single .
citizenship of India which is common to all the people of various States and Union
Territories. The power to grant or withdraw citizenship also vests in the Indian
Parliament and the states do not possess any power in this regard. The framers Of
the India Constitution deliberately chose to adopt single citizenship in the country
with a view to check the separatist tendencies and ensure unity of the country.
5. Inequality of Representation in
the Rajya Sabha
The Indian Constitution also deviates from the traditional principle of providing equal
representation to the States in the Upper Houses of the federal legislature. Unlike
the U.S. Senate which accords equal representation to all the States irrespective of
their size, the Indian Constitution accords representation to the various states in the
Rajya Sabha on the basis of their population. This means that the states with larger
population send
328
more representatives in comparison with the states with smaller population. Thus,
Uttar Pradesh sends thirty-four members to the Rajya Sabha while smaller states like
Mizoram and Manipur send only one member each. Further, the Rajya Sabha also
contains twelve members nominated by the President from amongst persons who
have specialised in the field of art, literature, social service, etc. This is a clear
departure from the federal principle.
6. Existence of Union Territories

Another feature which is a clear pointer to the unitary character of the Indian
Constitution is the existence of administrative units known as Union Territories. These
units are directly governed by the Central Government and do nor enjoy any
independent powers or autonomy.
7. Special powers of Rajya Sabha

on State Subjects
Under the Indian Constitution, the Rajya Sabha can authorise the Parliament to make
laws even on the subjects mentioned in the State List. Article 249 of the Constitution
provides that if the Rajya Sabha declares by a resolution supported by not less that
two-thirds of the members present and voting that the Parliament should make laws
with respect to any matter enumerated in the State List specified in the resolution, it
becomes lawful for the Parliament to make laws for the whole or any part of the
territory of India with respect to the matter while the resolution remains in force.
Such a resolution is initially valid for one year but can be further extended for a
period of one year.
The existence of this provision in the Constitution implies that the Centre can
encroach on the State List at will.
8. Emergency Provisions
The existence of the emergency provisions in the Constitution also poses a serious
challenge to the federal character of the Indian polity. The President of India is
authorised to proclaim a state of emergency under Articles 352, 356 and 360. During
the Proclamation of Emergency, the Parliament gets the powers to legislate for the
whole or any part of the territory of India with respect to any of the matters
enumerated in the State List. The Union Government can also issue
directions to the States as to the manner in which the executive authority is to be
exercised. Similarly, if the President is satisfied that the constitutional machinery of a
state is not running smoothly and there is a constitutional breakdown, he can
proclaim emergency and assume the administration of the state in his own hands.
During such a proclamation the Parliament is authorised to make laws on all the
subjects enumerated in the State List. In case of financial emergency also the Centre
can give directions to any state to observe specified canons of economy and to
reserve all their financial bills for the approval of the President. In short, during
emergencies the powers of the States are further curtailed and they become
completely subservient to the Centre. It may be noted that under a typical federation
the Federal Government does not enjoy any such powers. The changes in the
relations of the Centre and States, if any, can be effected only through an
amendment of the constitution.
9. Appointment of Governor by the

President
The provisions regarding the appointment of Governors of States by the President is
also a clear violation of the federal principles. Under the Indian Constitution, the
Governors, who are administrative heads of the State administration, are appointed
by the President and hold office during his pleasure. The states do not have any say
in their appointment or removal. Naturally the Governors act as the agents of the
Centre rather than as representatives of the states. To further ensure that the
Governors faithfully carry out the instructions of the Central Government. Annual
Conferences of Governors are held under the Chairmanship of the President of India.
At such Conferences an appraisal of the working of the Governors is made and they
are applauded or reprimanded according to their performance. This clearly gives
power to the Centre to control the administration of the states which is contrary to
the principles of a true federation.
10. Common All-India Services

Another feature which is a pointer to the unitary character of the Indian Constitution
is the provision of common All-India Services like the
329
I.A.S., I.P.S. etc. The members of these services are appointed by the President of
India on the recommendations of the Union Public Service Commission and are
accountable to the Union Government. The States have hardly any control over the
members of these Services. This is in quite contrast to the position obtained in typical
federations like U.S.A. where the states possess independent administrative services
which are appointed by and are responsible to the State concerned.
11. Single Unified Judiciary

Unlike other federations. India possesses a single unified judiciary with the Supreme
Court at the apex. The Supreme Court exercises supervision and control over the
functioning of other Courts. The writs of the Supreme Court are observed throughout
the country in all spheres-civil, constitutional and criminal. The Judges of High Courts
are also independent of the states, who do not possess any power with regard to
their appointment, removal and service conditions. They are appointed by the
President and can be removed by him only after they are impeached by the
Parliament. Further there are no separate sets of laws and a single civil and criminal
procedure operates throughout the country. All this is a clear pointer to the unitary
character of the Constitution and is in complete contrast to the position prevailing in
U.S.A. where two separate sets of Courts exist-one for the State and the other for the
states.
12. Centralised Election Machinery

The Constitution provides for an Election Commission which is responsible for the
conduct, supervision, direction and control of the elections not only to the Parliament
but to the State Legislature as well. The members of the Election Commission are
appointed by the President in consultation with the Prime Minister and the states do
not have any say in their appointment, removal working or service conditions. This is
yet another unitary feature of the Indian Constitution.
13. Comptroller and Auditor

General
The creation of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, who is
responsible for
the audit of the accounts of the Centre as well as the States is also a violation of the
federal principle. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India is appointed by the
President and the states have no say in his appointment or removal.
14. Inter-State Councils and Boards

The Constitution makes provision for the appointment of inter-State Councils and
Boards for the settlement of disputes and differences between the Centre and the
States and among the States. The members of these Inter-State Councils and Boards
are appointed by the President and make necessary recommendations to the
President regarding the settlement of these disputes. It is noteworthy that in the
appointment of the Chairman and members of these Councils and Boards, the states
have no say. This is a clear encroachment on the autonomy of the units of the Indian
Federation.
15. Constitution does not Protect

Territorial Integrity of States
Unlike other federations where the territorial integrity of the states is protected by
the Constitution, the Constitution of India does not contain any provision to this
effect. On the other hand, it specifically denies this right to the states. For example
Article 3 of the Constitution authorises the
Parliament to change the name, territory or boundary of any State without

ascertaining their wishes. The Parliament can also bifurcate an existing State or
combine two or more States into one State. In other words, the very existence of the
States depends on the sweet will of the Central Government.
It is evident from the above discussion that though the Indian Constitution
outwardly possesses a federal structure, in spirit it is unitary. The framers of the
Constitution deliberately made the Centre strong in keeping with the inescapable
realities of the situation. Some of the factors which weighed with the framers of the
Constitution to create a strong centre were (a) to keep the fissiparous tendencies
which appeared in the country on the eve of partition under check and to ensure
unity of the country; (b) to effectively tackle with the serious law and order problem
which arose due to large scale migration of population from the areas placed under
Pakistan; (c) to solve
330
the problem of food shortage and inflation which confronted the country at the time
of the partition; (d) the historical experience also convinced them that India had
fallen a prey to the foreign powers due to internecine rivalries and weak central
government and they thought it desirable to make the centre strong; (e) to check the
separatist tendencies shown by some of the princely states which posed a threat to
the unity and integrity of the country; and (f) the framers tried to fall in line with the
trend prevailing in other federations of the world where the Centre had grown strong
in course of time.
Sardar K.M. Panikkar justified a strong centre thus: "The purpose which the
Founding Fathers had in view not only to hold in check the fissiparous tendencies
which led to the disruption of former empire, and to maintain the unity which had
been achieved after so much struggle, but to endow the Central Government with all
powers necessary in the political and economic field to enable India to undertake a
policy of planned development which would raise her to the position of a modern
nation, unhampered by the statutory rights of state governments".
It cannot be denied that the partnership between the Centre and the States under
the Indian Constitution is one amongst unequals and the Centre stands Supreme. In
view of this supreme position of the Centre the assertion of Prof. Wheare that "the
new Constitution establishes a unitary State with subsidiary federal features, rather
than federal State with subsidiary unitary features" seems to be correct. P.B.
Gajendragadkar, a former Chief Justice of India also says "The Indian Constitution
could be both unitary as well as federal, according to the requirements of the time
and circumstances. The Constitution-makers were fully impressed by the need to
emphasize the unity of the country when they framed the Constitution and so the
structure which they set up, though it partakes some of the characteristics of a
federal structure, cannot be said to be federal in the true sense of the term."
CENTRE-STATE RELATIONS
As noted above the Constitution of India provides a dual polity with a clear division of
powers between the Union and the states, each being
supreme within the sphere allotted to it. The States in India are not the creation of
the Centre nor do they draw their authority from the Union Government. On the other
hand, like the Union Government, they draw their authority from the Constitution and
are free to operate in the field allocated to them by the Constitution. The relations
between the Centre and the States can be fruitfully studied under the following
heads:
Legislative Relations
The Union-State relations in the legislative sphere have been dealt by Articles 245 to
254. The Constitution clearly provides that the Parliament shall have exclusive
jurisdiction to make law for the whole or any part of the territory of India with regard
to subjects mentioned in the Union List. This list contains subjects like defence,
foreign affairs, currency, union duties, communication, etc. On the other hand, the
States enjoy exclusive power over the 66 items enumerated in the State List. This list
contains subjects like public order, health, sanitation, agriculture, etc. In addition
there is a Concurrent List containing 47 subjects like criminal law and procedure,
marriage, contracts, trusts, social insurance etc. over which both the Union and the
State Governments can legislate. However, if the laws of the Union Government and
the State Government come into clash with each other the former prevails. The
Constitution also vests the residuary powers (viz., the powers not enumerated in any
of the three lists) with the Central Government. It may be noted that in this
distribution of powers the Union Government has certainly been given a favoured
treatment. It has not only been granted more extensive powers than the States, even
the residuary powers have been granted to it contrary to the convention in other
federations of the world, where the residuary powers are given to the States.
Though under ordinary circumstances the Central government does not possess
power to legislate on subjects enumerated in the State List, but under certain special
conditions the Union Parliament can make laws even on these subjects. In the
following cases the Union Parliament can legislate on the subjects listed in the State
List.
(a) If the Rajya Sabha declares by a resolution supported by not less than twothirds of the members present and voting that it is
Indian Federalism: Theory Practice and Problems 331
necessary or expedient in the national interest that the Parliament should make
laws with respect to any matter enumerated in the State List specified in the
resolution. After such a resolution is passed it is lawful for the Parliament to make
laws for the whole or any part of the territory of India with respect to that matter
while the resolution remains in force. Such a resolution remains in force for a
period of one year and can be further extended by one year by means of
subsequent resolution.
(b)
The Parliament can legislate on the subjects mentioned in the State List when
the Proclamation of Emergency has been made by the President on grounds of
internal disturbances or external aggression. However, the laws thus made by the
Parliament shall cease to have effect on the expiration of a period of six months after
the proclamation has ceased to operate, except as respects things done or omitted to
be done before the expiry of
the said period.

(c) The President can also authorise the Parliament to exercise the powers of the
State legislature during the proclamation of emergency due to breakdown of
constitutional machinery in a State. But all such laws passed by the Parliament
cease to operate six months after the Proclamation of Emergency comes to an
end.
(d) The Parliament can also be authorised to legistate on a State subject if the
Legislatures of two or more States feel it desirable that any of the matters with
respect to which the Parliament has no power to make laws for the States should
be regulated in such States by Parliament by law, and if resolutions to that effect
are passed by the Legislatures of those States. Thereafter any act passed by the
Parliament shall apply to such States and to any other State by which it is
adopted afterwards by resolution passed in that behalf by the House or, where
there are
two Houses, by each of the Houses of the
Legislature of that State. The Parliament
also reserves the right to amend or repeal
any such act.
(e) The Parliament can make law for the
whole or any part of the territory of India
for implementing any treaty, agreement or
convention with any other country or
countries or any decision made at any
international conference, association or
other body. Any law passed by the
Parliament for this purpose cannot be
invalidated on the ground that it relates to
the subject mentioned in the State List".
It is quite evident from the above discussion
that the Union enjoys a position of superiority in
the legislative sphere and at times the States are
completely at its mercy.
Administrative Relations
The administrative jurisdiction of the Union and the State Government extends to the
subjects in the Union List and State List respectively, which clearly establishes the
superiority of the Union Government in the administrative sphere as well. In addition
the Constitution contains a number of provisions which accord a position of
superiority to the Union Government. Article 256 lays down that the executive power
of every State shall be so exercised as to ensure compliance with the laws made by
Parliament and any existing laws which apply in that State, and the executive power
of the Union shall extend to the giving of such directions to a State as may appear to
the Government of India to be necessary for that purpose. Similarly, Article 257 of
the Constitution provides that the executive power of every State shall be so
exercised as not to impede or prejudice the exercise of the executive power of the
Union, and the executive power of the Union shall extend to giving of such directions
to a State as may appear to the Government of India to be necessary for that
purpose. In short, the Union Government even issue directions to the State
Government even with regard to the subjects enumerated in the State List. The Union
Government can also give directions to the State with regard to construction and
maintenance of the means of communication
332
declared to be of national or military importance. It can also ask the State

government to construct and maintain means of communication as part of its
functions regarding the measures to be taken for the protection of the railways within
the jurisdiction of the State. It may be noted that the expenses incurred by the State
Governments for the discharge of these functions have to be reimbursed by the
Union Government. It may be noted that the State Governments cannot ignore the
directions of the Union Government, otherwise the President can take the plea that
the government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions
of the Constitution and impose President's rule on the State. In such an eventuality,
the President shall assume to himself all or any of the functions of the State
Government.
The President of India can also entrust to the officers of the State certain
functions of the Union Government. However, before doing so the President has to
take the consent of the State Government. Further the extra cost incurred by the
States in the discharge of these obligations has to be reimbursed by the Union
Government.
The presence of All India Services like the Indian Administrative Services and the
Indian Police Service further accords a predominant position to the Union
government. The members of these services are recruited and appointed by the
President of India on the basis of a competitive examination held by the Union Public
Service Commission. Although the members of these services are posted on key
posts in the State administration their service conditions etc. are regulated by the
Union Government. This naturally leads to their loyalty towards the Union
Government. The right to create new All India Services also rests with the Union
Parliament. The Union Parliament can create a new All India Service only if the Rajya
Sabha passes a resolution by two- thirds majority of the members present and voting
that it is necessary in the national interest to do so.
The Parliament has been vested with power to adjudicate any dispute or
complaint with respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of or in any
inter-state river or river valley. In this
regard the Parliament also reserves the right to exclude such disputes from the
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court or other Courts.
To ensure proper co-ordination between various States the President can set up
Inter-State Council. This Council may be entrusted with the duty of (a) inquiring into
and advising upon disputes which may have arisen between States; (b) investigate
and discuss subjects in which some or all of the States, or the Union and one or more
of the State have a common interest; or (c) make recommendations upon any such
subject and in particular, recommendation for the better coordination of policy and
action with respect to that subject. The organization, working procedure and duties of
the Inter-State Council are also to be determined by the President.
As the Constitution of India provides for a single judicial system both the Union and
the State Governments are duty bound to give full faith and credit to public acts,
records, proceedings and judicial decisions of the Supreme Court and the High
Courts. The manner in which these acts, records and proceedings have to be
preserved is determined by Parliament by law and the states
do not have any say in this regard. In the matter of the appointment of the Chief
Justice and Judges of the Supreme Court as well as the High Courts, the States have
no say. They are appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of
India and such other judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, as he deems
fit to consult. The initiative for the removal of these judges also rests with the
Parliament which can pass necessary resolution for their impeachment and
recommend to the President to rake necessary action. The States are in no way
connected with the appointment or removal of the judges of the Supreme Court or
High Courts.
Financial Relations
Generally in a typical federation along with the distribution of legislative and
administrative powers, the financial resources of the country are also so distributed
as to ensure financial independence to the units. However, the Indian Constitution
does not make a clear cut distribution of the financial resources and leaves much to
be
333
decided by the Central Government from time to time. The financial resources which
have been placed at the disposal of the States are so meagre that they have to look
up to the Union Government for subsidies and contributions. The distribution of the
financial resources in India has broadly been made as follows:
1. Taxes Exclusively Assigned to

the Union
Income from certain subjects like customs and exports duties, income tax, excise
duties on tobacco, jute, cotton etc., corporation tax, taxes on capital value of assets,
individuals and companies; Estate duty and succession duty in respect of property
and other than agricultural lands; and income from the earnings of departments like
the railways; and postal departments have been exclusively assigned to the Union
Government by the Constitution.
2. Taxes Exclusively Assigned to

States
Income from land revenue, stamp duty except on documents included in the Union
List; succession duty and Estate duty in respect of agricultural land; income-tax on
agricultural lands; taxes on goods and passengers carried by road or inland water;
taxes on vehicles used on roads, animals, boats, taxes on the consumption or sale of
electricity, tolls, taxes on lands callings and buildings; taxes on professions, trades
callings and employment; duties on alcoholic liquors for human consumption, opium,
Indian hemp and other narcotic drugs; taxes on the entry of goods into local areas;
taxes on luxuries, entertainments, amusements, betting and gambling, etc. has been
assigned to the States.
3. Tax Leviable by Union but

Collected and Appropriated by
the States
The taxes on the following items are levied by the Union Government but the actual
revenues from them are collected and appropriated by the states (i) stamp duties on
bills of exchange, cheques, promissory notes bills of lading, letters of credit, policies
of insurance, transfer of shares etc., (ii)
Excise duties on medicinal toilet preparations containing alcohol or opium or Indian
hemp or other narcotic drugs.
4. Taxes levied and collected by the

Union but assigned to States
The taxes in this category are levied and collected by the Union Government
although they are subsequently handed over to the State where from they have been
collected. Such taxes include duties in respect of succession to property other than
agricultural land; estate duty in respect of property other than agricultural land;
terminal taxes on goods or passengers carried by railway, sea or air; taxes on railway
freights and fares; taxes other than stamp duties on transactions in stock exchanges
and future markets; taxes on the sale or purchase of newspapers and on
advertisements published therein; taxes on purchase or sale of goods other than
newspapers where such sale or purchase take place in the course of inter-state trade
or commerce.
5. Taxes levied and collected by

Union but shared with states
Taxes on income other than agricultural income and excise duties other than those on
medicinal and toilet preparations are levied and collected by the Union Government
but shared with the states on an equitable basis. The basis of distribution is
determined by the Parliament through a law.
6. Finance Commission
Although the Constitution has made an effort to allocate every possible source of
revenue either to the Union or the States, but this allocation is quite broad based. For
the purpose of allocation of certain sources of revenue between the Union and the
State Government the Constitution provides for the establishment of a Finance
Commission. According to the Constitution, the President of India is authorised to set
up a Finance Commission every five years to make recommendation regarding (a) the
distribution between the Union and the States of the net proceeds of taxes to be
divided and the allocation between the States of respective source of such proceeds;
(b) the principles which should govern the grants-in aid
334
of the revenues of the States out of the Consolidated Fund of India; (c) any other
matter referred to the Commission by the President in the interest of sound finance.
This arrangement places the financial arrangements between the Union and the
States outside the place of political pressure and influence.
7. Grants-in-aid
The Constitution also makes provision for Grants-in-aid to the States out of the
revenues of the Centre. These grants are given by the Parliament out of the
Consolidated Fund of India to such States which are in need of assistance. The
decision whether a State is in need of assistance or not rests with the Parliament.
Further different States may be granted different sums. The Union Government also
pays to the States such capital and recurring sums as may be necessary to enable
that State to meet the costs of such of schemes of development as may be
undertaken by the State with the approval of the Government of India for the purpose
of promoting the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in that State or raising the level of
administration of the Scheduled areas therein.
The Constitution makes provision for special grants to the State of Assam to meet
the costs of such schemes of development as may be undertaken by that State with
the approval of the Government of India for the purpose of raising the level of
administration of the rest of the areas of that state. Special grants are also paid to
the States of Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal out of the consolidated Fund of
India in lieu of assignment of any share of the net proceeds in each year of export
duty on jute and jute products to those States. It may be noted that the sums to be
paid to these States are prescribed by the President of India.
8. Comptroller and Auditor-General

of India
The Union Government exercises control over the finances of the States through the
Comptroller Auditor-General of India. The Comptroller and Auditor-General, who is
appointed by the President of India is responsible for the maintenance and audit of
the accounts of the Union as well as States. He decides the forms in
which the accounts of the States have to be maintained. While doing so Comptroller
and Auditor-General does not consult the State governments.
9. Tightening of Union's Control During Financial Emergency

During-financial emergency the control of the Central Government over the finance
of the States is further tightened. The Union Government acquires the right to issue
directions to the state to (a) observe such canons of financial propriety and other
safeguards as may be specified; (b) reduce the salaries and allowances of all persons
serving in connection with the affairs of the State, including High Court Judges; (c)
reserve for the consideration of the President all Money Bills passed by the State
Legislature.
It is clear from the above discussion that the States in India do not possess
adequate finances and have to look to the Union Government for assistance. This
increasing dependence on the Union Government inevitably results in the curtailment
of their autonomy, which poses a serious threat to the existence of a federal
structure. In view of the weak position of the States in the financial sphere, there has
been growing demand for allocation of more financial resources to the States so that
they may be able to enjoy greater autonomy.
DYNAMICS OF STATE POLITICS

India is a 'Union of States' comprising of 28 states and 7 Union Territories. All these
states, with the exception of Jammu and Kashmir (which has a separate constitution)
are governed by the same Constitution. Naturally under such a system one expects
an identical political pattern in various states greatly differs and one can notice wide
variations in the politics of various states. In some of the states the people are highly
political conscious and take keen interest in the political process, while in others they
are quite indifferent. Further, the presence of different types of political parties in the
various states and the difference in the manner of their governance has also
contributed to the variations in stage politics above all the political process in
different states
Indian Federalism: Theory Practice and

Problems 335
has been greatly influenced by the social, ecnomic, religious, linguistic and other
factors obtaining in the state. Hanson and Douglas have rightly observed "Institutions
with the same formal character operate very differently and even serve similar
purposes from one part of the country to another.
FEATURES OF STATE POLITICS

As not one but many patterns of politics operate in the Indian states, it is indeed
doubtful if we can specify the features of state politics in India. However, despite
these differences there are some common features of state politics which are as
under.
1. State politics is a combination of modernity and traditionalism.
2. There is no uniform rate of particion in different states.
3. The leadership at the state level has tended to shift in the hands of the young
leaders and the traditional leadership has been pushed to the background.
4. There is greater political competition in the states as compared to the centre.
5. State politics is highly faction ridden.
6. Politics at the state level is highly segmented and tension exists between
different regions of the state.
7. For a long time growing defection has been an important feature of the state
politics. This trend has now somewhat been brought under control due to the
enactment of the anti-defection law.
8. On account of the widespread prevalence of defections the states have
witnessed greater political instability.
9. The state politics in India has been subjected to too much of interference by
the centre. If the same political party or group is in power both at the centre
and the states this interference greatly increases.
IMPORTANCE OF STATE POLITICS

The study of state politics has great value. In the first place it serves as a useful
training ground for the national politicians. Usually these politicians serve some sort
of apprenticeship at the local and state level before playing an active role at the
national level. Secondly, it enables the states to bear shocks associated with
economic developmental progress before their trial at the national level. Thirdly, the
study of state politics sharpens our understanding of the Indian political system. For
example, we cannot understand the working of the Indian federal system without
examining the role of the states in its operations. Finally, the state politics is an
important link between the national politics and local politics. It is only through the
state that the politics of village, city and town gets linked with the national politics.
Unit VI
DYNAMICS OF STATE POLITICS
'>-"~?^ J)rfh,S *^~
Local
GovernmentRural and Urban
The successful working of democracy demands association of the people at the

various levels of administration. Panchayati Raj or Democratic Decentralisation aims
at associating the people with the administration at the grassroots level. The people
are entrusted with the responsibility of formulating and implementing their own
plans. However, they have to do all that under the supervision and control of the
higher units of administration.
HISTORY
The institution of Panchayati Raj is not new to India. It has existed since earliest
times. We get numerous references about the Panchayats in Manusmriti,
Mahabharata and Arthasastra, which testify that village has been a basic unit of
administration since earliest times. During the Muslim rule also the system continued
to operate unobstructed. With the assumption of power by the British and the
adoption of policy of centralization, the Panchayats suffered a temporary setback. But
soon the British realised the value of this institution and the Decentralization
Commission recommended in its Report in 1907.
"In ignoring the village as the primary unit of local self-government, the
government made the beginning with a false step. This scany success hitherto made
to introduce a system of rural self-government, is largely due to the fact that we have
not built from the bottom and hence it is most desirable to constitute and develop
village panchayats for administration of certain local affairs with the villages."
However, the Government of India did not pay any serious attention to the
recommendations of the Commission. The out-break of the First World War gave a
further setback to the demand for revival of panchayats.
With the introduction of the system of dyarchy under the Montague-Chelmsford
Reforms of 1919, the responsibility of local self-government institutions were
transferred to the ministers. These ministers enacted number of laws with a view to
revive the Panchayati Raj institution, but could not achieve much success due to
paucity of finances. During the 1920's, Mahatma Gandhi made a strong plea for
introduction of self-government in the villages with a view to improve their economy.
However, the British Government did not pay any heed.
It was only in 1937, when the Congress Ministries were formed, that attention was
paid to the establishment of the gram panchayats and their reorganisation. However,
before they could achieve anything substantial in this direction, the British declared
India as a party to war without consulting the popular ministries. This resulted in
resignation of the Congress Ministries. These developments gave a great setback to
the movement for revival of panchayats.
PANCHAYATI RAJ AFTER INDEPENDENCE

Soon after World War II, the elections to the central and provincial legislatures, were
held and the Congress was returned to power. Once again, it paid attention to the
issue of revival of panchayats
340
and passed numerous Acts. When the new Constitution for India was framed, the
framers of the Constitution in due deference to the wishes of Mahatma Gandhi
incorporated Article 40 in the Constitution which directed the government to take
necessary steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such power and
authority as may be necessary to enable them to work as units of self-government.
BALWANT RAI MEHTA COMMITTEE

In pursuance of these provisions of the Constitution several state governments took
necessary steps to organise village panchayats. The idea received further strength
when some of the states
launched the Community Development Projects. The Second Five Year Plan also
made a bid to secure the co-operation of the local people in the implementation of
the plans. However, all these efforts did not yield the desired results. Ultimately, in
January, 1957, the Government of India appointed a team for the Study of
Community Projects and National Extension Service, under the Chairmanship of
Balwant Rai Mehta. The team was required to study and report on the working of the
community projects and national extension service and also to suggest ways and
means for making the community development schemes more economical and
efficient. The Committee during the course of its deliberations came to the conclusion
that the Community Development and the National Extension Service work had failed
to evoke popular initiative and response in the field of rural development. The people
thought it to be the responsibility of the Government to implement the various
projects and did not display any spirit of self-improvement, self-dependence, selfhelp, self-reliance and self-programming. The Committee observed "Admittedly, one
of the least successful aspects of the CD. (Community Development) and N.E.S.
(National Extension Service) work is its attempts to evoke popular initiative. We have
found that few of the local bodies at a level higher than the village panchayat have
shown any enthuasism or interest in their work; and even the panchayats have not
come into the field to any appreciable extent. An attempt has been made to harness
local initiative through the formation of adhoc bodies, mostly nominated personnel and invariably advisory in character.
These bodies have so far given no indication of durable strength nor the leadership
necessary to provide the motive force for continuing the improvement of economic
and social condition in rural areas".
The Committee opined that popular association in the rural work was a prerequisite for its success. It asserted, "So long as we do not discover or create a
representative and democratic institution which will supply the local interest,
supervision and care necessary to ensure that expenditure of money upon local
object conforms with the needs and wishes of the locality, invest it with adequate
power and assign to it appropriate finances, we will never be able, to evoke local
interest and excite local initiative in the field of development."
The Committee did not favour introduction of a uniform system throughout the
country and laid down certain principles. The states were to be left free to evolve
their own pattern while observing the fundamentals. The main principles emphasised
by the Committee were as follows:
1. Rural development and rural improvement were possible only with local
initiative. This in turn could be possible through Democratic Decentralisation.
Democracy implied that the bodies incharge of developmental work in the
rural areas should be elected ones, because elected bodies alone could work
according to the wishes and needs of the people. Decentralisation on the other
bodies, with sufficient discretion and financial resources. The government
should not have any control over them, except it gives them necessary
guidance.
2. There should be a three-tier structure from village to the district with the
intermediary structure serving as a link between the two. According to the
scheme proposed by the Committee there was to be a Village Panchayat at the
base; the Panchayat Samiti covering a group of villages in the middle and the
Zila Parishad at the top. It may be observed that while suggesting this threetier structure the Committee did not make use
1.
Local GovernmentRural and Urban 341
of the term 'Panchayati Raj' even though the structural design recommended
by the Mehta Scheme is popularly known as such. This term was used by
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, because of its popular appeal.

3. There should be genuine transfer of power and responsibility to these
institutions and all the programmes of social and economic development
should be channelised through them.
4. Adequate resources should be provided to these bodies so that they may
discharge their responsibilities effectively.
5. This system should be tried with an intention to make further devolution and
dispersal of power and responsibilities in future.
These recommendations of the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee were accepted by
the Central Government as well as majority of the state governments. The lead in this
regard was provided by states of Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. In accordance with
the recommendations of the Committee, a number of states created three-tier
system of rural local self-government institutions, on the pattern of Andhra Pradesh
and Rajasthan, with some modifications. Some of the States like Maharashtra
introduced a system which was drastically different from the system introduced in
Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. Some of the states created only one-tier, viz., the
Village Panchayats (Jammu and Kashmir and Kerala), while others created a two-tier
system (Orissa and Haryana). Even in those states which created three-tier system
there was difference attached to each of them. Even the level at which the three-tier
system operates in different states, differs. Despite these differences, the basic
pattern of the system is largely based on the recommendations of the Mehta
Committee.
THE THREE-TIER SYSTEM

It shall be desirable to know about three-tier system of Panchayati Raj in some detail:
1. Village Panchayats
The Panchayat, which forms the basic unit of the three-tier structure, is an executive
body of the
village. It chiefly consists of representatives elected by the people of the village.
Only the persons who are registered as voters and do not hold any office of profit
under the Government are eligible for election to the Panchayat. The persons
convicted by the court for criminal offences are disqualified from election of the
Panchayat. There is also provision for co-option of two women and one member of
the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, if they do not get adequate
representation in the normal course. The panchayat has an elected Chairman,
popularly known as Sarpanch. The panchayat as a body is accountable to the general
body of the village known as Gram Sabha which meets at least twice a year. All the
accounts of the Panchayat are examined by the Gram Sabha, which also takes
account of the administrative activities for the Panchayat. The Gram Sabha reserves
the right to lay down guidelines for the Panchayat. All schemes of development,
taxation proposals etc. are also approved by the Gram Sabha.
As regards the main functions performed by the Village Panchayat they include
maintenance of roads, wells, schools, burning and burial grounds sanitation, public
health, street lighting, libraries, reading rooms, community centre etc. The Panchayat
also keeps records of births and deaths. It takes necessary measures for the
promotion of agriculture and animal husbandry, cottage
industries, co-operative societies etc. The minor disputes among the residents of
village are also settled by the Village panchayat.
The Gram Panchayats can levy certain taxes and duties to meet their expenses.
Some of the taxes which the Gram Panchayats can levy include tax on animals,
vehicles, house, vacant lands and professions. They can also levy duty on transfer of
property situated in the area under their jurisdiction. The fees paid for presenting civil
and criminal cases before the panchayats and fines on account of violation of
Panchayat laws are other sources of its income. But as the duties to be performed by
the Panchayats are so onerous they have to depend on the state government for
further finances.
2.
Block Level
The block is the intermediary structure in the three-tier scheme and forms the hub of
the
developmental work. Recommending the creation of this structure the Committee

observed that the Village Panchayat was too small in area, population and financial
resource to carry out all functions; and that many districts were too large in area and
population to sustain the personal interest of the people in the various activities. The
Block according to the Committee offered "an area large enough for functions which
the Village Panchayat cannot perform and yet small enough to attract the interest
and services of residents."
Usually, a block consists of 20 to 60 villages depending on area and population. At
this level, there exists a body which is popularly known as Panchayat Samiti,
although it is also known by several other names in different states. The Panchayat
Samiti generally consists of: (1) about twenty members elected by and from the
Panches of all the Panchayats falling in the block area; (2) two women members and
one member each from the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to be co-opted,
provided they do not get adequate representation otherwise; (3) two local persons
possessing experience of public life and administration, which may be beneficial for
the rural development; (4) representatives of the cooperatives working within the
jurisdiction of the blocks; (5) one representative elected by and from the members of
each small municipality lying within the geographical limits of a block.
The Chairman of the Panchayat Samiti is generally a non-official and is elected by
the members of the Samiti. He is commonly known as Pradhan. The normal life of the
Panchayat Samiti is five years.
The main function of the Panchayat Samiti is to co-ordinate the work of the
various panchayats within its jurisdiction. It also looks after the developmental work
within its area. For this purpose, it is responsible for the preparation of plans for
development. After these plans are approved by the State Government, the
responsibility for their implementation also rests with the Panchayat Samiti. The
Panchayat Samiti exercises supervision over the work of Panchayats in its area and
scrutinises their budgets. It also reserves the right to make necessary suggestions for
the better working of the Panchayats.
The functions performed by the Panchayat Samiti gives the impression that it has
been vested
with very extensive power. But in reality, the Panchayat Samiti plays a very limited
role. It has no independence regarding suggestions for allocation.of priorities and is
mainly concerned with the implementation of the directives of State Government. As
a result, the very purpose of associating the rural people with the administration is
defeated. Nonetheless, the Panchayat Samiti serves a useful training ground for the
political leaders for higher responsibilities at the district and state levels.
3. Zila Parishad
The Zila Parishad stands at the apex of the three-tier structure and is the highest
developmental agency in the State. Though the organisation of the Zila Parishad
differs in different states, generally it consists of representatives of the Panchayat
Samiti; all the members of the State Legislature and the Parliament representing a
part or whole of the district; all district level officers of the Medical, Public Health,
Public Works, Engineering Agriculture, Veterinary, Education, and other Development
departments. There is also provision for special representation of women members of
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes provided they are not adequately
represented the normal course. The Collector or the Deputy Commissioner is also a
member of the Zila Parishad. He also acts as the Chairman of the Parishad.
Most of the work of the Zila Parishad is carried through standing committees
elected by the general body. The number of the members constituting Standing
Committees at the Zila Parishad level varies from state to state and from Panchayat
Samiti to Panchayat Samiti. The Chairman of the Zila Parishad and the District
Collector are the ex-officio members of these committees.
The Zila Parishad mainly performs coordinating and supervisory functions. It
coordinates the activities of the Panchayat Samitis falling within jurisdiction. In
certain states, the Zila Parishad also approves the budget of the Panchayat Samitis.
The Zila Parishad also renders necessary advice to the Government of the State with
regard to the implementation of the various development schemes. In addition to
these supervisory and advisory functions, the Zila Parishad is also responsible for the
maintenance of primary and secondary schools, hospitals,
Local GovernmentRural and Urban 343
dispensaries, minor irrigation works etc. It also tries to promote local industries and
art. The necessary finance for the Zila Parishad are provided by assigning it a share
of land leases and other taxes.
OFFICIALS AT THE VARIOUS LEVELS

Certain officials are also associated with the Panchayati Raj institutions at the various
levels. At the Gram Panchayat level generally there is a Secretary, who works on
part-time basis. If the size of the Panchayat is big it can employ other persons. For
example in Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, the Panchayats also engage officers like
Executive Officer, Panchayat Assistant and other class IV employees like scavengers,
watchmen, peons, etc.
At the block level the team of officials is headed by the Block Development Officer
(BDO), who
is generally deputed by the Government departments. He is a government

servant but has been made responsible to the Panchayat Samiti. In addition there are
a number of Extension Officers under him, who look after the development work. Still
below them are the Village Development Officers who work under the Extension
Officers. The Village Development Officers acquaint the village people with the
modern techniques of agriculture. Sometimes, they are also entrusted with the
responsibility of collection of loans etc. In addition to these technical personnel, there
are other members of the staff under BDO. This includes the Office Manager, the
UDCs and LDCs.
Finally, at the Zila level, there are three types of officials. First, there are officers
like the District Collector and the District Technical Officers, who are associated with
the Panchayati Raj but are not under its administrative control. Secondly, there are
officers like Secretary of Zila Parishad and Executive Engineer, who come on
deputation from various government departments. Thirdly, there are employees
employed by the Zila Parishad and are under its direct administrative control.
The Significance of Panchayati Raj

The Panchayati Raj or Democratic decentralisation is a commendable effort for quick
rural development with the co-operation of the local
people. It is an acknowledgement of the fact that the central and the state
governments do not possess adequate knowledge of the local affairs as well as faith
in the capacity of the local people to manage their local affairs. In no other advanced
country, the local people have been bestowed with so much of responsibility in
carrying out the development programmes as in India. In this sense it constitutes a
significant contribution to the theory and practice of nation-building activities in the
developing area.
SHORTCOMINGS
However, the Panchayat Raj in India has not been an outright success. Its working
over all these years has demonstrated numerous shortcomings in its working. Some
of the defects of Panchayati Raj are as follows:
1. Unscientific Allocation of Functions

The scheme is defective in so far as the distribution of functions between the
structures at different levels has not been made along scientific lines. An effort has
been made to mix up the development and local self-government functions, even
though the requirements of the two type of functions are quite different. Whereas,
the development functions have to be carried out in a planned manner and involves
too much of central control, direction and drive; the look functions envisage complete
freedom to direct and implement the local programme. The blending of these two
types of functions has greatly jeopardized the autonomy of the local self-government
institutions and has virtually converted them into agents of the state governments,
which is against the basic principles of local self-government. Again, functions have
been allocated to various structures without due regard to their competence or
capacity. For example, the Panchayats and the Panchayat Samitis have been
entrusted with the responsibility of providing services like lock roads, schools,
medical relief, etc. Without making available necessary financial resources, it is
difficult to understand that how these agencies can provide the services without
adequate finances. Even the functions assigned to the Panchayat and the Panchayat
Samiti overlap, which gives rise to
confusion duplication of efforts and shifting of responsibility.
2. Incompatible Relations between

Three-Tiers
Another serious defect of the Panchayat Raj institutions is that the three-tiers do not
operate as functional authorities and there is a tendency on the part of the higher
structure to treat the lower structures as their subordinates. This hierarchical
domination and predominance, according to Prof. M.P. Sharma, "filters down step by
step from Zila Parishad to Panchayat Samiti and from them to the Village
Panchayats." This kind of mutual relationship is hardly compatible with the real spirit
of democratic decentralisation. The three structures should perform the functions
which they are best suited to perform and the higher tier should not make any effort
to dominate or control the lower units. The higher units should be made to realise
that they exist merely to co-ordinate the activities of the lower units and to provide
necessary guidance in case of need.
3. Inadequate Finance
The inadequate finances have also stood in the way of successful working of the
Panchayati Raj. Since enormous developmental duties have been assigned to the
Panchayat Raj institutions, it is desirable that they should be provided with sufficient
finances so that they may carry out their duties effectively and successfully. No
doubt, the various Panchayat institutions have been allocated certain independent
sources of income and are permitted to levy certain fees, direct and indirect taxes
etc., but these are not sufficient to meet their financial requirements. Further, the
Panchayat are generally reluctant to raise necessary funds through taxes etc. due to
fear of losing popularity with the people. For the successful and smooth working of
the Panchayat Raj institution, it is desirable that the states should make available
sufficient funds to these institutions. It has been suggested that in addition to
handing over the entire proceeds from the land revenue collected from the area, the
state should provide substantial grants. However, in actual practice the states have
shown great reluctance to provide adequate finances to Panchayat Raj institutions on
the plea that they do not possess sufficient resources and
greater grants could greatly fell on their already insufficient sources. The state should
be made to realise that the Panchayat Raj institutions are undertaking some of the
functions of the State government and lightening their burden, it is their duty to
make available additional finances to the Panchayat insitutions.
4. Uncordial Relation between

Officials and People
Though the Panchayat Raj was introduced with a view to provide effective
participation to the people, in reality the key administrative and technical positions
are manned by the government officials, who are under the administrative control of
the state governments, and care very little for the local people. Generally, there is
lack of proper co-operation between the people and the officials
like Block Development Officers, and the District Officers. The over-domineering
attitude these officials is disliked by the people and contributes to their unpopularity.
In fact, as these officials are drawn from the urban areas, they are not able to fully
appreciate the feelings and sentiments of the rural people. It is, therefore, desirable
that the administrative officials associated with the Panchayati Raj institutions should
be drawn from amongst persons with necessary rural background so that they may
be able to discharge the development duties more efficiently. These officials should
also work with missionary zeal and try to assist the people in every possible manner.
In short, effort should be made to develop cordial relations between the
administrative officials and the popularly elected representatives of the Panchayat
Raj institutions.
5. Undemocratic Composition of
Various Panchayat Ra]
Institutions
The various Panchayat Raj institutions are constituted in violation of the democratic
norms. For example, the Panchayat Samiti is elected by the members of the Village
Panchayat. This indirect election not on cuts off the members of the Panchayat Samiti
from the common voters, but also increases the charges of corruption and bribery.
Even the Zila Parishad which enjoys significant tutelary powers over other tiers,
Local GovernmentRural and Urban
345
consists of mainly ex-officio members. The majority of its members, as well as its
Chairman and Secretary are government officials. This is clear contrary to the
democratic principles. These officials generally attach more importance to efficiency
of administration without bothering about the principles of self-government.
6. Infiltration of Party Politics

There has been a steady infiltration of party politics at the various levels of
Panchayat Raj, contrary to the expectations entertained at the time of introduction of
Panchayat Raj, that these institutions shall work without party politics. The active
involvement of political parties at the various levels of Panchayat Raj has also
resulted in play of caste, creed and similar other factors, which pose a serious threat
to the unity of the people. This trend must be curbed at once and effort should be
made to discourage parochial thinking among the people. This can best attained by
offering additional financial assistance to those Panchayat Raj insitutions which shun
the dissentious tendencies and take uniform decisions.
7. Tight Control of Government

The tight control exercised by the government over the various Panchayat Raj
institutions is also contrary to the principle of democratic decentralisation on which
the Panchayat Raj institutions rest. This control exercised both through the various
officials at the Zila Parishad as well as laying down conditions while making available
necessary grants to these institutions. Above all, the State Governments are vest
with the power to supersede the local bodies. This is clearly contrary to the 'grassroot
democracy' approach to administration.
The growing role of technology in the production process has also greatly
contributed to the centralising tendencies and undermined the Panchayat Raj
institutions. The central government has tried to carry out special programmes by
evolving an independent administrative machinery by passing the Panchayat Raj
institutions. Some of the agencies thus created by the central government include
Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA), Tribal Development Agency (TDA) and
Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL). As these

agencies work under directions of the central government they have greatly
undermined the role of the Panchayat Raj institutions.
8.
Increased Financial Disparities
Finally, it is pointed out that the Panchayat Raj appears to have contributed more to
the deepening of economic disparities than to have levelled them and the benefits of
the development appear to have accrued to the politically dominant who are also in
most of the cases economically and socially dominant.
ASHOK MEHTA COMMITTEE

In view of the various shortcomings in the working of the Panchayat Raj institutions,
the Janata Government on assumption of office decided to set up a Committee under
the Chairmanship of Ashok Mehta, to have a fresh look at the working of the
Panchayat Raj institutions. The Committee looked into the working of the Panchayat
Raj institutions and made the following recommendations for its improvement in its
report submitted in 1978. In the first place the Committee recommended the
replacement of the existing three-tier system by the two-tier system with Mandal
Panchayats at the base and Zila Parishad above them. Thus, it suggested the
abolition of Gram Panchayats and Panchayat Samitis. However, it favoured the
retention of Panchayat Samitis in the transition stage. The Committee suggested the
broad pattern of the composition of the various tiers of Panchayat Raj, but left much
discretion to the concerned states in this regard. It recommended that the Mandal
Panchayat should consist of 15 members directly elected by the people. It should also
contain representatives of farmers, services, women, etc. It favoured reservation of
seats for the members of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes on the basis of
their population. The Committee favoured an elected President of the Mandal
Panchayat and recommended a term of four-years for the Mandal Panchayat.
The Zila Parishad on the other hand should consist of six types of members such
as the Presidents of the Panchayat Samiti, nominees of bigger municipalities, two
women members, and two co-opted members. Seats should be reserved
346
for members of the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes in the Zila Parishad. The
MLAs and MPs of the area are also to be associated with the Zila Parishad as exofficio members. The Zila Parishad should have a term of four years like the Mandal
Panchayat. It should have an elected
Chairman, elected from amongst the members themselves.

Regarding functions of the Mandal Panchayats, the Committee suggested that it
should be responsible for the implementation of the schemes and projects assigned
to it by the Zila Parishad. It should play promotional role in activating community
action and Panchayats in the sphere of municipal and welfare functions with project
formulation. It favoured increasing role for the Mandal Panchayats in the sphere of
municipal and welfare functions. With regard to the functions of the Zila Parishads,
the Committee suggested that all developmental functions relating to a district,
which were at present being discharged by the state governments, should be
entrusted to the Zila Parishad. Thus, some of the functions which the Committee
wanted the Zila Parishad to undertake related to agriculture and allied sections,
health, education, communications, rural industries, etc.
The Committee favoured the reduction of the dependence of the Panchayat Raj
institutions on the State Government. With this view, it recommended grant of
compulsory powers of taxation for these institutions. It favoured the transfer of taxes
like profession tax, entertainment tax, special taxes on land and buildings etc. to
these bodies. The Committee favoured necessary amendments to the constitution to
effect these changes.
To prevent the super-session of the Panchayat Raj institutions by the State
Governments on political grounds, the Committee recommended that election must
be held within six months of such a super-session. The Committee also favoured the
creation of certain monitoring forums to promote and safeguard the interests of the
vulnerable social and economic interests. It suggested that a Social Justice
Committee be set up in each Zila Parishad to ensure that the Panchayat Raj
institutions work in the interest of these groups and do not neglect their welfare.
Another significant recommendation of the Ashok Mehta Committee was with
regard to open participation of the political parties in the Panchayat Raj institutions. It
held that the participation of political parties in the Panchayat Raj elections would
ensure clearer orientation towards development programme and facilitate healthier
linkages with higher levels of political process. It felt that direct elections coupled
with programme based contests would offer greater opportunities to the weaker
sections of the community.
Another interesting recommendation of the Committee pertained to the creation
of certain monitoring forums to safeguard and promote the interests of the
vulnerable social and economic groups like the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes
etc. It suggested that a social justice committee be attached to each Zila Parishad to
ensure that the Panchayat Raj institutions show proper interest in the welfare of
these groups. The Committee also suggested that each state should have a minister
for Panchayat Raj who should ensure the elections of Panchayat Raj institutions and
review their work.
Though these recommendations are significant in so far as they aim to revitalise
the Panchayat Raj institutions and seek to impart a constitutional status to the
Panchayat Raj institutions, they have not been accepted by the government so far.
In conclusion, we can say that though the Panchayat Raj institutions suffer from
numerous shortcomings they have greatly contributed to the revival of the
democratic spirit among the rural population which had been destroyed during the
autocratic British rule. They have provided an opportunity to the rural people to
associate themselves with and participate in the management of their local
developmental affairs and thus given them some taste of democracy. They have also
contributed to the efficiency of administration by decentralising the same.
CHANGES IN PANCHAYAT RAJ

In May, 1989 the Government introduced in Parliament 64th Amendment Bill which
sought to reinvigorate and streamline the Panchayat Raj institutions. It sought to
provide wider powers
Local GovernmentRural and

Urban 347
and more finances to the Panchayats. But the Bill could not be passed due to the
dissolution of the Lok Sabha.
The National Front Government also indicated its intention to introduce a new
Panchayat Bill in the Parliament with a view to create a new work of democratic selfgovernment institutions all over the country. It favoured grant of greater powers to
Panchayat Raj institutions and wanted their involvement in the formulation of plans
as well as their implementation. However, it could not give concrete shape to its
ideas.
CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS FOR PANCHAYATI RAJ

In 1992, Narasimha Rao government carried out 73rd Constitutional amendment and
provided constitutional status to Panchayati Raj. This action was taken in pursuance
of Art. 40 of the Constitution which enjoins the State to take steps to organise village
Panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to
enable them to function as units of self-government. The passing of Panchayati Raj
Act would ensure democratic functioning of the Panchayati Raj institutions. However,
the Act has left the Constitution, elections, devolution of powers and authority
relating to the Panchayati Raj institutions within the purview of the State. The
Panchayati Raj Act came into force on 23 March, 1994 after enactment of new laws or
amendment of the existing Panchayati Raj Acts by more than 50 per cent of the
States and Union Territories.
The Panchayati Raj Act provides for a three-tier Panchayati Raj System at the
village, intermediate and district levels. However, the small states with population
below twenty lakhs have been given the option not to constitute the Panchayats at
the intermediate level. Similarly, the provisions of the Act will presently not apply to
the scheduled areas and certain tribal areas such as the states of Nagaland,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, hill areas in the state of Manipur for which a district council
exists, and the hill areas of the district of Darjeeling in the state of West Bengal for
which Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council exists. However, these areas can be brought
under the Act as and when these states so desire.
COMPOSITION OF PANCHAYAT
Under the Act, the State Legislatures can by law make provision with respect to the
composition of the Panchayats. However, the ratio between the population of the
territorial area of a Panchayat at any level and the number of seats in such
Panchayats to be filled by election shall, so far as practicable, be the same
throughout the State. All the seats in the Panchayat area are to be filled through
direct election on the basis of territorial constituencies. However, the State
Legislature can
provide for the representation of the following categories of persons in the

Panchayats. (i) Chairman of Panchayats at the village level in the Panchayats at the
intermediate level, and (in states not having intermediate level) in the Panchayats at
the district level; (ii) Chairman of Panchayats at intermediate level, in the Panchayats
at district level; (iii) Members of Lok Sabha and Legislative Assembly of the state
representing constituencies which comprises wholly or partly a Panchayat at the level
other than the village level; (iv) the members of Rajya Sabha and Legislative Council
of the State where they are registered as electors. It may be noted that the Chairman
of Panchayats and other members of the Panchayats (whether or not chosen by
direct election from territorial constituencies in the Panchayat areas) shall have right
to vote in the meetings of the Panchayats. The procedure for the election of the
Chairman of the Panchayat at the village level shall be determined by the State
Legislature. But the Chairman of Panchayat at the intermediate as well as district
level shall be elected by and from amongst elected members of Panchayats.
The Act provides for the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes. The reservation of seats shall be, as nearly as may be, in the same proportion
to the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in that Panchayat as the
population of the SCs and STs in that Panchayat area bears to the total population of
that area. Out of the reserved seats not less than one-third seats shall be reserved
for women belonging to SCs and STs. Out of the total seats to be filled by direct
election in every Panchayat not less than one-third (including the number of seats
reserved for SCs and STs women) seats shall be reserved for
348
women. There is also provision for the reservation of office of Chairpersons in the
Panchayats at the village and other levels for the SCs, STs and women. The state
governments are expected to enact necessary law in this regard. The states can also
reserve seats for backward classes in the Panchayats at any level through legislation.
ELECTION OF PANCHAYATS
The responsibility for the superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of
electoral rolls and conduct of all elections to the Panchayats rests with the Election
Commission consisting of the State Election Commissioner to be appointed by the
Governor. To ensure fair and impartial elections the State Election Commissioner has
been assured security of tenure and cannot be removed from his office except in like
manner and on like grounds as a Judge of a High Court. Even the service conditions of
the State Election, Commissioner cannot be changed to his disadvantage during his
tenure. The Act vests in the State Legislature the power to make provisions with
respect to all matters relating to or in connection with elections to the Panchayats.
The Courts have specifically been debarred from interfering in the electoral matters
relating to the Panchayats. The Act specifically provides that notwithstanding any
thing in this Constitution the validity of any law relating to the delimitation of the
constituencies of the allotment of seats to such constituencies shall not be called in
question in any court.
POWERS
The Act provides that subject to the provisions of Constitution, the legislature of a
state may by law endow the Panchayats with such powers and authority as may be
necessary to enable them to function as institution of self-government. Thus, the
State Legislatures can make provisions for the devolution of powers and
responsibilities upon Panchayats with regard to (a) the preparation of plans for
economic development and social justice; and (b) implementation of schemes for
social development and social justice as may be entrusted to them, including those
in relation to the matters listed in the Eleventh Schedule.
The Act added Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution which contains 29 matters
on which the Panchayats shall have full authority. These matters are:
1. Agriculture, including agriculture extension.
2. Land improvement, implementation of land reforms, land consolidation and soil
conservation.
3. Minor irrigation, water management and watershed development.
4. Animal husbandry, dairying and poultry.
5. Fisheries.
6. Social forestry and farm forestry.
7. Minor forest produce.
8. Small scale industries, including food processing industries.
9. Khadi, village and cottage industries.
10. Rural housing.
11. Drinking water.
12. Fuel and fodder.
13. Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries, waterways and other means.
14. Rural electrification, including distribution of electricity.
15. Non-conventional energy sources.
16. Poverty alleviation programme.
17. Education, including primary and secondary schools.
18. Technical training and vocational education.
19. Adult and non-formal education.
20. Libraries.
21. Cultural activities.
22. Markets and fairs.
23. Health and sanitation, including hospitals, primary health centres and
dispensaries.
24. Family Welfare.
25. Women and child development.
26. Social welfare, including welfare of the handicapped and mentally retarded.
27. Welfare of the weaker sections, and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes.
28. Public distribution system; and
29. Maintenance of community assets.
10.
Local
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and Urban 349
FINANCIAL POWERS OF PANCHAYATS

The State Governments can by law (a) authorise a Panchayat to levy, collect and
appropriate taxes, duties and tolls and fees in accordance with the prescribed
procedure and limits; (b) assign to Panchayats such taxes, duties, tolls and fees
levied and collected by the State Government for such purposes and subject to such
conditions and limitations; (c) provide grants-in-aid to Panchayats from the
Consolidated Fund for the state; and (d) provide for constitution of such funds for
crediting all moneys received by or on behalf of the Panchayats and also for the
withdrawal of such money therefrom.
The Legislature of the State can by law make provision with respect to the
maintenance of accounts by the Panchayats and the auditing of such accounts.
The Panchayati Raj Act also provides for the establishment of a Finance
Commission for reviewing financial position of the Panchayats. The Act stipulates that
the Governor of a State shall within one year from the commencement of the 73rd
Amendment and thereafter at the expiration of every fifth year, constitute a Finance
Commission. The composition of the Commission, the qualification for members of
the Commission and the manner of their selection shall be decided by the State
Legislature. It shall be the duty of the Finance Commission to review the financial
position of the Panchayats and to make recommendations to the Governor regarding:
(a) the principles which should govern (i) the distribution between the state and
the Panchayat of the net proceeds of taxes, duties, tolls and fees leviable by
the state; (ii) the determination of taxes, duties, tolls and fees which may be
assigned to, or appropriated by the Panchayats; (iii) the grants-in-aid to the
Panchayats from the Consolidated Fund of the State.
(b) the measures needed to improve the financial position of the panchayats.
(c)any other matter referred to the Finance Commission by the Governor in the
interests of sound finance of the Panchayats.
The Governor shall place the recommendations of the Commission along with
explanatory memorandum as to the action taken thereon, before the State
Legislature.
A perusal of the provisions of the Act shows that the Central Government is quite
serious and sincere about making Panchayati Raj an instrument of local selfinstitutions. The institution of Panchayati Raj envisaged under the Act can also
greatly contribute to the emancipation of women and amelioration in the state of the
backward classes, the Dalits and other weaker sections. Unlike in the past when the
Panchayati Raj institutions were dominated by the money and muscle power, now the
underprivileged classes, including rural women, would be able to play more
effective role and the people's democracy would become more genuine. The state
ability and strength of the Panchayats has been further ensured by restricting the
State Governments for dissolving these bodies, except in case of grave financial
misappropriation.
In conclusion, it can be said that the Panchayati Raj envisaged under the 73rd
amendment constitutes a significant improvement over the existing system. Even the
states have shown great enthusiasm and enacted necessary laws or amended
existing Panchayat Acts to bring them in conformity with the provisions of 73rd
Constitutional Amendment. This has set the process of devolution of power and
decentralisation of administration in motion. This process in course of time will
enable the rural people in different states to play an important role at the grass-root
level and usher in true democracy.
URBAN SELF-GOVERNMENT
Though the Urban Local Bodies have been in existence in India for long time they did
not enjoy constitutional status till very recent times. The seventy-fourth constitutional
amendment carried out in 1992 provided constitutional sanction to the urban selfgoverning institutions and incorporated several provisions to ensure that regular
elections are held for these bodies and they play a greater role in the development of
the urban areas. This amendment added 18 new articles and a new schedule
(Twelfth Schedule) relating to these
350
urban local bodies. The Act envisaged three types of municipal corporations with
reservation of seats in each type of municipalities for scheduled castes, scheduled
tribes and women. It empowered the State Legislature to confer necessary powers
and responsibilities upon the municipalities in respect of preparation of plan for
economic development, levy of taxes and duties by municipalities.
TYPES OF MUNICIPALITIES
The three types of municipal corporations envisaged under the Act are:
(a) a Nagar panchayat for a transitional area, viz., the area which is in transition
from rural area to a urban area.
(b) a Municipal Council for smaller urban area; and
(c) a Municipal Corporation for a large urban area.
However, a Municipality may not be constituted in an industrial area if the
Governor is convinced that the size of the area and the municipal services being
provided there or proposed to be provided by an industrial establishment are
adequate and the area by public notification has been declared as an industrial
establishment. Similarly, the Governor can declare an area as 'a transitional area'
through public notification on the basis of the population of the area, the density of
the population therein, the revenue generated for local administration, the
percentage of employment in non-agricultural activities, the economic or such other
factors.
COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPALITIES
The Act provides that all the seats in a municipality shall be filled by persons chosen
by direct election on the basis of territorial constituencies in the municipal areas. For
this purpose, each
Municipal area shall be divided into territorial constituencies to be known as

wards. In addition to the above, the state can by law provide representation to the
following in the Municipality:
(i) persons having special knowledge or experience in Municipal administration;
(ii) the members of the Lok Sabha and the Legislative
Assembly of the State representing constituencies which comprise wholly or partly
the Municipal area; (iii) the members of the Rajya Sabha and the Legislative Council
of the State registered as electors within the Municipal area; (iv) the Chairpersons of
the committees constituted under clause (v) of Art. 243 S.
The procedure for the election of the chairpersons of a Municipality is to be
determined by the legislature through law.
WARDS COMMITTEES
There is provision for the constitution of wards committees consisting of one or more
wards within the territorial area of a Municipality having a population of three lakhs or
more. The legislatures of the States have been authorised to make provisions by law
with respect to (i) the composition and the territorial area of a wards committee; (ii)
the manner in which the seats in a wards committee shall be filled. A member of
Municipality representing a ward within the territorial area of the wards committee
shall be automatically a member of the committee. Where a wards committee
consists of one ward, the member representing that ward in the Municipality shall be
regarded as the Chairperson of the Committee. But where a wards committee
consists of two or more wards, one of the members representing such wards in the
Municipality elected by the members of the wards committee shall be Chairperson of
that committee.
RESERVATION OF SEATS
There is provision for the reservation of seats for the members of the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in every Municipality. The number of seats to be
reserved for them shall be determined on the basis of total number of seats to be
filled by direct election in the Municipality and the percentage of the population of
the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Municipal area, in relation to the
total population of that area. These seats may be allotted to different constituencies
in a Municipality by rotation. Out of the total seats reserved for the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes, one-third seats shall be

Urban 351
reserved for women belonging to these categories. The office of the Chairpersons in
the Municipalities shall also be reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Schedulted
Tribes as well as women in such manner as the legislature of a state may, by law,
provided. It is noteworthy that reservation of seats shall cease to have effect on the
expiry of period of 50 years from the commencement of the Constitution, viz., 2000
A.D.
DURATION
Each Municipality, unless dissolved earlier, has a term of five years from the date
appointed for its first meeting. The Municipality can be dissolved before the term of
five years. However, while doing so it has to be given a reasonable opportunity of
hearing. Fresh elections to the Municipality must be held within six months of its
dissolution. However, where the remainder of the period for which the dissolved
Municipality would have continued is less than six months, it is not necessary to hold
elections under this clause for constituting the Municipality for such period. A
Municipality constituted upon the dissolution of a Municipality before the expiry of its
duration remains in office only for the remainder of the period for which the dissolved
Municipality would have continued had it not been so dissolved.
DISQUALIFICATIONS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Persons suffering from the following disqualifications are not eligible for
membership of Municipality.
1. A person disqualified by or under any law for the time being in force for the
purpose of elections to the Legislature of the State concerned.
2. A person so disqualified by or under any law made by the Legislature of the
State.
The question of disqualification of a member of Municipality is to be referred to for
decision of such authority and of such authority and in such manner as the
Legislature of a State by law provided. It is noteworthy that a person who has
attained age of 21 is eligible for election as member of a Municipality.
POWERS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
The Legislature of a State, subject to the provisions of this Constitution, can endow
the Municipalities by law with
(a) such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as
institution of self-government. Such a law may contain provisions for the
devolution of powers and responsibilities upon Municipalities, subject to such
conditions as may be specified therein with respect to (i) the preparation of
plans for economic development and social justice; (ii) the performance of
functions and implementation of schemes as may be entrusted to them
including those in relation to the matters listed in the Twelfth Schedule;
(b) the Committees with such powers and authority as may be necessary to
enable them to carry out the responsibilities conferred upon them including
those in relation to the matters listed in the Twelth Schedule.
The Twelveth Schedule lists 18 subjects on which a Municipality can be
empowered by the State Legislature by law to exercise administrative control. These
subjects include:
1. Urban planning including town planning.
2. Regulation of land-use and construction of buildings.
3. Planning for economic and social development.
4. Roads and bridges.
5. Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purpose.
6. Public health, sanitation conservancy and solid waste management.
7. Fire Service.
8. Urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological
aspect.
9. Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections of society including the
handicapped and mentally retarded.
10. Slum improvement and upgradation.
11. Urban poverty alleviation.
10.
352
12. Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens,

playgrounds.
13. Promotion of cultural educational and aesthetic aspects.
14. Burials and burial grounds; cremations, cremation grounds and electric
crematoriums.
15. Cattle ponds, prevention of cruelty to animals.
16. Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths.
17. Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops and public
conveniences.
18. Regulation of slaughter houses and tanneries.
POWER TO TAX AND FUNDS

To provide sufficient funds to the Municipalities, the Act provides that the Legislature
of a State may bylaw
(a) authorise the Municipality to levy, collect and appropriate such taxes, duties,
tolls and fees in accordance with such procedure and subject to such limits as
may be specified in such law;
(b) assign to a Municipality such taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied and collected
by the state government for such purposes subject to such conditions and
limits as specified in such law;
(c) provide for making such grants-in-aid to the Municipalities from the
Consolidated Fund of the State; and
(d) provide for constitution of such funds for crediting all moneys revived by the
Municipalities and also withdrawal of such money therefrom.
FINANCE COMMISSION
The Act provides for a Finance Commission to review the financial position of the
Municipalities. The Commission can make recommendations to the Governor
regarding (i) the principles which should govern the distribution between the States
and Municipalities of the net proceeds of taxes, duties, tolls and fees leviable by the
state, which
may be divided between the Municipalities at all levels of their respective share of
such proceeds; (ii) the determination of taxes, duties, tolls and fees which may be
assigned to, or appropriated by the municipalities; (iii) the grants-in-aid to the
Municipalities from the Consolidated Fund of the State. The Commission can also
recommend measures needed to improve the financial position of the Municipalities.
It shall also examine any other matter which may be referred to it by the Governor in
the interest of sound finance of the Municipalities.
The recommendations of the Finance Commission along with explanatory
memoranda and action taken thereon, is to be placed by the Governor before the
Legislature of the State.
DISTRICT PLANNING COMMITTEE

The Act provides for the constitution of a District Planning Committee at district level
in every state. The composition of the District Planning Committee is determined by
the Legislature of a State, which can by law make provision for the composition of the
District Planning Committee and the manner in which the seats in such committee
shall be filled. Out of the total number of members of District Planning Committee
one-fourth of the members are to be elected by, and from amongst, the elected
members of the Panchayats at district level and the Municipalities in the district in
proportion to the ratio between the population of the rural and the urban areas in the
district.
FUNCTIONS
The main function of the District Planning Committee shall be to consolidate the
plans prepared by the Panchayats and Municipalities in the district and to prepare a
draft development plan for the district as a whole. While preparing the draft of the
development plan each District Planning Committee shall have regard to (i) matters
of common interest between the Panchayats and the Municipalities including spartial
planning, sharing of water and other physical and natural resources, the integrated
development of infrastructure and environmental conservation; (ii) the extent and
type of available

Urban 353
resources financial or otherwise. While formulating the development plan the district
council has also to consult such institutions and organisations as the Governor may
by order specify.
The plan formulated by the District Planning Committee is forwarded by its
chairperson to the Government of the State.
METROPOLITAN PLANNING COMMITTEE

For the preparation of draft development plan for the whole Metropolitan area, there
exists provision for a Metropolitan Planning Committee. The Constitution vests the
authority to constitute Metropolitan Planning Committee in the Legislature of the
State which can make provision through law with regard to the composition of the
Metropolitan Planning Committee; the manner in which seats in such committees
shall be filled; the representation in such committees of the Government of India and
the government of the state and such organisations and institutions as may be
deemed
necessary for carrying out the functions assigned to such committees; the
functions relating to planning and coordination for the metropolitan area which may
be assigned to such committees; and the manner in which the Chairpersons of such
committees shall be chosen. While formulating draft development plans for the area
each Metropolitan Planning Committee shall keep in mind (i) the plans prepared by
the Municipalities and Panchayats in the Metropolitan area; (ii) matters of common
interest between the Municipalities and the Panchayats, including coordinated
spartial planning of the area sharing of water and other
physical and natural resources, the integrated development of infrastructure and
environmental conservation; (iii) the overall objectives and priorities set by the
Government of India and the government of the State; (iv) the extent at nature of
investment likely to be made in the Metropolitan area by agencies of the Government
of India and the State governments and other available resources whether financial
or otherwise. In addition to the above the Metropolitan Planning Commission has to
consult such institutions and organisations for this purpose as the Governor may by
order specify.
After the Draft Development Plan is formulated it is forwarded by the Chairperson
of the Committee to the State Government.
It may be noted that the provisions of the Act are not applicable to the scheduled
areas referred, to in clause (1) and the tribal areas referred to in clause (2) of Art.
244. The Act shall also not affect the functions and powers of the Darjeeling Gorkha
Hill Council constituted under any law for the time being in force for the hill areas of
the district Darjeeling in the State of West Bengal. The Act further stipulates that
notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may by law extent the
provision of Part IX to the scheduled areas and the tribal areas referred to in clause
(1) subject to such the exceptions and modifications as may be specified in such law.
Another notable point is that all the Municipalities existing prior to coming into
force of the Constitution 74th Amendment Act 1992 were to continue till the expiry of
their duration or earlier if dissolved by a resolution passed to that effect by the
Legislative Assembly of the State or in case of a state having Legislative Council, by
both Houses of the State Legislature.
Political Parties
and Pressure
Groups
The political parties are indispensable for the proper functioning of all kinds of
government, but they have a special importance under the democratic system.
According to Prof. Bryce "No free large country has been without them. No one has
shown how representative government could work without them."
MEANING OF POLITICAL PARTY

A political party, according to Maclver is "an association organised in support of some
principles or policy which by constitutional means it endeavours to make the
determinant of government." Edmund Burke defines political party as "a body of men
united for promoting by their joint endeavours in the national interest, upon some
particular principles in which they are all agreed." According to Prof. Gilchrist, political
party is "an organized group of citizens who profess to share the same political views
and who by acting as a political unit try to control the government. The chief aim of a
party is to make its own opinions and policy prevail." Yet another definition of political
party is offered by Leacock who says it is "a more or less organised group of citizens
who act together as a political unit. They share or profess to share the same opinions
on public questions and by exercising their voting power towards a common end,
seek to obtain control of the Government."
An examination of the above definitions of political parties shows that it has
following features:
a. A political party is a voluntary association.
b. A
political
party
is
formed
by
persons
who
hold
common
views
on
certain
basic
political, economic and other matters.
c. The
political
party
must
be
organised
and
must
possess
well
laid-down
rules
and
regulations.
d. The
members
believe
in
peaceful
and
constitutional methods.
e.
The
members
aim
at
capturing
political
power
with
a
view
to
promote
the
public
rather than narrow party interests.
KINDS OF PARTY SYSTEM

The party system can be of three types. One-party system, as found in USSR, China
and other Communist countries. The two-party system as found in Britain and U.S.A.,
and multi-party system as found in India and France.
One-Party System
One-party system is generally found in totalitarian stares. There is only one
political party in the country. No other political party is allowed to come into
existence. Even the slightest opposition is dealt with a heavy hand. One party system
is considered undemocratic in so far as there is no scope for an alternative
government, and the people are not able to exercise any influence on the political
decisions of the country. The salient features of the One-Party system are (a)
membership is restricted to a very small fraction of the total population. These
members are recruited on the basis of strict scrutiny and are expected to follow the
iron discipline of the party. Even
Political Parties and Pressure Groups
355
slightest deviation from the directions of the party is dealt with severely, (b) The
system of election prevailing under one-party system is a farce. Only the trusted
members of the party are permitted to contest elections and are returned with an
overwhelming majority, (c) All the medias of communication are completely under
the control of the party, (d) The legislature is merely a rubber stamp and endorses all
the proposals submitted by the party.
Bi-Party System
Bi-Party or two-party system implies that there are two major political parties in
the country out of whom one forms the government while the other forms the
opposition. As already noted both in U.S.A. and U.K. there is two-party system. It may
be noted that under this system there can be more than two political parties but the
other political parties are so insignificant that they are hardly able to play any
effective role in the political life of the country. The bi-party system has following
advantages.
1. It ensures smooth working of the Cabinet System of Government. The
government is formed by the majority party, which is able to carry on the
administration smoothly with the help of the majority support at its command.
2. Under a bi-party system the opposition behaves in a responsible manner. It
avoids irresponsible criticism of the policies of the government because it
knows it very well that if the government is defeated it will be called upon to
shoulder the responsibility and implement those very points. The government
also pays due regard to the views and criticism of the opposition because it
knows it very well that the opposition can provide an alternative government.
3. Under bi-party system changes in government can be brought about smoothly.
The moment the party in power tenders resignation, the Opposition takes over
the reins of the government.
4. Bi-party system is very easy to operate. It is quite convenient for the voters to
elect one
out of the two rival parties. After the
election, the formation of the government
also does not pose any problem because
one out of the two parties is always able to
get clear cut majority.
5. Finally, it is very easy to fix the
responsibility for failures and lapses,
because the government is always formed
by a single party and it cannot shift the
blame elsewhere.
The bi-party system also suffers from certain
shortcomings. It paves the way for dictatorship of

the Cabinet. As the cabinet is sure of its strength, it
hardly pays any attention to the views of the
opposition. Secondly, it leaves a very limited
choice before the electors. They have to vote for
either of the two parties, even though they may not
approve of the programme and policies of either of
the two. In this respect the multi-party system
offers a wider choice.
MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM
Multi-party system implies that there are more than two political parties which
influence the political life of the country. As noted above, multiparty system is found
in France and India. Certain scholars consider the multi-party system more
democratic than bi-party system because it provides wider choice to the electors. It
also checks the possibility of Cabinet dictatorship because generally it leads to
coalition cabinets and no single party is able to dominate or dictate its terms.
The multi-party system also suffers from serious defects. First, it leads to
instability of the government. As no single party is able to secure absolute majority,
generally coalition governments are formed. The coalition governments by their very
nature are unstable and are not able to last long. They fall as soon as any one
component of the coalition decides to leave the government. This naturally effects
the efficiency of administration.
Second, the opposition behaves in a very responsible manner knowing it fully well
that it will never be called upon to form the government single-handed. More often
than not, it indulges in very wild and irresponsible criticism of the
356
government policies. It also keeps on participating in various intrigues to bring about

the downfall of the government in the hope that it may be included as a coalition
partner in the next government. Thus, the legislature is converted into hot-bed of
intrigues and an arena of conflicting factions.
Third, due to large number of political parties, it is not possible to secure an
organized and sound opposition which is so vital for the successful working of
parliamentary democracy.
Fourth, the presence of large number of political parties often gives rise to
manipulation and manoeuvring among the various political groups to keep
themselves in power. This naturally results
in the promotion of the narrow group interests and the neglect of the general
interests.
Though all the three party systems have respective merits and demerits, by and
large scholars have favoured bi-party system. For example, Prof. Finer says "The two
parties are better for the happiness and duty of nations than many parties and two
parties contesting seats everywhere. For them lies and errors may be in all places
challenged while destruction of will and destruction of out-look are reduced."
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES

The political parties constitute the backbone of democracy and perform the following
functions:
1. One of the first functions of the political party is to formulate a programme or
public policies on the basis of which it contests the election. As the problems
facing the modern state are so complicated that an ordinary voter is not able
to understand them fully. The political parties try to formulate their policies in
such a way that an average voter can understand them. Once these policies
have been formulated the political parties try to popularise and propagate
them through pamphlets, regular meetings, etc.
2. As the political parties aim at capturing power, they select candidates to
contest elections. Generally, there are a number of candidates for the party
ticket. The party
tries to select a candidate, who in its opinion is likely to poll maximum of votes.
Thus, the party works as a huge sieve, through which the competing types of
personnel are shifted and choices are finally made.
3. After selecting the candidate the political parties conduct election campaigns and
carry on nationwide propaganda in favour of the party candidates. In fact the
modern election has become such a complicated affair that it is not possible for a
candidate to contest the election without the support of party workers. The parties
also provide them necessary finances.
4. The political party securing majority at polls forms the government and tries to put
into practice the programme and policies included by it in its manifesto. Under
Parliamentary system of government it is the party majority which keeps the
government in power. Likewise, in Presidential government the Party plays a vital
role in bringing about coordination between the policies of the legislature and the
executive which is otherwise not possible due to the principle of separation of
powers.
5. The minority party plays a vital role as Opposition. It keeps an alert eye on the
actions and policies of the government and highlights its actions of omission and
commission. Through constant criticism it keeps the government on the right path.
In view of the importance of the Opposition, in Britain the Leader of the Opposition
is given facilities of a Cabinet Minister.
6. Political parties impart political education to the people. They focus the attention
of the people on the various problems facing the country and try to increase the
number of their sympathisers and supporters. While the ruling party tries to
highlight the achievements of the government, the opposition party focusses
attention on its lapses. In this way the average citizen is able to form a fair idea
about the various social, economic, and political problems facing the country.
3.
357
7. Finally, the political parties serve as a useful link between the government and
the people. The party workers try to explain the various polices of the
government to the public and communicate the wishes and reactions of the
public to the government. Thus, they serve as a useful link between the
government and the people.
DEFECTS OF PARTY SYSTEM

No doubt, the political parties are indispensable for the successful working of the
democracy, yet they suffer from serious defects. Some of the prominent defects of
the party system are as follows:
1. In the first place, the political parties try to divide the people into opposing
groups and thereby vitiate the atmosphere. The whole country is divided into
two hostile camps pitched against each other, which poses a serious threat to
the unity of the country.
2. Second, party system gives rise to political nepotism and favouritism. All the
important government offices are offered to the leaders or supporters of the
party, and the talented people belonging to the opposition parties are
excluded from such positions. Thus, the country is deprived of the services of
such talented persons.
3. Third, party system encourages sectional interests at the cost of national
interests. The parties view all the issues purely from party angles. The
animosity and rivalry of the election continues even after the elections. The
opposition tries to oppose all the policies of the government unmindful of the
national interests. Likewise the ruling party tries to promote the interests of
those sections of society which are known to be its supporters, unmindful of
the interests of the other sections. In this way, the national and public inte 1 sts
suffer.
4. The party system curbs the individuality of members. The members of party
are expected to blindly toe the line indicated
by the party leaders and are not permitted
to express independent views. The
individual members become mere cogs in
the party machinery. Highlighting this
point Leacock says "individual judgement
remains frozen tight in the shape of the
party mould. This kind of unanimity
seems to the critics false and injurious, it
suppresses that very freedom of
individual opinion and action which is
meant to be the vital principle of
democratic government."
The defects of the party system, should not
lead on us to the conclusion that the political
parties should be done away with. In fact, the
modern democratic system cannot be imagined
without political parties. The remedy does not lie
in ending the party system, but in mending the
same. Effort should be made to remove the various
defects of the party system. Above all people
should develop a high moral standard so that the

political parties are not able to exercise any
corruption influence.
PRESSURE GROUPS
The pressure group, as distinct from a political party, is a collection of individuals
who do not have any political programme and do not aim at capturing power, but
nonetheless try to protect and promote the interest of the members by exerting
pressure on the administration to enact only those laws which do not go against the
interests of the members. In other words, pressure group is an association of people
who seek to influence the behaviour of the political officers without attempting to
gain formal control of government. It tries to use persuasive methods to obtain
certain favourable decisions without aiming to capture political power. Thus a
pressure group has following characteristics:
1. It is a group of people with common interest which tries to fight for the
interests of the members as potential members.
2. The pressure groups have no alignment with politics. Whatever little political
complexion they may have is retained for the sake of expediency.
1.
358
3. The pressure groups can be both permanent as well as temporary. They are
permanent if they try to cater to the long range interests by taking, part in the
political process. But they are temporary if they are formed temporarily to
protect certain interest, and recede to the background after accomplishing the
same.
Difference Between Political Parties and Pressure Groups

The pressure groups differ from political parties in the following respects:
1. They are narrower in comparison to the political parties both in size as well as
objectives.
2. A person can be a member of any number of pressure groups at the same time
but he can be a member of only one political patty at a time.
3. Pressure groups do not contest elections nor do they aim at capturing political
power. On the other hand, the political parties take part in the elections with a
view to capture the government.
4. Finally, the pressure groups exert pressure on the government through various
political parties and administrative agencies without actively participating in
the political activities. In other words they operate from behind the scene. The
political parties directly participate in the political affairs of the country.
TYPES OF PRESSURE GROUPS

Four different types of pressure groups are found in different countries of the world.
1. First, they are special interest groups comprising of trade unions, business
organisations, employees federations, etc.
2. Second, there are communal groups like RSS and Anand Marg.
3. Third, there are caste groups based on caste and regionalism such as the
Scheduled Caste Federation in India; and
4. Finally, there are groups based on Gandhian principle which try to pressurise
the government to follow the Gandhian Principles. Gandhian Club, Gandhian
Debating Society, All India Spinners Associations, etc. are some such groups.
ROLE OF PRESSURE (INTEREST) GROUPS

The pressure groups play a vital role both in the democratic and totalitarian systems.
They try to exert necessary pressure on the political leaders and decision-makers to
protect and promote the interests of its members. Generally, the pressure groups try
to influence the decision-making process at the following levels:
(a) Elections
In the first instance they try to get their favourite members elected at the election so
that they may be able to exercise necessary influence through them at the various
levels of administration. For this purpose they provide necessary finances and get
party tickets for their favourites. It is but natural that a candidate elected with the
support of a pressure group will fully endorse its stand and protect its interest as a
legislator and minister.
(b) Patronage of Members of

Legislature
The pressure groups try to patronise certain members of the legislature so that they
may be willing to take up their cause at their bidding. But in view of the rigid party
discipline the members are generally not in a position to take a stand against the
party directive. Therefore, the pressure groups try to cultivate intimate relations with
various parties to achieve their objectives.
(c) Influence on Executive

The pressure groups try to influence the executive, which is responsible for the
formulation of the policy. For this purpose they raise, through their trusted legislators,
questions, supplementary questions adjournment motions, call-attention motions,
etc. They also exert pressure on the
359
executive through the various departmental committees which are appointed by the
department for advice. The pressure groups also influence the executive policies by
providing necessary information and data on the basis of which the decisions are
taken. In the process they are able to exert lot of influence on the policy.
(d) Influence on Judiciary
Even the judiciary is not immune from the influence of the pressure groups. They
try to influence the views of the judges through articles, reviews, etc. published in
papers and journals owned by them. These vitv.s greatly influence the thinking of the
judges and thereby influence their decisions. This fact was acknowledged by Chief
Justice Warren of U.S.A. He observed that "the leading review articles are making
available to the judges some of the best legal thinking in the
country." The pressure groups also try to influence the government to appoint
such persons as judges who are likely to protect their interest.
(e) Influence on Public Opinion

Finally, the pressure groups try to influence the public opinion through
publications of special reports, books, pamphlets, panel discussions, press
conferences. Through constant propoganda they are able to win sufficient support in
favour of a particular public policy.
It is thus quite evident that the pressure groups play an important role in the
working of the democratic governments. Though they do not aim at capturing
political power, yet by use of their resources and persuasive power, they try to get
such policy and measures through which are likely to promote the interests of their
members.
41
C HAPTER
Public
Opinion
The term 'public opinion' is commonly used in political literature, but there is no
general agreement regarding its meaning. In fact the term has eluded precise
definition for long. In literal sense, the term public opinion means the opinion of
people on any issue or problems of public concern. It should not be confused with
majority opinion because it is also accepted by the minority, not due to any pressure
but willingly. According to Lord Bryce the term 'public opinion' is commonly used to
denote the aggregate of views men hold regarding matters that effect or interest the
community." Lowelll says, in order it may be public opinion, a majority is not enough
and unanimity is not required, but the opinion must be such that while the minority
may not share it, they feel bound by conviction, not by fear, to accept it, and if
democracy is complete, the submission of minority must be given ungrudgingly". In
simple language we can define public opinion as the considered opinion of an

effective majority of citizens based on the ideal well-being and progress of the
community as a whole.
The main features of public opinion are as under.
1. In the first place it is a definite opinion and not an aggregate of confused
opinions of the people;
2. It is a opinion which is held by an effective majority.
3. It is opinion which is not based on beliefs or prejudices. On the other hand, it is
based on sound arguments and reasons.
4. The public opinion is based on the ideal of common good. It does not look after
the interests of the majority alone but of the big segment of the society,
including the minority, which sees its own good in it.
5. Public opinion upholds social and moral values because any opinion not based
on these values is not accepted by the people.
6. Public opinion is not concerned with the opinion on political issues alone. It
also relates to the social, religious and cultural issues.
Some critics have expressed the opinion that what generally passed for public
opinion is neither public nor opinion. They say that in reality only a few people think
on public affairs, while most others accept these views blindly. Such persons and
organisations circulate ready-made views through press and other agencies. In fact,
the soundness of public opinion depends on the intellectual levels of the people and
the honesty and wisdom of their leaders and other opinion forming groups and
agencies.
AGENCIES OF PUBLIC OPINION

The following agencies play an important role in the formulation of public opinion.
1.
Press
Press, which includes the newspapers, weeklies monthly, periodicals and other
published material, is one of the most powerful agency for the formulation of public
opinion. The press not only brings to the notice of the people various national and
international events but also offer considered views and comments on these events.
On the basis of these news and views, the readers form their own views, which they
are free to express through the columns of newspapers etc. The importance of press
has greatly increased in recent years due to wide-spread education. It is noteworthy
that only an independent and free press can play a healthy role in the formulation of
Public Opinion
361
public opinion. A controlled press is likely to suppress the news and facts and
likely to present distorted picture, which is bound to hamper the development of a
healthy public opinion.
2. Public Platform
What the press seeks to achieve through written words, is achieved through platform
through spoken words. Ocassionally public mettings are held where prominent
economic, social and political issues are discussed, which helps in the formulation of
public opinion. In fact the public meetings leave a deeper impact on the minds of the
people and have a direct appeal to the people. In a country like India, where the rate
of literacy is very low, and public do not have access to newspapers and other
published material, the public platform is more effective instrument of public opinion.
3. Political parties
The political parties also play a vital role in the formulation of the public opinion. The
political parties try to educate the people about the various problems confronting the
country and suggest means for the redressal of those problems. Through constant
meetings and discussions the political parties try to mould the public opinion and try
to win the popular support in favour of their party. That is why the elections are
regarded as a true barometer of the public opinion.
4. Radio and Television

In recent years electronic mass media (radio and Television) has also been playing an
effective role in the dissemination of information and formulation of public opinion. In
countries like India where the media is controlled by the state, its role in the
formulation of public opinion is rather limited. But still they play a vital role in the
formulation of public opinion by holding discussions on matters of current
importance. This helps the people not only to comprehend the various issues but also
to formulate their own opinion on the various issues confronting the country. It is
noteworthy, that in a country like India where majority of the people are illetrate the
media plays an important role in the moulding of public opinion.
5. Cinema
Cinema also plays an important role in the formulation of the public opinion. In
cinema
plays a twin role of education and entertainment. In this regard, the news reels
documentaries which are projected before the film starts, play a vital role in
formulation of public opinion. These news reels and documentaries highlight
various social, religious and political issues and try to arouse the feelings of
people against the existing social and cultural evils. All this greatly helps in
formulation of healthy public opinion.
fact
and
the
the
the
the
6. Educational Institutions
Educational institutions like schools, colleges, universities etc. also play a vital role in
the building of public opinion. As a part of the educational curriculum, the
educational institutions organise debates, discussions, lectures by eminent
personalities etc. which enables the students to know about the various dimensions
of the problem. These debates and discussions greatly widen the outlook of the
students and encourage them to think independently on those issues and form their
own judgement. The ideas picked up during these formative years of their career
become a part of their personality and are not easily forgotten. Hence, it can be said
that the educational institutions influence the public opinion a great deal.
7. Legislature
In a modern democratic state the legislatures play a vital role in the formation of the
public opinion. While passing a bill all the pros and cons of the bill are fully debated in
legislature which enables the members to fully comprehend the various dimensions
of the problem and form their own opinion. The proceedings of the house are
reported in the press which enables even the non-members to know about the
problem and form their own opinion.
8. Elections
The elections, which are held at regular intervals, also serve as a useful process for
the formulation of the public opinion. During the elections various political parties
either highlight their achievements or expose the shortcomings of the opposition
party. This enables the people to have a fair idea about both the sides of the picture
and to form their own assessment on various public issues. In fact the election
campaign becomes an educational campaign and greatly influences the public
opinion.
362
9. Political Literature
The political literature distributed to the various political parties on the eve of the
election or during the inter-election period also leaves a deep impact on the minds of
the people and helps them to form their own opinion on the various problems
confronting the country.
10. Role of Religious and Social

Organisations
The various religious and social organisations of the country also greatly mould the
public opinion on the social, economic and religious issues, which has indirect bearing
on the political views of the people, and influences the public opinion.
11. Role of Pressure Groups

The various pressure groups also greatly influence the formulation of public opinion.
These groups try to protect and promote their own interests through newspapers,
periodicals etc. While doing so they give the impression that they are doing so in
public interest and try to give the projection that public opinion is on their side.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBLIC OPINION IN DEMOCRACY

Public opinion has great importance in a democratic system and no government can
afford to ignore it. In fact the legislature enacts laws
which are in keeping with the public opinion. If it tries to act contrary to the
prevailing public opinion it shall fall in disfavour with the people and shall not be able
to survive. Further, a good government always tries to keep on the right side of the
public opinion and must be willing to make necessary adjustments in its policy
according to the requirements of the situation.
Secondly, public opinion acts as a check on the autocracy of the legislature. As

the members of the legislature are elected for a limited term only they cannot be
afford to ignore the public opinion without jeoparadizing its own existence. The
members always try to keep in line with the public opinion so that they may be able
to get re-elected.
Thirdly, public opinion is great protector of individual rights and liberties. No
government can dare to encroach upon the rights and liberties of the people. If the
government tries to restrict the rights and liberties of people against the prevailing
public opinion this can lead to the fall of the government. In fact, the opposition
parties are always ready to pounce upon the government in the event of violations of
the rights and liberties of the people.
Finally, public opinion provides legitimacy to the system and prevents the
government from making undue encroachments on the rights and liberties of the
people. A hostile public opinion checks the despotism of government and encourages
it to work more efficiently.
4
2
Elections and Electoral
Reforms
India has adopted a Parliamentary system of government both at the centre as well
at the state level in which elections are held at regular intervals. These elections are
largely based on the British pattern. It may be noted that the Constitution does not
provide any details about the electoral system and the same is determined by the
Parliament. For this purpose the Parliament has enacted several laws which include
Representation of the People Act 1950; Prohibition of Simultaneous Membership
Rules; Representation of the People Act, 1951; Delimitation Act, 2002; Registration of
Electors Rules, 1960; Conduct of Election Rules, 1961 Elections Symbols
(Representation and Allotment) Order 1968; Presidential and Vice-Presidential
Election Act 1952.
Broadly speaking, two types of electoral systems have been adopted in India.
First, direct election based on territorial constituencies. This system is followed for
the election of the members of Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies. Second,
election held on the basis of proportional representation by means of a single
transferable vote. The President and the Vice-President of India, members of Rajya
Sabha and members of Legislative Councils are elected through this method.
The main features of the electoral system obtaining in India are as under:
1. Elections are held on the basis of universal adult franchise, which means that
all the citizens above the age of 18 years are eligible to participate in the
election, provided they have registered themselves as voters.
2. The communal electoral system which obtained in pre-independence period,
has
been done away with and there is a single electoral body.
3. There is a provision for reservation of seats for scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes.
4. For the general seats representation is accorded on territorial basis through
common electoral roll.
5. Voting takes place through secret ballot.
6. Responsibility for the conduct of elections has been entrusted to an
independent Election Commission, which ensures free and fair elections.
7. Political parties are an indispensable part of the electoral process.
8. Aggrieved candidates have a right to file petition in the High Court or the
Supreme Court in the event of dispute regarding the elections.
For the conduct of free and fair elections, the framers of the Constitution on
provided for an independent Election Commission which is responsible for the
superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for the
conduct of election. The constitution has sought to ensure the independence of the
Election Commission by providing that the Chief Election Commissioner and other
members of the election commission cannot be removed from office except in a
manner and on the like grounds as a judge of Supreme Court. Further, the conditions
of service of the Chief Election Commissioner and other members of thie Commission
cannot be varied to their disadvantage during their term.
ELECTORAL PROCEDURE
The electoral process starts with the preparation of the electoral rolls for the
Parliament and the State
Legislatures. It is the responsibility of the Election Commission to revise and keep the
electoral rolls up-to-date. The elections are held in accordance with the schedule
decided by the Election Commission in consultation with the concerned government.
After the schedule of election has been finalised by the Election Commission the
President or Governor issues a notification of election with regard to Parliament or
state legislature. As per rules, eight days are given to the candidates for filing
nomination. Only those candidates are eligible to file nominations whose names are
included in the electoral roll of the constituency from which he wishes to contest
election. Under the rules no candidate is eligible to contest election from more than
two constituencies. After the nominations have been filed, the returning officer
scrutinises the same and
rejects the defective ones. After the scrutiny, the candidates can withdraw from
the contest within two days. After the date of withdrawal, the Returning Officer
finalises the list of candidates and allots them election symbols. The candidates who
contest election on party tickets are allotted the reserved symbols, while the other
candidates are allotted free symbols. Once the list of candidates in the field is
finalised, fourteen days are permitted for campaigning. The comapigning must stop
48 hours before the date of polling. Generally the Election Commissioner in
consultation with the political leaders finalises a code of conduct which the
candidates are expected to observe.
ELECTIONS HELD SO FAR

Since the inauguration of the Constitution in 1950, fourteen general elections
have been held to the Lok Sabha and various Legislative Assemblies. The
participation of the citizens at different levels has not been identical. However, the
voter participation in Lok Sabha elections has shown steady increase, which is borne
out by the following table.
Year of
Election
1952
1957
1962
1967
1971
1977
1980
1984
1989
1991
1996
1998
1999
2004
Percentage of
votes polled
44.90
49.20
52.40
61.33
55.30
60.40
57.30
63.66
59.60
51.10
57.09
62.02
59.70
57.86
This trend of growing participation is in complete contrast with other developing

countries whose governments have sought to restrict participation by providing
single party regimes or military regimes. Some of the important features which have
been highlighted by various election studies in India are that there has been increase
in percentage of votes polled in both urban as well as rural areas; the participation to
women in election has increased with every election.
ELECTORAL REFORMS
The electoral process in India suffers from several shortcomings. These include
growing use of corrupt practices and misuse of government machinery; important
role of money and muscle power; role of caste and religion; presence of large number
of political parties; presence of large number of independent candidates in the
election fray; dispartly in the percentage of votes polled and the number of seats
captured by political parties.
Several suggestions have been made by different committees for the reform of
electoral process. These include reduction of voting age
Elections and Electoral Reforms
365
from 21 years to 18 years; increase in security deposit for independent candidates to

reduce multiplicity of candidates and political parties; no permission to contest
election from more than two seats; to check booth capturing by granting powers to
the returning officers to order repoll or countermand elections; introduction of photo
identity cards to check impersonation; to curb misuse of media and government
machinery; compulsory maintenance and submission of election accounts; ban on
the sale and distribution of liquor; Opposition leader should be consulted while
appointing the Chief Election Commissioner; the political parties must elect their
respective officer bearers as per their constitution within four months; video covering
of polling
boths to curb booth capturing and other malpracticles; confiscation of arms and
ammunition during the poll periods; cab on antisocial elements and known offenders.
Debarring a candidate, convicted by a court under section 8 of the Representative of
People Act, from contesting elections; raising of ceilling on poll expenses to 15 lakh
for Lok Sabha and 6 lakh for state legislature; compulsory disclosure of information
about wealth, education and criminal record of candidates contesting elections; use
of Electronic Voting Machines in the elections; compulsory identification of voters.
The implementation of the above suggestions has and will go a long way in ensuring
fair elections in the country.
Class and
Caste
Socially and culturally India is highly diversified country. As a result it has not
been able to evolve any integrated Indian social structure. But despite his diversity
some sort of unity has been provided to the system by the class and caste factors;
which play a vital role in regulating the working of the Indian society. As caste and
class are important social symbols and have exercised profound influence on Indian
politics, it shall be desirable to understand their meaning and examine their impact
on Indian politics.
CASTE IN INDIAN POLITICS

Caste has been one of the basic features of the structure of Indian society since
earliest times. It exercised profound influence on the political life of the country
during various stages of history. The Britishers fully exploited the caste system to
keep the Indians divided and exploited sectional loyalties based on caste to promote
their own interests. In view of the harm done by the caste system the Congress Party
decided to check this evil in the post-independence period. For this purpose it
incorporated in the Constitution the ideals of justice, equality, liberty and fraternity.
The other measures taken to curb the caste tendencies included introduction of
universal adult franchise; termination of separate electorates, prohibition of
untouchability and discrimination on other grounds etc. In fact the Indian leaders
made very possible effort to discourage caste system. But simultaneously the
framers of the Constitution incorporated certain provisions in the constitution by
which special reservations and safeguards were provided for scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes etc. As a result
of these provisions the caste considerations, which they wanted to curb, took
deep roots into the Indian political system.
Before examining the hole of caste in Indian Politics it is desirable to explain its
meaning.
MEANING OF CASTE
The term caste has been derived from the Portuguese term casta meaning race,
breed or kind. The greater sociologist Fairchild defines it as "homogeneous,
endogamous social control organization with distinctive rituals, especially those
pertaining to a religious party. Each caste and sub-caste is given on official status
rating high or low according to the date of its origin, its supposed one time
occupation and the strictness of its moral and religious codes" Prof. Blunt described
castes as "an endogamous group, or collection of endogamous groups bearing a
common name, membership of which is hereditary; imposing on its members certain
restrictions in matter of social intercourse; either following a common traditional
occupation or claiming a common origin; and generally regarded as forming a single
homogenous community." According to Karve, "caste is an extended kinship group in
which every member is either an actual or a potential kin of another." M.N. Srinivas
the famous sociologist defines caste as "a hereditary endogamous, usually localised
group, having a traditional association with an occupation, and a particular position in
the local hierarchy of castes. Relations between castes are governed among other
things by concepts of pollution and purity and generally, maximum communality
occurs within the caste."
Class and Caste
367
A perusal of the above definitions of caste will show that different scholars have
viewed caste in different context viz. as a special type of social stratification; an
ethnographic category relevant only to the Hindu India; or a structure phenomenon.
However, one thing is quite clear that caste is quite a complex phenomenon and
should not be equated with the Varna Ashram of the Hindu scriptures.
GASTE IN FREE INDIA

The introduction of the democratic system and universal adult franchise imparted
new vigour to the caste in the post independence period. As the democratic
government rested on popular votes, the different political parties openly indulged in
vote manipulation to get into power. They started pursuing those social groups, which
stood at the lower hierarchy of the society, but wielded enormous power, due to their
numerical strength. This naturally made these groups conscious of their power.
The Constitution by reserving seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
the legislatures as well as for the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha and State
Legislative Assemblies, also acknowledge the importance of caste system in the
Indian political system. Likewise protective discrimination provided to scheduled
castes, scheduled tribes and socially and educationally backward classes in services
and educational institutions greatly increased the importance of caste in Indian
politics. Whatever be the justification of these restrictions, the upper caste people
have opposed it. This has resulted in aggravation of caste antagonism.
The process of modernity which has resulted in spread of education, improved
means of transportation and communication, expansion of mass media etc. has also
made the members of the lower castes conscious of their rights and they have
tended to assert themselves. This has naturally given serious jolt to traditional
hierarchical, social and economic system and evoked strong reactions from members
of higher castes. The members of higher castes have often indulged in brutal
violence against the lower caste. All this has contributed to the sharpening of the
class conflict,
which in its has left a deep impact on Indian politics.
The absence of ideological or class-based parties in the country also contributed to
the importance ofcaste as a factor. The illiterate people of India who could not
understand politics in terms of class interests were wooed in the name of caste
sentiments by various political parties and generally paid rich dividends. Caste
considerations were always given paramount importance while distributing the
tickets for various positions, or while forming ministries. This was natural in view of
the general observations that the people of the same caste group vote for a
candidate of their own caste. However, if a candidate of their caste is not available,
they vote according to the directive of their caste Panchayat or other caste leaders. It
is only when there are more than one candidates of the same caste that the
members of that caste vote according to their conscience and the caste
consideration becomes an insignificant factor. Therefore it can be safely said that
though the various political parties have denounced caste consideration yet overtly
every political party, including the Communists, have assigned the caste an
important position in allocating their party tickets or constituting the governments.
Prof. M.N. Srinivas has rightly observed that the caste is so tacitly and so completely
accepted by all, including the most vocal in condemning it,
that it is every where the unit of social action." He further says that "there is a
widespread impression among educated Indians that caste is on its last legs and that
the educated urbanised and westernised members of the upper classes have already
escaped its bond. Both these impressions are wrong. These people may observe very
diametric restriction, marry outside caste and even religions, but this does not mean
that they have escaped the bonds of caste entirely. They show caste attitude in
surprising contexts."
Prof. Rajni Kothari has also emphasized the important role which caste has come
to play in politics in India. He says, "The process of politics is one of identifying and
manipulating existing structure in order to mobilize support and consolidate
positions. When the caste structure provides one of the most important
organisational clusters in which the population is found to live,
368
politics must strive to organise through such a structure the alleged castism in
politics is thus no less than politicization of caste."
As regards the mobilization of the people on the basis of caste, Prof. Rudolph has
observed three types of mobilization: vertical, horizontal and differential. According
to him, vertical mobilization is the marshalling of the political support by traditional
notables in local societies that are organized...and integrated by rank, mutuai
dependence and the legitimacy of traditional authority. Horizontal mobilization
involves the marshalling of political support by class or community leaders and their
specialized organisations. Differential mobilization involves the marshalling of direct
or indirect political support by political parties and other integrative structures from
viable but internally differentiated communities through parallel appeals to ideology,
sentiment and interests."
Relationship Between Caste and Politics

It is very difficult to make any general statement regarding the relationship between
the caste and politics because the magnitude of the caste's role is not the same at
the national and state or local level. Michael Brecher has observed that while caste
plays a major role in the state and local politics but it plays only a marginal role at
the all-India level. Further, at the state level also it does not play an identical role in
all states. For example, in the Western and South India, the castes-in-politics played a
vital role in ending the domination of the higher castes in politics. The non-Brahmins
due to their numerical superiority dealt a serious blow to the English educated and
urban based high-class politics. This victory was not achieved by any single caste but
by the combination of a number of lower castes and was not merely an assertion of
the numerical strength but also their economic power. Viewed in this context, it can
be said that the caste-politics has resulted in transfer of authority from the higher to
the middle castes. The members of the low caste like the untouchables; landless
peasants, rural poor etc. have not been able to benefit by this change. However, they
have certainly been able to free themselves from exploitation and victimisation by
the higher castes
because the politicians, who aim at perpetuating their position, have tried to gain
their support by promising as well as giving them a better deal. It has rightly been
observed that it is the politicians who enjoy privileged position aimed at perpetuating
the operation of caste to seek sanction for their power in social system which
possesses great inequality in status, worldly goods and opportunities.
The caste has not proved to be a divisive factor as was feared by some of the
Hindu leaders. On the other hand, it has performed an integrative function. Andre
Beteille, who has made a study of the future of backward classes and tribals in India,
argues that even if the contention of the critics is admitted that the caste in politics is
responsible for accentuating communal consciousness, it should not be viewed as an

unhealthy or disrupting force. On the other hand, it should be looked upon as a
precondition to the integration of the tribals into the wider body politic for the
measure of integration lies not so much as a passive acceptance of the status quo as
in the adoption of a body of common political rules through which divergent interests
are organized and articulated. He looks upon this increase in communal
consciousness as one step forward in the direction of politicization of Indian society.
He says" The years to come are likely to witness a fuller participation in the political
process by larger section of the tribal population and a more effective articulation
between tribal leaders and the masses only when leaders at every level learn to put
forward demands on their behalf. In a heterogeneous society where particularistic
ties are of such importance it is unrealistic to expect political integration to come
about without large concessions to special demands."
The validity of theâste factor in politics is further demonstrated by the style of
the functioning of the various political parties. While selecting candidates for
election, while formulating campaign strategies and while manipulating votes they
make a liberal use of the caste factor. Even while formulating the ministries the caste
considerations invariably creep in. This confirms the assertion of Prof. Srinivas that
caste is so tacitly and so completely accepted by all, including most vocals in
condemning it, that it is
Class and Caste 369
everywhere the unit of social action. Prof. Rudolphs also says "Within the new context
of political democracy caste remains a central element of India's society even while
adapting itself to the values and methods of democratic politics. Indeed, it has
become one of the chief means by which the Indian mass has been attached to the
process of democratic politics."
Prof. Morris Jones has discovered that "politics is more important to castes and
castes are more important to politics than before." He asserts that the top leaders
may proclaim the goal of a casteless society, but "the newly enfranchised rural
masses know only the language of traditional politics which so largely turn about
caste... Behind the formal lift of party candidates nominated for the contests, there is
probably an inside story of careful calculation in terms of caste appeal."
Evaluation of Role of Caste
While it is now admitted at all hands that caste plays a significant role in Indian
politics, the opinion is divided on the point whether this role is negative or positive.
The contenders of the first view argue that caste is a fissiparous threat to the
national unity in so far it has encouraged the people to put group loyalties above
merit and competence and selfishness above public well-being. As the
selection of the candidates is made solely on the basis of caste, the merit
considerations are completely relegated to the background. This is bound to have
adverse effect on the social progress and national unity.
On the other hand, scholars like Rajni Kothari have lauded the liberating influence
of caste. He says, "Apart from the divisive and factional aspects of the caste there is
a cohesive elements of caste that should be looked into. When a nation is changing
so fast and when tensions are generated at very high pitch, when we face problems
that cannot be solved, when the lag between performance and expectation is
increasing, when all this is happening there is a great need for social structure which
would absorb a lot of these tensions for the individual. The caste system does this
precisely. This should not be taken as a plea for revival of the caste system. The
objective is only to emphasise that it is a unique feature in India that the prevailing
social structure allows us to proceed
with mass programmes without creating the usual feature of an amorphous mass
upon which some adventurist or demogogue can work."
Without going into details regarding the good or the evil effects of caste on
politics in India, it can be said that the introduction of representative democracy
based on the principle of one man; one vote has drawn caste into web of electoral
politics. The various caste groups generally assert their right to participate in
elections and contest for powers, and have thus given new dimensions to Indian
politics. But it would certainly be wrong to assert that caste-factor alone could
explain the reality of Indian politics. To other factor like language, class and religion
play no less significant role. Again it would be wrong to assume that the political
relationship among various social groups can be governed by case considerations
alone. Bailey has rightly observed "caste-factor alone could explain the reality of
Indian politics. The other factors like language, class and religion play no less
significant role. Again it would be wrong to assume that the political relationship
among various social groups can be governed by caste considerations alone. Bailey
has rightly observed "caste is not a principle by which political-economic groups are
recruited, nor does it organize relations between political groups; but is an organizing
principle within social groups." Even within the social group, it cannot operate, as a
permanent organizing principle because the "perception of incompatible economic
interests, political and economic inequality, existence of gap between the rich and
the poor of the same social group is bound to create factions and political cleavages
which will render caste more and more ineffective."
CLASS IN INDIAN POLITICS Meaning of Class

The term 'class' has been used in two different senses by Karl Marx and Max Weber.
While Marx defines class in relation to the means of production. Max Weber describes
class as a status group. Marx divides the society into two broad classes-the capitalists
or the owners of the means of production and proletariat, the property less, who
possess only labour power and work for wage
370
or salary. Referring to the growth of the classes Marx wrote. "The owners merely of
labour-power, owner of capital and landowner, whose respective sources of income
are wages, profit and ground-rent, in other words wage labourers, capitalists and land
owners constitute the three big classes of modern society based upon the capitalist
mode of production."
According to Marx, though the worker forms an essential part of productive
system, yet he has no voice in the management of the factory or the mine where he
works. The division of labour, which is introduced, with the development of
machinery, obliges him to concentrate on the production of only some part and he is
virtually reduced to the status of a cog in the machine. Marx argues that the
capitalist in order to augment the capital resorts to methods of production which
'mutilate the labour into a fragment of a man, degrade him to the level of an
appendage of machine, destroy every remnant of charm in his work and turns it into
a hated toil." Marx contended that with the accumulation of capital the lot of the
worker grows miserable. This gives rise to class-consciousness among workers, who
find their interest antagonistic to the interests of the capitalists. Thus Marx views the
classes in purely antagonistic terms, possessing irreconcilable class interests.
Unlike Marx, Weber did not envisage only two antagonistic classes. On the other
hand he envisaged various social stratas (status) between the workers and the
capitalists. Like Marx he admits the importance of the economic factor in any system
of stratification, but he also envisaged two other determinants viz. political power
and social prestige or honour. In short, Max Weber believes that wealth; political
influence and prestige go hand in hand in determining the status of a person.
Warner defines class thus "By class is meant two or more orders of people who
are believed to be, and are accordingly ranked by the members of the community in
socially superior and inferior positions."
Relationship between Class, Caste and Power
Generally there is a close co-relationship between the three hierarchies of caste,

class and power. The Brahmans have the highest position in the caste hierarchy,
while the untouchables have the lowest position and in between the two there are
large collections of castes, which have no fixed position. Similarly, there is close
relationship between the status of a caste and its economic position. The higher
castes tend to be landowners, while the tenants are mostly from the untouchable
castes. Similarly all position of and influence are in the hands of higher castes. Thus,
we find an intimate co-relationship between caste, class and power.
According to Prof. S.N. Srinivas "A caste is dominant when it preponderates
numerically over the other castes and when it ,also wields preponderant economic
and political power. A large and a powerful caste group can more easily be dominant
if its position in the local caste hierarchy is not too low."
Some scholars have tended to argue that in the urban areas class is slowly replacing
caste and that the caste values are being discarded by those urban classes, which
now look to the west for new ideas and values. However, Prof. Srinivas does not
agree with this view. He says, "there is a wide spread impression among educated
Indians that caste is on its last legs and that the educated urbanized and westernized
members of the upper classes have already escaped its bonds. But these impressions
are wrong. These people may observe very few dietetic restrictions, marry outside
the caste and even religion, but this does not mean that they have escaped entirely
the bonds of the caste. They show caste attitude in surprising contexts. And they
interact closely with the relatives who are steeped in attitudes. On occasions they are
not averse to make use of
caste times.1"
While we cannot deny the hold of the caste on politics it is also true that the
socio-economic status has a close relationship with political activity. This
1. M.N. Srinivas, social change in modern India
Class and Caste

371
means that if the low status castes can raise their socio-economic status they can
also raise their levels of political involvement and activity.
In the end we can agree with Anil Bhatt, who has made a detailed study of the
caste, class and politics, the "Caste status per se does not contribute to political
orientations, influence and activity. Thus caste status is not necessarily a condition
for politicization. Whatever relation caste status has a political activity is because of
the intervening effect of socio-economic status; the socio-economic
status is relatively more open to change than a person's caste status. In short, if the
relationship between caste status and socio-economic status changes, then whatever
little relationship caste status has with political orientation, influence or activity
would also change." He further asserts that "the relationship between caste and
socioeconomic status is indeed changing and that the young among the lowly are
raising their socioeconomic status levels as, compared to their elders. 1"
1. Anil Bhatt, caste, class and polities, p. 181.
Chapter
44
Gender
Justice
The women in India have been treated with great respect since earliest times.
They have been venerated as mothers who sacrifice their lives for the sake of their
children, as women who selflessly serve their husbands and their families. They have
been by tradition eating only after the male members of the family have dined. They
have mainly been concentrating on domestic duties and denied education and
economic power. This devaluation of women resulted in practices like female
foeticide, child marriages, dowry and related crimes etc, and greatly undermined the
position of women in the society. Moved by the miserable plight of women the social
reformers of the nineteenth century launched movement for improvement of
condition of women.
WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS IN NINETEENTH CENTURY

The women movements in India had their beginning in the nineteenth century
when for the first time Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj organised Mahila Mandals to
effect improvement in the condition of women by reforming the laws and imparting
education to them. Several social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
IshwarchandraVidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule, Swami Dayanand, Keshub Chandra Sen,
Hari Deshmukh etc., also took up the cause of women in general and widows in
particular. Some of the important issues relating to women raised by these social
reformers included purdah, infant marriage, female infanticide, sati and widowremarriage etc. A notable point about the women's movement during the initial
period was that it was dominated by men. Raja Ram Mohan Roy played a leading role
in getting a law enacted in 1829, which banned
Sati. In 1856, the Widow Remarriage Bill was introduced which evoked strong
reaction, and had to be abandoned. These social reformers also tried to promote
education among women to encourage them to enter public life. However, this
championship of the cause of women by male social reformers was not appreciated
by some of the women leaders and they decided to form women groups to represent
the women's cause. The lead in this regard was taken by Sarla Devi Choudhurani who
formed the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in 1910. She was highly critical of male
champions of women's cause and said, "They are so called social reformers. They
advertise themselves as champions of the weaker sex; equal opportunities for
women, female education and female emancipation are some of their pet subjects of
oratory at the annual show. They even make honest efforts at object lessons in the
above subject by persuading educated ladies to come up on their platform and speak
for themselves. But woe to the women, if they venture to act for themselves.
WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN TWENTIETH CENTURY

During the decade (1910-1920), a number of women social organisations
designated as Mahila Samitis, ladies Societies, Women's Clubs etc., were set up in
different cities and towns. In 1917, Womens Indian Association was set up at Madras
with which several small societies were affiliated. Two-all, India women organisations
were formed during the 1920's. These included the National Council of Women in
India (1925) and the All India Women's Conference (1927). Both these bodies proved
quite popular and by 1932, they had
Gender
Justice 373
a joint membership of over 10,000. The All India Women's Conference (AIWC) in
particular did a commendable job in raising demands regarding creches, nursery
schools, ante-natal and post-natal care and maternity homes for women workers.
Mahatma Gandhi also took keen interest in the matters relating to women. He not
only worked for their emancipation but also encouraged them to take part in struggle
against the Britishers. It is well known fact that women played an effective role in
picketing and demonstrations.
CONSTITUTION AND WOMEN
In view of the effective role played by the women in the freedom struggle the framers
of the Constitution decided to grant them equality with men and debarred the state
from making any distinction on the basis of sex. The UN Charter which reaffirmed
faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of human person and in
the equal rights of men and women, also inspired the framers of the constitution to
reiterate their commitment to bring about a just a fair, social, legal economic and
political order in which each person would be treated fairly and shall be able to make
contributions according to his or her abilities without being discriminated against on
the ground of
sex, descent, religion, race etc.
STRUGGLE BY WOMEN'S ORGANISATIONS

The women leaders realised that much was still needed to be done for improving
the lot of the women in India. Therefore, AIWC and other women organisations
continued the struggle on behalf of the Indian women and succeeded in getting
several laws-Special Marriage Act (1954), the Hindu Marriage Act and Divorce Act
(1955), the Hindu Adoption Act (1956), Interstate Succession Act (1956), Suppression
of Immoral Traffic in Women Act (1956) and Dowry Prohibition Act (1961)- enacted. In
1975, the committee on the Status of Women in India submitted its report in which
glaring inequalities and worsening position of women in Indian society were
highlighted. This provided a stimulous to the formation of new women groups. In view
of the growing pressure from women
groups, the government proceeded to enact several laws for the protection of the
interests of women. The laws thus passed included the Equal Remuneration Act
(1976), the Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act (1978), the Criminal Law
(Amendment) Act 1983, the Family Courts Act (1984), the Criminal law (Second
Amendment Act) 1985, etc. Through these laws discrimination against women on
grounds of sex in matter of employment was done away with; the age for marriage
for girls was raised to 18 years; the punishment for rape was made more stringent
and the onus of proof in such cases was shifted to the offender; cruelty to women by
husbands and inlaws was made punishable.
In addition to AIWC, two other national organisations of women were formed in
1954 and 1981. These organisations were National Federation of Indian Women
(NHIW) and All India Democratic women's Association (AIDWA) respectively. While
AIWC was close to Congress, the NFIW and AIDWA were affiliated with CPI and CPM
respectively. A large number of other women organisation were also formed to
promote and protect women interests in various fields. Some of the important
organisations thus set up include Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA),Akhil
Bharatiya Janvadi Mahila Samiti, Mahila Dakshita Samiti, Working Women's Forum
(WWF),Centre for Women's Development Studies etc. Women organisations in
Uttarakhand (Uttarakhand Mahila Manch) and Andhra Pradesh, launched campaign
against sale of attack in the respective regions to eliminate male drunkenness.
A notable point about the women movement in India is that it has largely
remained urban in character. Further, though the women have been granted right to
vote on par with men and do not lag behind men in terms of number, yet they have
not been able to get adequate representation in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
In the Lok Sabha the highest representation which women could secure was in the
elections of 1984, when they captured 8 percent of the seats. In the state legislatures
also their representation has been quite low. The Committee on the Status of Women
in India in its report indicated that women are increasingly losing faith in the political
system and
374
may opt out of the political system. It has, therefore, been suggested that an
exclusive women's political party be formed, so that their representation may
increase in the Parliament and state legislatures. Such a party could bring about a
change in their condition too.
EFFORTS TO INCREASE WOMEN PARTICIPATION

In recent years certain steps have been taken to increase women's participation in
the political system. An important step in this direction was taken in 1992, when 73rd
and 74th amendments were carried out to the constitution and 33 percent of seats in
Panchayat Raj Institutions and Municipalities were reserved for women. During the
last few years, efforts have been stepped up to enact a law for the reservation of 33
percent of seats for women in the Parliament as well as the State legislatures.
Actually, a bill to this effect is already pending before the Parliament. In view of
strong opposition of certain political parties to the passage of this bill, the chances of
its being passed are not very bright. Further, the experience of women reservation in
the Panchayati Raj institutions has also not been quite encouraging. At the local
levels, the women have been either surrogated to their menfolk or have been
victimised for their stands. Even if representation is granted to the women in the
Parliament and State legislature, in the prevailing conditions when large number of
criminals have joined politics, the women may not find it conducive to enter politics.
Further, there is every likelihood that the reserved quota of the women would be
filled by the wives and daughters of powerful political leaders, who may not be
committed to the cause of women. Effective participation of women in politics can be
possible only after they have been emancipated and the political atmosphere is
cleared of corruption and criminalisation.
The women have also not been able to get adequate representation in police,
judiciary, civil services, professional services like scientists, engineers, doctors, etc. In
fact, they have been deliberately denied these jobs on the plea that they are not
suited for the same and men can do these jobs better. It is true that several laws
have been
enacted to ensure equal treatment to women and to better their condition, but these
laws have either remained on paper or failed to achieve the desired results.
Of late, the women movement in India, has gained a fresh momentum due to
encouragement being offered by the government. In 1990, a National Commission for
Women (NCW) Act was passed to look after the problems of women. Earlier, Rajiv
Gandhi had proposed a National Perspective Plan for Women (NPP), which outlined
the programme for the development of women by 2000. The National Commission for
women has also made numerous recommendations for the empowerment of women
and their protection. At the instance of the Commission, thousands of women who
were held in various prisons on petty charges have been freed. The Commission
visited several mental asylums and found that there were more normal women than
mentally sick women in these asylums. The Commission organised Mahila Adalats for
speedy redressal of injustice to women. It has recommended recodification of
criminal laws relating to women. It is rather unfortunate that despite enactment of
several laws to protect and promote the interest of women they still continue to be
discriminated. For example, despite ban on dowry, the practice still persists and
several cases of dowry deaths take place; the change in penal laws and procedures
has not curbed violence against women; enactment of Hindu law has not assured
legal rights to women and they are unable to assert their rights due to social pulls
and pressures. Therefore there is an imperative need to bring about change in the
social attitude to give effect the new aspirations. The courts have also played an
important role in protecting and promoting the interest of women by permitting
public interest litigation. In large number of cases the courts have protected the
interests
of women by giving favourable pronouncements in their favour. Thus Muthamma

challenged the discriminatory service conditions of IFS under which a woman, on a
marriage, was required to leave service. Similarly Neerja Mathur successfully
challenged her dismissal from service after she became pregnant. In fact the
government has enacted several laws relating to maternity
Gender Justice
375
leave, medical care, health care for new born baby and mother etc., to enable women
to exercise their right to work while discharging their domestic responsibilities.
It is often alleged that in India, the women movement is being dominated by the
elite women belonging to upper middle class and middle class. However, it cannot be
denied that the movement has identified itself with the masses, and has championed
the cause of the less privileged. In fact, there is nothing wrong if the women
movement is dominated by the elites so long it is representative of all the women of
India and is ready to take the cause of even most deprived Women. Further, some of
the women organisations have been led by leaders drawn from lower class.
In conclusion, it can be said that though the women movement in India is quite
scattered and lacks unified organisation, it is quite strong. However, it cannot be
denied that the movement has given rise to new social conflicts. The women are no
more willing to accept a subordinate position in the family or outside. In fact,
numerous instances have come to notice where the women have put forth unjustified
demands and harassed menfolk. On the other hand, it has also been observed that
the real damage to the cause of women has been done by the women themselves. If
the interests of women are to be genuinely protected, efforts should be made to
overcome the prevailing social prejudices against women and change the
conventional and traditional approach inherent in the present system.
Chapter
45
Dalit
Movement
The term 'dalit' is increasingly being used by the vocal and activist sections of the
former 'untouchables' in preference to 'Harijans' and 'scheduled caste'. This terms
was popularised by the untouchable protest movements organised in early 1970s.
The term 'dalit' literally means oppressed or broken to pieces. Thus a person who has
been broken to pieces by others deliberately is described as dalit.
The origin of the Dalit movement in India can be traced back to the various lower
caste movements which were launched during the colonial period by leader like
Mahatma Phule, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Ramaswamy Naicker etc. Gradually these
movements grew very strong and developed their own literature and culture. They
waged war for equality and betterment of the Dalit classes. According to Prof. M.S.A.
Rao the backward class movement in India has operated on four principles viz.
Reinterpretation of myths of origin; rejection of Hinduism and Aryan religion and
culture; civil rights; and class conflict. It shall be desirable to examine these
principles in some details.
1. Reinterpretation of Myths of Origin

Most of the backward castes have tended to trace their descent to Lord Krishna's
famous Kshatriya dynasty of Yadu and organised themselves into an All India Yadava
Associations. In some states like Bihar they even donned sacred thread (claimed to
be the exclusive privilege of Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Banias) to claim high Varn
status. According to Rao this was "a language of aggression by which sections of the
Backward classes challenged the monopoly of the upper castes in terms of access to
the rituals and religious services of Brahmanical
Hinduism from which they had been banned for centuries." The Dalits claimed that
most of the Indian culture was created by their ancestors. Thus Vedas were written
by Vyasa who was not a caste of Hindu; Epics were produced by Valmiki, an
untouchable and the Constitution of India by B.R. Ambedkar. They also claimed to be
the original inhabitants of the country and made several self-sacrifices for their
people.
2. Rejection of Hinduism and Aryan

Religion and Culture
Some of the backward class people, specially the Izhavas in Kerala rejected
Hinduism, Aryan religion and culture and emphasised the principles of one God, one
religion and one caste. This new religion based on the above principles posed a
challenge to Hinduism and provided Izhavas a sense of self-respect and esteem.
Similarly in Tamil Nadu, Dravida Kazhagam Movement rejected the Aryan culture and
religion and lauded Dravidian culture and religion. Ramaswamy Naicker, the leader of
this movement, revolted against the Brahmanical way of life. In Maharashtra, the
Mahars from the backward castes rejected Hinduism and embraced Buddhism. By
doing so they gave the
message that they belong to a religion which stands for egalitarian values and
hence they are superior to the caste Hindus.
3. Civil Rights
As the Dalits had been subjected to varied kinds of social, economic and political
exploitations and oppressions for long they demanded equality in educations,
economic and political fields. The framers of the Constitution also felt greatly
concerned about the inhuman treatment meted out to the Dalits and appointed a
committee under
Dalit Movement
377
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to suggest measures for ensuring social justice and equality to the
backward classes.
4.
Class conflict
The class-conflict ideology also exercised profound influence on the Dalits and
encouraged them to destroy Hindu caste system, the landlords, capitalists and
moneylenders.
DALITS AFTER INDEPENDENCE

In view of the prevailing inequalities in the social systems, economic institutions and
political organisations, particularly in relation to certain vulnerable sections of the
society, the framers of the constitution thought it desirable to provide specific
safeguards in the Constitution in their favour. Accordingly the framers of the Indian
Constitution provided for equality before the law and the equal protection of laws
(Article 14); prohibited discrimination based on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or
place of birth (Art. 15); and gave equality of opportunity in employment under the
state (Art. 16).
At the same time the Constitution also incorporated several protective measures
in the constitution to secure life of dignity to the Dalits. These protective measures
include the abolition of untouchabilityy (Art. 17), prohibition of 'begar' or forced
labour (Art. 23), positive discrimination in appointment to government service and
posts (Art. 335) and so on. There is also a clear directive that the state shall promote
their educational and economic interests and protect them from social injustice and
all forms of exploitation (Art. 46).
The Constitution not only provided certain safeguards for the scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes, but also provided mechanism for investigation into the working
of the safeguards and provided for appointment of a Special Officer, popularly known
as Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, who submitted report
to the President. In 1990 the Special Officer's post was substituted by the National
Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The Commission comprises
of a Chairperson, a Vice-Chairperson and five other members, all appointed by the
President. The Commission
investigates and monitors. All matters relating to the safeguards provided for the
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes under the Constitution or any other law. It
enquires into specific complaints with respect to the deprivation of rights and
safeguards of the scheduled castes and tribes. It participates and advises on the
planning process of socio-economic development of the scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes and evaluates the progress of their development under the Union
and the states. The Commission also performs such other functions for the
protection, welfare and development and advancement of the scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes as the President may by law specify. The Commission submits
reports regarding these safeguards to the President, who causes all such reports to
be laid before each House of Parliament along with a memorandum explaining the
action taken or proposed to be taken on the recommendations relating to the Union
and the reasons for non-acceptance, if any, on any of such recommendations. It may
be observed that while investigating and monitoring any matter relating to
safeguards provided of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes under the
Constitution or any other law of the time being in force or under any order of the
Government, have all powers of a civil court trying a suit. The Union and the State
governments are expected to consult the Commission on all major polity matters
affecting the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
POSITION OF DALITS AT PRESENT

Despite various efforts made by the government to uplift the scheduled castes not
much changes have taken in their position. They still continue to suffer from poverty,
illiteracy, destitution, oppression and bondage. Majority of the Scheduled Castes still
live below poverty line. As compared to the general literacy rate, their literacy rate
continues to be quite low. Though untouchability has been formally banned it
continues to be widely practiced. The Dalits continue to be subjected to atrocities,
torture and inhuman reatment by the caste Hindus. In fact most of the bonded
labours in India are drawn from the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Only a
small section of scheduled castes belonging to the elite class among SC has
378
benefited from the policy of reservation, but majority of the SCs, specially those
living in the villages, are still denied civil rights and subjected to oppression and
exploitation.
Though the Dalits constitute a substantial part of the Indian population they have
not been able to make much impact on the social and political system of the country
because they are highly fragmented. In fact, there are large number of Dalit leaders
who head various factions. These leaders instead of promoting the cause of Dalits
have tended to use their position to gain maximum individual advantage. This
division among the dalits was fully exploited by Congress which projected itself as the
champion of dalits and retained power for long with the support of the dalits.
However, gradually is a result of better education, growing job opportunities, spread
of media, and realisation of their voting strength, the dalits started playing active role
at state as well as national level. In North India, in 1984 Kanshi Ram formed Bahujan
Samaj Party (BSP) for the protection and promotion of the interests of dalits. The
party is strongly opposed to the dominance of bureaucracy by the Brahmins and
Baniyas. The party succeeded in weaning away the Dalit votes from Congress and
built a strong base in Haryana,
Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. Subsequently it tried to increase its base in Madhya
Pradesh and
Maharashtra. Over the years the base of the party has greatly expanded and now
BSP enjoys the status of a national party.
MILITANT GROUPS
In the meanwhile a section of the Dalits reacted sharply against the growing
violence against the Dalits in villages, and formed militant groups. Such groups were
formed in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh etc. These groups have
frequently resorted to violence against the upper castes to express their resentment.
Quite often they have organised bandhs etc. to pressurise the government to
concede their demands. This Dalit upsurge evoked strong reaction amongst the caste
Hindus. This is an unfortunate development because it is likely to create deavages in
the society. What is really desirable that instead of following a policy of confrontation
towards each other, the Dalits and the caste Hindus should join hands to work for the
social and economic upliftment of the dalits. Further, the dalits must also try to close
their ranks and evolve unity to achieve quick results.
Chapter
46
Regional
Issues
Regionalism has been an important feature of Indian politics since the dawn of
Independence. But in the late sixties and seventies the regional claims verging on
parochial demands for separation and autonomy grew so strong that they became a
serious threat to the unity of the country. Before making a study of impact of
regionalism on Indian politics, it shall be desirable to understand the meaning and
dimensions of regionalism.
Meaning of 'Regionalism'
The term 'regionalism' is generally used for the counter-movement to any
exaggerated or oppressive form of centralisation. It is also used to refer to assertion
of distinct ethnic, linguistic or economic interests by various groups within the nation.
According to Prof. Iqbal Narain, regionalism is 'a vague concept' which has both
positive and negative dimensions. In the positive sense it embodies a quest for selffulfilment on the part of the people of an area. In the negative sense regionalism
reflects a psyche of relative deprivation resulting from specific grievance. In simple

words, we can say that the term 'regionalism' has two connotations. In the negative
sense, it implies excessive attachment to one's region in preference to the country or
the state. In the positive sense it is a political attribute associated with people's love
for their region, culture, language, etc., with a view to maintain their independent
identity. While positive regionalism is a welcome thing, in so far as it encourages the
people to develop a sense of brotherhood and commonness on the basis of common
language, religion or historical background, the negative regionalism is a great threat
to the unity and integrity of the country. In the Indian context, generally the term
regionalism
has been used in the negative sense and is used to "indicate an agglomeration of
all those forces which are generally considered to be centrifugal polarised to
centralism and nationalism". Kausar J. Azam defines regionalism as "process
subsidiary of political integration in India. It... is a manifestation of these residual
elements, which do not find expression in the national polity and national culture, and
being excluded from the centrality of the new polity express themselves in political
discontent and political exclusionism. It could include forces that the gravitational
or .the centripetal forces of society fail to absorb, assimilate and internalize".
The feeling of regionalism may arise either due to the continuous neglect of a
particular area or region by the ruling authorities or it may spring up as a result of
increasing political awareness of henceforth backward people that have been
discriminated against. Quite often the unscrupulous political leaders encourage the
feeling of regionalism to maintain their hold over a particular area or group of people.
Thus regionalism is a multi-dimensional and composite phenomena which is
considered detrimental to the national unity. This phenomena may emerge out of the
cumulation of variations pertaining to the socio-cultural, economic and political
spheres. In fact, there are two types of determinants of regionalism-subjective and
objective. The subjective components of regionalism are the way of life, customs and
traditions, forms of art, language and literature, social heritage, beliefs, attitudes and
values related to the group. The objective components of the region are the
territorial, regional and the environment complex within which the regional group
lives. Taken together
these
subjective
and
objective
components constitute the determinants of regionalism.
DEVELOPMENT OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA
Regionalism is not a new phenomenon in the Indian political system. In the preindependence days it was promoted by the British imperialists and they deliberately
encouraged the people of various regions to think in terms of their region rather than
the nation as a whole with a view to maintain their hold over India. After
independence the leaders tried to foster a feeling among the people that they
belonged to one nation. The framers of the Constitution sought to achieve this by
introducing single citizenship for all. With the same objective a unified judiciary, AllIndia Services and a strong central government was provided. But in view of the
vastness of the country and cultures regionalism soon made its appearance in India.
The first vague manifestation of regionalism was the demand for reorganization
of states on linguistic basis. But the most effective play of regionalism was the
victory of the DMK against Congress giants, in Tamil Nadu. Initially the central
leadership felt that regionalism was a peripheral political factor confined to Tamil
Nadu and hence did not pose any threat to national unity. However, these hopes
were ill-founded. Soon in Punjab the Akali movement gained momentum, while in
Jammu and Kashmir, Sheikh Abdullah revived the National Conference. During these
initial years all the Indian political parties continued to adjust with these regional
forces on the plea that they would ultimately succeed in making in roads into the
bases of the regional parties and absorb them in their organization. However, these
hopes proved illusory.
The Indian National Congress which enjoyed monopoly of power between 19471967 and followed a policy of blowing hot and cold towards the regional forces, also
contributed to the growth of regionalism in India. It accommodated the regional
forces when it was convenient and raised a hue and cry against them when it was
pitted against them. The local Congress leaders also
encouraged the growth of regionalism and strengthened their hold on local party
organizations with a view to increase their bargaining power with the central leaders.
This close link between the central and regional leadership greatly encouraged the
growth of regionalism.
Causes for Growth of Regionalism

In India a number of factors have contributed to the growth of regionalism:
In the first place, regionalism made its appearance as reaction against the efforts
of the national government to impose a particular ideology, language or cultural
pattern on all people and groups. Thus the states of South have resisted imposition of
Hindi as official language because they feared this would lead to dominance of the
north. Similarly, in Assam anti-foreigner movement was launched by the Assamese to
preserve their own culture.
Secondly, continuous neglect of an area or region by the ruling authority and
concentration of administrative and political power at one centre has given rise to
demand for decentralization of authority and bifurcation of unilingual states. Even
the sons of the soil theory has been put forth to promote the interests of neglected
groups or areas of the state.
Thirdly, the desire of the various units of the Indian federal system to maintain
their sub-cultural regions and greater degrees of self-government has promoted
regionalism and given rise to demand for greater autonomy.
Fourthly, the desire of certain regional parties to capture power has also led to
rise of regionalism. It is well known that political parties like DMK, AIADMK, Akali Dal,
Telugu Desam, Assam Gana Parishad, etc., have encouraged regionalism to capture
political power.
Fifthly, the interaction between the forces of modernization and mass
participation have also largely contributed to the growth of regionalism in India. As
the country is still away from realizing the goal of a nation state, various groups have
failed to identify their group interests with national interests, the feeling of
regionalism has persisted.
Finally, the growing awareness among the people of backward areas that they are
being
Regional Issues
381
discriminated against has also promoted feeling of regionalism. The local political
leaders have fully exploited this factor and tried to feed the people with, the idea that
the central government was deliberately trying it to maintain regional imbalances by
neglecting social and economic development of certain area. Not only this, at the
state level also they have tried to project themselves as the champions of the cause
of certain regions in order to maintain their position of leadership. This trend has
received encouragement from the tendency of the political basis at Centre as well as
states to offer berths in Central and State Council of Ministers to leaders of various
regions.
FORMS OF REGIONALISM
Regionalism in India has manifested itself in the following forms:
a. demand for secession from the Indian
Union: the following forms:
b. demand for secession from the Indian
Union;
c. demand for separate statehood;
d. demand for full statehood;
e. inter-state disputes;
f. dispute over River Waters
g. demand for state autonomy;
h. sons of soil theory; and
i. militant nationalism For a fuller understanding of the politics of regionalism in
India, it shall be desirable to examine these manifestations of regionalism in some
details.
(A)
SECESSION FROM THE UNION 1.
Khalistan
Secession from the Union is one of the most serious manifestations of regionalism
and made its appearance on a number of occasions. The first demand for secession
came from the former state of PEPSU (Patiala and East Punjab States Union), a
predominantly Sikh region. After the Reorganization of the States in 1956, the
bilingual State of Punjab came into existence. With this, Akali leaders, under Tara
Singh put forward a demand
for a separate Punjabi Speaking state. It may be noted that though outwardly the
demand for a separate state was presented on linguistic basis in reality the Sikhs
wanted to have a state with a compact Sikh community. This was soon met with a
counter demand from the Arya Samaj leader of Punjab for Greater Punjab consisting
of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and PEPSU. Both the parties
continued to launch various kinds of agitations during the late fifties and 1960s.
The things took a serious turn when the Akali Dal leader Sant Fateh Singh threatened
to burn himself alive if the demand for Punjabi Suba was not met by 25 Sept. 1992.
Mrs. Indira Gandhi who had just assumed the reigns of government decided to
concede the demand. According to Giselher Wirising, she conceded this demand "not
only because of the chaotic condition in the Punjab but also because Indira Gandhi
wanted to thus honour the Sikh soldiers and officers who formed about 20 per cent of
the Indian Army, for their valour in the recent Indo-Pakistan war".
As a result of this decision the state of Punjab was bifurcated. About 41 percent of
the area of the state with a population of 11.5 million went to the Punjabi Suba; while
35.8 per cent of the area and a population of 7.5 million was given to the Hindi
speaking state of Haryana. The rest of the area (22 per cent) with 7.1 million
population went to Himachal Pradesh. However, the question of the city of
Chandigarh continued to be a bone of contention between the two states. Pending its
final transfer to Punjab in return for surrender of Fazilka and Abohar to Haryana, it
was made a Union Territory.
Even after the creation of the Punjabi Suba certain Sikh leaders were not satisfied
and continued to plead for the establishment of an independent socialist Democratic
Sikh Home Land. Dr. Jagjit Singh, the General Secretary of the Akali Dal faction led by
Sant Fateh Singh even went abroad to mobilise world opinion in favour of creation of
a Sikh homeland. However, these activities were not approved by the Akali leadership
and Jagjit Singh was expelled from the party.
Realising that an independent Sikh State was not possible the Akali started
insisting on greater decentralisation of political power. They joined
382
hands, with other states like Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Kashmir in demanding
greater autonomy for the states. In the Anandpur Sahib Resolution, which was
endorsed by the general house of the Dal at Amritsar on 28 August, 1977, they
demanded that the authority of the Centre should be confined only to the defence of
the country, foreign relations, communications, railways and currency. They also
insisted on the inclusion in Punjab of certain areas like Dalhousie, Chandigarh,
Pinjore, Kalka, Ambala, Una Tehsil, Nalagarh region, Shahbad, six tehsils of
Ganganagar district of Rajasthan, etc.
During the next few years the demand for Khalistan lay dormant. However with
the formation of Congress (I) Government in the state the demand was revived. The
demand was supported by some of the Akali Dal leaders and factional Congress (I)
leaders. In March 1981 the Fifty-Fourth, Sikh educational conference backed the
Khalistan resolution. However, the moderate Akali Dal leaders did not support the
demand for Khalistan and put forth 45 demands to ratify what they termed as
'second class status' for the Sikhs. However, the extremist elements continued to
insist on a separate state of Khalistan. The pro-Khalistan Dal Khalsa hijacked an
Indian Airlines plane to Lahore. While the Central government made it clear that it
would not tolerate secessionist activities, it initiated negotiations with the Akali
leaders. But much head way could not be made due to insistence of the Akali leaders
to implement the Anandpur Sahib Resolution without any reservation. As the
implementation of this resolution was bound to effect the other neighboring states
like Haryana, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh, the Centre could not impletunity to
the extremists to step up their activities. They indulged in killing of innocent people
and began misuse of religious places. The situation became so tense that the Central
Government had to undertake 'Operation Blue Star', to evacuate Golden Temple from
the extremists.
The operation evoked strong reaction from the extremists and they managed
assassination of Mrs. Indira Gandhi, the P.M. of India through her security guards. This
led to a serious backlash in several cities like Delhi, Kanpur, Bokaro, etc. Soon
after assuming power, Rajiv Gandhi made a bid to find a negotiated settlement of the
Punjab issue and concluded an accord with the Akali Dal President Sant Harchand
Singh Longowal. In terms of this agreement, elections were held and Akali Dal
government formed under Surjeet Singh Barnala. Even the Akali Dal government
failed to keep the terrorists under control and killings of innocent people continued.
State was placed under presidential rule, but the terrorist activities continued
unabated. Certain sections of people continued to raise demand for Khalistan under
instigation from foreign power. With the restoration of popular government terrorism
was checked and the demand for Khalistan subsided. In fact, majority of the people
of Punjab are not in favour of secession from the Indian Union.
2. Demand for Dravid Nad

The second case of demand for secession from the Indian Union was that of Dravid
Nad. The demand for secession was put forward by the DMK in 1960 and was
followed by agitation. Subsequently the demand was extended to include areas of
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Mysore and Madras and carve out an independent Republic
of Dravid Nad. However, this demand was not supported by substantial portion of the
population of these areas, and culminated in cleavage in the party. A sizeable number
of members who did not favour secession and merely insisted on radical
amendments in the Constitution left the DMK and formed the Tamil National Party
under E. V.K. Sampath. Despite this division DMK continued to increase its strength
and its demand for secession grew more forceful. However, the demand was firmly
turned down by Pandit Nehru who said, "Territorial integrity of India would not be
allowed to be violated. Any attempt at Balkanisation of India would be resisted with
all the force at our command." To deal with secessionist tendencies sixteenth
amendment was carried out to the Constitution in October 1963 and the Parliament
was authorised to make necessary law to deal with persons questioning the seeking
election to the Parliament or State Legislatures were to take an oath of allegiance' to
the Indian Constitution and swear to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of the
country.
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383
In view of the firm stand of the central leadership the DMK abandoned its demand for
sovereign independent Dravidian federation and carried on necessary changes in the
party constitution. However, it reasserted its determination to work for the formation
of Dravida Union of the states of Madras, Andhra Pradesh. Mysore and Kerala with as
large powers as possible. But this was to be accomplished within the framework of
the Constitution and without posing a threat to the integrity of the country. Ever since
the abandonment of demand for secession the party has consistently
demanded greater autonomy and economic resources for the states. DMK Chief
Minister Karunanidhi has been consistently pressing the Central Government to grant
greater autonomy to the state. At times he has even threatened to use other than
constitutional methods for the attainment of state autonomy. Thus the party shifted
its emphasis on state autonomy rather than insisting on separate and independent
state. Simultaneously in Tamil Nadu regionalism appeared in yet another form. The
Tamilians have been insisting on the reservation of all posts for the Tamilians, to the
exclusion of the Malayalis. At times violent demonstrations were organised against
the Malayalis. The DMK Government even made an open declaration favouring the
reservation of 80 percent of the jobs for the local Tamil people.
3.
Demand for Secession by Mizos
The third case of the demand for secession from the Indian Union was that of the
people of Mizo hill districts of Assam. The Mizos numbering about 200,000 demanded
secession not only from the state of Assam but also from the Union of India. They
wanted to form an independent Mizo State consisting of Mizo Hill districts of Assam
and contiguous areas of East Pakistan and Burma. They formed an organisation
known as Mizo National Front to carry out struggle against the Government. As the
struggle was of a violent nature, the Government adopted a tough attitude towards
the Mizo National Front in 1962. However, the Mizos continued their activities from
Cachar hills and Tripura. In view of the policy of repression adopted by the
Government of India, a section of the Mizo leaders abandoned their demand for
independent and sovereign state
and indicated their will in guess to come to terms and the Government. In 1971 the
President of Mizo National Front (Chunga) submitted a memorandum to the
Government of India highlighting the injustice done to Mizos and demanded a
separate state within the Indian Union. Thus they abandoned the demand for
secession. The Government also reciprocated well and accorded the demand for
secession territory to the Mizo Hills. Huge amounts were to spent to improve the lot
of the people of Mizoram with a view to bring them into the main stream of India.
However, the Government could not achieve much success because a section of
Mizos under Laldenga continued to insist on the status of separate state outside of
the Indian Union. They continued guerrilla activities from China and Burma. The
Government also continued to operate against the rebel Mizos.
Simultaneously, the Government of India made bid to arrive at some negotiated
settlement with the Mizos during the years 1973 and 1974. However, these
negotiations proved a failure. The Mizo also grew more violent and killed the
Inspector General of Police and Deputy Inspector General of Police as well as
Superintendent of Police of Mizoram. This was too much for the Government to
swallow. The Government therefore decided to deploy armed forces and comb the
entire area. It also declared its intention not to hold any talks with the under-ground
Mizo leaders unless they abandoned violence.
In view of the tough attitude of the Government of India, Laldenga, the rebel Mizo
leader decided to give up arms. He indicated his intention to settle the Mizo problem
within the framework of the Indian constitution. After prolonged negotiations an
agreement was reached between the Central Government and the Mizos under
Laldenga in July 1976. As per this agreement the problem was to be solved
peacefully; the Mizos were to abjure violence, and deposit their weapons. However,
Laldenga did not abide by this agreement and soon started inciting his followers to
scuttle its implementation. He raised volunteers and even arranged for their training
in China. During the next one year there was a comparative by lull in the activities of
the underground Mizos. In July 1979 the Mizo National Front insurgents again started
their
activities. They attacked the transmission centre of All India Radio at Aizawl and the
police compelled of Mizoram. They even prepared a plan to murder the important
political leaders as well as civil and police officials. Following the discovery of the plot
the Government of India launched massive operations with the help of military. It
declared that no talks would be held with the Mizo National Front unless it completely
abjured violence. The Centre indicated its willingness to accord status of state-hood
to the Union Territory of Mizoram, but insisted that the rebels will have to first lay
down their arms. For sometime more the Mizo rebels continued violent activities and
posed a serious threat to the law and order of the state. Ultimately in July 1980, the
Mizo rebel leaders reached an agreement with Mrs. Indira Gandhi for a permanent
political solution of the Mizo problem. The two parties agreed to suspend armed
action and find out a solution by mutual consultation within the framework the Indian
Constitution. As a result peace once again returned to the torn state of Mizoram.
However, this peace proved to be illusory because Laldenga and other
underground Mizos continued to secretly regroup the forces, restore their
communication link, and impart guerrilla training to its men. In March, 1981,
Laldenga submitted a five-point plan to Prime Minister for solving the Mizo problem
and sought Government's permission to visit Arkan Hills in Burma to consult other
leaders of the Mizo National Front. After return from Arkan Hills, Laldenga came
forward with the demand of a greater Mizoram state containing some parts of Tripura,
Manipur and Assam as well. He also insisted on 'grant of some sort of autonomy',
through constitutional amendment. This was not acceptable to the Government of
India and thus the stalemate continued. In. 1982 the Centre once again banned the
MNF and asked Laldenga to leave the country. He proceeded to London.
A fresh move to come to some sort of understanding with Laldenga was made by
Mrs. Indira Gandhi in October 1984 and Laldenga was summoned for talks from
London. However, these talks could be held only after about five months in MarchApril, 1985. As a result of prolonged discussions certain modalities for an accord was
finally signed on June 30,1986. Under the accord
the Mizo leader Laldenga arranged, the surrender of 600 MNF insurgents and the
Centre secured the passage of laws by Parliament according Mizoram the status of a
state. Parliament provided constitutional safeguards for preserving the identity of the
Mizo people with regard to their social system and customs. The Mizo National Front
formed an outlawed separatist party into a law abiding political party operating
within the framework of the Indian Constitution. In September 1988 the Mizo National
Front amended its constitution to make it conform to the provisions of the law. On
August 21,1986 a nine-member coalition. Government of Congress (I) and Mizo
National Front was formed and Lalthanhawala became his deputy Chief Minister.
Subsequently elections were held in the state and Mizo National Front Party formed
the Government. The formation of a Government under Laldenga was a great
landmark and marked the culmination of the process of transformation of the Mizo
National Front of Laldenga fell following withdrawal of support by eight
Mizo National Front legislatures which obliged the State Governor to recommend
Presidential rule in the state. In January 1989, when fresh elections to the State
Assembly were ordered, the Congress returned to power due to decline in the
popularity of Laldenga and split in the ranks of Mizo National Front. In the Assembly
election held in November 1993 again the Mizo National Front failed to capture power
and managed to get only 14 seats. This was a clear indication of the decline in the
popularity of Laldenga. However, the Mizo National Front under the leadership of
Zoramthanga won a landslide a victory in the Assembly elections held in November
1998 and ousted the Congress from power. It secured 34 out of the 40 seats in the
Assembly and formed government in the state.
4, Demand of Secession by Nagas

The fourth case of attempted secession from the Indian Union was that of the
Nagas, residing in the hills of Assam and Tuensang division on the Indo-Burmese
border. The Naga National Council under Zepo Philo carried on long drawn out
struggle for secession from the Indian Union. The Nagas not only refused to
participate in the elections of 1952 but also threatened to take the
Regional
Issues 385
issue to the United Nations. They resorted to open violence to pressurise the
Government to concede their demand. The Government could not tolerate all this
and resorted to severe repression and a large number of Nagas were put to death.
Slowly the sections of Nagas who were in favour of remaining within India assumed
the leadership. They modified their demands and passed an unanimous resolution
demanding the integration of the Naga areas into a single administrative unit to be
governed by the Governor of Assam on behalf of the President of India. It also
appealed to the rebel Nagas to give up violence. This change in attitude on the part
of the Nagas was welcomed by Government of India.
In 1960 an agreement was reached between the Naga People's Convention and
the Government of India regarding grant of statehood to the Nagas. Pending the
implementation of this demand a provisional arrangement was made for the
administration of Nagaland. Ultimately in 1962, Nagaland was given the status of a
full-fledged state, although it was formally inaugurated as a state on December
1,1963.
However, the trouble with the Nagas did not end, the violent elements led by
Philo continued the policy of violence and arson. The Government of India also took
firm steps against the rebels and Philo was forced to run away from India. He
proceeded to London to secure support for the cause of an independent state of
Nagaland, but the response was not quite favourable. However, China and Pakistan
did extend him some help and he continued the revolutionary activities. After the
emergence of Bangladesh as an independent state the Nagas lost their base of
operation and their activities somewhat curtailed. However, a section of Nagas under
inspiration from Philo continued violent activities and killed a large number of people
with a view to strike away in the mind of the Government. The Government also
adopted a stiff attitude and took counter-measures. In view of the hardened attitude
of the Government even some of the hard core rebel Nagas realised that they could
not gain anything through violent and underground activities and decided to achieve
their ends by extending their co-operation to the Government of India. The
Government of India was willing to enter into negotiations with the
rebel Nagas for a solution within the framework of the Indian Constitution.
Simultaneously the Government also continued to take precautionary measures to
ensure that the Nagas were not able to procure arms from China or slip to China to
get necessary training.

Ultimately in November 1975 an agreement was reached between the
Government of India and the Nagas. The rebel Nagas agreed to give up their violent
activities and also to surrender all their arms and ammunition. They agreed to work
for a solution within the framework of the Constitution. On the other hand, the
Government of India agreed to release all detained Nagas and withdraw charges of
violence and other offences against them. It was also agreed that the other problems
would also be resolved on the basis of the proposals to be formulated by the
underground Nagas. However, the agreement proved short-lived because a number
of Nagas started openly violating this agreement and continued to procure arms and
ammunition from foreign powers. They also continued to profess open loyalty to the
exiled leader Phizo. In 1977 Morarji Desai, the then Prime Minister, met Phizo in
London to find a solution to the Nagaland problem but, he could not succeed.
It is true that by now majority of the Nagas have reconciled themselves with the
position of a separate state within the Indian Union and given up their demand for an
independent state of Nagaland outside the Indian Union but some hard core Nagas
still persist with their demand for an independent state outside the Indian Union. The
underground Naga leaders like Muivah and Isak Chishi Swu keep on inciting the
Nagas to continue the struggle for the liberation of Nagaland. They issued a
manifesto in July 1980 stating "We rule out the illusion of saving Nagaland through
peaceful means. It is arms Muivah and Swu even announced the formation of an
Interim government of People's Republic of Nagaland. Thus, there is a section of Naga
leaders who still persist with their demand for an independent state. In 1980 United
democratic Party led by Vizol and Naga National Party led by J.B. Jasokie decided to
merge and formed the Nagaland National Democratic Party (NNDP). The party held
faith in parliamentary means and managed to
386
capture power in the state. In the Assembly elections held in November, 1982 the
party captured 24 seats in a house of 60 members but the Congress (I) with same
number of seats managed to secure the support of independents and formed
Government. Thus, gradually the Naga leaders abandoned their demand for an
independent and sovereign state and showed preference for constitutional methods.
However, a section of Nagas persisted with demand for independent state of
Nagaland. These groups continued underground activities and greatly contributed to
instability in the state. The main Naga group which spearheaded the struggle was
National Social Council (NSCN). Inder Kumar Gujaral during his tenure as Prime
Minister, sought to defuse the situation and announced three-month long ceasefire in
Nagaland in August 1997. This ceasefire was extended periodically for three months,
three times before Vajpayee Government extended it by one year on 28 July, 1999.
Centre also agreed to permit NSCN leaders to visit the state and assess the effect of
two-year 'cease-fire'. In order to resolve the insurgency problem in Nagaland it even
agreed to
expand the boundaries of Nagaland to include Naga inhabited areas of Manipur

and Arunachal Pradesh. The decision of Centre to hold talks with NSCN has been
resented by other Naga rebel factions like the National Socialist Council of Nagaland
(Khaplang) and Naga National Council (NNC). These division among the Naga rebel
groups are bound to hamper the process of settlement of Naga problem. In the midst
of these developments there have been several violations of the cease-fire and some
of the rebel groups have even resorted to collection of taxes in violation of the ceasefire agreement. Simultaneously the Chief Minister of Nagaland (S.C. Jamir) has
finalised plans for the development of the state to generate resources and
employment.
In the beginning of 2000 a welcome development took place, when NSCN faction
headed by S.S. Khaplang (like its rival NSCN (lsak-Muivah) and Bodo Liberation Tigers
announced its decision to observe cease-fire with the Union Government in Nagaland
and Assam. According to political analysts this has greatly enhanced the chances of
normalcy in the State.
5. Manipur
In the state of Manipur also secessionist groups like People's Liberation Army (PLA),
the Red Army, the Peoples Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), Meitei
National United Liberation Front (Meitei Marup) have engaged in secessionist
activities. These group resorted to mass-scale violence to force the non-Manipur
people to leave the State.
Some of the secessionist groups even tried to secure cooperation of Nagas and
Mizos to achieve their objectives. The Centre banned these revolutionary
organizations in October 1979. Despite this ban the People's Liberation Army
cooperated with the National Socialist Council of Nagaland persisted with violent
activities and its demand for Manipur's secession from the Indian Union. They served
a notice on the non-Manipur people in the state to leave the state and organised
attacks on civil servants and security forces. According to knowledgeable sources the
resurgence of secessionist activities in Manipur was largely the result of the
prevailing unemployment among the educated youth, widespread corruption in
administration, non-implementation of development projects, and loss of Meitei
identity.
(B) DEMANDS FOR STATEHOOD

Yet another form of regionalism in India has been the demand for separate statehood
for a particular area so that the people could develop their culture and language. This
form of regionalism is certainly of much less serious nature than the demand for
separation from the Indian Union. It simply implies creation of more states out of the
existing states within the Union. This type of regionalism gained in strength only after
the existing states within the Union. This type of regionalism gained in strength only
after the reorganisation of the states. Let us examine some instances of this type of
regionalism.
1. Creation of Gujarat and Maharashtra

Though the State Reorganisation Commission had favoured bilingual state of Bombay
but in the face of growing demand form Samyukta Maharashtra
Regional Issues
387
Samiti and Maha Gujarat Janata Parishad, which was widely supported by the people,
the Government of India was ultimately obliged to divide the state of Bombay into
two separate states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. In fact the bifurcation of the state of
Bombay (into Gujarat and Maharashtra) was a logical sequel to the creation of the
unilingual state of Andhra Pradesh.
2. Demand for Separate State of

Vidarbha
The State Reorganisation Commission in its report had favoured the creation of
separate state of Vidarbha by taking out certain areas of Madhya Pradesh. However,
the Government turned down this recommendation of the Commission. This greatly
frustrated the people and they raised demand for a separate state. However, the
Government of India stood firm and turned down this demand. After the bifurcation of
Bombay into Maharashtra and Gujarat the demand for separate state of Vidarbha
was once again revived. People formed Nag Vidarbha Aandolan Samiti which
organised violent demonstrations near Nagpur. The government sought to pacify the
people by promising special representation and finances for the development of the
area. However, it firmly ruled out the demand for separate state of Vidarbha. The
movement for separate state of Vidarbha slowly died out.
3. Demand for Separate State for

Punjab
The State Reorganisation Commission also opposed bifurcation of the state of Punjab,
this recommendation was endorsed by the Government of India. However, the Akalis
were not happy with this decision and launched an agitation under their leader
Master Tara Singh for the creation of a Punjab State. They alleged that the Sikhs were
being discriminated against. The government of India appointed a Commission under
S.R. Dass to look into these charges. However, the Commission pointed out that there
was no discrimination against the Sikhs and hence ruled out the creation of separate
Punjab State. The Akalis did not respond favourably to this decision and once again
took to agitation methods. After prolonged agitations the Government of India
appointed a Commission under Justice J.C. Shah, which suggested the reorganisation
of the state of Punjab on linguistic basis. On the basis of these recommendations the
Parliament passed the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966. As a result the Punjabispeaking areas were constituted into unilingual state of Punjab, while the hill areas
were merged with the Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh. The predominantly Hindispeaking areas at were constituted into a new state of Haryana.
4. Demand for Meghalaya

The people of Garo, Khasi, Jaintia were the first to raise demand for a separate state.
For the purpose they organised the All Party Hill Leaders Conference and carried out
necessary agitation. The Government of India met their demand partially and
organised the state of Assam on federal basis. However, this failed to satisfy the
people and they revised their demand for a separate Hill State. They tried to
pressurise the government to concede their demand by threatening to resign from
the Assam Assembly if their demand was not conceded in the Budget Session of
1967. As the Government did not concede to this threat all the nine members of at
the APHLC from hilly region tendered their resignation. The conference organised a
'hurtal' and launched a non-violent
struggle to get its demand conceded. Ultimately, the Parliament passed the
Assam Reorganisation Bill and created the autonomous Hill State of Meghalaya within
the state of Assam. According to the new arrangement the state of Meghalaya was
provided with its own legislature and Council of Ministers. This'arrangement also did
not satisfy the hill people and the Meghalaya Assembly passed unanimous resolution
requesting the Government of India to convert the state into a full-fledged state. This
demand was completed within 10 January 1972 when Meghalaya was given the
status is of a full-fledged state.
5. Foreign National Issue in Assam

In Assam the feeling of regionalism appeared in the shape of a demand for the ouster
of all the immigrants from other states, who owned most of the industries in Assam.
Lachit Sena was organised by the Assamese and it resorted to attacks on
388
shops and industrial establishments of the non-Assamese. The government adopted a

firm attitude and suppressed the agitation but it was revived. The agitation soon
assumed serious dimensions and the whole administration was paralysed. The
agitators resorted to all-round agitation posing a serious threat to the movement of
oil as well as law and order situation. In yjew of the serious nature of agitation the top
government leaders like the Prime Minister and the Home Minister made efforts to
come to some sort of amicable settlement with the agitation leaders. Despite all the
efforts no agreement could be arrived at due to different dates suggested by the two
parties as the base year for identification and deportation of foreign nationals in
Assam.
In March 1985 negotiations were resumed to find out a negotiated settlement of
the issue of foreign nationals in Assam. At these negotiations the AASU, which had
been spearheading the agitation adopted more pragmatic approach and agreed to
the deportation of foreigners who had entered Assam after 1971 and
disenfranchisement of all the foreigners. The Central Government which was also
keen to resolve the issue agreed to the dissolution of the existing State Assembly.
Ultimately an accord was signed on 15 August 1985 between R.D. Pradhan, the
Secretary in the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Assam agitation leaders. Under the
accord, it was agreed that (i) the base date for the detection and defection of
foreigners shall be January 1,1966; (ii) all persons who came to the state prior to that
date and whose names were included in the electoral rolls shall be regularised; (iii)
the names of persons who came to the state between January 1, 1966 and March 24,
1971 shall be detected and expelled; (v) constitutional, legislative and administrative
safeguards shall be provided to the social, cultural and linguistic heritage of Assam;
(vi) the government shall take speedy measures for the economic development of
Assam and for the improvement of the standard of living of the people: (vii)
citizenship certificates shall be issued by the central government; and (viii)
international borders shall be made more secure to check future infiltration.
In terms of the accord, the Assam Assembly was dissolved on August 8, 1985 and
fresh
elections held in December 1985. In these polls the Asom Gana Parishad swept the
polls and captured 64 seats in 126 member Assembly. On December 24. 1985 the
AGP ministry under Profulla Kumar Mohanta was sworn in.
As there was some delay in the implementation of the various clauses of the
Assam accord by the Government of India as well as the Assam Government, the All
Assam Students onions (MSU) raised lot of hue and cry and stepped up its
movement. Ultimately on January 27, 1990 a time bound plan was evolved for the
implementation of the various clauses of Assam accord between the Union
Government, Assam Government and the representatives of the All Assam Students
Union (AASU). It was agreed to set up a special task force with L.C. Jain (member of
Planning Commission, as its Chairman to formulate a comprehensive package of
measures for the all round economic development of Assam in accordance with the
accord. It was also agreed to complete the pending investigations relating to the
detection and expulsion of the post-1971 entrants by October 31,1990. It was agreed
that the Task Force would submit an action plan and the Centre would take a decision
on the same.
6. Demand for Sovereign State in

Assam
The United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA), which lost public support in 1980's and
early 1990's has once again stepped up its demand for creation of an independent
sovereign state. It is trying to enlist the support of the people as well as various
political parties and like-minded organisations. Thus it has abandoned the earlier
policy of extortions intimidation and murders of innocent people (which brought it
much discredit) and is trying to win public goodwill by lobbying for a secessionist
ideology.
7. Demand for Rabha Hosong

The Rabhas, a dominant tribal community of Assam, has also put forth a demand for
an autonomous state and self-rule. They raised this demand because for a long time
they have been exploited by the mainstream and have naturally felt alienated. The
Rabhas want an autonomous state within Assam extending from Joyramuchi in
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389
Goalpara district to Rani of Kamrup district. In addition to this, the Rabhas have
demanded Rabha Hosong autonomous district within Darrang district north Assam
and an autonomous council in four Rabha populated districts.
8.
Demand for Telengana State
The demand for separate state for Telengana was raised by the people of the
Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh, because the leaders of Andhra Pradesh failed to
comply with the conditions laid down at the time of the creation of the state Andhra
Pradesh in November 1956. As per this agreement they were expected to (1) form a
Regional Committee of all the members representing Telengana in the State
Assembly to deal with the matters relating to the region; (2) the entire revenue from
the Telengana region, after making some allowance for the common expenditure of
the state, was to be spent on the development of the region; (3) recruitment of
certain posts in the region was to be made from amongst persons who had lived in
the Telengana for at least fifteen
years; (4) either the Chief Minister or the Deputy Chief Minister was to be taken
from Telengana. However, the agitation soon grew violent. In the light of these
serious developments the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (Brahmanda Reddy)
announced his intention to faithfully implement the assurances given in 1956 and
actually took certain positive steps in this direction. He transferred all the persons
from Andhra appointed to posts reserved for the people of Telengana. As a result of
these developments Telengana agitation was withdrawn.
When the Andhra Pradesh Civil Servants returned from Telengana, the students of
Andhra Pradesh started a counter agitation. This was countered by the people from
Telengana region by resuming the agitation. Soon the things assumed serious
dimensions and the Government had to call in army for the maintenance of law and
order in the state. All the appeals of the Prime Mil ster to the Telengana leaders failed
to have any effect and the agitation continued. During the next few months strikes,
demonstrations, destruction of property and police firing became the normal feature.
In 1970 on the eve of Lok Sabha elections, Mrs. Gandhi submitted fresh proposals,
including
the promises of a separate state after 1977, but the leaders of Telengana movement
were in no mood to wait and fought elections on the basis of separatist programme.
After the election fresh negotiations took place between the Prime Minister and
the TPS (Telengana Praja Smiti) leader Dr. Chenna Reddy, which resulted in an
agreement. As a result of this agreement the TPS agreed to merge itself with
Congress (N), the Telengana Regional Committee was given a statutory status,
Telengana was to be the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh. The Prime Minister was
authorised to review the situation after three years and decide whether a separate
state of Telengana should be created or not. This agreement did not find favour with
some of the members of TPS and they continued the fight for a separate state of
Telengana. However, they could not sustain the movement for long and slowly the
demand subsided.
9.
Demand for Gorkhaland
The Gorkhas of Nepal; living in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal have also been
demanding a separate state. This demand assumed serious dimension in May 1986
following dumping of train-load of Meghalaya Gorkha settlers in West Bengal. The
Gorkhas under the leadership of Subhash Ghising stepped on their demand for
Gorkha state either within or without India for 15 lakh Gorkhas who have settled in
the hilly districts of West Bengal. In subsequent months, the problem grew more
acute with a large number of Gorkhas fleeing from the strife-torn Assam and settling
in Darjeeling and surrounding areas.
For the attainment of its objective the Gorkha National Liberation Front launched
violent agitation which resulted in loss of public property and life. However,
subsequently Subhash Ghising agreed to hold talks with the Union Home Minister to
resolve the issue of citizenship of Nepalis and indicated his intention to settle all
issues through democratic and peaceful methods. As a step in this direction he
suspended the violent agitation and indicated his intention to continue the
movement peacefully on a low key. Though the Centre was willing to give greater
autonomy to the region, it firmly ruled out the demand for a separate state of
Gorkhaland.
390
Gorkha National Liberation Front, however continued the movement for separate
state of Gorkhaland, which often assumed violent character. Ultimately in August
1988 an accord was signed by the GNLF President Subhash Ghising, Chief Secretary
of West Bengal Government, and Union Home Secretary, which provided for setting
up an autonomous council in the hill areas and GNLF agreed to withdraw all forms of
agitations. The Hill Council was to have 42 seats out of which 28 seats were to be
filled on the basis of election and remaining 14 to be filled through nomination by the
state Government. The Council was given powers with regard to land use,
management of forest, use of canal or water courses for agriculture, public health
and sanitation, hospitals, tourism, vocational training, public works, etc. As a result of
this accord, the demand for separate state of Gorkhaland was abandoned. In
accordance with the above accord elections were held to the Gorkha Council in
December 1988 in which the Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF) gained absolute
majority. It captured 26 out of the 28 seats contested. The remaining 14 seats were
filled up by the West Bengal Government through nomination. However, the Gorkha
Hill council leader Subhash Ghising was not happy with the working of the Darjeeling
Gorkha Hill Council. He asserted that the West Bengal Government was denying
political and constitutional rights to the Council by denying it autonomous powers. He
alleged that the Chief Minister of West Bengal had done nothing to remove the
lacunas in the working of the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council. Instead it had done
everything possible to ensure its failure. In August 1992 the Gorkha National
Liberation Front in an emergency meeting held at Darjeeling revived its original
demand for separate state of Gorkhaland within the Indian Union.
The Gorkhas also organised strong protests against the inclusion of Nepali
language in the English Schedule of the Constitution and backed the cause of Gorkha
'bhasa'. It described the official recognition of Nepali as a violation of the accord
signed by the Centre and the GNLF in August 1998. Thus once again the demand of
Gorkhaland was revived.
10. Demand for Jharkhand
The tribal people residing in certain districts of Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and
West Bengal have been demanding creation of separate state of Jharkhand
comprising 21 districts spread over four states (Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and
West Bengal) to ensure their cultural and economic development. This demand was
first put forth in 1968 and has been repeated several times since then. In April 1975
large number of tribals staged a demonstration in New Delhi to press for their
demand for creation of state of Jharkhand. However, the Government turned down
the demand firmly. Despite this the tribals continued to claim out for a separate
state. In 1999, they organised massive rallies in Calcutta and other areas in support
of their demand. In February 1989 the leaders of Jharkhand Movement organised
economic-blockage in Jharkhand areas and prevented the outward movement of
commodities to pressurise the government to concede the demand. A high powered
committee was constituted to look into this demand. On September 5, 1989 the
leaders of the Jharkhand movement said that whatever the recommendations of the
committee they would not be satisfied with anything short of an independent state
comprising contiguous tribal areas of Bihar, West Bengal Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.
The demand for Jharkhand State assumed a new dimension following threat by the
tribals that they would set up a parallel government calied Manjhi Sarkar, which shall
have its own revenue and political officials as well as other staff. However, the plan
was thwarted by the timely action of the government which arrested the leaders of
the tribal movement.
The committee appointed by Rajiv Gandhi Government in August 1988 submitted

its report in 1990, but no action was taken on it. As a result the movement for
Jharkhand acquired increasing militancy. Ultimately the Government decided to
accept the recommendations of the Committee on Jharkhand which had proposed the
creation of a Union Territory or a Jharkhand General Council. The Committee
observed that the idea of a separate Jharkhand state carved out of Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, West Bengal and Orissa was not
Regional Issues
391
acceptable to other states. It opposed the demand for an independent state on three
grounds. First, the tribals were in minority in the region proposed by the Jharkhand for
an independent state. Secondly, there was no specific link language. Thirdly, the
economic balance of the neighbouring state of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and
Madhya Pradesh, was likely to be disturbed, However, the recommendations of the
Committee on Jharkhand Matters was rejected by the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha which
asserted that nothing short of formation of a separate state or the Union Territory
would meet their dero-ind. It pointed out that the powers envisaged for the council
were inadequate because it had not been given any control over regional planning
share of central government allocations, control over police or revenue etc. They
asserted that nothing short of a separate state would satisfy them. In September
1992 the Jharkhand leaders organised a one day bandh in support of their demand.
This was followed by a 15-day economic blockage called for by the Jharkhand Peoples
Party and the All-Jharkhand Students Union. However, the blockage proved
ineffective. The demand for separate state of Jharkhand has been opposed by leaders
of Bihar on the ground that the demand is not based on principles of contiguity,
homogeneity and ethnic and linguistic majority. Further more, the demand of
separate state of Jharkhand has also been opposed on the ground that it would give
rise to similar demands in other parts of the country where regional, sub-regional
aspirations have fueled protests and agitations, viz., Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra.
Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, etc. It was argued that the creation of state of
Jharkhand would not be economically viable and would be a permanent liability for
the country. However, the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha persisted with agitation.
Ultimately on 27 September, 1994 an agreement for the formation of an autonomous
council for Jharkhand region was reached between the Union Minister of State for
Home (Internal Security) Rajesh Pilot ant Bihar Chief Minister Laloo Prasad Yadav. The
agreement provided for a Jharkhand Area Autonomous Council consisting of 18
districts of South Bihar to promote rapid economic development of the area. The
agreement provided
for a General Council with 90 per cent elected members and 10 per cent nominated
members. It also provided for an Executive Council consisting of the Chief Executive
Councillor and 15 members. The Chief Executive Councillor was to belong to tribal
community, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, OBCs and other minorities were
assured adequate representation in the Council. The Council was to be vested with
executive powers in respect of nearly 40 development departments such as
agriculture, minor minerals, public works, rural development, public health, etc. The
Council was also to have power of supervision over municipalities, panchayat samitis
and gram panchayats in its area. The Councils was assured separate funds. At least
25 per cent of the plan budget of the state was to be allocated to the Council. This
arrangement nearly met the demand of autonomy put forth by the Jharkhand Mukti
Morcha.
On 6 August 1995, the Bihar government constituted the Jharkhand Area
Autonomous Council (JAAC) comprising of 90 members. The Council offered the
people of Chotanagpur and Santhal parganas an opportunity to shape their own

future, even though it did not come up to the expectations of a state comprising the
contiguous tribal, dominated areas of the four states. Sibhu Soren of JMM (Jharkhand
Mukti Morcha) was appointed the Chairman of the Council. The establishment of the
Council marked the culmination of the six-decade old Jharkhand movement. It may
be noted that initially the Jharkhand Area Autonomous Council (JAAC) was constituted
only for six months, but it continued to get fresh lease of life for six months, at a time
till present times. In the meanwhile the, BJP led coalition government took a decision
to create a separate state of Vananchal and introduced Bihar Reorganisation Bill
2000. Though the Rashtriya Janata had strongly opposed the creation of separate
state of Jharkhand, due to pressure from its coalition partner Congress, it agreed to
support the creation of the new state. The two houses of Bihar Legislature passed a
resolution for the creation of Jharkhand comprising 18 district of tribal south Bihar.
But due to opposition from its coalition partners and obstructionist tactics adopted
by parties like SSP, the necessary
392
legislation could not be introduced in the Parliament. However, the BJP led NDA
Government made a fresh bid to create the state of Jharkhand and managed to get
necessary law enacted for this purpose with the support of Congress. The new state
of Jharkhand came into existence on 15 November 2000 and became the 29th state
of the Indian Union. Babulal Marandi was sworn as the first Chief Minister of state by
state Governor Prabhat Kumar.
11.
Demand for Bodoland
Bodos, an ancient tribal group residing in Assam (who constitute the largest tribal
group in Assam) have also demanded separate homeland for the Bodos. They
launched an agitation for the fulfillment of their demand. Their movement
subsequently assumed violent character following a call for 300 hours state wide
bandh in year. This resulted in loss of 28 lives. It is noteworthy that the All Bodo
Students Union (ABSU) which spearheaded this movement adopted almost same
tactics which were used by the Gorkha National Liberation Front in West Bengal.
Despite all the pressure exerted by the ABSU the Central a well as the state
governments firmly ruled out possibility of creation of separate state of Bodoland on
the plea that the Bodos constituted only 3 to 4 per cent of the tribal population of the
state. The ABSU, however, continued the agitation. In view of the fast deteriorating
situation, ultimately, an accord was signed at Delhi in August, 1989 to end the
ongoing violence. However, despite this pact the violence continued. This was a clear
proof that the things had drifted out of the hands of the leaders of ABSU. In the
subsequent months also efforts were continued to find a mutually acceptable solution
of the Bodo problem but no solution could be found. In April 1990 the representatives
of Bodo tribals, the Assam Government and Central Government decided to set up an
eight member committee to study the problem of Bodos. The
committee was to have three representatives from the state government and the
Bodos, and two representatives of the centre. The committee was asked to determine
the area inhabited by the Bodos and other plain tribals to the north of river
Brahmaputra and to make recommendations as to the autonomy, legislative,
administrative and financial powers that may be given to the tribals. It
was committee ended on 31 October, 1991, but it could not complete its work.
The Bodo problem assumed serious dimension in 1994 when extremist Bodo
groups like Bodo Security Force and the Bodo Liberation Tigers (BLT) launched an
action plan to change the ethnic composition of villages in the Bodoland Autonomous
Council (BAC) by driving out the non-Bodo settlers. This evoked strong reaction from
the non-Bodo communities like Santhals, Muslims, Bengalis, etc. who have formed
militant organizations to meet the challenge. This has rendered the situation in the
BAC areas explosive. Another serious development in Bodo struggle has been the
revival of movement for separate state of Bodoland by the All Bodo Students Union
(ABSU). Though the Assam government announced in April 1999 its intention to hold
elections to the BAC, this announcement evoked mixed reaction. Not only the two
major Bodo groups PDF and BSMC expressed opposition to the proposed elections,
the non-tribals also expressed opposition to the transfer of certain areas where Bodos
are in minority to the BAC. Thus situation in Bodoland continues to be quite serious.
A welcome development towards the resolution of Bodoland problem took place
in July 1999, when the Union government suspended its operations and Bodo
Liberation Tigers (BLT) agreed to completely abjure the path of violence and not to
engage in violent or unlawful activities. It was further agreed this would be followed
by formal peace negotiations under the supervision of a Joint Monitoring Group within
the country and in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.
In March 2000 Union government initiated a fresh peace process in Assam and
announced the suspension of military/para-military/police operations against Bodo
Liberation Tigers (BLT). It also opened negotiations with BLT leaders for resolution of
their demand for separate state of Bodoland. The government took this step after BLT
agreed to abjure violence and not to indulge in any unlawful activities and suspend
operations against army, para military forces and the police. It may be observed that
the Union government took this action after consulting the Assam Government. This
is a welcome development and
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393
has paved the way for peaceful negotiations for the resolution of the long standing
problem within the provisions of the Constitution.
12. Demand for Konkan State

The people of Konkan region comprising of coastal districts of Maharashtra have also
put forth a demand for a new state of Konkan. This demand gained momentum due
to the failure of the Maharashtra government to redress the grievances of the people
of this region. The people of this region feel that the government has not made
sustained efforts for the speedy development of this area. The leaders of Konkan
region argue that the large industrial projects in this region have no relevance to the
raw materials available in the region and can hardly expect to transform the
economy of the region. They have failed to fasten the pace of the development. They
demand improvement in road transport, irrigation facilities, horticulture, tourism, etc.
The leaders have also expressed dissatisfaction with the report of the Dandekar
Committee (which was set up by the Maharashtra government to estimate the
development backlog of the region) and described its recommendations as unjust.
13. Demand for Uttarakhand
The people of non-western UP have been demanding state of Uttarakhand comprising

of districts of Kumaon and Garhwal divisions on the ground that the government has
neglected these areas for long and failed to carry out its commitments to expedite
development programmes. The Congress Government has been opposed to the
creation of this state. On the other hand BJP and the Left Parties have shown
sympathetic attitude towards this demand. In fact in 1992 the BJP government of
Uttar Pradesh got a resolution passed by the State Assembly recommending creation
of state of Uttaranchal and forwarded the same to the Centre. However, the Centre
sought certain clarification which were provided by the BJP Government. The new
government of Mulayam Singh also supported the demand for Uttarakhand and got a
resolution passed by the Assembly in August 1994 to this effect. In September 1994
it submitted a memorandum to the President of India
recommending formation of the separate state of Uttarakhand. However, the demand
got linked up with the reservation issue and the agitation for Uttarakhand assumed
violent character.
Prime Minister Deve Gowda who headed the 13 party coalition government
formed in June 1996 announced in his independence Speech of August 15,1996, that
the government had decided to make a separate state of Uttarakhand from the hills
of Uttar Pradesh. He said that soon a bill would be introduced in the Parliament for
the formation of separate state of Uttarakhand. This announcement was welcomed
by all the political parties except CPI (M), which openly opposed it. However, no
action was taken by the Parliament.
The BJP led coalition governments formed in 1998 and 1999 took interest in the
creation of separate state of Uttaranchal and formulated Uttar Pradesh
Reorganisation Bill 2000. The bill was discussed by the state government which
proposed 29 amendments in the original bill. However, most of the amendments
proposed by the state government were set aside by the Union Government and it
decided to introduce necessary legislation in the Parliament despite resentment from
some of the coalition partners. However, in view of the persistent disturbance in the
House, the bill could not be introduced in Lok Sabha.
In 2000 the BJP led NDA government made a fresh bid to create the state of
Uttaranchal and get the necessary law enacted with the support of Congress,
whereby the state of Uttaranchal was created on 9 November, 2000. Uttaranchal
became the 27th state of the Indian Union. Nityanand Swami was sworn in as the first
Chief Minister of the state by the state governor S.S. Barnala.
14. Demand for Chattisgarh

The demand for Chattisgarh had been echoed from time to time due to consistent
neglect of the area by the Madhya Pradesh Government. Though this area possesses
abundance of mineral and natural resources, the government did not pay much
attention to its development. On 31 October, 2000 the tribal-dominated state of
Chattisgarh came into existence. Ajit Jogi, of Congress was sworn in as Chief Minister
of new state by the state governor Dingsh Nandan Sahay.
394
15.
Demand for Other States
In addition to the above cases where demand for separate state have been put
forward, certain other areas or regions have also put forward demands for separate
statehood. Some of the areas where such demands were put forward include the
areas which formerly constituted the princely State of Mysore, where the people have
demanded separation from Karnataka. In the wake of assumption of power by the
'Janata Party' and its claim that it was not averse to small states, a number of regions
of Uttar Pradesh put forward demands for separate states. The people from western
parts of Uttar Pradesh insisted on a state of Agra or Meerut containing Dehra Dun.
They also insisted on a Braj State consisting of certain areas of Uttar Pradesh and
some parts of Rajasthan. The people from middle west demanded Rohilkhand. The
people from south western Uttar Pradesh demanded a state of Bundelkhand
containing some districts of Madhya Pradesh as well. The people from south eastern
Uttar Pradesh demanded trans-Vindhya State. The people from south-eastern Uttar
pradesh insisted on 'Bhojpur' state comprising of eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh and
parts of Western Bihar.
(C)
DEMAND FOR FULL STATEHOOD
In the third place, regionalism appeared in the shape of demand for full-fledged
statehood in certain areas which were accorded the status of Union Territories under
the Constitution. Some of the Union Territories which raised such a demand include
Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Pondicherry, Goa, Daman and Diu, etc. The
Government initially did not concede their demand and tried to pacify the people by
creating legislatures in some of these territories, viz., Himachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Tripura, Pondichery and Goa, Daman and Diu. This naturally gave rise to similar
demands from other Union Territories. However, in March 1969 the Government of
India announced that no new legislative assemblies shall be created in union
territories. It further asserted that even in those union territories where these had
been created the government favoured either their merger with the adjoining states
or their
conversion into full fledged state. The announcement encouraged the people of
Himachal Pradesh to renew their agitation for statehood and ultimately the
government conceded their demand on July 31,1970. In 1972 Tripura was also given
the status of a state. The other Union territories also continued their demand for
separate statehood but the government resisted the same. However, in view of the
growing popular pressure the Central Government decided to give the status of state
to the union territories of Arunachal Pradesh. Mizoram and Goa during the period
1986-87.
(D)
INTER-STATE DISPUTES
Finally, regionalism in India has appeared in the shape of numerous disputes over
territory, boundary, water, etc., among different units of the Indian Union. Some of
the prominent inter-state disputes are given below.
1.
Question of Chandigarh
The dispute over the city of Chandigarh arose as a result of the bifurcation of the
state of Punjab. Both Punjab and Haryana were keen to possess this modern city and
resorted to agitation to get the area. Ultimately at the intervention of the Union
government it was agreed that the territory of Chandigarh shall be handed over to
Punjab in return for 114 Hindi speaking villages of the Fazilka Tehsil as well as the
town of Fazilka and Abohar to be surrendered by Punjab to Haryana. However, both

the states were permitted to use the territory of Chandigarh as their capital for the
next five years. This settlement did not satisfy either of the two parties and was
followed by strong protests and demonstrations. However, with the passage of time
the tension slowly died out and the status quo continued.
In the eighties, the Akalis once again stepped up agitation for transfer of
Chandigarh. Pressure was built up on the Centre for the implementation of Anandpur
Sahib Resolution and there were numerous incidents of riots and terrorism. This led to
Operation "Blue Star" and subsequent murder of Indira Gandhi which led to further
violence. Ultimately on July 24,1985 an accord was signed by Prime Minister Rajiv
Gandhi and Sant Longowal, the Akali Dal President which inter alia
Regional Issues
395
provided for the transfer of Chandigarh to Punjab in return for certain Hindi-speaking
areas of Punjab to Haryana. However, as no agreement could be reached regarding
the Hindi speaking areas to be transferred to Haryana by Punjab, the transfer of
Chandigarh could not be effected, and it still continues to be a source of irritation in
Haryana-Punjab relations.
After the formation of the Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD)-(PBJ) coalition government in
Punjab in February 1997, the Shiromani Akali Dai has again raised the demand for the
transfer of Chandigarh to Punjab, which is likely to generate further tension between
Punjab and Haryana and cause embarrassment to BJP which is a coalition partner in
both the states.
2. Karnataka - Maharashtra Boundary Dispute

The dispute over the Marathi speaking territories of Bijapur, Belgaum, North Kanara
and Dharwar, which at present constitute part of the Karnataka is another
manifestation of regionalism. The Government of Maharashtra approached the Union
Government for the settlement of the dispute over these territories. The Government
appointed a one-man commission under former Chief Justice Mehar Chand Mahajan
to look into the dispute. But before the commission could submit its report violent
agitation broke out in Maharashtra as well as Madras. Subsequently when the
Mahajan Commission submitted its report, the same was firmly turned down by the
Sampoorna Maharashtra Samiti. On the other hand, these recommendations were
accepted by the state of Mysore. In view of the differences between the two parties
the matter was referred to the Parliament for final decision. This evoked strong
protests from the people of Mysore and violence broke out in many towns of Mysore.
The Mysore Legislative Assembly also passed a resolution urging the Government of
India to implement the Mahajan Commission recommendations and enact necessary
laws. Thus the government was in a dilemma, but somehow the tension was kept
under control.
In 1973, the trouble once again brewed and clashes took between the Marathi
people and police at Belgaum. Soon the trouble spread to
Kolhapur where the hotels of Kannadians were looted and set on fire. Riots also broke
in Pune Mumbai and other towns. This boundary dispute between Maharashtra and
Mysore was ultimately resolved in 1975 with the efforts of Jagjivan Ram.
3. Border Dispute between Assam

and Arunachal Pradesh
In recent years a fresh border dispute between Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
appeared with the Arunachal Pradesh government laying claims to some areas falling
within Assam and claiming that they form part of Arunachal's historical boundary. On
the other hand Assam has claimed that these areas (which include Likabli, Jonai,
Kiming, Dullungemukh, Dirpai, Mingmand) belong to them and Arunachal Pradesh
has been making encroachments on these territories. Assam has even approached
the Supreme Court to resolve the dispute and demanded that the boundary between
two states should be "as" prescribed in the first schedule of the Constitution and as
defined in the Arunachal Pradesh State Act, 1986 and the North-East States
Reorganisation Act, 1971 and as demarcated in various notifications.
4. Border Dispute Between Assam

and Mizoram
Assam and Mizoram are also involved in a dispute over border area of WarrengtyLailapur. The dispute assumed serious dimensions when the labourers working on the
construction of controversial 3.8 km. road in Warrengty-Lailapur area were arrested.
The two states agreed to call a truce at the intervention of the Central Government.
The Chief Ministers of the two states have also agreed to a final demarcation of the
boundary between the two states by the Survey of India in consultation with the
respective state governments and army authorities.
5. Assam-Nagaland Border Dispute

There has been a long standing border dispute between the Assam and Nagaland
over possession of a cluster of disputed settlements in Doyang forest reserve which
resulted in violent clashes and loss of several lives in 1979 as well as 1985. The
dispute was resolved through an accord signed by the Chief Ministers of Nagaland
(S.C. Jamir) and Assam (P .K. Mohanta) in April 1989.
396
In April 1989 fresh violence broke out between the people of two states which
resulted in the death of 25 persons. In the wake of this violence the Chief Minister of
the two states made frantic efforts to find a solution of the issue and signed an
accord on border dispute with a view to diffuse tension in the disputed areas. The two
Chief Ministers agreed to make joint efforts to track down the culprits responsible for
the incidents of April 1989 and to erect boundary pillars. The accord was welcomed
because it was expected to go a long way in diffusing tension between the two states
over disputed areas. The accord was also significant because it set in motion the
process of negotiation so that incidents of the nature April 1989 did not take place.
However, despite agreement between the two states to maintain status quo, the
government of Nagaland has set up outposts, circles and divisions, which has been
resented by the Government of Assam.
(E)
DISPUTES OVER RIVER WATERS
Regional feelings also found outlet in the various disputes between the states over
the sharing of river waters. The distribution of water of river Krishna, continued to be
a source of tension among the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Mysore and Andhra Pradesh, before the issue was referred to a tribunal headed by
Justice D.M. Bhandari, a retired Judge of the High Court of Rajasthan, in 1969. The
tribunal submitted its report in 1979 regarding the sharing of the water and the final
settlement regarding the sharing of water was arrived at.
1. Cauvery Water Dispute

Similarly, for a long time dispute persisted between Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Kerala over the utilisation of the waters of river Cauvery. In early 1970's at the
instance of the then Prime Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi, Tamil Nadu agreed to
withdraw the dispute from the Supreme Court on the understanding that a
negotiated settlement would be arrived at. However, no progress could be made in
this regard with the two states taking rigid stand the issue. Tamil Nadu alleged that
Karnataka had unilaterally cut off water supply to the Kruvai area of Thanjavur delta
which had
adversely affected the rice production in the delta and its economy. The Tamil Nadu
Chief Minister sought reference of dispute to the tribunal and ruled out further talks
on this issue. In view of the delay in arriving a settlement, the Supreme Court also
directed the Government of India to discharge its statutory obligation under InterState Water Dispute Act and refer the dispute over the utilisation of Cauvery Waters
to a tribunal within a month. Accordingly the dispute was referred to the Cauvery
Water Dispute Tribunal comprising of Chittatosh Mukherjee, a former retired Chief
Justice of Bombay High Court (Chairman), Justice S.D. Agarwal of Allahabad High
Court, and Justice N.S. Rao of the Patna High Court. The tribunal passed an interim
order on 25 June, 1991, However, Karnataka declined to accept the interim order of
the tribunal and issued an ordinance to counter in effect the decision of the tribunal.
On the other hand, Tamil Nadu insisted that the tribunal verdict must be implemented
without further delay. The MPs from Tamil Nadu threatened to resign unless the
verdict of the tribunal was notified in the Central gazette, and thus, made fully legal.
This was resented by the people of Karnataka and there were several incidents of
violence in which the Tamils were attacked. In view of the growing violence Centre
sent para-military forces to Karnataka. In the midst of this tension the President
referred the matter to the Supreme Court for advice. The Karnataka Government also
filed a suit in the Supreme Court challenging the Tribunal's interim award. On 22
November, 1991 the Supreme Court declared that the ordinance promulgated by the
Karnataka Government to deny Cauvery waters to Tamil Nadu was unconstitutional. It
asserted that the Tribunal constituted under Act was competent to grant an interim
relief to the parties to the dispute when a reference for such a relief is made by the
Central Government. Despite this, there were several incidents of violence in
Karnantaka and thousands of people took refuge in Tamil Nadu. In the midst of these
developments the National Integration Council in its meeting held on 31 December,
1992 appealed to the government and people of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu to end
the senseless violence over the river waters issue and restore normalcy.
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397
Despite this tension persisted between the two states. Tamil Nadu Government
continued to insist that the Central Government should give direction to Karnataka to
implement the interim award of 205 mc feet of water a year to Tamil Nadu. As the
Centre failed to take any action in this direction the Tamil Nadu Chief Minister (Ms. J.
Jayalalitha) went on fast in July 1993 which generated lot of tension. She called off
her fast on 21 July 1993, after Centre gave an assurance that a committee will be
appointed for monitoring and implementing the interim award of the Cauvery Water
Disputes Tribunal. However the Karnataka Chief Minister (M. Veerappa Moily) showed
his unhappiness over this and said that he would not accept the idea of a monitoring
committee. This dispute over sharing of waters from Cauvery once again erupted in
December 1995 when Karnataka refused to release 11 mc ft. of water (as ordered by
the Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal) to save the paddy crops in Tamil Nadu.
Therefore, Tamil Nadu petitioned the Supreme Court which directed the Prime
Minister to convene a meeting of the Chief Ministers of the two states and resolve the
issue. As a mutually acceptable solution could not be found, the Prime Minister asked
Karnataka to release six mc ft. of water. He also announced the constitution of an
experts group headed by Dr. Y.K. Alagh, to assess the status of crops in the two
states. Though Karnataka decided to release six mc of water to Tamil Nadu it stayed
away from the Tribunal proceedings till a National Water Policy was formulated.
At the instance of the Supreme Court of India, the Union Government sought to
hammer out a mutually acceptable solution after the Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu
(Ms, Jayalalitha) and Karnataka (H.D. Deve Gowda) met early in January 1996.
Ultimately, 'Karnataka agreed to release a specific quantity of water in the interests
of cordial Inter-State relations'. Following formation of United Front Government in
which Deve Gowda became the Prime Minister and DMK became a coalition partner
in the United Front Government, it was felt that a solution, even it be of interim
nature, was a political necessity. Hence in August, 1996 the CMs of Karnataka (J.H.
Patel) and Tamil Nadu (M. Karunanidhi) agreed to work out an interim arrangement
soon to share the
available water in a mutually beneficial way, without prejudicing the interests of
farmers of either state.
Several rounds of talks were held between the Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka to find a permanent solution on the sharing of Cauvery river water, but
these talks finally collapsed in January 1997 due to rigid stand of two states. While
Tamil Nadu insisted that it would go back to the Tribunal for adjudication, Karnataka
declared that it would boycott the Tribunal. Thus, all efforts to find a solution of the
problem ended in failure.
In view of the inordinate delay in the implementation of the interim order passed
by the Cauvery Tribunal appointed by the Supreme Court a three-judge bench of the
Supreme Court directed the government on 21 July, 1998 to frame a scheme for the
implementation of the interim award by the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal. It said
that in case the government fails to come up with a scheme, the matter would go
back to the five-judge constitution bench for its orders. In view of this ultimatum the
BJP-led coalition government arranged a meeting of the Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Kerala and Pondichery to work out a negotiated settlement of the dispute.
As a result of this meeting a consensus on sharing of Cauvery water was reached,
which was indeed a major break through. According to the revised scheme, Karnataka
was to release 205 thousands million cubic feet water on regular basis. It was agreed
to create Cauvery River Authority. It is noteworthy that the government went ahead
with the notification of the accord despite strong opposition of AIDMK, its coalition
partner. The Cauvery Water Scheme was notified by the Centre on 11 August, 1998.
Six days later the Supreme Court disposed of the suit by Tamil Nadu seeking
implementation of the seven years old interim award by the Cauvery Water Disputes
Tribunal.
The Cauvery Water problem again flared up in September 1999 due to sharp fall
in the water level in the Cauvery delta region. Tamil Nadu demanded release of water
by Karnataka as per the interim award, but Karnataka took the stand that it could not
release additional water due to fall in the water level on account of failure of rains.
The
398
matter was reported to the monitoring committee which at its meeting held in
September 1999 recommended release of additional water by Karnataka. However,
Karnataka refused to comply with this recommendation and a stalemate was
reached. The crisis was averted because some relief came in the form of rain in the
delta districts of Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and Nagapattinam which saved the Kuruvai and
Samba crops. To prevent such ugly situation in future it is desirable that a long-term
solution of the problem must be found.
2. Ravi Water Dispute

Another dispute arose over the proper utilisation of the water of river Ravi between
the states of Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. These states also
could not arrive at any settlement regarding the ownership of the Thein Dam Project.
The chief point of dispute was that while Punjab insisted on an exclusive right to
utilise the water, the other two states were not willing to forego their claims. The
issue was ultimately decided through the intervention of the Central Government. As
a result of the agreement Punjab was made to surrender its sole ownership right and
an inter-state board was set up to look after the proper utilisation of water of river
Ravi. This Board contained representatives of all the three states.
Despite the above arrangement the dispute persisted for long between the states
of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan over the sharing of the water of Ravi and Beas.
This was ultimately resolved at the intervention of Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi
in December 1981, when the Chief Ministers of the three states signed agreement at
New Delhi. As per this agreement Punjab was given an additional 0.72 million acre
feet and 0.55 million acre feet respectively. The agreement enjoined upon the Bhakra
and Beas Management Boards to take necessary measures to ensure delivery of
Supplies to the concerned states in accordance with their entitlements. The Board's
decision regarding selection of control points was made binding on the states.
However, if a state contested the decision of the Board, the Central Government was
given the power to decide the matter within three months and its decision was to be
final and binding.
The agreement also stipulated that the Sutlej-Yamuna link canal project shall be
implemented in a time bound manner (within two years in the Punjab territory) to
enable Haryana to draw its allocated share of water. As a result of this agreement the
suits between Haryana and Punjab which were pending before the Supreme Court
were withdrawn. No doubt, protest were made by certain sections of Punjab against
the Ravi Beas Water Agreement but it marked the settlement of
a long standing dispute between the states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
over the sharing of Ravi-Beas waters. This settlement was made possible due to the
existence of Congress governments in the three states and the personal interest of
the Prime Minister.
However, despite this settlement bickering continued. In the wake of Rajiv
Gandhi-Longowal accord on Punjab signed on July 24,1985 a fresh effort was made to
resolve the dispute. A Commission under Justice V. Balakrishna Eradi, a judge of
Supreme Court, and two other members, was constituted to determine the share of
Ravi-Beas water for the four states (Punjab, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan)
and the Union Territory of Delhi. The Commission submitted its report on January
30,1987 after hearing the view point of the concerned states and taking into account
the earlier agreements. The Eradi Commission allocated 5 MAF (million acre feet) of
Ravi-Beas water to Punjab and 1.983 MAF to Haryana on the criteria of equitable
apportionment. Thus both Punjab and Haryana got 0.78 MAF and 0.33 MAF
respectively more than the shares specified in the 1981 inter- state agreement.
However, the Commission did not touch upon the shares of Rajasthan, Jammu and
Kashmir and for drinking water purposes, the Union Territory of Delhi. Though the
award was quite sensible, it was rejected by the United Akali Dal of Punjab, even
though Congress(I) government of Haryana hailed the report. But the opposition
parties of Haryana rejected the recommendations and alleged that Haryana has been
denied its due share of river water. Subsequently Devi Lai, soon after his appointment
as the Chief Minister of Haryana rejected the Eradi Commission award. Hence it can
be said that the recommendations of Eradi Commission failed to satisfy all the
parties. A new dimension was given
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399
to the inter-state water dispute in Punjab then on 20 January, 1992 the Governor of
that state putforth claim for a share in Yamuna waters allocated to Haryana. He
claimed that Punjab was entitled to a share of 1.48 million acre feet (MAF) of the
Yamuna waters on the basis of 60:40 ratio out of the 2.46 MAF of the unutilised
surplus waters. It is note-worthy that Punjab has putforth claims to Yamuna water on
the river basin principle for the first time.
3. Krishna River
The height of Alamatti Dam being constructed on Krishna river in the Bijapur district
of Karnataka has been a cause of on-going wrangling between Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka. While Karnataka wants to raise the height of the dam from 500 to 524
metres so that it may be able to use the additional water stored, Andhra Pradesh
wants that the height of the dam should not exceed 516 metres because the
additional storage would affect its monsoon-linked cropping schedule, because the
inflow into the river will be regulated by the needs of the Alamatti power plant. All the
initiatives to resolve the controversy between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh have
failed because both states claim that they are adhering to the award of the Krishna
Water Disputes Tribunal (Bachchawat Award of 1976). Andhra Pradesh has taken the
plea thai the height of Alamatti Dam has already reached 507 metres above sea-level
and with the installation of huge circular gates 15.5 metres high and 15 metres wide
its share of water, particularly in a deficit year, is bound to be affected. Andhra is in
favour of installation of only three-metre high gates as per the original plan. In view
of the rigid stand of the states effort was made to resolve the issue setting up panel
of four state Chief Ministers, This panel decided to set up a nine-member committee
of engineering experts to look into the issue. However, the idea was shelved because
the Law Minister opined that it would undermine the Bachchawat Tribunal.
The problem of Krishna River, which remained unresolved for some time, again
came to the centre stage after the formation of the Congress Government in
Karnataka in 1999. The Karnataka leaders met Prime Minister Vajpayee in November
1999 and sought solution of the problem. It may be noted that the problem of sharing
of waters of the
Krishna River has been pending 'unresolved for over 20 years after Bachchawat
Tribunal gave its verdict, apportioning Krishna water to the states of Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh'. In April 2000, the Supreme Court, while disposing of
two original suits filed by States of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka observed that it
was open to Karnataka to raise the height of Alamatti Dam to 519.6 metres subject to
appropriate clearance such as environmental clearance from the Union Government.
While giving the above observation the Constitution Bench referred to a report of an
expert committee appointed by the Chief Ministers of West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Maharashtra, which suggested that the height of the Dam could be
raised to 519 metres. With regard to Maharashtra's plea regarding rehabilition of a
large area in the State with the raising of the height of the Dam, the Constitution
Bench asked Maharashtra to take matter to the Centre for a decision by the Tribunal.
4. Sardar Sarovar
Lot of heat has also been generated by the controversy over Sardar Sarovar Project
between Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. While Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister has
demanded that the height of the proposed dam be lowered to 436 feet to reduce the
number of the people which would be displaced by the project, Gujarat is not in
favour of lowering of the height because it would limit the reservoir's capacity and
thus deny water to large section in Saurashtra. In March 1996, the Supreme Court
gave a ruling on the petition filed by Medha Patkar's Narmada Bachao Andolan, that
Gujarat should suspend work on the project till it reached an agreement with Madhya
Pradesh. The representatives of the two states held a meeting with the Prime Minister
where it was agreed that Gujarat would build the dam till it reached 436 ft. which
would take about five years, after which experts would determine whether the height
of the dam should be increased to 455 ft. or not. Thus the issue was resolved for the
time being. In February 1999, the Supreme Court in an interim ruling allowed Gujarat
to resume construction. However, it asserted that permission to increase the height
of the dam would depend on the progress made in the rehabilitation of those who
were likely to be displaced.
400
5.
Other Disputes
In addition to of disputes referred to above, numerous other disputes also arose;

between different states but they were of a minor nature and were resolved by the
concerned states through mutual negotiations. This includes disputes between U.P.
and Bihar, U.P. and Madhya Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The basic cause underlying, all
these disputes has been that each state is concerned with the promotion of its own
interests and does not care about the national interests. It is noteworthy that
disputes over river waters are very rare in other countries. Even when these disputes
occur, solution is found without much delay. However, in India despite all stress on
national unity, inter-state disputes over land and water persist even after the
commissions and tribunals give their awards in favour of one party or ihe other. This
is largely due to the facts that these are politicised and given sentimental overtones
by the concerned states which convert these disputes into major problems. On
account of persistence of numerous disputes over sharing of water Prime Minister
Deve Gowda indicated that the United Front Government would consider a plan to
interlink all major river systems. He expressed the view that such project when
implemented would resolve most of the water disputes and ensure adequate water
supply to almost all the states.
(F)
DEMAND FOR STATE AUTONOMY
Regionalism has also manifested itself in the demand for greater autonomy. This
demand has specially been voiced by states which are controlled by regional political
parties, viz. Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, and West
Bengal, who felt greatly agitated over growing interference of the Centre in the
affairs of the states. The Centre has done so by using the Governor as a tool to
interfere in the affairs of the states; appointing and dismissing state ministers,
reserving large number of state bills for the consideration of the President; misusing
its right to impose constitutional emergency in a state; appointing inquiry
commissions against Chief Ministers belonging to
opposition parties; using CRP in the states without the consent of the state
government, etc.
Within the states also certain regions have demanded greater autonomy because
their development has been neglected. For example, Ladakh region of the state of
Jammu & Kashmir has often complained of step-motherly treatment and demanded
greater autonomy. Thus demand for autonomy has not only been raised by the states
but also by the various regions of the state. All this is a clear manifestation of the
assertion of regionalism.
The demand for greater autonomy for the states received a fresh fillip after the
elections of 1996 and the formation of the United Front Government, in which various
regional parties were key partners. In the elections of 1998 and 1999 once again
regional political parties played a leading role in the formation of coalition
government at the Centre. As BJP, the major partner, in these coalition governments
was greatly dependent on these regional partners for continuance in office, it
conceded their reasonable as well as unreasonable demand. Some of the coalition
partners of the BJP led government, viz., Akali Dal and National Conference again
raised demand for grant of greater autonomy to the states. In view of this trend it can
be said that in the years to come the regional political parties are likely to play more
active role in the management of the central government attaining greater
autonomy.
(G)
SONS OF THE SOIL THEORY
The growing popularity of the 'sons of the soil' theory is yet another manifestation of
regionalism in India. Most of the states have enacted laws and reserved certain jobs
for the inhabitants of the state. This has led to demand for the ouster of the people
from other states so that they do not consume the limited jobs available in the state.
We often come across slogans like Maharashtra for Maharashtrians; Karnataka for
Kannadigas and Orissa for Oriyas. A number of organisations have been formed in
various states, viz. Shiva Sena in Maharashtra, Gana Sangram parishad in Assam.
Manipur National Front in Manipur etc. which have insisted on the ouster of the
outsiders from the states. In Arunachal Pradesh Student Union
Regional Issues
401
even demanded withdrawal of trade licences and land allotment permits from
outsiders. In Karnataka the Government of Bangarappa decided in November 1990 to
implement the recommendations of the Sarojini Mahishi panel concerning reservation
of jobs for the 'sons of the soil' in both states and central public sector undertakings.
The Chief Minister announced that is decision had been taken primarily to rectify the
justice done to the Kannadigas and to ensure more jobs for them. In June 1995 Shiv
Sena in Maharashtra expressed its support for the 'sons of the soil' theory and
announced that it would hire only those individuals who were domiciled in
Maharashtra and were registered with the state Employment Exchange for the
government jobs. It even indicated its intention to carry out necessary amendments
in the recruitment rules of the state government oganisations and public sector units
in the state accommodate sons of the soil. It cannot be denied that the theory of sons
of soil poses a serious threat to the unity and integrity of the country.
(H) MILITANT REGIONALISM

Another variant of regionalism in India has been militant regionalism which made its
appearance in the nature of various types of senas like Shiv Sena in Maharashtra,
Tamil Sena in Tamil Nadu, Hindi Sena in North Indian States, Anti-Hindi Sena in West
Bengal, Sardar Sena in Gujarat, Jagannath Sena Orissa and Lachit Sena in Assam, etc.
These Senas arose largely due to unbalanced regional development of the country
which encouraged people equipped with greater skill and entrepreneurial skills move
to other regions. As a result the people of the region adopted hostile attitudes
towards these people and sought protection of their own group interests. They
started looking towards the migrant communities as 'outsiders' and insisted on the
reservation of the available facilities of their 'sons of the soil'. In 1960 violent antiBengali riots took place in Assam on the issue of preference to the 'sons of the soil'.
Soon this issue assumed importance in other states like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh etc. The governments of
these states insisted on 'domicile qualifications' and extended preferential treatment to the indigenous population in matters of employment. This policy of
reservation for the sons of the soil was also extended to admissions to institutions of
higher education in the states. For example in Punjab 90 per cent of the places in the
medical colleges were reserved for the Punjabis. In Bombay the Health Minister
closed down the State Medical College in Bombay on the plea that most of the
students studying there hailed from other states. This trend, encouraged the other
states to take retaliatory steps to protect the interests of their own people. In
addition, this encourages the migrant group to form linguistic lobbies for the
protection of their interests. As a result, lot of tension was generated in the social and
political spheres. In Maharashtra the Shiv
Sena launched anti-South Indian agitation as a retaliatory measure against the

Dravidian extremism of the South.
PRESENT TREND
In the recent years regionalism has assumed serious dimensions. The rise of large
number of new regional parties in various parts of the country pose a serious threat
to the existing political landscape of the country. In north-east the regional tribal
sentiments are very strong on the issue of foreign nationals which has greatly
contributed to the popularity of the regional parties in the area. In West Bengal, the
CPI (M), though an All India Party, has displayed powerful regional overtones. In
Kashmir, the National Conference passed the resettlement bill which provided for the
return to the state of those who had left it after March 1,1947 to settle in Pakistan. In
Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra also regional parties have
managed to capture power.
It is very clear from the above discussions that regionalism has been an important
factor in the Indian politics and has posed a serious threat to the federal structure
and unity of the country. Some of the states like Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh,
Jammu & Kashmir, West Bengal etc. have eagerly supported the demand for greater
autonomy for the states. They have come forward with numerous suggestions to
drastically cut the power of the Central Government.
402
It may be observed that the states alone are not to blame for encouraging the
feeling of regionalism. The Central Government must also share equal blame for
encouraging regional sentiments. In view of the variety of languages, cultures and
religions found in India, it would have been proper to create the units on the basis of
religion, language etc. No doubt, this would have resulted in a large number of states
with small sizes, but it would have satisfied the aspiration of all the sections of Indian
society, and contributed to a balanced development of all the regions and areas.
Given to operate within their respective region, the local leaders would have
concentrated on the solution of the problems of their respective regions and thus
relieved the national politics of evils like factionalism and regionalism.
Certain scholars have opposed the idea of division of country into states on the
basis of languages, religion, etc. on the ground that it would jeopardise the unity and
integrity of the country. However, this fear is ill-founded. It is a matter of common
knowledge that the United States of America, which has only one-third of India's
population has fifty states. The existence of so many states has in no way posed a
threat to the unity of the country. On the same analogy it can be argued that the
creation of large number of the states will not in any way affect the unity of the
country. The actual working of the small states like Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, etc. has demonstrated that small sized states can make quick and rapid
progress. It can, therefore, safely be said that if different linguistic and cultural
groups are granted separate states with a firm control of the Central Government
over subjects of national importance, this would lead to greater development of
various regions of the country without in any way posing a threat to the unity of the
country.
The prevailing regionalism in the country is merely reflective of the diversity of a
plural society and the new awakening among the people of India. As Nehru observed
the "regional difficulties are not only consequential to the past but also emerge due
to the country's progress". Viewed in this context regionalism is a milestone on the
road to political development. As the country makes further progress in the direction
of industrialisa-
tion, urbanisation, sophisticated means of transport and communication, and

balanced development through planning, regionalism would lose its grip. The process
of regionalism can be further checked through reforms in the administrative and
economic machinery, revision of centre-state relations, and by evolving a system of
national education which cuts across parochial caste, linguistic and regional thinking.
REGIONALISM AS A THREAT TO NATIONAL UNITY

Opinion is sharply divided on the issue whether regionalism poses a threat to national
unity or not. Those who view regionalism as a positive force have tended to argue
that in a vast and diverse country like India regionalism is a legitimate phenomenon
and represents the quest of human identity. It would be wrong to dub it as antinational and crush it with use of state force. On the other hand, it is desirable that
this quest for identity should be viewed favourably and the underlying motives and
aspirations of the people be respected and effort should be made to fit the same into
the large framework of national unity. Regionalism is also positive in the sense that it
ensures more meaningful participation of the people in the decision making process
by providing effective provincial authorities. Regionalism also curbs the trend of
centralisation of administration and thus contributes to efficiency. The Administrative
Reforms Commission also opposed the concentration of power at a distant centre on
the plea that it breeds inefficiency and resentment and turns the people against the
centre.
Again it would be wrong to assume that the emergence of large number of
regional parties poses a threat to the unity of the country. The regional parties are
not essentially secessionists. They merely provide expression to the regional hopes
and aspirations and it would certainly be wrong to say that appeal to local sentiments
and seeking of regional identity pose a threat to national unity. Viewed from the
practical point of view, also the regional parties cannot pose any threat to the central
authority. They fully realise, that they would have to seek subsidies for the
Regional Issues
403
various schemes and programmes from the centre and have perforce to adjust their
policies in such a manner that they conform with the national policies.
On the basis of the above arguments the scholars have tried to project that
regionalism represents the expression of collective will of various sections of people
and their needs and aspiration. Viewed thus, it is corrective of over centralisation of
authority.
On the other hand, some scholars have looked upon regionalism as divisive,
subversive and secessionist phenomenon. They have argued that regionalism
encourages the people to think in terms of their narrow interests and ignore the
national interests. For example, regionalism in
Assam, Punjab, West Bengal etc. has encouraged separatist activities and posed a
serious threat to national identity. In Assam the agitators want to appropriate
maximum of new development opportunities without taking into account the total
development process. In Punjab, regionalism got mixed up with religious fanaticism
and gave rise to growing terrorist activities. In West Bengal the agitators demanded
separate Gorkhaland.
Both the above views contain an element of truth. While it cannot be denied that
extreme regionalism poses a serious threat to the unity of the country and hampers
its development and progress, it would certainly be wrong to say that all
manifestations of regionalism are dangerous to the unity of the country. In fact, the
two are mutually complimentary and can co-exist. National interests must get
precedence over sub-national urges, in the name of national unity. Efforts should be
made to ensure harmonious growth of national and sub-national identities.
Regionalism should be treated as a cure rather than a disease to ensure harmonious
political development of the country.
The end of single party rule in the country since 1996 has resulted in large
number of regional parties joining as partners in the coalition government at the
Centre. As coalition partners these regional political parties have tried to extract
maximum benefits for their respective states. At the same time, these regional
political parties have got an opportunity to view the issues from nationalistic point of
view and taken part in decision making process on national issues as well.
of Nation
Building and
Integration
For a proper understanding of the concept of 'nation-building' it shall be desirable to

first understand and the meaning of nation. A nation, according to Garner, is a
culturally homogeneous and social group which is at once conscious and tenacious of
its unity of psychic life and expression." Zimmern defines nation as "a body of people
united for a corporate sentiment of peculiar intensity, intimacy and dignity related to
a definite home country." According to Spengler, nation is neither linguistic, nor
political nor biological concept but a spirutal concept. Karl Deutsch has emphasised
several features of a nation viz., it is independent; it is cohesive; it is politically
organised; it is autonomous and it is internally legitimate." It may be noted that
speaking the same language or belong to the same ethnic group does not constitute
a nation. On the other hand, a group of people which has accomplished great things
in the common in the past and wishes to accomplish them in the future constitutes a
nation. It cannot be denied that common race, common religion and common
language are important factors of nation building, but their mere presence does not
imply the presence of national spirit.
Viewed in the above context several definitions of nation building have been
offered. According to Yogesh Atal "nation-building is a distinctive concept related to
the development of a polity that is characterized by stability and people's firm
commitment to it."
To Rajni Kothari 'nation-building is not an exercise in fragmentation but rather a
necessary step in the evolution of a world society based on the principles of freedom,
justice and participation."
The process of nation building is not identical in all the countries and varies from
country to country on the basis of their history and ideological commitment.
However, there are some common agencies which help in nation building. These
agencies include common language; common religion; economic developmentgeographical continguity; common culture, common educational system; the media
of mass communication etc. Even the political parties are an important instrument of
nation building. However, this has been denied by some scholars who regard the
political parties as a great obstacle in the way of nation-building because these
parties exploit petty interests and sentiments and provide stimulous to the
disintegrative and sisruptive forces. A neutral observer would however agree that
political parties have made significant contribution towards the welding of new
nations. The parties have tried to involve large number of people in the political
action and tried to inculcate new political culture with a view to promote common
culture among their supporters. The political parties have tried to create awareness
among the people that they are equal. This has helped the process of socialisation
and encouraged the people to submit to the authority of the state.
MEANING OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION

The term 'national integration' has been defined by different scholars in their own
way. In these definitions they have laid emphasis on various aspects of national
integration. It shall therefore, be desirable to examine some of the
Problem of Nation Building and

Integration 405
definitions of national integration to understand its full implications.

According to Prof. Myron Weiner, "National integration implies avoidance of
divisive movements that would balkanise the nation and presence of attitudes
throughout the society that give preference to national and public interest as distinct
from parochial interests".1
Prof. Weiner asserts that national integration implies four things: Firstly, it is a process
of
bringing together culturally and socially discreet groups into a single territorial
unit and the establishment of national identity
Secondly, it is a process of establishing a national, central authority, over
subordinate political units and regions which may or may not coincide with distinct
cultural or social groups.
Thirdly, it binds the various governments existing in different parts of the country.
Finally, it implies evolving of certain minimum values which are necessary to
maintain a social order.
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan says "National integration is not a house which could be
built by mortar and bricks. It is not an industrial plan too which could be discussed
and implemented by experts. Integration; on the contrary, is a thought which must
go into the heads of the people. It is the consciousness which must awaken the
people at large".
The National Integration Conference defined national integration as "a
psychological and educational process... involving the development of a feeling of
unity, solidarity and cohesion in the hearts of the people, a sense of common
citizenship (destiny) and a feeling of loyalty to the nation".
H. A. Gani considers National integration as "a socio-psychological and
educational process thrbugh which a feeling of unity, solidarity and cohesion
develops in the hearts of the people and a sense of common citizenship or feeling of
loyalty to the nation is fostered among them". He further says "national integration
implies a sense of belonging, a feeling of togetherness of unity. It means creating a
social and religious climate in the country wherein all its citizens, irrespective of the
religion they profess and their social status may live a life of a peace and tranquillity
devoted entirely to the common purpose of building a strong and united country.
National integration signifies a condition of unity in diversity in which all the
components are equally valued and interdependent. Any meaningful discussion on
national integration has to take into account both unity and diversity, for if there is
only unity then integration is not necessary and if there is only diversity then
integration is not possible, Integration does not mean transforming diversity into
uniformity. Rather the process of national integration means the congruence of
diversities leading to a unity in which all the varieties and peculiarities are
preserved."
In simple words, we can define national integration as a process that entails a
general patriotic consciousness and nationally constructive endeavour of various
groups and subgroups to achieve common welfare, solidarity, identification and
involvement.
PROBLEM OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION IN INDIA

The problem of national integration has assumed tremendous significant in postindependent India. The integration of heterogeneous national life is not a simple task
in a country engaging the attention of the legislators, planners, administrators and
intellectuals equally.
India is a vast country endowed with one of the largest conglomeration of human
beings. It is inhabited by people of heterogeneous races, religions, languages and
cultures. This phenomenon is not peculiar only to India. Almost all major countries of
the world like US, Soviet Union and China and even some of the smaller nations have
heterogeneity of races, religions, languages and cultures. Maintenance of unity in
diversity has been the major plank of these nations in their endeavours at national
growth. Similarly, India has also been striving for seeking unity in diversity especially
in the light of pre-independence political past, this problem assumed special
significance. The British who ruled over
1. Myron Weiner, Politics of Scarcity, Public Pressure and Political Response in India.
India on the basis of 'divide and rule' policy thrived on the feudal regionalism and
artificially induced sources of tensions amongst the natives. The contemporary
problem has its roots in this background. The desire to be integrated as a nation was
felt perhaps for the first time after 1947. Prior to independence, the masses, could be
organised for liquidating the foreign rule but the pre-independence, the masses,
could be organised for liquidating the foreign rule but the pre-independence unity
soon loosened its grip after the soothing comfort of having attained independence.
Much has been done towards maintaining integration but day to day events of
disturbances, unrest, communal riots, linguistic hysteria, growth of militant groups,
separatist tendencies, provincialism and casteism, present a gruesome picture of the
state of affairs in the country. These pose a danger to the unity of the country and
call for a greater need for maintaining national integration.
DIMENSIONS OF PROBLEM
The problem of integration in India entails there distinct aspect which are of equal
importance. These are (A) Political Dimensions, (b) Economic Dimensions, (c) SocioCultural Dimensions.
1.
Political Dimensions
Political developments assume significant magnitude. If these are not adequately

attended to there is always a possibility of these leading to tensions. In India, CentreState tensions have been over the allocation of funds, share in allocation of funds,
share in allocation of projects, rise of regional political pressure groups. These
developments also help in emergence of regional sectarian political leadership.
Sometimes tensions even grow among the states themselves. The boundary dispute
between Maharashtra and Mysore States, the Narmada Valley Water Dispute between
Gujarat, Rajasthah and Madhya Pradesh, the dispute over Chandigarh and Bhakra
Nangal scheme between Haryana and Punjab are such instances. These political
problems mostly result from infrastructural milieu in which the political system
operates.
The tensions between the Centre and States or between the States themselves have
mostly its roots in the socio-economic problems which tend to affect the political
process in the country. In a country of India's size with uneven distributions of
resources and various levels and stages of development in various parts, certain
problems are prone to rise aiming at removal of the disparity between the
economically well off and poor parts. It has been demanded from time to time that
new industrial units should be established in areas which are economically backward
in order to remove the prevailing economic disparities. Since it becomes extremely
impossible for the authorities to
meet such demands immediately it subsequently leads to conflict between the

economic conservation in the allocation of projects and development schemes and
the overall consideration of regional development comes to the fore giving rise to
many other problems. In democratic form of government where issues and problems
are solved through the electorates, democratic politics is vulnerable to fan the flames
of such controversies by exploiting group and mass psychology.
2.
Economic Dimensions
The vastness of size and bulk of population that inhabit India, are major problems
that necessitate rapid economic measures for development. Since these economic
measures have to be implemented through a process which is in conformity with
democratic methods, many conflicts arise between the democratic method on the
one hand and the task of acquiring the economic breakthrough on the other. As Prof.
P. N. Dhar has identified these conflicts:
1. The conflict between the requirement of capital formation and the need to
raise consumption level.
2. Conflicts arising out of the existence of a federal Constitution in which the
powers and functions of the Union and State Governments are constitutionally
defined. In such a structure, the Centre, assumes a large role in the formation
of policy and overall plans while the States take on steadily expanding
administrative and development functions.
1.
407
3. The problems arising out of the existence of mixed economy where the public
sector and the private sector conflict at certain points and have to be made
complementary to each other by policy measures. The concept of mixed economy
has also envisaged another conflict in the economic field. It is widely believed that
the growing demand for consumer goods is helpful to the private sector which aims
at higher rate of profit and which is engaged in the production of goods to that end
whereas the public sector industries are to work in order to meet the requirements of
the planning. The mixed economy has envisaged an unhealthy competition between
the private and the public sectors which subsequently affects the overall priority
schemes and sometimes retards the industrial development of the country. Thus
efforts should be made to harness the available resources for the development of the
country without any prejudice to either sector.
There is a need for an all-India economic perspective which should endeavour at
reconciling the conflicts between the consumer and in overall planning priorities. The
resolution of which conflicts can ensure speedy planned economic growth.
3. Socio-Cultural Dimensions
Beside potitico-economic problems, there are socio-cultural aspects of national
integration. In a land given with cultural heterogeneity of cultures, religions and
races, India's major concern is to create homogeneous outlook out of the prevailing
social diversities and conflicts. In view of the different modes of life from place to
place according to geographical conditions, historical tradition and regional
peculiarities, there is a cultural heterogeneity in India. But despite this cultural
heterogeneity from Kashmir to Kanyakumari, from Kutch to Arunachal Pradesh, there
is a running thread of community among all the cultures prevalent in the country. The
community of culture is envisaged in our geographical allegiance; historical
traditions, economic programmes, and secularism, democracy and socialism, etc.
Even our history is a witness to various endeavours of political and cultural
unification
made by kings and emperors. Chandra Gupta Maurya and Ashoka in ancient
items, and Akbar in medieval times strove towards unifying the divisive forces to
ensure social stability, national unity and political viability. The choice of Pali in
preference to Sanskrit by the ancient rulers and the adoption of Urdu in place of
Persian and Arabic languages by the Muslim rulers during medieval times was in
reality a step towards Indianising the different languages and cultures.
Even the British consolidation in India involved a sense of India nationalism by
overcoming the artificial barriers of caste, creed or religion. The introduction of
English language gave rise to forces of strong nationalism. The Brahmo Samaj,
Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, All India Muslim League and Indian National
Congress and other movements, were instrumental in enforcing religious reforms
and force strong nationalism. Thus Indian culture has been the amalgam of all the
sub-cultures, which is interwoven by the strong and the running thread of
geographical, historical, economic, ethical and ecological values.
The framers of the Constitution, who were fully conscious of the diversity of Indian
society, decided to adopt a federal polity which could best meet needs of the diverse
sections of the society. They emphasized the need of tolerance and provided
necessary conditions for the development of various languages and cultures in the
country. At the same time, they also realised that it would not be possible to preserve
the unity / and integrity of the country unless a strong centre was provided.
Accordingly, they provided extensive powers to the centre. Besides certain other
factors like common defence forces, unified civil services, justified judiciary, interregional mobility, notional projects, etc., also greatly contributed to national
integration. But despite this certain factors like the vast size of the country and
complex nature of Indian society has prevented growth of homogenous polity.
Presence of different religions, languages, and cultures have also hampered the
growth of a common national outlook. Above all, the difference between rural and
urban and conflict between forces of obscurantism and modernisation have posed a
serious challenge to national integration.
408
Attempts at National Integration

Attempts have been made at the official as well as non-official levels to achieve
national integration. The first step in this direction was taken by the Government in
August 1961 when it introduced two bills with a view to suppress communal
progrands. The first bill made the promotion of 'enmity or hatred between different
religious, racial or language groups or castes or communities', an offence which could
be punished with imprisonment upto three years. The second bill made the appeal to
religious, racial, communal, caste or linguistic sentiments for electioneering propose
a disqualification. Persons, guilty of these offences were debarred from right to votes
as well as membership of Parliament or State Legislature.
Conference of National Integration (1961)

The first step in the direction of bringing about national integration was taken by
the Government of India in 1961, when it convened a conference at New Delhi to
discuss and examine the problem of national integration.
The conference was held at New Delhi from 28 Sept. to 1 October 1961, and was
attended by the Prime Minister, the Union Cabinet Ministers, the Chief Ministers of
the States, leaders of various political parties, prominent educationists, journalists,
scientists, etc. The reasons for convening such a Conference were explained by
Jawahar Lai Nehru while welcoming the participants. He said "We ventured to ask you
to attend the conference not because some sudden catastrophe was overwhelming
us, or the country was on the verge of disintegration and that it should be pulled
together, but because we thought that at this present movement in our history, we
should lay some stress on this problem and turn the people's minds in a particular
direction".
It noted "As we close, we are bound to say that many ills that our world of
education and our society as a whole is suffering today, resulting in widespread
disturbance and dislocation of life, are mainly due to the gradual disappearance of
the hold of basic principles of religion in the hearts of the people. The old bonds that
kept men together,
are fast loosening and the various new ideologies that are coming to us, and which
we are outwardly accepting, without inwardly digesting their meanings are
increasingly worsening the situation. The only cure, it seems to us, is in the
deliberate inculcation of moral and spiritual values from earliest years of our lives. If
we lose these we shall be a national without a soul, and our attempt to imitate the
outer norms of other lands without understanding their inner meaning of
psychologically attuning ourselves to them would only result in chaos and confusion
the first signs of which are already very distinctively visible on the horizon."
The Constitution of India envisages amply a secular framework for India.
Secularism means equal treatment to all religions in the matter of state of public
policy affairs. In fact, a human need for religion is felt which further envisages
freedom of faith to all individuals including freedom to propagate one's faith. This
offers an ample opportunity and adequate basis for national integration.
The desire for secularism does not emanate only in the special context of India
being a multi-religion society. It is rather a historical need of human societies.
As a result of the deliberations it was felt that political parties played an
important role in fomenting communalism, regionalism and linguism which posed a
serious threat to the national integration. The Conference decided that a code of
conduct for the political parties should be evolved, which should inter alia insist on
the following points:
a. No
party
should
indulge
in
activities
which
aggravate
the
existing
differences
or
cause
tension
between
various
castes,
communities or linguistic groups.
b. Political
parties
should
not
take
to
agitational
methods
for
the
redress
of
communal,
linguistic
or
regional
grievances of any section.
c. They
must
desist
from
obstructing
and
disturbing
the
meetings
and
procession,
etc., organised by other political parties.
d. Political
power
should
not
be
used
to
promote party ends.
409
e. The Government on its part agreed not to

impose undue restrictions on civil liberties
of people or employ measures which
interfered with the normal functioning of
the political parties.
The Conference admitted the important role
which education could play in the national
integration. It favoured a uniform and cohesive
education policy and even favoured, transfer of
education to the concurrent list.
(This
recommendation has since been implemented and
education made a concurrent subject). Though
most of the recommendations of the National
Integration Council were not implemented, its
recommendation regarding setting up of the
National Integration Council was implemented.
National Integration Council

As per the recommendations of the National Integration Conference a National
Integration Council consisting of Prime Minister (Chairman), Union Home Minister,
Chief Ministers of States, seven leaders of the Political Parties, Chairman of the UGC,
two educationists, Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and
seven members to be nominated by the Prime Minister was constituted.
The main objectives of the National Integration Council (NIC) were as
follows:
1. To make a bid to build up national life on the basis of common citizenship,
unity in diversity, freedom of religion, secularism, equality, justice and
fraternity among all communities.
2. The NIC noted with concern the increase in communal incidents in different
parts of the country over the past few years and emphasised that the vast
majority of common men and women, irrespective of their religious affiliations,
lived in peace and harmony and had no interest in violence and disorder.
3. It condemned tendencies that hit at the root of national solidarity and called
upon all political parties, voluntary organisations, the press, leaders and men
of good will to bring such activities to a halt (a) by discouraging communal illwill and regional animosities; (b) by active
propagation of principle of tolerance and harmony; (c) by mobilising
constructive force of society in the cause of national unity and programmes for
fostering fellow feeling.
4. The NIC emphasised that it was not the task of government alone to
strengthen the forces of integration. This was the joint responsibility of all
citizens, politicians, educationists, writers, teachers, intellectuals, trade union
leaders, etc.
5. To invite all regardless of their linguistic, religious, ethic or cultural affiliations
to join in this great and urgent task of promoting national unity and solidarity.
Soon after its establishment the NIC set up two sub-committees to deal with the
problems of National Integration and Communalism, and Committee on National
Integration and Separatism. These sub-committees were headed by Ashok Mehta and
Ramaswamy Iyer respectively. These two sub-committees formulated useful
proposals for national integration but most of the recommendations remained merely
on paper and no effort was made to implement them, by the Union or the State
Governments.
The National Integration Council did not remain active for long because in the
wake of Chinese attack on India in 1962 the country rose as one person to face the
challenge and it appeared for the time being that the problem of national integration
did not exist at all.
Second National Integration Conference (1968)

In the mid-sixties the country witnessed fresh communal and linguistic riots which
posed a serious threat to the unity and integrity of the country. Therefore in 1968
Mrs. Indira Gandhi decided to convene the Second National Integration Conference.
The Second National Integration Conference set up three committees to report on
the problems of regionalism, communalism and linguism respectively. These
committees, after due deliberations, recommended the setting up of an elaborate
intelligence machinery to keep a watch on the activities of various groups which
spread hatred among the various sections of society. The
committees also suggested certain amendments in the Indian Penal Code to deal
with the people who promoted animosity between various sections of people on
grounds of religion, caste, race, etc. It was also suggested that the newspapers which
preached disunity and spread discord should be prosecuted.
Subsequently a number of other committees were formed to promote national
integration and unity. Some of such committees were Committee of Writers,
Committee of Educationists and Leaders of Students' organisations, Committee of
Film Producers, Script-writers, Directors and Artists, etc. These Committees made a
number of suggestion for the promotion of national integration in their respective
spheres. However, much progress could not be made in this direction and the
disintegrative forces continued to be active.
National Convention Against Communalism

In view of the serious communal riots which took place in Ahmedabad and other
places, a National Convention Against Communalism was held under the
Chairmanship of Jaya Prakash Narayan. The Convention held organisations like RSS
responsible for the communal disturbances. The All India Congress Committee at its
meeting held in June 1970 also gave due consideration to the growing communalism
and pleaded for restrictions on communal organisations like RSS and Jamaat-e-lslami.
It also insisted that if the riots were not brought under control within twelve hours the
local officers should be held responsible. Similarly, if the riot persisted or more than
twenty, four hours the Home Secretary, the Chief Secretary and the Inspector
General of Police should be held responsible for the same. If communal violence
continued up to 48 hours the State Government should be held accountable. For
disturbances beyond forty-eight hours the whole responsibility should rest with the
Central Government. It was felt that pinning of responsibility at various levels would
positively help in containing communal disturbances and act as a deterrent.
Formation of Insani Biradari (1970)
Yet another step in the direction of National integration was taken August 1970 when
Insani Biradari, a non-official organisation was formed. This organisation was open to
people of all castes, creeds and political affiliations and was to work for combating
forces of communalism and national disunity and to bring about accord among the
various sections of the community. The Biradari was formed on the eve of visit of
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Frontier Gandhi to India. Jaya Prakash Narayan was
made the first President of the Biradari, while Shaikh Abdhullah, the Chief Minister of
Jammu and Kashmir became its Senior Vice-President.
However, the smooth working of the Insani Biradari was obstructed on account of
insistence by certain delegates that some of the political parties should be declared
communal and their members should not be permitted to become members of the
Biradari. These delegates expressed the fear that persons belonging to such political
parties could hamper the smooth working of the Biradari and render it less effective.
But the majority of the delegates did not share these views. As a result thirty-seven
of these delegates left the organisation thus giving it a serious blow at the very
inception.
Khudai Khidmatgar
Almost around the same time another organisation was formed to promote national
integration. This organisation based on the pattern of Khan Abdul Gaf f ar Khan's Red
Shirt Band of the pre-independence days was designated as Khudai Khidmatgar. The
organisation stood for prevention of communal violence and pledged to work for the
rehabilitation of the victims of riots.
Sampradyikta Virodhi Committee (1970)

The year 1970 witness the formation of yet another non-offical organisation to to deal
with the problem of growing communal tension. Lead in this direction was taken by
Subhdra Joshi, a prominent leader of Congress. She formed the Sampradyikta
Virodhi Committee to curb
411
communalism and promote national integration. The Committee passed a number of

resolutions and suggested certain measures to the Government of India to deal with
the problem of communalism. In one of the resolutions the Committee held the RSSJan Sangh responsible for disrupting the secular character of Indian Polity. In another
resolution it appealed to the Government
to exclude the representative of communal parties from the National Integration

Council and ban the para-military organization. Through another resolution, the
Committee appealed to the Muslims to refrain from embarking on the path of a
separatist communal politics.
Thus we find that intermittent efforts continued to be made to promote national
integration, even though much progress could not be achieved. In the wake of fresh
communal and regional riots in states like Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Karnataka
during the years 1970-73, the need of communal amity and national amity was felt
all the more. In January 1974 the National Integration Council convened a convention
at New Delhi. This convention made a strong demand for banning the para-military
organizations like RSS; the Shiv Sena, Jamaat-e-Islami, Ananda Marg, etc. The
convention also reasserted the need for giving practical shape to the various
recommendations of the NIC.
Seven Point Plan of National Integration (1976)

The task of national integration was taken more seriously during the period of
national emergency from 1975 to 1977. In November 1976 the Working Group of the
NIC under the chairmanship of Mrs. Indira Gandhi suggested a Seven Point action
programme for achieving national integration. The seven point action recommended
by the Group included:
1. Ending the hold of obscurantist and extremist elements over sections of
population.
2. Foster the growth of positive elements of modernity in all spheres of life.
3. Ending of suspicions and prejudices about minority communities
4. Countering the evil of clanishness.
5. Free mixing of children belong to various professions and faiths.
6. Highlighting through mass media of the forces which brought different faiths
closer to each other.
7. Curbing extremist tendencies loser to each other.
The group also made certain suggestions for removing economic imbalances
prevailing amongst various regions and areas. It suggested four measures for this
purpose:
1. The State Government and the Planning Commission should examine the
causes of poor performance of certain state/areas in the economic sphere and
suggest suitable remedies. For this purpose, the Planning Commission should
evolve clear-cut norms for uniform applicability to the entire country.
2. Revamping of the administrative machinery of the states which possess such
backward regions.
3. The Department of Personnel and Administrative Reforms should undertake
special study of the weaknesses in the organisation structures of such states
and suggest concrete measures to improve them.
4. Special projects and programmes be drawn up for the economic betterment of
the backward areas to provide the basis for infrastructure in these areas.
The Group also suggested numerous other measures to deal with the threat of
national integration. These measures included: (i) vigorous implementation of
the Prime Minister's 20-point programme; (ii) special steps to speed up
development of economically and socially backward areas which had become
hot-beds of violent activities; (iii) greater emphasis of modern education and
provision of greater opportunities for the Muslim students in schools and
colleges to mix-up with each other; (iv) wide dissemination of information
about the tradition, culture and achievements of people in various parts; and
412
5. systematic curb on parochial tendencies; and highlighting of unity though all

available media.
Janata Party and National Integration

Under Janata Government, which assumed office in 1977, the problem of national
integration was given full attention. It set up a Minorities Commission under the
Chairmanship of Minoo Masani (who subsequently resigned and was succeeded by
Justice Ansari). The Janata Government also showed its eagerness to set up a Civil
Rights Commission. However, it could not achieve much in this direction due to
infighting between the various components of the party. The rule of the Janata
Government also witness a number of communal riots and the problem of national
integration could not be satisfactorily resolved.
Revival of National Integration Council (1980)

In view of the large number of communal riots in different parts of country in early
1980, the Congress Government under Mrs. Indira Gandhi decided to revive the
National Intergaration Council which had become defunct. The membership of the
Council was made more broad based. While the Prime Minister continued to be the
Chairman of the NIC and the Chief Ministers of states, leaders of various political
parties and heads of some commissions continued as members, representation was
also given to the industrialists on this body. The announcement by the Prime Minister
to revive the NIC did not receive favourable response from the leaders of various
political parties. Most of these leaders indicated their inclination not to join the
Council. However, slowly this opposition died out and ultimately most of these
leaders (with the exception of Lok Dal President Charan Singh) agreed to attend the
meeting of the NIC.
The NIC held its meeting on 12 November 1980. In the main there were three
items on the agenda for discussion, viz., national integration in the light of communal
harmony, north-eastern problems and the education system. About the problem of
communalism the members felt that only a handful of people were causing trouble
and such elements should be put down with firm
hands. The communal disharmony was attributed by some speakers to the economic
and social imbalances. It was asserted that the flare-ups like in Jharkhand, Orissa and
north-eastern region were due to regional imbalances. As regards the system of
education it was felt that a proper balanced education system could effectively fight,
communalism at various stages.
The National Integration Council decided to set up a standing committee to keep
a constant watch on the activities of communal and other divisive forces posing a
threat to the country's unity. This body was also to monitor the progress of the
implementation of the decision taken by the Council.
The Prime Minister, as the Chairman of the NIC also announced her intention to form
two other committees. One committee was to make an in-depth study of the causes
of frequent communal outbursts and the second was to devise plans to reorient the
educational system to make it an
instrument for promoting secularism. These committees were finally set up in

March 1981 under the Chairmanship of Home Minister (Zail Singh) and Education
Minister (S. B. Chavan).
In view of the unwieldy size of the National Integration Council it was also decided
to set up a standing committee to keep a continuous watch and plan strategies to
counter communal and caste tensions and other fissiparous tendencies. It was also
decided to set up Integration Committees at the district level, especially in areas
which are known to be riot prone. The idea of associating prominent local persons
belong to all walks of life was mooted in the hope that it would help in promoting
right kind of rapport between different communities.
The NIC also drew up an Eight-Point of action to put down the canker of
communalism. The plan stipulated that the Governments of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra should examine the problem of communalism from
educational, historical, economical and social angles, and should draw up a timebound programme of implementation. It also emphasised that due place should be
provided to the minorities in state police forces and that the problem of
communalism should be examined by a Home Ministry cell on a continuing basis. The
victims of communalism should be speedily
413
rehabilitated and control rooms in communally-sensitive areas should be set up with

a view to control the disturbances.
In 1985 Congress (I) government of Rajiv Gandhi decided to reconstitute the
National Integration Council after a gap of more than five years to focus attention of
communal harmony, regional and linguistic amity, secularism and other aspects of
national life. In 1986 the National Integration Council set up a 21-member committee
to function on continuing basis to formulate short-term and long-term measures for
preserving national integrity. The National Integration Council recommended that
adequate representation should be provided to the minorities in services, not
essentially in the nature of quotas or reservations. It suggested restrictions on
religious processions which have the potential of creating troubles.
Within few months of its coming into power the National Front Government
announced the formation of a 100-member National Integration Council with Prime
Minister V. P. Singh as its Chairman on 3 February 1990. The Council was given a fully
representative character by including in it top officials, prominent non-officials,
spokesmen of labour, representatives of eight national and 17 regional parties, 40
eminent public figures, representatives of minorities, business and several
professions, the mass media and five women. It was announced that the Council
would function as a forum of effective initiatives on all issues of national concern,
review problems relating to national integration and make recommendations,
thereon. However, in view of its unwieldy size, the National Integration Council could
not prove very effective in its working. The new Government of P. V. Narasimha Rao
also pinned its hopes of the National Integration Council for the preservation of the
unity, integrity and secular democratic polity of India. It reconstituted the Council and
tried to activate it. In November 1991, it convened a meeting of the National
Integration Council which took stocks of the situation arising due to stand of UP
government on the issue of Ram Janambhoomi-Babri Masjid structure. The Council
asserted that the orders of the court on the land acquisition proceedings should be
fully implemented and the
judgment of the Allahabad High Court in the pending case should not be violated.
Concluding Observations and Suggestions
It is evident from the above discussion that efforts have been made both by the
government as well as the non-governmental organisations to highlight and check
the factors which pose a threat to national integration and unity of the country and
some success has also been achieved in this regard. However, it cannot be denied
that still there are numerous disintegrating elements in operation which pose a
serious threat to achievement of national integration. It has been argued by certain
scholars that these disintegrating elements shall continue to operate so long the
country is not able to attain social and economic democracy. The hold that once
these objectives are attained the disintegrating factors shall automatically disappear.
It may be noted that the problem of national integration is not faced by India
alone. Almost all the countries have to confront this problem. Each country has to
make an effort to achieve unity and cohesion and introduce common symbols of
identity among different segments of population. In case of India, which has a
population of mixed nature, having social differences, cultural variations, political
dissensions, economic disparities, the problem of national integration is indeed
serious but certainly not insurmountable. We can hope that with sincere and
consistent efforts by the government as well as the people of this problem shall
certainly be overcome.
SUGGESTIONS FOR NATIONAL INTEGRATION

Numerous suggestions have been put forward for the attainment of national
integration from time to time. It is not possible to recount all these suggestions.
Recently an all-India Seminar on National Intergration was held at Hyderabad which
was attended by the academics, members of bar, senior administrators, decision
makers and social workers. As a result of their deliberations the Seminar made
certain suggestions, which more or less sum up the various suggestions made so far
in this regard. The main points emphasised by the Seminar were:

1. The concept of national integration needs more clarity for better appreciation
of problem.
2. The public policy can be an effective tool for promoting national integrations.
Therefore, the gap between the policy formulation and policy implementation
must be reduced to the minimum.
3. Economic inequalities among various a segments of society must be
eliminated.
4. Regional disparities in the dispersal of trade and commerce should be
corrected. The public sector may be effectively used for minimising regional
disparities in country's industrial development.
5.
There is need for a strong political will to create congenial climate for the
fulfilment of goals of national integration. For this purpose the political consciousness
of the people be raised
through decentralisation of power.

6. Social, cultural and political differences must be appreciated and the minorities
should be helped to overcome the sense of insecurity. In this regard, the
majority groups and communities have a moral duty to promote pluralism in
multi-faceted Indian Society.
7. Different cultural streams should be allowed to interact meaningfully and
fruitfully without an effort by anyone culture to dominate the other cultures.
8. The mass media should shed its elitist orientation and urban bias. It should try
to reflect the experience and aspirations of the neglected and deprived
sections of the society. The mass media should try to project the development
and achievements of the country in an objective manner.
9. Educational system should be moulded top develop scientific temper, spirit of
inquiry and reform. Education should reach the rural man to arouse his political
conscience and encourage him to participate in nation building.
10. The textbooks should be re-written and effort should be made to impart
knowledge about the Indian heritage and culture to promote spirit of unity and
solidarity among various sections of society. Special emphasis should be laid on
the contributions of the minorities towards the enrichment of the national culture,
so that they feel that they are part of the mainstream of national growth and
development.
11. Adoption of a common national language would als.o go a long way in promoting
national integration and bridging the gulf between various sections of society and
various parts of the country. However, forcible imposition of Hindi should be
avoided because it is likely to divide rather than unite the various sections. On the
other hand, the three-language formula which insists on regional language as
medium of instruction, Hindi as the national language and English as an additional
language...would be more acceptable to the state and would greatly contribute
towards national integration.
12. The regional languages should be given a rightful place in the state
administration, without ignoring the interests of the minorities.
13. More cultural organisations should be set up by 'the government with a view to
preserving and fostering the rich heritage of India's composite culture.
Intermingling and exchange among various cultures should be encouraged.
14. More effective use of library service, publication programmes and cultural
activities be made to strengthen the forces of cohesion and integration.
15. The public media like radio, television, press, etc. can also play useful role in
curbing the divisive forces and promoting a sense of unity among people of
different religions, regions, etc. Students and youths of different regions should be
encouraged to mix up with each other so that they develop a sense of affinity,
which is so vital for bringing about national integration.
10.
415
16. It should be emphasised on the people of variouls communities that they have no
optionbut to live together in their mutual interest: Once the idea of
indispensability of living together goes into the minds of the people the task of
national integration would be automatically accomplished.
17. The government should try to project its true secular character and avoid religious
rituals, particularly rituals of religious nature at the state functions. It should try to
curb fundamentalism of all kinds
and generate strong pressures through
political and mass mobilization for solving
the socio-economic problems of the people

without discrimination.
Thus we can say that the problem of national
integration can be resolved only through joint
efforts of the government and the general public.
But the one single factor which can greatly
contribute to national integration is the presence of
a strong central government which can ensure law
and order throughout the country and preserve
the integrity of the country.
Unit VII
GROWTH OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A DISCIPLINE
#)*?
Growth of Public
Administration
As a Discipline
Public administration is a segment of the wider field of administration which is

concerned with the organisation and management of the human and material
resources to fulfil the objectives laid down by the government. The term public
administration has been use by the scholars in two different senses viz., narrow and
broad. In the narrow sense the term public administration is concerned with the
activities of the executive branch only. On the other hand in the wider sense it covers
the activities of all the three organs of the government viz., legislature, executive and
judiciary. Prof. L.D. White takes public administration in the broader sense and says
that it consists of all those operation which have for their purpose the fulfilment or
enforcement of the public policy. On the other hand, Luther Gulick views public
administration in a narrow sense and defines it as "that part of the science of
administration which has to do with government and thus concerns itself primarily
with the executive branch, where the work of the government is done, though there
are obviously administrative problems also in connection with the legislative and
judicial branches. "F.A. Nigro has offered a very comprehensive definition of public
administration. He says "Public Administration is a co-operative group effort in public
setting; it covers all the three branches executive, legislative, and judicial, and their
relationship. It has an important role in the formulation of public policy and is thus
part of the political process. It is different in significant ways from private
administration and is closely associated with numerous private groups and
individuals in providing services to the community."
DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration as an aspect of governmental activities is as old as the
political society. It co-existed with the political society and tried to accomplish the
objectives set by the political decision makers. However, as a subject of systematic
study, public administration is only about one hundred years old. It developed as an
independent subject in USA in the 20th century. The credit for developing public
administration as a separate, independent and systematic subject goes to Woodrow
Wilson, who is regarded as the Father of Public Administration. He separated
administration from politics. He argued that politics is concerned with the
policymaking, while administration is concerned with the implementation of the
policy decision. Wilson argues that administration lies outside the proper sphere of
politics. Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets
the task for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices.
Another scholar who drew clear distinction between administration and politics
was Frank J. Goodnow. In his book Politics and Administration, published in 1900
Goodnow made a sharp distinction between two functions of government i.e. politics
and administration. According to Goodnow, politics is mainly concerned with policies
or expressions of the state will, while
420
administration has to do with the execution of these policies. He rendered valuable

service to the promotion of public administration as an independent discipline and is
regarded as the fathe of Admerican Public Administration.
Probably the most notable contribution to the development of Public
Administration as an independent subject was made by L.D. White through his book
Introduction to the Study of Public Administration. This book provided academic
legitimacy to the subject and soon the subject was introduced in a number of
American universities. This period of development of public administration lasted
from 1887 and 1926 and is popularly known as period of politics-administration
dichotomy.
The next stage of the development of Public Administration lasted from 1927 to 1937
and was mainly concerned with the formulation of the principles of public
administration. During this period
the sholars tried to evolve certain principles of administration, which they

believed, had universal validity and relevance W.F. Willoughby's Principles of Public
Administration published in 1927 was a pioneering work of this phase. He asserted
that in administration there are certain fundamental principles of general application
and branded public administration as a science. The other important works which
made valuable contribution of the development of principles of administration were
Industrial and General Management by Henri Foyol; Creative Experience by M.P. Fol
let Onward Industry by Mooney and Reiley; Papers on the Science of Administration
by Gulick and Urwick; and Principles of Organisation by Mooney and Reiley. During
this phase the main focus was on efficiency. During this phase public administration
reach new heights of reputation.
The third phase of development of public administration lasted from 1938 to
1947. During this phase great importance was attached to human relations in public
administration. It was argued that administration could not be separated from politics
because of its political nature and role. The administration not only felt concerned
about the implementation of the political policy, but also played an important role in
policy formulation, which falls within the domain of politics.
A number of works were produced during this period which challenged the
classical public administration. Some of the prominent works of this period were
Elements of Public Administration by F. Morstein Marx, (Ed); The Proverbs of
Administration by Herbert A Simon. The Science of Public Administration: Three
Problems by Robert Dahl; Administrative State by Dwight Waldo. Simon in particular
adopted behavioural approach to the study of public administration. He focussed on
decision making as an alternative to the principles approach. Robert Dahl examined
the environmental effects on administrative behaviour and asserted that public
administration cannot escape the effects of social, political and cultural
environments. In other words, he laid emphasis on cross-cultural or comparative
studies.
During the Fourth Phase of development of Public Administration which lasted
from 1948 to 1970, public administration suffered from the crisis of identity. The
contemporary scholars reacted in two ways. In the first place some of them returned
to the fold of political science (the mother science). Second category of scholars
moved towards administrative science. The impact of each of the above two was that
public administration lost its separate identity and merged with the larger field. This
phase of development of public administration is described as stage of crisis of
identity.
The final phase of the evolution of public administration began in 1971 and is still
continuing. The main theme of public administration during this phase was its
concern for public policy analysis. Keen interest was shown in policy-science, political
economy policymaking, policy analysis etc. With the adoption of the public policy
approach public administration acquired inter-disciplinary character. With the public
administration acquiring social relevance the scope of public administration greatly
expanded.
Chapter
49
New
*ublic Administration
The concept of new public administration originated in the late 1960's and gained
popularity with the publication of two reports in 1971 viz. Towards a New Public
Administration: Mi?inowbrook Perspective edited by Frank Marini and Public
Administration in a Time of Turbulence edited by Dwight Waldo. Prior to the
publication of the above two reports some preliminary studies had been made in the
form of The Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Service in USA (1967); and
The Conference on the Theory and Practice of the Public Administration (1967).
The need for new public administration arose on account of two reasons. First, in
the 1960's numerous problems confronted the society which the existing public
administration was not willing to resolve. Secondly, the need for new public
administration was felt because large number of young scholars and practioners were
rather reluctant to accept the prevailing principles of public administration and were
keen to evolve new principles of public administration. The new public administration
felt greatly concerned about the problems confronting the society and attached great
importance to parameters like relevance, morals, ethics, social equality, innovations
etc.
The Minnowbrook Conference of 1968 produced a comprehensive report which
highlighted the following tenets of New Public Administration.
1. It shifted the focus from management of agencies to policy issues.
2. It shifted the focus from scientific management and human relations within the
organisations to social equality and protection of law.
3. It propounded the concept of cut-throat management in which there was
provision for termination of un-needed organisation.
4. It insisted on new standards for the effectiveness of an organisation by
ensuring a responsive government.
5. Active participation of the citizens to ensure effective public administration.
6.
Unlike the traditional/public administration which laid emphasis on rational
model and principle of hierarchy, the protagonists of New Public Administration
frowned at these
principles.
7. New Public Administration laid emphasis on values like democratisation,
participation and involvement in the policy formulation etc. It insisted on doing
the right things in the right way through right techniques.
It is noteworthy that though the New Public Administration movement had greatly
raised hopes and aspirations of the Negroes and feminists in America, it failed to
come upto the expectation of the socially depraved classes.
SECOND MINNOWBROOK CONFERENCES 988).

The second Minnowbrook Conference on Public Administration was held in 1988. It
tried to compare and contrast the changing epochs of public administration. It sought
to check waste and corruption by insisting on less government. The main features of
the newer Public Administration were less government; cutting out of waste and
corruption; greater control over bureaucracy;
422
less directly performing government and more third party government; more
voluntarism; more contracting out and privatisation; emphasis on change and
people's participation.
In the subsequent decades greater emphasis was laid on privatisation; worker's
participation in the management; cutting out of wasteful
governmental expenditure; greater control over bureaucracy etc.
It is evident from the proceeding discussion that scholars have shared concern for
the state of the discipline of public administration and we find a considerable amount
of continuity in their thinking.
50Theories of
Organisation
The term 'organisation' is derived from the word 'organicism', which means an
organised body of interdependent parts which share common activity. According to
Mooney "Organisation is the form of every human association for the attainment of a
common purpose". L.D. White defines organisation as "the arrangement of the
personne for facilitating the accomplishment of some agreed purpose through
allocation of functions and responsibilities." Simon says that by organisation we mean
a planned system of cooperative effort in which each participant has a recognised
role to play and duties and tasks to perform." According to Pfiffner "Organisation
consists of the relationship of individual to individuals and of groups to groups which

are so related to bring about an orderly division of labour."
A persual of the above definitions of organisation shows that the term
organisation has been used in different senses by different people. Broadly speaking
the term has been used in three senses viz. act of designing the administrative
structure; both designing and building the administrative structure; and the
administrative structure itself. L.D. White refers to three primary elements of
organisation viz. persons, combined efforts and a common purpose.
THEORIES OF ORGANISATION
Several theories regarding organisation have been propounded. The most important
of these are the classical theory; the Scientific Theory; the Bureaucratic Theory, the
Human Relations Theory.
Classical Theory
The Classical Theory of organisation was developed during the first half of the
twentieth
century. The main exponents of this theory were Henry Fayol, Luther Gulick, Lyndall
Urwick, J.D. Mooney, A.C. Reiley, Mary Parker Follet etc. The theory reached its zenith
in 1937 when Papers on the Science of Administration were published by Gulick and
Urwick. The classical theory is also known as 'traditional theory', the formal
organisation theory etc. The classical thinkers firmly believed that the maximum
efficiency and economy of an organisation can be achieved only when it is
established in accordance with certain fundamental principles. The classical thinkers
held that the principles of organisation have universal applicability and can be
applied to all types of organisations.
Henry Foyal, who is known as the father of classical theory did not make any
distinction between public and private administration. He held that we have only one
administrative science which is applicable to both public and private affairs. Coyol
specified fourteen principles of administration viz., division of labour; authority and
responsibility; discipline; unity of command; unity of direction; subordination of
individual interests to general interest; remuneration; centralisation; scalar chain;
order; equity; stability of tenure of personnel; initiative and Espirit de corps or union
among the personnel of an organisation.
As noted above the classical theory of organisation reached its zenith in the
writings of Gulick and Urwick. Gulick laid down ten principles of organization viz.,
division of work; bases of departmental organisations; coordination through
hierarchy;
deliberate
coordination;
coordination
through
committees;
decentralisation; unity of command; staff and line; delegation and span of control. On
the other hand, Urwick identified eight principles of organisation.
424
The classical theory of organisation has been criticised on Several grounds. In the
first place, the theory criticised on the ground of being unscientific because it has not
been tested under scientific conditions. Further, it suffers from several
inconsistencies and lacks sophistication. Secondly, the theory ignores the human
dimensions of the organisation and is in that sense a machine model theory. Thirdly,
the theory wrongly assumes that human beings are immune from social control.
Fourthly, the theory is defective in so far it treats the human as a mere cog in the
organisation machine. Fifthly, Herbert A. Simon, criticises the theory on the ground
that the principles on which this theory rests, are not scientifically valid and hence
have no universal relevance. Sixthly, the theory is defective in so far as it lays
greater emphasis on what ought to be rather than what is. Seventhly, it offers a
static model of organisation and completely ignores the informal organisational
process.
Despite the above shortcomings of the classical theory it cannot be denied that it
has made valuable contributions to the evolution of organisation theory. The classical
thinkers developed administration into a science; they propounded the idea that
administration itself is a separate activity; they promoted use of certain managerial
techniques like reporting accounting, budgeting etc. they played an important role in
rationalising and stimulating production in the industrial organisation, etc.
Bureaucratic Theory
The Bureaucratic theory of organisation is mainly associated with Max Weber, a
German sociologist. According to this theory rational attainment of goals of an
organisation is not possible without efficient bureaucracy. According to Weber
discipline, strictness, reliability, continuity and precision are the main features of
bureaucracy. This theory believes in unified control and well knit disciplinary system.
In the bureaucratic organisation no individual is permitted to use his position in the
organisation for his personal ends. Further, it is a career structure in which each
employee can look for promotion. Another not able feature of the bureaucratic
organisation is that it is based on the principle of hierarchy, which is
strictly adhered to. Each member of the organisation is expected to discharge his
duties efficiently and to the satisfaction of the superiors.
Max Weber has highlighted the following features of bureaucracy viz., (i) the
members discharge only impersonal duties of their office; (ii) there is a clear
hierarchy of offices which perform specified functions; (iii) the officials are appointed
on the basis of contract and are bound by the terms of the contract; (iv) the officers
are selected on the basis of professional qualifications; (v) the officers are paid salary
according to their position in the hierarchy and enjoy pensionary rights; (vi) it is a
career structure in which promotion is granted on the basis of seniority or merit as
adjudged by the superiors; (vii) the members of the organisation are subject to
unified control and disciplinary system.
The bureaucratic theory of organisation has been criticised on several grounds. In
the first place, it lacks flexibility. Secondly, the theory lays more importance on
means rather than the ends. Thirdly, it is rather difficult to have a pure bureaucratic
organisation as envisaged by Max Weber. Fourthly, the theory is defective in so far as
it does not provide for any mechanism to know the public opinion or understand their
view point. Fifthly, the theory promotes nepotism, corruption and red tapism because
it tries to benefit the officers at the higher levels and is quite depressing for the
members at the lower levels. Sixthly, due to its over concern with the formal
structure of the organisation the theory tends to neglect the human dimensions.
Seventhly, the theory fails to take into account the interaction between the
organisation and its environment. Eighthly, the theory is suitable only for routine and
repetitive jobs and not for innovative and creative jobs.
Human Relations Theory

The Human Relations theory of organisation arose as a reaction against the classical
theory, which took mechanistic view of organisation and neglected the role of human
element in the organisation. This theory is also known as Neo Classical Theory. This
theory is mainly associated with the name of Elton Mayo, who is regarded as the
father of the human relations theory. Mayo tried to analyse the human relations
taking into
account the psychological, physical, economic and social aspects of human life. The
other not able scholars who made valuable contribution to the Human Relations
theory were William J. Dickson, T. North Whitehead, W. Lloyd, L.J. Henderson etc.
It may be noted that Human Relations Theory was the outcome of the Hawthorne
Experiment carried out in USA in the late twenties and early thirties of the 20 th
century. These experiments produced several un-orthodox and startling findings on
employees' attitudes to work and supervision, and disclosed the tendency on the part
of the employees to form small social groups with their own status system,
behavioural pattern, beliefs and goals which were different from the formal
organisations.
The main features of Human Relations Theory can be summed up thus:
1. It laid special emphasis on the people
2. It laid emphasis on human motivations.
3. It emphasised informal group functioning.
4. It rejected the formal institutions and laid stress on the informal day-to-day
functioning of the structure.
5. It assumed that organisational behaviour is quite complex because several
influences impinge on human beings from all directions.
Though the Human Relations Theory is considered a major development in the
field of administrative thought because it laid emphasis on informal organisations,
yet it suffers from several shortcomings.
Firstly, In the first place it lacks scientific base because the conclusions were
drawn on the basis of a very small sample of five or six girsl.
Secondly, the behaviour of the workers during the study was not natural and they
tried to give their best.
Thirdly, during the study great attention was paid to informal relations among
workers and supervisors.
Fourthly, the main relationist neglected the nature of work and instead focussed
on interpersonal relations.
Fifthly, the theory failed to explore the multidimensional phenomenon of human
motivations.
Sixthly, the study concentrated more on the members of the organisation and
neglected its work and purpose.
Finally, the theory ignored the environmental factors of workers' attitude and
behaviour.
C H APTER
51
Principles of
Organisation
All organisations of administration operate on the basis of certain principles which

have been evolved over a period of time and validated over a period of time.
However, some times the various organisations deviate from these principles and
tend to ignore them. Some of the important principles on which the different
organisations operate are as under.
1. Hierarchy
Hierarchy is a universal phenomen of all organisations. Usually all the organisations
are structured in a pyramidical fashion in which successive steps are linked with each
other from top to bottom. Sometimes hierarchy is also described as 'scalar chain' in
which the duties are assigned according to degrees of authority and corresponding
responsibility. L.D. White says hierarchy consists of the universal application of the
superior-subordinate relationship through a number of levels of responsibility
reaching from top to the bottom of the structure."
According to Millet, usually the hierarchy operates on three principles viz., (i) all
commands and communications operate through proper channel and the
intermediary levels cannot be skipped in transacting the business, (ii) the authority
and responsibility at all levels is co-equal and co-terminus (iii) there is a unity of
command which implies that a subordinate receives orders only from his superior.
The principle of hierarchy has several advantages, which are as follows.

1. It serves as an instrument of integration and coherence in the organisation;
2. It acts as a channel of communication;
3. It facilitates the fixation of responsibility at each level;
4. It ensures strict adherence to procedure;
5. It prevents congestion of work at the top level;
6. It faciliates decentralisation of decision making;
7. It facilitates delegation of authority;
8. It ensure co-ordination by securing unity of purpose; and
9. It ensures discipline and order in the organisation.
The principle of hierarchy also suffers from certain disadvantages, which are as
under:
1. It promotes red tapism and leads to delay in the disposal of the work;
2. It discourages initiative and drive at the lower level.
3. It leads to too much of rigidity in administration;
4. It leads to loss of touch between the officers at the top and personnel at lower
levels. In view of the several shortrcomings in the hierarchical organisation
some modern thinkers like Chris Argyris have suggested that the hierarchical
organisations should be replaced by matrix organisation which is free from the
superior-subordinate relationships.
2. Unity of Command
This principles of organisation envisages a special kind of superior-subordinate
relationship under which each subordinate receives orders from one superior to him.
There is only one and one leader. It is noteworthy that a unity of command is
essential to avoid confusion and manipulation in the organisation. Duality or
multiplicity in of
Principles of
Organisation 427
command confuses the employee and can lead to conflicting situations. Further, the
employee can evade orders by playing off one superior against the other. All this
undermines the effective working of the organisation. Henry Foyal says that as soon
as two superiors wield their authority over the same person in the department
uneasiness makes itself felt and should the cause persist, the disorder increases. He
further says that dual command cannot persist for all times. Either the dual
command shall come to an end and disappear or the organisation shall continue to
wither away.
Under no circumstances, the organisation can adapt to dual command. However,

certain scholars like Seckler-Hudson have opposed the concept of unity of command
and argued that the concept of one single boss for each person is seldom found in
complex government situations. In fact in the government organisation there are
many bosses and none of them can be neglected. Apart from that several interrelationships exists outside the straight line of command. J.D. Millet also argues
against the concept of one boss and propounds theory of 'dual supervision'. He
argues that generally two types of supervision is exercised viz. technical
(professional) and administrative. And this control is exercised by two different
individuals. The first is concerned with the professional competence, while the second
is concerned with efficient utilisation of men and material resources available.
Herbert Simon finds a contradiction between the principle of unity of command
and the principle of specialisation. Simon says 'One of the most important uses to
which authority is put in an organisation is to bring about specialisation in the work of
making decision, so that each decision is made at the point in the organisation where
it can be made most expertly." The principles of unity of command has also suffered
a setback on account of the adoption of plural bodies like the boards and the
commissions as head of the administrative agencies. The growing influence of the
staff and auxiliary agencies, which are manned by specialists, has also contributed to
the undermining of the principle of unity of command.
SPAN OF CONTROL
The span of control, according to Dimock and Dimock, refers to the number and
range of direct,
habitual communication contacts between the chief executive of an enterprise and
his principal fellow officers. Usually in an organisation an officer can personally direct,
control and supervise only a limited number of persons and things on account of
human limitations.
There is no unanimity amongst scholars regarding the number of subordinates
falling within the span of control, it is generally accepted that a shorter span is
always better because it leads to greater superior-subordinate contract and leads to
more effective control, supervision and direction. On the other hand, Seckler-Hudson
hold that there are inherent dangers in limited span of control, because detailed
supervision of subordinates prevents the subordinates to use their capacities to full.
In fact the length of the span control is dependent on the following factors.
1. The span is more if the work to be supervised is easy, routine, mechanical and
homogeneous in nature.
2. The span of control is more in old organisations as compared to the newer
organisations, where fresh precedents are possible.
3. The span of control is more when the supervisor and the subordinates are
working under the same roof than when the subordinate is working at a distant
place.
4. The span of control is more if the supervisor is intelligent, energetic and
tactful. Similarly the span of control is more if the subordinates are well trained
and experienced.
In short, it can be said that the span of conti \ depends on the personality of the
supervisor, diversification of the functions of the organisation-age of organisation;
traditions and environment of the organisation; calibre of the subordinate etc.
LINE AND STAFF

On the basis of the work done by the organisations there are three types of
organisational units viz. line, staff and auxiliary. The line agencies direct!' work for the
attainment of the objectives of the organisation. The staff agencies assist the line
agencies in the discharge of their duties. It may be noted that the role of staff is
essentially one of
428
advice, assistance and provision of expert and specialised services. The Auxiliary
agencies also assist the line agencies in the accomplishments of the organisational
purpose but do not come in contact with the people. They differ from the staff
agencies in several respects. First, they provide common housekeeping services to
the line agencies. Secondly, the auxiliary agencies have operating responsibilities.
Thirdly, the auxiliary agencies make decisions in their own spheres. The auxiliary
agencies are responsible for the maintenance of the line agencies.
CO-ORDINATION
Coordination is another important principle of organisation. It has both positive and
negative connotations. In the positive sense it ensures cooperation and team work
among the persons and unit of an organisation. In the negative sense it stands for
removal of conflict, friction, overlaping and working at cross purposes among persons
or units of an organisation.
Coordination is essential for the smooth and successful working of the
organisation on account of following reasons.
1. It avoids conflict and duplication of work and thereby ensures economy of
expenditure.
2. It acts as a check on the tendency among the employees to attach too much
of importance to their own work.
3. It checks the tendency to expand one's own activities to gain more powers;
4. It checks the narrow perspective of specialists engaged in different and
specific work; and
5. It helps in meeting the requirements of growing number of organisational
units.
Several techniques are used to achieve coordination. These include planning;
institutional devices like inter-departmental meetings, conferences, committees etc.;
standardization of procedures and methods; centralised housekeeping; verbal and
written communications; inculcation of institutional spirit among employees;
consultations; organisational hierarchy other informal means of coordination like
personal
contacts, dinners, cocktail parties etc.
CENTRALISATION AND DECENTRATION
On the basis of the location of decision making power in the administrative system a
distinction is drawn between centralisation and decentralisation. By centralisation,
we mean that the authority is dispersed among the lower levels of administrative
system, it is known as decentralisation. L.D. White has brought out difference
between centralisation and decentralisation thus "The process of transfer of
administrative authority from a lower to a higher level of government is called
centralisation; the converse, decentralisation."
Merits of Centralisation and Decentralisation

Both these arrangements have respective merits and dermits. The merits of
Centralisation include maximum control over the entire organisation; carrying out of
work in accordance with general policies and principles; economy in administration
by avoiding duplication; imparting of dynamism in the organisation through active
role of personal leadership; effective handling of emergencies; maximum utilisation
of human and material resources.
The chief merits of decentralisation are: improvement of administrative efficiency
by reducing delays, curbing red-tapism and encouraging faster action reduces burden
at the top and helps them to concentrate on policy formulation and examination of
major problems etc.; promotes self-respect among subordinates; responsive
administration due to knowledge of local condition; promotes democracy at grass
root level; facilitates adaption of national policies in accordance with conditions in
various regions; it leads to reduction of paper work both at the higher and lower
levels; it makes comparison of the working of different units possible.
If we have a look at the merits of centralisation and decentralisation we shall find
the decentralisation is more conducive to administrative efficiency and promotes
sense of responsibility among the individuals.
Chapter
52
The Chief
Executive
The term Chief Executive is used for the official who heads the government and
controls its functioning. In fact, he is the chief controlling and directing force to whom
all look for guidance and direction. The Chief Executive can be either hereditary, as in
Britain, or elected as in India and U.S.A. In certain countries "like Switzerland the
executive authority does not rest with one individual but with a Council. Such an
executive is known as Collegiate executive. Again the Executive Head is distinguished
on the basis whether he wields real power or not. If the powers are vested in a person
who does not himself exercise those powers, such an executive is known as nominal
executive. The Queen of Britain is the best example of such an executive head. Even
the President of India is a nominal executive head even though the Constitution vests
all the powers in him. In reality, in India the executive powers vested in the President,
are actually used by Prime Minister.

On the basis of relations between the legislature and the executive, the Executive
can be either Parliamentary of Presidential. In a Parliamentary system, the executive
is accountable to the legislature and can be ousted from office if the legislature
passes a vote of no confidence against it. On the other hand, if the executive enjoys
real powers and is not accountable to the legislature, it is known as Presidential. This
type of executive is found in United States.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE

With the enormous expansion of the powers of the government in recent years the
functions of the
executive have considerably increased. We can study the functions of the executive
under the following heads.
Duties As Organisational Head

The Chief Executive, as head of the organisation, keeps full control over the activities
of the organisation. He not only formulates the policy of the organisation but is also
responsible for guiding and directing its activities. The Chief Executive ensures that
the different units of the organisation work in a co-ordinated manner and attain the
objectives of the organisation. He re-adjusts the role of the Organisation according to
the changed conditions. As all changes are generally resisted by the people, it is
desirable that the executive head should have inspirational qualities and should be
able to carry majority of the people with him. The Executive head tries to keep
abreast of the changing conditions which helps him to shape and control the
environments. It is the responsibility of the Chief Executive to ensure that the
organisation works efficiently and is free from evils of corruption and nepotism. He is
responsible to ensure that the funds are properly utilised and the finances of the
organisation are in sound condition at all times.
The Chief Executive has a role in the appointment of all top executive officials and
exercies complete control and supervision over their work. He ensures that the work
of the department does not suffer due to lack of policy directions. He can create or
disband any unit of the organisation in the interest of effective administration. The
Chief Executive receives periodical reports from the various units and decides further
action in the light of the overall policy. In the light of these reports he tries to redress
the grievances of
the public as well as the employees.

Generally the work of the organisation is so enormous that it is not possible for
the chief executive to discharge all the functions by himself. He has, therefore, to
delegate some of his functions to his subordinate staff. Usually the policy matters are
decided by Chief Executive while the implementation is left to the subordinate staff.
In fact even in the formulation of policy the Chief Executive has a limited role. All
the facts regarding formation of policy are collected by the high executive officials
and the Chief Executive only endorses the decision.
The Chief Executive also plays a vital role as coordinator and tries to draw
together a number of conflicting skills and interests leading them towards a common
end. Though in an organisation based on hierarchy every level is accountable for its
work to the higher level and various devices are used to promote coordination, but it
is the Chief Executive who is primarily responsible for coordination. This coordination
is sought to be achieved through personal and charismatic means. A person will
identify himself with the organisation only if he is made to feel that he is a part of the
organisation. To win the loyalty of the individual to the organisation the leader has
sometime to make emotional appeals to win their support.
A good chief executive must be intelligent, firm minded, energetic, posses
capacity to grasp the things quickly and keep his staff motivated. He should also be
capable of taking timely and quick decisions. Above all, he should be fair towards the
staff and give them their due before they resort to agitation.
For the discharge of his legal and constitutional duties the Chief Executive has to
seek the assistance of staff which keeps the chief executive fully informed of all
happenings in the organisation. This staff assist the chief executive in planning and
decision making and ensures that these are promptly implemented. The best
examples of staff agencies in India are Cabinet Secretariat, Prime Minister's Office,
Cabinet Committees, Planning Commission, Staff Inspection units in the Ministry of
Finance, Vigilance Division in the Ministry of Finance, Vigilance Division in the Ministry
of Home Affairs etc. In addition to the Staff Agencies the Line Agencies also play a
vital role in the operation of the organisation. The line agencies come in direct
contact with the people and are responsible for the implementation of the
determined policy.
53Control over Administration

Judicial
and Legislative
Due to enormous increase in the functions of the government in recent years the
importance and role of Public Administration has considerably increased. The present
day government is not concerned with the political and administrative problems
alone but also takes keen interest in the social, economic, religious and other
problems as well. As a result of increase in the powers of the government it is no
more possible for it to discharge all the duties by itself. It has, therefore, delegated
extensive legislative, executive and financial powers to the public servants. As there
is a constant risk of these powers being misused and misappropriated, in almost all
the countries effective devices have been evolved to ensure that these powers are
not misused and arbitrary rule is avoided. Both legislative and judicial organs of
government play a vital role in this regard. It shall be desirable to know about their
control over executive in some details.
JUDICIAL CONTROL
Judiciary is an important organ of the government which plays a vital role in
protecting the rights and liberties of the citizens and ensuring constitutional
government in the country. In most of the democratic countries the rights of the
citizens are enshrined in the constitution, which also provides for the enforcement of
these rights by the courts. If these rights are denied to the citizens they can seek
redress from the courts and ask for their enforcement. Similarly, if the administration
acts in violation of the law enacted by the legislature, its act can be declared as
illegal. Thus we can say that the motive of judicial control is to protect the
rights and liberties of the citizens and ensure legality of the administrative action.
It may be observed that judicial control over administration is based on A.V.
Dicey's concept of 'rule of law', which implies three things. First, no person can be
punished except for the breach of law. Secondly, all citizens are equal before law and
are subject to the same law which is administered by ordinary law courts; Third, the
rights of citizens are protected by judicial decisions (in Britain).
Generally the intervention of judiciary in the administration can be sought on the
following grounds;
1. It has exceeded its authority;
2. The administrator has acted in contravention of a law.
3. The administrator has acted on wrong presumptions.
4. The administrator has acted vindictively.
5. The administrator has not followed the prescribed procedure.
6. The judiciary exercises control over administration through following methods:
The judiciary exercises control over administration through following methods:
1. The court can pronounce upon the legality and constitutionality of an
administrative act.
2. An aggrieved citizen can make an appeal to the court in terms of the
provisions of the statue.
3. Suits can be filed against the Union or State administration on the ground of
violating
1.
432
the provisions of laws made by Parliament or state legislature. It may be

noted that the state can be sued only in case of non-sovereign functions and
not sovereign functions. In Britain, however, the state (Crown) enjoys immunity
from any liability for any action.
4. Extraordinary
remedies have been provided against excesses of
administration in the nature of six types of writs which can be filed before the courts.
These writs include Habeas Corpus; Mandamus; Prohibition; Certiorari; Quo Warranto
and Injunctions. However, there are several constraints regarding judicial control
over administration. Thus the judiciary cannot intervene in the judicial process on its
own; the control exercises by the courts in the nature of a post mortem control; all
administrative acts are not subject to judicial control because Parliament can exclude
some matters from their jurisdiction; judiciary can itself deny to itself jurisdiction over
certain matters; the judicial process is very slow and cumbersome; the judges
cannot always properly understand administra-tive matters of highly technical
nature; the volume of administrative actions has increased so much that it is not
possible for the court to review all administrative acts affecting the citizens.
LEGISLATIVE CONTROL OVER ADMINISTRATION

The Legislature, which comprises of the elected representatives of the people,
also exercises control over administration. Under all democratic systems the policies
of the government are laid down by the legislature and the administration
implements the same. However, this control differs under Parliamentary System
(India and UK) and the Presidential system (USA).
Legislative Control Under Parliamentary System

Under a Parliamentary system of government the ministers are taken from the
Parliament and are accountable to Parliament for all their actions. Thus the
Legislature exercises control over the administration through the ministers. This
controls
over administration is exercised through three methods viz. general control over
policies and action through questions, discussions, motions and resolution; financial
control through budget and audit; can control over finance, administration etc
through committees.
As noted above, general control over the policies of the government is exercised
through questions, discussions, motions and resolutions. The first half of every
Parliamentary sitting is allotted for questions. These questions can be asked by
members of Parliament and the ministers have to reply to these questions. This is an
effective tool of legislative control over administration. Zero hour is another informal
device available to the member of Parliament to raise matters in Parliament without
prior notice. Then there are a variety of methods of raising discussions. These include
Half-an-Hour Discussion; Short Duration Discussion; Inaugural speech of President;
debates on legislation; and passing of resolutions on matters of general public
interest. The other important legislative instruments of control over administration
include calling attention; Adjournment Motion; Censure motions and No-confidence
Motion. All these devices provide an opportunity to members of legislature to expose
the weaknesses and omissions of administration.
Financial control is the most effective method of Legislative control over the
Administration. This control is exercised through budget. The Parliament controls the
revenues and expenditures of the government through budget. The Budget consists
of the Appropriation Bill and the Finance Bill. While enacting the budget the
Parliament criticises the policies and actions of the government. It also enables the
Parliament to highlight the lapses and failures of administration.

Parliament also exercises control over finance and administration through
Comptroller and Auditor General and the Parliamentary Committees. The CAG
ensures financial accountability of government to Parliament through its Audit Report.
The two houses set up committees comprising of members drawn from both the
Houses of Parliament. Some of the committees constituted by the Parliament include
Public Account Committee, the Estimates Committee, Committee on Public
Undertakings; Committee
Control over AdministrationJudicial and

Legislative 433
on Assurances; Committee on Subordinate Legislation Departmental Standing

Committees etc. These committees consists of members drawn from various political
parties. These committees examine cases regarding financial irregularities, lapses in
the implementation of policy, matters of policy failure etc.
It is noteworthy that under a Parliamentary system of government, the public
servants are not permitted to defend their actions on the floor of the House and this
task is left to the ministers. However, the discussion on the failures and lapses of
administration get highlighted in the Parliament in the course of discussion.
LEGISLATIVE CONTROL UNDER PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM

The legislative control over administration under Presidential system is quite different
from the system obtaining under Parliamentary government. This difference largely
exists because the Presidential system operates on the theory of separation of
powers. Under Presidential system the legislative and executive branches of
government are separated from each other and work independent of each other. The
Executive (which consists of President and his Secretaries) neither sits in the
legislature nor is accountable to it for its policies and actions. The President is elected
for a fixed term of four years and cannot be ousted from office through a vote of no
confidence in the Congress. As the President or his Secretaries are not present in the
Congress, they have not to
face any questions, adjournment motions, no confidence motions etc. As a result, the
legislature in USA cannot make use of those instruments of control over the
administration which are available in a Parliamentary system. On the other hand the
US Congress has also evolved several methods of control over administration which
are as under:
1. Congress creates executive departments, commissions, boards and other
administrative agencies which report directly to the US Government.
2. Congress appoints investigative committees to look into the working of the
administrative departments.
3. The Congress enacts and amends laws and lays down the public policies.
4. The Congress approves the federal budget prepared by the Office of the
Budget and Management under the directions of the President.
5. All the treaties concluded by the President are confirmed by the Senate (under
house of Congress) before these are implemented.
6. The Senate confirms the appointments made by the President.
7. President can be impeaced on grounds of treason or corruption by the two
houses of Congress.
It is evident from the above that US Congress enjoys rather limited powers of
control over the administration.
\
Bureaucra
cy
Bureaucracy is an important feature of all governments. Though generally it is

considered to be a modern phenomenon, in reality bureaucracy has been an ancient
institution and existed in ancient empires like China, Rome, Egypt, India, etc.
However, in modern times the role of bureaucracy has assumed greater importance.
MEANING OF BUREAUCRACY
The term bureaucracy has been derived from the word 'bureau' an office or post.
Hence bureaucracy is a system of government by officials. Prof. Laski defines
bureaucracy as "a system of government, the control of which is so completely in the
hands of the officials that their power jeopardises the liberties of the ordinary
citizens." Thus Laski, uses the term bureaucracy in derogatory sense and completely
ignores the important role played by it in the administration of modern governments.
On the other hand Prof. Ogg fully appreciates the necessity and role of the
bureaucracy in the working of the modern governments. He asserts that the work of
the government would never be done if there were only Secretaries of State
(Ministers) and other heads of departments etc. because they cannot be expected to
collect taxes, audit accounts, inspect factories, take censuses, keep accounts, deliver
mail and carry messages, etc. "Such manifold tasks fall, rather to the body of officials
and employees known as the permanent civil servants. It is this great body of men
and women that translates laws into action from one end of the country to the other
and brings the national government into its daily contact with the rank and file in the
country-less in the public eye than the ministry, this army of functionaries is not a bit
less necessary to the
realisation of purposes for which government exists."
MAX WEBER ON BUREAUCRACY

Max Weber (1864-1920) belonged to German historical and idealist school. He was a
jurist, economist and politician all rolled into one. As he belonged to the era of large
scale governmental activities, expanding industrial management and multidimensional economic operations, he was convinced that large scale planning in
modern state and for modern economy were possible only through bureaucratic
coordination. He considered, Bureaucracy as an instrument that shaped "the modern
polity, the modern economy, and the modern technology." In his definition of
bureaucracy, Weber emphasised the hierarchical nature of bureaucracy; its
specialisation of functions, and the arrangement of official positions in a purportedly
rational manner to perform necessary tasks. He viewed bureaucracy as a system
which has set rules of management and regularised ways of recruiting and appointing
people who have the necessary expertise for their task. Bureaucrats are people who
undertake their assignments as vocations, look at their jobs as careers, and are
accorded status and salary. They maintain records, coordinate their operations, and
plan and evaluate the effectiveness of their work. Weber considered bureaucratic
type of organisation as superior to other types of organisations.
The bureaucratic system advocated by Max Weber had following salient features.
1. It is a corporate body bound by rules.
2. The system rests on principle of division of labour in which each officer
performs
1.
Bureaucracy
435
specified functions. Such an officer is vested with necessary authority to

discharge those functions.
3. The organisation is based on the principle of hierarchy in which each officer
enjoys authority over his subordinates and is accountable to his superiors.
4. The members of bureaucracy are appointed and not elected. They are
provided necessary technical training before being inducted into the system.
5. The administration is carried on in accordance with the rules and all the
administrative acts, discussions etc. are generally reduced to writing.
6. The officer incharge of an office is fully responsible for the discharge of duties
connected with that office.
7. The officials are appointed on contractual basis and cannot be easily removed.
However, they may resign from office.
8. The officer is paid a graded salary during his career and is entitled to pension
on retirement.
9. Bureaucracy constitutes a career. Generally, a person is recruited at the lower
level and gradually rises up through promotion, which may be granted either
on the basis of seniority or merit. The decision regarding promotion is taken by
the superiors.
10. An officer has to maintain strict discipline in the discharge of his allotted
duties.
ADVANTAGES
The bureaucratic system has certain distinct advantages.
1. In the first place bureaucracy possess qualities of precision, speed,
unambiguity, knowledge of the files, continuity, discretion, unity, strictsubordination, reduction of friction and of material and personal costs. In
comparison with collegiate, honorific and vocational forms of administration,
trained bureaucracy is superior in respect of all the above points.
2. Secondly, bureaucracy offers opportunity to carry out specialised
administrative functions, while keeping objective considerations in mind. The
functions are often assigned to functionaries who have specialised training and
keep on adding to their knowledge through constant practice.
3. Thirdly, in the present day complex culture system only the objective expert
can support apparatus demands. In other words, bureaucracy offers the
attitudes demanded by the external apparatus of modern culture in the most
favourable combination.
4.Fourthly, Bureaucracy enjoys permanency which cannot be easily destroyed.
As an instrument for 'socialising' relations of power, bureaucracy has been and
is a power instrument of the first order for the one who controls the
bureaucratic apparatus.
5. Finally, bureaucracy is a disciplined body of officials, which plays a vital role in
promoting obedience and order.
DISADVANTAGES
The bureaucratic system also suffers from several disadvantages. In the first place,
as it is completely 'depersonalised', it makes it difficult to deal with the individual
particularities. Secondly, the rationalised efficiency of bureaucracy has turned it into
a monster that threatens to dehumanise its creators. Thirdly, bureaucracy has given
a mechanical character to administration and it seems difficult to imagine that this
evolution shall be changed.
Despite the above shortcomings, bureaucratic system has enabled the European
community to absorb the changes without in any way dislocating the political system.
For example, in England, the parliamentary system of government, based on biparty
system, is working effectively only on account of bureaucratisation and
rationalisation. Similarly, in Germany, the political system did not crumble, after the
exit of Bismark, due to the same reasons. Even in India, the change over from 'Raj'
436
to 'Republic' was rendered smooth due to impersonal character of bureaucracy.
Factors for The Rise of Bureaucracy

It cannot be denied that bureaucracy has been a feature of all governments from
earliest times but its strength and powers have increased manifold in modern times.
The main factors which have contributed to the growth of the institution of
bureaucracy and corresponding increase in its power have been as follows:
1. In recent years the character of the state has undergone a change. It is no
more a police force concerned merely with the maintenance of law and order
and distribution of justice. On the other hand the present state is a welfare
state which has assumed more and more responsibilities. For the discharge of
these responsibilities it has requisitioned the services of larger number of civil
servants. This has naturally contributed to the growth and importance of the
bureaucracy.
2. Secondly, the increase in the functions of the state has also led to the
complexity of the administration. The state cannot carry on the administration
with the help of lay people and has to requisition the services of the experts.
As a result, the power has tended to shift from the hands of the Parliament and
Ministers into the hands of the expert civil servants.
3. Thirdly, the enormous increase in the work of the Parliament and the complex
nature of modern laws has obliged the Parliament to depend more and more
on expert civil servants. Therefore, generally the modern legislatures pass only
skeleton laws leaving the details of these laws to be worked out by the civil
servants. This has naturally given discretion to the civil servants and added to
their powers.
4. Fourthly, the additional responsibilities assumed by the state to deal with
emergencies like war, natural calamities, etc. has also contributed to the
growth of the powers of the civil servants. As the government has to delegate
more and
more powers to the civil servants to meet with such exigencies, this adds to
the powers and prestige of the servants.
5.
Fifthly, the powers of the Civil Servants have greatly increased because of the
general tendency in most of the modern countries to grant greater discretion to the
civil servants in
dealing with the unforeseen contingencies. This has been done because the civil
servants, as men on the spot, can deal with the situation more effectively than
the top leaders who are far removed from the scene of operation.
6. Finally, the tendency in most of the countries to make civil service a life long
career has also contributed to the importance of bureaucracy. Generally the
civil servants are recruited on the basis of a competitive examination at a fairly
young age. They are assured security of service, a fixed salary, promotional
avenues and a pension on retirement. Relieved of the economic worries the
civil servants are able to give their best to the state. This has greatly
contributed to the increase in the power and influence of the civil servants.
ROLE OF BUREAUCRACY
Though outwardly the role of bureaucracy under Parliamentary and Presidential
systems of governments seems to be different, in reality there is no substantial
difference except that whereas in Parliamentary Government the civil servants in
addition to the powers vested in them also exercise the powers of the Ministers from
behind the scene. On the other hand, under Presidential system of government they
enjoy the powers which have been bestowed to them. In general the role of the
bureaucracy can be studied under the following heads:
1. Administrative Functions
The major responsibility for the administration of the country rests on the shoulders
of the civil servants. It is their responsibility to see that the laws passed by the
legislature and orders issued by the political leaders are carried out. No doubt, the
political head of the department has a right to exercise general supervision over the
work of the
Bureaucracy
437
civil servants, but due to lack of full knowledge about the work of the department and
other commitments he has to leave much to the discretion of the civil servants. He
has to content himself by ensuring that the general policy outlines have been carried
out by the civil servants. As a result, the civil servants have come to exercise vast
powers in the administrative sphere.
The bureaucracy has come to play a significant role in the legislative sphere as well.
It not only prepares the bills for the approval of the legislature but also provides the
details of the laws after the legislature has passed the skeleton laws due to paucity of
time. As civil servants are directly concerned with the enforcement of the laws they
know best the difficulties involved in the enforcement of a particular law and make
necessary suggestions to overcome the same. In Parliamentary System of
Government though the bills are formally introduced in the Parliament by the
Ministers, in reality the details of the bill are worked out by the civil servants. The
civil servants even provide the arguments to be advanced by the Minister in support
of the bill on the floor of the Parliament. No doubt the Ministers are free to accept or
reject the legislative proposals prepared by the civil servants, yet it cannot be denied
that the civil servants exert great degree of influence on them. This influence is all
the more if the minister happens to be new in his office. On the other hand, under
experienced ministers the bureaucrats exercise comparatively less influence.
The growth of the system of delegated legislation in modern times has also
greatly added to the powers of the civil servants. The modern legislatures do not
have sufficient time or requisite technical knowledge to pass detailed laws. As a
result, they generally pass skeleton laws leaving it to the civil servants to work out
the details. No doubt, the detailed rules thus framed by the civil servants are subject
to approval of the legislal re, but generally these rules are accepted as they are
drafted by the civil servants. Often the laws also contain 'enabling clause' which
permit the executive (the civil servants) the right to alter the
original law. Even if there is no such clause attached to the bill, the executive may so
frame the rules that the very complexion of the law may be changed. In short, as a
result of growth of delegated legislation the power of the civil servants in regards to
legislation has considerably expanded.
In the financial sphere also the civil servants play an important role. They formulate
the budget proposals containing details about the proposed expenditure and
revenues for the ensuing year. No doubt these proposals are subject to the approval
of the legislature but generally the proposals worked out by the civil servants are
accepted. Even after these proposals are accepted the responsibility for putting these
proposals into practice also rests with the civil servants. Thus we can say that the
civil servants virtually control the finances of the country.
4. Judicial Functions
Finally, in recent years, the bureaucracy has come to exercise certain quasi-judicial
functions too. The various departments of the government take administrative and
quasi-judicial decisions against whom no appeal can be taken to the courts. In other
words, the final verdict in these matters rests with the departments and the top
bureaucrats.
A casual look at the powers of bureaucracy shows that its power and prestige has
greatly increased in recent years. In view of the growing importance of bureaucracy
some scholars have expressed fears that their growing power poses a serious threat
to the existence of democratic government, Lord Hewart describes the growing
powers of bureaucracy as "new form of despotism" which places government
departments above the sovereignty of the Parliament and beyond the jurisdiction of
the courts." But these views are not wholly correct, no doubt, there has been an
enormous growth in the power of the civil servants but it would be too much to say
that they pose a threat to the existence of Democracy, In fact, as Sir William
Beveridge has observed "Democracy, if it knows its business, has no reason to fear
bureaucracy,"
IIIA J-'Nfl
55Development Planning
and Administration
in India
Planning has come to be accepted as an essential feature by almost all the countries
of the world. It is regarded as an important means for accelerating the economic
development of the country. Soon after attainment of independence India also
embarked on the path of planning for the improvement of the lot of the people.
The term planning has been used by scholars in different senses and it is rather
difficult to give any precise and universally acceptable definition. The Planning
Commission of India has defined planning 'as a way of organising and utilising
resources to maximum advantage in terms of defined social ends.' Prof. K.T. Shah
says "Planning under a democratic system may be defined as a technical
coordination by disinterested experts of consumption, production, investigation, trade
and income distribution in accordance with special objectives set by bodies
representative of the nation. Such planning is not to be considered from the point of
economics and raising of standard of living, but also must include cultural and
spiritual values of human life." Prof. Dickinson has given a very elaborate definition of
Planning. He says "Economic planning is the making of major economic decision
what and how much is to be produced and to whom it is to be allocated by the
conscious decision of a determinate authority on the basis of a comprehensive survey
of the economy as a whole." It may be observed that in his definition of Planning,
Dickinson has laid emphasis on five features viz. (i) planning is a conscious and
deliberate act undertaken for the attainment of a definite aim; (ii) it implies existence
of a single
central authority which is responsible for planning and coordinating diverse economic
activities; (iii) planning has to be comprehensive and general; (iv) the availabe
resources are distributed for the attainment of determined socio-economic
objectives; planning covers the processes of production as well as distribution.
Though the era of economic planning in India started with the launching of the
First Five Year Plan on 1 April, 1951, the concept was not wholly unknown to the
Indian leaders. Even in the pre-independence period the Indian leaders had
emphasised the importance of Planning for the elimination of grinding poverty of the
Indian masses. In 1931 M. Visvesvarayya wrote the book Planned Economy of India in
which he emphasised the need of planning. He suggested a ten-year plan for
doubling the income of the country. In 1938 a National Planning Committee was set
up under Jawaharlal Nehru, which prepared a plan for the economic development of
the country. During the next few years, atleast three other plans for the economic
development of the country were submitted. These plans were People's Plan
prepared by M.N. Roy; Gandhian Plan prepared by Shriman Narayan; and Bombay
Plan also known as A Plan for Economic Development in India'.

Soon after the formation of the Interim Government in 1946 an Advisory Board of
Planning was set up for the economic development of the country. This Board
recommended to the Government of India to set up a Planning Commission under
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. Accordingly the Planning Commission was set up in 1950
through a
442
government resolution. The Constitution of India in chapter on Directive

Principles of State Policy also enjoins upon the state to ensure adequate means
of livelihood; prevent concentration of wealth and means of production in few
hands only; to provide right to work, to education, to public assistance in cases
of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement. In short, the Constitution
enjoins upon the state to promote welfare of the people by securing and
protecting a social order in which justicesocial, economic and politicalshall
prevail.
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
For the rapid development of the country a new branch of development
administration has emerged which concentrates on the problems relating to
socio-economic development. Edward Weinder has defined development
administration as "the process of guiding an organisation towards the
achievement of progressive political, economic and social objectives that ae
authoritatively determined in one manner or the other. It involves machinery
for planning economic growth and mobilising and allocating of resources to
expand national income." According to Riggs, Development Administration
seeks to carry out programmes or projects thought by those involved to serve
the development objects. In simple language one can say that the main
purpose of development administration is to formulate and implement plans,
policies, programmes and projects and to develop administrative machinery
and process which are suited to the task of national development.
According to some scholars the development administration is mainly
concerned with the developing countries and has nothing to do with the
developed countries. This view is not correct. In fact even the developed
countries have several problems which can be resolved only through
instrument of development administration. Hence it can be said that
development administration is concerned both with the developed and
The development administration differs from
,
non-development administration in several
respects. In the first place, development adminis-
tration is concerned with the formulation of policies and programmes of

development, while the latter is concerned with effective implementation of the
projects. Secondly, it is generally held that the development administration is
primarily concerned with the developing countries, while the non-development
administration is concerned with both developing and developed countries. Thirdly,
development administration is more dynamic, growth oriented, flexible, and
relationships oriented, while the non-developmental administration does not possess
any of the above characteristics. Fourthly, the development administration is
concerned with the socio-economic changes and is not in favour of status quo. The
traditional or non-development administration on the other hand stands for status
quo. Fifthly, the development administration seeks to attain certain pre-determined
goals and expects the bureaucrats to move towards the predetermined goal without
strictly adhering to the rigid rules. Sixthly, the development administration is in
favour of direct involvement of the people in the development of the society. If the
people feel emotionally involved in a particular programme they shall try to get the
things done expeditiously. Seventhly, the development administration covers a much
wider field than the general administration. The development administration tries to
implement the programmes of general welfare and is concerned with activities like
programme planning, extension and community service, personal development, area
development and project management.
Objective of Development
Like other countries India has also shown keenness to achieve rapid socio-economic
development and modernise the Indian society. This has been sought to be achieved
through introduction of changes in various sectors like industry, agriculture, social
services like health, education, water supply etc.
The development administration has played an important role both in the
identification of the socio-ecnomic problems and taking necessary remedial
measures. With the decentralisation of powers and responsibilities the role of
the
Development Planning and Administration in India
443
development administration has further increased. As a result in most of the

countries the development administration has been enlarged and several innovations
have been made to enhance the efficiency and capacity of the bureaucracy to handle
the development problems.
Role of Collector In Development

Collector, who is the Chief Development Officer of the District, co-ordinates and
supervises the various developmental activities at the district level. As the Chief
Development Officer of the District he convenes the meetings of the District Officers
of the Co-operative, Agriculture, Industries,, Health, Forest and Development Officers
etc. In the discharge of his developmental duties, the district officer is assisted by the
Additional Collector, District Development and
Planning Officers. At the District level a District Development and Planning
Committee which contains representatives of the Zila Parishads and Municipal
Boards. In addition to this the Committee also includes the member of the state
legislature and Parliament from the area. The Committee also contains several
important non-official workers. This Committee assists the District Collector in the
formulation and coordination of the development programmes. A notable feature of

the role of District Officer in the field of development is that he behaves like a public
servant who is willing to serve the people of the district. Though the District Officer is
not directly concerned with the implementation of the various development
programmes, he plays a vital role in the development fied.
Chapter
56
Bureaucracy and
Challenges
of Development
The term 'bureauracy' has been drawn from the word 'bureau' meaning office or post.
Literally interpreted the term means a government office or post. It is generally held
that the rise of bureaucracy in India coincided with the assumption of political power
by the East India Company. But this is not true. Bureaucracy existed in India during
the ancient times also, although its nature was quite different. It continued even
under the Muslim rule. However, it greatly thrived under the British rule even though
its functions were quite limited. After independence the role of bureaucracy
underwent a great transformation. The adoption of the goal of a welfare state aiming
securing justice, social, economic and political; liberty of thought, expression beliefs,
faith and worship;
equality of status and of opportunity to all the citizens of India, led to enormous
increase in the duties of the bureaucracy.
Before we examine the role of bureaucracy under the Indian political system, it
shall be desirable to have an idea about the factors which contributed to the increase
in the powers of bureaucracy. In the first place the change in the notion of state from
a police state to a welfare state led to enormous increase in the functions of the state
which necessitated the employment of civil servants in large number, and
consequent increase in its powers. Secondly, the ':i adoption of parliamentary system
of government has increased the importance of bureaucracy because the ministers,
who head the various departments, are amateur and are greatly dependent on the
civil servants. The civil servants on account of their
knowledge regarding the intricacies of administration play a vital role in the
formulation and implementation of the policy. It is noteworthy that the civil servants
enjoy a considerable amount of discretion in the implementation of the policies
formulated by the government. Thirdly, the recruitment of the civil servants on the
basis of merit through a competitive examination has also greatly enhanced the
importance of civil servants. On account of their specialised knowledge the civil
servants are greatly trusted by the political bosses as well as the general public.
Fourthly, on account of the highly technical nature of the present day legislation, the
Parliament is not able to play an effective role in the formulation of laws. It merely
passes skelton laws and leaves the details to be worked out by the civil servants. This
gives lot of freedom to the civil servants to frame rules and regulations according to
their administrative convenience.
Some of the important function performed by the bureaucracy in relation to the
administration are (i) formulation and implementation of the policy; (ii) to provide
continuity in administration and prevent hardship to the people; (iii) to formulate
laws, for presentation to the Parliament and to fill details of the skelton laws passed
by the Parliament; (iv) to pronounce judgements of quasi-judicial nature in matters
relating to the departments; (v) to manage the finances of the state through its
power raising and spending the money; (vi) to play significant role in the economic
development of the country, (vii) to modernise the administration and bring about
necessary social changes.
Bureaucracy and Challenges of Development
445
Role of Bureaucracy In Development

The role of bureaucracy in relation to development has undergone great change in
recent times. Earlier the bureaucracy did not maintain any links with the people and
imposed all decisions regarding developmental programme from above and the
people had no option but to accept these decisions. However with the development
administration assuming great importance due to involvement of the people, the role
of bureaucracy in the development administration has undergone a change. It is
being realise that centralisation of power should be avoided and greatly emphasis
should be made on decentralisation. The field units should be associated with the
decision making process, which is not being done at present. At present the
command flows from top to bottom, which gives the impression that the decision is
being imposed.
Despite the above limitations it cannot be denied that the bureaucracy is playing
an important role in the economic development of the country. With the state
assuming a social service character it is duty bound to meet the fundamental needs
of the people. For the attainment of this objective the state has embarked upon
commercial enterprises for the proper exploitation of country's natural resources and
protection of individual against exploitation by the capitalists.
The nationalisation of certain vital industries and the growing role assigned to the
public sector further bear a testimony to this fact.
According to some critics the administration in India has not fully responded to
the social needs of the people and promoted the interests of the rich and well-to-do
sections of the society. No doubt the administration has launched several schemes
for the benefit of the small farmers, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other
backward section of the society but the bureaucracy has adopted rather a casual
approach towards the implementation of these schemes. As a result the benefits of
these schemes have reached only the rich farmers and members of higher castes.
Similarly, the administration is paid more attention to the urban development as
compared to the rural development. This is inevitable in view of the fact that majority
of the civil services are drawn from the urban areas and lack full knowledge of the
rural problems. For an all round development of the country it is desirable that the
members of civil services be picked up from amongst persons with rural background.
Likewise the scheduled castes, schedule tribes and other backward classes should be
given their due share in the administration so that they can work for the welfare of
these sections of society. Further, the training imparted to the members of the civil
services should be task and area oriented.
It is true that the present day bureaucracy is neither people oriented nor task
oriented, but still it has successfully met the challenges posed by the present day
development\administration.
_57Administrative
Culture
Each country has a distinct administrative culture which is a combination of the

features inherited from the past and modified according to the changing conditions.
In other words, the administrative culture of a country is evolved over a period of
time and is not imposed from above. The administrative culture of India was largely
the result of the British colonial rule which lasted for over two centuries. This rule was
carried on by the British bureaucrats who were sent to administer India with iron
hands. Their main objective was to fully expjoit the resources of the country and to
utilise
them for the benefit of the mother country. If there was any obstruction in the
way of attainment of the above objectives, the bureaucrats suppressed the same
with firm hands.
The Indian were not given any share in the administration and were treated as
second rate citizens. In fact the British rulers were motivated by the consideration of
promoting the interests of their country and people and did not pay any attention to
the interests of the Indian citizens. Further these administrators were accountable
only to the mother country. As a result of all this the administrative culture which
developed in India can at best be described as colonial administrative culture.
In the post-independence period though some of the features of colonial
administrative culture were retained, effort was also made to achieve quick socioeconomic development of the country as well as political stability. The task was,
however, not easy on account of the turmoil prevailing in the country and availability
of limited resources.
This necessitated modification in the existing administrative culture. The
administrators therefore resorted to project oriented, goal oriented,
time oriented and resource oriented programme. The main features of the
administrative culture which has thus been evolved, are as under:
1. In the first place the administration does not consider the individual as a part
of the system and tends to avoid action as far as possible.
2. Secondly, as majority of the people in India are illiterate, the administration
tends to take full advantage of the same and twist the rules according to its
convenience.
3. Thirdly, the administration is too much rules conscious and lacks element of
humanism, which is so vital in modern day administration.
4. There is very little involvement of the people in the decision-making process.
5. Too much importance is attached to the principle of hierarchy.
6. The bureaucratic tend to take full personal advantage of their position.
7. There is a growing corruption among the bureaucrats who tend to sqeeze
money from all those who came in contact with them.
8. In recent years efforts have been stepped up to bring about changes in the
administrative culture by impressing on the bureaucrats that they are there
primarily to serve the people. For the attainment of the same objective
emphasis is being laid on the decentralisation of powers.
9. Another notable feature of the administrative culture in India is sense of too
much security which curbs initiative and causes unnecessary delay.
1.
Administrative Culture
447
10. Red-tapism, nepotism and favouritism are

also a feature of Indian administrative
culture
It is evident from the proceeding account that
the administrative culture in India and other
developing countries, suffers from several
shortcomings which are not present in the
administrative culture of the developed countries.
The most outstanding defect of the Indian
administrative culture is that it does not realize its
duty towards the people and treats the rules as an
end. Secondly under the Indian administrative culture rules are treated as an end in
itself rather than as a means. On the other hand, in the advanced countries the rules
are considered as means. In these countries the rules and regulations are interpreted
to the advantage of the common man. Thirdly, under the Indian administrative
culture the public has far less access to the administrator as compared to the
developed countries.
_58Administrative
Corruption
In the modern welfare state, the state plays a vital role in the socio-economic
development of the nation. In the changed context the administrative powers of the
bureaucracy have considerably increased and it enjoys lot of discretion in the
management of the government. This naturally leaves lot of scope for malpractice,
maladministration and corruption. Under the circumstances the citizens are likely to
have grievances against the administration.
There is a general feeling among the people that there is a growing corruption in the
administration of developing countries. By administrative corruption we imply that
the administrator shows favours to some one with ulterior motive of personal benefits
and advantages. Administrative corruption has been defined as "a deliberate and
intentional exploitation of one's position, status or resources, directly or indirectly, for
personal aggrandizement whether that be in terms of material gains or enhancement
of the power and prestige or influence beyond what is legitimate or sanctioned by the
commonly accepted norms to the determinent of the interests of another person or
community as a whole." It may be observed that corruption does not include only
acceptance of money from some one it also includes undue delay in the disposal of a
file, acceptance of donations for the organisation with which he is associated; award
of contract to persons in whom he has some interest as friend, relative, associate etc;
procurement of order or assigned in the name of his wife or children; get employment
for some one in a business house on account of his
position; showing favours to a business house in return for hospitality. This list is
not exhaustive and several other methods of corruption can also be listed.
Several causes can be assigned for the growing corruption in administration. In
the first place, usually the shortage of essential goods encourages the administrative
staff, both at the lower and top level, to accept bribe to make such goods available.
This type of corruption was rampant during the post World War II period when there
was acqute shortage of essential goods. This trend of corruption continued even
during the post-independence period and provided an opportunity to corrupt
administrators to resort to corruption. The growing inflation during the post World
War II period also provided a fillip to corruption in administration.
The adoption of goal of 'a welfare state' and consequent increase in the activities
of the government led to heavy flow of funds. In the absence of proper checks on
public expenditure, some of the corrupt administrators misused their position and
pocketed huge funds while awarding contracts, issuing licences etc. The other factors
which contributed to the growing corruption were the poverty of the people; lack of
strong public opinion against corruption and corrupt officials; tendency of the people
to get their work done on priority basis by bribing the administrators and other
subordinate staff; acceptance of donations by the political parties from business
houses; presence of a large number of conflicting and confusing laws; provision of
funds to the various political parties and independent candidates for election, etc.
Measures To Check Corruption

For a smooth and successful working of democracy it is essential that some avenues
must be available for the redressal of grievances. Broadly speaking three devices are
available for
Administrative Corruption
449
redressal of grievances against the administration in different countries. These

include Ombudsman System; the Administrative Court System; and Procurator
System.
Ombudsman
It is a unique institution for dealing with the average citizen's complaints about unfair
administrative actions. This institution was first of all created in Sweden in 1809.
Ombudsman is an officer appointed by the legislature to handle complaints against
administrative and judicial action.
Administrative Courts
This is another unique device for the redressal of citizen's grievances against
administrative authorities. The system first originated in France and was adopted by
other European and African countries subsequently.
Procurator System
This system was created by the socialist countries and operates in Russia, China,
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania etc.
MACHINERY IN INDIA
India has evolved its own machinery to check corruption and redress citizen,
grievances. Some of the instruments for checking corruption are given below
1.
Central Bureau of Investigation
It is the main investigation agency of the Central Government which seeks to prevent
corruption and maintain integrity of administration. Initially when C.B.I, was set up in
1963 it was placed under the Ministry of Home Affairs, but now it is attached office of
the Ministry of Personnel.
The main function of CBI are (i) to investigate cases of corruption, bribery and
misconduct of the central government employees; (ii) investigate cases relating to
the infringement of fiscal and economic laws; (iii) investigate serious crimes
committed by organised gangs of professional criminals; (iv) coordination of the
activities of anti-corruption agencies; (v) to take up any case of public importance on
the request of a state
government; (vi) to maintain crime statistics and disseminate the same.
2. Santhanam Committee
Another serious step to deal with corruption was taken in 1962 when a committee
under Chairmanship of K. Santhanam and four MPs and 2 senior officers was set up to
examine the various aspects of corruption in Government Departments. The
Committee submitted its report in 1964 and made several important
recommendations. Some of the important recommendations were (i) Constitution be
amended to simplify the judicial process in corruption cases; (ii) An independent
Vigilance Commission be set up; amendment of Government Servants Conductrules
to restrict employment of retired public servants; (iv) laws, rules and procedures etc.
be simplified so as to eliminate the opportunities to indulge in corrupt practices; (v)
Declaration of private property possessed by civil servants, ministers and legislators
(vi) Political parties should maintain and publish accounts of funds and donations
collected from private sector, (vii) Vigilance organisations in ministries/departments
be strengthened.
3. Central Vigilance Commission

(CVC)
As per recommendations of Santhanam Committee a Central Vigilance Commission
was set up in 1864 through an executive resolution of the Union Government.
However, subsequently the commission was graned statutory status. The
Commission is the main agency for preventing corruption in the central government.
It advises the central government on all matters relating to the protection and
maintenance of integrity in administration.
LOKPAL AND LOKAYUKTA

The appointment of these authorities was recommended the Administrative Reforms
Commission headed by Morarji Desai. While Lokpal was to deal with complaints
against ministers and secretaries at the Central and state levels, the Lokayukta was
to deal with complaints against other specified higher officials.
450
It is evident from the preceeding account that the various government have felt
concerned over the growing corruption in administration and taken remedial
measures. It is true that some of the measures recommended to check corruption
could not be taken by the government and corruption in administration still persists
but it is also a fact that
the various governments have reiterated their resolve to provide a corruption free
government. However, it can be said that in view of the deep-rooted corruption
present in the prevailing system, the task of elimination of corruption seems to be
quite difficult.
59Administrative
Reforms
The Indian administrative structure is largely the legacy of the British rule. It was
designed by the British primarily to meet the requirements of their colonial rule. After
the attainment of independence India decided to continue with this sytem for some
time. However, there was a consistent demand from various quarters that the system
should be reformed and updated to meet the requirements of new situation. In view
of the growing demand for replacement or reform of the administrative structure, the
Government of India appointed an Administrative Reforms Commission which worked
from 1966 to 1970 and submitted 20 reports which covered a wide range of subjects
like redressal of grievances of citizens; improvement in agricultural administration,
measures for improvement of economic, financial and personnel administration. The
recommendation of the ARC (Administrative Reforms Commission) were accepted by
the Government. As the government was convinced that administrative reforms was
a continuing affairs, it decided to set up an Administrative Reforms Department to
look into the grievances of the public.
In its report on the Machinery of the Government of India and Procedure of work,
the commission suggested that the number of the members of Union Cabinet,
including the Prime Minister, should not exceed 16; the Deputy Prime Minister should
be incharge of the Department of Administrative Reforms; the secretary, of the
Department should be loyal to the concerned Minister; While appointing ministers the
Prime Minister must satisfy himself about the integrity of the person; the Prime
Minister must meet the Ministers periodically to know how far the policies of the
government are being implemented; the
Cabinet Secretary should act as Principal Staff Advisor of the Prime Minister; The post
of a Deputy Prime Minister should be created to ensure effective functioning of the
government machinery; The Prime Minister should be permitted to assign such duties
to the Deputy Prime Minister which he feels necessary to reduce his work load.
With regard to the Council of Ministers, the Administrative Reforms Commission

favoured continuance of three-tier system of Council of Ministers; the Cabinet should
not have more than 16 Ministers including the Prime Minister, while the Council of
Ministers should not have more than 40 members. The Minister of State should not
be given independent charge of a Ministry/ Department; the post of the
Parliamentary Secretary need not be revived; the services of a Deputy Minister can
be properly utilised to provide relief to the senior minister by giving him charge of an
important programme; or a department with powers of minor policy decisions etc.
In the field of personal administration also the Administrative Reforms
commission gave several valuable suggestions. It laid great emphasis on the training
of the employees and described the expenses incurred on their training as an
investment. It favoured the inclusion of persons from universities, industrial and
commercial concerns etc in the government services. It suggested the grouping of
civil services into various grades. It further suggested that all civil servants with
similar responsibilities should be clubbed together. The Commission was in favour of
debarring the government employees from resorting to strike. Commission suggested
special recruitment for specialised departments like Finance, administration, social
welfare, education etc.
452
Despite the implementation of numerous recommendations of the Administrative

Reforms Commission, the administrative machinery continued to be sluggish. The
decision making process was very slow and did not move unless the palms of the civil
servants were greased. The order condemnable features of the administration were
red-tapism, favouritism and nepotism. No doubt there were well laid down rules and
regulations for the management of administration but these rules were often
modified and twisted according to the convenience and whims of the concerned
officials. This naturally left lot of scope for corruption.
The government of India was quite aware of the shortcomings of the
administration and sought to ratify the same by setting up the Organisation and
Method Division (O & M) in the Cabinet Secretariat with a view to reorganise the
government structure and to improves its methods. It encouraged the junior officers
to share the burden of higher officers by delegating powers to them and encouraging
them to dispose of certain cases by themselves, without bothering the higher civil
servants. The O & M also undertook the review of several organisation with a view to
streamlining them and study their administrative and related procedures, methods,
office mechanisation, working conditions etc. and to suggest measures for their
improvement. O & M also makes suggestions to reduce costs, save man power and
material and simplify the procedure. It is noteworthy that though the O & M was
assigned only an advisory role, it has tended to boss over the various departments
which has naturally been resented by these departments. Further, the
recommendations made by the O & M such as reduction of staff have often been
found unplatable to the concerned departments. Again some of the favourable
recommendations like provision of better working conditions, stationary etc. have
also not been implemented on the plea of shortage of finances.
It is evident from the proceeding account that consistent efforts have been made
to effect improvement in the administration through variety of reforms, yet the
results have been far from satisfactory. People still lament the inefficiency, slowness,
corruption etc. prevelant in administration.
60Impact of
Liberalisation on
Public
Administration
At the time of independence India was economically quite backward and majority of
the people lived below poverty line. The Indian leaders were very keen to expedite
the development of the country. Two options of developmentsocialist and capitalists
were available to them. Instead of adopting any of these two strategies of
development they adopted the strategy of mixed economy which contained the
advantages of capitalist and socialist strategies. As per this strategy certain sectors
like arms manufacture of arms, amunitions, atomic energy, railways, minerals, shipbuilding etc. were placed under public sector. Cooperation of the private sector in
these fields was to be sought only when the considerations of national interest so
demanded. A considerable area of economy was left for private enterprises. The
government gave assurance that the existing private enterprises would not be
nationalised. It was clearly stated that the aim was to evolve a political system which
combined in itself efficiency of administration and individual liberty. It was to be
further ensured that there was no concentration of wealth as well as means of
production in private hands.
Though the private sector was given considerable amount of freedom to operate
in the areas reserved for it, it could not compete with other developed countries in
terms of the cost of production and quality of goods. For a fair competition with other
advanced countries the Indian industry needed two fold protection. First, they desired
that the foreign goods should not have free access to the Indian market and the
same should be restricted by imposing certain duties and taxes. Secondly, they
desired that the raw
materials should be made available to them at subsidised rates so that the cost of
production could be reduced and the Indian goods could compete favourably with the
foreign goods. The government responded favourably to the above demands of the
industry and decided to permit them to import raw materials. For this purpose quota
and permit system were introduced. Under this system the industrialist desiring to
import machinery from foreign countries had to obtain necessary permission from the
Department of Imports and Exports. Similarly certain incentives were given to the
Indian industry so that Indian goods could compete favourably with the foreign
goods. Several administrative measures were taken to provide protection to the
nascent Indian industry. This considerably increased the pressure on the
administration and it had to requisition the services of a large number of civil
servants. The role of administration had a mixed impact. On the one hand it
prompted the civil servants to make money by showing undue favours to their
friends, relatives and others willing to grease their palms, which led to growth of
corruption in administration. On the other hand the facilities and concessions granted
by the administration resulted in rise in Indian exports.
Following adoption of the goal of socialist pattern of society Industrial Policy
Resolution was passed in 1956 which laid emphasis on heavy industry and public
sector. Both these were expected to play a supplementary and complementary role.
It may be noted that during all these years the licence-permit-raj continued to thrive
and the administration played a major role in the development of the economy.
A major step towards the improvement of the Indian economy was taken in 1991
when 'New Economic Policy' was announced. This policy radically differed from the
policy of 1956 and laid emphasis on privatisation and globalisation. In other words it
marked a change from restrictionist regime to free regime. It laid emphasis on
reducing, relaxing and dismantling of government controls and regulations in the
economic activities. A good number of industries were delicensed or their licensing
limits were raised. However, in case of industries affecting the strategic or
environment interests some sort of licensing was retained. Initially there were fifteen
such industries, but subsequently their number of was reduced to only six. These six
industries were distillation and brewing of alcoholic drinks; cigars and cigarettes;
electronics, aerospace and defence equipment; industrial explosives; hazardous
chemicals; and drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Henceforth no approval was needed for expansion restrictions on location of
industries were removed and these restrictions were to apply only in large cities. All
sectors, with the exception of arms and ammunition, atomic energy, railway
transport and defence equipment, were taken away from public sector. In simple
words it can be said that the private sector was permitted to function freely in
respect of investment, production and products. In short the new policy of
privatisation laid emphasis on principles of denationalisation, deregulation, and
entrusting control for management of public enterprises to private parties on agreed
remunerations.
Along with privatisation, the Indian economy witnessed progressive integration of

Indian economy with the world economy and the existing restrictions on the entry of
Multi-national Companies (MNCs) to enter India were removed. As a result the Indian
economy became a part of the world economy. In the new context the Indian industry
was told that they have to compete with the other countries on their own and the
government could not continue the present subsidies due to its bad economic
position.
The above policy of liberalisation and globalisation had a deep impact on public
administration in India. The abolition of quota and permit system made the import of
machinery, raw materials and other goods quite smooth. As the paties intending to
import the materials and goods had not to take prior approval and sanction from the
officials, this put an end to corruption which was quite rampant during the quota and
permit raj. The process of privatisation relieved a large number of civil servants of the
duties being performed under the earlier system, Henceforth they were able to
devote more attention to the foundation of new policies and programmes. This
proved beneficial not only for the industrialists and business magnates, but also
benefited the public in general. In conclusion it can be said that the policy of
liberalisation and globalisation has resulted in change in the role of administration.
While it has been relieved of its routine duties, it has started concentrating on policy
and professional matters which is bound to benefit the Indian economy.
f
Unit IX
THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
^61Theories of
International
Relations
The scope of international relations has greatly expanded over the years and of late
scholars have tried to build up certain theories of international relations. Till recent
times scholars studied international relations as it is and paid no attention to the
problem of policies as it ought to be. They conceived international relations as a
generalised picture of the international scene and did not build up any theories to
explain the behaviour on the international scene. However, in recent years scholars
under the impact of behavioural sciences have tried to build up theories of
international relations and the scope of the subject has undergone great changes.
The scholars instead of giving a historical narrative of the world events have
preferred to discuss the events with a view to theories.
APPROACHES
Scholars have adopted different approaches for the study of international relations.
Before we examine these approaches it shall be desirable to understand the meaning
of term 'approach'. According to Vernon Van Dyke, an approach "consists of a criteria
of selection-criteria employed in selecting the problems or questions to consider and
in selecting the data to bring to bear; it consists of standards governing the inclusion
and exclusion of questions and data." In simple
words, an approach is a set of standards governing the inclusion and exclusion of

questions and data for academic purposes. It implies looking at the problem from a
particular angle and explaining the phenomenon from the same angle. As different
scholars have adopted different criteria for selecting problems and data and
adopted different standpoints, this has resulted in different approaches for the study
of international relations. The various approaches for the study of international policy
have been divided by Hedley Bull into two categories (1) classical approach and (2)
scientific approach.
CLASSICAL OR TRADITIONAL APPROACH

The classical approach is also known as traditional approach. This approach was
in vogue till the middle of the twentieth century, even though at present certain
writers continue to subscribe to this approach. These writers mainly made descriptive
analysis of international relations. The main objective of the scholars adopting
traditional approach was "to report and analyse current international problems and to
speculate on these sources and outcomes of various policy alternatives for specific
states or for international organisation." Accordingly, to Hedley Bull the traditional
approach is "the approach to theorising that derives from philosophy, history and law,
and that is characterised above all by explicit reliance upon the exercise of
judgement and by the assumptions that if we confine ourselves to strict standards to
verification and proof there is very little of significance that can be said about
international relations that general propositions about this subject must, therefore,
derive from a scientifically imperfect process of perception or institution, and that
these general propositions
458
cannot be accorded anything more than the tentative and inconclusive status
appropriate to their doubtful origin."*
In other words, the traditional approach is basically normative, qualitative and
value judgement approach. According to Grieves, the value of a work based on this
approach is "usually measured by the reputation of the scholar, the extent to which
his or her judgement is trusted, the evidence of thorough research, the lucidity with
which the discussion is presented, or the nerves touched with an eloquent or moving
philosophical discourse." The traditional approach was adopted by most of the
scholars till the scientific approach made its appearance. It nourished two dominant
scholars of international political thought 'idealism' and 'realism' and greatly
contributed to the sophisticated understanding of the nature of determinants of
The traditional approach mainly concerns itself with the historical dimensions and
lays emphasis on diplomatic, historical and institutional studies. No wonder, the
classical approach had various variants, viz., historical approach; philosophical
approach; legatapproach and institutional approach. The historical approach
focussed on the past or on a selected period of history to find out an explanation of
what institutions arehow they came into being and makes an analysis of these
institutions as they stand. This approach helped in illuminating the present by
drawing on the wisdom of the past. The philosophical approach regarded the state
as an agent of moral improvement of international relations, and stood for
attainment of perpetual peace. But this approach was defective in so far as it was
abstract and speculative and far removed from reality. Trê legal approach laid
emphasis on the need of having a system of world law to regulate the behaviour of
nation-states and insisted on a code of international law to ensure world peace and
security. It insisted on evolving some legal machinery for resolving state conflicts
through mediation, arbitration or judicial settlement. Finally, the institutional

approach focussed on the formal structure for the maintenance of peace and
enforcement of
'Hedley Bull, "International Theory: the Case for a Classical Approach, "K.J. Holsti, International Politics: A framework for
Analysis, p. 9.
principles of international law. It laid special emphasis on the study of the

organisational law. It laid special emphasis on the study of organisation and structure
of the League of Nations, the United Nations, and other specialised agencies like ILO,
UNESCO, etc. It is noteworthy that all the above traditional approaches possessed an
element of normativism and the scholars adopting these approaches made no effort
to convert the study of international relations into a science.
SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
On the other hand, the scientific or the behavioural approach for the study of
international relations, which became popular in the wake of the Second World War,
lays more emphasis on the methods of study rather than the subject matter. This
approach is based on the simple proposition that international relations like any other
social activity involves people and hence it could be explained by analyzing and
explaining the behaviour of people as it is reflected in their activities in the field of
international relations. The scientific approach applies scientific method and ignores
the boundaries of orthodox disciplines. It insists that central aim of the research
should be to study the behaviour of men. A notable feature of this approach is that it
is inter-disciplinary and draws from various social sciences like sociology, psychology
and anthropology. The scientific approach differs from the traditional approach in so
far as there is a definite trend away from description, legal analysis and policy
advice... Its objective has not been to assess the main issues in the cold'war or
describe current international developments, but to create explanatory theories
about international phenomena, and in some cases, even to propose the
development of a general and predictive science of international relations."**
In short, it can be said that the scholars who are concerned with the substance
rather than the method adopt classical approach, while the scholars who are
concerned with the method rather than the substance adopt scientific approach.
However, it would be wrong to assume
World Politics, April 1966, p. 361.
Theories of International Relations

459
that these two approaches are necessarily incomplete. In fact, a number of scholars
have successfully combined these two approaches and produced fruitful results.
THE REALIST AND THE IDEALIST APPROACH

Before we examine the controversy between the classicists and the
behaviouralists, it shall be desirable to examine the two variants of the classical
approach, viz., Realists and idealists.
(a)
The Realist Approach
Realism in international relations does not mean reality as abstract ideas as Plato
expressed to the political expediency which Machiavelli propounded, or the
philosophic doctrine of empiricism given by John Locke. "It is rather a set of ideas
which take into account the implications of security, and power factors." The ideas
emerge out of individual's belief that others are always trying to destroy him and
therefore, he must be always ready to destroy others whenever need be in order to
protect himself. Thus, the basic assumption underlying the realist theory is the
perpetual existence of conflict among nations in one form or the other. This is taken
as a fixed doctrine. It is, therefore, evident that a contest for power is going on in the
world and this can neither be controlled nor regulated by international law or world
government or an international organisation. Thus, realism unequivocally accepts as
its guiding principle the permanence of the struggle for power.
The prominent realists include the classical theorists Thomas Hobbes and Nicolo
Machiavelli. In recent years, George Kennan and Hans. J. Morgenthau, Henry
Kissinger etc. have been the leading exponents of the realist theory. The best
exposition of the realistic theory of international relations has been offered by
Morgenthau. He says, "International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power.
Whatever the ultimate aims of international politics, power is always the immediate
aim. Statesmen and people may ultimately seek freedom, security, prosperity or
power itself. They may define their goals in terms of a religious, philosophic,
economic or social ideal. They may hope that this ideal will
materialise through its own inner force, through divine intervention, or through
the natural development of human affairs. They may also try to further its
realisation through non-political means, such as technical co-operation with other
nations or international organisations. But whenever they strive to realise their
goal by means of international politics, they do so by striving for power."
Morgenthau in his Realist Theory laid emphasis on six principles which are as
under:
Firstly, politics is governed by objective laws which are based on human
nature and psychology. We can understand the political phenomena by
developing a political theory based on human psychology and reason. He laid
emphasis on ascertaining of facts and giving them meaning through reason.
Secondly, Morgenthau lays great emphasis on the concept of national interest
which he defines in terms of power. He says that politics cannot be -understood in
moral or religious terms. It can be understood only on rational basis. In other words,
he laid emphasis on presentation of a rational theory rather than indiscriminate
description on the political study.
Thirdly, Morgenthau holds that interest is not fixed and is moulded by the
environments. Thus, he assigns important role to environments in the
determination of political action.
Fourthly, Morgenthau asserts that universal moral principles cannot be
applied to state's actions and these must be modified according to the
circumstances of time and place. He says that the state is not expected to
observe the same standards of morality as are observed by the individual. He
argues, the individual may say for himself, "Let justice be one even if the world
perishes" but the state has not right to say so. The individual may sacrifice
himself in defence of moral principles but the state as not right to sacrifice its
liberty for moral principles. Realism also holds that prudence is the supreme
virtue in politics; without prudence there cannot be any political morality."
Fifthly, Morgenthau does not find any identity between moral aspirations of
nation and the moral law which govern the universe and asserts that all political
actors pursue their national interests. It is
this concept of interest which saves the nation from political folly and moral excess.
Finally, Morgenthau says that political sphere is as autonomous as the spheres of
the economist, or the lawyer or the moralist. The political actor think in terms of
interest as the economist thinks in terms of utility; the lawyer in terms of conformity
of action with the moral principles. Though the realist theory admits the relevance of
non-political standards of thought, but treats them as subordinate to the standards of
politics.
Similarly, Kennan also asserts that the national interest is a reliable guide to
intelligent policy and each state tries to safeguard its national interest. However,
Kennan insists on adopting moral approach in the formulation of policy while
safeguarding the national interests. On the other hand, Morgenthau completely
ignores the moral aspect and insists on taking national interests as they are, the real
guide to the formulation and understanding of international relations. However, both
of them regard the power politics as the basis of world political relations.
Criticism
The realist approach has been severely criticised on the following grounds:
Firstly, the theory suffers from ambiguity and is inconsistent with reality. No
universally acceptable definition of power is offered. For example, Morgenthau takes
power as 'psychological relationship among states', but the psychological relations
themselves are quite vague and it is not possible, to measure to study the same. The
study of complex psychological relationship among more than 185 nation states of
the modern world renders them even more complex.
Secondly, the theory wrongly assumes that all men and states seek their national
interests in terms of power. If it were so, there would be constant struggle going on
between various states and there would be no systematic conduct of international
relations. In fact, the element of mutual cooperation among the members of the
international community exercises profound influence on the conduct of international
relations.
Stanley Hoffmann has rightly observed: "It is particularly uncomfortable when one's
basic postulate about human nature is such that history cannot be anything but a
tale full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. For it is a postulate which stresses the
inevitability and universality of evil and which assumes that reason, far from
following its own inherent impulses is driven towards its goal by the irrational forces
the end of which it serves. Now, this view makes it almost impossible to understand
how there could be a rational theory of rational human behaviour.*
Thirdly, the theory wrongly assumes that power is the most important tool which the
nations
pursue. In fact, other considerations like wealth, cultural welfare, security,

protection and promotion of ideology also greatly influence the actions of the states.
Fourthly, theory is defective in so far it treats the world as a static unit in which
power is a permanent guiding factor. This is against the well-accepted fact that the
nations keep on changing from time to time.
Fifthly, Dyke has severely criticised the Realist theory. He says, "If power were
always the end in itself, politics could be likened to a game the object of which is to
select the current. It would presumably be a more bloody game than is chess or
baseball, but still the outcome would be without moral significance. The victory of
one participant in the game would be followed sooner or later by the victory of
another, and life would be made up of endless round of meaningless struggle. Each
victor would have demonstrated his power and that would be that."
Sixthly, the critics point out that Morgenthau's conception that national interest
carries its own morality holds good only during the stable periods when
accommodation of national objectives is possible. But in the present conditions when
different nations are often ready to eliminate on other nations, it would be wrong to
assume that national interest carries its own morality.
Seventhly, the realist theory is defective in so far it assumes that there is hardly
any relationship or activity which does not involve power.
'Stanley Hoffman, Contemporary Theory in International Relations, p. 30.

461
Actually, there exist a number of non-political relationships and activities which do

not involve power, such as international sports events, circulation of books and other
reading matter, private letters and telegrams etc. which are not political activities.
Morgenthau does not suggest any criteria for the separation of the political activities
from the non-political activities.
Finally, the realist theory, that of Morgenthau, is defective in so far as it regards
the political sphere as autonomous as the sphere of economists, or lawyers moralists,
but he is not quite clear about the nature of autonomy. Though he maintained that a
political realist should only deal with limited set of variables, yet in his book
Dilemmas of Politics he asserts that politics must play the roles of the common
integrating core. In other words, he says that politics must be concerned with all the
variables with which the other specialised spheres deal. All this leads to confusion.
Despite these shortcomings of the realist approach, it cannot be denied that the
approach has three distinct advantages. First, it is persuasive and is supported by
historical experience. Secondly, the realist approach has given a jolt to scholars and
compelled them to re-evaluate their own assumptions. Thirdly, even those scholars
who challenge the basis of realism have tended implicitly to rely on realist
perspectives, which is a great compliment to this approach.
(b)
The Idealist Approach
The other aspect of the classical approach is the Utopian or the idealist approach.
It regards the power politics as the passing phase of history and presents the picture
of a future international society based on the notion of reformed international system
free from power politics, immorality and violence. It aims at bringing about a better
world with the help of education and international organisation. This approach is
quite old and found its faint echoes in the Declarations of the American War of
Independence of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. The most important writers
in whose works the approach found expression include Condorcet, Rousseau, Kant,
Woodrow Wilson etc. In 1795, Condorcet wrote a treatise which contained everything
considered as the essential basis of idealism in the international
relations. He visualised a world order free from war, inequality and tyranny. This new
order would be marked by constant progress in human welfare brought about by the
use of reason, education and science. Rousseau's idealist views are reflected from
Fragment on War. He says, "When thousands of bellicose people have slaughtered
their prisoners, when thousands of doctors in the keep of tyrants have justified these
crimes, do in truth a man's errors matter or their, barbarity to justice? Let us not
search for what has been done but rather for what should be done and let us dismiss
evil and a mercenary authorities who end up by marking men slaves, evil and
miserable." Similarly, Kant made a strong plea for the prevention of war among
states and creation of conditions for perpetual peace. But probably the greatest
advocate of the idealist approach was President Wilson of USA who gave a concrete
shape to his idealism through the text of the Treaty of Versailles. He made a strong
plea for world peace and international organisation. All the above writers and thinkers
visualised a future system free from power politics, immorality and violence. On
account of their optimism the idealists regard the power struggle as nothing but the
passing phase of history. The theory proceeds with the assumption that the interests
of various groups or nations are likely to be adjusted in the larger interest of mankind
as a whole.
The difficulty with this approach is that such a system could emerge only by
following moral principles in mutual relations in place of power, which is not possible
in practice. Secondly, to bring about such an order the totalitarian forces must be
crushed by all means through the use of democratic methods and the last necessity
is the establishment of the world government. The main criticism against this theory
is that it runs short of factual position. The nations do not behave as they are
expected. As a result, the realism in international relations appears to be more near
the truth. A rigid adherence to idealism is likely to lead to frustration. Looking at the
glaring defects of the idealist theory a middle course has been adopted by a school of
thought called Eclecticism. Eclecticism does not regard either the realist approach or
the idealist approach as completely satisfactory. They offer a synthesis of the
pessimism of realists and the optimism of idealists.
462
According to Prof. Quincy Wright the terms 'realism' and 'idealism' are ambiguous.
They can at the most be used to distinguish between short run and long run policies.
Realism would aim at the fulfillment of the short run national policy aimed at the
fulfillment of the immediate necessities and idealism on the other hand represents
the long run policy and would aim at the objectives to be realised in the future. Thus
realism cannot ignore the immediate needs for a rosy future and
idealism cannot leave out the prospective future only to solve the bleak present.
In fact, neither of these two approaches is wholly correct and both possess respective
merits and demerits. For a balanced understanding of international relations it is
desirable that realism and idealism must be intermingled. In the conduct of
international relations also the statesmen should neither show total aversion to the
norms and values nor complete disregard to reality. Carr has rightly suggested that
the combination of realism and idealism is the best solution. He says, "Where
utopianism has become a hollow and intolerable sham, which serves merely as a
disguise for the interests of the privileged, the realist performs an indispensable
service in unmasking it. But pure realism can offer nothing but a naked struggle for
power which makes any kind of international society impossible. Having demolished
the current Utopia with the weapons of realism, we still need to built a new Utopia of
our own, which will one day fall to the same weapons,"
THE CLASSICISTS-BEHAVIOURALISTS CONTROVERSY

In the 1960s controversy started between science and traditionalism. Until the World
War II the debate persisted between the two groups belonging to classical schools,
viz., idealists and realists, The debate between the scientific school and the classical
school centered around the method of study of international relations.
The classicists regarded the application of scientific or behavioural method of
study of international relations as unwanted. The
controversy started with publication of the article by Hedley Bull in 1966.* Earlier
several scholars, e.g., E.H. Carr, Alfred Zimmern, George Schwarzenberger, Hans J.
Morgenthau, Martin Wright and Reymond Aron had produced studies in international
relations based on the classical approach. But it was Bull who brought to the
forefront the question of relative ulerits and demerits of the classical and the
scientific approach under two main heads, method and subject matter.
IN DEFENCE OF CLASSICAL APPROACH

Bull asserted that the scientific approach was not appropriate for the study of
international relations for a variety of reasons. He put these reasons in the form of
propositions to the examined by other scholars to clarify the real nature of the
controversy between the scientific and the classical approach.
The//rsf proposition made by Bull is that the nature of the subject matter of
international relations is such that it cannot be examined merely with the help of the
modern scientific tools. The questions with which international relations is concerned
are eventually moral questions.
Secondly, the scholars of scientific approach have not attended to the basic
questions and thus have not been able to contribute much to the development of the
theory of international relations.
Thirdly, it is not possible to accept the claim of the scientific theorists that their
studies so far have only been in the nature of a beginning and that when Ithey attain
maturity they would yield a general, comprehensive and dependable science of the
subject.
Fourthly, the scientific theorists have done a great disservice to the theory of
international relations by introducing the so-called method of models.
Fifthly, the scientific theorists are so much devoted to the scientific methods that
they have made a fetish of them.
"International Theory: the Case for a Classical Approach" in World

M/'cs, April 1966, pp. 361 -367.'"
Theories of International
Relations 463
Sixthly, he maintains that there is a great need for precision in the theory of
International Relations and it should cover entire range of subject matter under study
and not precision in the limited field of facts and data only as the scientific theorists
view.
Lastly, these theorists have cut themselves off from history and philosophy which
alone provides the means of self-criticism.
He therefore, concludes that the thinking of the scientific theorists lacks not only
the sense of enquiry into the conditions of recent history that have produced the
present conditions of international life but also a critical attitude to their own
assumptions on the basis of which they have been proceeding with their study of
IN DEFENCE OF SCIENTIFIC THEORY

On the other hand, the scientific theory has been defended by several scholars. But
the most powerful defence came from Morton Kaplan.* In his article he made a
counter attack on traditionalists and argued how scientific method was more helpful
in the study of international relations.
He first of all takes up the contention of the traditionalists that the human
purpose can be understood only by methods other than those of science. This
contention is based upon the belief that the human purpose is concerned more with
motives than with verifications and the motives could be analysed only by intuition
and introspection. Conceding that human purpose is concerned with motives, Kaplan
maintains that these motives are often confirmed by careful observation and analysis
of the behaviour patterns of people. The traditionalists maintain the scientific
methods are inappropriate in political world in which surprises may and do occur.
Another attack made by traditionalists against scientific theorists is that they
often mistake their models for reality. The reply of the scientists is that this kind of
risk is always involved in any kind of human activity. Further, it should not be
forgotten
that the psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists also are likely to make this
kind of mistakes.
Morton Kaplan also denies the charges that the scientific school completely excludes
philosophy in its analysis. Kaplan claims that there are several questions which are
basically philosophical and with which the systems theory, which is a part of the
scientific method, is
closely concerned.
The scientific approach is based upon the simple proposition that international
relations like any other social activity, involves people and hence it can be analysed
and explained only by analysing and explaining the behaviour of the people as is
reflected in their activities in the field of international relations.
The traditionalists do not believe in either the desirability or the possibility of such
theoretical for mulations. The classical school contends that the general theory of
human behaviour, which the behaviouralists are trying to evolve is inconceivable,
although it concedes that a theory in the narrower field of international relations is
not impossible. Thus, the two schools are in a state of constant debate over the
subject-matter and the method of study. The scientists concentrate on the collection
of all the relevant facts and on the basis of these facts reach the conclusions as the
facts speak.
The traditionalists say that the facts cannot always speak for themselves and the
scholar has to interpret them and give them the real meanings, and for this purpose
dependence on individual insight and wisdom is essential which implies dependence
on law, history and philosophy. Thus, for the traditionalists the judgement is
important but for behaviouralists it is not. Behaviouralists stick to the view that real
research is possible through the analysis of the facts witho * interference from the
personal likes and dislikes o. the researcher.
CONCLUSION
At present most of the scholars are of the view that both the traditional and the
scientific methods can
'Morton Kaplan, The New Great Debate: Traditionalism vs. Science in International Relations."
464
be used for fruitful study of international relations. David Singer realised this and
made his observation, "science is not a substitute for insight and methodological
rigour is not a substitute for wisdomboth imagination and rigour are necessary but
neither is sufficient." David Vital too wrote that classical approach consists of two
elements: the method and the subject matter. As a method the classical approach
insists on the need for borrowing from history, law and philosophy and on depending
upon judgement; and as the subject matter, it is concerned with the general
questions of the nature of the study, the role of the use of force, and the significance
of diplomacy. The subject matter of international relations is in fact not the same as
classicists believe.
After the Second World War, a great deal of changes have taken place which have
made it necessary for looking at it from a different angle. The scientific theorists are
deeply involved in their techniques and purposes and it is hardly possible to make
any generalisation about them. The scientific approach suffers from the serious flaw
that it puts exclusive reliance on methods and tends to stress that the method itself
will determine the nature of the subject matter. The scientific theorists seem to
believe that the real crux of the subject matter of international relations would be
revealed if they adopted the right methods and techniques. Those who stand for a
compromise between the two divergent approaches, Michael Hass proposed 'the
bridge building' and Robert North applied for 'pluralistic posture'. But the idea is the
same, both scientific and the classical methods are useful in the study of
THE SYSTEMS THEORY

The systems theory is the result of the behavioural revolution in social sciences. It
developed out of the anxiety of the new social scientist to evolve a general body of
knowledge by integrating the various disciplines of social sciences. There has been
no unanimity among scholars regarding the meaning of a system. Hall and Fagen
defined the system as "a set of objects together with relationship between the
objects and between the
attributes." Colin Cherry defined it as 'a whole which is compounded of many parts in
an ensemble of attributes.' The systems theory has been applied in various
disciplines and assigned a variety of meaning and definitions.
THE SYSTEMS OR GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY

The general systems theory is based on the assumption that there are certain
features of relationship that are common to systems of all kinds. In other words, 'a
system connotes relationships between units or its various components.'
In the recent years efforts have been made to study international relations in the
context of systems analysis. Those who believe in this approach are of the view that
a scientific study of international relations can be made only if the relevant material
is treated in terms of system action. The study of the actions of the parts of a political
system can be made in terms of an analysis of the actions of participating units. Their
assumption is that there is a system in international relations. The nations (states)
being its parts involved in the process of interaction as each nation (a unit) is in
constant contact with 'the whole' or the international environment. It shows,
therefore, that each system besides being a system can be a sub-system in relation
to a larger system. A nation's behaviour is "a two-way activity of taking from and
giving to the international environment."*
It may be noted that international system came into existence with the
emergence of the modern European State systems. In the earlier period no doubt,
state system existed but these systems were limited to certain well-defined areas
like, Greece, Italy, China and India and a universal system was absent.
The scholars have assigned different meanings to the concept of systems and
used it in different senses. Firstly, the system is described as an arrangement of
international actors in which interactions could be identified. Secondly, as
explanation it is referred to as a particular
'Charles A McClelland, Theory and the International System, p. 90.
Theories
of
Relations 465
International
arrangement in which the nature of the arrangement itself is considered the most
important variable in explaining the behaviour of states. Thirdly, system is used in
the sense of application of special types of approaches (methods) to the study of
James N. Rousenau represents the first usage. According to him, "a system is
considered to exist in an environment and to be composed of parts which through
interaction are in relation to each other." The use of the term in this sense is made to
describe the pattern of action among international actors. It does not possess much
of theoretical value.
In the second sense, the term is used to convey that the world is divided into a
number of rational entities possessed of sovereignty which affects the nature of
international relations. With no system of law enforceable among these sovereign
states, conflicts leading to war are bound to occur. Kenneth Waltz, Kenneth Boulding
and Charles McClelland have used the concept in this sense.
In the third sense, system is the application of special types of approaches to the
study of international relations. The system as method refers to particular approach
adopted for bringing about a theoretical order in the vast data of international politics
or relations. The system is used as a tool of analysis and focus is upon arrangement
of actors, interaction of actors or recurring pattern of individual behaviour. Thus,
system analysis in terms of method makes international politics to be viewed as a
system in the meaning of 'system as explanation'. In other words, it means that there
can be no use of system as method without prior commitment to certain
assumptions. Therefore, it is necessary that there should be complete awareness of
all the premises, e.g., ideological preferences which involve assumptions about the
influence of values on human behaviour.
The systems theory or general systems theory was first expounded by McClelland
in 1955. Later it was developed by many other scholars but the theory was presented
in a most systematic manner by Morton Kaplan who declared that systems approach
provides the only possible method which can ensure the development of scientific
politics. Therefore, it shall be appropriate to discuss Morton Kaplan's theory in detail.
MORTON KAPLAN'S SYSTEMS THEORY

Morton Kaplan is one of the best exponents of the systems approach. He is of the
opinion that there is some coherence, regularity and order in international relations.
International relations or politics implies two things: 'International system, and 'nation
state system'.' According to him nation state system is political system in the strict
sense of the term while international system is not in fact a real political system. He
believes that physical force is necessary to keep the system intact and this force is
present in the state system which is absent in the case of international system.
Nations or states are the main actors in the international politics and the role of the
states changes with the change of international system. Kaplan treats six models of
major international system-the balance of power system, the loose bipolar system,
the tight bipolar system, the universal international system, the hierarchical
international system and the unit veto system. Let us examine each one in detail:
1. The Balance of Power System- This system prevailed in Europe in the 18th and
19th centuries. It implied a sort of equilibrium of political power favourable to a
particular nation at a particular time. Theoretically, it means even distribution of
power between various nations to prevent any particular nation from imposing its will
upon others. The operation of this system has six important rules: (1) Each state may
increase its power without war, i.e., through negotiations; (2) the primary object of
each state is to protect its national interests even at the risk of war; (3) one should
not eliminate an essential national actor; (4) the national actor should prevent others
from forming a coalition and disturbing the international system; (5) the national
actor should prevent other actors from subscribing to supernational principles; (6)
defeated actor should be permitted re-entry into the system. The system worked well
for two centuries but since the beginning of the 20th century these rules are not
operating well.
466
2. The Loose Bipolar System. The balance of power may transform itself into loose
bipolar system. In this system, each bio has a leading actor, Both supernational
actors as well as national actors participate in the loose bipolar system.
Supernational actors are divided into bio actors like NATO and Warsaw Bloc and
universal actors like United Nations. Loose bipolar system is characterised by two
bloc actors (USA and USSR), non-member bloc actors (non-aligned states) and
universal actor (U.N.). All of them perform a unique and distinctive role within the
system, but the rules of the system are not uniform for all the actors. The loose
bipolar system has a considerable degree of inherent instability because the
actors, or the non-member actors, or the universal actor is rarely of decisive
importance in the matter of policy formulation.
3. The Tight Bipolar System. The loose bipolar system may be transformed either into
a number of other systems or else into a tight bipolar system. In this system nonaligned states or non-member national actors would either disappear or shall have
little importance. Even the universal actor shall not be in a position to mediate
between the two bloc actors, as after the disappearance of uncommitted national
actors the universal actor will not have sufficiently wide frame of preference.
4. The Universal International System. This system could be equated to world
Federation. It would be possible when the United Nations or such other
international agency becomes sufficiently strong to check war and maintain
perpetual peace and the bipolar system would cease to exist. This agency would
perform judicial, economic, political and administrative functions. However, the
nation state would be left with sufficient autonomy.
5. The Hierarchical International System. This is another Utopian model. It may come
into existence when a universal actor absorbs the whole world and only one nation
is left as the universal actor. In this system, the
state would become territorial subdivisions of the international system rather
remaining sovereign, independent, political units. The system would be directive if
found by world conquest and non-directive when power would be distributed among
units according to hierarchy under the domination of a single national actor. The nondirective system would be based on will while the directive system will be based on
force. 6. The Veto System. The essence of this system would be that all states would
have equal potentialities to destroy each
other. Each state would posses the weapons for others' destruction. The unit
veto system would remain stable only if all the actor are prepared to resist
threats and retaliate in case of an attack.
Conclusion
Though Kaplan's theory has relevance to the present international system yet it
has been subjected to severe criticism.
In the first place, it is pointed out that the first two systems in the scheme of
Kaplan belong to realm of the actual. The third system is losing its possibility as there
is a growing trend in favour stability and non-aligned nations and dissensions in the
bipolar system. Regarding the fourth, we find that a partial international system is
growing. The fifth system has no possibility of being realised. The emergence of the
sixth system is very much doubtful in the wake of the non-proliferation treaty.
The six model scheme of international system has only limited merit. Any theory
of behaviour of state must deal with the dynamics of value formation. Kaplan does
not discuss this dynamics of the forces which determine the scale of nation's
behaviour. This is his serious omission. The study of international relations in terms of
international system is the study of the behaviour of states in units.
No doubt, Kaplan devotes attention to the concepts of national interests which he
concedes cannot be separated from national values. But how nation's interest and
national values are formed and how they affect the collective behaviour of
467
state has been ignored by him. He also overlooks the facts that the concept of
national interest has already undergone a change. In order to control, the
international system and transform it in accordance with the demands of peace one
will have to know the source through which the international system mostly changes.
THE DECISION MAKING APPROACH

Another important approach for the study of international relations which has been
developed during this past few decades is the decisionmaking approach. This
approach is associated with the names of Richard C, Synder, H.W. Bruck and Borton
Spain. These writers tried to provide a theoretical explanation of the behaviour of the
actors in international relations. On the basis of decision making analysis they tried to
find out as to why and how do the actors behave. It may be observed that "Decision
making is a process or a sequence of activities involving stages of problem
recognition, search or information, definition of alternatives consistent with the
ranked preferences identified in the first three stages that will maximise or satisfy the
actors' goals,"
The object of the decision making approach is to devise a conceptional framework
that could help it us in the reconstruction of the situation as defined by the decision
makers. Thus, the facts and data for our study should be selected on the basis what
explains the behaviour of decision makers. The setting in which the foreign policy
decisions are made is the one which is perceived by the decision makers. The setting
consists of internal and external parts. The internal settings include domestic politics,
public opinion personalities and organisations. The external setting implies all the
relevant factors in the total situation of the international system existing at a
particular time, e.g., the factors beyond the territorial boundaries of the state, the
decision of other states and the nature of their society.
There is difference of opinion among the theorists of this approach and different
lines are followed by them. The first line places emphasis on environmental factor
which mean how the environments influence the decision-making. The environment
has two aspectsone which the decision-makers can see and the other which is
beyond their perception or estimate. This aspect was emphasised by Harold Sprout
and Margaret Sprout. They assert that decision-making "is a process which results in
the selection from a socially defined, limited number of problematical, alternative
projects of one project intended to bring about the particular future state of affairs
envisaged by the decision-makers." The second includes the personality factor. The
line seeks to study this behaviour of the decision makers by studying their
personality. The study of the personality of decision maker can be helpful in
explaining things at least so long as the same decision makers continue to control the
foreign policy. This factor was emphasised by Alexander George and Juliettee George.
They emphasised the important role played by President Wilson in the determination
of international relations during his Presidency. Third line of approach is related to a
study of those actors who actually participate in the formulation of foreign policy.
There are at least five element which influence the foreign policy making: the public
opinion, interests groups, the media of mass communication, specific agents in the
executive branch and specific committees of a legislature. James Robinson says that
'the organisation and internal process of the legislature determines the actual foreign
policy'.
The above discussions indicate that the basic idea of the decision making
approach is that international politics should be taken as the interaction of foreign
policies and that for the understanding of the interaction the only useful approach
can be to study it in the context of foreign policy decisions.
Defects
This approach suffers from several shortcomings. In the first place, it is too
emperical. It completely ignores the norms, values or high principles which exercise
profound influence on international politics. In fact, the ethical principles of foreign
policy formulators inadvertently influence the formulation of the policy. Secondly, the
approach is based on the principles of indeterminism in so far it fails to show how the
various factors like situation, environment, personality etc. influence the decision.
Thirdly, the approach offers a 'statecentric' model of international politics. It merely
tries to prove that the decision makers tend
468
to fit incoming information into their existing theories and images. No wonder, this
theory lacks the essentials of a theory. As Young has put it, this approach "has been
used so imprecisely and
indiscriminately by social scientists that it is in danger of losing any meaningful

content." Fourthly, the theory mainly focusses on the motives and actions of the
decision makers and completely ignores the role of other factors which influence the
pattern of international politics. Finally, it ignores the objective nature of international
developments. It does not supply any criteria either to explain the patterns of power
politics or to prescribe the rules of international behaviour.
Importance
However, the decision making framework is intended to show how and why a
nation acts in international politics. Since, the direct method of acquiring knowledge
is not available the choice of
decision making as a focus is wise. The place of greatest convergence after all is
government organisation, therefore, a great deal of factual details can become
available from the examination of the activities of such organisations and their
decisions. The knowledge acquired by various disciplines like economics, psychology,
and sociology can be fruitfully utilised in the study of international relations only by
the decision making approach.
Conclusion
Thus, it would be incorrect to say that the decision making approach is absolutely
useless in the study of international relations. It helps us in a comparative study of
various foreign policies. However, a general study of international relations cannot be
fruitfully made with the exclusive help of the decision-making approach even though
it is very useful as a tool in the foreign policy analysis.
Ideol
ogy
One of the features which distinguishes the contemporary world f~ 1;cies from the
classic pattern is the central role of mass beliefs and popular ideas in the affairs of
states. In the twentieth century Nazism and Fascism in Germany and Italy
respectively led to War in 1939. Communism from its base in Russia has become one
of the major forces of the present age. Democracy has opened new and exciting
vistas of individual worth and free societies to much of the human race. Anticolonialism has transformed the political map of the world and drastically changed
the conditions of International politics. It can be very well said that the 20th century
is an ideological era.
MEANING
The ideology has been defined by Charles P. Schleicher as "a system of abstract
ideas held by an individual which purports to explain reality, express value goals and
contain programmes of action for the retention or attainment of the kind of social
order in which its proponents believe the goals can be best realised." It follows that a
particular individual may and ordinarily does adhere to several ideologiesnationalism, socialism, neutralism, and Gandhism, etc.
According to another definition of the ideology it is, a cluster of ideas, about life,
society of government which originate in most cases as consciously advocated to
dogmatically asserted social, political or religious slogans or battU :ries and which
through continuous usage and preachment gradually became the characteristic
beliefs or dogmas of particular groups, party or nationality." Padelford and Lincoln
define ideology as "a body of ideas concerning economic,
social and political values and goals with positive action programmes for attaining
those goals."
Martin Seliger has offered a detailed definition of ideology. He says: "An ideology
is a group of beliefs and disbeliefs expressed in value sentences; appeal sentences
and explanatory statements. These sentences refer to moral and technical norms and
are related to the descriptive and analytical statements of fact with which they are
arranged and together interpreted as a doctrine bearing the imprint of centrality of
morally founded prescribes. A doctrine, which is to say an ideology, presents a not
entirely self-consistent, not fully verified and verifiable, but not merely distorted body
of views. These views relate in the main to forms of human relationships and socio
political organisation as they should and could be and refer from this perspective to
the existing order and vice versa. Ideologies share with other some morally and
factually based views and thus attest ideological pluralism without thereby losing
their distinctiveness." Snyder and Wilson define ideology as "a cluster of ideas about
life, society or government, which originate in most cases as consciously advocated
or dogmatically asserted social, political or religious slogans or battle cries and which
through continuous usage and peachment gradually become the characteristic
beliefs or dogmas of particular group, party or nationality."
Thus scholars have defined and interpreted ideology in different senses. In the
first instance it has been defined as a self-contained and self-justifying belief system
based on a definite world view. It claims to provide a basis for explaining the whole
reality. In the second instance, ideology has been described as a cloak for real foreign
policy
470
objective. Used in this sense, ideology is concerned with the achievement of power
as its immediate goal of foreign policy, which explaining the action in legal, ethical or
humanitarian terms. Karl Mannheim uses ideology in this sense.
Despite difference in interpretation, it is admitted at all hands, that ideology
constitutes the
backbone of the foreign policy of a state and strives for its effective
implementation. Prof. Holsti has rightly observed that "ideologies not only establish
foreign policy goals, evaluate criteria and justifications, for actions but have
important effect on perceptual process as well." He says that ideology affects the
political goals and actions in five ways. First, it establishes the intellectual framework
through which policy makers observe reality. Secondly, it prescribes for policy makers
the long-range goals of state's external behaviour to be promoted by them. Thirdly, it
serves as a justification for choice of more specific foreign policy decisions. Fourthly,
it defines for policymakers the main stages in historical development within which
specific foreign policy strategies can be enunciated. Finally, it posits a moral and
ethical system that helps prescribe the correct attitudes and evaluative criteria for
judging one's own actions and those of others.
KINDS OF IDEOLOGIES
Countries have followed different ideologies at different period of time, which have
been classified by Morgenthau in three different categories.
1. Ideologies of Status Quo

If a state pursues policy designed to preserve the status quo it is regarded as the
adherent of status quo ideology. Usually such states hold great faith in international
law and peace and are opposed to all types of imperialism. They also hold faith in
system of collective security and mutual assistance to ensure that the world peace is
not disturbed. The states adhering to this ideology seek to protect the interests of
smaller states so that status quo is not disturbed. It is noteworthy that a state which
has acquired significant portion of territory of other states through force cannot be
regarded as adherent of the ideology of status quo because all the time these states
have to face resentment of other states.
2. Ideologies of Imperialism
As opposed to the ideologies of status quo there are ideologies of imperialism which
seek to overthrow the status quo and create an international system which
redistributes the power in their favour. These ideologies do not hold faith in
international law and seek to disturb the status quo to promote their own interests.
Hitler of Germany adhered to this ideology. He severely condemned Treaty of
Versailles which sought to preserve the status quo and advocated imperialist policies.
3. Ambiguous Ideologies
This refers to ideologies whose premises are not clear and are used by various states
for their respective purposes. One of the best examples of this ideology is offered by
"principle of national-self- determination' advocated by President Wilson during the
First World War. While on the one hand, this principle was used to dismember the
Austria-Hungarian empire by the Allies, on the other hand, Hitler used it to swallow
Austria and a part of Czechoslovakia.
INTEREST AND IDEOLOGY

There is ordinarily a close relationship between interest and ideology. Each seems to
be influenced by other. The interest may shape the ideology and be shaped by it. The
history is rampant with such examples where the national interests were served by
shaping ideology according to the goals. The annexation of India by Great Britain as
its colony was described as educating, civilising and humanitarian mission, a sort of
'While the real objective was economic exploitation of the backward countries. The
ideology was used to rationalise the action. Annexation was an act of imperialism but
to disguise it humanitarian ideology was advanced. Similarly, when USA annexed
Philippines for trade and military purpose, she explained her imperialistic action as a
humanitarian mission. Likewise ideology can also influence the national interests.
American involvement in Europe was essentially directed by her desire to 'contain
communism' and save democracies. Schleicher has rightly observed that both
interest and ideology shape and are shaped by the other. "They tend to converge
although
Ideology f
they are entirely compatible. The relative influence of each where they are not
mutually reinforcing, seems to depend on the intensity of attachment to the interest
and ideology."
IMPORTANT IDEOLOGIES
There are so many ideologies that it is not possible to deal with all of them. We shall,
therefore, concentrate only on some of the important ideologies:
1. Liberalism
This is also known as Hology of freedom and world peace. It is not a new ideology
and was quite popular during the seventeenth century. In fact it formed the basic of
the western social, religious, economic and political system. It regarded the individual
as supreme and laid emphasis on development of his talents and capacities to the
maximum. It laid emphasis on free competition and paid great attention to the
welfare of the individual. When extended to the international sphere this ideology
emphasises the principles of peace, friendship, freedom, co-operation, justices, etc. It
is opposed to intervention in the domestic affairs of their states and holds faith in
peaceful coexistence of all states irrespective of their position or status. Vernon Van
Duke highlights the chief features of this ideology thus: "Faced with a choice between
guns and butter, the liberal is inclined to choose butter, perhaps to the peril of his
nation. Faced with a choice between appeasement and resistance to a foreign threat
at the risk of war, the liberal may be inclined towards appeasement, for war
threatens most of the values he holds dear. In recent decades, particularly, the liberal
democracies have been very reluctant to engage in military preparations and to
participate in war."
Prof. Schleicher has highlighted the following salient characteristics of Liberalism:
1. It is conducive to the practices which promote the welfare of men regardless of
their social, economic, racial or national status.
2. It seeks to promote individual dignity not only of its own nationals but of all
people in general.
3. It does not permit sovereignty to stay in the way of protection and promotion
of
human rights and other democratic values.
4.
It favours international institutions where man shall have right to take part in
important
decisions affecting them and find peaceful solutions.

5. It favours pacific settlement of disputes and peaceful changes in accordance
with the will of the majority.
Though the above principles are emphasised by all those who believe in liberal
ideology, they considerably differ in the actual application of these principles.
Further, they have conveniently used these principles to justify their acts of omission
and commission. Even the formation of various military alliances has been justified
on the ground that this aims at the preservation of democracy which is threatened by
the Communists. In fact, the adherents of liberal ideology attach equal importance to
the economic interests and security of their country and are not willing to sacrifice
the same for the sake of above principles.
2. Totalitarianism
This ideology is opposite of liberalism and attaches more importance to the state
rather than the individual. It draws a clear line of demarcation between the ruler and
the ruled and asserts the right of the elites to government. It does not attach any
importance to the freedom of speech and association as instruments of popular
welfare and holds that state alone can promote the welfare of people. The other
important features emphasised by this ideology are one-party government, constant
expansion of state, omnipotence of state war as an instrument for settlement of
disputes, etc. Some of the important totalitarian ideologies have been Fascism,
National Socialism, and Communism. The Fascist under Mussolini attached a mystical
quality to the state, they wanted the power to be left in the hands of an elite led by a
single superman; regimentation of social, economic, political and intellectual
activities of people; territorial expansion and war as an instrument for settlement of
international disputes; subordination of individual to state, etc. Likewise, Socialism
under Hitler not only emphasised the above principles but also put forth principle of
racial superiority of the Nordic people.
472
Communism which is also a variety of totalitarian ideology differs from Fascism

and National Socialism, in so far as it stands for a free and dignified life of the
individual through elimination of system of exploitation of man by man. This ideology
is, however, different from both Liberalism and other Totalitarian ideologies in so far
as it stands for a world revolution. Communism views state as a class organisation,
an instrument of the domination of one class by the other. Communists anticipate a
stage when the state will 'wither away' and the principle 'for each according to
ability, to each according to his need' will be realised. Marxism predicts two stages of
socialism-first phase in which production is socialised under proletarian dictatorship
and a final phase when stateless society would usher in. That is why MarxismLeninism insists on the destruction of the bourgeois state machinery through a
violent revolution and establishment of the proletarian dictatorship. It asserts that
the present system of capitalism has lost its usefulness in the national sphere; in the
international sphere it has led to the system of imperialism which possesses inherent
contradiction which shall manifest themselves in the form of struggle for national
emancipation. The ultimate aim of Communism is to see triumph of world
communism.
Ideological Confrontation
A conflict ensued between Liberalism (Democracy) and Communism (Totalitarianism)
in the post World War II period and both aimed at destroying each other. However, in
course of time both these ideologies underwent a change and abandoned their
intention to destroy each other. Failure to bring about proletarian revolution in
advanced industrial states greatly undermined the Communist ideology and need
was felt for major revision. On the other hand, the unsuccessful attempts by the
capitalists to destroy the Bolshevik edifice compelled them to reconcile with the
changed situation. In short, both the ideologies underwent great transformation. The
Capitalist states, due to fear of losing ground to Communists started dismantling
their colonial empires. Internally they embarked upon socialist policies and carried
out far reaching social reforms. This trend of reforms in capitalist states induced the
Communists to introduce reciprocal changes specially after 1953. Thus both
Communism and Democracy ceased to be orthodox doctrines and were involved in
competitive co-existence rather than peaceful existence.
In this regard the Communists had certain advantages over the capitalist system,
specially in the newly emerging states. The principles of freedom and economic
development emphasised by the Communists had great appeal with the newly
emerged states. The Communists also promoted anti-colonial feeling and contributed
to the liquidation of the colonies. On the other hand, the Democratic ideology
emphasised the superiority of the evolutionary methods of change and development
and asserted that the resolution of existing social and economic problem through
revolutionary methods was bound to produce disappointing results. In support of
their contention they argued that the historical experience confirms that no
revolution, except the American Revolution, succeeded in establishing a stable and
efficient government. The experience of the Americans was different from other
countries which witnessed revolution because this revolution took place under quite
different conditions viz. the people enjoyed relative prosperity rather than mass
poverty. The newly emerged countries of Asia and Africa, however, have shown
preference for the Socialist ideology because it assures them of quick results.
The practical experience of Soviet Union and China, two leading Communist
countries, also attracted the newly independent countries towards Communist
ideology. They were greatly impressed with the enormous progress made by these
two countries. No wonder the underdeveloped states were attracted towards
Communist ideology which held the prospect of quick development which they
ardously desired.
In recent years the ideological tension has virtually come to an end with the
Communist states embarking upon more open policies and adopting good features of
the capitalist system.
IMPACT OF IDEOLOGY
There is difference of opinion among scholars regarding the impact of ideology on
international relations. On the one hand, Prof. Hill says that it is
Ideology
473
a simplifying mechanism that "offers to individual ready-packaged ideas and,

therefore, obviates the necessity for him to work out answers for himself. The easiest
course is to accept without question the package handed to him to become a
Communist if he lives in Russia where Communism is the approved system, to uphold
the ideas of democracy if he has been raised in the Western world, to be a German
militarist if he has been brought up in Germany or a French nationalist if his
background has been French, whatever a person may be, he is surrounded by-isms to
which he rather naturally succumbs without much, if anything, in the way of mental
effort, To be sure, some people are sufficiently assertive intellectually to work out for
themselves something other than package ideas but the rank and file take the easier
course."1
On the other hand, certain other scholars have contended that ideology does not
play that effective role in international politics. If certain powers are able to move
men and destroy and create society, it is more on account of their power rather than
their ideology. The ideologies merely give direction to the physical resources of the
countries.
The truth lies between these two extreme views. While it may be too much to say
ideology plays a vital role in international politics, but it cannot be denied that it
exercises considerable influence on international relations, For example, during the
inter-war period Fascism in Italy and National Socialism in Germany considerably
influenced the foreign policies of these countries and influenced their relations with
other countries. In the modern times ideology has become more important because
large number of people have begun to play an effective role in the formulation of
foreign policy at decision making level. No doubt, the general public does not exert a
continuous, direct and positive influence over decision-making, yet the public opinion
limits the scope of alternatives available to the decisionmakers. The policy makers on
their part try to mould the public opinion in support of their policies. They do this by
not allowing the information to reach the people and indoctrinating
1. Norman Hill, Contemporary World Politics, pp. 429-30.
them with the ideas favourable to them, This is particularly true of totalitarian states.
Even in democratic states effort is made to control the thought. E.H. Carr has
highlighted this point thus: "Prior to 1914 the conduct of international relations was
the concern of the person professionally engaged in it. In democratic countries,
foreign policy was traditionally regarded as outside the scope of party politics,
representative organs did not feel themselves competent to exercise any close
control over mysterious operation of foreign offices."
2. Ideology provides justification and rationale to the policy of a country by
providing goals for political actions and concealing all manifestations of a
struggle for power.
3. Ideology plays both cooperative and oppositional role. While common ideology
unites the states, the opposite ideology divides them sharply. Again, the
ideology of nationalism has divided the mankind into small groups opposing
each other. Nationalism impels a country to assert that its cause is absolutely
just while that of the opponent is unjust. The states are not willing to concede
a remote possibility that there can be a measure of justice and a measure of
injustice on both sides.
4. Ideology provides, a rigid framework for the foreign policy makers which
results in "Faulty thinking characterised by assumptions of doubtful validity,
regard for the meaning of words and definitions, misrepresentations of facts,
omissions of facts, general conclusions drawn from specific premises of
conclusions based on only one premise, predictions on the basis of insufficient
data, conclusions drawn per analogiam with due regard for differences
impairing the overall validity of the analogy, disregard for the time elements
and disregard for the laws of thinking in general."

5. There exists a definite relationship between the ideologies and struggle,
power. In the world of Prof. Morgenthau
2.
"all politics-domestic or international is nothing but struggle for power and the true
nature of the policy is concealed by ideological justifications and rationalisations".
Therefore, instead of using the ideology in explaining objectives for the realisation of
which political power is needed, the ideology merely provides a mask behind which
the ulterior motives are concealed. The significance of ideology in international
politics has been brought out Prof. Palmer and Perkins thus: "the significance of
ideologies in world politics today lies in the fact that in some instances they have
become linked to national power. Just as power became the instrument of ambitious
nationalism it has now become the tool of ideologies. Without power of some kind
ideology-even
one
which
aspires
to universalismin a passive harmless
pattern of related ideas. What makes Communism the dread of the world is not the
gospel of Marx and Lenin, it is Soviet (and Chinese) power sociated with and
sustaining the Communist ideology. Without power communism would be an
important psychosis" They further assert "Ideologies, in fact are futile source of
international conflict, and they greatly complicate the task of the peaceful solution of
all conflicts." Futher ideologies are essentially irrational, they have a considerable
emotional content, they can be used to obscure the real facts of a situation or the
real motives of ambitious leaders; they can be appealed to by extremist and then in
make reasonable approaches and compromises difficult or even impossible; they
frustrate efforts to find areas of agreement, they make it hard to deal with
international problems without undue sacrifice of national honour or prestige; they
turn international conferences into
propaganda runs instead of opportunities for the accommodation of diplomacy"
DECLINE OF IDEOLOGY
Some scholars have taken the view that there has been decline of ideology in recent
years. For example, Prof. Daniel Bell holds that the ideological fires in the western
world have cooled down and 'ideology' which was once the road to action, has
become a dead end. In fact most of the disputes which still persist between different
countries such as dispute between India and Pakistan, the Arab states and Israel, etc.
are not ideological in character even though they may be projected in ideological
terms. Likewise the dispute between Soviet Union and China could hardly be
described as an ideological dispute However, Prof. Palmer and Perkins do not agree
with this view. They argue that "in many countries it may be true that political ideas
and ideologies have lost their old appeal, but in international politics this seems to be
less true." In the changed conditions
at present the above view of Palmer and Perkins does not seem to be valid. The
growing co-operation between states with ideological differences is a clear proof that
in recent times ideology has lost its relevance.
Most of the East European countries which earlier held faith in Communist
ideology have moved towards democracy and liberalisation, symbolising the end of
the ideological conflict. States like East and West Germany, which were divided on
ideological basis, have since united which is a further proof that the ideology no long
plays that vital role. In view of the above, it can be safely asserted that ideology no
longer plays that important role in international relations which it played a few years
back.
1. Palmer and Perkins, International Relations: p. 84
Chapter
63
Powe
r
The attempt to study and explain politics in relation to 'power' was first of all made
by Aristotle. He classified the constitutions on the basis of the location of the power.
After him Hobbes further developed the idea. He said "I put for a general inclination
of all mankind, a perpetual and a restless desire for power that ceases only in death.
And the cause of this is not always that a man does for a more intensive delight, than
he has already attained to; or that he cannot be content with a moderate power; but
because he cannot assure the power and means to live well, which he has present,
without the acquisition of more." He asserted that "search for power is the root cause
of competition among the individuals. This competition even persists in the civil
society with every person involved in constant competitive struggle for power over
others or at least to rest his power being commanded by others."
The concept of power was further elaborated by Hegel. He absolutised the
sovereign power of the state to such an extent that he discarded all ethics of internal
morality. After Hegel the other prominent German writers who elaborated the theory
of power were Nietzsche, Treitschke and Bernhardi. However, the other political
thinkers by and large did not attach much importance to the concept of 'power'.
With the rise of the modern nation state the political theorists realised the
importance of power in politics. The realists defined the state in terms of its power. A
new phase in the study and analysis of power started with Max Weber. He said
"Power is the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a
position to carry out his own will despite the resistance, regardless of the basis
on
which this probability rests."
Accordingly, he said "A compulsory political association with continuous organization
will be called a 'state' if and in so far as its administrative staff successfully upholds a
claim to the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force in the enforcement of its
order." It may be observed that Weber was not so much concerned with power in
general and was more concerned with legitimate power or authority.
The subsequent scholars who were directly or indirectly influenced by Weber
greatly expanded the range of power relations. The important scholars who made
contribution to the development of concept included Catlin (1930), Marrian (1934),
Lasswell (1936), Goldhamer and Shils (1939). In 1948, Morgenthau extended the
concept to the international politics. In the post world war II period these ideas
spread very rapidly in America and other countries.
Meaning and Characteristics of Power
It is indeed difficult to give a precise definition of the term 'power' because

different scholars have viewed it from different angles. While Tawney identifies power
with the 'capacity of an individual or a group of individuals, to modify the conduct of
others in the manner which one desires', Friedrich views it as 'a certain kind of
human relationship'. Robert Dahl says that the term 'power' in modern social science
refers to subsets of relations among social units so that the behaviour of one or more
units depends in some circumstances on the behaviour of other units. Dahl excludes
the relations with the inanimate or even non-human objects from the purview of
power relationship. Similarly, other scholars have also laid emphasis on the ability of
an individual
476
or group to affect the behaviour of others in conformance to his or its wishes. On

the basis of this broad view Roseman and others refer to several aspects of power.
Firstly, it is a relationship among men and not a quality possessed by them.
Secondly, it is issue based and cannot be evaluated as indivisible unit. Thirdly, it is
unevenly distributed among all the members of the society and all men do not
essentially enjoy equal amount of power over others. Fourthly, it is situational in as
far as its exercise is greatly influenced by the surrounding circumstances. Fifthly, it is
based to some extent on the acquiescence of the influenced power. This implies that
the master has power over slave because the later accepts slavery. Sixthly, power
ends where violence begins. Unless compliance is secured without use of physical
violence no power exists.
According to the traditional view the power generally rests with the few at the
top, while the many at the bottom have little power. In other words, there is grossly
inequitable distribution of power in the community or organization. As a result of the
introduction of the process of democratisation and wider participation of people in all
organised life, this power relationship has greatly changed in the present times. A
new leader-follower relationship has emerged. Not only the followers identify
themselves with the leaders, the leaders have also become increasingly dependent
on their followers. This has given rise to equal leader-follower power relationship.
Sources of Power
The main sources of power are as follows:
Formal Authority
In the first place, power emanates from formal authority, such as constitutions,
charters, statutes, regulations, delegations and official decisions. To be meaningful
such a power must be accepted by those who are subject to the influence of the
authority of the holders. Sometimes, the power may be acquired by usurping
authority through unauthorized acts and seeking legitimatisation of authority
subsequently.
Wealth
Wealth is another source of power. As most of other
sources
of power
such
as media
communication, which are instruments of persuation, can be mobilized through this
instrument, it assumes greater significance. In most of the societies the wealthy
persons or organizations acquire a certain aura of authority on the basis of wealth
alone. In other words, those who control the wealth they need not own it such as the
managers of corporations and top government officials, enjoy power.
Human Resources
People are another important source of power. In fact, it is the people who convert
the physical resources to wealth by developing them and fruitfully utilising them. The
power of a political party or a trade union to a large extent depends on the number
of their supporters. However, sheer number is not enough. The quality of the people
is also important. The people must have greater potentialities, which in turn depend
on their age, health, education, knowledge etc. Above all the quality of leadership
provided by the major actors greatly contributes to the power. They exploit the power
potential of the large majority of the people.
Organisation
Finally, the organisation is an important source of power. The individuals by joining
together in some sort of organisation develop power to do certain things which they
cannot do by themselves. An organisation can exploit the special capacities and
knowledge of its members. Therefore, the major actors in political process always
devote great attention to the maintenance, expansion and reorganisation of the
existing organisations and try to build new organisations. A complex network of
support for the organisation exists which may include a large variety of shifting and
overlapping coalitions, or may be crystallised into one pattern of alliances.
Use of Power
The use of power can assume two forms viz., persuasion and pressure. Persuasion
takes place when a person is persuaded to take action without promise of reward or a
threat of punishment. The common methods of persuasion are self-example,
proposals, education, propaganda, information etc. A leader call influence others by
self-example of honesty, loyalty and devotion. The people tend
Power
477
to follow the leader. Again the leader can exercise influence by open
advocacy of proposals in accordance with the established customs or codes.
Education can be helpful in exercising long-term influence on the behaviour
of the people. This is specially helpful in promoting confirmity. Propaganda is
another method of persuasion. In it, appeal is made to the people's interests
by raising their emotions and feelings. It is admitted at all hands that
sustained propaganda can have a deep impact on the values and attitudes of
the people. Finally, the behaviour of the people can also be shaped by
structuring the information in particular manner.
The other method of use of power is pressure. This method involves promise
of rewards or threat of punishment. In pressure, use of force, commands,
manipulation and bargaining are some of the methods which are commonly
resorted to. Force is the most
extreme form of power which can assume the form of imprisonment,

torture, destruction of life and resources etc. It is used to eliminate the
capacity of the adversary to act in an undesirable manner. Sometimes, the
mere threat of use of force can serve the purpose. In almost all states the
force is one of the important sanctions behind enforcement of law. The
revolutionary groups, separatists and criminals etc. also make use of force.
The promise of rewards in the shape of pecuniary gains like money, positions,
higher status, cooperation, withdrawal of an anticipated punishment etc. or
punishments like fines, reduction in status, withdrawal of anticipated reward
etc. are less blunt instruments of pressure.
Command is yet another method of pressure, though it operates within
certain limitations viz., it can be used only by those whose authority to give
order is accepted. Yet another method is manipulation, which is very helpful
in creating permissive situation. It combines the rewards and punishments
without making any statement regarding the type of action. Finally,
bargaining is an effective method of pressure in which all sides exercise
power upon each other through reciprocal promises or threats.
Measurement of Power
The task of measuring power presents another problem. The classical
thinkers left this to the
realm of common sense and intuition. However, in our times efforts have
been made to develop systematic measures of power. In the main three types
of criterias for measurement of power have been suggested. Firstly, Shapley
and Shubik suggest measurement of power through committee system in
which the votes are the chief determining factor. They hold that as the ruler
prescribes what the majority of the members of the committee prescribe,
each member voter occupies a pivotal position. They thus contend that each
voter makes a decisive contribution to the outcome. This criteria can be
helpful in measuring power in those cases only where other elements of
political power or criterias are lacking.
Secondly, certain analysists like Simon, Dahl, Oppenheim etc. have tried
to measure power by applying Newtonian principle. They measure the power
with reference to the change in the respondent which the controlling person
is able to bring about or the changes which the respondent is able to bring
about in the controlling person. Thirdly, Harsanyi tries to measure power in
economic terms. He holds that complete measurement of power should
include the opportunity cost of the controlling person trying to influence the
respondent as well as the opportunity cost of the respondent if he refuses to
comply with the orders of the controlling person. Actually, Harsanyi does not
refer to the economic cost but the strength of the controlling person over the
respondent.
Factors which Influence the Exercise of Power

Finally, let us have an idea about the factors which influence the exercise of
power. This is important because quite often there is difference in the
exercise of power under different political systems. This difference is on
account of the following reasons.
Firstly, it is on account of differences in the distribution of resources or
base values among the individuals, strata, classes and groups in different
countries, communities etc. Philosophers like Aristotle, Harrington, Marx,
Engles have emphasised this point. They contend that greater one's
resources the greater is one's power. However, it is difficult to give a list of
universally
478
acceptable bases of resources, as different scholars have suggested different

resources of power.
Secondly, the resources alone do not determine the power. The political skill plays
no less significant role. This explains why two persons having access to
approximately the same resources may not be able to enjoy same degree of power.
However, it has not been possible to give an analysis of the political skill and this
aspect of analysis of power has proved elusive.
Thirdly, the motivations can also contribute to the increased or decreased use of
power. Thus,
while one person may use the resources of his power to increase his power, the other
may not. Further, as the controlling unit is dependent on the respondent unit the
motivation of both the controlling person and respondent are significant in this
regard.
Finally, the difference in the resources of the controlling persons also affects his
capacity to exercise power.
Chapter
64
National
Interest
The concept of national interest is very vague and carries a meaning according to
the context in which it is used. As a result it is not possible to give any universally
acceptable interpretation of this concept. Hans Morgenthau who has dealt with the
concept in his various writings also used the term 'national interest' in different ways
and assigned variety of meanings. The use of term like common interest and
conflicting interest, primary and secondary interest, inchoate interest, community of
interests, identical and complementary interests, vital interests, material interests,
etc. by Morgenthau in his writings further adds to the confusion. The problem of
defining the concept is also complicated by the fact that researchers have tended to
give the definition of national interest according to the particular approach adopted
by them. Frankel divides the various approaches adopted to define the concept of
national interests into two broad categoriesobjectivist and subjectivist. In the first
category he includes all those approaches which view national interest as a concept
which can be defined or examined with the help of some definable criteria. In the
second one he includes those definitions which seek to interpret national interest as a
"constantly changing pluralistic set of subjective references."*
But probably the most important reason which has added to the confusion
regarding the meaning of the concept of national interest is the disagreement
between those who view it in broad sense and those who conceive it in terms of a
number of concrete single interest. Generally the decision at the operational level are
conceived in a narrow context and only few dimensions are taken into account. At
this level the process of reasoning
is inductive while at other levels it becomes more deductive. Again the people with
theoretical inclination take greater interest in the aggregate, while those with
scientific bias lay more emphasis on the single dimension of the concept. As a result
of all these difficulties the concept of national interest has got confused and various
meanings have been assigned to it. In view of the vagueness of the concept some
scholars like Raymond Aron have gone to the extent of suggesting that it is a
meaningless or a pseudo-theory.
However, some of the definitions given below will help in clarifying concept of
national interest. Brooking's Institute defined national intrest as "the general and
continuing ends for which a nation acts." Charles Lerche and Abul Said define it as
"the general long-term and continuing purpose which the state, the nation, and the
government all see themselves as serving."**
Dyke describes national interest as an interest which the states seek, protect or
achieve in relation to each other. An analysis of the above definition will highlight the
difference of approach. While the first two definitions interpret national interest in
terms of permanent guide to the action of the state, the definition of Dyke mainly
refers to national interest as an action. Obviously, the first two definitions seem to be
more logical.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF NATIONAL INTEREST

The concept of national interest is comparatively a new concept. In the ancient and
the medieval times also the states pursued certain substantial interests on the basis
of which their relations were
"Joseph Franke, National Interest, pp. 16-17.

"Charles O Lerche, Jr. and Abul A. Said, Concepts of International Politics, p. 6.
480
conducted the early middle ages the laws of Christianity formed the basis of these
relations and the states were expected to ensure that their laws etc. conformed to
these principles. However with the emergence of the secular power Church began to
be looked upon as the enemy of national interest and the national interests were
equated with the interests of the prince of the ruling dynasty. At that time the
national interest meant the interest of a particular monarch in holding fast to the
territories he ready possessed, in extending his domains and in aggrandizement of
his Dyke. But in course of time the popular bodies challenged the authority of the
monarchs and asserted themselves. This resulted in the growth of democracy and
the 'honour of the Prince was replaced by the honour of the nation'. Thus the concept
passed from the feudal and monarchical system to the republic and democratic
system and soon gained a common usage in the political and diplomatic literature. In
short, the term 'national interest' gained currency only with the emergence of the
national state system, increase in popular political control and the great expansion of
economic relations.
THE KINDS OF NATIONAL INTEREST

An examination of the various kinds of national interests will further help in clarifying
the concept itself. According to Thomas W. Robinson. The national interest, can be
broadly classified into six categories, viz., primary interest, secondary interest,
permanent interest, variable interest, general interest, and specific interest.* Let us
examine the various kinds of interests in some details.
The Primary interests of a nation include the preservation of physical, political,
and cultural identity of the state against possible encroachments from outside
powers. These interests are permanent and the state must defend them at all costs.
No compromise of these interests is possible.
The Secondary interests though less important than the first one are quite vital to
the existence of the state. These include the protection of the citizens abroad and
ensuring of diplomatic
immunities for the diplomatic staff.
Thirdly, Permanent interests refer to the relatively constant and long-term
interests of the state. The change in the permanent interests, if any, is rather slow.
An example of this type of national interest is provided by the determination of
Britain to maintain freedom of navigation during the past few centuries for the
protection of her overseas colonies and growing trade.
Fourthly, the Variable interests refer to those interests of a nation, which a nation
considers vital for national good in a given set of circumstances. In this sense the
variable interests of a state are largely determined by "the cross currents of
personalities, public opinion, sectional interests, partisan politics, and political and
moral folkways."
Fifthly, the General interests of a nation refer to those positive conditions which
apply to a large number of nations in several specified fields such as economics,
trade, diplomatic intercourse etc. For example it was the general national interest of
Britain to maintain balance of power on the European continent.
Finally, Specific interests through the logical outgrowth of the general interests are
defined terms of time or space. For example, Britain has considered it a specific
national interest to
maintain the independence of the Low countries for the sake of preservation of
balance of power in Europe.
In addition to the above six types of national interests Prof. Robinson refers to
three other interests which he describes as "international interests." These include
the identical interests, complementary interests and conflicting interests. The
identical interests refer to interests which are held in common by a number of states.
For example both U.S.A. and Britain have been interested that Europe should not be
dominated by any single power. The complementary interests of the nations refer to
those interests, which though not identical, can form the basis of agreement on some
specific issues. For example Britain was interested in the independence of Portugal
against Spain because she wanted to control the reign of
"Thomas W. Robinson, "National Interesf in James N. Rosenau, International Politics and Foreign Policy, pp. 184-85.
National Interest
481
the Atlantic Ocean. Likewise, Portugal was interested in the British maritime
hegemony because this was a safe means of defence against Spain. The interests
other than the identical and the complementary interests fall in the category of
conflicting interests. It may be noted that the conflicting interests are not fixed and
undergo a change due to the force of events and diplomacy. Thus, the present time
conflicting interests may become complementary interests. Likewise, the
complementary and identical interests can also get transformed into conflicting
interests.
METHODS FOR THE PROMOTION OF NATIONAL INTERESTS

Generally the states adopt the following methods for the promotion of their national
interests.
1.
Coercive Measures
Coercive measures are one of the most popular method for the promotion of national
interests, which have been frequently used by the states. According to Beard the
coercive measures adopted by the states for the enforcement of national interest
broadly fall into two categories (a) the measures taken within the state which do not
infringe directly upon the state against whom they are taken and (b) measures
directly operating against the state which are the object of enforcement procedure.
The acts falling in the first category are of negative character, even though they may
produce positive effects. Some of the important measures taken by the state which
fall in this category include acts of non-intercourse, embargoes, boycotts, retaliation
and reprisal, severance of diplomatic relations etc. Anyone or all of these measures
can be employed by the state for the advancement and enforcement of its national
interest. It may be observed that even though these measures are considered
coercive, they are non-violent in character and do not produce any international
crisis. On the other hand the measures operating directly upon the state to be
influenced or coerced, actually involve the use of physical force. These measures are
of
quite a wide range and include actual display of force. History is replete with
numerous examples when different states resorted to the display of force to enforce
their national interest. Apart from use of force, the state can take certain measures
on its own soil to advance its national interests which ultimately operate against the
enemy state. These include action like seizure and confiscation of the property of the
offending state or its subjects by way of compensation in value for the wrong,
suspension of operation of treaties, embargo of ships belonging to the offending
states lying within its ports, seizure of ships at sea etc. All these methods are prima
facie act of war and the state against whom they are directed has to determine
whether it wants to give the developments the shape of war or not. In extreme form
these measures can take the shape of actual bombardment of coastal areas or
military occupation of an inland centre.
2.
Alliances
Alliances are generally concluded by two or more nations for the protection and
promotion of common interests. As a result of the alliance the protection of these
common interests becomes a legal obligation which the member states are duty
bound to discharge. These alliances may be concluded for the protection of a large
variety of national interests and their nature depends on the nature of the interest
sought to be protected. Thus the nature and the duration of the alliance will depend
on the relative strength of those interests. According to Prof Robinson "the advantage
of pursuing the national interests through alliances, lies in the translation of inchoate,
common or complementary interest into common policy and in bringing the nation's
power directly to bear on questions of national interests."*
Prof. Morgenthau has adduced the following proposition regarding the relations of
alliance to national interests.**
1. The degree of generality of common interest expressed in alliance are related
to the duration of the-aUjance. Thus the general alliances will be offehprt
duration
'ibid.,p. 187.
"Quotedin Ibid., pp. 187-88
482
while the limited alliances shall be long-lasting.

2. The relative degree of primacy of national interests expressed in an alliance is
inversely proportional to the power of the nation. Thus a weak and a strong
nation will enter into alliance to defend the primary and secondary interests
respectively.
3. The weaker partner of alliance is dependent on the stronger one and is
tolerated as long as there is complete identity of interests between the two.
4. Even if an alliance is based on equality it will not succeed unless there is
identity of interests.
5. A one-sided alliance, in which one party receives the benefits and the other
party carries most of the burden, can be concluded only if there are
complementary interests.
6. The degree of cohesion of an alliance depends on the community of interests
felt by the participants.
7. It is not essential that every community of interests should be given the shape
of an alliance because the legal ties between two nations cannot overbalance
the national interests of the nation.
8. Ideology can help in strengthening the bonds of an alliance provided the
alliance is based on common or complementary interests. If there is no
community of interests in the alliance, the alliance based on ideology alone
cannot be effective.
9. Finally, the alliance built by the nations against a third country or common
enemy are generally vague and lack concrete objectives.
3. Diplomatic Negotiations
Diplomatic negotiations are another important method for the protection of national
interest. Generally diplomatic negotiations are used to reconcile the divergent
interests of the state through process of "mutual give and take." It may be noted that
diplomatic negotiations prove fruitful only if the interests of concerned states are
complementary or compatible. In such cases an agreement can be reached through
mutual bargaining. On the other hand in the case of incompatible or conflicting
interests negotiations are virtually impossible.
In addition to the national interests the states must try to protect certain common
interests in the larger interests of the international community. For example, they
must avoid use of nuclear weapons and not resort to war in view of the highly
destructive nature of these weapons. They must realise that the outbreak of a war
will not only mean the possibility of their defeat in the traditional sense but also
destruction of the domestic society and civilization. They must prefer diplomacy over
war.
4. Economic Aid
This method of promotion of national interest can be made use of only by the affluent
and developed states. Such states provide economic aid and loans to the poor and
less developed countries to promote their national interests. It is well known that US
provided enormous economic aid under Marshall Plan to enhance its influence in
Europe. Likewise, Soviet Union also used this instrument to preserve her interests in
Eastern Europe. In the Middle-East the OPEC countries used export of oil to secure
support for their interests.
5. Propaganda
Propaganda can be used as an effective instrument for the promotion of national
interests. In the words of Frankel 'Propaganda is a systematic attempt to affect the
minds, emotions and actions of a given group for a specific public purpose'. The
Importance of Propaganda as a method has greatly increased in recent years due to
revolution in the means of communications. Realising the importance of this
instrument most of the states maintain cultural Attaches and Information Centres in
foreign countries.
6. Collective Security
The system of collective security, which operates on the principle that international
peace and security is the common objective to be secured by all the states through
collective action against any violation of internal peace and security, also
National Interest
483
restricts the national power. Due to presence of system of collective security, each
state is restrained from taking any action which violates the freedom, sovereignty or
territorial integrity of another state, due to the realisation that any such action taken
by it would be met by the collective power of all other states. Thus we find that the
National Power is limited by several factors and is not absolute.
NATIONAL INTERESTS AND FOREIGN POLICY

Another proposition which deserves attention is as to how far the national interests
influence the formulation of the foreign policy of a country. Though the states
generally do not publicly admit that their foreign policies are based on their selfinterest, sometimes responsible people have admitted this fact. For example Hughes,
American Secretary of State admitted in the 1920's that "Foreign policies are not
abstractions but the results of practical concepts of national interest." Margenthau in
his article Another Great Debate: The National interest of United States also asserts
that the foreign policy "seeks the defence of the national interest by peaceful means"
and to defend the national interest restrictively and rationally defined "against the
national interests of other nations which may or may not be thus defined:" Another
scholar has observed: "national leaders as a rule never pursue national policies that
are in the interest of any nation other than their own." Different national interests
may overlap or be in harmony with one another but no president, prime minister or
foreign secretary in full possession of his faculties-especially sense of his own political
and personal survival would openly and knowingly initiate or implement policies that
would favour another nation and damage his own. * He further asserts "Ip planning,
formulating, adopting and executing foreign policy, national leaders and their aides
are confronted with a veritable spider's web of conflicting claims and values. Yet
priorities, that is, the practical not ideal, contents of the national interest must finally
be established in terms of preferred goals and in relation to the power of one's own
nation and that
of other nations. Both national goals and national means must simultaneously be
related to dangers or opportunities on the international scene; not only other nation's
power but also their intentions must be properly evaluated. In short, it has been
asserted that the national interest is the predominant factor in the formulation of a
country's foreign policy.
On the other hand Prof. Reynolds is of the view that it is not always possible to base
the foreign policy of a state on its national interests alone. He argues that the foreign
policy of a state can be based on national interest only if the interests of the various
nations are homogeneous. On the other hand, it shall indeed, be a costly proposition
to pursue a policy based on national interests, when the interests of the various
nations are of a heterogeneous character. As each state
shall try to resist the implementation of the alien values this is inevitably likely to
lead to a war. As Reynolds puts it "Since self extending heterogeneous values of
unlimited range must almost certainly lead to major armed conflict, national interests
must require their limitations. National interests cannot, therefore always in all
circumstances be identified with the values of the community; and when to this is
added disagreement about the basic general purposes for which humans exist the
difficulty of giving any generally applicable empirical content to the notions of
national interest becomes apparent."**
Even if it is admitted that the national interest occupies a prominent position in
the foreign policy of all countries, the leaders of the state do not necessarily always
try to promote the national interest alone. Quite often they use foreign policy as a
tool to strengthen their internal position. For example, Sukarno of Indonesia diverted
the attention of the people from the acute economic and social problems by adopting
the policy of confrontation towards Malaysia. Likewise, Pakistan has consistently
raised the bogey of danger from India to divert the attention of people from the
international problems.
Again, the vagueness of the concept of national interest makes the things quite
difficult. Quite often the national interest comes to be
*lvo D. Duchacek, National and MenInternational Politics Today,
p. 187. **P:A. Reynolds, An Introduction to International Relations,
p. 44.
484
equated with the maintenance of the existing political institutions even at the cost of
the interests of the general people. For example, the statesmen normally assume
that the survival of the state, over which they preside, is the supreme national
interest. Logically it may not always be so. For example if attempts to preseve the
state lead to the destruction of its people, then these attempts could not be in the
national interest. It is an accepted fact that it is in the national interest of Britain that
the standard of living of its people should rise even if it could be achieved by the
complete merger of Britain into the EEC community and its ultimate disappearance.
In other words the national interest of the people of Britain could be served by the
demise of the state. But such an action is not likely to be approved by the political
leaders, to whatever political party they may belong. This clearly shows that the
decisions of the political leaders are not always taken in the larger national interest.
Prof. Reynolds asserts that "the concept of national interest is, therefore, an
unfortunate and on the whole unhelpful one." It is normally attached to the notion of
the state and so sacrifices stage goals. It directs attention to a particular
advancement of which human ought to be organised and the preservation and
advancement of which accordingly ought to be the criteria for judgement of action.
But if individuals are the proper referent, distinction needs to be drawn between
strictly state goals and the goals that national interest prescribes. *He further argues
that in essence national interest "should relate to the real interests of the people, and
this interest is not to be seen as being necessarily contained within the state context.
This notion of a 'real interest' is difficult to conceive... But even if it can be seen as a
theoretical norm, it cannot in practice to be identified and will not serve as a means
of judging particular decision or particular actions. State decision-makers who claim
to be acting in the national interest misuse the notion, cannot have the perfect
information necessary to validate their claims and so are pulling the wool over other
people's eyes; and possibly over their own."
CONSTRAINTS ON NATIONAL INTEREST
Any foreign policy which claims to operate in the national interest must have some
reference to the physical, political and cultural entity called the nation. According to
Morgenthau it must be determined in the light of possible usurpation by subnational,
other national and supranational interests, which are indeed serious constraints on
the national interest. At the subnational level we find group interest, represented
particularly by ethnic and economic groups, which tend to identify themselves with
the national interest and thus confuse the issue. Similarly, the other national
interests can usurp the national interest of a state in two ways, viz., through treason
and criminology. For instance an individual may commit treason on behalf of a foreign
government either out of conviction or out of monetary gains. Criminology may also
prompt a person to promote the interests of a foreign government. In other words,
there is every possibility of an ethnic minority of a country identifying itself with a
foreign government and promote its interests under the guise of the national
interests of its own country. Again the national interests of a country may be usurped
by the supranational interests in two waysthrough religious bodies and
international organisations. Though religious bodies have ceased to be effective
instruments of supra-national interests at present, the international organisations
certainly operate against the national interests of the states by compelling them to
pursue only such policies which do not operate against the interests of other
member-states.
The international environments also exercise a profound influence on the decision
makers in the formulation of a country's foreign policy. As a unit of the international
community the state is bound by certain regulationsconventional, customary,
ethical, legal or institutional and the framers of the foreign policy have to operate
within these limitations. The framers of the policy have not only to keep the national
interests in mind but also give
*P.A. Reynolds, An Introduction to International Relations, p. 44.
National Interest
485
due weightage to the interests of other states who are equally determined to fight for
their national interests. They must keep a watchful eye on the policies and actions of
other states and keep a
track of various international developments. This naturally implies that a state

which wants to play an active international role must take decisions keeping in mind
the conditions prevailing around and should be willing to overhaul its foreign policy
according to the exigencies of time. Failure to do so will only mean that the state is
cut off from the main currents of the world affairs and its leadership is not far-sighted.
In short, we can agree with the observation that "tne major influence on foreign
policy making thus derives from the fact that it is made with reference to other
similarly acting bodies over which the policy-makers of the state in question have no
authority or jurisdiction, and that the international arena within which policies are
made is in high degree anarchical."
Prof. Morgenthau has also asserted the need of compromising the national
interests with the
interests of other nations. He says "the national interest of a nation which is
conscious not only of its own interests, but also of that of other nations must be
defined in terms compatible with the latter. In a multinational world this is a
requirement of political morality and in an age of total war it is also one of the
conditions for survival."
Above all, in formulating the foreign policy, the political leaders must not lose
sight of the domestic factors like geography, natural resources, industrial capacity,
demography, impacts of various groups and interests in the society, strategic
position of the country etc. As the resources available for the pursuit of the national
interest are necessarily limited in quantity and kind; and all the states cannot
promote their objectives with equal vigour, it is of paramount importance that the
states should allocate their scarce resources as rationally as possible.
65Conflict and Conflict

Resolution
Conflicts have been a normal feature of human history since earliest times and
different methods were used for the resolution of these conflicts. As regards the
causes of conflict, we cannot identify any single cause for the same. In fact the
conflicts have been the result of combination of several factors such as desire to
have more economic power, more markets and more territories. In addition to this
ideology has also played a key role in promoting conflicts. Countries professing
different ideologies try to establish supremacy of their ideology, which naturally
brings them in confict with the countries of opposite ideology. In fact the cold war in
the post world war II period was largely the outcome of this ideological conflict. In the
middle ages religion was another important factor for conflict among nations and was
responsible for large number of wars. Even castes and class differences were
responsible for conflicts. Whatever be the causes of conflicts, it is admitted at all
hands that effort should be made to resolve conflicts at the earliest so that they do
not assume serious dimensions and culminate in war. Broadly speaking there are two
methods for the resolution of conflicts viz. war and peaceful methods. War as an
instrument of resolution of conflict was in vogue during the primitive times when
force was used to acquire control over hunting territories. In the medieval ages wars
assumed dynastic character and were fought with the help of professional soldiers. In
the latter centuries with the rise of nationalism the practice of standing armies began
and the concept of total war gained currency. However, a little latter the countries
resorted to the practice of settling their differences through conferences. Thus the
practice of resolving differences through peaceful methods was initiated with gained
popularity with the
passage of time. The two world wars of the twentieth century which proved quite
destructive and costly, convinced the leaders of the world that they must follow
peaceful methods for settlement of their disputes. The League of Nations are the
Hugus Conferences also emphasised the need for pacific settlement of disputes. The
UN Charter also emphasised that all members shall settle their international disputes
by peaceful means in such a manner that peace and security, and justice are not
endangered.
The various methods for peaceful resolution of conflict have been specified in
Article 33 of the UN Charter. Article 33 of the Charter provides 'The parties to any
dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of
international peace and security, shall first of all seek a solution by negotiation,
enquiry, mediation conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional
agencies or arrangements or other peaceful means of their choice." It is noteworthy
that the various techniques of pacific settlement of disputes enumerated by the UN
Charter were known to International Law and practiced even before the advent of the
United Nations. However, the UN Charter deserves the credit for not only recognising
their existence but also for encouraging their use.
It may be further noted that most of these methods, with the exception of
negotiation, involve the assistance of the third parties viz. the representatives of
states or organisations which are not directly involved in the dispute. Further most of
these methods are political rather than judicial in nature in so far as the parties to the
dispute are left free to accept or reject the proposed settlements, keeping in view
their interests and capacities. However, two of the above noted
Conflict and Conflict Resolution
487
methods viz. arbitration and adjudication are legal in nature because the decisions
are supposed to be taken on the basis of the international law rather than national
interest and power.
PEACEFUL METHODS FOR RESOLUTION OF CONFLICT

Some of the prominent peaceful methods for resolution of conflict are given below
and discussed in details.
1. Negotiation
This is an simplest method of pacific settlement of disputes. It is the legal and

orderly administrative process by which the governments, in the exercise of their
unquestionable powers, conduct their relations with one another and discuss, adjust
and settle their differences. Usually the negotiations are carried on either by the
heads of the states or their accredited agents. The initiative in starting the
negotiations is taken by the disputant states. Generally the negotiations are
preceded by an exchange of correspondence to clear points of controversy. India and
Pakistan resorted to this method for resolving their outstanding disputes and held
negotiations at Simla after Indo-Pak War of 1971.
The negotiations can lead to one of the following results: (i) The claims of one
party may be acknowledged by the other party and the dispute may be settled, (ii) It
may lead to a happy compromise to the satisfaction of both the parties, (iii) One of
the party to the dispute may waive its rights and interests in the interest of general
international peace, (iv) The negotiating parties may not be able to arrive at any
settlement and get convinced about the inadequacy of negotiation as a method for
settlement of their dispute and think of resorting to some other method of settlement
of dispute.
2. Good Offices
This is another important method of p; 'ific settlement of disputes, even though it
does not kind mention in Article 33 of the UN Charter. Under this method friendly
assistance maybe rendered by a third party to bringing the disputants together so
that they may seek to reach a settlement. It is noteworthy that the party which offers
good
offices does not participate in the negotiations. Good offices may be offered by a
state, a group of states, or even by an individual of international standing such as the
UN Secretary General. It is upto the parties to the dispute to accept or reject the offer
of good offices. In 1951 when Australian Government offered its good offices to India
and Pakistan for the settlement of their dispute, the offer was turned down by Indian
Prime Minister (Jawaharlal Nehru) on the ground that the good offices were not
needed at that stage. Later on in 1965 during the Indo-Pakistan conflict, Soviet Union
offered her good offices to bring the two countries to a conference table. The offer
was accepted by both the countries and a meeting between President of Pakistan
(Ayub Khan and Prime Minister of India (Lai Bahadur Shastri) took place at Tashkent
which culminated in the signing of the Tashkent Declaration on 10 January, 1966.
3. Mediation
Under this method the third party either on its own initiative or at the request of the
disputant parties assumes responsibility for the settlement of the dispute. In this
method the mediator acts as a middle man and tries to reconcile the opposite claims
of the disputant parties This involves the active participation of the mediator.
However, the suggestions of the mediator are not binding on the parties to the
dispute. This method was utilised to resolve dispute between India and Pakistan by
the United Nations when it appointed Dixon, a judge of Australia, as mediator and
charged him with the responsibility of helping in the preparation and supervision of
the programme of demilitarization in the disputed area. It may be observed that
though both in Good Offices and Mediation, the third parties are involved, but their
role differs under the two. In good offices the third party tries to call negotiations into
being without actually participating in the negotiations. On the other hand under
mediation the mediating party takes an active part in the negotiations.
4. Conciliation
This is yet another method of pacific settlement of disputes and is regarded as more
effective than the methods of good offices and mediation. Under this method the
dispute is referred to a Commission of inquiry by the disputants themselves.
The
488
Commission investigates the facts of the dispute and makes suggestions for solution.
However, these suggestions or recommendations are not binding on the disputants.
Conciliation is more formal and less flexible than mediation. It involves formal
submission of the dispute to a conciliation body in anticipation of final report
containing the conciliators findings and recommendations for settlement. Some
scholars like Prof. Ross have expressed doubts about the effectiveness of conciliation
as a method for pacific settlement of disputes. He holds that the members of the UN
are likely to submit the disputes to the Security Council which is a tried Organisation
rather than a Committee of Conciliation. But this view is not shared by Prof.
Mookerjea who holds "The Security Council and the General Assembly of the UN are
troubled with so many hydra-headed problems, that Conciliation Commission are
bound to relieve the congestion of business in these vital organs of the U.N." The
actual experience of the UN has also shown that this method has been successfully
utilised to deal with certain problems. For example this method was quite helpful in
dealing with the problem of Palestine.
5. Arbitration
This is one of the most important methods of pacific settlement of disputes. Under
this method the parties to a dispute refer their case to an individual or a small group
of individuals. The parties to dispute state their case before this arbitrator and
undertake to honour the decision of the Arbitrator. This is a sort of semi-judicial
method of settling a dispute.
6. Judicial Settlement or
Adjudication
This is yet another method of pacific settlement of dispute. It differs from arbitration
insofar as the
judges for the settlement of the dispute are not chosen by the parties, but are
members of a pre-constituted international court. They accept the authority of these
judges either through voluntary acceptance through advance agreement to accept
the jurisdiction of the court in special types of cases or through an agreement at the
time of the submission of dispute. International Court of Justice provides the principal
example of judicial settlement at the global level. It may be noted that Arbitration
and adjudication fundamentally differ from each other. Arbitration is more elastic
than adjudication. Through adjudication only legal disputes can be settled, while
Arbitration is helpful for settlement of both legal and political disputes. Arbitration is
also more simple and cheaper than adjudication. It is noteworthy that both arbitration
and adjudication are legal rather than political techniques for the settlement of
disputes. They are also more formal than other techniques and have proved more
successful in resolving the disputes as compared to the political techniques. These
methods insist on abstract justice and there is no scope for compromise.
A perusal of the various methods of pacific settlement of disputes shows that

they broadly fall in two categories viz. those which are persuasive in character and
lack binding force; and those which have a binding character irsofar as the parties
commit themselves in advance to accept the findings. While negotiations, good
offices, enquiry, mediation and conciliation belongs the first category; arbitration and
judicial settlement fall under the second category.
Changing Concept
of National
Security
The concept of national security occupies an important place in international

relations. It involves the formulation and achievement of national interests against
the existing and potential hostilities and pressures external as well as internal. It may
be noted that national security does not imply merely the security of state's territory,
property and the people from external threats, it also involves the promotion of
national interests globally. This is achieved through the use of force as well as
diplomacy. Further, national security is not something static, rather it evolves and
changes with transformation of a nation's technological and industrial capacity, its
economic performance, its military capability and the demands of social justice and
equity. In fact it can be said that economic development, social justice and national
security go hand and hand. The linkages between the pace of technological and
economic development and dimensions of national security are so strong that there
can be no security without development and no development without security.
Meaning of National Security

According to Walter Lipmann "a nation has security when it does not have to sacrifice
its legitimate interests to avoid war and is able, if challenged to maintain them by
war." Henry Kissinger says that "national security in its widest sense comprises every
action by which a society seeks to assure its survival or to realise its aspirations
internationally." It may be observed that national security is the concern of all those
citizens who value the sovereignty of the country, and it overrides all other
considerations because
without secure environments no individual or society can live and develop in a lawful
manner.
Broadly speaking there are two dimensions of national security-external and
internal. The concept of external security rests on the premise that there are
perpetual clashes of interest among the nations and these are often irreconcilable.
The pursuit of these competing interests can lead to war. On the other hand internal
security rests on the assumption that every society is perpetually torn by intrasocietal conflicts which often lead to political disorder, violence and social turmoil.
Hence it is the responsibility of the defence forces to impose political order. However,
an enduring order can be ensured only through economic development and by
ensuring that the fruits of development are distributed among all stratas of society in
a fair manner.
National Security has both short term as well as long term dimensions. The shortterm dimension of security implies that the country devotes high proportion of its
resources to military for the purpose of national security. This type of security is quite
harmful for the country because it involves heavy military investment which is
unproductive and strains the economic system of the country. Further, this type of
militaristic preparation may give rise to feeling of antagonism among other states
and pose a threat for national security. The long-range security on the other hand
envisages that the resources of the country are devoted to the development of a
strong and stable infrastructure. This provides morale boost to the armed forces and
leads to minimum investment in defence consistent with the preservation of its
external sovereignty. This is a
490
more durable type of security and is adopted by most of the democratic states.
Factors which Govern National Security

The security of a country is governed by numerous factors which can be conveniently
studied under the following heads:
Political Factors
Several political factors affect national security. In the first place, the concept of
national state has led to conflicts in international arena. A state, in order to establish
its rightful place in the hierarchy of nation-states asserts itself and poses a challenge
to the dominance of superpowers, which on the other hand are keen to maintain
status quo. Unless the newly emerging state is willing to accept a subordinate status
in the international system, the conflicts are bound to arise, and pose a threat to
national security. Secondly, the super powers tend to keep international political
environments in a state of flux, so that they can gain greater influence in
international affairs. In fact Pakistan has been able to pose a threat to Indian security
only because of support from major powers like USA and China. Thirdly, events in the
neighbouring countries can also pose a threat to
national security. It is well known that the influx of refugees from East Pakistan in
1971 posed a serious threat to the security of India and compelled her to support
Mukti Vahni which ultimately culminated in the formation of independent state of
Bangladesh. Fourthly, the encouragement of subversive activities against a country
can also pose a threat to its security. It is well known that the US Central Intelligence
Agency engendered coups in countries like Iran, Gautemala, Chile etc. Similarly the
material aid provided by China and Pakistan to the Nagas etc. has posed a threat to
Indian security. Again, diplomatic pressure may be applied against a country by other
powers to compell it to act in a particular manner. It is well known that during the
Sino-Indian war of 1962 when India was looking for arms aid from USA and UK, they
mounted pressure on India to arrive at some settlement with Pakistan on the Kashmir
issue. Finally, the security policy of a country is also influenced by the change in the
external or internal environments .
Economic Factors
Apart from the political factors several economic factors also greatly influence the
security policy of a country. Advanced countries have made liberal use of instruments
of foreign aid and investments to increase their political influence. It is well known
that soon after independence India was faced with the problem of acute shortage of
food grains and had to import food grains from USA under PL-480 aid. Subsequently
when the shipment of grain was cut off, India stepped up efforts to attain selfsufficiency and effected green revolution.
There are also inherent dangers to the security of a country due to foreign
investments. It is well known that ITT, an American firm in Chile was able to exert
considerable influence only on account of its investments. The restrictive trade
practices adopted by the developed countries have also hampered the development
of third world countries. It is admitted at all hands that economic potential and
finance are vital factors in a war, but in the age of sharp short conflicts these have
lost a great deal of its significance. At present the side whose forces are superior
enjoys a decisive advantage. The age which permitted mobilisation of potential
resources is gone for ever.
Psychological Factors
The psychological considerations also influence the security policy of a country.
States seek maximum power due to fear threat and try to enhance their 'defence
potential. Usually the states adopt both 'defensive' as well as 'deterrent' approach.
The defensive approach implies development of capability 'by a state to avoid
coercion by another state and curb aggression. It is not always advisible to adopt
purely defensive policy and wait for appropriate time to take action against the
adversary. Action must be initiated before it is too late. The deterrent approach on
the other hand presupposes that if the aggressor has any doubt that the defender will
retaliate, it is unlikely to resort to aggression. This point was very well made by
President Kennedy when he observed that "the expenditure of billions of dollars every
year spent on weapons... is essential to keep peace." It is a fact that in the present
context of nuclear deterrence, when mutual
Changing Concept of National Security
491
destruction is a certainty, there is a very remote possibility of a long drawn out war
on the pattern of the first and the second world wars. The world is likely to witness
only limited wars in the nature of skirmishes and border clashes.
Social Factors
As the external security of the country is intimately linked with the internal upheavals
it is desirable that proper political order must be maintained within the country. This
can be done by ensuring that the fruits of development are distributed equitably
amongst all sections of society. Further, of late external aggression and internal
upheavals are getting so much enmeshed that it is indeed difficult to draw a line of
demarcation between the two. In fact threat to national security has greatly
increased due to increase in subversive activities. The problem can be effectively
tackled by promoting solidarity among the various sections of society and developing
commonality of interests between the elites and the masses. In fact it can be easily
said that economic development, social justice and national security go hand in hand.
Impact of International Environment

Finally, the national security of a country also depends on the changing international
environment. As no country is sure of hostility or friendship of another country, it
tries to enhance its power and influence by cultivating the friendly countries and
establishing beneficial political, economic, cultural and military links with other
countries so that they do not provide their resources and support to its adversaries.
Some of the important factors of international environment which have implications
for National Security include the strifes among various powers which pose problems
for national security; the flow of sophisticated armaments in a particular region pose
security problem for the other countries of the region; the increase and improvement
in the
weapons of mass destruction have an impact on the national security of countries not
in possession of these.
In conclusion we can say with Palmer and Perkins that so long as the nationalstate system is in the prevailing form of political organization, emphasis on national
security would continue. No major nation can afford to take the risk with its security
on the assumption that all nations will cooperate in their own self-interest. While
trying to be a cooperative member of the international community, a state must keep
its own guards up.
Changes in National Security in Recent Times

Change in Concept- In recent times the concept of national security has undergone
complete change. It has been realised that the security of a country is not dependent
on the internal resources available with the country alone, It is equally important that
the state should be fully aware of the domestic and foreign policies being pursued by
the other nations, specially those nations with which the country has to interact on
regular basis. Another notable point about the concept of national security is that it
must undergo change in accordance with the changing international scenario. Further
the fast changing relations among the various powers, which can lead to conversion
of the present friend into future foes, also compells the states to modify their security
according to the changed conditions.
The modern warfare in general and the nuclear war in particular have also
necessitated changes in the national security policy. The present day states are fully
conscious of the fact that the international organisations have not been able to
provide them the promised security. On the other hand they also lack the necessary
resources to take care of the security of the country on their own. Under the
circumstances the nations have no option but to link their security with other
nations.
Chapter
67
Challenges to the
Nation
State System
Till the collapse of Soviet Union and the end of the cold war, the nation state system,
was a key factor in the conduct of international relations. However, with the process
of globalisation setting in a new type of system has emerged in which each country
big and smallis in search of its own place in the international setting or new global
order.
The term global literally means, belonging to the globe which in turn implies
'connected with the natural habitat of humankind', i.e., global planet earth. However,
the scholars in the course of their debate on globalization, have used the term global
in three different senses. In the first place, some scholars use it to describe the areas
of social life beyond the national level, and describe it as a quality involved in the
worldwide stretching of social relations. As Giddens has observed there is
"intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way
that local happenings are shaped by the events occurring many miles away and vice
versa." In fact, the global quality of social relations is the result of cumulative
changes in people's relations with each other and their physical environment. As
Martin Shaw has observed "society has been globalized not because human beings
thought or acted globally, but because in pursuit of other ends profit, power,
communicationworldwide connectedness has developed."
In the second place, some scholars have viewed global order in environmental
terms. Those who view it as an 'environmental concept' assert that there is a growing
global consciousness regarding the need for the preservation of physical habitat
which we all share. However, some of the
scholars attach greater primacy to nature and look upon human activities as a
problem for the planet. In the third place, scholar have viewed global order as timespace concept.
PRE-GLOBAL INSTITUTIONS
To fully appreciate the importance of the global order it shall be desirable to have an
idea of the institutions which were created after the second world war, viz., United
Nations system. The UN was an international system of states, in which some of the
leading states like USA, Britain, France, USSR and China, were assigned a prominent
position and granted veto power. Though UN was a world of nation-states, it also
assigned important role to the individual. The adoption of Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, which curtailed the right of the state to infringe upon rights of human
groups, is indicative of the same. During the period of cold war certain global
movements were launched in various parts of the world which clearly represented a
'one world' approach. Some of the movements launched during this period include
environmental movements which sought to promote common world environment;
movement against global economic and social inequalities; women's liberation
movement etc. It is true that these movements, in comparison with the present day
conditions, had very limited appeal. In fact, during this period, the various powers,
specially the super-powers, tried to contain these changes through propaganda,
intelligence services, cultural agencies etc. The states of both blocs resorted to
repression to curb these movements.
Challenges to the Nation State System
493
In the wake of end of cold-war important economic and cultural linkages were
established between states, which formerly belonged to rival blocs. All this led to
global political transformation. The strong wave of democracy which swept the world
in 1980's and 1990's, further strengthened global feeling. In fact, democracy and
human rights became universally accepted values. As a result quite; often individuals
and groups could appeal over and against the national state institutions, for the
protection of the same.
In the post cold war period the incorporation of Soviet bloc states into the world
market economy led to significant increase in the state economic power. The
conversion of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as World Trade
Organisation (WTO) is a clear indication of the process of globalization. According to
Martin Shaw although, "the WTO remains dominated by the West and is partly a
forum for resolving intra-Western economic differences, it is now more or less
universally accepted as the framework for regulating trade, as China's admission in
1999 (almost as significant a step as its earlier admission to the UN) recognized." He
further says, "although globalization has been seen largely as driven by technology,
communication and markets, it would not have been possible without the framework
of global state institutions."
The scope of legal institutions as well as international law has also undergone
complete change. In fact, international law is not only concerned with the new states
which have been established, but has also extended itself to include individuals,
groups and international organizations within its scope. Further, it has brought within
its fold new issues like international trade, problems of international protection, outer
space exploration, etc.
With the disappearance of the Soviet bloc, the influence of western political
institutions has greatly increased. While the third world countries can no longer play
off Soviet and the Western blocs, they tend to draw closer to the western powers to
achieve international recognisation and attract western investments. Further, the
democratic ideas of the West and their lifestyle has also attracted them. Even China
has adopted western model of free market. Thus, it can be said that in
the present global era the western state system is largely operative. As Shaw has
observed, "The western state has ever greater worldwide influence, resting
fundamentally on the unrivalled economic, military and infrastructural power which it
can mobilize. It reflects the more advanced technologies and higher productivity of
the Western economy, and the latter's continuing centrality to the world economy. It
reflects the world centrality of western cultural and communications systems."
The global order which is now emerging is novel in form because of its global
character and the extensive internationalization and democratization which it
involves. It is also novel because of the relations of worldwide society which it
includes.
NATION STATE SYSTEM AT PRESENT

In the new set up when the world economy has become increasingly integrated or
'globalised , the established, order of the state system and its institutions are
undergoing fundamental changes. The world-wide links among the economic
institutions and in production operation have resulted in the dissolving of national
barriers to the movement of capital, services and people. It has also brought about
transformation in the character of the national state and its basic attributes:
sovereignty, exclusive territoriality and citizenship. The sovereignty of the people has
given way to the concepts of supranational and extra-territorial regimes like the
European Union and Transnational Corporations. These bodies frequently elude state
regulations. Further, these changes are being legitimised through international
treaties and national policies.
A new type of territoriality and citizenship is being forged in the context of global
economy. This territoriality and citizenship differs from the national territory and
citizenship over which the nation- state enjoyed exclusive authority. Another factor
which has exercised profound influence on the geography of power is the growing
importance of electronic space in the conduct of business and communications. This
in turn has posed a serious challenge to the existing state regulatory
494
apparatus and private sector institutions, both of which are heavily dependent on
new communication technologies.
The institution of citizenship has also undergone great transformation in the new
context. Despite growing unemployment all over the world and intensification of
struggle by the world's poor to survive, citizenship rights are being partially eclipsed
by a new set of economic rights. The citizens are encouraged to think that these
rights do not belong to them as citizens of a state but as global economic actors. A
question is often raised as to who is to govern the global economy and assume
responsibility for the laws and powers previously under national jurisdiction? Should
global capital markets which are unaccountable to the national governments,
exercise such discipline over them at the cost of individual's job, wages, safety and
health?
The role of the state as protector and guarantor of human rights has also
undergone significant change. State's authority in this regard has been partially
transferred to the universal codes regarding human rights. Several supranational
institutions have appeared which have assumed responsibility for the protection of
human rights and thus greatly undermined national sovereignty and citizenship.
Encouragement of immigration by the highly developed countries has resulted in
creation of contradictory legal regimes. It has been observed that often the corporate
sector, backed by national governments of developed countries, has supported the
removal of restrictions on cross-border flows of people, to protect and promote its
financial and staffing interests. Despite this the domestic regimes have tried to
uphold state's long established sovereign right to regulate the entry of all aliens to its
territory. It is a well known fact that the corporate farmers of United States have
encouraged the entry of low wage immigrant workers into their labour market to
lower the costs and increase profits.
Again the state sovereignty has been greatly undermined with the domestic
courts increasingly invoking human rights convenants in defence of
individual rights. As a result, the foundations of state sovereignty and nationality are
being redefined. In the course of time, the meaning of citizenship may be diluted and
the distinction between citizen and alien may be blurred. One scholar has observed,
"the sovereignty of nations becomes invalidated, and their development determined
more by the compulsions of the market place and less by their own national needs
and priorities. National social contracts are abrogated with impunity and international
contracts are negotiated and enforced through a variety of instruments for covert
and overt action."
Some scholars have seen in the current global development a serious threat to
the existence of the state itself. For example, R.J. Barry Jones in his book, The World
Turned Upside Down?-Globalization and the future of the State argues "Should
globalization mark the coming of an age in which the unconstrained world market
ushered in an era of benign interdependence, then much of the traditional role of the
state as a defence against external aggression would dissolve in the new world of
peace and harmony. Should globalization undermine the state's capacity for effective
economic and industrial policy, then the state's more recent role within the domestic
economy would also decline and ultimately dissolve. Should, moreover, populations
turn to the market for an increasing range of provisionsin health general care,
personal security and education-as some free-market enthusiasts would recommend,
then many of the non- economic functions of the state would also be minimised."
Though international and global institutions are playing increasingly important
role; there is very remote chance of state withering away in the near future. In fact,
the state has played a major role in most of the developments which have taken
place in the recent years. The state still remains a major agency of public governance
and the major guarantor of a range of vital requirements for its citizens. Hence, all
apprehensions about the possible withering away of the state are unwarranted.
.68Arms and Arms

Control
Arms race is not a new phenomenon in international relations. It was as well a

feature of human society in medieval times. However, at that time arms race was hot
as resorted to only; at the time of acute tension among the nations. As and when the
tension subsided the arms race also came to a halt. Further, at that time the race for
armaments was quantitative and states preferred to acquire more and more
armaments. However, with the advancement of technology the arms became more
sophisticated. With this emphasis of arms race shifted from quantity to quality. In
fact, after the Second World War a mad race between Soviet Union and United States
of America started and they tried to outwit each other in the acquisition and
development of more and more sophisticated weapons.
In modern times the history of arms race can be traced back to the late sixties of
the nineteenth century when Bismarck, the iron Chancellor of Germany, started the
system of conscription and tried to make Germany a world power. The spirit of
intense rivalry and competition among the French and the English also contributed
largely to this race. This race assumed serious dimensions during the period between
1884 and 1914 because, as Prof. Philip Noel Baker has put it "armaments produce
fear, and fear produces more armaments, with disastrous results for the national
security of all people concerned." Both France and England were highly suspicious of
each other and tried to strengthen their respective positions by acquiring more and
more arms. The situation was further aggravated in the first decade of the twentieth
century when Japan, in the wake of her victory over Russia in 1904-05, also jumped
into the fray. During this period not only arms were produced in large quantities but
improvement was also
effected in their quality. This process continued till the outbreak of First World War in
1914. During this period more sophisticated weapons, warships, submarines, fighter
planes, bombers, tanks, poisonous gas and arms of various other varieties were
discovered and perfected. It may be noted that although all the powers claimed they
were piling up the arms for their defence and preservation of peace, this created a
sense of fear, suspicion and hatred among the nations and ultimately culminated in
the First World War.
Arms Race after First World War

The large scale destruction of the First World War encouraged some of the powers to
think in terms of putting stop to the arms race. In 1922, USA convened the
Washington Naval Conference with a view to limit the tonnage and gun power of the
various naval powers. The Temporary Mixed Commission (1920-24), set up by the
Assembly of the League, tried to fix the strength of the land forces of the various
countries in accordance with their national needs. However, its efforts did not prove
fruitful. Yet another serious effort to check the armament race was made by the
World Disarmament Conference but without any success. After the failure of these
efforts arms race received a new impetus, and a mad race for armaments started
among the various powers. This mad race for armaments ended in Second World War
with more serious consequences than that of the First World War.
Arms Race after Second World War

The enormous destruction caused by the Seconc World War could not act as a
deterrent and put a end to further race for armaments. On the other hand, in the Post
World War a more acute anris
496
race began between the two superpowers namely Soviet Union and USA. This race
was further sharpened by the ideological differences between the two. In the post
World War II period the superpowers tried to increase their influence in the
international sphere not only by increasing their armaments and military strength but
also by concluding military alliances. The armament race now became more
qualitative due to technological advancement. New nuclear weapons were invented
and the existing ones greatly perfected. Some of the new weapons which were
invented or perfected included satellites, ICBMs, Titan, Polaris, Minutement and a
variety of space and thermonuclear weapons.
As a result of this arms race, the dangers of nuclear war was greatly increased.
There was a growing realisation amongst the world statesmen to put a halt to this
mad peace and to evolve some mechanism so that the race of the world not
threatened. This was sought to be achieved through disarmament and arms control.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISARMAMENT AND ARMS

CONTROL
The terms 'disarmament' and 'arms control' are often confused and taken identical. In
reality they differ from each other. Disarmament does not necessarily imply control of
arms, as arms control does not necessarily mean a reduction in armament levels.
Disarmament means a plan or a system for the limitation, reduction or abolition of
armed forces, including their arms and equipment and other related items like
military bases and budgets. On the other hand, arms control means a co-operative or
multilateral approach to armament policy where armament policy includes amount
and kinds of weapons, forces, development and utilisation in periods of relaxation or
tension. It aims at improving national security by the adjustment of armament
capabilities.
DISARMAMENT
The history of disarmament can be traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
The treaty
stipulated that all existing fortifications be demolished and no new fortifications

be erected.
However, the first systematic proposal for the reduction of armaments was
mooted by Czar of Russia in 1816 when he proposed to the British Government the
reduction of all types of armed forces. However, these proposals were not seriously
received and failed to produce any impact. In the years 1863 and 1869, France also
submitted certain proposals for the reduction of armaments to the Great Power but
they also met the fate of the proposals submitted by the Russian Czar. Other powers
like Britain (1870) and Italy (1877) also initiated steps to put a stop armament race
but without any success.
The most systematic effort to reduce the armament was made by Tsar of Russia in
1898 when he addressed a note to the various powers of Europe to meet at Hague
and work out a scheme for reduction of arms. These proposals received warm
response and resulted in the First Hague Peace conference. This Conference was
attended by 28 states. The Conference appointed a Committee of military and naval
experts to study the problem of arms control. However, the Committee expressed the
opinion that the time was not mature for an agreement on arms limitation. The next
Conference held in 1907 also initiated proposals for the reduction of arms and
expenditure on military forces, but this also did not find favour with the powers. Thus
both the Hague Conferences failed to solve the problem of arms race.
Disarmament after First World War

The devastation caused by the First World War greatly stirred the conscience of
mankind and the statesmen of the world started giving serious thought to the need
of abolition of arms and ammunition. President Wilson in one of his Fourteen Points
insisted that armament should be reduced to "the lowest point consistent with
domestic safety." The Treaty of Versailles, which established peace after World War I
specifically provided that "the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of
national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the
enforcement by common action of international obligations." The seriousness of the
world statesmen to regulate arms is evident from the fact that they charged the
League of Nations with the duty of securing an agreement on the general
Arms and Arms Control
497
disarmament. To facilitate the task of the League it was provided in the Covenant
that the membership of the League shall be available only to those countries who
were willing to accept arms regulation proposed by the League. A Permanent
Advisory Committee was set up to formulate a programme for reduction of arms. But
as this Committee was mainly composed of military representatives, it failed to make
much progress in the direction of disarmament.
Temporary Mixed Commission

In 1920, the Assembly of the League urged the Council to appoint a new Commission.
Accordingly, in 1921, the Council created the Temporary Mixed Commission,
containing majority of the civilians as its members. The Commission during its life of
four years made efforts to secure disarmament through fixation of land forces of the
various countries, according to their national needs, and limited the naval armaments
of the great naval powers. For the attainment of the same objective it also proposed
"international aid to the victims of aggression", and compulsory arbitration. However,
all these proposals of the Temporary Mixed Commission were turned down by the
states and it failed to accomplish anything.
Preparatory Commission and Geneva Conference
In 1925, the League set up the Preparatory Commission and entrusted it with the
responsibility of preparing a provisional draft treaty concerning various questions of
disarmament. The Commission after a hard work of six years completed the draft of a
treaty which was considered by the Geneva Conference in 1932. Sixty-one states,
including five non-members of the League, discussed the "Draft Convention on
Reduction and Limitation of Armaments" submitted by the Preparatory Commission.
The discussions continued for nearly two years. Despite serious differences the
members, agreed to the need of arms limitation, international supervision of arms
business and publicity of arms budget. However, these efforts were greatly
jeopardised by the changed international situation. Japanese attack on Manchuria
and reluctance of Germany to follow the restrictions
regarding disarmament imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, made disarmament
impossible. In 1933 Germany formally withdrew from the Disarmament Conference.
With this the international efforts at disarmament came to an end.
Efforts outside the League

Outside the League also efforts to control the arms and secure disarmament were
made. In 1921-22 at the Washington Conference the five major powers (Britain,
USA, France, Japan and Italy) agreed to fix their respective naval strength. They
made an effort to come to some understanding regarding cruisers, submarines,
destroyers and aircrafts but could not succeed. As the treaty remained unratified
the understanding automatically lapsed. In 1927, a Conference was held at Geneva
which ended in failure because two major powers France and Italy did not
participate in it, and certain differences cropped up between British and USA In
1930 representatives of the five major powers (Britain, USA, Japan, France and Italy)
met at London to effect naval disarmament. But this Conference also ended in
failure. In 1935-36 another naval conference was convened at London which met
the fate of its predecessors. In 1935, Britain reached an agreement with Germany
by which she conceded to Germany the right to increase her battleships by 35 per
cent of British naval power and build ships of various types. This was done purely
with a view to protect her interests against possible German aggression.
The efforts at disarmament in the inter-war period both through the League of the
Nations and outside failed to achieve anything substantial. In fact almost all the
states were interested in strengthening their respective positions rather than
reducing the weapons. The failure of the League to deal effectively with states like
Japan, Italy and Germany who resorted to arms in violation of their obligation under
the Covenant made the states luke warm in their support to the proposals of
disarmament. They were convinced that they could not rely on the League for their
security and had to raise their own forces to meet any unforeseen eventuality. Some
of the other * factors which obstructed the progress of disarmament were differences
among the members of the Disarmament Conference on
498
various issues, the difficulty in arriving at an accepted distinction between the

aggressive and defensive weapons. Above all the failure was due to the fact that the
statesmen failed to focus attention on the economic, psychological and political
conditions prevailing in various countries. In the presence of mutual distrust and
suspicion, fear and hatred all around, disarmament could not be possible.
DISARMAMENT AFTER WORLD WAR II

The enormous destruction caused by the Second World War roused the
conscience of the world statesmen. Fearing that another war may completely wipe
out the human race they started making more frantic efforts to regulate the
armaments. The UN Charter also laid great emphasis on the regulation of
armaments. At least three of its articles were devoted to this problem. Article 11(1)
while directing the General Assembly to consider the general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, authorised it to
make recommendations to the member states regarding the general principles
governing disarmament and regulation of armaments, Article 26 likewise insisted that
international peace and order should be promoted with "least diversion for
armaments of the world human and economic resources". It entrusted the Security
Council with the responsibility of formulating a plan for the establishment of a system
for the regulation of armaments. Article 47(1) provided for the establishment of
Military Staff Committee, which among other things was to assist the Security Council
on the regulation of armaments and possible disarmament. However, UN Charter did
not vest any specific authority on any of its organs to impose a system of
disarmament or regulation of armaments among members. In view of this lacuna
Prof. Eichelberger has asserted that the obligations under the Covenant of the League
were more positive and possessed greater binding force.
1. Atomic Energy Commission

Soon after the adoption of the UN Charter the Atom Bomb was exploded on
Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in Japan. The untold suffering caused by the bombardment of these two
towns of Japan led to a widespread demand for devising a system of control to
prevent the use of atomic energy for destructive purposes, and use for humanitarian
and peaceful purposes Accordingly, on 26 January 1946, the General Assembly
decided to set up an Atomic Energy Commission consisting of all the permanent
members of Security Council and Canada. The Commission was expected to enquire
into all aspects of the problem and make recommendations with specific proposals
for (a) extending between all nations the exchange of basic scientific information for
peaceful ends; (b) control of atomic energy to the extent necessary to ensure its use
only for peaceful purposes; (c) the elimination from national armaments of atomic
weapons and of all other major weapons adoptable to mass destruction; and (d)
effective safeguards by way of inspection and other means to protect complying
states against the hazards of violations and evasions. The Commission was
subordinate to the Security Council and was expected to submit its reports and
recommendations to it. It is noteworthy that in the establishment of this Commission
both, the superpowers offered their co-operation.
At the very first meeting of the Atomic Energy Commission on 14 June, 1946
differences cropped up between the two major powers. Mr. Baruch of USA presented
a plan in which he insisted on managerial control or ownership of all atomic energy
activities potentially dangerous to world security; power to control, inspect and
license all other atomic activities; fostering beneficial use of atomic energy; and
research and development of responsibilities of an affirmative nature. He also offered
to destroy all atom bombs of USA and to stop their further manufacture after an
adequate system of international control had been established. In short, Baruch Plan
insisted on tight international control of all aspects of the use of atomic energy and a
certain punishment for violations. According to Collart, the Baruch Plan was uniquely
significant because "it came from the only country which had atomic weapons at that
time, it aimed at submitting the production, development and application of nuclear
energy to
Arms and Arms Control 499
a very extensive system of international administration."1

As at that time Soviet Union had not tested nuclear weapons she was reluctant to
support any agreement that would preclude, Soviet development of nuclear capacity.
Therefore, at the second meeting of the Commission on 19 June, 1946 she submitted
two proposals. In her first proposal, Soviet Union suggested the prohibition of the
production and employment of weapons based on the use of atomic energy for the
purpose of mass destruction, prohibition of production and storing of weapons based
on use of atomic energy and destruction of all atomic weapons within three months
of the convention. She suggested that the violation of this should be treated as an
international crime. In the second proposal, Soviet Union suggested the
establishment of two committees concerned with exchange of scientific information
and making of recommendations for the prevention of the use of atomic energy
respectively.
A comparison of the proposals submitted by Soviet Union and USA shows that
while USA insisted on effective international control and inspection before the
abolition of atomic weapons, Soviet Union insisted on first outlawing the atomic
weapons and their destruction. She argued that subsequently an appropriate
inspection system could be evolved. The main plea taken by the Soviet Union against
international inspection was that it violated the sovereign rights of the states. In view
of this divergent stand of the two superpowers the Atomic Energy Commission could
not accomplish anything.
2. Commission on Conventional Armaments

In pursuance of the General Assembly resolution of December 1946, the Security
Council set up a Commission on Conventional Armaments in February 1947. The
Commission was expected to prepare and submit to the Council within three months
proposals for "the general regulation and reduction of armaments and armed forces,"
and to suggest practical and effective safeguards. It may be noted that this
Commission was specifically
debarred from discussing issues concerning atomic weapons and their control. The
Commission held its first meeting on 24 March, 1947 and finally adopted a resolution
on 12 August, 1948. In this resolution the Commission recommended (a) a system for
the regulation and reduction of armaments of all states, initially only those having
substantial military resources; (b) measures for reduction and regulation of
armaments to encourage further regulation and reduction (c) the
establishment of an adequate system of international control of atomic energy

and conclusion of peace settlement with Japan and Germany (d) regulation and
reduction of armament to make possible the least diversity for armaments of the
world human and economic resources and maintenane of armaments and armed
forces which are indispensable for the maintenance of international peace and
security; and (e) adequate method of safeguard and provision for effective
enforcements action in case of violation.
When the resolution came up for discussion before the Assembly, the Soviet
Union strongly opposed it. She came forward with a new proposal; requiring all the
permanent members of the Security Council to reduce the their land, naval and air
forces by one-third during one year and establishment of a control body within the
framework of the Security Council to supervise the reduction of armaments and
prohibition of atomic weapons. However, the Russian proposal was rejected by the
Western nations. In view of the differences the Assembly adopted a resolution urging
the Commission for Conventional Armaments to continue its work and formulate
proposals or the receipt, checking and publication by international organ of control of
information to be supplied by member states, with regard to their conventional
armaments. However, the Soviet Union refused to co-operate with the Commission.
Ultimately, Soviet Union withdrew from both the, Commissions (Atomic Energy
Commission and the Commission fo Conventional Armaments) in 1950 on the
question of the representation of Red China on it.
*Y. Couart, Disarmament, p. 17.
500
Disarmament Commission
The failure of these two Commissions did not deter the world leaders and they
continued their efforts to regulate the armaments. On the suggestion of the
American President Truman that the, two Disarmament Commissions should be
merged, the General Assembly set up a Committee of Twelve Members (11 members
of Security Council and Canada) to report the ways and means whereby the work of
the two commissions could be combined. The Committee recommended the merger
of the two Commissions. Its recommendations were accepted by the General
Assembly and a Disarmament Commission was created on 11 January, 1952. It was
to consist of all the members of the Security Council plus Canada. In 1957, the
General Assembly increased the strength of the Disarmament Commission to 14. In
1958, all the members of the UN wen included as its members. The Commission was
requested to prepare a draft treaty for the regulation of conventional as well as
atomic armaments. The Commission took up a number of issues concerning arms
and their reduction but failed to make much headway because of the divergence of
view amongst the superpowers. To resolve these differences in 1953, the General
Assembly set up a Great Power Sub-Committee. This Committee considerably
succeeded in narrowing down the area of disagreement, although the two powers
continued to hold opposite views on the question of controls.
Atoms for Peace Plan (1953)

In 1953, President Eisenhower of USA came out with a new plan for peaceful use of
atoms. He suggested the establishment of an international pool of fissionable
materials to be used for peaceful purposes. This plan popularly known as Atoms for
Peace Plan appealed to all those powers who possessed atomic energy material to
contribute the same to the Atomic Energy Commission under the United Nations. The
Commission was to ensure that these materials were used for peaceful purposes and
for the promotion of international peace and security. This plan was also turned down
by Soviet Union who insisted on prior agreement on prohibition of atomic weapons:
Anglo-French Plan (1954)
In June 1954, Britain and France took an initiative and submitted a memorandum
outlining a comprehensive plan for disarmament. The memorandum outlined three
phases of disarmament. During the first phase a control organ was to be set up and
the military expenditure and manpower of the member states was to be frozen at
specific levels. During the second phase, after the establishment of control organ,
first half of the agreed reduction of armed forces, conventional weapons and military
expenditure was to be carried out. Further manufacture of nuclear weapons was also
to be stopped at this stage. The third and the final stage envisaged the second half
of the agreed reduction and total prohibition and elimination of nuclear weapons.
Though initially Soviet Union rejected the proposal but subsequently in September
1954 she communicated her willingness to the General Assembly to accept the
Anglo-French Memorandum as a basis for the step by step approach to the nuclear
problem. Thus it looked that the plan would be able to make much headway.
However, in March-April, 1955 Soviet Union reverted to its earlier position.
Soviet Proposal of May 1955

In May 1955, Soviet Union suddenly submitted new proposal which was quite
identical to the Anglo-French Memorandum in so far as it accepted the same force
levels. However, this proposal was quite distasteful to USA because it insisted on
dismantling of all United States overseas bases and a ban on nuclear tests. Though
the proposal fell down, it certainly contributed to the spirit of detente and paved the
way for the Geneva Summit of 1955.
The Geneva Summit and Open Skies Plan

In July 1955, the chiefs of state from France, UK, USA and USSR met at Geneva to
discuss among others the problem of disarmament. At this meeting USA proposed
the 'open skies' plan. Under the plan both USA and USSR were to exchange military
information which could be verified by mutual aerial reconaissance. Soviet Union was
prepared to accept the proposal
501
regarding exchange of military blue prints, supervision of military bases and

prohibition of atomic armaments, provided her proposals regarding reduction of
armaments (which she had earlier submitted) were accepted. However, Russia did
not feel convinced as to how inspection of the
concealed nuclear weapons shall be possible. She also insisted that all actions in
this regard should be subject to Security Council's decisions and hence veto of the
permanent Members of the Security Council. As these conditions were not acceptable
to USA the plan fell.
Six Point Plan of USA (1957)

In 1957, the US representative Henry Cobbot Lodge proposed another plan
before the General Assembly indicating America's willingness to take steps towards
arms reduction subject to adequate inspection. The basic objective of the plan was to
check the trend towards large stockpiles of nuclear weapons and reduce the further
nuclear threat; provision against surprise attack lessening of the economic burden
due to armaments and utilisation of the money thus saved for the improvement of
the living standards, reduction of political tension among nations and to help in
settlement of political issues; and devotion of research and development activities
concerning propulsion of objects through outer space for peaceful purposes. The plan
envisaged the establishment of inspection posts at strategic points in the eastern half
of United States and western boarder regions of Russia. After a favourable initial
response Soviet Union, turned down the plan.
However, in November 1957, the General Assembly endorsed these proposals
and insisted on (a) immediate suspension of testing of nuclear weapons with prompt
installation of effective international control; (b) cession of production of fissionable
materials for purpose of weapons and its future utilisation for peaceful purposes; (c)
reduction of stock of nuclear weapons thro '^h a programme of transfer of stocks of
fissioi.ible material for peaceful purposes; (d) reduction of armed forces and
armaments with adequate safeguards; (e) progressive establishment of open
inspection to guard against the possibility of surprise attack; and (f) establishment
of an
inspection system to ensure that the sending of objects through outer space was
exclusively for peaceful and scientific purposes.
The same year the General Assembly also adopted two other resolutions
emphasising the need of an accord on disarmament and enlargement of the
Disarmament Commission by addition of fourteen members. Soviet Union, however,
insisted that all the UN members should be included in the Disarmament
Commission. As her proposal was not accepted she announced her withdrawal from
the Disarmament Commission and its sub-committees.
Nuclear Test Ban

Encouraged by the announcement of Soviet Union in March 1958 regarding a
unilateral ban on tests of atom and hydrogen bombs, three nuclear powers USA,
USSR and Britain held a Conference at Geneva from October 1958 to April 1961. After
long deliberations the three powers agreed to suspend forthwith all tests in the
earth's atmosphere, in outer space, in ocean and underground. This was to be
ensured through a worldwide detective system to be operated by a single neutral
administrator and an international staff. However, Soviet Union, in violation of this
agreement went ahead with the explosion of Megaton Bomb. This provoked USA to
declare that she would also go ahead with similar explosion. As a result the progress
made in the direction of securing nuclear test ban at the Geneva Conference was
watered down.
Antarctic Treaty (1959)

In 1959, Antarctic Treaty was signed which provided for demilitarisation of Antarctica.
This treaty for the first time put in practice the concept of nuclear-weapon-free zone,
in so far as it prohibited in the Antarctic region all military manoeuvres, weapon tests,
building of installations or disposal or radioactive wastes produced by military
activity.
Ten Nations Disarmament Conference (1960)
In 1960, ten nations five from each block (USA, UK, Canada, France and Italy from
Western bloc and Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Poland, Rumania and Bulgaria from the
Communist bloc) met.at Geneva
504
On the issue of peaceful uses of energy the Conference favoured the idea of
examining possibility of establishing an international financed Special Nuclear Fund,
which could give grants and loans at low rates to finance such nuclear project in the
non-nuclear states. These recommendations of the Conference were accepted by the
General Assembly and it requested the concerned international bodies like IAEA,
IBRD and UNDP to take action for the implementation of these recommendations.
Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968)

The Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was simultaneously signed at
London, Moscow and Washington on July 1968 and actually came into force on 5
March, 1970. The Treaty, based on the draft submitted by the Seventeen Nation
Disarmament Committee, prohibited the transfer by nuclear weapon states to any
recipient whatsoever of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or of
control over them. The signatory states were not to encourage or induce any nonnuclear weapon State to manufacture or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons or other
explosive devices or control over such weapons or explosive devices. The nonnuclear states acceding to the treaty were also not to manufacture or otherwise
acquire nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. However, the treaty
granted the right to the member states to develop research, production and use of
nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination. The signatory states
were to conduct negotiations in good faith regarding effective measures to put an
end to the nuclear arms race at an early date and to make efforts to achieve general
and complete nuclear disarmament under strict and effective international control.
The treaty was significant in so far it imposed an obligation on the nuclear and
non-nuclear states to abstain from expanding nuclear weapons. However, it left the
issue of inspection and control unresolved.
Disarmament Decade
Despite important agreements for limitation and regulation of armaments, global
expenditure on
arms and armies continued to mount and the limited human and material resources,
which could be well utilised for development, continued to be fritted away. To check
this trend in 1969 the General Assembly decided to observe 1970's as the
Disarmament Decade. It urged the governments to intensify efforts to stop nuclear
arms race and eliminate weapons of mass destination. In 1976, the Assembly felt
unhappy over the meagre achievements of the Decade and
decided to hold a special session on disarmament in 1978.
Sea-Bed Treaty of 1971

In February 1971, the treaty on the prohibition of the emplacement of nuclear
weapons and other weapons of mass destruction on the seabed and the ocean floor
and in the subsoil thereof, was concluded by UK, USA and Soviet Union. The treaty
actually came into force on 18 May, 1972. The treaty provided that the signatory
states would not emplant or emplace on the seabed and the ocean floor and in the
sub-soil thereof beyond the outer limit of a sea-bed zone (12 miles) any nuclear
weapons or any other type of weapons of mass destruction as well as structures,
launching installations or any other facilities specifically designed for storing, testing
or using such weapons. The member states were not to assist, encourage or
participate in any actions in any other way. To ensure that the term of the treaty were
being complied with by all the signatory states, the members were given the right to
verify through observation the activities of other states, provided such an act did not
interfere with such activities. The member states also agreed to continue
negotiations concerning further measures to prevent an arms race on the seabed, the
ocean floor and the sub-soil.
Biological Weapons Convention (1972)

An effort to check the use of bacteriological and chemical weapons was made in
1972 by signing the "Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production
and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their
Destination". The Convention signed on 10 April, 1972 at London, Moscow and
Washington, actually came into force on 26 March,
Arms and Arms
Control 505
1975. The convention impressed the need of achieving effective progress towards
general and complete disarmament, including the prohibition and elimination of all
types of weapons of mass destiruction. It held that the prohibition of development,
production and stockpiling of chemical and bacteriological weapons and the
elimination will facilitate the achievement of the objective of complete disarmament
under strict and effective international control. The signatory states agreed not to
develop, produce, stockpile or otherwise acquire or retain microbial or other
biological agents or toxin weapons equipment of means of delivery designed to use
such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed conflict. They were to either
destroy or divert to peaceful purpose within nine months of the enforcement of
Convention, all agents, toxins, weapons, equipment and means of delivery. They were
also not to encourage or assist any state or organisation of state to manufacture or
otherwise acquire any of the above agents, etc. If a signatory to the Convention
found the other signatory state violating the provisions of the Convention it could
lodge a complaint with the Security Council. Thereafter, the other members were
obliged to cooperate with the Security Council in carrying out investigations. The
states also agreed to continue negotiations to reach an early agreement on effective
measures for the prohibition of their development, production and stockpiling.
Strategic Arms Limitation and SALT (1972)

Simultaneous attention was paid to the limitation of the strategic arms with a
view to achieve disarmament. The two super powers USA and USSR held prolonged
negotiations at Geneva and finally agreed to meet at Helsinki. This was indeed a
significant step in the direction of disarmament because the two powers agreed in
principle to restrain and put a stop to the fierce competition for the acquisition of
sophisticated weapons. Though the talks did not prove fruitful, they indicated the
willingness of the two super powers to reduce armament and other hazards without
jeopardising their security and prestige. The negotiations continued for nearly four
years before the conclusion of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
of 1972. It is said that the two countries held as many as 127 plenary meetings
before the conclusion of the above treaty.
The SALT (Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty)

Was formally signed on 26 May, 1972 with a view to curb the race in nuclear arms
between the two super powers. In fact, the agreement broadly consisted of two
separate treaties, viz.. Treaty on the Limitations of anti-Ballistic Missile System and
the Interim Agreement on Certain Measures with respect to the Limitation of the
Strategic Offensive Arms. While the former was concluded for an unlimited period,
the latter was of five-year duration.
The Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems Treaty permitted the two super powers to have
only two sites for ballistic missile defences, one for the protection of their national
capital area and the other for the protection of the field of ICBMs. The treaty also laid
down details regarding the dimensions of the ABM system the two countries were to
have. Each system was to have not more than six ABM launchers and 100 ABM
interceptor missiles at launching sites. The national capital area was not to have
more than 133 ABM radar complexes, each with a diameter not exceeding 3
kilometre. The complex around the Missile launching region was not to have more
than 18 ABM radars and two large phased ABM radars. The two powers also agreed
not to develop, test or deploy ABM launchers which could launch more than one
interceptor missile at a time. The treaty also prohibited the testing and development
of automatic, semi-automatic or other similar systems for rapid reloading of ABM
launchers. The two powers were permitted to modernise their ABM systems through
replacement, but this was to be done strictly within the quantitative ceiling provided
under the treaty.
The interim Agreement with regard to the Limitation of the Strategic Offensive
Arms was a very complex agreement. It covered both land based ICBMs and
submarine launched ballistic missiles. The strength of ICBMs for Soviet Union and
USA was fixed at 1618 and 1054, respectively, viz., on the basis of their actual
strengths on 1 July, 1971. The two powers undertook not to convert
their land based launches into light ICBMs. The two powers were permitted to
undertake modernisation and replace their strategic Offensive Arms, but they had to
scrupulously follow the numerical limits prescribed by the treaty. An agreement
regarding the procedure of agreement was also reached between the two powers.
US-Soviet Accord on Limitation of Arms (1973)

A further accord for checking the armament race was reached between USA and
Soviet Union in 1973 when they concluded a formal agreement regarding permanent
limitation of nuclear weapons by the end of 1974. They emphasised that an effort by
either of the two powers to obtain a nuclear advantage would be inconsistent with
the peaceful relations between the two countries. They agreed to 'adequate
verification' measures. The significance of this accord lies in the fact that it made an
effort to control nuclear fission as well as research on the fundamental properties of
physical matter.
The Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT)1974

This Treaty was signed by United States and USSR on 3 July, 1974 and proposed a
ban on carrying out of underground nuclear weapon tests having a yield of more than
150 kilotons. The two parties also pledged to limit the number of their underground
weapon tests to a minimum, However, the treaty could not come into force due to
non-ratification by the US Senate.
US-Soviet Arms Pact 1974

Further progress in the direction of disarmament was made in July 1974 when
USA and Soviet Union signed a 10 year pact, stipulating not only the limitation of the
offensive nuclear weapons but also the stoppage of all underground tests of more
than 150 kilotons. New limits of missile defence systems were agreed by the
countries. But probably the most significant feature of this agreement was that a
formal understanding was reached by the two countries to permit each observer to
ensure that the terms of the agreement were being complied with. The same year in
November the two countries concluded another
agreement regarding limiting of nuclear arsenals. It was decided that the nuclear
arsenals of the two countries shall be equal to overall number of delivery vehicles.
The new treaty also incorporated the relevant provisions of the existing interim
agreement which was due to expire in 1977.
The Peaceful Nuclear Explosion Treaty (PNET) 1976

This treaty was signed by United States and Soviet Union on 28 May, 1976, but
could not come into force due to non-ratification by the US Senate. Despite this both
the parties pledged to observe the main previsions of the treaty. Till end of December
the PNET had not formally come into force.
Final Act of the Conference of Security and Co-operation in

Europe
In July-August, 1975 USA, UK, Soviet Union and a number of other European
states held a conference at Helsinki with a view to find out the means for
strengthening peace and security of the world. After due deliberations they signed
the final act of conference of security and co-operation in Europe on 1 August, 1975.
Under this act the signatory states agreed to resist from use of force in their mutual
as well as international relations. With a view to promote mutual understanding they
agreed to exchange observers by invitation, at military manoeuvres. However, for
such a purpose a twenty-one day notice was to be served. With a view to build
mutual confidence among the states, the signatory states agreed to notify their
major military movements. In order to strength European security, the signatory
states agreed to avoid military confrontation and promote disarmament. However,
complete disarmament under strict and effective international control was to be
accomplished through stages.
Convention on Prohibition of Military or other Hostile Use of

Environmental Modification Techniques
In May 1977, a Convention was signed at Geneva with a view to strengthen world
peace and bring about complete disarmament through prohibition
Arms and Arms

Control 507
of military or other hostile uses of the environmental modification techniques. The

signatory states agreed not to engage in military or other hostile use of
environmental modification techniques. They were not to assist, encourage or induce
any State, group of States or international organisation to engage in activities
contrary to the provisions of the treaty. However, the Convention did not impose any
restrictions on the use of environmental modification techniques for peaceful
purposes. They were to contribute individually or in co-operation with other states to
the preservation, improvement and peaceful utilisation of the environments with due
consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world.
Special Session on Disarmament

The first special session on disarmament was held from 23 May to 1 July, 1978
which was the largest representative meeting of nations. At this session a consensus
was reached on the need for comprehensive disarmament. The Assembly adopted a
final Document which stressed the central role and primary responsibility of the
United Nations in the field of disarmament and outlined specific measures to
strengthen the machinery available in the UN system to deal with disarmament. The
final document impressed on the states the need to continue general and complete
disarmament under effective control. It called for immediate action to eliminate
danger of nuclear war and take measures to halt and reverse the arms race. The
declaration asserted that genuine and lasting peace can only be created through
effective implementation of the security system provided by the charter of United
Nations and the speedy and substantial reduction of arms and armed forces...leading
ultimately to general and complete disarmament under effective international
control. The declaration emphasised the urgency of revitalising existing disarmament
machinery and of establishing appropriate forums for disarmament negotiations and
deliberations under a more representative character.
In 1979, the General Assembly declared the 1980's as the Second Disarmament
Decade to achieve general and complete disarmament under effective international
control.
Salt II (1979)
SALT I signed by USA and USSR lapsed in October 1977. Both the powers continued
to observe its provisions and continued efforts for a new agreement. After prolonged
negotiations they signed at Vienna on 1 June 1979 the SALT II treaty to limit the
strategic offensive weapons for period up to 31 December, 1985. While concluding
this treaty both the powers reaffirmed their desire to take further measures for
further limitation and reduction of strategic arms with a view to achieve general and
complete disarmament. As this agreement was in the nature of a treaty, it was sent
to the US
Senate for ratification, as required under the constitution. But before the Senate
could ratify the same the cordial atmosphere was disturbed by the Soviet
intervention in Afghanistan which jeopardised the ratification of SALT II. However,
USA continued to adhere to the limits proposed by SALT II, for some time. Ultimately
on 27 May, 1986 President Reagan of USA announced that United States would no
longer be bound by the limits set by SALT II. This evoked strong reaction in USA and
the House of Representatives passed a resolution on 19 June, 1986 calling upon
President Reagan to stick to the limits set by the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
Number 2. The arms services committee of the Senate also made an amendment to
defence department bill and called upon the President to honour SALT II limits.
AGREEMENT CONCERNING ACTIVITIES OF STATES ON

MOON AND OTHER CELESTIAL BODIES
In 1979 an agreement governing the activities of states on the Moon and other
Celestial bodies was worked out. The agreement amplified the relevant provisions of
the Outer Space Treaty by prohibiting any threat or use of force or any other hostile
acts or threat of hostile acts on the Moon as well as the use of the Moon in order to
commit any such act or engage in any such threat in relation to earth, the moonspacecraft, the personnel of spacecraft or manmade space objects.
During the year, 1980 only limited contact took place between USA and Soviet
Union on the question of arms control. The US Government
508
motivated by the events in Afghanistan proceeded to review and to expand its

armament programme. Despite this Soviet Union repeatedly expressed its willingness
to negotiate. On 18 February, 1980, Soviet Foreign Minister Andrai Gromyko indicated
the readiness of Soviet Union to carry on disarmament talks with the West,
particularly on the reduction of nuclear arms in Europe if NATO's decision of
December 1979 regarding modernisation (which involved employment of Pershing lis
and Cruise missiles) was cancelled or not implemented. In mid-August 1980,
President Brezhnev wrote to western leaders expressing his willingness to engage in
talks on intermediate range nuclear missiles. President Carter of USA responded
favourably and agreed to hold unconditional talks on this subject. As a result
Preparatory US-Soviet talks on strategic arms limitation were held in Geneva from 16
October to 17 November 1980 which resulted in greater understanding of each
other's position and they agreed to resume negotiations in 1981.
After his election, President Reagan indicated on 2 February, 1981 his readiness
to discuss a legitimate reduction of nuclear weapons. However, he insisted that the
USA should have a military presence in the Middle East to discourage any reckless
moves by the Soviet Union. On the other hand, President Brezhnev also called for an
active US-Soviet dialogue at all levels and proposed a moratorium on the
development in Europe of new medium range nuclear missiles by NATO countries and
the Soviet Union.
SOVIET PROPOSALS REGARDING PROHIBITION OF STATIONING OF

WEAPONS IN OUTER SPACE
In 1981, Soviet Union proposed a treaty of unlimited duration to prohibit the
stationing of weapons of any kind in outer space, including stationing of 'reusable'
manned space vehicle. The parties to the treaty were to undertake not to destroy,
damage or disturb the normal functioning or change the flight trajectory of space
objects of other states, if such objects were placed in the orbit in strict accordance
with the above mentioned provisions. However, the Soviet proposal did not specify
whether the development and testing of

anti-satellite systems would be prohibited and whether the states would be obliged to
dismantle those systems which they have already developed and tested.
In December 1981, the UN General Assembly taking into account the proposals of
the Soviet Union, required the Committee on disarmament to embark on negotiations
with a view to achieving agreement on the text of an appropriate treaty to prevent
the spread of arms race to outer space. Through another resolution, it requested the
Committee on Disarmament to consider as a matter of priority, the question of
negotiating an effective and variable agreement to prohibit anti-satellite systems.
However, much progress could not be made due to the difficulties in reaching further
arms control agreements relating to outer space because most of the satellites are
used for military purpose. Further, the competition going on between the two super
powers is bound to generate pressure for pre-emptive action and thus decrease
rather than increase the sense of security of the powers in question, bringing no
advantage to either side.
Prohibition of Inhumane Weapons: New Small Arms Ammunition

(1981)
On 10 April, 1981 the Convention on Prohibition or Restrictions on use of certain
Conventional Weapons was opened for signature at the United Nations. This
convention was in the nature of an umbrella covering a number of protocols covering
landmines and body-traps, incendiary weapons and fragments not detectable by Xray.
Efforts by the UN General Assembly

During the Year 1981, the UN General Assembly also initiated a number of measures
to check nuclear weapons, chemical weapons as well as to promote the
disarmament. The Assembly expressed concern over continued nuclear weapons
tests and urged UK, USA and USSR to resume their trilateral negotiations (which were
interrupted in 1980) on a comprehensive test ban treaty and to bring them to an
early conclusion. It also suggested the conclusion of an international convention on
the non-use of nuclear weapons in general and declared that the use of such
weapons would be a violation of the UN Charter and a
Arms and Arms Gpntrol 509
crime against humanity. It also called upon the nuclear weapons states to submit
their views, proposals and practical suggestions for ensuring the prevention of
nuclear war. Similarly, the General Assembly while calling the continuation of
negotiations on convention prohibiting chemical weapons called on all the states to
refrain from any action which could impede such negotiations and to specifically
refrain from the production and development of binary and other new types of
chemical weapons. It also requested that chemical weapons should not be

stationed in those states where there are no such weapons at present.
With a view to promote disarmament, the General Assembly recommended that a
world disarmament campaign should be launched and a conference be held at the
United Nations to finance the campaign. It expressed the view that a worldwide
collection of signatures in support of measures to prevent the nuclear war and arms
race be started, which would help in creating favourable climate for achieving
progress in the field of disarmament.
However, despite its active interest to effect arms control the General Assembly
could not attain much success due to an atmosphere of increased international
tension. The sharp polemics between the USA and the USSR, characterised by mutual
cold-war accusation of aggressiveness and bad faith negatived the effects of the
international arms control endeavours.
Reagan Plan of 18 November, T981

On 18 November, 1981 President Reagan of United States proposed a four point
agenda suggesting: (1) that the United States was prepared to cancel its deployment
of Preshing II and ground launched cruise missiles if the Soviet Union would dismantle
its SS-20, SL-4 and SS-5 medium and intermediate range ballistic missiles; (2) that
USA would seek to negotiate substantial reduction in nuclear arms which would result
in equal and verifiable levels and that to symbolise this the negotiations would be
called START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks); (3) that action should be taken to
achieve êquality at lower levels of conventional forces in Europe; and (4) that USA
urged the USSR to join with it and many other
nations to establish a western proposed conference on disarmament in Europe. The
United States leadership expressed the hope that the acceptance of these proposals
by the Soviet would benefit the people of East and West and the Third World and
promote peace and security all over the world.
However, these proposals were outrightly rejected by the Soviet Union. The Soviet
President Breznev said that if the United States were prepared to agree to complete
reduction of all kinds of nuclear weapons in the East and West, Soviet Union would be
in favour.
INF Talks at Geneva November (1981)

On 30 November, 1981 talks between USA and Soviet Union on intermediate-range
nuclear force (INF) commenced at Geneva. The deliberations were held in camera.
But much progress could not be made. On 3 February, 1982 Brezhnev proposed that
both the sides should reduce their medium range nuclear weapons by two-thirds by
1990, but the proposal was rejected by President Reagan. On 9 February, 1982 Soviet
Union proposed a modified plan but this was also turned down by USA the next day.
USA reacted sharply and stated that it would not tolerate any stationing of
nuclear missiles in Cuba. On 31 March, 1982 President Reagan said "I want an
agreement on strategic nuclear weapons that reduces the risk of war, lowers the
level of armament and enhances global security. We can accept no less."
Brezhnev Announcement of March 1982

On 16 March, 1982, the Soviet President Brezhnev announced that Soviet Union had
"decided to introduce unilaterally a moratorium on the deployment of medium range
nuclear weapons in the European part of the Soviet Union" involving "the freezing in
terms both of the quantity and quality" of the weapons already in place as well as the
suspension of the planned replacement of the existing SS-4 and SS-5 missiles by the
new SS-20 models. He assured the moratorium would remain in force either until the
USA and the Soviet Union reached agreement on a planned reduction of nuclear
weapons or on the other hand until practical preparation began for the deployment of
510
Pershing II and ground launched cruise missile in Europe. He warned that if NATO
allies went ahead with their plans to renew their nuclear strike capacity, the Soviet
Union would have no choice but to take retaliatory steps.
START Negotiations
On 9 May, 1982, US President suggested that formal START negotiations be held
between the two countries at Geneva in June 1982. He proposed two stages. During
the first stage the number of the ballistic missile war-heads was to be reduced by at
least one-third below current levels. During the second stage they were to achieve
equal ceilings on ballistic missiles. The plan also insisted on effective verification
procedures. But the plan was dismissed by Soviet Union "as a hopeless attempt to
ensure US superiority. However, the plan said nothing about the programme to
deploy MX missiles, strategic B-l bombers and Trident nuclear missile submarines.
On 18 May, 1982 President Brezhnev made an offer of freeze on the nuclear
missiles and proposed freeze on the modernisation and deployment of strategic
weapons. He said that to begin the START talks on right note, three things should be
done. (1) The talks should pursue the aim of limiting arms and reducing strategic
arms rather than being a cover for the continued arms race and the breakdown of the
existing parity. (2) Both sides should pay due regard to each other's legitimate
security interests and acknowledged the principle of equality and equal security. (3)
The positive achievements of earlier and equal talks should not be overlooked. The
proposals of Brezhnev were immediately rejected by USA.
The START talks opened in Geneva on 29 June, 1982 in which the delegations of
USA and USSR took part. Though the talks were secret, the two delegations made
certain statements regarding their respective positions, which virtually reflected the
views that had already been expressed. At these talks USSR offered to make
substantial cuts in the long-range missile and bomber forces in return for US
agreement to forgo the deployment of new medium-range missiles in Europe and to
accept stringent restrictions on all further cruise missile deployments. The Soviet
Union tried to like INF and START talks. On the other hand USA was very keen to
restore the
credibility of its nuclear umbrella in the eyes of its friends and opponents and wanted
to eliminate the enormous advantage which the Soviets had gained in land- based
missiles and prevent all risks of black mail.
Second Special Session on Disarmament
The Second Special Session on Disarmament of the General Assembly was held in
1982 in which more than 140 states took part. Over 3000 representatives from 450
non- governmental organisations in 47 countries around the world also attended the
session. After prolonged
deliberations the General Assembly categorically and unanimously reaffirmed the

validity of the Final Document of the First Special Session on Disarmament and urged
the member states to consider as soon as possible proposals designed to secure the
avoidance of war. The Assembly also stressed the need for strengthening the central
role of the United Nations in the field of disarmament and enhancing the
effectiveness of the Committee on Disarmament (now known as conference on
Disarmament) as the single multilateral negotiating body.
New US Proposals on SALT

In 1983 USA proposed 'builddown' whereby each side while modernising its forces
would affect 5 percent reduction of its forces each year until 1992. According to this
plan each new unit of ICBM fire power developed was to be matched by reduction of
two old units of ICBM fire power and each new unit of submarine launched fire power
was to be matched by dismantling the two old units. The proposals also envisaged
the establishment of a commission to work out the details of a build down.
The Soviet Union responded to US proposals and called for reduction of strategic
nuclear delivery vehicles from about 2400 to 1800 or 1850, while demanding that the
US must not deploy any new intermediate range missiles in Europe whatsoever.
Soviet Union also indicated its willingness to accept an overall ceiling on nuclear
explosions, but did not put forward a specific number. Soviet Union also demanded
that the British and the French forces be counted in INF process. However, the British
and French were
511
determined to maintain independent deterrents which were not subject to US, USSR
negotiations. On account of persistent tension between USA and Soviet Union no
further progress could be made between the East and West on arms control and
eventual disarmament. The Soviet Union refused to resume Geneva Disarmament
talks-both negotiations on intermediate range nuclear force (INF) which were
suspended in November 1983 and strategic arms reduction talks (START) which were
suspended in December 1983-on the ground that she could not resume these talks
unless the policy of deployment of Pershing II and Cruise missiles in Western Europe
was reversed.
Efforts for Disarmament by Genera! Assembly after 1982

Since 1982 the General Assembly at regular intervals called for implementation of
the decisions and recommendations of the first and second special sessions on
disarmament. It has called for (i) cessation of test explosions of nuclear weapons
including underground nuclear weapons test and called for conclusion of
comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty; (ii) negotiations for cessation of nuclear arms
race and prevention of nuclear war, (iii) freeze on nuclear weapons by all nuclear
weapons states; (iv) establishment of nuclear- weapon free zones in Middle East and
South Asia and implementation of Declaration of the Indian Ocean as a Zone of
Peace; (v) conclusion of an international convention for strengthening security of nonnuclear weapon states against use or threat of use of nuclear weapons; (vi) measures
to prevent arms race in outer space; (vii) conclusion of convention of prohibition of
the development, production, stock piling, and use of all chemical, radiological and
nuclear neutron weapons; (viii) an agreement on the prohibition of the development
and manufacture of new types of weapons of mass destruction and new systems of
such weapons; and (ix) reduction of military budgets and reallocation resources now
being used for military purposes to economic and social development of developing
countries.
However, these recommendations of the General Assembly, though unanimously

adopted have not been faithfully implemented and much
progress has not been made in the direction of disarmament.
Talks between NATO and Warsaw Pact Countries

Talks between delegations from NATO and Warsaw Pact countries on Mutual and
Balanced Force Reductions in Central Europe were resumed on 16 March, 1984
(which had been suspended in December 1983). On 19 April, 1984 NATO members
submitted a plan which envisaged first of all a reduction in combat and support
troops in Central Europe by 13,000 for USA and 30,000 for the USSR, and thereafter
an eventual reduction of the two sides to 700,000 ground troops and 200,000 air
force members for each side within four or five years. This plan was rejected by the
Warsaw Pact delegation on the ground that the proposal was "neither constructive
nor realistic." Despite these differences the talks continued till 19 July, 1984.
Improvement of Hotline
In July, 1984, USA and Soviet Union agreed to add a facsimile transmission capability
to the Direct Communication Link (DCL) popularly known as 'hotline'. The hotline was
first established in August 1963 with a view to lessening of the danger of an outbreak
of hostilities by accident or miscalculations. The new improvement enabled the two
sides to send graphic material via the DCL.
Four Continent Peace Initiative

On 22 May, 1984 a plan on behalf of six political leaders from the four continents of
Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America, viz., President Raul Alfonsin of Argentina;
Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou of Greece; Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India;
President Miguel Dela Madrid of Mexico; Prime Minister Olof Palme of Sweden and
President Julius Nyerere of Tanzania; was presented to the UN Missions of the five
nuclear-weapon powers (China, France, USSR, UK and USA). The plan asserted "The
escalating arms race, the rise in international tensions and the lack of constructive
dialogue among nuclear-weapons states has increased the risk of nuclear war. The
people we represent are no less threatened by nuclear war than the citizens of the
nuclear weapon states. It is primarily the responsibility of
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UGCPolitico! Science
the nuclear-weapon states to prevent a nuclear catastrophe, but this problem is too
important to be left to those states alone." It stated that "agreements which merely
regulate an arms build-up are clearly insufficient" and the leaders called on the five
nuclear weapon powers "as a necessary first step to halt all testing, production and
deployment of nuclear weapons and their delivery system to be immediately followed
by substantial reductions in nuclear forces".
Though USA appreciated the initiative and sincerity of the leaders in taking an
initiative, it
asserted "we do not think that global freeze by the nuclear powers would
strengthen stability or reduce the risk of war."
Initiative by India and Non-aligned Countries

In August, 1984 India and 20 other non-aligned and neutral countries suggested
setting up of an ad hoc committee of the UN Disarmament Conference to negotiate
measures for preventing a nuclear war. However, USA and other Western countries
did not respond favourably.
Geneva Talks (1985)

A welcome development took place in January 1985 when the foreign ministers of
USSR and USA (Andrei Gromyko and George Shultz) met at Geneva on 7th and 8th
January. Negotiations at Geneva could not make much progress because USSR sought
to link controls of offensive missiles with the termination of Reagan's Strategic
Defence Initiative (SDl), popularly known as Star Wars programmes, while USA
wanted to enhance the prospects of SDl by limiting the offensive missile which SDl
would oppose, USA refused to link the two and argued that a ban on research
programme (SDl is currently a research agenda) cannot be verified, though the two
countries could not reach any accord, the resumption of talks was significant
development. The two sides agreed that the space weapon system and the
intermediate range nuclear missiles in Europe be brought into the negotiation that
originally covered strategic nuclear missiles. The delegations of Soviet Union and USA
agreed to split into three groups to negotiate on the areas of strategic, intermediate
range and space weapons with a view, to "work out effective agreements aimed at
preventing an
arms race in space and terminating it on earth," The real significance of the Geneva
talks was that it succeeded in breaking the ice USSR had pledged not to hold any
talks unless Cruise and Pershing II missiles were dismantled, but it relented on this
point and agreed for talks at Geneva. Likewise USA also showed spirit of
accommodation and agreed to broaden the scope of new negotiations by including
within their purview the threatened arms race in space as well as existing stockpiles.
The two states pledged to work for effective agreements aimed at preventing an
arms race in space and terminating it on earth.
Six Nations Summit at New Delhi (1985)

On 28 January, 1985 a six nation summit was held at New Delhi which was attended
by President Raul Alfonsin of Argentina, Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou of
Greece, Prime Minister Olof Palme of Sweden, President Miguel Dela Madrid of
Mexico, President Julius Nyerere of Tanzania and Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi of India.
The Summit appealed to the nuclear weapon powers to halt and reverse the nuclear
arms race. It urged them to immediately halt the testing of all kinds of nuclear
weapons and to conclude a treaty on a nuclear weapon test ban at an early date. It
called for prohibition of the development, testing, production, deployment and use of
all space weapons. It warned that an arms race in the space would be enormously
costly and have grave destabilising effect. The other points emphasised by the
summit were the need of strengthening of the UN system and diversion of
expenditure from arms to development. The six leaders also agreed to visit nuclear
powers and other capitals to impress on .various powers the urgent need to put the
arms race into reverse gear.
Reagan Gorbachev Summit

Disarmament suffered a serious setback in 1984-85 and two superpowers embarked
on a massive programme of rearmament. This trend was reversed towards the close
of 1985 when President Ronald Reagan of USA and Mikhail Gorbachev of Soviet Union
met at Geneva from 19-21 November. Though the contents of the discussion were
not made public, it was quite apparent that Soviet hostility to President Reagan's
Strategic
Defence Initiative (popularly known Star Wars) project proved to be the main
stumbling block and no agreement could be arrived at. However, at the end of the
talks the two leaders issued a joint statement in which they emphasised the
desirability of intensified dialogue between the two powers through regular meetings
at the highest level. They also agreed to accelerate the pace of negotiations so that
early progress could be made in areas where there was a common ground-such as 50
per cent cut in the overall level of armaments and the possibility of an Interim INF
agreement.
After the Geneva Summit the process of arriving at settlement on disarmament
continued both at multi-lateral and bi-lateral forums. In January 1986, Gorbachev
proposed a time-table for a fifteen year 'step by step' process for ridding the earth of
nuclear weapons. He presented this programme at the formal talks between USA and
Soviet Union on 16 January, 1986, but it was not accepted by USA.
Reykjavik Meeting (1986)

The most significant effort in the direction of disarmament was made in October 1986
when a meeting was held at Reykjavik between President Reagan and Mikhail
Gorbachev. Though the meeting did not lead to any tangible agreement, it settled
many of the bilateral arms-control issues which had eluded negotiations for years.
There was agreement on INF and framework for 50 per cent reduction in strategic
offensive weapons. But no formal agreement could be concluded on account of
differences over Strategic Defence Initiative programme (SOI). Soviet Union wanted
America to cut back research and testing on the SDI programme to just the
laboratory, which was not acceptable to USA.
Despite their differences fresh high level talks were held between USA and USSR
at Vienna on 5-6 November, 1986 in which Shultz and Shevardnadze took part on
behalf of the two countries. However, the talks were jeopardised due to US Soviet
acrimony over diplomatic expulsions and counter expulsions.
In February 1987, Soviet leader Gorbachev took yet another initiative and called
for the elimination of INF missiles in Europe, with a limit for each side of 100
warheads elsewhere. He also
agreed to proceed without first resolving differences over SDI.
Intermediate Range Nuclear Force (INF) Treaty (1987)
This treaty, the first to abolish an entire category of nuclear weapons, signed by
President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev at the Washington Summit in
December, 1987 and ratified by the Senate and Presidiurn of the two countries on the
eve of the Moscow Summit in May-June, 1988. The treaty provides that during the
next three years land-based missiles having a range of
500 kms to 5000 kms and the launchers on which these missiles are to be
mounted, will be eliminated. It also provides for the elimination of the short-range
missiles within next 18 months. In accordance with this treaty USA would destroy 859
missiles based in Western Europe, while the Soviet Union would eliminate 1752
missiles based in Eastern Europe and Soviet Union. The treaty also specifies the
manner in which these missiles shall be destroyed. The two parties undertook to
inform each other of the type of missiles and the place where these were being
destroyed. It also makes provisions for detailed on-site inspection to ensure that
neither side was violating the terms of the treaty.
New Six Nation Disarmament Plan

Encouraged by the treaty between Soviet Union and the USA for the elimination
of Intermediate Range Nuclear Missiles, the leaders of six nations (India, Argentina,
Greece, Mexico, Sweden and Tanzania) from five continents prepared a plan for
disarmament to be placed before the special session of the UN. General Assembly on
Disarmament. This plan envisaged an important role for the United Nations in the
verification of disarmament agreement. It is noteworthy that earlier in 1986 the six
nations had offered to assist the two superpowers in verification of ban on nuclear
tests. They proposed establishment of temporary monitoring stations at the test sites
and inspection of large chemical explosions.
Third Special Session of UN General Assembly on Disarmament

(June 1988)
The Third Special Session of UN General Assembly on Disarmament was held in
June 1988,
514
but it could not achieve any positive results on account of adamant attitude of
the USA on the issue of shedding armaments and making commitments regarding
nuclear weapons. However, the special session looked into the progress in the
implementation of the first two special UN sessions on disarmament held in 1978 and
1982. It is noteworthy that while the first special session on disarmament had
indicated that the final objective should be general and complete disarmament under
effective international control, the immediate goal was elimination of the danger of
nuclear war and the halting of arms race. The second session reaffirmed its faith in
the above objectives and urged the member states to consider proposals for
avoidance of war, particularly nuclear war.
Geneva Talks on Strategic Arms Reduction (June 1989)

After a gap of seven months US-Soviet negotiations on reduction of long-range
nuclear forces were held at Geneva. However, soon it became evident that sharp
differences exist between the two. While Soviet Union insisted on linking of START
accord and the development of space weapons USA was. opposed to it. Similarly,
while Soviet Union insisted on inclusion of submarine Launched Cruise Missiles
(SLCMs) in the agreement, the USA did not approve of it. Differences also existed
between the two on question of mobile land based missiles, certification procedure,
counting rules for warheads carried by strategic bombers, etc. In view of these
differences both the sides made it clear that full agreement on strategic arms
reduction treaty was not in sight.
Further Progress
Undeterred by the failure of the Geneva talks the two super-powers continued to
make efforts to reach some agreement. In September 1989, the foreign ministers of
USA and Soviet Union signed half a dozen agreements and announced their decision
to hold a Super-Power Summit in 1990 (early summer or spring). Soviet Union made
a key concession and announced that Soviet Union would move ahead towards a
long-range weapons
agreement despite its objections to the US Strategic Defence Initiative (SD1)
spaced-based anti-missile programme. The two countries also reached an agreement
on chemical weapons, exchange of data on "chemical weapons by the end of year,
visits by inspectors of other side "to the stockpiles and plants by June 1990. The
other accords provided for verification of missile plants and exchange of information
even before a treaty to slash long-range nuclear weapons was completed, etc.
US Proposes cut in Chemical Weapons

On 25 September, 1989 in the course of his address to the General Assembly
President Bush of USA proposed a treaty suggesting elimination of all chemical
weapons from the surface to the earth within 10 years from the date on which it is
signed and indicated US readiness to destroy 98 per cent of its chemical stockpiles in
8 years provided the Soviet Union joined it in doing so. The proposal of President
Bush was accepted by Soviet Union. Soviet Union offered to comply with the
proposals even before the conclusion of the multilateral treaty if the United States
agreed. This was a welcome development and indicates the desire of the two super
powers to get rid of their stockpiles of chemical weapons for the sake of world peace.
In short as a result of the dialogue between the two super powers since 1985
considerable progress was made and they reached substantive agreements in the
areas of arms control. They ratified the 1987 INF Treaty (a focal point of controversy
between the two for nearly a decade); took preliminary steps in the Strategic Arms
Reduction Talks (START) towards an angreement to reduce strategic nuclear arsenals
by 50 percent. All these developments greatly contributed to the easing of tension
between the two super powers.
Washington Summit (1990)

At the Washington Summit meeting between President Gorbachev and President
Bush held in May-June 1990 further progress in the direction of disarmament was
made. The two countries concluded agreements on nuclear, chemical and
conventional arms. The most significant arms control agreement related to the
chemical
weapons. The two sides agreed to destroy thousands of tonnes of these mass
destructive weapons and reduce their stockpiles to 5,000 tonnes each. It was decided
that the destruction would begin in 1992 and would last upto 2002 A.D. They also
agreed to immediately stop further production of these weapons. This agreement
greatly improved the prospects for a global ban on the production, possession and
use of chemical weapons being negotiated by the 40-nation conference on
Disarmament at Geneva.
At the Summit that two leaders also agreed on certain principles which were to
govern the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), to be ready for signature by the
end of the year. Another arms control agreement related to the verification protocols
for the implementation of earlier treaties of mid 1970's restricting the size of
underground nuclear explosions. In addition to the above agreements the two
Presidents reiterated their commitment to complete the negotiations on the
conventional force reductions in Europe (CFE Treaty) before the end of the year.
Treaty on Arms Cut

The next important step in the direction of disarmament was taken in September
1990 when a treaty was signed by President Bush, President Gorbachev and other
European leaders at Paris which seeks to cut conventional forces in Europe. Under
this treaty these leaders agreed to destroy tens of thousands of tanks, artillery and
armoured combat vehicles in Europe. Each alliance was allowed a maximum of
20,000 tanks, 30,000 armoured personnel carriers, 20,000 artillery pieces, 6,800
aircraft and 2000 helicopters in four zones.
Treaty Between NATO and Warsaw Pact Countries

On 19 November, 1990 the heads of states and governments of NATO and Warsaw
Pact countries signed a treaty which drastically reduced their conventional arsenals
for the first time since World War II. This treaty, described as the most comprehensive
and far-reaching arms reduction accord ever negotiated, paved the way for new
cooperation in Europe and marked the formal end of cold war.
The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START)
On 31 July, 1991 the Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev and US President George
Bush signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty under which the two super powers
agreed to effect reduction to equal levels in defined strategic offensive arms over a
period of seven years from the date the treaty came into force. Whereas Soviet Union
agreed to 35 per cent cut on its strategic warheads, the United States agreed to 25
per cent cut. The Treaty provided for complex verification procedure, including on site
inspections, short notice inspections and suspect site inspection. The two powers
agreed to set up a joint commission on verification and inspection. The treaty was to
be valid for 15 years unless superseded earlier, by a subsequent agreement.
Thereafter the treaty could be extended for successive five-years period if both the
sides agreed.
US Announces Unilateral Disarmament

On 27 September, 1991, President Bush of United States announced 'unilateral
disarmament' to make the world a better place than ever before in the nuclear age.
He asserted that this would take nuclear tactical weapons out of European soil and
immediately reduce the possibility of any accidental war. He grounded all US
strategic bombers and took them off the alert status. He also removed from alert
status all missiles covered by the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START). He
ordered removal of all nuclear artillery shells from overseas bases. President Bush
urged Soviet Union to match the Nuclear arms cut.
Soviet Reaction
President Mikhail Gorbachev responded favourably to the Bush proposals and on 5
October, 1991 announced extensive cuts in tactical nuclear weapons. He announced
that Soviet Union intended to eliminate nuclear artillery and nuclear warheads from
tactical rockets; remove nuclear weapons from ships and submarines; take heavy
bombers off battle alert and withdraw their nuclear weaponry; take 503 intercontinental ballistic missiles off battle alert; stop development of new short-range
intercontinental missiles and
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UGC-^Politicol Science
impose one year moratorium on nuclear testing. He also offered to reduce the Soviet
armed forces by 700,000 as against 500,000 offered by United States. In response to
America's Star Wars research Gorbachev suggested that both the nations should
mutually develop an anti-missile protection system. In short, it can be said that
Soviet Union not only matched the American reduction of tactical weapons, but also
announced cut of a thousand more missiles that it was required to do under the
START. Above all, Soviet Union also announced one-year moratorium on nuclear
testing.
It may be observed that the favourable response of the two powers to put an end
to disarmament race was due both to the changed international scenario
characterised by end of cold war developments in Eastern Europe and in Soviet
Union, as well as domestic compulsion.
US-Russia Offer to Cut Nuclear Arms (January 1992)

A welcome development in the direction of disarmament took place in January 1992
when President Bush of USA announced bilateral reduction of nuclear arms and
offered to cut nuclear arms even further if President Yeltsin reciprocated. Immediately
the Russian President announced a 10-point disarmament plan with a view to
liquidating all nuclear, biological and chemical mass destruction weapons. He also
announced decision to cut the number of strategic nuclear missiles to the level set by
the START treaty. Even proposed setting up of an international nuclear arms control
agency, which should in the long run control the whole cycle of nuclear process from
mining to the burial of the nuclear waste. He announced Russian decision to stop
production of TU-160 and TU-95 heavy bombers as well as long-range air- based and
sea-based cruise missiles.
Five Power Accord to Prevent Spread of Weapons of Mass

Destruction (May 1992)
In May 1992, the five members of UN Security Councilthe United States, Russia,
Britain, France and China, reached an agreement to prevent the spread of weapons
of mass destruction, including
nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. According to the guidelines agreed to by
these powers, the states will not assist, directly or indirectly in the development,
acquisition, manufacture, testing, stockpiling or development of weapons of mass
destruction; promptly notify the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) of the
export to a non-nuclear weapons state of any nuclear materials, equipments or
facilities and place them under IAEA safeguards; exercise restraint in the transfer of
sensitive nuclear facilities, technology and weapons-usable material; strictly abide by
the convention on bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons; and not to assist in
the manufacture of biological weapons. The guidelines called upon states which had
not signed
the nuclear non-proliferation treaty as yet, to sign the same. It expressed concern
over the sales of ballistic missiles over 1000 to 1500 km range still being made by
North Korea. The states also committed to support the Missile. Technology Control
Regime (MTCR).
Pact on Nuclear Arms Cut (June 1992)

At the Washington Summit held between President Bush and President Yeitsin in
June 1992, an accord to reduce the number of nuclear warheads of the two countries
from 21,000 to 7,000 by year 2003 was reached. The two countries also agreed to
explore seriously the prospects of joint sponsorship of global missile defence and
space cooperation.
Nuclear Arms Control (Start-ll) 1993

The most significant step in the direction of nuclear arms control was taken on 3
January, 1993 when President Bush of US and President Boris Yeltsin of Russia, signed
the Nuclear Arms Control Treaty which seeks to bring about two-thirds rejection in
world's most terrifying weapons. Under the treaty US nuclear weapons stockpile has
been limited to the position of 1960's while that of Russia has been reduced to the
level to mid-1970's size. In terms of this treaty US will wind up 1728 strategic
warheads at sea and the Russians with 1600 to 1650. The land-based missiles with
multiple war-heads will be, however, dismantled by 2003 or as early as 2000 A.D. if
US helps Russia get rid of its SS-18s and SS-19s.
517
The treaty limited the nuclear warheads with which heavy bombers of the two
sides can be equipped. This limit varies from 750 to 1250 units of nuclear warheads
of any type. The two countries, however, reserve the right to reorient upto 100 heavy
bombers for the fulfilment of non-nuclear tasks. It may be noted that the treaty is
subject to ratification by the US Senate and the Russian Parliament.
Convention on Chemical Weapons (February 1993)

On 15 February, 1993 representatives of 120 countries signed Chemical Weapons
Convention at Paris which placed a ban on the use, production and stockpiling of
chemical weapons. Under this convention the signatory states were required to
destroy stockpiles of chemical weapons within two years of ratification of treaty. The
convention also contained provisions regarding international inspection of suspected
violations. The convention did not prescribe procedure for the destruction of the
chemical weapons except that it stipulated that chemical weapons should not be
destroyed by sea dumping, land burial or open-pit burning. This implied that the
procedure for the destruction of chemical weapons had to be environment friendly
and should render such weapons unusable.
Extension of NPT (1995)

In May 1995, a global conference on the extension of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT) was held at New York which decided to extend NPT indefinitely without any
conditions. This permanent extension of NPT implies that only five countries-the
United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, China and France-can now legally possess
nuclear weapons capability. However, to placate the non-nuclear weapons states, a
list of disarmament goals was attached to the extension decision. One of these goals
envisaged completion of a comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty (CTBT) by next
year as well as a plan for annual meetings to review the progress towards that goal.
However, India refused to support the extension of NPT on account of its
discriminatory nature. Pakistan also refused to sign the treaty on the ground that it
would do so only if the New Delhi becomes a signatory.
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) (1996)

The next important step in the direction of disarmament was the signing of CTBT in
September 1996. The treaty was approved by 158-3 votes, while five countries
abstained. India voted against the treaty on the ground that it was both flawed as
well as discriminatory. The Treaty would, however, come into force only after 44
nuclear capable countries, including India, sign the treaty. While opposing the treaty,
India's Chief Negotiator (Ms. Arundhati Ghose) told the General Assembly, that India
would never sign "this unequal treaty not now, not later until the major nuclear
powers formulate a time-table for eliminating their nuclear arsenal."
The treaty places a ban on all kinds of nuclear weapons test explosions. It
envisages an international monitoring system to check treaty violations. A network of
20 stations would be set up which shall be able to detect underground, atmospheric
or underwater explosions more powerful than the equivalent 1,000 tons of
conventional explosive. Under the treaty any country would be able to request for
inspection to see whether an explosion had been carried out. Such requests can be
based on information collected by the international monitoring system or through
surveillance, but not through spying activities. The seat of the STBT organisation
would be in Vienna (Austria). All decisions on behalf of the organisation would be
made by a 51 member Executive Council to be constituted on the basis of regional
representation. The Treaty would enter into force 180 days after it is ratified by 44
countries that have nuclear power or nuclear research reactors on their soil.
The treaty was Ratified by England and France in April 1998 however, it suffered a
serious setback when the US Senate rejected it by 51 to 48 votes on 14 October,
1999. The Senate took the view that the treaty was unverifiable and would stand in
the way the US modernising its nuclear arsenal and sustaining its technological lead
over other nuclear weapon powers. The US Senate's vote is likely to lead to delay in
its ratification by Russia and China. In fact, it is also possible that the CTBT may not
come into force because so far
518
requisite 44 states have not ratified it. It cannot be denied that the rejection of CTBT
by Senate has given a setback to the nuclear test reduction. It has also provided
India respite from US pressure to sign the treaty.
Chemical Weapons Treaty becomes Effective
On 29 April, 1997 the Chemical Weapons Convention came into force 190 days after
the 65th country (Hungary) ratified it. Under the Chemical Weapons Convention
(CWC), each state party undertakes never, under any circumstances, to develop,
produce, stockpile or retain chemical
weapons or transfer, directly or indirectly, chemical weapons to anyone. They

have undertaken not to use chemical weapons; engage in any military preparation to
use chemical weapons and assist, encourage or induce, in any way anyone to engage
in any activity prohibited by the Convention. The signatories to the Convention are
also expected to destroy the chemical weapons which they own or possess, or which
are located in any place under their jurisdiction or control. They are also expected to
destroy the chemical weapons abandoned on a foreign territory. This treaty is
different from other treaties on arms control in so far as it requires total elimination of
the chemical weapons, while the other treaties have generally been limited arms
control treaties.
General Assembly Resolution on Nuclear Disarmament

(1998)
On 4 December, 1998, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution urging the
nuclear weapon states to take urgent steps to reduce the risk of an accidental atomic
war. It urged the members to take necessary measures "to prevent proliferation of
the nuclear weapons and to promote nuclear disarmament with the ultimate aim of
eliminating nuclear arms. The resolution urged Russia and USA to reduce their
nuclear arsenals with a view to eliminating them ultimately. The Assembly urged all
the member states to redouble efforts to prevent proliferation of weapons of mass
destruction, including nuclear weapons and strengthen policies on non-export of
related equipment, materials or technology.
US-Russian Talks on Arms Reduction
In August 1999, US and Russia agreed to further cut their strategic nuclear arms
and to start negotiations on the new strategic arms reduction Treaty START-II1,
immediately after the Russian Duma (Parliament) ratified the START-II pact. This
became possible because the Presidents of USA and Russia had expressed desire,
during the G-8 summit in cologne in June 1999, to again develop friendly relations.
The relations between these two countries got strained following Russian criticism of
NATO's air campaign against Yugoslavia.
IMPLICATIONS OF ARMS RACE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FUTURE
The implications of arms race have been beautifully brought out by UN report
thus, "The Arms race represents a waste of resources, a diversion of the economy
away from humanitarian purpose, a hindrance to national development efforts and
threat to democratic process. But its most important future is that in effect it
undermines national, regional, and international security. It involves the constant risk
of war engaging the largest powers, including nuclear war and it is accompanied by
an endless series of wars at lower levels. It raises an even greater barrier against the
development of an atmosphere in which the role of the force in international relations
may be down graded. In addition, it impedes relations between countries affecting
the volume and direction of exchanges, diminishing the role of co-operation among
states and obstructing efforts towards establishing a new international economic
order on a more equitable basis."
In the international sphere the arms race has threefold consequences. In the
military sphere it increases the possibility of war, rather even the possibility of a
nuclear conflagration. In the economic sphere it has far reaching effects. Lot of
money is spent not only on arms race and military preparations, but vast resources
are also diverted away from production and growth, which contributes to inflation and
economic crisis. Arms
519
race contributes to the maintaining and widening of the gap between and within
developed and developing countries and impedes co-operation between states. As
regards its impact on the international political conditions, it changes the atmosphere
with high military preparedness and even minor conflicts tend to assume serious
dimensions. Generally, the security considerations come to occupy a prominent
position in the policy formulation. Most of the states try to create spheres of influence
in which even local conflicts become linked to regional or even global confrontations.
The Committee of experts appointed by the Secretary General under directive of
General Assembly in 1976 to look into the social and economic consequences of arms
race while emphasising the need of disarmament observed that "the most important
goals of international community are disarmament and development, which the
members of the UN are committed to pursue vigorously. In fact, both these goals are
intimately linked. Development at an acceptable rate would be hard, if not
impossible, to reach with a continuation of the arms race. Research and development
is one area where the misdirection of efforts is glaring. In this, as other respects, vast
resources, badly needed for development are being consumed as countries make
even greater sacrifices for military purposes. The Committee argued that "Progress
towards disarmament would release internal material, financial and human resources,
both in developed and in developing countries and would permit their redeployment
to purposes of development. The relaxation of the climate of fear, hostility and
confrontation which progress towards disarmament would remove some of the
barriers now hampering international exchanges in general and the free circulation of
raw materials and advanced
technology in particular, and would greatly facilitate the free choice by each country
of its particular path towards development. As a result of disarmament the
industrially developed countries would save a lot on their military expenditure which
could easily be passed on to the developing nations in the shape of aid. This aid shall
go a long way in improving the living standard of the people in these countries.
The Committee made certain suggestions to achieve the objective of complete
disarmament. It proposed that a comprehensive disarmament scheme should be
prepared in which partial measures would no doubt find a place. However, in this
context it would be imperative that negotiations on general and complete
disarmament should receive greater and more urgent attention that they have
received in the past. With a view to impart new momentum to disarmament efforts, it
insisted on the need of involving all countries on the basis of equality; simultaneous
curtailment of the qualitative arms race and reduction of military budgets. It
emphasised that nuclear disarmament must be given highest priority partly because
of the possibility of their proliferation of new states which would enhance the threat
and make disarmament more difficult in future.
Finally, the committee also emphasised the need of expert advice. It recommended
"There is always a need for expert advice and assistance on a more continuous basis
to follow developments closely to advise the General Assembly, the Secretary
General and member states on questions of disarmament and to assist in the
elaboration, specification and adjustment of targets and
programmes." Improvement of the machinery of the United Nations in this

direction appears to be necessary if the world organisation is to fulfil its task in the
field of disarmament.
UnitX
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
HffiflWl
End of Cold
War
The term 'cold war' was first used by Bernard Baruch, an American statesman who in
a speech to South Carolina legislature on April 16,1947 said; "Let us not be deceived,
we are today in the midst of a cold war".1 Walter Lippmann popularised the term in
1947 with his little book by the same name wherein he described the situation that
had arisen between the Western powers and the Soviet Union. The Western powers
and the Soviet Union had come together to fight against the Axis aggression during
the Second World War but, however, their relations, though cordial, were suffering
from an undercurrent of mutual distrust and jealousy. The Soviet Union had
harboured the suspicions about Anglo-American moves on account of delay in
opening the second front during war to relieve German pressure on Soviet front, the
secrecy maintained over the atom bomb, and the denial of invitation to the Polish
provisional government to San Francisco. Similarly, the West had entertained the
feeling that Russia had annexed considerable territory by waging war against Japan
at the last moment Thus, the mutual distrust had led to sharp rivalry as soon as the
World War II came to an end.
BASIS OF COLD WAR

In the main scholars have offered three Interpretations regarding the basis of cold
war.
Firstly, some scholars see cold war as a product of mutual antagonism. They hold
that the mistrust and the consequent fears were the basis of this conflict. The mutual
fear and suspicion produced hostile interaction between two parties and both the
parties were not willing to take by
initiative to reduce, tension. No doubt, the diplomacy of co-exsitance and the rise ot
neutral nations in Asia and Africa contributed to the dampening of the cold war, but it
was kept alive by the fear of the capitalist world about the ultimate motives of Soviet
expansion and the fear of the communist countries that the imperalists were
determined to destroy the Marxland. Thus, the cold war was kept alive due to
illusions of both the capitalists and the communists.
Secondly, some scholars have expressed the view that the cold war was rooted in
ideological incompatibilities. For example, James F Bynes, the US Secretary of State
contended that "there is too much difference in the ideologies of the USA and Russia
to work to a long term programme of cooperation." He held that the expansionist and
crusading Communist ideology was intent upon converting the entire world. They
were scared of, Communism because it was essentially totalitarian and antidemocratic and, therefore, posed a real threat to freedom and liberty throughout the
world. President Eisenhower also said: "we face a hostile ideology global in scope,
atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method." To counter this
threat the United States embarked upon a crusade to eliminate the salient set of
ideas from the globe. This view looks upon the cold war as a "battle for allegiance for
men's minds" on the pattern of religious wars of past. The conflict was quite bitter
because the ideological foes recogniged no virtue in conciliation or co-operation with
enemies.
Thirdly, some scholars see the roots of cold war in the mutual misunderstanding.
According to
1. See Baruch, Public Years (New York, Halt, Rinehart and Winston), 1960.
524
them, both the parties saw in their own action only virtue and in the action of the
adversary only malice. This naturally gave rise to distrust towards each other.
According to Kegley and Wittkoff "this interpretation of the origin of the cold war is
difficult to deny to deny given the perception that became accepted as dogma." 1
The Soviet suspicion of America was based on latter's intervention in Russia in 191819; refusal to establish diplomatic relations till 1933; and the war-time experiencei>iz., American refusal to inform the Soviet Union about Manhattan project to develop
atomic bomb; delay in sending the Soviets promised Lend-Lease support; and the
failure to open up the second front which made Stalin suspect that the American
policy was to let the Russians and Germans destroy each other so that the United
States could then pick up the pieces from among the rubble; and use of atomic
bomb against Japan. In short, the Soviet Union distrust of American intentions was
presumed to stem at least in part, from fears of American encirclement buttressed by
a historical record of demonstrated hostility.
Likewise USA nourished hostility towards Soviet Union because of increasing
indications of growing Soviet belligerence. This feeling arose because of Russian
unwillingness to permit democratic elections in countries liberated from the Nazis;
their refusal to assist in post war reconstruction in regions outside Soviet control; the
maintenance of an unnecessarily large armed forces after war; stripping of supplies
from Soviet areas of occupation and often obstructive behaviour in the new
international organisation; and above all the anti-American propaganda.
END OF COLD WAR

The cold war, which dominated international relations for over four decades after
World War II and was characterised by subtle military and political strategies of the
Super Powers, a ruinous race for destructive armaments and establishment of
military bases on distant lands and across the seas, came to an end rather abruptly.
This was accompanied by the lifting of the Iron Curtain,
breach in the fortress of apartheid and demolition of the Berlin wall.
The process of end of cold war started in the second half on the 1980s when there
was softening in the attitude of the top leaders and they adopted conciliatory
postures towards each other. The first concrete manifestation of this change was the
Malta Summit between President Bush of United States and Mikhail Gorbachev of
Soviet Union. In this summit, held aboard ships off Malta on 2 December, 1989, the
two leaders made a serious bid to reduce tension and check the growing threats of
conflicts in various areas like Middle East. It has rightly been asserted that the Malta
Summit marked the beginning of a new phase in post World War II International
Politics. It also laid the foundation of political co-operation between United States and
Soviet Union in shaping the post war order in Europe.
The Washington Summit (May 30-June 2, 1990) further contributed the easing of
cold war. At this summit President Bush and President Gorbachev concluded a
number of agreements on nuclear, chemical and conventional arms. The two sides
agreed to destroy thousands of tons of chemical weapons and reduce their
stockpiles. They agreed to start destruction of these weapons in 1992 and finish it by
2002 A.D. They also agreed to cease further production of these weapons with
immediate effect. Another important outcome of this summit was that the two
leaders agreed on set of principles regarding the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
(START) which was finally signed on 31 July, 1991. Under this treaty the two super
powers agreed to effect reduction to equal levels in defined strategic offensive arms
over a period of 7 years from the date the treaty came into force. The two powers
also agreed to set up a joint commission on certification and inspection. This was
followed by announcement of 'unilateral disarmament' by President Bush. He even
indicated his intention to take nuclear tactical weapons out of European soil and
reduce possibility of any accidental war. President Bush removed from alert status all
missiles covered by START and ordered removal of all nuclear artillery
1. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkoff, World Politics, Trends and Transformation, p. 42.
End of Cold War

525
shells from overseas bases. He urged Soviet Union to match the nuclear arms cut.
The Soviet leadership responded favourably and on 5 October, 1991 President
Gorbachev announced extensive cuts in tactical nuclear weapons, which not only
matched the American reduction of tactical weapons, but also announced cut of more
missiles than it was required under START. Further Soviet Union also announced one
year moratorium on nuclear testing.
This process of unilateral cut of nuclear arms was repeated by President Bush in
January 1992, and President Yeltsin of Russia responded equally and announced a 10point disarmament plan with the objective of liquidating all nuclear, biological and
chemical weapons of mass destruction. He also announced the decision to stop
production of TU-160, TU-95 heavy members and long-range air-based and sea-based
cruise missiles. All this contributed to the easing of cold war.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO END OF COLD WAR

A number of factors contributed to the end of the cold war. Some of the important
factors were as under:
1. In the first place the changed strategic perceptions of the two super powers
the United States and Soviet Uniongreatly contributed to the end of cold war.
As the two super powers attained parity in nuclear weapons, they realised that
nuclear weapons would be suicidal for both. None of them would be able to
win the war, while both would be ruined beyond redemption.
2. Secondly, the enormous expenses being incurred on the maintenance of
military bases across the seas, was greatly straining the economy of United
States and it was thought desirable to curb this futile expenditure, particularly
in view of the fact that the maintenance of military bases, provided only
nominal gains.
3. Thirdly, the two super powers came to realise that the regional conflicts, and
proxy wars (as in Vietnam, Angola and Afghanistan) had served no useful
purpose. On the other hand, these wars had caused serious financial burdens
on the two Super Powers. This economic strain, in turn had led to deterioration
of the economy of the two countries. This resulted in record trade and budget
deficits in United States. Likewise the military commitments in lands situated
far away had upset the Soviet economy. All this obliged the leaders of two
Super Powers to climb down from the earlier rigid postures and reduce military
expenditure.
FORMAL END OF COLD WAR

Though the process of easing of cold war started in the mid 1980s, it formally came
to an end in mid-1990 when the NATO leaders formally announced the end of the
cold war at their summit
meeting held in London. In the communique issued at the end of this summit, it
was asserted that "The Atlantic Community must reach out to the nations of the East
which were our adversaries in the Cold War and extend the hand of friendship". The
London Declaration emphasised a number of points which are indicative of the
changed nature of the Atlantic alliance. It asserted that nuclear arms should be used
only as a last resort. US nuclear arms in Europe should be reduced and a limit was
imposed on United Germany's armed forces. It was asserted that NATO leaders
decided to invite Soviet Union President Gorbachev to Brussels to address a special
meeting of NATO. The leaders pledged to carry out radical reforms in the military
forces of NATO and envisaged a new role of nuclear weapons to reflect a transformed
Europe minus the Cold War.
At the London Summit United States showed its willingness to have fewer nuclear
weapons in Europe and pledged to begin withdrawal of 1470 nuclear tipped artillery
shells based mainly in West Germany, as soon as Soviet Union pulled out its troops
from Central and Eastern Europe. It is very clear from the London Declaration that
there was a marked change in the basic thrust of NATO from war-making to peacesearching.
The NATO declaration was widely acclaimed by the world leaders. Even the Soviet
leaders described it as 'realistic and constructive'. It met
526
the long standing Soviet demand that the Western Alliance should give a
commitment that it would not be the first to use nuclear weapons. The commitment
of NATO 'no early first use' of nuclear weapons greatly met this demand.
The proposal of the NATO powers to expand NATO into Eastern Republic as
members, and willingness to offer associate status to other Eastern European
Countries, gave rise to apprehensions in the minds of Russia which strongly opposed
the expansion of NATO. However, these misgivings gradually subsided and on 27
May, 1997, Russia signed a security agreement with 16 NATO allies, which offered the
prospects of a unified Europe after more than half a century of bitter division. This
virtually consigned the cold war to history. Under the agreement a joint council of
NATO-Russia was to be created and Russia was to be consulted on all security issues
concerning her. However, this did not prevent NATO or Russia from taking
independent decision or action.
IMPACT ON FUTURE COURSE OF INTERNRIONAL RELATIONS

The end of cold war is bound to have far reaching impact on the future course of
1. In the first place it would lead to the emergence of a new kind of world which
shall be free from military alliances and adversaries. This would in turn curb
the armament race because neither of the alliance would be facing any
military or political threat. In the changed context there would be no
justification for building stocks of various types of weapons.
2. Secondly, the enormous saving in military expenditure, would help in diverting
these funds to development activities in the lesser developed regions of the
world and would greatly contribute to world peace.
3. Thirdly, it would necessitate a new look on the role of Non-Aligned Movement.
As A.P. Venkateswaran, former Foreign Secretary of India spoke of the
movement that once served a valuable purpose of reinforcing the
independence of the third
world countries and enabled them to take decisions on merit.
4. Fourthly, the reconciliation between USA and USSR would facilitate amicable
settlement of long-standing disputes in Vietnam, Cambodia and Korea. In fact,

United States has already initiated moves to accord diplomatic recognition to the
ruling group in Vietnam, which she had firmly ruled out for all these years. North
Korea and South Korea have also given significant indication regarding their
willingness to forge unity. In July 1990, North Korea announced its intention to
open its tightly sealed border with South Korea to attract visitors and to hold
discussions regarding unification of bifurcated Korean peninsula.
5. End of cold war is also bound to have far reaching impact on the foreign policy of
India, and she would be obliged to make several adjustments in her foreign policy
to meet the changed conditions. The clear bid by Soviet Union to improve relations
with the prosperous western countries had its impact on Indo-Soviet relations, as
India could not expect same economic and political support from Soviet Union,
which she has been getting in the past. In the economic sphere, Soviet Union's
close relations with prosperous western countries are bound to operate against the
interests of India. Likewise in the political sphere, India cannot hope to get the
amount of support on the Kashmir issue from Soviet Union.
6. The end of cold war is also bound to bring about far reaching chang in US-Pakistan
relations. In the changed context the United States no long needs China as a
second front or Pakistan as a regional surrogate to counter Soviet expansion. This
is bound to result in great reduction in economic and military assistance to
Pakistan, and indirectly contribute to better relations between India and USA.
7. Seventhly, it is bound to affect Russia's policy towards the Third World. On account
of the bad economic conditions
4.
End of Cold War 527
and disintegration of Soviet Union, there is greater possibility of Moscow

developing close relations with the prosperous Western countries and she may not
be able make same economic-cwm-military gestures towards countries of the Third
World.
8. End of cold war is bound to provide a new thrust to Indo-Pak, relations. As the two
countries shall not be able to play US and Russia against each other to promote
their interests on account of the understanding reached between Russia and USA,
they shall have to conduct their relations on realistic plane.
9. Ninthly, end of cold war has provided an impetus to the idea of new world order
which shall be free from threat of terror, stronger in the pursuit of justice, and more
secure in the quest of peace, an era in which the nation of the world would be able to
prosper and live in harmony. 10. Tenlhly, with the end of cold war the security
environments are like to undergo
changes. The conflicts henceforth are not likely to be of global dimension due to
decoupling from the earlier super power linkage. The conflicts are likely to have
higher local and ethnic content, which may involve higher levels of violence and may
be more difficult to resolve. The Afghanistan and Cambodian problems still continue
to elude a solution.
~^&SaSss""-
70Globalisation and Political

Economy
of International Relations
It is difficult to give a universally acceptable definition of globalisation because

different scholars have followed different criterias to define it. In the first place some
scholars use the term to describe the area of social life beyond the national level and
describe it as a quality involved in the world-wide stretching of social relations. At
present the social relations have linked distant localities in such a way that the
happenings in one place leave an impart on the events which take place thousands of
miles away. In the second place some scholars view globalisation in environmental
terms. They argue that there is a growing global consciousness regarding the need
for the preservation of Physical habitat which we all share. In the third place some
scholars view global order in spatial terms. However, generally the scholars have
tended to emphasise the political and economic aspects of globalisation. Viewed in
this context globalisation implies trans-nationalisation of the production, capital and
standardisation of consumer tastes and their legitimisation with the help of
international institutions like International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, World
Trade Organisation (WTO), etc.
It may be noted that globalisation is not a new phenomenon. Business has been
carried on by the states, transcending national boundaries, in manufactured goods,
services, communication and so on. However in recent years a new thrust has been
provided to the international business. This happened in the developed world during
the eighties and in the developing world during the nineties. This happened on
account of the growing realisation of the significance of economies of
markets and international competition. In short, it can be said that globalisation is a
process of increases economic integration and growing economic interdependence
between countries in the world. It is associated not only with an increasing cross-
border movement of goods, services, capital, technology, information and people, but
also with an organisation of economic activities which cross national boundaries.
According to Michael Porter, the following factors have contributed to the process
of globalisation.
1. Growing similarity of countries in terms of available infrastructure, distribution
channels and marketing approaches.
2. Fluid global capital markets-national capital markets are growing into global
capital markets because of the large flow of funds between countries;
3. Technological restructuringthe reshaping of competition globally as a result
of technological revolution such as in microelectronics;
4. The integrating role of technology reduced cost and increased impact of
products have made them accessible to more global consumers;
5. New global competitionsa shift in competitors from traditional country
competitiors to emerging global competitors.
The global corporations of today conduct their operations world-wide as if the
entire world were a single entity. The aim of the global producers is to offer products
of superior quality at lower cost
Globalisation and Political Economy of International Relations
529
to achieve great efficiency. Resource capabilities are developed by emphasising

labour costs in one country, raw materials in another and information technologies in
still others. Further, in order to attain competitive advantage the global corporations
enter into strategic alliances with other firms and in some cases even their rivals in
their home markets.
CASE FOR AND AGAINST GLOBALISATION

Scholars are sharply divided about the utility and shortcomings of globalisation.
Before we arrive at any conclusion, it shall be desirable to examine its merits and
shortcomings.
CASE FOR GLOBALISATION
L The proponents of globalisation of UDCs have argued that such integration will
improve the allocative efficiency of resources, reduce the capital output ratio and
increase the labour productivity help to develop the export spheres and the export
culture, increase the inflow of the capital and updated technology into the country
increase the degree of competition in
the domestic economy, reduce the relative prices of industrial and manufactured
goods, improve the terms of trade in agriculture, and, in general, give a boost
to the average growth rate of the economy in the years to come.
2. Globalisation will help to restructure the production and trade pattern in a
capital-scarce labour abundant economy in favour of labour-in-tensive goods
and labour-intensive techniques. As a result, the overall resource-productivity
will go up. The export trade will be geared more to the relatively labourintensive products and processes.
3. Foreign capital will be attracted to exploit the professional export opponunities
along the above lines. With the entry of foreign capital, updated, technology
will also enter into the country. It is contended that the existence of relatively
lower wages and the abundance of labour supply will imply larger profits.
4. With the entry of foreign competition and the removal of import tariff barriers,
domestic industry will be subject to price-reducing and quality-improving
effects in the domestic economy. Uneconomic import substitution will slowly
disappear and cheaper imports, particularly of capital goods, will reduce the
capital-output ratio in manufacturing. Lower prices of manufactured goods will
improve the terms of trade in favour of agriculture.
5. With the entry of foreign capital, the aggregate gross and net investment
proportions to GDP will go up, and with a reduced capital output ratio the
growth rate will go up.
6. It is also believed the main effect of integration will be felt in the industrial and
related sectors; and cheaper and high quality consumer goods will be
manufactured at home. And as there is a large domestic market for these
goods, employment opportunities would expand and over a period of time, the
trickle effect will operate and the proportion of people below the poverty line
will go down.
7. It is also believed that the efficiency of banking and financial sectors will
increase with the opening up of these areas of foreign capital and foreign
banks.
CASE AGAINST GLOBALISATION

On the flip side, globalisation has its pitfalls also. A mounting backlash against its
effects, especially in the industrial democracies, is threatening a very disruptive
impact on economic activity and social stability in many countries. Four elements
have to be kept in mind in this regard.
One, the lightening speed at which capital moves across borders, the rapid
evolution of management and marketing requirements increase the pressure for
structural and conceptual readjustments to a breaking point. This is multiplying the
human and social costs of the globalisation process to a level that tests the social
fabric of the democracies in an unprecedented way.
530
Two, the globalisation process is in essence a tremendous redistribution of

economic power at the world level which will increasingly translate into a c
redistribution of political power.
An analysis of the data presented in UNCTAD's Trade and Development Report
1998, and the IMF's World Economic Outlook, September 1998 reveals that in the
globalising world the economies of the world are ironically moving away from one
another more than coming together.
This change is bound to have a profound destabilising effect.
Third, the globalisation process challenges some familiar assumptions. Until now,
for instance, it was conventional wisdom that technological change and increases in
productivity would translate into more jobs and higher wages. But in the last few
years, technological changes have eliminated more jobs than they have cteated.
Four, popular skepticism about the win-win effect of the global economy is
compounded by two phenomena, (i), it is becoming harder in the industrial
democracies to ask the public to go through the pains and uncertainties of structural
adjustment for the sake of benefits yet to come, (ii) globalisation tends to delink the
fate of the corporation from the fate of its employees. In the past, higher profits
meant more job security and better wages. The way MNCs have to operate to
compete in the global economy means that it is now routine to have corporations
announce new profit increases along with a new wave of layoffs.
All these imply that the effort of focussing on training and education, on the
constant overhauling of telecommunication and transport infrastructures, on
entrepreneur-incentive fiscal policies, on recalibrating social policies has to be a
central part of a national competitiveness policy going beyond the traditional concept
of economic policy. Meanwhile, the globalised economy must not become
synonymous with free market on the rampage, a brakeless train wrecking havoc.
INDIA AND GLOBALISATION

Globalisation offers significant opportunities for
India, opportunities that we cannot afford to miss:
First, India has a terrific opportunity to
become the premier Production Centre of the
world. This is what the Asian Tigers did in the eighties and this opportunity is now
OURS on a much bigger scale.
A model is provided by the Japanese MNC Toyota, which has created a production
system throughout the Association of Southeast Asian Nations: plastic components in
Taiwan, motors in Indonesia, steering wheels in Malaysia, gears in the Philippines,
and diesel motors in New Zealand. Toyota then assembles the car in a particular
country to increase the local content. But it also ensures that, for instance, gearboxes
are exported from one country to another where some other parts are produced.
Because of these, Toyota gets import credits. So, it can also import cars assembled in
Japan into a target country without paying high import duties.
In several sectors, particularly in agro-based industries, India has the skills and
the investments which make it the lowest-cost producer in the world. These
investments can easily obtain a share of the world market and all that is required is
to develop alliances with partners overseas and support it with a National Policy for
each sector.
Likewise, the protected economy of the past with its accent on self-sufficiency helped
India develop capabilities to manufacture almost all engineering goods indigenously.
It is this expertise that is now being leveraged to occupy manufacturing slots being
vacated by the West. Because of high costs or tough environmental laws,
manufacturing is becoming unviable in the West. India has
the potential to be a manufacturing site for many global industries.

Secondly, it is of crucial importance for Indian, corporations to go into world
markets and to become India's multinationals abroad, with markets, and later,
production centres spread across the globe. Here again, India has a National
Advantage in certain sectors such as the knowledge-led services sector and wide
range of agricultural, industrial and fashion products. This can be done by creating
India's own Sogoshoshas, who can operate as the marketing arm of India.
Thirdly, an outword-looking approach to investment also helps spread the risks of
entrepreneurship. Staying at home makes a company excessively dependent on
conditions in just one market. In the old state-dominated economy, the risks of the
home market could be
Globalisation and Political Economy of International
Relations 531
overcome by ensuring favourable government policy.

Barriers could be built to protect domestic industry from foreign competition;
policies could be changed at times of adversity and, if need be, the government
could even subsidise economic activity: But in a liberalised environment industry can
no longer take such government support in the market place for granted. And if the
risks at home cannot be controlled it may be better to spread the risk over several
markets, each of which faces different conditions.
Fourthly, recent economic reforms have ended the scarcity of capital that plagued
Indian businessmen since Independence, and this has transformed their finances and
competitiveness. Indian companies are no longer limited by the modest size of the
domestic capital market, and can tap the huge global market through Euro-issues
and sales to FIIs in India. Since India has better growth prospects than mature
European markets, it merits a higher price-earnings ratio and lower dividend yield.
The result is that Indian corporate sector can actually raise equity more cheaply than
what, say, the British can.
Finally, we need to attract foreign investors to make India their home base for
their world markets. In doing so, we must recognise that Latin America, Eastern
Europe, the former Soviet Union and China are also making a determined effort to
attract foreign investment. We have to, therefore, fight for a share of potential
investments. It is ironic that the new foreign investment in India is only a fraction of
what China has been able to attract.
PROGRESS
That the Indian economy-very frequently being described as India Inc.-is beginning to
shed its insularity and is going global is clearly brought out by a number of signals
that are flying allover the place. Among these the more important are as follows(i) MNCs are heading for India in droves; some are buying into or taking over
Indian corporations. In the initial years of reforms, one dipped one's feet in
Indian waters, but remained ready to pull out at a moment's notice. Now India
has become a
serious place of business, where one goes for the long haul, (ii) Indian companies are
stepping up exports, sallying forth into the world and shopping for companies, (iii)
Airlines are scheduling more flights to and from India. Business travellers are
accounting for an increasingly larger proportion of overseas visitors, (iv)
Developments elsewhere in the world are starting to set off tremors at home (a prime
example is the surges and declines in London metal prices which are influencing
Indian metal rates). Indian corporates are increasingly responding to competitive
price pressures from abroad by adopting new pricing policies (e.g., IPCL resorting to
marginal pricing to 'block imports' of polymers in order to maintain it on volumes).

Similarly, the SENSEX and other stock market indices have started moving in line
with fluctuations in similar indices in other parts of the globe like Japan's Nikei and
Hong Kong's Hang Seng.
(v) Corporations are starting to tap the US
debt market, (vi) There has been sharp increase in both the trade and export
intensity over the last eight years. A recent study has gone into the question of
what proportion of the country's output holds export potential and its finding is that
this proportion is almost double the amount suggested by the usual figures and this
share is on the increase, (vii) Increasingly, overseas matkets are accounting for
larger slices of company sales.
(viii) Peak tariff rates have progressively dropped from roughly 150% in 1991 to
40% now.
(ix) Membership of export councils has surged.
(x) An academic qualification in foreign trade now carries a cachet.
(xi) More cargo is being carried in Indian bottoms, so much so that major portiated
have become clogged in recent times.
532
(xii) Banks have launched dollar-denominated credit cards for businessmen

travelling overseas.
(xiii) Indian companies are acquiring or setting up a slew of overseas subsidiaries or
officesunderscoring their interest in a long-term presence in overseas
markets.
(xiv) About 2000 Indian companies have got their ISO-9000 Certificate in the last
four years. Many companies are busy with their 'technology upgradation
programmes'.
(xv) The more recent MNC entrants to India are launching their latest models here.
(xvi) The step-up in trade is also rapidly leading to a proliferation of trade support
services such as freight transfer and cargo handlings.
(xvii) Several new financial services too are now on tap. Banks are vying with one
another to finance the import of capital goods, provide access to global lending
agencies and manage the foreign exchange of firms, (xviii) Programmes on 'Total
Quality Management' are being systematically conducted by corporate sector.
'Creativity Circles' are now assuming good significance among the employees.
'Research and Development' has no longer remained a formality.
CONSTRAINTS
An outward looking or globalisation policy is not a free lunch. It carries a price as it

demands certain constraints on the formulation of national policies. 1. In the first
instance, the international
economic environment has qualitatively changed in more recent times. The

industrialised countries during their economic prosperity phase seemed to adopt a
liberal attitude and facilitate relatively high cost developing countries to enter their
market. However, recent experience shows that in recessionary conditions a more
restrictive stand may be taken adversely affecting the developing economies. It
appears when the industrialised countries are subjected to
economic fluctuations, the dependent
developing countries will have to bear
these economic shocks.
In other words, outwardly oriented
economies tend to do well during a period of
dynamism and high growth in the world
economy, whereas they are prone to severe
dislocation and collapse during a downturn in
international economic activity. In the latter phase,
internal oriented economies are likely to be less
damaged by the stagnation or slow down in world
trade.
2. Another constraint in adopting an outward looking approach by a large poor
country as India arises from the relationship on the one hand between
investment made for export-output and income generated via the multiplier,
and on the other hand between income generated and imports via propensity
to import. This problem stems from the fact that income multiplier effect in a
developing economy is higher than in a developed economy due to a higher
marginal propensity to consume. Consequently, demand generated is also
relatively higher in the developing economies than in the developed
economies. This rise in demand, under certain given conditions, will push up
the domestic price level if marginal propensity to import does not recede, it
will further lead to higher imports to the extent that proportionate rise in
imports and thus, the trade balance is shaken.
3. The benefits of economies will be severely restricted on account of formation
of a single market in the EU and North America when custom barriers are
demolished between the US and Canada. With this cartel-like conditions will
prevail on the demand side in these markets, whereas competition amongst
the suppliers, intra-country and inter-country, will continue. It is in these
changed market conditions that India has to adjust herself. Thus, not to speak
of pushing up its share even survival will prove a gigantic task for India.
2.
Globalisation and Political Economy of International Relations 533
4. Above all, there is no guarantee that economies by itself will inevitably lead to allround prosperity. Quitely following * one's comparative advantage' essentially means
remaining locked in to the caste system of global production with the products
carrying the highest value-added continuing to be made by the Brahmins of the
North. In a recent study, it has been demonstrated how both theoretically and
empirically free trade by itself does not increase either productivity or welfare.
Actually, the study claims "free trade only promotes richman's welfare."
5. In order that globalisation may be beneficial to a developing economy, it would
have to fight international protectionism, and two it must have a policy to
stimulate technical progress and the manufacturing sector. Mere expansion of
trading activities or assembly of expensive consumer goods will neither result in
the benefits of value-added nor will these add to the technical competence of the
economy.
_71Determinants and
Compulsions of
Indian Foreign Policy
A large number of factors have Influenced the determination of Indian foreign policy.
These factors have been classified by Prof. Bandyopadhyaya in two categories, viz.,
basic determinants and political, institutions. Among the basic determinants he
includes Geography, Economic Development, Political tradition, Domestic milieu
International milieu, Military strength and national character. The political institutions
which influence the foreign policy according to him include public opinion, party
system, pressure groups, ministry of external affairs, diplomacy and personality.
Some other scholars have classified the determinants of Indian foreign policy in
two categories, viz., internal and external. Among the Internal determinants they
include geo-political, economic, Ideological elite images and interest groups. In the
other hand in the external determinants they list bilateral, regional and global
environments. However, this classification of the determinants is not quite scientific
because in the present times it is not easy to draw a clear line of demarcation
between the internal and external factors, as they often tend to merge with each
other. Hence it would not be proper to indulge in controversy regarding classification
of the determinants, and deal with them under the following heads.
GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION
The geographical location of the country has greatly influenced India's foreign
policy. As India is located between middle-east, south-east Asia, and far-east it was
not possible for her to keep aloof from the events taking place in these areas.
This point was admitted by Pandit Jawararlal Nehru in the Parliament when he
said "we are in strategic part of Asia, set in the centre of Indian Ocean, with intimate
past and present connections with West Asia, South - East Asia and Far East Asia.
Even if we could, we would not want to ignore this fact." In view of this geographical
location it became imperative for India to maintain intimate relations with the
countries of these regions. Further, the presence of two communist powers (China
and Russia) on the borders of India obliged her to avoid alignment with Western
countries and maintain cordial relations with both the Super PowersUSA and Soviet
Union.
The presence of natural frontiers in the form of Himalayas and Indian Ocean has
also exercised profound influence on India's foreign policy. The Himalayas which were
considered as a natural security guard for India till the fifties of the present century,
provided a new orientation to Indian foreign policy and it became one of her concern
to defend the same. Further, the high mountain range of Himalayas hampered the
growth of normal trade with its northern neighbours. Likewise the coastal boundary,
of over 3500 kms along the Indian Ocean obliged India to maintain a strong and
modern navy, and to prevent foreign presence and naval rivalry in the Indian Ocean.
Precisely for this reason India extended full support to demand for the handing over
of Diego Garcia to Mauritus.
The Indian Ocean is important to India also because it is an effective means of
transport and communication between India and the neighbouring countries of Asia
and other regions of the world. In addition to the natural frontiers,
Determinants and Compulsions of Indian Foreign

Policy 535
the artificial or man-made frontiers, which separate India to Pakistan and Bangladesh,
have also exercised considerable influence on India's foreign policy. In fact
differences over man-made frontiers have generated lot of tension in Indo-Pak and
Indo-Bangladesh relations and greatly strained the Indian foreign policy.
HISTORICAL TRADITION
India's long historical tradition of maintaining peaceful relations with all countries
also greatly influenced India's foreign policy and obliged her to follow policy of
peaceful co-existence. Similarly, having suffered exploitation and sufferings under
the British imperialism for several centuries, India decided to fight and eliminate
imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism and racialism. Realising that fight against
these evils could be carried on effectively only be forging common bonds with the
countries of Asia and Africa who had also been victims of these monsters India tried
to forge solidarity with the Asian and African countries, and waged struggle against
imperialism and colonialism.
IMPACT OF INDIAN CULTURE

The Indian cultural values and traditions also greatly influenced her foreign policy.
The adoption of principles of world peace, peaceful settlement of disputes, mutual
respect for each other's rights, non-interference and tolerance towards others, clearly
bears the impact of Indian cultural values. N.D. Palmer has rightly observed, "Some
of the characteristics and practices of Hindu civilisation have a very noticeable
influence on Indian attitudes and policies today. Among these are a kind of other
worldly attitude towards life and an emphasis on nonmaterial factors and a spirit of
tolerance, detachment, meditation and compromise which perhaps is best

exemplified in Buddhism, an off-shoot of Hinduism". Likewise Indian desire to have
friendship and the cooperation with all the nations is the natural corollary of the
secular character of Indian culture.
IMPACT OF POLITICAL LEADERS

India's foreign policy was also influenced by the Ideas of various political leaders like
Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindra Nath Tagore, Aurobindo Ghosh,
Jawaharlal Nehru etc. All these leaders were bitter critics of imperialism, colonialism
and racial discrimination. No wonder, under their impact India adopted antiimperialist, anti-colonial and anti-racial foreign policy, In this respect Jawaharlal
Nehru's ideas exercised most profound influence on India's foreign policy. On account
of impact of Nehru on India's foreign policy he is often described as the chief
architect of Indian foreign policy. The impact of his ideas on Indian foreign policy is
evident from the fact that even after his death most of his principles continued to be
the guiding principles of India's foreign Policy.
IMPACT OF ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

The economic conditions prevailing in the country at the time of independence also
exercised profound influence on the foreign policy of India. On account of centuries of
imperial domination and economic exploitation, India was economically very
backward nation at the time of independence. The problems of poverty, scarcity,
under-development, scientific, industrial and technological backwardness etc,
rendered her very weak and compelled the leaders to pay special attention to the
raising of standards of the people. As a result it was felt desirable to avoid
unnecessary entanglements and concentrate on economic development of the
country. As India was keen to get assistance from both the super powers, she
preferred to remain away from cold war and developed economic co-operation with
all the countries. She also preferred to follow policy of non-alignment to avoid
interference by the big powers in her internal affairs. For the same reasons, India
decided to keep out of the security alliances
WEAK MILITARY POSITION

Weak military position of India at the time of Independence compelled India to follow
a policy of peace and co-operation towards various states because she did not want
to waste her limited resources on defence preparations and wanted to use them for
economic development of the country. India decided to join the Commonwealth of
Nations also with a view to secure economic assistance and military help in case of
need.
536
IMPACT OF PLURAL SOCIETY

The plural character of Indian society and the presence of people of diverse
religions and cultures in the country also greatly influenced India's foreign policy. The
presence of large Muslim population in the country obliged the Indian Government to
maintain friendly relations with the Arab countries to placate the feelings and
sentiments of the Indian Muslims. Similarly India tried to maintain intimate and
friendly relations with Sri Lanka because of the presence of large number of Tamilian
settlers in that country.
IMPACT OF INDIANS ABROAD

The presence of large number of Indians in different African and Asian countries
obliged the Indian Government to follow anti-racial and anti-colonial policy to give a
projection that India stood with them in their struggle. At the same time the Indian
government tried to impress on the Indians settled in these countries to fully cooperate and collaborate with the people of these countries in their struggle.
IMPACT OF COLD WAR

Cold war, which was a dominant feature of international politics when India
gained independence, also exercised considerable influence on India's foreign policy.
At the time of India's independence the world was divided into two camps headed by
United States and Soviet Union. Realising that alignment with any camp would lead
to tension with the other, India decided to follow a policy of non-alignment. Though
initially this policy was not looked with favour by either of the two camps, but
graduauy they started appreciating this policy. Most of the Asian and African
countries which gained independence the reafter also decided to follow policy of nonalignment like India.
IMPACT OF POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELITE

The policies and programmes of various political parties, specially the Congress,
exercised profound influence on the foreign policy of India. In fact the foreign policy
resolutions adopted by Congress at
its various national conferences, served as a useful input for the Indian foreign
policy. In this regard the Congress ruling elite played special role and gave concrete
share to several principles of Indian foreign policy. Even top civil servants and military
-leaders exercised some influence in the formulation of Indian foreign policy, but their
role was overshadowed by the Congress and political elite.
IMPACT OF IDEOLOGY
The Indian foreign policy was also influenced by the various prevailing ideologies
like Gandhism, Liberalism, Democratic Socialism and Internationalism. The principles
of Ahimsa (Nonviolence), Satya (Truth), Satyagraha (Fight for Truth), Universal
Brotherhood, etc. which very dear to Mahatma Gandhi and guided the national
struggle of India, exercised profound influence on the leaders who formulated India's
foreign policy. No wonder principles of world peace opposition to apartheid and faith
in peaceful co-existence, became the guiding principles of India's foreign policy
under the impact of Gandhism. Likewise the ideology of nationalism, which stood for
love and sacrifice for the country, prompted the leaders to follow policy of nonalignment because this policy alone could secure India's interest without involving
her in power politics and cold war. Again the ideology of liberalism which stood for
love and respect for humanity, faith in universal brotherhood, opposition to
imperialism colonialism etc. prompted the Indian leadership to lay emphasis on the
principles of promotion of international peace and security, maintenance of just

"honourable relations among nations fostering of respect for international law and
treaty obligations in dealings of organised peoples with one another and encouraged
settlement of international disputes by arbitration. Finally, the ideology of
democratic socialism which stood for integration of love for democratic means with
socialist goals, also influenced Indian foreign policy, and India demanded fair
economic relations between the developed and developing countries. This also
prompted India to maintain friendly relations with both the Communist and nonCommunist countries.
I
Determinants and Compulsions of Indian Foreign Policy 537
ROLE OF POLICY MAKERS

The foreign policy of a country is also considerably influenced by the attitude and
perceptions of the policy-makers. The interpretation of national interest by the
decision-makers and their perception of the external scenario is reflected in the
foreign policy of a country highlighting the impact of the personalities of decisionmakers on the foreign policy of a country J. Bandyopadhyaya says, "their ideological
predilections, psychological propensities, and above all, their need for personal
political survival inevitably condition the final choice of ends and means.
IMPACT OF INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

The international environments have also exercised profound influence on India's
foreign policy. The independence of India coincided with the emergence of two super
powers USA and Soviet Union both trying to consolidate their position through
security alliances with their Amp followers. Therefore India had to choose between
joining either of the blocks or keeping out of the power blocs. India preferred to keep
out of the power blocs and cold war and decided to follow policy of on-alignment.
While keeping out of the power blocs, it tried to develop friendly relations with
countries of both the blocks in the interest of quicker economic development of the
country and effective participation in the international sphere. The emergence of Red
China in 1949 and the decision of Pakistan to join military alliances sponsored by USA
also made it imperative for
India to opt for policy of non-alignment. The international developments in the
subsequent years specially in the 1980's and early 1990's have also exercised
tremendous influence on India's foreign policy. These developments include end of
cold war, disintegration of Soviet Union, strong
anti-Communist movements in East European countries like Poland,

Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, unification of East Germany and West
Germany, rise of Islamic states in Central Asia, activities of G-7 and G-15 and their
divergent policies towards NIEO, etc. All these factors have compelled India to make
adjustments in her foreign policy India not only trying, to strengthen relations with
USA but also trying to increase economic cooperation with Japan.
The economic changes in the international system in the post-old-war period have
obliged to follow policy of globalisation and liberation. India has not only signed GATT
treaty but also became founder member of the World Trade Organisation (W.T.G.).
Thus it can be said that external environments have exercised profound influence on
the foreign policy of India.
It is evident from the preceding account that Indian foreign policy has been
influenced by different factors. Though none of these factors can be regarded as the
exclusive determinant of Indian foreign policy, all of them collectively influenced its
formulation. Further, the Indian foreign policy has been undergoing changes on
account of domestic and international actions and reactions. But the prime factor
which motivated the Indian leaders in the formulation of Indian foreign policy was
promotion of national interest.
hhbh72"
India's Nuclear
Policy
India has been a consistent opponent of the Nuclear weapons ever since her
independence. In fact even before India gained independence the Indian leaders
expressed shock over the dropping of the bomb at Hiroshima and Nagasaki which
resulted in enormous loss of life and property. No wonder after independence the
Indian leaders decided to keep India free from atomic weapons and carried out a
crusade against nuclear weapons from every possible platform.
NUCLEAR POLICY UNDER NEHRU

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, who was also incharge of the
Department of Atomic Energy, stated on more than one occasions that India had
nothing to do with the atom bomb and she would like to use the nuclear energy for
peaceful purposes only. Nehru was fully conscious of the important role which nuclear
energy could play in the economic development of the country. This view was
supported by Dr. Homi Bhabha, who also emphasised the need to tame the atom for
securing the developmental needs of the country, particularly in the sphere of power,
industry and transport. Therefore they felt that atomic energy could play an
important role in the future development of the country.
ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

In 1948 the Parliament passed the Atomic Energy Act which entrusted the
responsibility for the development of atomic energy through research, etc., to the
central government. An Atomic Energy Commission was set up under the
Chairmanship of Dr. H.J. Bhabha to pursue full fledged atomic energy programme in
the country. In January 1954
the government decided to set up a separate research institute at Trombay. In August
1954 a separate department of Atomic Energy was set up which was kept by the
Prime Minister under his charge, while H.J. Bhabha was appointed as the Secretary of
this Department. Thus the government tried to promote research in peaceful uses of
atomic energy and directed the Commission to prepare plan for setting up power
plants in the country to meet its powers needs.
In 1958 the Government decided to reconstitute the Atomic Energy Commission
and vested it with full executive and financial powers. The reconstituted Commission
was to have at least three and not more than seven full time members with the
Secretary of the Department of Atomic Energy acting as its ex-officio Chairman. The
Commission was entrusted with the responsibility of guiding and utilising nuclear
research and technology, particularly in the energy sector. However, a clear cut
policy regarding nuclear energy was outlined in the Atomic Energy Act passed in
1962, which made it mandatory for "the Central Government to provide for the
development, control and use of atomic energy for the welfare of the people of India
and for other peaceful purposes and for matters connected therewith."
In accordance with the policy pronouncements made from time to time several
Atomic Reactors and Atomic Power Plants were set up for the exploitation of nuclear
energy for peaceful purposes. Simultaneously efforts were also made to promote
nuclear research and train nuclear scientists by Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research (TIFR) and the Atomic Energy Establishment (established in 1957) which
was
India's Nuclear Policy

539
renamed as Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967. Due to efforts of these

institutes India found a place on the nuclear map of the world.
In addition to the above research institutes, several other institutions were also set
up during this period which greatly contributed to the promotion of India's nuclear
energy programmes. The prominent among these institutions were Rare Minerals
Survey Unit the Indian Rare Earths Ltd.; the Uranium Corporation of India; Heavy
Water Plants at Nangal, Kota, Baroda, Tuticorin and Talcher; the Power Reactor Fuel
Reprocessing Plant; and the Reactor Research Centre, Kalpakkam. Along with these
institutions India also set up several nuclear reactors like Apsara, Circus, Zerlina,
Purnima, Dhruva, Kalpakkam, etc., and Atomic Power Plants at Tarapore, Rajasthan
Atomic Power
Station at Rana Pratap Sagar, Kalpakkam, Narora. All the above activities were
undertaken with a view to develop nuclear research for peaceful purpose. While
inaugurating APSARA at Trombay Nehru emphatically stated, "No man can prophecy
the future. But I should like to say on behalf of my governmentand I think I can say
with some assurance on I behalf of any future Government of Indiathat whatever
might happen, whatever the circumstances, we shall never use this atomic energy for
evil purposes. There is no condition attached to this assurance, because once a
condition is attached, the value of such an assurance does not go very far."
Another notable feature of India's nuclear policy during Nehru era was that it
insisted on creating international safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology. In
keeping with this policy India signed the Moscow Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT)
because it sought to save mankind from the hazards of increased atmospheric
radiation. Nehru described the PTBT as an important landmark in the history of
international co-operation and understanding and expressed the hope that it would
lead to wider agreements in other spheres and reduce tension, and ultimately pave
way for general and complete disarmament. Obviously Nehru failed to realise that
the treaty was designed to ensure permanent dominant position of the existing
nuclear powers. The treaty was defective in so far as it did not make any bid to
reduce the nuclear stockpiles and prohibited only those tests which could be
detected.
NUCLEAR POLICY UNDER SHASTRI
Under Prime Minister Lai Bahadur Shastri India's nuclear policy underwent a slight
change. In view of nuclear explosion carried out by China there was a growing
demand for deviation from the policy of peaceful use of nuclear energy and
insistence on making atom bomb. However Shastri decided to persist with Nehru's
policy, even though he indicated that the policy could be changed according to the
circumstances.
NUCLEAR POLICY UNDER INDIRA GANDHI

Mrs. Indira Gandhi also continued the policy of development of peaceful nuclear
technology, but at the same time emphasised that defence and security of the
country would not be ignored and the nuclear policy of the country would be
formulated keeping in view the overall interests of the country. Indira Gandhi's
government, however, refused to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) because it
was discriminatory and sought to perpetuate the dominant position of the nuclear
weapon states. It denied nuclear weapons to the non-nuclear weapon states but did
not prohibit the nuclear weapon states to proliferate their nuclear weapons. The other
shortcomings of the treaty included absence of equal rights to all the countries to
tame the atom to solve their socioeconomic problems and failure to guarantee
security to all the states. The Indian objection against the treaty were summed up by
K. Subramanyam thus: 'The Indian objection was mainly against the unequal nature
of the treaty and the misuse of international public opinion to observe a policy of
vertical proliferation by a few powers and obfuscation of the dangers of nuclear first
use, In India's view this was not a non-proliferation treaty but a measured design to
disarm the unarmed."
DEVELOPMENT OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY FOR

PEACEFUL PURPOSE
At the same time India continued its drive for development of nuclear technology for
peaceful purposes and proceeded to conduct its peaceful
540
nuclear explosion at Pokharan on 18 May, 1974. This test was conducted to develop
nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, for development of mines, construction of
dams, harbours> search for minerals, etc. The peaceful nuclear explosion of India
invited criticism from the Western powers who described the explosion as a step
toward nuclear proliferation with strong military and non-peaceful potentials. It was
also argued that the peaceful nuclear explosion was a serious strain on Indian
economy and resources and would not in any way help in socio-economic
reconstruction of the country. Unmindful of this criticism the Indian leaders asserted
India's right to conduct peaceful nuclear explosion for nuclear research and
development of nuclear technology.
NUCLEAR POLICY UNDER JANATA GOVERNMENT

India's nuclear policy underwent a change under Janata Government (1977-79) which
abandoned the policy of peaceful nuclear explosion. However, the Janata
Government also refused to sign the NPT because it considered the treaty as
discriminatory and useless. It justified its decision by asserting that the treaty sought
to limit India's sovereign rights without providing for any international treaty for
disarmament or nuclear disarmament.
NUCLEAR POLICY AFTER 1980

With the return of Indira Gandhi to power in 1980, the new government reiterated its
commitment to pursue policy of peaceful use of nuclear energy. It asserted its right to
conduct peaceful nuclear explosion for the promotion of indigenous nuclear research
and technology. However, it did not conduct another peaceful nuclear explosion, even
though it stepped up nuclear research in nuclear fuel reprocessing technology,
alternative technology fuel for Atomic Plants, Reactor technology, Fast Breeder
reactor technology and other related areas of research.
Rajiv Gandhi Government (1984-89) also continued the policy of development of
peaceful nuclear technology. During this period India made further progress in the
development of indigenous nuclear technology. The notable achievement of
this period were Dhruv Atomic Plant for production of Plutonium 239; and the second
unit of Kalpakkam atomic plant went critical. At the same time Rajiv Gandhi asserted
that India was not closing its option on the question of producing a nuclear bomb. In
1988 at the Third Special Session of the General Assembly Prime Minister Rajiv
Gandhi proposed an Action Plan on Disarmament which aimed at achieving the
objective of nuclear weapon free world by the year 2010 A.P. A notable feature of
this. Action Plan was a binding commitment by all the nations to eliminate nuclear
weapons not merely by the super powers but also the nuclear threshold states.
The National Front Government (1989-90) as well as Janata Party Government
(1990-91); also continued to advocate policy of peaceful use of nuclear energy.
However they also kept the option of producing nuclear weapons open in view of
reports that Pakistan was on the verge of producing bomb.
The Government of Narasimha Rao which came into power in June 1991 also
followed the policy of development of nuclear technology for peaceful uses. However,
it believed in attaining greater indigenisation of nuclear technology. The other
notable features of nuclear policy of Narasimha Rao Government were support for
ban on horizontal as well as vertical nuclear proliferation; refusal to sign the NPT on
account of its discriminatory nature; support for general and comprehensive
disarmament by all; keeping Indian options open for taking all possible steps to meet
threat posed by nuclear Pakistan, etc.
In 1995 India opposed permanent extension of the Non-Proliferation Treaty on two
grounds. First, it did not adequately reflect India's plea for equitable, global nuclear
disarmament and divided the world into nuclear haves and have-nots. Secondly, the
signing of NPT by India, as a noil-nuclear weapon state, was not warranted due to her
security considerations, as the country was flanked by declared nuclear power
(China) and furtive country (Pakistan). Again in 1996, India opposed Comprehensive
Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), on the ground that it was both flawed as well as
discriminatory. The Chief Indian negotiator in UN General Assembly said that India
would never sign this unequal treaty, not now, not later, until
India's Nuclear Policy 541
the major nuclear powers formulate a time-table for the elimination of their nuclear
arsenals.
DEMAND FOR PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

On account of Pakistan's nuclear programme and changed international
environments, a demand was made in certain quarters that India should go nuclear.
Though the Indian leadership asserted time and again that India did not want to
divert its resources from socio-economic development programmes to nuclear
weapons programme yet like any other country, India could not ignore the threat to
its security resulting from the development of nuclear weapons by Pakistan.
Some of the factors which prompted India to give a rethinking to its nuclear
programme were (i) reports that Pakistan had developed ability to enrich uranium by
5% which could be stepped up easily to produce weapon grade enriched uranium; (ii)
report that Pakistan had secretly tested the US made Krypton Electric triggers; (iii)
report that Pakistan was receiving support from Saudi Arabia and Libya in producing
Islamic bomb; (iv) growing nuclear co-operation between Pakistan and China; and (iv)
reports that Pakistan possessed at least one atomic bomb, etc.
Even the international environments had undergone complete transformation due
to collapse of Communist regimes in East Europe; collapse of Soviet Union; growing
fundamentalism in West Asia and Central; emergence of unipolar world with US as
the sole surviving super power; dominance of Security Council by United States; the
increasing awareness for environmental protection, etc. This posed serious problems
for the foreign policy of India in general and the nuclear policy of India in particular.
India had to make necessary adjustments in her policy in the post-cold war unipolar
world.
SHOULD INDIA PRODUCE NUCLEAR WEAPONS?

On the issue whether India should produce nuclear weapons or not, the opinion was
sharply divided. Those who favoured that India should go
nuclear argued that since Pakistan was close to having an atomic bomb, India could
not afford to remain non-nuclear weapon state.
Arguments For
They justified India going nuclear, on two grounds. First, the production of nuclear
bomb would lead to reduction in India's spending on defence because a Mirage
fighter costs more than a nuclear-bomb. Secondly, with Pakistan's GNP being only a
fraction of India's GNP, there was no chance of Pakistan joining a nuclear arms race
with India. Even in the interest of its international prestige, India must go nuclear
because India cannot allow its enemies to subdue her by nuclear threat.
Arguments Against Nuclear Weapons

On the other hand those who opposed production of nuclear weapon by India put
forth the following arguments. First, it would seriously hamper the socio-economic
development of the country by diverting the much needed finances for development
of bomb. Secondly, it would give rise to nuclear arms race in the sub-continent and
pose a serious threat for peace in the region as well as the world. Thirdly, it would
give a serious setback to movement for disarmament and arms control and
encourage nuclear arms race in the subcontinent. Fourthly, the production of nuclear
weapons would compel India to bring about far reaching changes in its defence and
security setup. Fifthly, it would give a serious set back to India's image as a peaceloving and non-aligned country and undermine her position viz-a-viz major powers.
Sixthly, it would greatly contribute to tension and terror in South Asia and contribute
to the deterioration of the existing environments.
The arguments given in support of production of nuclear weapon by India as well
against production of nuclear weapons were quite weighty. It was argued that a poor
country like India, with limited financial resources, should concentrate primarily on
her socio-economic reconstruction and refrain from wasting her resources on nuclear
arms race. At the same time it was admitted that in view of the hostility prevailing
between India and Pakistan, and the
542
full support being extended by China, Arab countries and USA to Pakistan in the
production of bomb, it would be suicidal for India to ignore the challenge. Therefore it
was insisted that India must review its nuclear options andproduce nuclear
weapons in the interest of national security.
INDIA CONDUCTS NUCLEAR TESTS

In view of the gradual deterioration of the security environments in the region due to
nuclear and missile proliferation and clandestine acquisition of nuclear materials by
Pakistan, it was felt by the Indian leadership that it was no more possible to follow
the voluntary self- imposed restraint on the production of nuclear weapons without
jeopardising country's security. Further, at the international
level also there was hardly any progress towards the goal of nuclear weapons free
world. In fact the nuclear weapon states had extended NPT indefinitely and
unconditionally with a view to perpetuate the existence of nuclear weapons in the
hands of the five countries.
In the midst of the above developments on 11 May 1998 India carried out three
underground nuclear tests at the Pokharan range. These three nuclear tests were
carried out with three different devicesa fission device, a low-yield sub-kiloton
device; and a thermonuclear device. These three tests were followed by two tests on
13 May 1998, by low-yield devices in sub-kiloton range.
The main thrust of India's nuclear policy has been that nuclear weapons are not
weapons of war but weapons of mass destruction. It would be desirable to evolve a
nuclear weapons-free world to enhance the security of the countries. This could be
achieved only through universal and nondiscriminatory disarmament. However, this
was not acceptable to nuclear weapon states, who were keen to create arbitrary
division between the nuclear haves and have-nots. This was not acceptable to India
which subscribed to the principle of equal and legitimate security interests of all
nations, and insisted that every nation has the sovereign right to make a judgement
regarding its supreme national interests and exercise its sovereign choice. India's
decision to conduct nuclear tests was justified by K. Subrahmanyam, the famous
Indian defence analyst. Thus India, a
reluctant nuclear weapon state was compelled to join the nuclear club because all
its pleas to move towards nuclear disarmament were ignored by the nuclear weapon
legitimised by an international community through the unconditional and indefinite
extension of the Non-proliferation Treaty.
After the nuclear tests, India clarified that in keeping with its international
obligations, it shall not use these weapons to commit aggression or to mount threats
against any country. It emphasised that these are weapons of self-defence and seek
to ensure that India is not subjected to nuclear threats or coersion. India also
announced this decision to observe a voluntary moratorium and refrain from
conducting underground nuclear test explosions. India even pledged not to first use
the nuclear weapons, and showed willingness to enter into bilateral dialogue for this
purpose. While making all these commitments Indian leaders also asserted that India
reserves the right to review this decision if in its judgement extraordinary events take
place that jeopardise India's supreme national interest.
The Indian explosion evoked strong reactions in various quarters. While USA and
Britain imposed sanctions against India, China express serious concern over the tests.
France merely expressed concern over the developments. Russia said that it felt 'let
down', but promised to continue the promised programmes, including cooperation in
commercial use of nuclear energy. Germany, Japan and Denmark announced decision
to freeze aid to India. Australia and New Zealand recalled their High Commissioners.
Even the UN Security Council expressed concern over the nuclear tests conducted by
India in disregard of overwhelming international opinion and urged India to refrain
from any further tests. India, however regretted the statement. Despite all the
criticism of Indian action, it cannot be denied that it would deter Pakistan and China
from resorting to nuclear blackmail. Further it would also help India command greater
credibility on disarmament issues because in the past few years only five nuclear
weapon states were taken more seriously. But it cannot be denied that a nuclear India
has to be more sober and more alert than ever before.
India's Nuclear Policy 543
INDIAN NUCLEAR DOCTRINE

In view of the persistent demand from various quarters that India should clearly state
its strategic policy, Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee made a statement in the Lok
Sabha on 4th August 1998, in which he elaborated the nuclear doctrine based on
three principles.
1. Minimum Nuclear Deterrence

To ensure that the independence and intergrity of the country is not jeopardised, the
country would maintain a minimum but credible nuclear deterrent. The Prime Minister
said that India can maintain credibility of nuclear deterrent without carrying out
further tests. He said that India has already announced a voluntary 'moratorium' and
was willing to move towards its de jure formalisation. However, the Prime Minister
asserted that India reserved the right to review this decision, if in its judgement
extraodinary events take place which jeopardise India's supreme national interests.
Prime Minister clarified that the only objective of India's nuclear arsenal was to
prevent blackmail by other nuclear powers. India has no intention of engaging other
states in an arms race and would keep its arsenal at the lowest possible level
required for credible deterrence. It may be noted that the minimum deterrence refers
to a level of nuclear capability which will deter aggression and coercive diplomacy.
But if this deterrence fails, the country has the political will and capacity to retaliate
with nuclear weapons, after absorbing the first strike. It is the possibility of damage
due to second strike which will deter the first use of nuclear weapons.
2. No First Use
Though India in the past has said on several occasions that it is willing to negotiate
'nuclear no-first use' arrangements with other nuclear powers either bilaterally or
multilaterally, but Prime Minister Vajpayee preferred to make a unilateral
commitment and announced "no-first-use' doctrine. This implies that India is not to
first use the nuclear weapons against the nuclear weapons states. To effectively deal
with the nuclear adversaries India must be able to weaponise, deploy and deliver a
second strike within 24 hours which shall be capable of inflicting unacceptable
damage on the adversary.
3. No use against non-nuclear states

Having stated that India shall not be the first to use nuclear weapons, there hardly
exists any basis for their use against countries which do not possess nuclear
weapons. Therefore, India has committed not to use nuclear weapons against nonnuclear weapon states.
Indian Nuclear Doctrine has been criticised on several grounds. In the first place, it
has been argued that India's decision not to first use nuclear weapons seems quite
illogical in view of the fact that India justified its decision to go nuclear on the ground
that China had gone nuclear. Secondly, China's conventional forces are far superior to
India and hence it looks a weak deterrence. Thirdly, it is desirable that India, in its
own national interest, should enter into bilateral 'no first use' agreement with China
and Pakistan and take adequate steps to ensure that nuclear weapons are never
used. Fourthly, India should enter into an agreement with China and Pakistan for nontargeting each other. Despite the above shortcomings it cannot be denied that low
intensity nuclear deterrence between India and Pakistan has been in operation since
1990. This is evident from the fact that
despite low intensity conflict in Jammu and Kashmir for almost a decade, the
conflict did not assume the shape of a fullscale war.
In conclusion it can be said that the fundamental purpose of Indian nuclear
weapons is to deter the use and threat of use of nuclear weapons by any state or
entity against India. Though India has committed not to first initiate a nuclear strike
but shall not hesitate to respond with punitive retaliation should deterrence fail.
However, to make nuclear weapons invulnerable to first strike, India shall have to
deploy anti-ballistic missiles and develop nuclear submarines. It shall also have to
develop necessary protectives safety systems for nuclear weapons to prevent
triggering of any accidental war or unauthorised use of nuclear weapons.
The operation of the doctrine of nuclear detterent after the explosions of 1998
shows that nuclear weapons have imposed limitations on both India and Pakistan.
This is evident from the great restraint exercise by the two countries during
the Kargil conflict. India exercised tremendous restraint and tried to limit the war to
the Indian territory despite high casualties. This was in contrast to the Indian conduct
during the war of 1965 when India took the war to the Pakistani territory. On the
other hand though Pakistan continued to hold the threat of using nuclear weapons to
safeguard its territorial intergrity it did not make use of the same. In fact Mushahid
Hussain, Pakistan's Information Minister had stated in October 1998 that the nuclear
weapons had 'reduced the chances' of a fourth war between India and Pakistan ". The
possession of nuclear weapons by both India and Pakistan has encouraged the two
countries to act with restraint. The fear of annihilation due to nuclear conflict has
encouraged them to follow the policy of "live and
let live" and may ultimately lead to secularisation of domestic political process in
Pakistan as well as international relations, because Pakistan's dream of grabbing
Kashmir on the religious principle of Muslims constituting majority in Jammu and
Kashmir has remained unfulfilled.
With regard to China also the doctrine of nuclear detterence is likely to encourage
China to make serious effort to resolve the border problem with India. It shall be able
to resort to nuclear blackmail as it did in 1995 when it insisted on India to first
withdraw its troops from borders. Even USA, which had so far adopted critical attitude
iowards India's nuclear weapon policy, is gradually coming to realise that Indian
power in Southern Asia can serve US interests, without posing any threat to world
peace.
73India's Relations with

Neighbours
INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS

India's neighbours include Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Myanmar
(Burma) Ceylon, (Sri Lanka) and Bangladesh. India has many" common historical,
social, economic and political bonds with these countries. The foreign policy
orientations and the attitudes of all these countries towards India exercised profound
influence on the framers of India's foreign policy. On its part India has tried to
maintain cordial and close relations with these countries ever since independence.
But India has found formidable difficulties in dealing with these neighbouring
countries and often they have adopted hostile postures towards India, presumably at
the instigation of certain foreign powers. Another factor which has greatly hampered
development of cordial relations with neighbour countries has been the size, strength
and population of India which has given rise to suspicions in the minds of other
countries. In short India's efforts to develop friendly relations with her neighbours
were greatly thwarted by internal and external pressure. However, with the
assumption of power by the United Front Government in June 1996 a fresh bid was
made to improve relations with the neighbouring countries and remove the existing
misgivings about India. For this purpose the new government put forth a new
principle, which has come to be popularly designated as "Gujaral Doctrine", Under
the Gujaral Doctrine India has made unilateral concessions to the neighbouring
countries like Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, etc. with regard to trade and travel,
without expecting any reciprocity. The Government has also tried to promote free
trade among the member countries
of SAARC and emphasised the need of converting SAARC into, an economic union at
the earliest. Another notable feature of the General doctrine has been avoidance of
outside intervention in the region. Thus India turned down the offers of mediation
made by USA, Britain and Iran in the Kashmir dispute.
INDIA AND PAKISTAN

Geographically, historically, culturally as well as economically no other two countries
of the world have so much in common as India and Pakistan. In fact the two
constituted a single economic and political entity for many centuries before Pakistan
was created in 1947. But since, the day the British withdrew from the South Asian
sub-continent, the two major countries (India and Pakistan) have been living in a
state of perpetual cold war. The creation of Pakistan on the principle of two-nation
theory gave rise to bitter feeling between the two countries. India was not happy
over the loss of Pakistan. Similarly Pakistan reared that since India had not readily
accepted the partition it would try to destroy Pakistan and reintegrate it with India.
Therefore Pakistan persisted with anti-India policy and tried to ensure the security
and integrity of Pakistan, by joining the US sponsored military alliances to secure
western arms and support against non-aligned India. On the other India tried to follow
a policy of non-alignment with the power blocs to promote its national
interests and international peace. The different perceptions of foreign policies of

Pakistan and India stood in the way of development of friendly relations between the
two countries and a sort of cold war developed between the two South Asian
neighbours.
546
RELATIONS DURING THE EARLY YEARS AFTER

INDEPENDENCE
Though soon after attainment ot independence the leaders of two countries
announced their intentions to maintain cordial relations with each other, yet their
relations became one of discord. This was due to numerous problems which arose in
the wake of Partition. Some of the important problems which strained Indo-Pak
relations during the early years were boundary dispute; the problem of refugees;
problem of recovery or compensation for abandoned property of refugees; divisions
of state assets; canal water dispute; problem of minorities; Indo-Pak trade;
integration of Indian states, etc.
1. Demarcation of Boundary
As the partition was effected in haste without due precaution, dispute arose between
two countries regarding demarcation of boundary. Though the British Government
had set up two Boundary Commissions in June 1947-one for Bengal and the other for
the Punjab, each comprising of two representatives from India, and two
representatives from Pakistan, still disputs arose regarding demarcation of boundary
between East Bengal and West Bengal, and between East Bengal and Assam, which
were referred to lndo- Pakistan Boundary Dispute Tribunal headed by Sweden's Judge
Algot Bagge. The Bagge Award was announced in May 1950 and was accepted by
both the countries.
2. Refugee Problem
The riots which broke out in the wake of partition gave rise to the problem of
refugees because about 12 million people moved from one side or the other. The
presence of these refugees made the atmosphere tense. However, the problem of
refugees was largely solved by 1962 due to various rehabilitation measures taken by
the two governments as well as by private efforts.
3. Minorities Problem
Though the partition was effected on the basis of religion still the problem of religious
minorities persisted. Even after partition over 40 million Muslims remained in India
and about ten million Hindus remained in East Pakistan. India sought to
solve the minority problem by establishing secular state, while Pakistan opted for an
Islamic Republic. Despite this, the treatment of minorities by the two Governments
continued to strain relations. Though the Inter-Dominion Agreement of April 1948
regarding minorities had stipulated that the responsibility for the protection of
minorities rested with the governments of the dominion, yet charges were levelled by
the two governments against each other of dereliction of duty and deliberately
fomenting communalism. In 1950 Nehru signed an agreement on minorities with
Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan's Prime Minister. The agreement affirmed in clear terms the
rights of minorities in their respective countries. After this agreement the migration of
refugees dropped, but the problem of refugees persisted throughout the late fifties
and early sixties. Complaints regarding maltreatment of minorities continued
thereafter also, and the problem of minorities continued to plague relations between
two countries.
4. Problem of Evacuee Property

The large scale migration of population in the wake of partition gave rise to the
problem of evacuee property. The non-Muslim refugees left property worth Rs. 5000
million in Pakistan, while the Muslim refugees left property worth over Rs. 1000
million in India. Negotiations were started on 29 August 1947 to solve the problem of
evacuee property but no success could be achieved on account of differences in the
approach of two governments and complicated nature of the problem. Ultimately in
1955 an agreement was signed by India and Pakistan and the problem of immovable
evacuee property was solved. In 1956 the two governments agreed to transfer of
evacuee Bank Accounts, Lockers and Safe Deposits. Though the issue of evacuee
property was resolved the complaint of losses suffered by the refugees continued to
pour in and strain relations between two countries till late fifties.
5. Canal Waters Dispute

The unnatural division of Punjab in West and East Pakistan gave rise to the problem
of sharing of river waters. "Under a Stand Still Agreement, India agreed to supply
water to canals in Pakistan from the headworks in India against payment till 31
March, 1948. On 4 May, 1948 the two
547
governments agreed to progressive diminution of supplies to Pakistan by India. The

agreement continued to operate till 23 August 1950 when Pakistan unilaterally
repudiated the same on the plea that it signed the agreement under duress.
Thereafter heated debates and negotiations continued till Indus Waters Treaty was
signed in 1960 through the good offices of the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development. Under the Treaty, India not only agreed to the allotment of the
Western rivers - Indus, Jhelum and Chenab to Pakistan but also undertook to supply
water to Pakistan from her own three eastern rivers, viz., Ravi, Beas and Sutlej till
Pakistan was able to construct its own irrigation and water-works system. Thus the
canal water dispute was amicably resolved.
6. Division of Assets
During the initial years Indo-Pak relations were also strained on account of
differences over the division of assets of India between India and Pakistan. On 14
August 1947, India had a cash balance of Rs. 4000 millions out of which Pakistan
demanded Rs. 1000 million, which India was not willing to give. There the issue was
referred to an Arbitral Tribunal which decided that Pakistan should be paid Rs. 750
millions as its share. Likewise as per agreement between India and Pakistan the latter
was to pay Rs. 55 crores as its share of pre-1947 foreign debts to India in three
equal instalments. Pakistan refused to pay its share which created lot of bickering
between the two countries. The division of military stores and delinking of Banking
services also posed serious problems and gave rise to irritation in the relations
between two countries.
7. Economic and Trade Relations

Development of proper trade and economic relations between India and Pakistan also
caused lot of tension. The partition of country gave rise to serious economic and
trade problems. The areas which formed Pakistan were rich cotton and wheat
producing areas, which supplied these commodities to the other parts of India. On
the other hand most of the rich sugarcane, coal and iron ore producing areas came
under India. Lack of cooperation between the two countries was bound to upset the
complementarily of economic
and trade relations. Therefore in 1947 the two countries signed a Stand Still
Agreement which permitted free flow of goods between the two countries. But this
arrangement could not work smoothly and soon disputes arose between the two
countries over the sharing of export duty on jute and other taxes levied and collected
on such goods. In May 1948 the two countries signed a new agreement to resolve the
trade tangle, but this also failed to work. In June 1949 the two countries signed a
third agreement but the problems arose in its implementation also because India
devalued the rupee while Pakistan refused to do the same. This rendered
implementation of agreement impossible. Thereafter also the differences over trade
between two countries continued to be cause of strained relations between them.
8. Integration of Princely States

The Indian Independence Act, 1947 clearly stipulated that after the lapse of British
paramontcy the states would be free to accede either to India or Pakistan or to
remain independent. Most of the princely states decided to join either India or
Pakistan. However, the rulers of Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir either did not
take any decision in this regard or took decisions which were not sustainable
(i) Junagadh: In Junagadh a state with 80 per cent Hindu population the Muslim
ruler Sir Mahabat Khan Hussain, took a decision to accede to Pakistan even
though the state had no land link with Pakistan. This led to serious internal
disturbances and the Dewan of Junagadh (Shah Nawaj Bhutto) invited the
Government of India to take over the administration of the state. On 9 November
1947 India took over the administration of Junagadh, against which Pakistan made
strong protest and demanded reinstatement of the Nawab. In February 1948 a
plebiscite was held in Junagadh to decide the future of state and the people
overwhelmingly voted in favour of India. However, Pakistan was not satisfied and
took the case to the Security Council, (ii) Hyderabad: In Hyderabad, a Hindu
majority state, the Muslim ruler took decision to remain independent. He also
548
signed a Stand Still Agreement with India. But on account of atrocities committed by
the Razakars, the pro-Nizam Muslim group, the situation became so bad, the Indian
government was compelled to take 'police action' against the Nizam. Soon thereafter
the Nizam decided to accede to India and withdrew complaint pending with the
Security Council regarding police action against the state. Pakistan tried to malign
India for all this, (iii) Kashmir: The issue of Kashmir caused maximum tension in IndoPakistan relations. According to Michael Brecher, Kashmir, symbolises the root of the
conflict between India and Pakistan. Here lies the last field of battle over the
ideological cleavage which rent the subcontinent as under in 1947. Here is the final
test of the validity of two nations theory, the basis of Pakistan and its continuing
raison d'etre (Michael Brecher, Nehru, A Political Biography, p. 577) The problem of
Kashmir arose because the ruler of Kashmir (Maharaja Had Singh) postponed the
decision regarding accession of state to India or Pakistan. Taking advantage of this
Pakistan conceived of a plan to secure Kashmir with the help of tribal raiders.
However, this move was foiled because on 26 October 1947 the Maharaja of Kashmir
decided to accede to India and India assumed responsibility for the defence of
Kashmir. Pakistan strongly objected to Kashmir's accession to India. Lord Mountbatten
tried to resolve the issue through negotiations but his efforts did not yield any results.
Ultimately on 1 January, 1948 India took the issue to the Security Council of the
United Nations and charged Pakistan with 'an act of aggression against India.' On 21
April 1948 the Security Council adopted a resolution advising that both Indian troops
and tribes should be withdrawn and an interim government be established
representing the major political groups. It also suggested that a five-man United
Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) should go to Kashmir
and exercise its good offices to restore peace in the state and arrange a fair
plebiscite. In August 1948 UNCIP suggested to the two Governments a ceasefire and subsequent negotiation of truce
agreement.
Subsequently
in
December 1948 the Commission suggested a programme of free and impartial
plebiscite to be inaugurated after the cease-fire and truce arrangements had been
fulfilled and peace restored to the state. The above proposal was accepted by India
as well as Pakistan and a cease-fire agreement WGS signed, which was to come into
force from 1 January 1949. However, differences cropped up between the two
countries regarding effective implementation of the cease-fire. In July 1949 the
two countries reached an agreement on demarcation of the ceasefire line.
Despite this the differences between two countries continued and the matter came
back to the Security Council. In March 1950 the Security Council asked the two
countries to prepare and execute within five months a programme of
demilitarisation precedent to the making of arrangements for the plebiscite. For
framing and implementing this programme a mediator was to be appointed. The
proposal was accepted by both the parties. On 27 May 1950 Sir Owen Dixon, the
newly appointed mediator arrived in the sub-continent and contacted the three
parties, viz., India, Pakistan and Kashmir. After long deliberation a proposal
suggesting combination of participation in the valley of Kashmir. This proposal,
however, was unacceptable to both countries.
In March 1951 the UN accepted joint UK-US draft resolution This led to the
appointment of Dr. Frank P. Graham as the new mediator. He continued negotiations
with the two governments between June 1951 and February 1953. In the course of
these negotiations he presented a series of proposals aimed at affecting proper
demilitarisation of the state prior to plebiscite. But his proposal fell due to
disagreement over the quantum of forces to be retained on each side. With the
failure of Graham Mission, the UN for the time being suspended its efforts to settle
the lndo-Pak dispute over Kashmir. However, between
549
1953 and 1956 the two countries tried to arrive at a negotiated settlement over
Kashmir but failed to reach any agreement.
In the meanwhile certain important developments took place. On 6 February 1954
the Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir ratified state's accession to India.
On 19 November 1956 the Constituent Assembly adopted a constitution which made
the state an integral part of India. On 26 January 1957, India formalized the accession
of Kashmir to India and made it irrevocable. All these developments greatly irritated
Pakistan and it decided to join the US led security alliances and tried to build up
western pressures on India for the settlement of Kashmir issue.
In 1957 the Security Council again took up the question of Kashmir and sent
Gunnar V. Jarring, its representative, to India and Pakistan. However, this mission also
ended in a failure. In April 1962 the Kashmir isstle again came before the Security
Council, but India took the stand that Kashmir's accession to India was full, complete
and final. The Security Council moved a motion requesting the two countries to
resume negotiations, but the same was vetoed by Soviet Union. However, in view of
persistent pressure in the post 1962 period (after the Chinese invasion of India). India
agreed to discuss the Kashmir issue with Pakistan. Six rounds of talks were held but
they failed to produce any result.
INDO-PAK WAR, 1965

In 1965 Pakistan made a bid to seek military solution of the Kashmir problem first by
sending a band of trained infiltrators and subsequently by attacking India. But India
gave a befitting reply and managed to capture some of the areas in Kashmir which
were under illegal occupation of Pakistan. In the meanwhile the UN Secretary General
and the Security Council made efforts to arrange a cease-fire. On 20 September
1965, the Security Council passed a resolution demanding a cease-fire effective from
2430 hours on 22 September. India promptly accepted the resolution. Pakistan
however announced the acceptance of cease-fire proposal only on the midnight of 22
September. Consequently the
deadline of cease-fire was extended to 0330 hours on 23 September. 1965.
END OF WAR AND TASHKENT DECLARATION

In the midst of war Kosygin, the Soviet Prime Minster wrote letters to Prime Minister
Shastri and President Ayub Khan urging them to enter into negotiations for the
peaceful settlement of the differences and offered his good offices for this purpose.
Both India and Pakistan accepted the offer and held discussions at Tashkent from 410 January 1966. The talks ended in the Tashkent Declaration of 10 January, 1966
whereby India and Pakistan pledged themselves (a) to restore normal and peaceful
relations; (b) to withdraw their respective armed forces, not later than 25 February,
1966 to the positions they held before 5 August 1965; (c) to repatriate captured
prisoners of war; (d) to restore diplomatic relations as well as economic and trade
relations, communications and cultural exchanges; (e) to end hostile propaganda;
and (f) to deal with the question of refugees and illegal immigrants. The leaders of
the two countries agreed to exert all efforts to create good neighbourly relations in
accordance with the U.N. Charter. They agreed to set up joint India-Pakistan bodies to
consider problems of common concern.
INDO-PAK RELATIONS AFTER TASHKENT DECLARATION

After the Tashkent Declaration it appeared that India and Pakistan would resolve
Kashmir and other issues through bilateral talks. On 15 August 1968 Indian Prime
Minister made an offer of 'no war' pact to Pakistan. This was supplemented by the
proposal on 1 January, 1969 to set up a joint machinery for the examination of all
disputes with Pakistan. However, Pakistan did not respond well to these proposals,
probably on account of trouble in East Pakistan which ultimately led to the break
away of East Pakistan from Pakistan and emergence of an independent state of
Bangladesh. In fact India felt greatly concerned over the growing atrocities over
unarmed and innocent people of East Pakistan by the Pakistan
550
government and called upon the peoples and governments of the world to take
urgent and constructive steps to prevail upon the Government of Pakistan to put an
end to this systematic decimation of people. Pakistan strongly protested against the
Indian attitude and described it as an interference in her internal affairs.
In the meanwhile the elected leaders of National Assembly in East Bengal
proclaimed the formation of Provisional Government on 14 April 1971. The people of
East Bengal liberated themselves from the military yoke and set up local
administration. In the midst of these developments tension between India and
Pakistan continued to build up. Ultimately on 3 December 1971 Pakistan launched
surprise attacks on Indian airfields along the frontiers in Punjab, Rajasthan and
Jammu Kashmir. India also declared war to safeguard her territorial integrity and
national honour. Thereafter the events moved at rapid speed. On 6 December, 1971
India accorded recognition to Bangladesh. Indian forces also offered full cooperation
to the Mukti Bahini, the liberation forces of East Pakistan. Thus India and Pakistan
were involved in war on two fronts - the eastern and the western. While Pakistan
made some gains in the western sectors of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and
Rajasthan, in the eastern sector India inflicted a crushing defeat on Pakistan and took
over 90,000 Pakistanis as prisoners of war. A day after surrender by Pakistan on 16
December, 1971 Indian Prime Minister offered a unilateral cease-fire. The offer was
accepted by Pakistan with effect from 8.00 p.m. on 17 December.
PEACE TALKS AND SHIMLA AGREEMENT

Peace talks between Prime Minister of India and President of Pakistan commenced at
Shimla on 28 June, 1972 which culminated in the Simla Agreement of 3 July 1972.
Under this agreement the two countries agreed to work for a friendly and harmonious
relationship in the interest of durable peace in the subcontinent. They agreed that (i)
the relations between the two countries shall be
governed in accordance with the principles and purposes of the UN Charter; (ii)
two countries resolved to settle their differences by peaceful
means through bilateral negotiations or by any other peaceful means mutually
agreed upon by them; (iii) in the interest of durable peace the two countries
expressed faith in principles of peaceful co-existence, respect for each other's
territorial integrity and sovereignty, and non-interference in each other's internal
affairs; (iv) the basic issues and causes of conflict which have bedevilled the relations
between the two countries for the last 25 years shall be resolved by peaceful means;
(v) to respect each other's national unity, territorial integrity, political independence
and sovereign equality; (vi) to refrain from threat of use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of each other; (vii) to take steps to prevent hostile
propaganda against each other and exchange all such information as would promote
the cause of friendly relations between them; (viii) steps would be taken to resume
communications including postal, telegraphic, sea, land and air; (ix) steps would be
taken to provide travel facilities for the nationals of the other country; (x) to promote
trade and co-operation in economic and other agreed fields; and (xi) to promote
exchange in the fields of science and culture.
With regard to Kashmir, the Shimla Agreement provided that Indian and Pakistani
forces would be withdrawn to their side of the international border and both the
countries would respect the line of control in Jammu and Kashmir resulting from the
cease-fire of 17 December, 1971. The withdrawal of forces was to be completed
within thirty days of the coming into force of the agreement.
INDO-PAK RELATIONS AFTER SHIMLA AGREEMENT

It was expected that Indo-Pak Relations would show an improvement after the Shimla
Agreement. In fact in 1973 India and Pakistan amicably resolved the issue of
repatriation of prisoners of war as well as the problems of repatriation of Bengalis
from- Pakistan to Bangladesh and Bihari Muslims from Bangladesh to Pakistan. The
issue of trial of 195 Pakistani prisoners of war on charges of war crimes and genocide
was also amicably resolved. Recognising the realities in February 1974, Pakistan
accorded recognition to Bangladesh. On the other hand
India's Relations with

Neighbours 551
Bangladesh also agreed to abandon its stand on the trial of certain POWs on charges
of genocide and to repatriate them to Pakistan. All this greatly contributed to easing
of tension.
It was hoped that in the changed context the process of normalisation of relations
with Pakistan would proceed smoothly, but the Peaceful Nuclear explosion (PNE) by
India on 18 May, 1974 proved a big stumbling block. Although India claimed that the
explosion had been conducted for purely non-military development purposes, this
plea was not acceptable to Pakistan. As a result Pakistan postponed the meeting
scheduled for 1 June 1974 to discuss issues of resumption of postal and
telecommunication links and travel facilities between the two countries. These talks
however took place in September 1974 at Islamabad, where an agreement was
reached regarding exchange of postal articles, telecommunication, visa facilities and
visits to religious places. In November 1974 India and Pakistan signed a bilateral
trade agreement. A month later the nine-year old trade embargo was lifted. In
January 1973 a new and more comprehensive trade agreement was signed. However,
a fresh tension was generated in Indo-Pak relations as a result US decision of
February 1975 to lift the arms embargo against India and Pakistan, which cleared the
way for US arms sale to Pakistan. The continued strengthening of Sino-Pak axis also
gave rise to distrust in India. Pakistan reaction against the accession of Sikkim to
India was also not to the liking of India. In short, it can be said that between 1972
and 1977, despite occasional setbacks, the process of normalisation of relations
between India and Pakistan continued, even though it was quite slow.
INDO-PAK RELATIONS DURING JANATA GOVERNMENT (1977-79)

The period 1977-79 witnessed changes in the domestic spheres of the two countries
which had its impact on their external relations. In January 1971 general elections
were held in Pakistan in which Bhutto's PPP scored a massive victory. However
charges of rigging led to protest and conflicts which paved the way for coup by
General Zia-ul-Haq. India observed complete silence over all these developments. On
the other hand in India also, as a result of elections held in March 1977,
Janata Government came to power. It laid great emphais on improvement of relations
with India's neighbours, specially Pakistan. General Zia of Pakistan also expressed
desire to improve relations with India. The leaders of the two countries proceeded to
release the prisoners of each other languishing in their jails. The restrained stand of
Janata Government on India's Nuclear Policy, also had salutary effect on Pakistan. In a
bid to improve relations the External Affairs Minister of India and Pakistan exchanged
visits. As a result of all these efforts in April 1978 an agreement was signed over Salal
Dam Project. As per this agreement India secured the right to build Salal Dam and
power project on river Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir. However, India was to take into
account the views of Pakistan with regard to the design and nature of the project. The
meeting between Indian Prime Minister (Morarji Desai) and Pakistan President
(General Zia) at Nairobi in Sept. 1978 also contributed to improvement of relations. In
October 1978 the two countries agreed to open consulate in Karachi and Bombay. In
the cultural and sports fields also greater co-operation took place and Indian cricket
team paid a visit to Pakistan in November 1978. In short, India's relations with
Pakistan showed consistent improvement during the Janata rule.
INDO-PAK RELATIONS IN 1980'S

In the ensuing years also India as well as Pakistan made a bid to improve relations.
While Pakistan proposed a No War Pact, India suggested a comprehensive treaty of
Peace, Friendship and Cooperation. A significant development in this regard was the
establishment of Joint Indo-Pak Commission for promoting wide ranging economic,
cultural and scientific cooperation between the two countries. The Commission had
its first meeting in Islamabad on 1 June 1983 and took certain positive decisions. The
Commission set up four sub-commissions on (i) economic matters dealing with
industry, agriculture, communication, health, science and technology; (ii) trade; (iii)
education, information, culture, sports and social science; and (iv) travel, tourism and
consular matters. Negotiations were continued through these sub-commissions. On
the basis of these negotiations the Joint Commission
552
decided to cut postal rates by 15 to 20 percent and improve the existing

telecommunication facilities. It also agreed to encourage exchange of visits of
businessmen and industrialists for greater collaboration among themselves as well as
for establishing co-operative projects in other countries of third world. The two
countries also agreed to exchange visits and information for the development of
small scale and cottage industries. Agreement was also reached over measures for
facilitating travel between the two countries. The other fields where the two countries
agreed to cooperate were agriculture, shipping, information, education, social
sciences, culture and sports. As a result of these measures the differences between
the two countries greatly narrowed down.
The Indo-Pak relations suffered a setback on account of acquisition of Harpoone
missiles by Pakistan; India's support to the movement for restoration of democracy in
Pakistan; Pakistan's supply of military equipments and training to the Sikh extremists;
Pakistan's failure to return the hijackers to India. Despite these irritants the relations
between India and Pakistan showed an improvement in 1985 on account of open and
conciliatory approach adopted by India under Rajiv Gandhi. In July 1985, the Joint
Commission headed by the foreign secretaries of two countries reached an
agreement on various aspects of economic cooperation, including agriculture, visas,
tourism, telephone communication, etc. In December 1985 the two countries took up
the issue of trade and security and undertook not to attack each other's nuclear
installations. The two countries also agreed to merge the draft of the no-war pact
proposed by Pakistan and the draft of treaty of peace and friendship proposed by
India. The two countries also agreed to hold talks to resolve the dispute over Siachin
Glacier through talks. The terrorist problem was also discussed by the leaders of the
two countries.
In January 1986 the Finance Ministers of the two countries signed a memorandum
of understanding for increasing bilateral private trade. Under this agreement the
private sector in Pakistan was permitted to import 42 items from India. It was also
agreed that the quantum of trade between the public sectors of the two countries
would be doubled during the year 1986-87. Though the memorandum of
understanding led to
only limited expansion in trade, it was significant because it prompted mutually
beneficial bilateralism.
In December 1986 Indian Home Minster led a delegation to Pakistan and
discussed problems relating to illegal border crossings, terrorism, smuggling of arms
and narcotics across the border. As a result of these discussions the two countries
agreed to strengthen their border security forces and take up joint surveillances of
the border. They promised not to permit their respective territories for acts or
activities which threaten internal peace, stability and territorial integrity of the other
state. Despite these understandings differences persisted between the two on the
question of no war pact and treaty of peace and friendship. The decision of USA to
upgrade air bases in Pakistan added further tension in Indo-Pak relations. The flow of
sophisticated advanced technology weapons into Pakistan further strengthened
militarism in Pakistan. In the beginning of 1987 the relations between India and
Pakistan reached a breaking point with both sides carrying on unusually large military
manoeuvers on their common border. However, the crisis was averted as a result of
series of high-level talks and the two parties agreed to partial withdrawal of troops
from the border and avoid provocative action along the border. The two sides agreed
that lack of communication was responsible for the border crisis of January 1987 and
decided to keep up speedy and regular communications for minimising the chances
of accidental tensions.
Fresh tension was generated in the relations between two countries in September
1987 when Pakistani troops launched battalion sized attacks on the four mountain
passes controlling access to the undemarked region of the Siachin Glacier and
infliction of heavy casualties by the Indian forces on the adversaries. Apart from
Siachin clashes the other factors like Pakistan's support of the terrorists in Punjab,
and induction of sophisticated weapons in Pakistan by the United States, also
contributed to tension between the two countries.
With the emergence of democracy in Pakistan and assumption of power by
Benazir Bhotto as Prime Minster, it was expected that the relations between the tw,o
countries would show an improvement. The new Prime Minister of Pakistan expressed
her resolve to settle various issues

Neighbours 553
between two countries in accordance with the Shimla Agreement of the 1971. In
1988 Indian Prime Minister (Rajiv Gandhi) visited Islamabad for the Fourth SAARC
Summit and held talks with Benazir Bhutto which resulted in signing of three accords.
By the first accord the two countries agreed not to attack each other's nuclear
installations. Both the countries were to inform each other on 1 January each year of
the geographical coordinates of its nuclear installations and facilities. The second
agreement sought to encourage bilateral cooperation in the spheres of arts, culture,
archaeology, education, mass-media and sports. It envisaged setting up of cultural
centres in the two countries and provided for the exchange of visits by the artists,
writers and musicians of the two countries. The agreement desired the two parties to
ensure that the text books of history and geography prescribed for their educational
institutions did not contain any misrepresentation of facts about each other's country.
The third agreement related to the avoidance of double taxation On income derived
from international air transport to facilitate operation of airlines of two countries.
India also facilitated re-entry Pakistan in the Commonwealth (Pakistan withdrew from,
Commonwealth in 1972 in the wake of consensus support by the member states to
the creation of Bangladesh and India's role in it). However, soon it became evident
that Indo-Pak relations had not undergone any real change in nature or content. Soon
Pakistan resumed supply of arms to terrorists and even turned down the Indian
proposal for joint patrolling of common border. Even on the issue of Siachin Pakistan
took quite an irrational stand. The new government also raised the Kashmir issue at
the various international forums in violation of the spirit of Shimla Agreement.
Pakistan also persisted with the policy of sophisticated weapons from US despite
repeated Indian protests. In addition to this the issue of nuclear bomb also generated
lot of tension in Indo-Pak relations and the two countries accused each other of hiding
realities. In short, despite professions of rapprochement by Benazir Bhutto, the
relations between the two countries continued to be strained.
A welcome development in Indo-Pak relations took place in May 1989 when the
two countries
agreed to take a series of new and concrete measures to contain terrorism, drug
trafficking, smuggling and illicit border crossing. The border security forces of the two
countries for the first time decided to undertake simultaneous coordinated patrolling
at mutually decided hours to curb unauthorised trans-border movement. In June-July
1989 two rounds of talks were held by the two parties to resolve the Siachin issue.
These talks resulted in an agreement on troops deployment by the two countries in
Siachin.
In July 1989 Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi held a Summit meeting with Benazir
Bhutto and held discussions on the whole gamut of Indo- Pak relations. At this
summit the two leaders tried to revive the Shimla spirit and establish good
neighbourly relations. Several agreement were concluded to intensify cooperation in
the economic, medical and cultural fields and to relax travel facilities for the two
peoples in each other's country. They also agreed to exchange delegations of
businessmen, co-operate in the field of agriculture, etc. Pakistan also agreed to give
a boost to private sector trade with India by expanding the list of items to be
imported from 249 to 700. However, Pakistan expressed her inability to accord most
favoured nation status to India even though she had been enjoying this status with
regard to India for the last ten years.
The National Front Government which came to power after the elections of 1989
laid great emphasis on development of healthy relations with the South Asian
neighbours, particularly Pakistan. However much break through could not be made in
Indo-Pak relations because Pakistan stepped up its military activities all along the
Line of Control in Kashmir with a view to help the trained militants to infiltrate into
Indian side of Kashmir for disrupting law and order. Further Pakistan also provided
shelters and arms to the Punjab terrorists. This gave a serious set back to the process
of development of friendly and cooperative relations between the two countries.
INDO-PAK RELATIONS IN THE 1990'S

In May 1990 India proposed a package of confidence building measures like exchange
of
information about military positions and army delegations; an agreement on nonviolation of air space by military aircrafts; stopping of hostile propaganda aimed at
inciting subversion and secession. All these issues were discussed by the Foreign
Secretaries of the two countries at their meeting held in July 1990. At their meeting in
April 1991 the Foreign Secretaries of the two countries agreed on advance
notification of military exercises and prevention of violations of air space. They also
agreed to discuss other outstanding issues with a view to improve their relations.
However, no break through could be made. On the contrary due to provocative
postures adopted by Pakistan, the relations between the two countries deteriorated.
In 1991 Pakistani troops along with Kashmiri militants attacked Kemi area of Poonch
sector, but the attack was successfully repulsed. In October 1991 Pakistan attacked
an Indian outpost in Kargil but here also the Pakistani attack was repulsed. Pakistan
even tried to internationalise the Kashmir issue in violation of the Shimla Accord and
gave a call for bandh in Pakistan on the Kashmir issue. An this gave a serious set
back to the process of normalisation of relations with Pakistan.
In October 1992 a crisis situation again arose when Azad Kashmir forces
threatened to cross the border, but the situation was saved by timely action by the
Pakistan government which arrested several prominent leaders involved in the
organisation of the March. In November 1992 during the sixth round of talks on
Siachin the two countries reached an agreement regarding demilitarisation of the
Glacier area. But soon the relations between the two again suffered a set back
following Pakistan's criticism of Indian government's handling of Ayodhya issue. Thus
Pakistan continued to persist with policy of aggression and negotiations
simultaneously.
In 1993 with the assumption of power, by Benazir Bhutto in Pakistan, it was
expected that the relations between the two countries would improve. However,
these hopes were belied. In fact the relations between the two countries became
more hostile. The hostility reached its height in December 1994 when the Indian
consulate in Karachi was closed Pakistan also turned down Indian offer for resumption
of talks
and insisted on third party mediation. Pakistan even raised the issue of Human Rights
in Kashmir at the UN Human Rights Commission Geneva, even though this effort
ended in a fiasco.
After the assumption of power by the United Front Government in India in June
1996, Pakistan's Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto offered to resume talks with India.
However, these talks could not materialise in February 1997 Nawaz Sharif became
Prime Minister in Pakistan and expressed desire to improve relations with India. India
also promptly reciprocated. This resulted in meeting of Foreign Secretaries of two
countries in March 1997. At this meeting, India emphasised the need of normalisation
of the economic relations, while Pakistan insisted on political normalisation. Pakistan
even tried to bring in the issue of Kashmir. As a result the meeting failed to achieve
anything concrete. The only positive outcome of the talks was that the two countries
agreed to continue the dialogue at Islamabad.
In the meanwhile India took certain positive steps to improve relations with
Pakistan and announced certain unilateral concessions like easing of visa restrictions
for Pakistani nationals; waiving of visa fee for senior Pakistan citizens; increase in the
number of religious shrines which could be visited by Pakistani pilgrims in India.
Pakistan also showed a good gesture by releasing 38 Indian children which had been
under detention in Pakistan since 1994. The two countries also agreed to expand
cultural contacts by encouraging cultural groups, students, journalists, etc., to visit
each other's countries.
In June 1997 the second round of talks between the Foreign Secretaries of India
and Pakistan was held at Islamabad where eight main outstanding issues of concern
to both the sides were identified. These include peace and security, including
confidence building measures; Jammu and Kashmir, Siachen; Wullar barrage project/
Tulbul Project; Sir Creek; Terrorism and Drug trafficking; economic and commercial
cooperation; and promotion of friendly exchanges in various fields. They also agreed
to set up a mechanism, including joint working groups (JWGs) at appropriate levels to
address all these issues in an integrated manner. As a gesture of goodwill, the two
countries agreed to exchange by
555
15 July 1997 the fishing boats and crew presently in the custody of either side. They
also agreed to
take all possible steps to prevent hostile propaganda and provocative-actions

against each other. It was agreed to hold the next round of foreign secretary level
talks in September, 1997. A hope was expressed that the dialogue would lead to
establishment of trust, friendship and cooperation between the two countries.
However, within two months, fresh tension was generated in Indo-Pak relations due
to unprovoked firing by Pakistan in Kargil, Kupwara and Uri sectors of Kashmir. The
relations between India and Pakistan further deteriorated following explosions by
India and Pakistan in May 1998.
These developments also evoked strong reaction from international community
and the P-5 in their meeting held at Geneva called on the two countries not to make
any further tests and to accede to NPT and CTBT. The leaders of India and Pakistan
also realised the seriousness of the situation and emphasised the need to check arms
race in the region. Hope has been expressed in certain quarters that in the wake of
recent nuclear explosions, the relations between India and Pakistan may improve and
some of the long standing issues between the two may be amicably resolved. This
however, is very optimistic view. But it cannot be denied that diplomacy and
diplomatic negotiations alone can ensure peace and security in the subcontinent and
not nuclear weapons and nuclear arms race, which can be disastrous for the
countries.
A fresh bid was made by the leaders of the two countries to improve relations.
They decided to continue dialogue at various levels. Successful conclusion of visit by
Pakistan Cricket Team to India, despite threats from Shiv Sena, a coalition partner of
BJP Government, greatly contributed to reduction of tension in Indo-Pak relations.
Further steps in the direction of improvement of relations with Pakistan was taken in
February 1999 when Indian Prime Minister A.B. Vajpayee took a bus journey to
Lahore. During his visit to Lahore Prime Minister Vajpayee said, "There is nothing
which cannot be solved through goodwill and dialogue There can be no greater
legacy that we can leave behind than to do away with mistrust, to abjure and
eliminate conflict, to erect an edifice of durable peace, amity, harmony and
cooperation" During
this visit Prime Minister Vajpayee and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif signed Lahore
Declaration which committed both sides to take immediate; steps to reduce the risk
of nuclear accidents and unauthorised use of nuclear weapons. The two countries
undertook to provide each other with advance notification in respect of their ballistic
missile flight tests. The two countries signed a fresh memorandum of understanding
whereby they agreed to implement Shimla Agreement in letter and spirit. Effort was
also made to improve trade relations between the two countries. A new Indo-Pakistan
Chamber of Commerce and Industry was formed under the umbrella of RCCI and the
Pakistan Chamber of Industry to focus on three things: to make visas immediately
available to business persons sponsored by the two chambers. To remove
quantitative restrictions of 2,000 commodities from India and 500 commodities from
Pakistan; and to open up opportunities of bilateral trade. India took further steps to
normalise relations with Pakistan in March 1999 and eased visa and travel restrictions
for certain categories of Pakistan nationals from 2 April 1999. These persons include
Judges of Pakistan's Supreme Court and High Courts, Attorney General Solicitor
General, Chairperson of the Supreme Court Bar Association, Editors in-Chief or
owners or principal functionaries of newspapers, members of national cricket and
hockey teams during their tours of India, members of the National Assembly, leaders
and deputy leaders of Provincial Assemblies and their counterparts in Opposition,
Vice- Chancellors of recognised Universities, Secretaries and Secretary-rank officers
of Federal Government, their spouses and dependent children, and unmarried
daughters of persons belonging to all the above categories. Certain concessions
regarding visits by tourist groups were also announced.
The euphoria of Lahore Declaration lasted only for few months. In May 1999, India
discovered that at least 500 heavily armed Pakistan backed intruders had dug
themselves in on Indian side of line of control along an 80 km stretch north of Kargil
and began pounding the strategic highway linking Srinagar to Leh. India moved in an
entire army division to evict the intruders. Towards the close of May 1999, Indian Air
Force fighters started air strikes on the
556
intruders' camp on the high ridges. Pakistan shot down one IAF MIG fighter which
made the situation quite tense. India charged Pakistan of trying to alter the line of
control along the Kargil-Drass sectors. Pakistan's action in Kargil was criticised by US
President Clinton who asked Pakistan Prime Minister to exercise restraint. US urged
Pakistan to withdraw Pakistan backed insurgents from Indian territory in Kashmir.
Other major countries like UK, Germany and Russia also supported Indian position.
After tough fight India succeeded in dislodging the Pakistani intruders from Kargil. In
the meanwhile, Pakistan's Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, on account of growing US
pressure, called off the operation. He invited the Indian Prime Minister for a face-toface talks without wasting any time. However, India made it clear that talks can be
resumed only after complete sanctity of LOC is restored and Pakistan completely
stops its support to cross-border terrorism.
Though Pakistan made a retreat from Kargil, it stepped up militant activity in
Jammu and Kashmir. In August 1999, India shot down Atlantique, a Pakistani maritime
surveillance and naval anti-submarine aircraft, which had intruded into the Indian air
space. Pakistan asserted that the aircraft was not on a spying mission and was on a
routine training mission. Further, it was within Pakistani air space. In the midst of
these developments Prime Minister Sharif sacked Army Chief Pervez Musharraf and
appointed Lt. Gen. Khawaja Ziauddin in his place. In fact conflict between Sharif and
Musharraf had started on the question of Pakistan withdrawal from Kashmir under
pressure from US. On 12 October, 1999, General Musharraf led a bloodless Army
coup. He missed Prime Minister Sharif and assumed all powers as new Chief
Executive of Pakistan. Musharraf indicated his willingness to improve ties with India
by reviving the Lahore Declaration but the offer was turned down by New Delhi.
Pakistan made a formal proposal for resumption of stalled talks on resolving
issues plaguing bilateral relations through its Foreign Secretary Inamul Haq. However,
the offer was firmly rejected by India. India asserted that cessation of cross-border
terrorism and abandonment of vicious propaganda were pre-requisition before any
meaningful dialogue could
start. Despite the cool response of India, Pakistan approved the passage of pipeline
from Iran through Pakistan to supply gas to India. This was a major gesture by the
military government of Pakistan.
INDO-PAK RELATIONS IN TWENTY FIRST CENTURY

The stalemate between India and Pakistan was broken when Prime Minister A.B.
Vajpayee
extended invitation to President Musharraf to visit India. Summit level talks were
held between the two leaders in New Delhi and Agra from 14-16 July 2001. Prime
Minister Vajpayee emphasised the importance of creating atmosphere of trust and
confidence for progress on outstanding issues including Jammu and Kashmir. He
raised issues like release of 54 Indian prisoners of war, the extradition of terrorists
who had taken refuge in Pakistan, the upkeep of religious shrines, treatment of
religious pilgrims and trade related issues. Pakistan's President, however, focused
almost exclusively on the issue of Jammu and Kashmir. Despite differences with
Pakistan on the question of Jammu and Kashmir India worked hard to bridge the
differences and arrive at a document that would move our bilateral relations forward.
But no progress could be made due to Pakistan's insistence on settlement of Jammu
& Kashmir issue as a precondition to normalizing relations. Pakistan was also not
willing to stop cross border terrorism.
Attack on India's Parliament building by two Pakistan based terrorist groups on 13
December, 2001 invited strong protest from India and it decided to recall its High
Commission from Islamabad. India also terminated the Delhi Lahore Bus Service and
Samjhauta Express. This was followed by restrictions on the movement of officials of
Pakistani High Commission in New Delhi and suspension of over flight facilities to
Pakistan and Pakistan Airlines. On 31 December, 2001 India handed over to Pakistan
a list of 20 fugitives from law and asked that they be apprehended and handed over
to India so that they could be brought to justice for the crimes committed in the
country. All these steps contributed to the heightening of tension between the two
countries.

Neighbours 557
It is evident from the above account that relations between India and Pakistan have
generally continued to be strained because of the divergent stands of the two
countries on various issues. Pakistan has persistently supported the terrorists in
Punjab and Kashmir; raised question of self-determination for the Kashmiris at the
various international forums; had differences with India over the construction of
Wullar Barrage on the Jhelum river in the Indian Kashmir, as well as demarcation of
boundaries in Sircreek in the Rann of Kutch. The other factors which have caused
tension between the two countries include inducting of latest generation of
sophisticated arms into Pakistan, Pakistan's growing links with fundamentalists; transborder smuggling of weapons and drugs; determination of maritime boundary;
discriminatory trade barriers against India; and treatment meted out to the minorities
in Pakistan.
Though no formal action has been taken to normalise relations with Pakistan
during the last two years, non governmental contacts between the two countries
have maintained a certain active momentum. Delegations of Women Organisations,
Journalists, former diplomats, former military commanders from both countries have
exchanged visits. Their main effort has been to see that some sort of dialogue could
be resumed. Even former Foreign Secretary J.N. Dixit has maintained that it would be
in the larger interest of India to establish normal and cooperative relations with
Pakistan. He says "Our present policy stance of not resuming a dialogue with Pakistan
till Pakistan stops interventionist terrorist violence in Jammu and Kashmir, merits a
review in the context of recent developments - internal and external." (India's Foreign
Policy and Its Neighbours, p. 156)
INDIA AND CHINA

India and China have maintained close relations since ancient times. The foundation
of these relations was laid by the Buddhist preachers who went to China and spread
their religion through the breadth and length of the country. A large number of
Chinese Buddhist scholars also came to India in search of knowledge. The prominent
Chinese scholars who visited India during ancient
times include Fahien, Huen-Tsang, It sing, etc. A large number of Chinese students
also came to India to study at prominent universities like Nalanda. In the modern
times India expressed full sympathy for China when she was subjected to Japanese
aggression.
RELATIONS BETWEEN 1947 AND 1961

After India attained independence in 1947 it established diplomatic relations with the
Nationalist Government of China which was then in power. However, the two
countries were so much pre-occupied with their domestic problems that the relations
could not assume warmthness and continued to be merely routine. In fact a rift
appeared in their relations after India recognised the Tibetan delegation at the Asia
Relations Conference held in March 1947. Unsympathetic attitude of the Nationalist
Government towards the Indian complaint regarding Pakistan aggression in Kashmir
further led to cooling of relations between the two governments, and gave rise to
feeling of suspicion and distrust.
After the Nationalist Government (Kuomintang) suffered a defeat at the hands of
the Communists and established People's Republic of China on 1 October, 1950 India
proceeded to extend official recognition to the new government. In fact India was the
second non-communist country (after Burma) to accord recognitjon to People's
Republic of China. Nehru, the architect of India's foreign policy, firmly believed that
amicable and co-operative relations between India and China were desirable for the
promotion of cause of world peace and human progress. Therefore, India tried to
develop friendly and cooperative relations with People's Republic of China (PRC).
China, however, did not respond favourably because it considered India as an
appendage of imperialism and described Nehru as the stooge or running dog of
imperialism. Further the Chinese leadership had an apprehension that India was
trying to be leader of Asia. The issue of Tibet also generated some tension in their
relations. The Government of China regarded Tibet as part of China and prepared
plans to annex it. India which had full sympathies with the people of Tibet insisted
that China should respect right to
558
self-rule and settle the issue by holding negotiations with Dalai Lama, the spiritual
leader of Tibet and assure some sort of autonomy to Tibet. China not only ignored
this suggestion of India but also described it as an interference in the internal affairs
of China.
In October 1950 China established its military control over Tibet which greatly
shocked India
because it always maintained that Tibet was not a part of China and China merely
enjoyed nominal suzerainty over it. India sent a strong note of protest to China to
which the Chinese authorities reacted sharply. Unmindful of Indian protests China
declared Tibet as an integral part of China When Dalai Lama tried to raise the issue of
Tibet in the United Nations, India did not condemn China and took the stand that the
matter should be peacefully settled by the two. Failing to get the support of the
international community, Dalai Lama signed Sino-Tibetan Agreement on 23 May
1951. In terms of this agreement China was to take control of Tibet's external affairs,
trade and communications. It was also permitted to maintain an army in Tibet. In
return for all this China promised not to interfere with the religious beliefs and
practices of the Tibetan people or with their political system or with the powers and
functions of the Dalai Lama.
PANCHSHEEL
In 1954, India entered into an agreement with China and formally recognised Chinese
sovereignty over Tibet. With this the functions in relations between India and China,
which had been created since 1950 came to an end. The two countries further agreed
that their relations would be governed by five principles popularly known as
Panchsheel. These principles were (i) Mutual respect for each other's territorial
integrity and sovereignty; (ii) mutual non-aggression; (iii) mutual non-interference in
each other's internal affairs; (iv) equality and mutual benefits; and (v) peaceful
coexitence. These became the guiding principles in the relationship between India
and China.
During the next three years (1954-57), which are described as years of SinoIndian honeymoon, the leaders of the two countries exchanged visits and fully cooperated with each other. This cooperation was best reflected in the Bandung Conference of Asian-African nations held
in April 1955 when Nehru and Chau En-lai worked in close co-operation. Thereafter,
India extended moral and diplomatic support to China's claim to Formosa and the offshore islands of Quemoy and Matsu. India also continued to plea for a seat for PRC in
the United Nations. On the other hand China also supported Indian case on Goa and
openly condemned the US-sponsored resolution on Kashmir in the Security Council in
January 1957, even though it was not a member of UN as yet.
BOUNDARY DISPUTE
In 1957 a boundary dispute arose between India and China, which tended to strain
relations between the two countries. In fact the differences regarding boundary
between two countries first appeared in 1954 when the maps published in China
showed a large part of Indian territories as Chinese. When India brought this to the
notice of Chinese authorities they argued that these maps were the copies of old
maps and would be revised in due course. In the meanwhile the Chinese troops
continued to make intrusions into Indian territory from 1954 onwards and Chinese put
forth claims to more Indian territory. Against these intrusions Nehru addressed a
letter to Chinese Prime Minister in December 1958 to which the Chinese Prime
Minister replied that 'the Sino-Indian boundary has never been formally delimited'.
This, left no doubt about the intentions of China. In August 1959 a strong Chinese
detachment crossed into Indian territory south of Migyitun on the NEFA border and
fired on the Indian forward picket. They arrested the entire picket comprising of 12
members, even though eight of them managed to somehow escape. Thereafter the
Chinese detachment tried to overpower the outpost at Longju, located well within the
Indian territory. China however claimed that Longju was undisputably Chinese
territory and the Indian troops had set up outpost there in grave violation of China's
territorial integrity. In September 1959 Prime Minister Chau En-lai formally laid claim
to 50,000 square miles of territory. In October 1959 Chinese troops ambushed a party
of 19 Indians in Ladakh and

Neighbours 559
killed 16 of them. This evoked strong public protest in India and a demand was made
in certain quarters that diplomatic relations with China be snapped.
In April 1960 the Prime Ministers of India and China met to resolve the
differences, but in view of mounting pressure of Indian public much could not be
done. However, the two leaders agreed that the officials of the two Governments
should meet and examine the relevant documents. Three rounds of talks were held
between the officials of two countries in latter half of 1960 but the situation did not
improve. On the contrary during this period also China continued to intrude into
Indian territory and consolidate its hold over the already occupied territory. All this
convinced the Indian leadership that the security of borders with China must be
strengthened and it proceeded with the building of new outposts in its territory. These
modes of India were highly resented by China and the situation seemed to be
heading for a direct confrontation between the two.
CHINESE INVASION
On 8 September, 1962 the Chinese crossed the McMahon Line in the Eastern sector
and launched a large-scale attack both in the Western and in the Eastern sectors of
the border overwhelming the Indian frontier posts. The sudden massive attack by the
Chinese surprised all and the Indian forces were routed in NEFA. As the Indian troops
were not prepared and equipped to meet such a massive threat, within three weeks
China was able to move over all mountain passes and threaten the plains of Assam.
India immediately sought help from friendly nations. However on 21 November 1962,
China announced a unilateral ceasefire and decided to withdraw 20 kilometres
behind the line of actual control existing between India and China on 7 November
1959.
The Chinese invasion gave a serious set back to Sino-Indian relations as well as
the prestige of India. The position of India was greatly undermined in the eyes of
Asian and African nations. It encouraged Pakistan to think of forcing a military
solution of Kashmir on India. It gave a serious setback to the Indian development
plans because the country was forced to divert extra funds for the defence of the
country. Above all, the
war made Indian more security conscious and united the people against a common
cause of defending the country. T.N. Kaul has brought out the impact of 1962 war
thus, "The lessons of our dealings with China was that as a non-aligned country we
had to depend on ourselves and make the most of our resources. We had to become
self-reliant in the economic, defence and political fields to the maximum extent
possible in the minimum possible time. We had to look for reliable friends who had a
mutuality of interests with us and on whom we could rely in times of difficulty. The
Chinese invasions of 1962 was the first serious threat to our policy of Non-alignment.
But it
increased our faith in this policy as it helped us to forge better and more enduring
friendship that stood us in good stead in later years."
INDIA-CHINA RELATIONS AFTER 1962

For about a decade after 1962, India-China relations continued to be tense and
hostile, and there was hardly any contact between the two. The diplomatic relations
between the two Countries were down graded to Charged Affairs level. China tried to
isolate India by concluding border agreements with other small countries primarily
with a view to give a projection that it was more reasonable and compromising. It
also stepped up propaganda against India and charged India of imperialist designs
towards Sikkim and Bhutan. China also tried to develop more intimate relations with
Pakistan and provided economic and military aid to Pakistan. It even signed a border
agreement with Pakistan with regard to territory which formed part of Pakistan
occupied Kashmir. During the Indo-Pak War of 1965 also China extended full moral,
political, psychological and even military support to Pakistan. China tried to help
Pakistan by increasing tension on India-China borders. In short China and Pakistan
formed a sort of anti-India axis. China even extended support to anti-India elements
like Nagas, Mizos, Naxalites present in the country. As a result of all this lot of tension
was generated in the Indo- China relations.
In the midst of all these developments India tried to cultivate intimate relations
with Soviet Union. In 1971 India and Soviet Union signed
560
Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Co-operation, which was not liked by China which
looked upon this treaty as Indo-Soviet collusion against China. As a result China
became even more critical of India and extended support to Pakistan against India in
every possible way. During the Indo-Pak War of 1971, China bitterly critisised India's
role in Bangladesh crisis and extended full support to Pakistan. On the question of
Kashmir also China openly supported the Pakistan stand. In short the relations
between India and China during the period 1962-1971 were quite tense and hostile.

India was not happy with the existing state of affairs and was ready to improve
relations with China ignoring the past developments. The views of India in this regard
are best summed up by India's Foreign Minister. He said, "Geography has placed us
as neighbours of this great country, we cannot wish away China any more than China
can wish us away. Border problems have existed between many countries throughout
the ages and were settled peacefully. As such we see no reason why India and China
should not be able to do the same." China also indicated in 1973 that it was keen to
have rapproachement with India. The Chinese Foreign Minister conveyed to Galbraith,
a former US Ambassador to India, during his visit to China in June 1973, that China
was genuinely interested in improving its relations with India as part of its general
desire for mutually beneficial contacts with all the three countries of the
subcontinent. Despite the professions of the leaders of two countries to improve
relations, no positive steps were taken for normalisation of relations. The
improvement if any, was confined to participation in the official level functions,
increase in exchange of non- official private visits, and exchange of greetings on the
occasions of their National days, etc. In fact during the years 1974 and 1975 the
relations suffered a set back on account of Chinese criticism of India following India's
Peaceful Nuclear Explosion in 1974, and Sikkim's accession to India in 1975. In short,
during this period though desire was expressed by the leaders of two countries to
improve relations
and develop friendly co-operation, but no concrete steps were taken to realise the
same.
India made a serious bid to improve relations with China in 1975 and decided to
restore full diplomatic relations with China. K.R. Narayanan was sent as India's
ambassador to China. This was a bold gesture on the part of India to which China also
reciprocated. Thus full diplomatic relations were restored between India and China
which greatly helped the cause of normalisation of relations between the two
countries. The restoration of diplomatic relations paved the, way for greater trade
and cultural co-operation. However the dispute over boundary between the two
countries continued to be a cause of irritation. Though both the countries were willing
to settle the boundary question through negotiations but the big gap in their
respective positions made it difficult to achieve any success in this regard.
NORMALISATION OFSINO-INDIAN RELATIONS UNDER JANATA

GOVERNMENT
Janata Government (1977-79) during its rule tried to normalise relations with China
and promoted closer trade links between the two countries. In April 1977 the two
countries signed a trade agreement involving a total value of Rs. 13.2 crores. There
were also frequent exchange of sports and cultural teams between the two countries.
The leaders of two countries also indicated desire to develop closer cooperation in
the field of Science and Technology. In 1978 a sixteen- member Chinese trade
delegation visited India to explore the possibilities of greater trade between two
countries. Likewise Indian trade missions also visited China. In March 1978 a Chinese
goodwill mission paid a visit to India and held meeting with India's Foreign Minister
(A.B. Vajpayee). An invitation was extended to Vajpayee to visit China, which he
accepted. In February 1979 Vajpayee visited China and held talks with the Chinese
leaders. Though the talks started in an optimistic manner, but in view of Chinese
aggression against Vietnam, the Indian Foreign Minister abruptly decided to
terminate his visit as a protest against Chinese action. The fall of Janata Government
in 1979 gave a further set back

Neighbours 561
to the process of normalisation of Sino-Indian relations.
INDIA-CHINA RELATIONS IN 1980'S

After the fall of Janata Government, Congress under Indira Gandhi returned to power
in 1980. This
gave rise to an apprehension in the minds of Chinese that India would try to
develop special relations with Soviet Union and adopt a restrained approach towards
relations with China. However, Mrs. Gandhi assured China that she would continue
the process of normalisation of relations with China. In fact in 1980 the trade and
cultural relations between the two countries continued to grow. But in the political
field differences persisted in the policies of two countries on issues of Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Sino-Indian border. China did not like India's
refusal to out-rightly condemn Soviet presence in Afghanistan. China also strongly
criticised India's recognition of new regime of Cambodia and its support for Vietnam.
The opening of Karakoram and other highways between Pakistan and China, which
passed through Pakistan occupied Kashmir, were looked by India with great
apprehension. But probably the most irritating factor in the relations between two
countries was the boundary dispute. No doubt, the two countries initiated official
level negotiations to resolve the border issue but no break through could be made.
Commenting on the impact of border dispute on the process of normalisation of
relations between India and China the editorial in Tribune of 3 February 1983
observed. "The trickiest issue standing in the way of normal neighbourly relations is
demarcation of the 4200 km long border at the foot of Himalayas. There have been
favourable noises from Beijing and Delhi about quickly improving cultural,
educational, scientific and commercial relations. The border problem, however, is
likely to defy solution for years to come." It may be observed that though India and
China held several rounds of talks the border issue could not be resolved on account
of divergent stands of the two countries. While India wanted separate discussions on
each sector of the disputed border, China wanted a package deal whereby both sides
would make concessions. In the eastern sector China wanted the recognition of the
MacMohan Line in return for
Aksai China Plateau in northern Ladakh and the areas which China had occupied
during the 1962 war. In short, China favoured settlement of border along the existing
lines of control, while India did not want to recognise the status quo in the western
sector.
In October 1983, at the end of the fourth round of talks, the officials of the two
countries agreed to consider different ways of solving the dispute and agreed that
the relevance of historical evidence, customs and traditions should be taken into
account in settling the border disputes. In September 1984 at the fifth round of talks
held at Beijing, the two countries formulated principles upon which the border
dispute would be negotiated on a sector by sector basis.
In July 1985 China proposed to India the reopening of Indian mission at Lahasa in
return for opening of Chinese mission at Calcutta or elsewhere. However, the
proposal was turned down by India on the ground that this constituted an attempt to
normalise relations without coming to grips with the real problem of border dispute.
India took the stand that it had no objection to the re-opening of mission, but first
steps must be initiated to restore status quo ante. In November 1985 India and China
held sixth round of talks on the vexed issue of their boundary, but the discussions
were concentrated only on the eastern sector. The talks proved quite useful and led
to improvement of relations between the two. However, this improvement proved
only shortlived. In June-July 1986, the Chinese intruded about seven kms into the
Indian territory in the State of Arunachal Pradesh. On the other hand in August 1986
China accused India of sending her military personnel and aircrafts to create more
disputed territory. In 1986 after India conferred statehood on Arunachal Pradesh,
China accused India of violating Chinese territorial integrity and sovereignty. In
November 1987, the eighth round of talks were held between China and India, where
some change in attitude of China on border issue was noted. However, nothing
concrete emerged because China was not willing to withdraw from present line of
control in Ladakh unless India made certain concessions on the MacMohan line.
However, the two parties expressed their commitment to maintain peace and
tranquility
562
along the borders until a mutually acceptable settlement was arrived at.
Though India and China failed to resolve the border dispute the trade between
the two countries continued to grow. In 1986 the Sino-Indian trade turn over was to
the tune of $140 million, even though the balance of trade was heavily in favour of
China. In May 1987 India and China signed the second trade protocol which
envisaged trade volume of $ 150 to 200 million during the period January 1987March 1988. An effort was also made to break the stalemate in other spheres of
relations.
In 1988 efforts were stepped up to find out a settlement of the border dispute and
Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi paid a visit to Beijing. At the end of this visit a joint
communique was issued asserting the resolve of the two countries to develop their
relations in several fields and to work hard to create a favourable climate and
conditions for a fair and reasonable settlement of the boundary questions. To resolve
the boundary dispute the two countries decided to constitute a joint working group
which was to be chaired by Foreign Secretary of India and the Vice-Minister for
Foreign Affairs of China. The Commission was to make concrete recommendations for
an overall solution of the boundary question within a definite time frame; and to
ensure peace and tranquility in the border areas. The leaders of two countries also
agreed to increase co-operation in economic, cultural and technological fields. For
this purpose also a working group was formed. The two sides expressed full faith in
the five principles of Panchsheel and indicated their desire to promote good
neighbourly and friendly relations on the basis of these principles. It may be observed
that Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China was significant because it led to a break-through in
Sino-Indian relations.
The Joint Working Groups held a series of meetings in 1989 and tried to resolve
the various bilateral issues. India's Foreign Secretary (S.K. Singh) paid a visit to China
where he met the Chinese Prime Minister and Foreign Minister. During the visit the
leaders expressed their firm determination to settle the complex border question at
an early date, and decided to take new confidence building measures. However the
Joint Working Group in its first meeting held in July
1989 failed to end the impasse over the boundary issue. The second meeting of SinoIndian Joint Working Group was held in August 1990 at New Delhi, where the two
parties made a bid to understand each other's view point, but could not make any
headway towards the settlement of the vexed boundary dispute. Thus in the 1980's
though cooperation between India and China in social, economic and cultural fields
increased but they failed to make any major breakthrough in resolving the boundary
issue.
INDIA-CHINA RELATIONS IN 1990'S

During the early 1990's there was a distinct improvement in the relations between
the two countries. A series of high-level exchanges took place which greatly
contributed to the building of
trust. In December 1991 the Chinese Premier (Li Peng) paid a visit to India, the
first visit by a Chinese Prime Minister after a gap of 31 years. As a result of the
discussions which followed during the visit the two countries pledged to seek earliest
possible solution of the boundary question through friendly consultations. They
agreed to maintain peace and tranquility in the area along the line of actual control
pending final settlement of the boundary question. Three agreements were
concluded during the visit with a view to expand bilateral relations.
The first agreement which related to resumption of border trade related to
overland trade and exchange of commodities by the residents along the border
between the autonomous region of Tibet of China and Uttar Pradesh. In 1992 they
signed a trade protocol which provided for further expansion and diversification of
trade between the two countries.
Under this protocol China agreed to import from India a number of articles
including iron ore, chrome ore, tea, tobacco and chemicals. In turn India agreed to
import newsprint, raw silk yarn, certain agricultural products, metals and minerals
including cooking coal, chemicals and petroleum products from China. The protocol
was to come into force from 1 January, 1992 and was to be valid for one year.
The second agreement provided for the re-establishment of Consulates General
at Bombay and Shanghai after a gap of 29 years. The
563
representatives of the two countries codified the privileges and immunities to be

enjoyed by the personnel working in the above Consulates.
The third agreement related to bilateral cooperation in the area of space
research, technology and applications. The two countries also agreed to redefine the
role of the Joint Working Group and to give it power to review and initiate proposals
for solving the border issues. A hope was expressed that this would narrow down the
differences between the two countries on border.
A further bid to improve relations between India and China was made in February
1992 when the Foreign Secretaries of the two countries agreed to establish a hotline
between the border personnel and institutionalise regular meetings between the
military personnel twice a year, as a part of series of confidence building measures.
The two countries also agreed in principle to provide prior intimation regarding
military exercises. In May 1992 President R. Venkataraman paid a visit to China (first
by an Indian President). On this occasion the leaders of two countries showed
keenness to improve relations notwithstanding the non-resolution of vital question of
boundary. It was also agreed that a political directive be given to the Joint Working
Group to speed up the search of solution for the boundary question. The President of
India during this visit said in one of his speeches that Tibet is an autonomous region
of China and India does not support Dalai Lama's political activities.
In 1992 during the fifth meeting of the Joint Working Group, the two countries
agreed on the need for an across the board reduction of forces on both sides of the
border as well as the general measures aimed at reducing military presence and
expenditure. It was also agreed that people to people contacts should be encouraged
in the border areas through the opening of additional points of border trade. In June
1993. Indian and China agreed to open one more border point at Shipki La Pass in
Himachal Pradesh in addition to Lipu Lekh, for trade. In 1993 a Festival of China was
held in India. This was followed by Festival of India in China in 1994.
In September, 1993 the two countries reached an agreement for the Maintenance
of Peace and tranquility along the line of actual control and
decided to set up an expert group comprising of experts from military and foreign
ministers under the aegis of the Joint Working Group to complete the task of full
delineation of the line of actual control. The two countries also agreed to hold regular
meetings between military commanders in Eastern and Western sectors in the
months of June and October every year. They agreed to inform each other about all
significant military exercises in the two sectors. While taking the above steps a hope
was expressed that these steps would contribute to relaxation of tension and help
the two countries to find a fair settlement of territorial problem, taking into account
the genuine claims and interests of both the sides.
After the September 1993 agreement both China and India made adjustments in
their policies towards each other. This resulted in improvement of relations between
the two at a much faster pace than expected. A ten-member expert group was
constituted under the Joint Working Group, to clearly delineate the line of actual
control as early as possible. This expert group comprises of representatives from
foreign ministries, defence ministries, armed forces and the Survey departments of
the two countries. The expert group held several meetings and finalised several
agreements on ways to deal with accidental air intrusions, mutual forces reductions,
notification of military exercises, etc. In February 1995 the two countries agreed to
open two posts in the central and Sikkim sectors for local commander meetings.
On 20 August 1995 another significant development in Sino Indian relations took
place when the two countries agreed to pull back their troops in close proximity to
the Sumdorong Chu valley in the eastern sector. In terms of this agreement, India and
China agreed to wind down two posts each; located barely 50 to 100 yards from each
other in Sumdorong Chu valley in the Wang Dung area in Arunachal Pradesh by the
end of year.
India's relations with China showed further improvement during 1996, In
November 1996 the Chinese President (Zemin) paid a visit to India: The first ever visit
by a Chinese President. He held detailed deliberations with the Indian leaders. As a
result of these deliberations the two countries
564
committed themselves not to use force against each other; not to cross the line of
control; and to reduce troops and armaments presently deployed to man the
common India-China border. The two countries also reiterated their determination to
seek a fair, reasonable and mutually acceptable settlement of the boundary question.
They agreed to avoid large-scale military exercises in close proximity to the line of
actual control, except with prior notification. They also agreed to provide a network
for exchanging information to deal with drug trafficking and other related crimes. By
another agreement they agrred to extend the most favoured treatment to the vessels
of each other in their respective ports.
In August 1997, at the meeting of India-China Joint Working Group the two countries
not only
exchanged instruments of ratification in respect to Confidence Building Measures

agreement, but also addressed themselves to the issue of Sino-Indian border and
clarifications on the Line of Actual Control. In December 1997 the two countries
agreed to provide a new push to their economic relations. Thus the process of
improvement of relations between China and India continued. These relations
suffered a setback in early 1998 following statement by Indian Defence Minister
(George Fernandes) that China was India's threat No.l. These relations further
deteriorated following explosions at Pokhran in May 1998. China strongly condemned
the tests and described them as 'outrageous contempt' for the international
community. Despite this, India tried to give a projection that it wants the best of
relations with China and would like the dialogue to continue. India's relations with
China showed some improvement in the beginning of 1999 when India sent
delegation to Beijing under the 1997 agreement. In April, 1999, a meeting of senior
officials of India and China took place in Beijing which marked an end of the
acrimonious relations between the two countries since India's nuclear tests in May
1998. At this meeting of the Joint Working Group (JWG) the delegates of two countries
expressed the hope that positive steps would be taken to solve the boundary dispute
between the two countries. The two sides impressed the need of further expanding
ties in diverse spheres including cultural, human
resource development and environment. In June, 1999, Indian External Affairs
Minister Jaswant Singh paid a visit to China and held meetings with Chinese Foreign
Minister and Prime Minister. During these meetings China proposed a security
dialogue between the two countries and India responded favourably. Further both the
countries agreed to hold talks on the clarification of the Line of Actual Control (LAG)
in their disputed border. They also agreed to implement the various military
confidence building measures accepted by the two to promote peace and tranquility
on the line of actual control.
The foreign ministers of India and China at the meeting of the Joint Working Group
agreed to improve bilateral relations between the two countries by increasing highlevel political visits, exchanging military diplomatic delegations and taking steps to
enhance trade. The two sides reaffirmed their commitment to the principles of
Panchsheel and stressed the need for peaceful and co-operative relations. In keeping
with these pronouncements China maintained an attitude of neutrality on the issue of
Kargil, despite its very intimate and cordial relations with Pakistan. Condemnation of
the US-led NATO's role in the Kosovo crisis by the two countries reflected their
common stand on the issue.
In February, 2000, sixth session of the India-China Joint Economic Group (JEG)
constituted in June 1994, was held at Beijing. At this session an agreement was
signed by the two countries whereby India agreed to support Beijing's entry into the
World Trade Organisation (WTO). The two countries also agreed to set up a joint
working group for increased co-operation in the metallurgical sector. China agreed to
depute a technical team to see India's iron ore and magnesium ore mines to increase
import of these items into China.
In April 2000 India and China celebrated 50th anniversary of the establishment of
diplomatic relations and reiterated their commitment to improve their ties. In MayJune 2000 India's President K.R. Narayanan paid a visit to China. The main outcome
of this visit was avoidance of controversial issues, especially nuclear issue; the
absence of jarring notes on either side; and agreement to set up an Eminent Persons
Group
565
(EPG) to help develop bilateral relationship. India on this occassion came out
forcefully against terrorism and called for greater international cooperation in

combating the same. The two countries also agreed on the need to expand the
Security Council to make it more representative. However, China stopped short of
extending support to Indian claim for permanent seat in the Security Council.
In January 2001 Li Peng, a former Prime Minister of China and currently the
Chairperson of Standing Committee of China's National People Congress paid a visit
to India and held wide ranging consultations with the Indian leaders. Li stressed the
importance of Sino-Indian cooperation in the changed international situation and
impressed the significance of friendly ties between two countries for creation of a
multipolar world. The Chinese leader also emphasised the need of finding a solution
to the contentious bilateral issues, including the boundary dispute. Possibilities of an
informal triangular strategic cooperation between Moscow, New Delhi and Beijing
were also discussed (This idea was first mooted by Russian President Primakov during
his visit to India in 1998).
In February 2001 the delegations of India and China held second round of security
dialogue in a free, frank and friendly manner. This helped in clearing several doubts
and, apprehensions. However, differences between the two on several issues also
came to the force, viz., the supply of nuclear-capable missile technology and other
high-tech defence material by China to Pakistan, the Karmapa affair revolving around
the controversial presence of the teenage monk generated some tension in SinoIndian relations.
In June 2001 the experts from India and China met at New Delhi to clarify key
areas of the 4,060 km Sino-Indian border. In this meeting discussions were mainly
held on clarification of about 600 km middle sector of the Line of Actual Control.
These discussions were held on the basis of the maps already exchanged by the two
parties. It rr.iy be observed that the process of clarification of LAC has been going on
since 1993 and the problem is more serious in the Western sector which has a much
larger area than the Middle Sector. The negotiations all these years have shown that
the
Chinese have produced records to show that they have exercised administrative
control over Tawang and if India shows some flexibility over Tawang, China may
accept modification along the rest of the boundary with minor modifications.
Earlier in May 2001, Chief of Indian Air Force paid a visit to China - to enhance
military ties and improve over all relations between the two countries. The talks
revealed that the "commonalities between India and China far out weigh the
differences". Soon after this visit two naval ships Harbin and Tailing arrived in
Mumbai and engaged the Indian navy in a three-day 'Pasex' exercise.
In January 2002, when military tensions between India and Pakistan were on the boil,
the Chinese Prime Minister (Zhu Rongji) paid a six-day visit to India. During the visit
the Chinese Prime Minister made it clear that it wants India and Pakistan to resolve
their dispute through negotiations. The two countries agreed to expand cooperation
for combating terrorism, which had assumed global dimension. They agreed to
constitute a joint working group on terrorism. The two countries were to hold regular
dialogue on the subject and exchange know-how to combat terrorism. China showed
keenness to expand economic, scientific and business ties with India. The two
countries signed Five Memoranda of Understanding and contracts worth more than $
100 million during this
visit. These included agreement on cooperation in the field of Tourism,

Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on space research, science and technology
and exchange of scientific personnel; and provision of hydrological information on
Brahmaputra. The Chinese Prime Minister urged the Indian business houses to invest
more in China and promote joint ventures in the fields of information technology.
In March 2002 India's External Affairs Minister (Jaswant Singh) visited China and
met Chinese Foreign Minister and Prime Minister. The two countries not only agreed
to start direct passenger flights but also made a bid to strengthen political and
military relations. They also agreed to accelerate the process of demarcation of the
Line of Actual Control and initiated bilateral dialogue on combating terrorism. The two
countries agreed to further strengthen bilateral economic relations.
566
They also agreed to reactivate the Joint Economic Group which had been in existence
for several years.
PM'S VISIT TO BUYING AND ITS OUTCOME

Despite growing understanding between the two countries there are still several
irritants in their relations. Thus China is not happy with India's sustained strategic
dialogue with United States and American readiness to concede a minimum nuclear
deterrent for India. China is also not happy with India on account of anti-Chinese
activities carried on by the Tibetans from the Indian soil. On the other hand, India is
unhappy about China's arms transfer to her neighbours, The enormous increase in
the defence expenditure of China since 1989 and continuous modernisation of its
nuclear and missile force is also a cause of concern to India. China's refusal to accept
Sikkim as part of India and its presence in Indian Ocean as well as growing military
co-operation with Myanmar are also cause of worry for India.
INDIA'S ROLE IN CREATION OF BANGLADESH

India tried to develop very intimate relations with Bangladesh right from its inception.
In fact, India played a vital role in the creation of Bangladesh, which earlier formed
part of Pakistan. Though the people of East Bengal (which subsequently became
Bangladesh) were unhappy with the treatment being meted out to them by the
people of West Pakistan ever since the creation of Pakistan, but they never raised
voice for independence. However after the elections of 1970 in Pakistan when
President Yahya Khan refused to transfer power to Awami League of Sheikh Mujib
despite its resounding victory, and arrested Sheikh Mujib, the people of East Bengal
rose in revolt against the authorities. Initially, India kept complete neutrality. However
subsequently when large number of people from East Bengal left their country to
escape the atrocities of General Tikka Khan, and crossed over to India, the
Government took up their cause and raised voice for protection of human rights of
the people of East Bengal. India also asked for normalisation of conditions in East
Bengal so that the refugees, which had taken shelter in India, could return to their
homes. On the other hand Pakistan charged India of interfering in her internal affairs
and tried to project it as an Indo-Pak problem. India not only refuted this charge but
actually took steps to create World public opinion in favour of human rights of the
people of East Bengal. It even raised the issue at the United Nations and other
forums. As this did not yield the desired results, India decided to extend support to
the refugees and Mukti Bahini which was waging struggle for liberation. All this
culminated in the Indo-Pak War of December,
1971 and
the
Indian
army
formed
a
Joint
Command
with
Mukti
Bahini
to
fight
against
West
Pakistan
army.
The
Joint
command
inflicted
defeat
on
West
Pakistan
army
and
secured
liberation
of
Bangladesh
on
16
December,
1971.
India
was
also
one
of
the
first
countries
to
accord
recognition
to
the
new
state
and
establish
diplomatic
and
trade
relations with it.
Soon after the establishment of Bangladesh, India provided enormous amounts
for the economic reconstruction of the country. The Bangladesh leadership
acknowledged the Indian help with gratitude and indicated its desire to work in close
co-operation with India. In January
1972
India's
special
emissary
(D.P.
Dhar)
paid
a
visit
to
Bangladesh
and
discussed
issues
like
withdrawal
of
Indian
troops
from
Bangladesh,
trial
of
Pakistani
prisoners
of
war
and
issue
of
supply
of
food
to
Bangladesh.
This
was
followed
by
visit
of
Bangladesh
Finance
Minister
(Tajuddin
Ahmed)
to
India.
During
this
visit
he
held
talks
for
increasing
Indo-Bangladesh
economic
co-operation.
India
not
only
agreed
to
provide
5
million
tonnes
of
foodgrains
to
Bangladesh
but
also
increased
the
quantum
of
aid
to
Rs.
125
crores.
In
February
1972
Bangladesh
Prime
Minster
(Sheikh
Mujibur
Rehman)
paid
a
visit
to
India.
He
not
only
succeeded
in
securing
an
agreement
for
withdrawal
of
Indian
troops
from
Bangladesh
by
25
March,
1972
but
also
assured
that
all
the
refugees
would
be
withdrawn
from
India.
The
leaders
of
the
two
countries
expressed
their
determination
to
promote
in
every
possible
way
the
co-operation
between
governments
and
people
of
the
two
countries
inspired
by
a
vision
of
lasting
peace, amity and good neighbourliness.

Neighbours 567
TREATY OF FRIENDSHIP, COOPERATION AND PEACE

The Indo-Bangladesh relations were further cemented by the visit of Indian Prime
Minister (Indira Gandhi) to Dacca in March, 1972. During this visit the two countries
agreed to hold bi-annual consultations among the officials of ministries of Foreign
Affairs, Defence, Planning Commission and departments dealing with economic,
cultural, commercial technical affairs of the two governments, with a view to further
strengthen bilateral cooperation. They also decided to set up a Joint Rivers
Commission for surveying and studying the shared river systems and for formulation
and implementation of joint projects for flood control and irrigation facilities. The two
countries agreed to revive Trade and Transit Agreement for the border areas. It was
also agreed that the countries would exchange information regarding peaceful uses
of nuclear energy, technological and scientific research for industrial development,
and utilisation of future space research for commercial purposes.They also sought to
strengthen cultural relations by taking appropriate steps. But the most important
step taken to promote bilateral relations was conclusion of Treaty of Friendship,
Cooperation and Peace for 25 years on the pattern of Indo-Soviet Treaty. The treaty
was designed to promote good neighbourly relations; to transform the borders into
borders of eternal peace and friendship; to uphold principles of non-alignment and
peaceful co-existence; to safeguard peace, stability and security; to promote and
strengthen the existing relations of friendship and cooperation; and to reaffirm faith
in peaceful means for the settlement of disputes; and to uphold the principles of UN
Charter.
For the attainment of the above objectives, the two countries expressed faith in
lasting peace and friendship between the two countries and their people. They
agreed to respect the independence, sovereignty and integrity of each other and
refrain from interfering in the internal affairs of the other. They condemned
colonialism and racialism in all forms and affirmed their determination to work for
their elimination. The two sides affirmed their faith in non-alignment and peaceful coexistence and agreed to maintain regular mutual
consultations on major international problems affecting the interests of two states.
They agreed to strengthen and widen co-operation in economic, scientific, technical,
trade, transport and fields of communication. The two countries agreed to make joint
studies and take action in the field of flood control, river basin development and the
development of hydroelectric power and irrigation. They agreed to further promote
relations in the fields of art, literature, education, culture, sports and health. Two
sides pledged not to enter into or participate in any military alliance directed against
the other party. They agreed not to allow the use of their territory for committing an
act which may cause military damage to or constitute a threat to the security of the
other. They were to refrain from giving any assistance to any third party taking part
in an armed conflict against the other party. In case either party was attacked or
threatened with attack they were to immediately enter into mutual consultations in
order to take appropriate effective measures to eliminate the threat and thus ensure
peace and security of their countries. The two parties solemnly declared that they
would not undertake any commitment, secret or open, towards one or more states
which may be incompatible with the present treaty. The Treaty was to be valid for 25
years and could be renewed by mutual agreement. The differences regarding
interpretation of the treaty were to be settled bilaterally through peaceful means in
the spirit of mutual respect and understanding.
INDO-BANGLADESH RELATIONS IN POSTTREATY

YEARS
The process of strengthening of relations between India and Bangladesh was
continued in subsequent years also. In March 1972 the two countries signed a trade
agreement which provided for trade to the tune of Rs. 100 crores. Three types of
trade was envisaged under the agreement. First, it provided for border trade within
15 kms of the belt of borders with a view to meet day-to-day needs of the people of
border areas. Secondly it provided for trade of goods of special interest to the two
countries on a balanced basis to the tune of Rs. 50 crores. Thirdly, in case India
exported goods worth more than its share of
Rs. 25 crores, the payment shall be treated as a temporary loan and was not to carry
any interest. The trade relations between the two countries were further
strengthened by the signing of three-year Trade Agreement on 5 July, 1973. Under
this agreement the two countries were to export goods worth Rs. 30.5 crores each
way. In May 1974 the two countries signed a number of agreements to promote
greater bilateral economic and trade cooperation. India agreed to provide Bangladesh
three credits of the value of Rs. 41 crores. The two countries agreed to set up
industrial projects for common interest. In December 1974 the two countries signed a
trade protocol which provided that w.e.f. 1 January, 1975 the trade between two
countries would be carried in freely convertible currency. Several other protocols
were also signed which provided for exchanges in the fields of culture, education,
information, sports, etc.
The two countries also resolved the border issues through negotiations and
signed a Border Agreement on 19 May 1974 under which India retained the Berubari
enclave, while Bangladesh got Dahagram and Angarpota. Bangladesh was given a
corridor connecting Dahagram with Panbari Mouza in Bangladesh on perpetual lease.
Tfle agreement fixed the boundary between two countries at midstream for Muhuri
and Fenny rivers.
In 1975 India and Bangladesh reached an interim agreement on the complex
Farakka Issue. Under this agreement India was permitted to draw a specified quantity
of water from its feeder canal for the benefit of Calcutta port. It was agreed that a
joint team of experts would supervise and observe the effect of withdrawals on
Bangladesh and the Hoogly river. The agreement was significant in so far it was
expected to pave the way for an amicable long-term accord on Farakka. Thus it can
be said that India's relations with Bangladesh continued to be quite intimate and
cordial till August 1975 when Sheikh Mujib Government was ousted through a bloody
coup and power was assumed by a group of army men. The political instability which
followed the coup gave a serious set back to the process of Indo-Bangladesh
cooperation.
Indo-Bangladesh Relations After 1975

The instability which followed the coup of Mujib Government in 1975 and the hostile
attitude of the
new leadership gave a serious set back to Indo-Bangladesh relati6ns. Though the
military leadership of Bangladesh did not quite like the Indian condemnation of
murders and violence which took place in the wake of the coup, they were fully
conscious of the importance of relations with India. India also realised that it must
keep away from the internal affairs of Bangladesh. All this led to more realistic and
mature relations between the two countries.
India's relations with Bangladesh showed some improvement with the assumption
of power by Janata Government in India, which attached greater importance to
development of closer relations with the neighbouring countries. As a result of mutual
negotiations and spirit of give and take, in November 1977 India and Bangladesh
reached an agreement. By virtue of this agreement a Joint River Commission was set
up to find out the long-term solution of the Farakka dispute. The Joint River
Commission held a number of meetings to find a solution of the problem but failed to
arrive at any mutually satisfactory solution. Ultimately in 1982 the two countries
reached an interim accord on Ganga water. Under this accord the Farakka Agreement
of 1977 was terminated and a period of eighteen months was given to complete
studies on the ways to augment the flow of Ganga. The Indo-Bangladesh Joint River
Commission was entrusted with the responsibility of carrying- out feasibility study
and to decide upon a solution which was acceptable to both the parties. In January
1983 an accord was signed which made new arrangements for the sharing of Ganga
water for two years. Thereafter also the Joint River Commission held a number of
meetings but failed to find a mutually acceptable solution. Ultimately in November
1985 the two countries reached an accord on sharing of Ganga water. In terms of this
accord Ganga water was to be shared for a period of three years beginning from the
dry season of 1986 on the basis laid down in the memorandum of understanding
signed by the two countries in 1982. However, even after this accord Bangladesh
continued to insist on building up of reservoir dams and participation of Nepal in this
task. Though initially India was reluctant to include Nepal in the study project, it
relented its stand subsequently. In January 1986 Bangladesh and India agreed for the
first time to study the proposals of both the countries (regarding the
569
sharing of Ganga water) which was a positive development and could ultimately lead
to amicable settlement of the plan of action for the joint study of dry season flow of
Ganga and augmentation of water supply at Farakka and sharing of waters of other
common rivers.
Another irritant in the relations between India and Bangladesh appeared in 1980
in the form of issue of Moore Island. Both the countries claimed sovereignty over this
island which was first formed after the cyclone and tidal waves of 1970. The island
was first discovered by India in 1971. Bangladesh also put forth its claim to the island
in 1978. In view of conflicting claims, the two countries agreed in 1979 to conduct a
joint survey to determine the location and ownership of island. In May 1981 the
controversy between the two countries was aggravated on account of despatch of
certain gun boats which threatened the Indian ship Sandhyak, which went there to
update the statistics for joint survey. India also sent a frigate to rescue its ships. This
generated lot of tension. The tension was somewhat defused as a result of meeting of
the Foreign Ministers of the two countries, even though they could not resolve the
issuer Ultimately they decided to refer the issue to Secretary level talks to examine
all available data on New Moore island dispute. However, no settlement could be
arrived at and the controversy remained unresolved and generated lot of tension in
Indo-Bangladesh relations.
The flow of migrants from across Bangladesh, due to unstable conditions also
caused tension between the two countries. The presence of large number of such
migrants in the states bordering on Bangladesh, viz., West Bengal, Meghalaya,
Assam, Tripura, and Mizoram, posed serious social, economic and political problems
for the people of these states. Indian sought to check the flow of refugees by erecting
barbed wire fence along the border, which was greatly resented by Bangladesh. In
view of this resentment, India decided to construct a road along the 2000 km Indo-
Bangladesh border, about 150 yards from the demarcation line, to check infiltration
of unauthorised persons into country. The presence of large number of Chakma
refugees from Bangladesh also caused tension in their relations. However, the
situation somewhat eased following
an assurance by President Ershad of Bangladesh on 15 July, 1986 that his
government would soon initiate steps for return of Chakmas who had crossed into
India and curb continuing influx of tribals. However, the Bangladesh government
failed to live upto this assurance and the influx of Chakmas from across the border
into Tripura and Mizoram continued.
The problem of sharing of river waters of Ganga, Teesta and Brahmaputra and
delimitation of maritime boundary between the two countries also continued to cause
tension in India's relations with Bangladesh.
The anti-India propaganda carried on by certain sections of population and
Bangladesh press also hampered the development of friendly and co-operative
relations between India and Bangladesh. These people accused India of indulging in
anti-social activities in Bangladesh and even dubbed the Indian diplomats in
Bangladesh as agents and spies of India. In November 1975 six young men attacked
the Indian High Commissioner in Dacca. All this greatly agitated the Indian
Government which sent a strong protest and warning to Dacca to stop all
mischievous propaganda. In view of Indian warning a two-man delegation visited
India and held talks with the representatives of Indian External Affairs Ministry, which
resulted in suspension of anti-India propaternal Affairs Ministry, which resulted in
suspension of anti-India propaganda for sometime at least. However, this proved only
short-lived because in 1976 anti-India propaganda was again stepped up in
Bangladesh on the issue of Farakka Barrage. In 1981 the issue of Moore island also
gave rise to strong anti-India propaganda. However at the Summit meeting between
Prime Minister of India (Indira Gandhi) and Martial Law Administrator of Bangladesh
(General Ershad) held in October 1982 the two leaders agreed to take effective steps
to stop false propaganda against each other. Despite this understanding anti-India
propaganda continued in Bangladesh and the rulers of Bangladesh did hardly
anything to control it. In fact they continued to encourage anti-India propaganda. For
example in May 1983 Lt. General Ershad himself accused India of holding back
Bangladesh's share of Ganga water in a seminar.
INDO-BANGLADESH RELATIONS IN 1990
After the emergence of National Front Government in November 1989 a serious

attempt was made to improve relations with Bangladesh. In February 1990 India's
External Affairs Minister (I.K. Gujral) paid a visit to Dacca with a view to secure better
co-operation with Bangladesh. He discussed all the outstanding bilateral issues with
the leaders of Bangladesh with a view to resolve them. During the meeting the two
sides agreed to take sterner measures to check illegal border crossings and
smuggling. Bangladesh agreed to take back and rehabilitate the Chakma

refugees in Chittagong Hill tracts. On the other hand, India committed to transfer Tin
Bigha to Bangladesh. The two countries also agreed to revive the Indo-Bangladesh
Joint River Commission for undertaking the task of evolving short-term as well as
long-term arrangements for sharing of the river waters. Thus a serious bid was made
during the brief tenure of National Front Government to improve relations with
Bangladesh. This trend also continued under the minority Janata Party Government of
Chander Shekhar.
With the return of Congress to power under Narsimha Rao in 1991 efforts were
stepped up to improve relations with Bangladesh. The installation of democratic
government in Bangladesh also facilitated development of friendly and co-operative
relations between the two countries. During 1991-92 the leaders of two countries
exchanged visits which created favourable climate for cordial relations between two
countries. Several agreements were concluded by the two countries which include an
agreement on Tin Bigha corridor. Under this agreement India agreed to allow use of a
strip of land for 6 hours a day for people in Dahagram enclave to cross over to
mainland Bangladesh to buy goods, reach hospitals and send children for higher
education. The two countries agreed to review long-term and comprehensive
arrangements for sharing of waters of Ganga, Teesta and other major rivers of the
region. The two countries also expressed their determination to stop illegal
movements of people across the border and take effective measures for maintenance
of peace along the border. The agreement regarding leasing of Tin Bigha corridor was
implemented in June 1992. In November 1992
the two countries held talks regarding sharing of river waters, but much progress
could not be made. The two countries, however, agreed to set up a Joint Committee
of Experts and entrusted it the task of evolving an equitable long term and
comprehensive agreement for sharing the flows of the Ganga, the Teesta and other
major rivers in the best interests of the peoples of the two countries.
This process of improvement of relations was greatly upset in December 1992
following demolition of disputed structure in Ayodhya and its instant reaction in
Bangladesh in the form of violent attacks on temples in Dhaka, Chittagong and other
places. This led to exodus of non-Muslims into India and caused lot of tension in IndoBangladesh relations. In this atmosphere of mutual distrust the bilateral talks on
outstanding issues between the two countries were shelved. Even the SAARC summit
scheduled to be held in Dacca on 12 December, 1992 was postponed due to
disturbed law and order situation in Bangladesh.
The postponed SAARC summit was held in April, 1993 which once again gave rise
to a hope that relations between India and Bangladesh would soon improve. The
things actually showed an improvement in 1994 when the two countries reached an
agreement regarding repatriation of Chakma tribal refugees camping in south Tripura
camps for the last eight years. In 1995 the leaders of two countries held talks to
resolve the issue regarding the sharing of Ganga waters, but these talks proved a
failure. One positive outcome of these talks was that the two countries agreed to
reactivate the Joint Rivers Commission, which had not met for the past five years, to
work out details regarding the sharing of the waters of common rivers, including
Ganga on a permanent basis. The relations between the two countries further
improved towards close of 1995 when the Bangladesh High Commissioner to India
indicated his country's readiness to take back Chakma refugees settled in Tripura.
INDO-BANGLADESH RELATIONS UNDER UNITED FRONT

GOVERNMENT
With the assumption of power by the United Front Government in India in June 1996
and the initiation of policy of unilateralism under which
571
India granted certain trade and other concessions to neighbouring countries, India's
relations with Bangladesh showed considerable improvement. A further step in this
direction was taken on 12 December 1996 when the Prime Ministers of India and
Bangladesh signed a 30-year water sharing treaty in New Delhi to resolve their longstanding dispute over the matter. The treaty, to be valid for 30 years, contains
provision for review every five years or earlier. It further provides that if the water
level at Farakka drops sharply the two sides will share the available quantum on a
50:50 basis. The treaty also provides for a 10- day alternate advantage formula which
ensures that neither country suffers from acute siltation. To oversee the
implementation of the Treaty an Indo-Bangladesh Joint Committee has been set up.
India also showed greater accommodation to Bangladesh with a view to reduce
the trade gap between the two countries, and decided to reduce trariffs in 13 items
from Bangladesh coming into the Indian market. Further the two countries agreed not
to allow any activities on their territory against the interests of the other. Indian has
been facing serious problem of insurgency and militancy in the north-eastern states
from organisations like United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), National Social
Council of Nagland, etc. The Bangladesh Prime Minister Begum Hasina assured India
that Bangladesh would "not allow any anti- India activity from her soil by any third
country".
A welcome development took place in March 1997 when Bangladesh Government
reached an agreement with Chakma leaders regarding repatriation of 80,000 tribal
Chakma refugees in India. The repatriation of the Chakmas from India started soon
after and the last batch of Chakmas returned to Bangladesh in February 1998. The
resolution of the Chakma problem, which had given rise to several problems and
social tensions, was a welcome development. In the meanwhile in January 1998 India,
Bangladesh and Pakistan held a trilateral business summit. At the end of Summit
they issued a 15-point joint declaration stressing closer economic cooperation for
consolidating and strengthening the ongoing efforts for achieving sustainable
development of the region. The Declaration
expressed
commitment
to
liberalisation of trade in the region, and reaffirmed the goal of achieving a free trade
area in South Asia by 2001. The leaders of the three countries also agreed to provide
special trade concessions for the less developed countries of the region on nonreciprocal basis for the development of equitable trade relations.
In June, 1999, Prime Minister Vajpayee, in order to promote good neighbourly
relations with the countries of sub-continent, introduced a Calcutta-Dhaka bus
service. A hope was expressed that the bus service would bring the people of the two
countries closer and contribute to their social and economic prosperity. On 20 June,
1999, the two countries signed another agreement under which India agreed to
provide a credit of Rs. 200 crore during the next three years to enable Bangladesh
to buy transport equipment and capital goods from India for its infrastructure!
development. India also agreed to extend dutyfree concessions on selected
Bangladeshi items without insisting on any reciprocal arrangement. It is true that the
range of commodities and goods which Bangladesh can offer to India is very limited,
but this step would certainly give a boost to regional co-operation among the SAARC
countries.
In July, 1999, Bangladesh agreed to examine the issue of trans-shipment of Indian
goods from one part of India to another part of India by using Bangladesh land route
and Bangladesh transport. This shall be a significant step in the direction of creating
a regime of free goods movement within South Asia. The two countries also agreed to
complete the work of border demarcation to curb smuggling, trafficking in women
and children, smuggling of arms and ammunition. However, fresh tension was
generated between the two countries in August 1999 when the security forces of
India and Bangladesh exchanged firing. But as a result of meeting between BSF
(Border Security Force) of India and BDR (Bangladesh Rifle) officials the matter was
sorted out. In fact, the whole trouble started over disputed island on the Muhari river,
viz., the Char area. Both India and Bangladesh claim ownership of the island. Of the
total area of 79 acres of Muhari Char, India is in possession of 24 acres and
Bangladeshi farmers cultivate only 2 1/2 acres of land, while the
572
remaining 52 acres of land remained almost unutilised for years. The Indian farmers
were keen to cultivate this 52 acres of land, but the Bengali farmers strongly
protested against this. The Government of Bangladesh urged India not to allow its
farmers to cultivate in the disputed 52 acres of land, before the matter was finally
resolved.
In January, 2000, India's State Minister of External Affairs (Ajit Panja) paid a visit
to Bangladesh to reinforce the existing relations of goodwill and friendship between
the two countries. The two countries agreed to start a bus service between Agartala
and Dhaka. They also agreed to increase cooperation in the field of fisheries, jute
production and cultivation, animal husbandry, biotechnology, agriculture science and
technology, agriculture production and agro-processing.
In February 2000 India announced a soft loan of Rs. 400 crores for upgrading the
transport infrastructure of Bangladesh. In April 2000 meetings were held between the
representatives of BSF and BDR and the two sides agreed to further strengthen their
cooperation for the sake of peace and tranquility in the border areas. The two
countries also reached an agreement to check cross-border crimes. Another notable
development took place in July 2000 when India and Bangladesh signed an
agreement to resume goods train link after 26 years. This rail link between Banapole
in Bangladesh and Petrapole in India would reduce burden on road and give boost to
trade between the two countries.
In February 2001 a meeting of the Joint Working Group QWG) of India and
Bangladesh was held in New Delhi where a major overhaul of visa regime between
India and Bangladesh was agreed. Diplomatic passport holders were assured visa
free entry; multiple entry visas with unrestricted entry for a year were to be issued to
businessmen, students, research scholars etc., sponsorship requirement for tourist
visas was abolished; work permit holders were to be granted visas on year to year
basis; diplomats were given multiple-entry visa co-terminus with their tenure. During
the talks India expressed concern over terrorists operating from Bangladesh.
However, Bangladesh assured that it had forbidden the use
of its soil by 'undesirable elements' engaged in activity which were prejudicial to the
interests of any country, including India.
The relations between India and Bangladesh got severely strained following brutal
killing of 16 BSF men by the Bangladesh Rifles (BDR) in April 2001. The trouble
started on 15 April 2001 at village Pyrdiwah in Meghalaya when BDR troops
surrounded the BSF outpost and asked them to evacuate the post. On 18 April the
BSF officials crossed Boraibari village to capture a post well within Bangladesh. As
these troops were crossing the village the civilians spoted them, dispossessed them
of their weapons and handed them over to BDR, who killed 16 of them at point blank
range and handed over the mutilated bodies to India. On 19 April BDR withdrew from
Pyrdiwah and restored status quo ante. This incident generated lot of tension and the
two countries even carried out troops mobilisation on the border. However, India
handled the incident with great restraint because it did not want to open the eastern
front on account of growing insurgency in north-eastern areas.
India's relations with Bangladesh got somewhat strained following a spate of
atrocities against the minorities in Bangladesh both before and after the elections in
October 2001. However, the new Prime Minister of Bangladesh (Begum Khaleda Zia)
assured India that minorities would be protected and there would be no repetition of
the ugly incidents. The new government issued directions to the law enforcement
agencies to deal firmly with those who attack life, property and places of worship of
country's minorities.
However, despite the above assurance by the new Government of Bangladesh;
India did not expect that her relations with Bangladesh would be cordial on account
of open assertions by Begum Khalida Zia that her Government would review the
Ganga Water Sharing Treaty arid Chittagong Hill Tracts Accord signed by the previous
government. It may be pointed out that even during the regime of Sheikh Hasina
there was spurt in militancy in the North-Eastern states in India.
In November 2001 Foreign Minister of Bangladesh (M. Morshed Khan) emphasised
the need for closer relations between India and Bangladesh on account of their
geographical

Neighbours 573
proximity. In February 2002 the Foreign Secretaries of two countries met in New Delhi
and reviewed the entire gamut of their bilateral relations including border dispute,
inland water protocol and bilateral trade.
In April 2002 trade talks began between India and Bangladesh but the same broke
down due to insistence of India that it be given trans- shipment facilities through
Bangladesh to the North-East, in return for the trade concessions made by India.
However, Bangladesh took the stand that this matter should be discussed by the Joint
Economic Commission. Nonetheless as a result of the trade talks, India granted dutyfree access to 40 product line. Dhaka was however not happy with these concessions
because at the SAARC Summit Indian Prime Minister had offered more
concessions to Bangladesh to narrow the trade deficit with India. In view of the
differences in the approach of the two countries the Bilateral Trade Accord signed in
1980, which expired on 4 April, 2002, was not renewed.
Some tension was generated in the Indo-Bangladesh relations in May-June 2002
following a report that Dhaka wants to mediate between India and Pakistan in their
current confrontation. The Foreign Minister of Bangladesh (Morshed Khan) paid a visit
to India in June 2002 and conveyed to the Indian Government that Bangladesh had
no intention to interject in Indo-Pakistan dispute. This visit not only helped in
dispelling the misperceptions about Dhaka's role, but also encouraged the two
countries to expand trade and transit ties.
In November 2002 India's Deputy Prime Minister (L.K. Advani) expressed concern
over the growing activities of the Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI) of Pakistan and the AI
Qaeda in Bangladesh. He further alleged, that the insurgent groups in the North-East
India were getting refuge in Bangladesh. India's External Affairs Minister (Yashwant
Sinha) also told the Lok Sabha that the Pakistan mission in Dhaka had become the
nerve-centre of the ISI activities. It was encouraging terrorism, illegal drug trafficking
and is also involved in the counterfeit currency racket in India.
In conclusion it can be said that in recent years efforts have been stepped up to
establish friendly
relations between India and Bangladesh. However, still some irritants exist in their
relations, viz., the running of insurgent training camps across border with the active
involvement of ULFA activities; large-scale illegal migrations and border demarcation.
INDIA AND SRI LANKA

Sri Lanka, located off the coast of South East India, is an island country, which has
very close cultural links with India. It is well known that King Ashoka sent his son
Mahendra and his daughter Sangh mitra to Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism, which
still continued to be the predominant religion of the country. Before attaining
independence in 1947 both the countries were under the control of Britishers. During
the British rule large number of Indians settled down in Sri Lanka, where they were
employed in tea and rubber plantations.
INDO-SRI LANKA RELATIONS BETWEEN 1947 AND 1955

During this period the relations between the two countries could not develop along
friendly lines on account of their different foreign policy perception. Though both
India and Sri Lanka decided to join the Commonwealth, they were motivated by
different considerations. India joined the Commonwealth to maintain economic, trade
and cultural links with Britain and other Commonwealth countries. On the other hand
Sri Lanka decided to join the Commonwealth with a view to safeguard her security
interests against 'possible invasion' from India and the possibility of communist
march in the area on account of power vacuum created due to British withdrawal
from the area.
Again during the initial years of her independence Sri Lanka showed a clear bias
in favour of West despite professions of being a non-aligned country. This is evident
from her pro-west stand during the Korean crisis. Likewise during Vietnam war also
Sri Lanka provided airport facilities to the United States for carrying troops to
Vietnam. Likewise, Sri Lanka signed a defence pact with Britain. All this was at
variance with the policy of non-alignment and Panchsheel followed by India. Apart
from the different foreign policy
574
perceptions, several other factors also prevented development of cordial relations,
between the two countries. These factors include the small size of Sri Lanka which
gave rise to a fear that India may establish her hegemony over South Asia; the
presence of large number of people of Indian origin in Sri Lanka and the possibility of
India using them to create troubles in Sri Lanka; the demand for creation of
independent Tamil speaking state by DMK, which gave rise to a fear in Sri Lanka that
chauvinistic policy may be adopted towards Sri Lanka. All this stood in the way of
development of co-operative relations between India and Sri Lanka. On the other
hand Sri Lanka made an attempt to find a counterpoise to India and proceeded to
conclude a security pact with Britain and join the Commonwealth.
India on its part also felt quite unhappy over the steps taken by Sri Lanka
government against the people of Indian origin settled in the country and insisted
that they should be treated at par with the original inhabitants because these people
emigrated there several generations ago and made valuable contribution to the
economic development of the country. India asserted that these people had the right
to Sri Lanka's citizenship. However, the Sri Lankan government did not agree with the
Indian stand and denied citizenship to a large number of people of Indian origin
settled in Sri Lanka and rendered them stateless. India permitted those persons who
wanted to come to India on their own to become Indian citizens. As a result many
Indians settled In Sri Lanka acquired Indian citizenship but quite a sizeable number of
them continued to stay in Sri Lanka. In 1954 Prime Minister Nehru had a meeting with
Sir John Kotelawale, Prime Minster of Sri Lanka and they agreed upon a formula for
tackling the problem of people of Indian origin in Sri Lanka. However, no permanent
solution of the problem could be found.
On the various international issues also the two countries adopted different
approach. While Sri Lanka did not differentiate between western imperialism and
communism and condemned both; India was more critical of the western imperialism,
but favoured policy of co-existence with Communist China. Again, though Sri Lanka
did not join any military bloc, it did not hold faith in Panchsheel or policy of peaceful
co-existence.
INDO-SRI LANKA RELATIONS FROM 1956-64

India's relations with Sri Lanka showed some improvement after S. W. R. D.
Bandaranaike took over as Prime Minister. Soon after assumption of power he
announced his intention to develop friendly relations and closer co-operation with
India. The change in Sri Lankan policy was further evident from the fact that he asked
for withdrawal of Britain's air and naval bases from Sri Lanka. In the international
sphere Sri Lanka opted for policy of non-alignment and took stand similar to that of
India on issues like Suez Canal and Hungarian crisis. The exchange of visits by Prime
Minister Nehru and Prime Minister Bandaranaike also contributed to the improvement
of relations between the two countries. Following assassination of Bandaranaike in
1959 it appeared that the relations between the two may suffer a set back. However
Mrs. Bandaranaike, who succeeded her husband as Sri Lanka's Prime Minister,
continued the process of improving relations with India. She affirmed
the resolve of her government to strengthen ties of friendship and goodwill

between the two countries. India also acted with great restraint and refused to
intervene in the matter regarding making of Sinhala as the state language in Sri
Lanka, despite pressure from the Tamil speaking regions of South India. India also
took several other positive steps to improve relations with Sri Lanka, including
conclusion of a Trade Agreement which sought to remove difficulties encountered by
the two countries in their trade.
The Sri Lankan leadership further won the admiration of India by extending full
support to India's liberation of Goa both in the Security Council and outside. However,
in the wake of Sino-Indian conflict of. 1962, India's relations with Sri Lanka suffered a
set back. Sri Lanka not only refused to brand China as an aggressor, but also
maintained impartiality in the Colombo Conference over the Sino-Indian Border. All
this greatly disappointed India. The relations between the two countries got further
set back due to differences over maritime boundary, the question of Tamil minority in
Sri Lanka, and attempts by Sri Lanka to develop closer relations with Pakistan and
China. Despite these irritants the leaders of
575
two countries maintained regular contact with each other and tried to resolve
bilateral issues. A big break-through in this regard was made in 1964 when SrimavoShastri Pact was signed.
RELATIONS AFTER 1965

In 1965 with the formation of National Government under Dudley Senanayake, the
prospects for improvement of relations with India greatly improved because the new
Government gave up the earlier tilt towards China and made a bid to improve
relations with West as well as India. The change in Sri Lanka's attitude towards India
was further evident from its stand on Indo-Pak War of 1965. Unlike the Sri Lankan
stand during the Sino-Indian conflict of 1962, the new government did not play any
direct role of mediation and merely appealed for an early and peaceful settlement of
the dispute. Prime Minister Senanayake said, "We are deeply concerned that such
developments should take place between two countries in our region of the world,
and with both of them, we maintain the closest ties of friendship."
In September 1967 Indian Prime Minister (Indira Gandhi) paid a visit to Sri Lanka
and made to bid to solve the problem of Indians in Sri Lanka; and increase economic
and development cooperation between the two countries. In November 1968, Prime
Minister Senanayake visited India. During this visit he discussed the question of
ownership of island of Kachchativu in the Palk Straits which had arisen earlier. It was
mutually agreed that the matter would be examined in a spirit of friendly cooperation. In her speech at a banquet arranged in honour of the Sri Lankan Prime
Minister, Mrs. Gandhi said, "Even though we have such close cultural bonds with Sri
Lanka, Sri Lanka has developed its own very distinct personality and individuality and
we respect her for it. We would like friendship to be based on a sharing of experience,
of co-operation and of solving our problems with consideration towards each other's
difficulties and problems. I think that is the best foundation on which good
neighbourliness and friendship can be based/ In its eagerness to befriend Sri Lanka,
India provided military assistance to Sri Lanka in 1971 to curb
insurgency. This help proved of immense use to Sri Lanka in curbing the insurgency.
During the Indo-Palk conflict of 1971 Sri Lanka observed complete neutrality. It
even sought to set at rest the suspicion which had been aroused due to Sri Lanka's
decision to allow transit facilities for Pakistani aircraft from West to East Pakistan. It
clarified that such facilities are extended to all friendly countries and that such
permission was granted 'on the basis of a declaration by the Government of Pakistan
in each case that they did not carry military personnel or equipment'. Further the Sri
Lankan government had taken independent measures to satisfy itself about these
facts. Despite all this India persisted with the policy of improving relations with Sri
Lanka. It stepped up efforts to develop more intimate economic and trade relations
with Sri Lanka. The problem of people of Indian origin in Sri Lanka, which had soured
relations between the two countries for so long, was also discussed. Thus by 1972
the Indo-Sri Lanka relations became more intimate and co-operataive, even though
differences still persisted between the two on issues like trade imbalances, balance of
payment problem and Tamilian problem.
RELATIONS IN THE EIGHTIES

The problem of Tamilians settled in Sri Lanka took a serious turn in July-August 1983
when hundreds of Tamilians settled in Sri Lanka were killed by the Sinhalese
extremists. The incident evoked such strong reaction in India that the Prime Minister
of India despatched India's External Affairs Minister (P. V. Narasimha Rao) for an on
the spot study of the situation. The Government of Sri Lanka also took a number of
measures to curb the growing violence against the members of the minority
community. Despite all this a demand was raised in certain quarters in India that the
issue of prosecution of the minorities should be taken to the world forum. However,
the Government of India acted with restraint. It also indicated its readiness to help in
bringing the Government of Sri Lanka and the TULF leader A. Amrithalingam to the
negotiating table to find out an amicable solution. During subsequent months India
continued efforts to find a solution to the problem
576
of Tamilians in Sri Lanka. It also pressed on the Government of Sri Lanka to find a
political solution of the problem.
Towards the close of 1984 and beginning of 1985, India's relations with Sri Lanka
faced a serious strain on account of internal ethnic conflicts in Sri Lanka. The things
took serious turn after the Government tried to settle armed Sinhalese in Tamil
Majority areas. This was greatly resented by the Tamilians who blew up a number of
banks, mined army vehicles and cut off rail and telecommunication links. In
retaliation to all this the army burnt several towns and villages inhabited by the
Tamilians which resulted in the death of large number of Tamilians. A large number of
Tamilians left the country to escape oppression and crossed over to India. This
created a serious problem of refugees and a demand for Indian intervention grew
very loud. However, the Government of India ruled out any such action and insisted
on a political solution of the problem. India sent its Foreign Secretary to Sri Lanka in
March 1985 to defuse the situation. However, nothing concrete emerged. Thereafter
the situation became even more grim due to intensification of repressive
measures by the armed forces against Tamilians. India increased pressure on Sri
Lanka to find a political solution of the problem.
In May-June 1987 a large number of Tamilians were massacred by the security
forces of Sri Lanka at Jaffna. India decided to air drop supplies to the suffering
Tamilians against the wishes of Sri Lanka government. This generated lot of tension in
their relations. However, subsequently the Sri Lankan government showed a spirit of
accommodation and permitted India to send relief supplies to relieve the sufferings of
the Tamilians in Sri Lanka. The things began to show improvement thereafter.
GANDHI JAYEWARDENE ACCORD (JULY, 1987)

On 28 July, 1987 Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and President Jayewardene signed an
accord which provided that:
1. The Tamil majority northern and eastern provinces would be merged to create
a single province to ensure distinct Tamil nationality without disturbing
integrity of Sri Lanka.
2. A referendum would be held on or before 31 December 1988 to enable the people
of eastern provinces to decide whether they would like to maintain links with the
northern province or constitute a separate administrative unit with its own
provincial council and governor. All the persons who had been displaced due to
ethnic violence or other reasons were given the right to participate in the
referendum. However the President of Sri Lanka was given the discretion to
postpone the referendum.
3. Elections to Provincial Councils would be held before 31 December 1987 and the
Indian observers would be invited for election to provincial councils of north and
east.
4. Emergency in eastern and northern provinces would be lifted by 15 August 1987.
5. All hostilities in the island would come to an end within 48 hours of the signing of
the accord and all arms would have to be surrendered by the militant groups.
Thereafter the army and other security personnel would be confined to barracks in
camps as on 25 May 1987. This process of surrender of arms and confining of
security personnel to barracks would be completed within 72 hours of the
cessation of hostilities.
6. The President of Sri Lanka would grant a general amnesty to political and other
prisoners detained under the Prevention of Terrorism Act and other emergency
laws.
7. The President of Sri Lanka would have discretion to invite an Indian peacekeeping
contingent to guarantee and enforce the cessation of hostilities in Jaffna. India
agreed to provide such military assistance for the implementation of the accord as
may be requested by Sri Lankan government.
8. The accord contained a special provision for dealing with the militant groups
operating in Sri Lanka who did not accept the framework of settlement. Under the
2.

Neighbours 577
accord India was to take necessary steps to ensure that the Indian territory was not
used for activities prejudicial to the unity and integrity of Sri Lanka. The Indian coast
guard and navy were to co-operate with Sri Lankan navy to check Tamil militant
activities. 9. Sri Lanka was not to make available Trincomalee or any other port for
military use to other countries in a manner prejudicial to India's interests. Sri
Lanka agreed to conclude an early agreement with India regarding relevance
and employment of foreign military and intelligence personnel to ensure that
their presence did not prejudice Indo-Sri Lankan interests. India on its part
agreed to deport all Sri Lankan citizens who were found to be engaging in terrorist
activities or advocating secession. The accord was considered as a great
landmark in the Indo-Sri Lankan relations, in so far as it was expected to put an end
to the ethnic tension in Sri Lanka and pave way for better relation between the two
countries. The accord did help in reducing tension between the two countries
and paved the way for greater cooperation. On the request of Sri Lanka, India
assumed the responsibility of disarming the Tamil militants with a view to restore
peace in the troubled northern areas, specially Jaffana. A 30,000 strong Indian Peace
Keeping Force (IPKF) was sent to Sri Lanka for fulfilment of obligations assumed
under the accord of July 1987. It may be noted that India got involved in Sri Lanka on
account of two reasons. First, India was strongly opposed to extra-regional security
links of Sri Lanka because she feared that the outside powers may get entrenched
there. Secondly, India felt concerned about the ethnic rights of Tamils in Sri Lanka
and the onerous pressures from the state of Tamil Nadu to protect Tamils even
through intervention. India did a commendable job by ending menace of Tamil
militants and providing food to the starving families. However, India paid a heavy
price for this involvement. It not only caused heavy financial burden on India but
also led to the killing of several members of the Indian Peace Keeping Force.
Despite the commendable role played by the IPKF in restoring peace in the wartorn island, President Premadasa gave a call for the recall of IPKF from Sri Lanka by
29 July 1989. India objected to the imposition of this unilateral deadline and insisted
that the terms of the agreement must be fulfilled. As a protest against this stand of
India, Sri Lanka refused to take part in the meeting of the SAARC Foreign Ministers at
Islamabad in July 1989. Talks were initiated to defuse the situation which resulted in
the conclusion of an agreement for withdrawal of IPKF. Under the agreement a Peace
Committee comprising of representatives of various political and ethnic groups in
north-east was set up. In the meanwhile, though India continued with the programme
of phased withdrawal of peace keeping forces from Sri Lanka, the leaders of Sri Lanka
were not happy with the pace of withdrawal.
RELATIONS IN THE 1990'S

With the assumption of power by the National Front Government in India, the
relations between India and Sri Lanka showed some improvement. The new
government in India expedited the process of withdrawal of IPKF from Sri Lanka. In
January 1991 the two countries reached an agreement that the final solution to the
vexed ethnic problem of Sri Lanka could be found only through political settlement.
The two countries also agreed to upgrade the existing joint trade committees. Sri
Lanka on its part agreed to accept 200,000 Sri Lankan refugees camping in Tamil
Nadu. India assured Sri Lanka that it would not be a party to any plan for political
disintegration of Sri Lanka and undertook not to allow its territory to be used as base
for terrorist activities against the Island Republic. This undertaking of India greatly
contributed to easing of tension between two countries.
After the withdrawal of Peace Keeping Forces from Sri Lanka, India tried to avoid
involvement in
the activities of the Tamil militants on the plea that it was an internal matter of Sri
Lanka. However, the exodus of Sri Lankan Tamils in India on account of policy of
repression by Sri Lanka towards them, gave rise to problem of law and
order in India. In May 1991 former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by a
human bomb of LITE. This convinced India that the presence of LTTE refugees in India
posed a serious threat to sovereignty and integrity of India. It placed an immediate
ban on LTTE and announced a decision to expedite the process of repatriation of Sri
Lankan refugees to their country. This hard stand of India evoked strong protests in
Sri Lanka and India was accused of making an attempt to destroy the peace process
in Sri Lanka.
In the wake of SAARC Summit at Colombo in November 1991 the relations
between the two countries got further strained because President Premadasa put the
entire blame for the collapse of the summit on India. He even took advantage of
India's absence from the summit and held informal talks with the leaders of Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Maldives, where he displayed open hostility towards India. However,
during the subsequent months the relations between the two countries showed an
improvement. In January 1992 India and Sri Lanka reached an agreement on the
repatriation of Tamil refugees to Sri Lanka. By July 1992 more than 23,000 of the
officially registered 120,000 Sri Lankan Tamil refugees were flown to Sri Lanka. In
October 1992 President Premadasa paid a visit to India and displayed an attitude
which was at complete variance with the earlier views of Sri Lanka on questions on
role of IPKF, the Indo-Sri Lankan Pact, and attitude towards LTTE. He played down the
differences over the Indo-Sri Lankan agreement and reiterated his country's
commitment to devise a peaceful, negotiated and honourable settlement of the
ethnic issue with the involvement of all concerned parties. Thus the visit was quite
fruitful in so far at greatly contributed to the reduction of mutual mistrust. This
change in Sri Lankan attitude was evident from the fact that in December 1992, Sri
Lanka turned down the demand of Pakistan to raise the Babri Masjid issue in the
Forthcoming SAARC meeting. In the economic field also the two countries tried to
increase co-operation. As a result of this understanding trade between the two
countries showed considerable increase. Thus the hostility which characterised IndoSri Lanka a few years back gradually disappeared, even though the continued ethnic
conflict continued to be an irritant in their relations.
The visit of President Chandrika Kumaratunga to India in 1995 helped in
reestablishing friendly and mutually beneficial ties between the two countries. During
her visit to India she proposed a free-trade and investment agreement to boost
economic co-operation between two countries. India also adopted a more realistic
approach to the ethnic problem of Sri Lanka. In fact by now the leaders of the two
countries had come to realise that they must collaborate in fighting terrorism and
improving their relations through regular contacts and consultations.
In June 1996 the Foreign Minister of Sri Lanka paid a visit to India with a view to
further strengthen relations between two countries. During this visit the Indian Prime
Minister (H.D. Deve Gowda) assured him that India would not extend any support to
LTTE. In fact India further extended the ban on LTTE for two years. In January 1997,
Indian Foreign Minister (I.K. Gujaral) paid a visit to Sri Lanka and announced several
unilateral trade and other concessions to Sri Lanka, as a part of his good neighbourly
policy. He also indicated India's desire to promote closer cultural relations with Sri
Lanka and announced the decision to set up a Cultural Centre in Colombo. The policy
of development of closer relations with Sri Lanka was also continued by BJP led
coalition government of Atal Behari Vajpayee.
In December, 1998, the leaders of the two countries tried to finalise a free trade
agreement which was to come into force in March 1999. This agreement aimed at
ridding the region of the unnecessary restrictions. It proposed phasing out of tariffs
on a large number of items within set time-frame. While India was to reduce tariff to
zero in three years, Sri Lanka was given eight years to implement zero tariff. With
regard to re-export of goods of foreign origin by Sri Lanka, it was agreed that only
foreign goods, with local value addition of 35 per cent would qualify for tariff
exemptions. It was hoped that the agreement would improve Sri Lanka's balance of
trade position with India, which had shown huge deficit during the year 1997-98. The
proposed free trade agreement evoked mixed reaction in both the countries. There
were strong protests from different organisations and plantation unions

Neighbours 579
against exemption of tea, rubber, coconut, etc. Ultimately India decided not to
include items like tea and rubber in the negative list. However, India offered some
sort of quotas for tea exports and even offered to Sri Lanka an opportunity to export
garments to India. In return, India wanted to export its cars duty free into Sri Lanka,
which would have operated against Sri Lankan interests. In short, as a result of these
modifications the Free Trade Agreement between India and Sri Lanka suffered a
setback.
In April, 2000, after the LITE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) captured
strategically important Elephant Pass and trapped over 35,000 Sri Lankan soldiers,
the Government of Sri Lanka requested India for help to stop the LTTE onslaught,
India ruled out any military intervention or arms supply. However, it agreed to extend
humanitarian support. India also indicated its willingness to play diplomatic role in
bringing about negotiated settlement of the problem.
In February 2000 India and Sri Lanka held discussions and an agreement was
reached whereby India agreed to phase out tariffs on large number of items within
three years, while Sri Lanka would remove tariffs in eight years. India also agreed to
give 50 per cent duty concession on nearly 2800 items. On the other hand Sri Lanka
was to extend 50 per cent duty rebate on 889 items. The Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
came into affect on 1 March, 2000. This agreement has been described as a
landmark in bilateral relations between the two countries.
Sri Lanka has been keen to increase cooperation with other countries and therefore
applied for membership of ASEAN in 1981. After a long delay ultimately the
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) rejected her application for
membership of ASEAN on 11 June 1982. It may be further noted that the Standing
Committee of ASEAN also considered the question of admitting Papua New Guinea
and Brunei. While it did not take any decision with regard to the former it
decided to consider Brunei's application in 1983 after independence of the

Sultanate.
In February 2001 Sri Lanka's President (Chandrika Kumaratunga) paid a visit to
India and appraised the Indian leaders of the peace talks
held with the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), as well as the efforts
made by her government to introduce constitutional reforms to meet the demand of
Tamil people for greater devolution. On its part India reiterated its support for the
unity, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Sri Lanka. It insisted on a negotiated
political settlement of the conflict.
The United National Party led coalition government which came to power in Sri
Lanka after the elections of December, 2001 decided to ; continue the tradition of
maintaining high level contacts with India. Sri Lanka's Prime Minister Ranil
Wickremesinghe chose to visit India first of all after assumption of power. During this
visit India not only agreed to provide 25000 tons of wheat per month for next twelve
months to Sri Lanka, the two sides also agreed to cooperate in other areas like
agriculture, power and IT industry. The two countries also agreed to work on
commissioning a feasibility study on a land bridge between the two countries. A
number of ministers from two countries exchanged visits and tried to increase cooperation in various fields. Even people to people contacts considerably increased. In
this regard the Indian cultural centre in Colombo and the Indo-Sri Lanka Foundation
played active role.
CONCLUSION
It is clear from the above survey of Indo-Sri Lankan relations that after some initial
differences between the two countries, on differing foreign policy perceptions, the
relations between India and Sri Lanka, tended to grow along smooth lines and the
leaders of two countries took similar stands on various international issues. They also
tried to develop closer economic and cultural ties. However, the issue of Tamilian
minorities in Sri Lanka and denial of citizenship to them by Sri Lanka continued to
strain relations between the two countries. But ultimately the leaders of the two
countries on account of strong historical and cultural links between the two countries,
succeeded in developing close socio-economic relations. The two countries also
affirmed their faith in peaceful co-existence and non-interference in each other's
internal affairs. Unmindful of the
Tamil problems they tried to develop friendly and cooperative relations in other
spheres. The SAARC membership of the two countries also facilitated the
development of closer relations.
INDIA AND NEPAL

Nepal is located in the north of Uttar Pradesh and the southern slope of the
Himalayas and can very well be treated as a geographical extension of India. The two
countries have maintained very intimate cultural, religious and economic links. In fact
almost 25 per cent of Nepal's population migrated from India during the past century.
No wonder the two countries have more in common with each other than with any
third world country of the world. Indian Prime Minister Morarji Desai brought out this
intimacy in his speech before Lok Sabha on 12 December, 1977 and observed, "We
are bound to Nepal by ties of geography and mutual economic interests and by
religion, social and cultural bonds between our two peoples in a unique fashion with
no close parallel anywhere in the world."
Apart from the above factors the similarity of their national interests and common
security perceptions also brought the two countries close and they adopted a policy
of reciprocal friendship towards each other. In fact in view of the strategic importance
of Nepal, India extended every possible help to Nepal which invited charge of
interference in internal affairs of Nepal from the Nepali critics, and charge of
placating Nepal and according it importance far in excess in size from the Indian
critics. The motives which guided Indian foreign policy towards Nepal were stated by
Nehru in Indian Parliament on 6 November 1950, thus:... " we do not like, and shall
not brook, any interference in Nepal. We recognize Nepal as an independent country
and wish her well. But even a child knows that one cannot go to Nepal without
passing through India. Therefore, no other country can have as intimate a
relationship with Nepal as ours is. We would like every other country to appreciate
the intimate geographical and cultural relationship that exists between India and
Nepal."
During the initial years after independence, India did not pay much attention to
relations with Nepal because it felt that on account of close geographical, historical
and cultural links between the two countries, Nepal could not but look towards India
for the protection and promotion of its interests. Further India could not pay much
attention to relations with Nepal due to her deep involvement in other international
issues like trouble with Pakistan, cold war between US and Soviet Union. In fact the
relations between the two countries continued to be governed by the treaty signed
by Britain and Nepal in December 1923. However after the emergence of Communist
China in 1949 and staking of claims over Tibet by the People's Republic of China,
India thought of bringing Nepal within the close fold of her friendship. This led to the
signing of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship with Nepal on 31 July, 1950. Under the
treaty the two governments agreed to acknowledge and respect 'complete
sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of each other'. They agreed to
inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighbouring
state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two
governments. The treaty permitted Nepal to promote from or through the territory of
India, arms, ammunition or warlike material and equipment necessary for the
security of Nepal. Under the treaty the two governments agreed to grant to each
other's nationals the same privileges in the matter of residence, ownership of
property, participation in trade and commerce, movement and other privileges of a
similar nature. The treaty was to remain in force until it was terminated by either
party by giving one year's notice. In addition to the treaty the two countries also
exchanged letters which stipulated that neither government shall tolerate any threat
to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor. The two governments were to
consult each other and devise effective counter measures to deal with any such
threat. The Government of Nepal agreed that

Neighbours 581
any arms, ammunition or warlike material and equipment to be imported by it

through India shall be imported with the assistance and agreement of the
Government of India. Nepal agreed to give preferential treatment to the government
and nationals of India in the development of the natural resources and industrial
projects in Nepal. The two governments also agreed not to employ any foreigner
whose activity may be prejudicial to the security of the other.
Simultaneously the two countries also signed a Treaty of Trade and Commerce
which came into force on 31 October, 1950. Under this treaty the Government of
India recognised Nepal's need of commercial transit of all goods and manufactures
through the territory and parts of India. It agreed to allow goods imported at any
Indian port and intended for re-export to Nepal to be transmuted to Nepal without
breaking bulk on route and without payment of any duty at any Indian port. The
treaty also granted to Nepal the right of passage, free of excise and other import
duties, for goods of Nepalese origin in transit and through Indian territory, from one
place to another within the territory of Nepal. It also granted Nepal full and
unrestricted right of commercial transit from approved places in Nepalese territory,
through the territory and ports of India, of all goods and manufactures of Nepalese
origin, for export outside India. Under the treaty Nepal was required to levy at rates
not lower than those leviable, for the time being in India, customs duties on imports
from and exports to countries outside India. The two countries were to give every
reasonable facility for import and export of commodities, and to facilitate the use of
the routes and methods of transportation which were most economical and
convenient. However, the Nepal government was to levy export duty on goods
produced or manufactured in Nepal and meant for export to India at prices more
favourable than those of goods produced or manufactured in India, which were
subject to central excise duty.
Apart from the above treaties, India playd important role in the internal affairs of
Nepal and tried to ensure political stability. India also rendered every possible help in
Nepal's economic and developmental programmes. Thus during the period 1947-55,
India exercised considerable
influence over the foreign as well as the internal policy of Nepal. On account of its
influence, India blocked the establishment of diplomatic relations between Nepal and
China. In the internal sphere India not only provided necessary assistance for
development of the country but also greatly assisted in the process of administrative
reforms and military reorganisation of Nepal by providing necessary civil and military
personnel. Under Colombo Plan India provided Rs. 5 million for the development of
communications, irrigation projects and water supply schemes in Nepal. All these
measures greatly contributed to development of intimate relations between the two
countries.
INDO-NEPAL RELATIONS FROM 1955-1977

A new phase of Indo-Nepal relations started in 1955 with the accession of King
Mahendra on the throne of Nepal. King Mahendra was very keen to develop relations
with China with a view to assert Nepal's independence and identity. After India
recognised Tibet as 'autonomous region of China' in 1954, Nepal established formal
relations with China and the two agreed to conduct their foreign relations through
their embassies in New Delhi. On 26 September, 1956 Nepal and China with regard to
trade and intercourse, pledged to maintain friendly relations. The Chinese
government described this agreement as an extension of Sino-Indian friendship. Soon
after the conclusion of the agreement Nepal's Prime Minister paid a visit to China,
which was viewed by certain critics in India as a mark of the decline of Indian
influence in Nepal. In the midst of these developments President of India (Dr.
Rajendra Prasad), undertook a four-day goodwill visit to Nepal. This was followed by a
sixteen-day visit to India by the Nepalese Prime Minister. During this visit he
acknowledged Indian assistance in the development of Nepal and eulogized India's
role in international politics. He described the Indo-Nepalese friendship as
'unbreakable'. In the midst of these developments in January 1957 Chinese Prime

Minister (Chau En-lai) paid a visit to Nepal and offered Rs. sixty million to Nepal as
unconditional economic assistance with promise
of more aid. This gave rise to doubts about the Chinese statements about India's
special position in Nepal. In 1956 at the UN, Nepal condemned Soviet action in
Hungary, even though India had opposed the resolution regarding condemnation of
Soviet Union, and thus demonstrated that Nepal was not a political preserve of India.
The appointment of K.I. Singh as Prime Minister of Nepal on 27 July 1957 (earlier
Acharya was dismissed as Prime Minister on 14 July 1957), generated a hope in India
for more favourable climate in Nepal. Within few days of assumption of power he
emphasised the need of special relations with India and asserted that no body can
deny the ancient religious, cultural and geographical contacts of Nepal with India. He
appealed to all Nepalis to continue efforts to stabilize these contacts, He also
supported the Indian stand on Kashmir.
K.I. Singh was dismissed on 14 November 1957 and King Mahendra assured the
responsibility for conduct of Nepal's relations. He tried to reduce the economic
dependence of Nepal on India by reducing economic intercourse with India on the
one hand and by developing economic contacts with other countries through trade
and cooperation on the other hand. India sought to counter the ill effects of the
above developments by adopting two fold policy. On the one hand it intensified
economic and technical assistance and on the other hand it increased high-level
contacts and cultural exchanges with a view to emphasise the long-standing
friendship, historical, ties and mutual interests of the two countries.
With the appointment of B.R Koirala as Prime Minister of Nepal in 1959 prospects
for closer relations between India and Nepal increased. But the relations could not
grow very intimate due to different perceptions of King Mahendra, who under the new
constitutional system of Nepal, had a final say in the national and international
politics. No wonder Nepal persisted with policy of equal friendship with every country
to assert Nepal's independence. The dismissal of Koirala Government in December
I960 gave a further setback to Indo-Nepal relations. India's expression of concern
over the dismissal of popular ministry in Nepal in December 1960 was not liked by
King
Mahendra and he tried to improve relations with China to counter-balance the Indian
influence. He not only signed Sino-Nepalese Boundary Treaty with China (5 October
1961), but also concluded an agreement with China regarding assistance in the
building of a road from Lhasa to Kathmandu (16 October 1961). All this was viewed
by India with serious concern. However in April 1962 King Mahendra paid a visit to
India and made a bid to improve the deteriorating relations between two countries.
Despite this when a conflict took place between India and China in October 1962,
Nepal not only refused to condemn China but officially took a neutral position.
The Indian defeat in 1962 war coupled with the Nepal's stand on Sino-Indian conflict,
convinced
the Indian government of the need of changing its policy towards Nepal. It
abandoned the policy of putting pressure on Nepal and sought to win over Nepal
through policy of appeasement and concessions. India reaffirmed respect for
sovereignty and independence of Nepal and abandoned its policy of supporting any
particular type of political system in Nepal. In March 1963, Lai Bahadur Shastri, the
then Union Home Minister, paid a visit to Nepal to examine new approaches for
development of better relations with Nepal. It was decided to extend as much
development assistance to Nepal as possible. India, in view of growing intimacy of
Nepal with China, also offered a defence pact to Nepal, but the same was turned
down. In a bid to improve the relations between two countries several dignitaries
exchanged visits during 1963 and 1964 and emphasised the need to maintain and
consolidate the age old friendship. In the Indo-Pak war of 1965 once again Nepal did
not support India and took a neutral stand, which convinced the Indian leadership
that in the event of conflict with China or Pakistan, Nepal could not be relied upon.
Despite this India continued to attach great importance to goodwill and friendship
with Nepal which is evident from visits by Indian Deputy Prime Minister (Morarji
Desai) in October, 1967 and the Indian President (Zakir Hussain) in 1968. Earlier in
1966 Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi also paid a visit to Nepal. Despite these
efforts some issues generated tensions in their relations. These included Nepal's
demand for the

Neighbours 583
withdrawal of the Indian Military Liaison Group and Indian technicians stationed on
Nepal's northern border check-posts.
As a result of the changes which took place in the South Asian sub-continent
during 1970-71, viz., India's role in the liberation of Bangladesh and Indo-Soviet
Peace and Friendship Treaty, India adopted more assertive attitude towards Nepal.
Henceforth India's relations with Nepal began to be conducted on the basis of
principle of reciprocity. In November 1970 when the Trade and Transit Treaty with
Nepal expired, the same was renewed only after protracted negotiations in August
1971. India did not like Nepal's reaction following Sikkim's accession to India. Still
India continued to profess friendship and co-operation towards Nepal. India even
assured the Nepali Congress that it would not permit Indian territory to be used
against the royal regime. In subsequent years Prime Minister Rizal of Nepal paid visit
to New Delhi, while Indian Finance Minister (Y.B. Chawan) paid a visit to Nepal, which
helped in removing misunderstandings.
In 1975 King Birendra of Nepal proposed the acceptance of Nepal as a zone of
peace, but India did not show any inclination to accept the same. In short, during the
period 1971-77 India tried to conduct its relations with Nepal on terms of reciprocity,
while working for friendship towards Nepal.
INDO-NEPAL RELATIONS UNDER JANATA GOVERNMENT (197779)

Soon after assumption ot power in March 1977 the Janata Government under Morarji
Desai and Foreign Minister A.B. Vajpayee decided to accord top priority to the
improvement of relations with the neighbouring countries. In pursuance of this policy
it decided to initiate steps for resolving differences over various issues with Nepal.
The issues to which special attention was paid included composite trade and transit
treaty, and restrictions on Nepalese national in certain ar as of India. However
expression of sympathy for B.P. Koirala by some members of Indian Parliament
greatly disturbed the Nepalese King and other leaders and caused some strains in
Indo-Nepal relations. Thus contrary to the professed policy of

Janata Government to improve relations with neighbouring countries, the relations
between India and Nepal controlled to drift in different directions. However, after the
release of B.P. Koirala on health grounds the climate for improvement of relations was
created. In July 1977 A.B. Vajpayee paid a visit to Kathmandu and made a serious bid
to improve relations with Nepal. He reaffirmed India's complete faith in Indo-Nepal
Treaty of Peace and Friendship and expressed willingness of his government to
discuss the proposal for constituting Nepal into Zone of Peace. In December 1977
Indian Prime Minister (Moraji Desai) paid a visit to Nepal and resolved some of the
outstanding controversies. As a result of his talks with Nepali leaders the two
countries agreed to co-operate in harnessing common rivers for mutual benefit such
as irrigation, soil conservation, power production and navigation.
In March 1978 India and Nepal signed two separate treaties on trade and transit
facilities. Under the trade treaty, India agreed to enlarge the scope of preferences for
Nepalese manufactured products in Indian market. The two countries also agreed to
promote mutual trade and accord preferential treatment to the primary products on
reciprocal basis. The Transit Treaty laid down the procedures to be followed for
Nepal's traffic-in-transit through India. India threw open overland routes for the
export of Nepalese goods to Bangladesh. In April 1978 the two countries signed
another agreement whereby India agreed to provide Rs. 12.45 crores for renovation
and extension of the Chandra Canal System, construction of a pumped canal from
western Kosi Canal for lift irrigation and construction and distribution system from
western Kosi Canal in Nepal.
In July 1978 a high powered delegation of industrial experts visited Nepal. After
detailed discussions with Nepali officials they signed a memorandum of
understanding on Industrial and Economic Cooperation. With a view to reduce trade
deficit, the two countries agreed to develop trade and industrial cooperation. India
also agreed to share with Nepal industrial and technological expertise. Thus it can be
said that during the Janata period from 1977-79 an effort was made to develop
584
new understanding with Nepal even though no agreement could be reached on the
two outstanding issues of restrictions on Nepalese nationals in certain areas of India,
and Nepal's proposal for Zone of Peace.
INDO-NEPAL RELATIONS IN 1980'S

The process of development of co-operative and friendly relations with Nepal was
continued by Indira Gandhi after return to power in 1980. In November Indian Foreign
Minister (Narasimha Rao) visited Nepal and held discussions with Nepali Prime
Minister Surya Bahadur Thapa. In December
1981 Indian President (Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy) paid a visit to Nepal. These visits
greatly contributed to the strenthening of friendship and cooperation between the
two countries. In 1982, India granted Nepal certain trade and transit concessions.
India also agreed to make the movement of Nepali goods from one place to another
in India faster. India also agreed to provide another point for trans-shipment of Nepali
goods at Gorakhpur.
In March 1983 the Indo-Nepalese Inter-government Committee agreed to extend
the treaty between the two countries on trade for a further period of five years. They
also agreed on a number of steps to facilitate the movement of cargo from Nepal
through India. In 1984-85 India provided Nepal an aid of Rs 180,000,000 for 21
development projects. In January 1985 the two countries agreed to establish a joint
inspection team along 1000 km open border in order to control unauthorised trade.
However, in subsequent months fresh tension was generated in Indo-Nepalese
relations due to Nepal's condemnation of Indian action of air-dropping of relief
supplies in Jaffna peninsula of Sri Lanka. The question of displaced Nepalis from
Meghalya also contributed to this tension. Another irritant in the relations between
two countries was Nepal's decision to introduce work permit for foreigners. Despite
these irritants, in June 1987 India and Nepal signed an agreement for setting up of a
Joint Commission to increase economic cooperation, trade and transit, industry and
water resources.
A fresh tension was generated in Indo-Nepalese relations towards the end of
March 1989 on account of differences between the two
countries over the signing of new trade and transit treaties. While India insisted on
one consolidated treaty Nepal insisted on two separate pacts. On account of these
differences the earlier Indo-Nepal Transit Treaty of 1978 lapsed in March 1989 and
traditional friendly relations between the two countries got strained due to acute
shortage of diesel, petrol, coal and other essential goods in Nepal. Nepal even tried
to internationalise the issue and resorted to heavy imports of petroleum, kerosene
and other essential commodities from China and Singapore with a view to pressurise
India to resume supplies at favourable terms without giving anything in return. India,
however, took the stand that the whole gamut of relations with Nepal must be
reviewed before anything could be done on trade matters. India also refuted the
charge of Nepal that it had imposed a blockade on the Himalayan Kingdom. On the
other hand Nepal took this issue before the United Nations and charged India of
suddenly abrogating the treaty and causing the people of Nepal much economic
hardship. As a result, the representatives of the two countries for the first time
clashed in the United Nations. It is true that Nepal's economic difficulties increased
due to non-renewal of treaty but Nepal itself was to blame for the plight of the people
as the Nepalese authorities failed to respond favourably to India's repeated
suggestions for resumption of talks on the dispute on equitable basis. In short, lot of
tension was generated in Indo-Nepalese relations.
The new National Government in India, on assumption of power in November
1989, tried to improve relations with Nepal. The restoration of democracy and
formation of government by K.P. Bhattarai in Nepal also helped in mending fences
with India. In June 1990 Nepal's Prime Minister (K.P. Bhattarai) paid a visit to India.
This visit greatly helped in the restoration of traditional friendship and cooperation
between the two countries. At the end of this visit a Joint Communique was issued
asserting that "the two countries would fully respect each other's security concerns".
They agreed not to allow activities on their territory prejudicial to the security of the
other. The two countries agreed to have prior consultations for an agreement on such
defence related matters which could pose a threat to their security. Pending
finalisation of a comprehensive

Neighbours 585
arrangement covering all aspects of bilateral relations, the two countries agreed to
restore status quo ante to April 1, 1987 in the relations between the two countries.
Necessary steps in this direction were to be taken by 1 July 1990.
India agreed to reopen land customs stations for movements of goods between
the two countries and reactivate the fifteen transit points which were in operation
earlier. India also agreed to extend concession of restoration and raising of standby
credit facility to Rs. 35 crores, which had earlier been reduced to Rs. 25 crores. On its
part, Nepal also agreed to restore tariff preferences for Indian goods and remove the
Indian nationals from the ambit of the work permit system. India agreed to resume
supplies of coke and coal to Nepal under quota. However, the prices of coke and coal
were to be negotiated between the Minerals and Metals Trading Corporation of India
and the Nepal Coal Ltd. In short, under National Government the Indo-Nepalese
relations showed an improvement.
INDO-NEPALESE RELATIONS IN 1990'S

In the 1990s Indo-Nepalese relations grew more mature. In 1991G. P. Koirala, the
Prime Minister of Nepal, paid a visit to India and succeeded in resolving the issue of
Trade and Transit Treaties. He also signed several other agreements with India to
resolve contentious issues like water resource development, separate trade and
transit treaties, and curbing of terrorism. In all five agreements were signed during
Koirala's visit to India. Three of these agreements related to trade, transit and cooperation to control trade on the Indo-Nepalese border. These agreements made
further concessions regarding tariffs and made relaxation with regard to Nepalese
exports to Indian markets the fourth agreement related to cooperation in agricultural
sector for promoting employment in villages and promote rural development. The
fifth agreement provided for the setting up of the Indo-Nepal Bisweshawar Prasad
Koirala Foundation. This foundation was to help promote, exchanges in education,
agriculture, public health, science and technology. In October 1992, Prime Minister
Narasimha Rao paid a visit to Nepal. During this visit several
measures were taken to expand bilateral cooperation and enhance Nepalese exports
to India on liberalised terms. It was agreed to abolish existing proforma clearance
system and replace it by a system of certificate of origin to be issued by the Nepalese
government. In terms of this agreement the Nepalese products were to have duty
free and quota free access to Indian market if the Indian material content exceeded
50 per cent. Further Nepal could import goods from India by payment in free
convertible currency, in addition to existing system of payment in Indian rupees for
import of such goods. With regard to utilisation of water resources, the two countries
agreed on a time-frame for investigations and preparation of project reports of
Karnali, Pancheswar, Sapta Koshi, Buri Gandaki, Kamala and Bagmati projects. The
two countries agreed on installation of flood forecasting and warning systems, the
construction of flood protection embankments and on power exchange on a time
frame basis. Further India agreed to enhance the amount of standby credit
from Rs. 35 crores to Rs. 50 crores. All these were significant developments and
greatly promoted friendly and co-operative relations between India and Nepal.
However, still there were several areas of disagreement between the two. These
included differences on trade facilities, sharing of water and power, smuggling and
movement of terrorists across the borders and the growing feeling among the Indians
that Nepal is getting too much involved in the affairs of the peoples of Nepalese
origin settled in India, and Bhutan.
In 1994 with the formation of government by the Communists in Nepal it was
apprehended that the relations between the two countries would deteriorate because
the Communists during the elections had attacked the various Indo-Nepalese
agreements, and specially the Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed in 1950. The
party asserted that certain provisions of the treaty had become obsolete and needed
review. For example, the clause of the treaty which obliged the two countries to
inform each other in case of a war had become obsolete. However, despite these
apprehensions the Communist Government of Nepal established high-level contacts
with India with the intention to promote good bilateral relations.
Manmohan
Adhikari, the Prime
Minister of Nepal, paid a visit to India and held talks with Prime Minister Narasimha
Rao. As a result of these talks several misgivings between the two countries were
cleared and new vistas for bilateral cooperation and better understanding between
the two opened. As a result of these talks India agreed to provide additional transit
facilities for the Nepalese goods at Kandla and Bombay. It also agreed to provide
custom clearance at another point. The two countries also agreed to continue
discussions at appropriate levels, for the renewal of the Peace and Friendship Treaty
of 1950.
In April 1995 the two governments formalised a series of measures to expand
bilateral cooperation, improve trade and harness water; resources. In February 1996
Sher Bahadur Deuba, Prime Minister of Nepal, paid a visit to India and signed an
agreement to promote mutual cooperation and understanding on contentious issues
of water harnessing. He signed a treaty with India on the Integrated Development of
the Mahakali Basin, which included construction of the 2000 MW Pancheshwar Power
Project over a period of eight years. Both the countries agreed to share water and
electricity of other projects in the Mahakali River. They also agreed to share the cost
on the basis of benefits received. The Treaty also contained a provision for the setting
up of a Mahakali River Commission which would be responsible for inspecting,
coordinating and monitoring of the execution of the agreement. The Commission was
also given power to make suggestions in order to solve the problems that may come
up while implementing the agreement. Further, under the treaty India agreed to give
Nepal an additional 50 million units of power and an additional 150 cusecs of water
from the 120 MW Tanakpur project in return for the 2.9 hectares of Nepalese territory
on which the eastern bund of the Tanakpur barrage has been constructed.
By another agreement construction of 22 bridges on the Kohlapur Mahakali sector
of the East-West highway was agreed.
The Mahakali Treaty signed in February 1996 was ratified by the Parliament of
Nepal by an overwhelming majority. This became possible due to consensus between
the government and the main opposition party-the United Marxist Leftist Party. It is
expected that as a result of the Mahakali
Treaty relations between India and Nepal would improve which could lead to more
intimate trade relations between the two countries.
Another notable development in Indo-Nepal relations took place in August 1996
when Nepal's Foreign Minister (Prakash Chandra Lohani) paid a visit to India and held
discussion with India's External Affairs Minister (I.K. Gujaral). In the course of
discussion it was agreed to solve the issue of insecure border by setting up a Joint
Working Group which could find out a mechanism for monitoring the activities of
subversive elements through the open border. Both the countries pledged to counter
terrorism and not to allow any terrorist activities on its soil which could be prejudicial
to the security of the other.
The policy of unilateralism initiated by I.K. Gujaral, External Affairs Minister, under
the United Front Government also greatly contributed to the improvement of relations
with Nepal. In terms of this policy India granted trade and other concessions to the
neighbouring countries like Nepal and Bangladesh without expecting reciprocity.
Further, it also extended generous assistance to the development projects in these
countries. This greatly contributed to the removal of misgivings about India and
promoted cordial relations between India and Nepal.
In June 1997 I.K. Gujaral, as Prime Minister of India, paid a visit to Nepal and
made far reaching concessions to Nepal. These include greater access for Nepal's
civil aviation sector; free movement and access to jobs for Nepalese citizens; lifting
of the earlier restrictions based on the material content of raw materials of Nepalese
made goods for duty-free access to India; provision of corridor through the 'chicken
neck' to Bangladesh on an experimental basis, etc. All these concessions contributed
to development of friendly relations with Nepal.
The BJP led coalition government of A.B. Vajpayee, which came into power in 1998
continued the policy of improvement of relations with Nepal. It signed a new transit
treaty with Nepal in January 1999 whereby the landlocked Himalyan kingdom was
offered overland transit facilities through Indian ports for its third country foreign
trade. It may be noted that the new treaty
587
considerably liberalised and simplified the procedures for transit of Nepal's cargo
through Calcutta port. Further the BJP led coalition government reiterated its
commitment to finance the work of extension of broad-gauge track between Raxaul
(India) and Sirsiya (Nepal).
However, differences persisted between the two sides as India continued to press
for ensuring water flow at the lower Sarada or a lower canal in the post-Pancheswore
period, while Nepal took the stand that, Lower Sarada does not fall within the purview
of the Mahakali Treaty. In March, 1998 India proceeded to close the overland transit
facility which allowed Nepalese businessmen to transport goods to Bangladesh from
Kakarbhitta in eastern Nepal to through Phulbari in West Bengal.
In January, 1999, the Commerce Ministers of India and Nepal signed an agreement,
automatically renewable at the end of seven years. It simplified and liberalised the
procedure for the
transit of Nepal's cargo through the Calcutta port. The Indian government agreed
to provide increased storage area at the Calcutta port to ease movement of Nepalese
cargo. It also waived the requirement of insurance cover during transit, except for a
few sensitive items. The free time at the Calcutta port was increased from three days
to seven days. India also allowed duty free access to the Nepalese goods to Indian
markets without any quantitative restrictions under the trade treaty of December
1996. Further India granted 15 routes to Nepal for its trade with third countries
through Calcutta. India even offered use of Mumbai and Kandla ports to Nepal.
In September, 1999, India's Foreign Minister (Jaswant Singh) paid a visit to Nepal.
During his visit, he reviewed the existing bilateral cooperation and tried to identify
new thrust areas. Special attention was paid to security of the two countries. India
expressed concern over the use of Eastern Nepal, which borders the narrow sensitive
Siliguri corridor connecting the entire north-east to the rest of India, by Pakistan's ISI
to sponsor insurgency in the north-east. Nepal on the other hand, insisted that India
should curb the activities of the Maoists who were receiving assistance from the
Maoist Community Centre (MCC) in Bihar and People's War Group (PWG) in Andhra
Pradesh.
India, however, denied that these groups were functioning from the Indian soil. To
meet the new security challenges, the two countries decided to undertake
construction of cross-border roads which would not only encourage cross-border
trade but also help in effective monitoring of cross-border terrorism.
The two countries agreed to set up a Joint Task Force to study problem of flood
control and forecasting in Nepal and adjoining areas of India. The two countries also
decided to give a new thrust to the development of agriculture in the Terai region
bordering Indian states. On the issue of refugees from Bhutan to Nepal, India
proposed that the issue should be resolved through direct talks between Thimpu
(Bhutan) and Nepal.
Fresh tension was generated in Indo-Nepalese relations following hijacking of
Indian Airlines plane from Kathmandu in December 1999. However, the leaders of
two countries acted with restraint and soon normalcy was established in their ties. In
February 2000 ,at the meeting of Indo-Nepal Joint Working Group on Border
Management the two, reiterated their determination not to permit the use of their
territories for activities directed against the other. In May 2000 the Foreign Minister of
Nepal paid a visit to India and succeeded in prevailing upon the Indian leadership to
resume Indian Airlines flights to Kathmandu from 1 June 2000. On its part Nepal
agreed to allow secondary X-ray machine surveillance. The foreign ministers of India
and Nepal also agreed to fight terrorism jointly and not to permit respective
territories to be used for activities that could pose security threat to the other. Again
in December 2000 tension was generated in Indo-Nepalese relations following
demonstrations against Indian film star Hrithik Roshan for his alleged remarks that he
disliked Nepal and Nepali people. The demonstrations were accompanied by clashes.
Even the Nepali government insisted that Hrithik Roshan should publicly apologise for
his alleged derogatory remarks. However, Hrithik denied having said anything
derogatory about Nepal. Subsequently it found that the rumours had been spread by
certain vested interests.
In January 2001 Nepalese Foreign Secretary (Narayan S. Thapa) visited India and
held talks
588
with the Indian Foreign Secretary (Lalit Mansingh) regarding certain modifications in
the Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed by the two countries in 1950. India
informed Nepal that it had an open mind on the treaty and was prepared to consider
all options, including its abrogation by mutual consent. It may be observed that the
treaty is highly unpopular in Nepal and is looked upon as an unequal agreement.

Special resentment exists over the terms of the treaty which impose restrictions on
the procurement of arms and military equipment from sources other than India as
well as the requirement of consultation with India on projects involving non-Indian
foreign aid and investment.
In the wake of unfortunate incidents of June 2001 in which King Birendra and
other members of the Royal family were assassinated, India's Minister of External
Affairs (Jaswant Singh) paid a visit to Nepal to express condolences of the President,
the Prime Minister, the Government and the people of India. During this visit he
reaffirmed India's commitment to building on the existing friendship and cooperation
between the two countries. During the next few months a number of meetings of
joint working groups were held to sort out bilateral issues like border management,
technical committee meeting on Boundary; Experts Meeting on Pancheshwar Project
and Experts meetings on the Sapta Kosi Sun Kosi Project. The two countries also held
discussion on renewal of Trade Treaty expiring on 5 December, 2001. As the
negotiations could not be concluded, the two sides agreed to an interim extension of
the treaty for three months. Earlier, in the wake of violent attacks by the Maoist
extremists when the Government of Nepal pronounced emergency, the Indian
government offered assistance in addressing the situation. In March 2002 Nepal's
Prime Minister (Sher Bahadur Deuba) paid a visit to India. During the visit India
offered to help Nepal against insurgency. Nepal on the other hand assured India that
it would crush cells of Pakistan's ISI in Nepal. The two countries also agreed to extend
the bilateral treaty of 1996 upto 5 March, 2007. Further improvement in relations
with Nepal followed visit of Nepal's King Gyanendra to India in June 2002. The visit
helped a great deal in overcoming the problems
which had arisen it their mutual relations in the wake of IC- 814 hijacking, the Hritik
Roshan riots, the trade treaty, etc. King of Nepal openly asserted that "there was a
need to take Indo-Nepalese relations to a new level and to break free of the mindset
that may have coloured it in the past. King Gyanendra promised to tighten screws on
those indulging in anti-India activities from Nepal. On its part India also indicated that
it was no longer averse to other countries providing military aid to Nepal.
It is evident from the preceeding account that the leaders of the two countries are
keen to restore goodwill and friendship.
INDIA AND BHUTAN

Bhutan, also known as Drukyul or the Land of the Thunder Dragon, is located in the
heart of the Himalyas. Wedged between two big powers China and Indiathe
country remained for centuries isolated and the world possessed only fleeting
knowledge about this country. However the country has great strategic importance.
On the north the country is bound by Tibet region of China; on the south and east by
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and West Bengal, and on the west by Chumbi Valley of
China and Indian states of Sikkim and West Bengal.
Before independence the British Government of India conducted its relations with
Bhutan in accordance with treaties of 1865 and 1910. It may be noted that Bhutan
was not an independent
state and its external relations were regulated by the British Government.
However it enjoyed complete autonomy in internal affairs. In short it can be said that
Bhutan was a British protectorate with full autonomy in her internal affairs. Before
India attained independence Bhutan signed a standstill agreement, which was to
come into force from 15 August, 1947. Pending further discussions this agreement
was to regulate Indo-Bhutanese relations. After the British left India, Bhutan
expressed its desire to put its relations with India on a new footing. On account of
security considerations the two governments concluded a Treaty of Perpetual Peace
and Friendship on 8 August, 1949. The treaty stated in clear and unequivocal terms
that Bhutan was not a part of
/
589
India and being a foreign independent state had all the powers to regulate its
external relations as it had been doing since 1947, with the advice of India. On the
other hand the Indian Government undertook not to interfere in the internal
administration of Bhutan. India enhanced subsidy to Bhutan to Rs 5,00,000 and
agreed to return an area of 32 miles in the form of Devangiri. The two countries
agreed to have free trade and commerce. India permitted Bhutan to import from or
through India arms, ammunition, machinery and war like materials. The two also
agreed on mutual extradition of the criminals. In short it can be said that the treaty
of 1949 was a continuation of the policy, the foundations of which were laid in the
beginning of the twentieth century.
After the suppression of Tibetan Revolt by China in 1959, Bhutan drew closer to
India. In August 1959 Jigmie Dorji, one of the confidants of the Bhutanese King visited
India to dicuss situation arising out of the Chinese threat to the security of Bhutan. As
a result of his talks with India, the Government of India agreed to provide funds up to
Rs. 15 crores for the construction of roads in Bhutan. India also agreed to provide an
annual subsidy of Rs. 7,00,000 from 1960 onwards for the development of Bhutan. It
may be noted that this subsidy was in addition to the political subsidy of Rs. 5,00,000
being paid to Bhutan under the Treaty of 1949.
In the meanwhile relations between India and China started deteriorating on
account of Chinese intrusions into Indian territories. The Government of India also felt
greatly concerned about China showing certain areas of Bhutan as part of Tibet and
raised the issue with the Chinese authorities. Though China refuted the right of India
to raise the question of Bhutan's boundary with Tibet, India took the view that under
treaty relationship with Bhutan, the Government of India are the only competent
authority to take up with other governments matters concerning Bhutan's external
relations." This stand of India was also endorsed by Bhutan which repeatedly
requested the Government of India to take up with the Chinese Government
questions pertaining to her boundaries and her vital interests in Tibet. This was
further confirmed by Bhutan in 1960 when it turned down the offer of economic aid to
Bhutan
by China, and refused to hold direct negotiations with that country.
In January 1961 the Maharaja of Bhutan paid a visit to India. During the visit he
again confirmed that Bhutan had no desire to enter into direct negotiations with
China for settlement of border dispute and reiterated that India alone was competent
to take up the matter relating to boundary. Nehru also affirmed in the Parliament that
aggression on Bhutan would be direct aggression on India. This stand of Nehru also
received general approval in Bhutan. In 1961 on the invitation of Bhutanese
government, senior military officials visited Bhutan and made an elaborate survey of
its defence requirements. On the advice of this team Bhutan proceeded with the
strengthening of its militia. It may be noted that around this time certain other
foreign countries also made offer of direct economic aid to Bhutan, but these offers
were turned down on the ground that this may draw the Kingdom into entangling
relations with outside powers and adversely affect her progress toward economic and
social development. The King of Bhutan is also reported to have said that although
Bhutan desired to exercise its own affairs, it was not yet prepared for it, because
Bhutan had no roads, trade industry, and these must be developed first. India helped
Bhutan in development by preparing development plans as well providing necessary
funds for the implementation of these plans. The King of Bhutan during his visit to
India in 1966 issued a statement appreciating India's help and advice and its
technical and financial assistance for the economic and social progress of Bhutan.
In 1971 India recognised Bhutan as an independent state and sent its
representative to Thimpu on 15 July, 1971. Earlier Bhutan set up Royal Mission in
New Delhi on 17 May 1971. The same year Bhutan was admitted as member of the
United Nations. Even thereafter India continued to provide assistance to Bhutan in
her development programmes. In January 1972. India and Bhutan signed a Trade Pact
to regulate trade and commerce. In March 1972, India helped Bhutan to modernise
its monetary system. In short, India played a key role, in the development and
modernization of Bhutan and helped her to claim sovereign status. Bhutan fully
appreciated the help
590
of India and pledged to continue friendship with India.

In 1978 Bhutan renamed its mission in New Delhi as Royal Bhutan Embassy,
which was symbolic of qualitative change in Indo-Bhutanese relations. In 1979
Bhutan established diplomatic relations with Bangladesh. This was followed by
diplomatic relations with a number of other countries like Japan, South Korea, Kuwait,
EEC, Switzerland, Norway and Finland. All this was indicative of the fact that
gradually Bhutan was trying to conduct its international relations independently. In
1985 Bhutan appended signatures to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty to which
India had been strongly opposed. Bhutan also tried to establish intimate contacts
with China. The process of establishing contacts with China started through its
missions in New Delhi and New York, which culminated in direct talks between China
and Bhutan in April 1984. As a result of these talks the two countries reached an
agreement regarding their border dispute. In 1988 Bhutan reached an understanding
with China on the four principles which were to form the basis of settlement of border
between the two countries. This clearly shows that Bhutan tried to act without
involving India.
In the economic sphere also Bhutan started receiving assistance from UN Agencies,
Japan, Australia, UK, Kuwait and Singapore. Whereas the first three Five Year Plans of
Bhutan were
entirely financed by India, its share in the new plans gradually declined. For the
first time some tension was generated in Indo-Bhutanese relations due to
maltreatment of Indian workers in Bhutan. On the other hand Bhutan also alleged
that India was encouraging the people of Nepalese origin in India and the Nepalis to
cross into Bhutan and hamper the process of national integration. These charges
were, however denied by India. Further the Government of India assured Bhutan that
it would not allow the Nepali-speaking people of India to agitate against a
neighbouring country. India offered every possible help to the King of Bhutan
including communication and logistic to bolster his kingdom's law and order
machinery. India also offered to open armed outposts along the Bhutanese border to
stop illegal entry of foreigners into Bhutan. All this greatly contributed
to removal of misgivings about Indian intentions in the minds of Bhutanese
authorities.
In September 1991 King Jigme Singya Wangchuk of Bhutan paid a visit to India,
which provided a fresh boost to Indo-Bhutanese ties. On this occasion several
agreements were signed by the two countries. By an agreement on civil aviation legal
framework for operation of air services between the two countries was provided.
India also agreed to provide assistance for the Seventh Year Plan of Bhutan which
was to commence in 1992. The two countries also reached agreement for further
exploitation of hydel potential of Bhutan. India agreed to work on two new giant
hydel projects-Chukha Phase II and Chukha Phase III. Thereafter also the relations
between the two countries continued to progress along friendly lines. In fact, India
forms a vital life link for Bhutanese economy and security and the Bhutanese
leadership cannot afford to let their relations with India cool down.
In July 1999 the National Assembly of Bhutan laid down three pronged strategy to
deal with ULFA-Bodo problem. According to this stiategy (i) Supply routes of the
militants were to be cut off; (ii) firm action was to be taken against all those persons
who were collaborating with the militants in any way; and (iii) dialogue was to be
continued with the militants to persuade them to leave Bhutan peacefully.
In April 2000 Bhutanese Foreign Minister (Jigmi Y. Thinley) paid a visit to India. In
the course of his talks with India's external affairs Minister (Jaswant Singh) he assured
that Bhutan will not allow its soil to be used for activities inimical to India's national
interests. He told the Indian External Affairs Minister that though Bhutan wanted
hundred of Indian militants from ULFA and National Democratic Front of Bodoland
(NDFB) who had settled in camps on its southern borders to leave, but It did not
possess the requisite resources to push them out. He emphasised that the problem
could be best resolved by India and ULFA politically.
Bhutan also supported the Indian view that the SAARC summit scheduled to be
held in Kathmandu in 1999 be postponed indefinitely as this would legitimise General
Musharraf's military regime.

Neighbours 591
On its part India continued to extend financial assistance to Bhutan for the
implementation of its Five Year Plan. In fact India provided assistance to the tune of
Rs. 90 crores to Bhutan for the Eight Five Year Plan and indicated its intention to
provide further assistance for development under the Ninth Five Year Plan covering
the period from 1 July 2062 to 30 June 2007. India has also provided assistance for
the execution of various hydel projects.
Relations between India and Bhutan grew closer following visit by Crown Prince of
Bhutan (Lyonpo Sangay Namgyel Wangchuck) to India in August 2001. During this
visit he not only held discussions with President and Minister of External Affairs, but
also visited several defence and civilian institutions. India's Foreign Secretary also
paid a visit to Bhutan and had wide ranging discussions on the presence of ULFABodo militants in Southern Bhutan. The Government of Bhutan assured India that it
would not allow its territory to be misused against the interests of India. In June 2001
Bhutan reached an understanding with the ULFA militants and they latter agreed to
close down four of their camps in Bhutan by the end of December 2001. They agreed
to hold further discussions for winding down the remaining camps.
INDIA AND MYANMAR (BURMA)

Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, is located on the eastern borders of India. It has
about 1500 kms of border with India which touches five states of Indian Union, viz.,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Assam. In addition they share a
long maritime boundary. As a result the two countries could not live in isolation and
developments in one country had an effect on the other. In fact, India has maintained
intimate relations with Myanmar (Burma) since earliest times. It came under the
influence of Buddhism which still continues to be a dominant factor in the social life
of the country. The country was conquered by the British and made a part of the
Indian empire. The process of conquest of Burma started with the conquest of Arakan
and Tennasse coast in 1826. This was followed by annexation of lower Burma in 1852
and upper Burma in 1856. During the British rule the Indian merchants and
moneylenders fully exploited this region which gave rise to an anti-Indian feeling
among the people of Burma. In the thirties an uprising took place against the Indian
and Chinese settlers which culminated in the separation of Burma from India in 1935.
Thereafter, Burma became a separate entity within the British Empire. During the
Second World War, Burma, with the help of the Japanese, declared itself as
independent in 1943. However, after the surrender of Japan, Burma once again came
under the control of the Allied Forces. The people of Burma started struggle for
complete independence. The offer of 'Dominion Status' made to Burma by the British
in 1945 was firmly turned down by them. Ultimately the country attained
independence in January 1948 after a colonial rule of 122 years.
RELATIONS BETWEEN INDIA AND MYANMAR (BURMA) FROM

1948-1962
Relations between India and Myanmar started along friendly lines. Not only the two
countries cooperated with each other in condemning Portuguese agression against
Indonesia but also worked for promotion of unity among the Afro-Asian countries.
Furthermore, when India was faced with problem of serious food shortage, Myanmar
supplied large quantities of rice to India. In the subsequent years also Myanmar
supplied rice to India to help her overcome the problem of food shortage. On the
other hand, India also greatly helped the Government of Burma in restoration of law
and order in Burma when the authority of the government was challenged by the
Communist rebels, the separatist groups and dissidents. Nehru highlighted India's
role in Burma thus, 'It is not our purpose - and it is not right for us - to interfere in any
way with other Countries, but wherever
possible, we give such help as we can to our friends. We have ventured to do so

in regard to Burma too, without any element of interference' India also helped
Myanmar tide over financial difficulties and provided loan of five million rupees in
April 1950. Despite India's help to Burma, the relations between the two countries
remained informal.
The relations between two countries were placed on formal footing as a result of
Treaty of
Peace and Friendship concluded by the two in July 1951. By this treaty the two
agreed to respect each other's independence and rights. They expressed mutual
desire to maintain everlasting peace and friendship, continuation of diplomatic
relations, occasional consultations between representatives of the two. They also
agreed to conclude agreements relating to trade, customs, cultural relations,
communications, extradition of criminals, immigration or repatriation of nationals and
other matters of common interests. The same year in September 1951 the two
countries signed a five-year Trade Agreement. Under this agreement it was agreed
that export and import facilities granted by each country to the other shall be no less
favourable than those applied to any other country in soft currency areas. After the
conclusion of the two treaties the leaders of two countries exchanged visits and held
consultations on matters of mutual concern and interest. As a result of these visits a
sort of personal bond developed between Prime Minister U Nu and Prime Minister
Nehru, which greatly helped in reducing bitterness between the two over the
treatment of people of Indian origin in Burma. In 1953 when Myanmar approached
the United Nations for the overthrow of about 10,000 Kuomintang military men who
had crossed over into Myanmar from China and were creating unrest in the border
areas, India fully supported this demand along with nine other countries. This paved
the way for the development of more cordial relations between India and Myanmar.
The decision of the Government of India to write off 50 per cent of Myanmar's
outstanding liabilities to India arising out of separation of Burma from India in 1937.
In March 1957 India provided a Rs. 300 million loan to Myanmar with an interest of
4.1 per cent to help her tide over economic difficulties. The loan was repayable in 24
half-yearly instalments commencing from 1 April 1960. Thus relations between India
and Myanmar continued to be quite cordial and friendly.
In the early sixties India's relations with Mynmar suffered a setback following
signing of a Friendship and Non-Aggression Treaty between Myanmar and China in
January 1960. Under this treaty the two countries resolved their border dispute which
had been evading a solution. Under
this agreement Myanmar agreed to observe neutrality with regard to Sino-Indian
boundary dispute. Actually a little later in 1962 when China launched aggression
against India, Myanmar remained neutral. This stand of Myanmar was definitely in
favour of China.
INDO-MYANMAR RELATIONS AFTER 1962

India's relations with Myanmar suffered a setback after General Ne Win assumed
power in Myanmar following a bloodless coup in March 1962. As India was
preoccupied with her own problems and her relations with China were deteriorating,
it decided to recognise the new regime with the intention of securing continuity in
relations. However, the two countries were obliged to make adjustments in their
relations in the light of new developments in the two countries as well as the region.
In September 1964 India's External Affairs Minister (Swaran Singh) paid a visit to
Myanmar with a view to give new orientation to the relations between two countries
in the changed context. This was followed by a visit by General Nep Win to India in
February 1965. During his visit to India Ne Win emphasised the need of strengthening
and further developing mutual relations and favoured exchange of frequent visits by
the ministers and leaders of two countries for this purpose. In fact the mutual
necessity compelled the two countries to develop co-operative relations. On the other
hand Burma's deteriorating relations with China compelled her to think of
strengthening friendship with India. On the other hand the growing insurgency of
Nagas on the Indo-Myanmar border, in the light of the growing hostility of China
towards India, obliged India to develop cooperative relations with Myanmar. The
leaders of the two-countries felt that the outstanding bilateral problems like that of
the people of Indian origin in Myanmar, could also be settled through mutual
understanding.
In December 1965, Indian Prime Minister (Lai Bahadur Shastri) paid a visit to
Myanmar and stressed the need of co-operative relations between two countries. He
emphasised that "there was scope for expanding trade and commerce between the
two countries, as well as possibilities of greater
593
co-operation in the economic, technical and cultural fields." Myanmar also showed
full consideration to Indian interests and responded favourably to the proposal for
joint patrolling of the Indian-Myanmar border to control Naga and Mizo insurgency.
Myanmar agreed to prevent transit through its territory to, or from China and then
East Pakistan. In 1967 Indian Foreign Minister (M.C. Chagla) paid a visit to Myanmar
in a bid to improve relations and increase cooperation between the two countries. A
formal Indo-Burmese Boundary Agreement was signed on 10 March 1967 which
provided for a Joint Commission to plan and carry out the demarcation of 800 long
boundary and draft a boundary treaty. However, the agreement left open the
question of the final determination of the tri- junction (where the boundaries of India,
Myanmar and China met) pending final settlement between India and China. In March
1969 Mrs. Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India, paid a visit to Myanmar. At the
end of this visit a communique was issued by the two in which need of increased
trade and economic collaboration was emphasised. In the subsequent years the
relations between two countries continued to grow along cordial lines. In 1971 on the
issue of presence of large number of Bangladesh refugees in India, Myanmar fully
appreciated the difficulties being faced by India on this account. However, it
preferred to adopt an attitude of non-intervention in the Bangladesh crisis. But
subsequently Myanmar, like India, accorded recognition to Bangladesh.
In the economic sphere the relations between the two countries somewhat cooled
after General Ne Win assumed power in Myanmar. As against the Indian exports of
Rs. 262.4 million to Myanmar in 1950-51, the same fell to Rs. 15.4 million by 197374. Likewise imports from Myanmar also declined from Rs. 188 million to Rs 70,000
during the same period. This decline continued even thereafter. In 1987 Indian Prime
Minister (Rajiv Gandhi) paid a visit to Myanmar and extended
economic and technical assistance. Despite this the trade between the two
countries could not pick up on account of political problems in Myanmar. The ProChinese orientation of the Myanmar regime also restricted the trade relations
between India and Myanmar.
Ruthless handling of the issue of Indians settled in Myanmar, nationalisation of
Indian
concerns arid expulsion of Indian businessmen and money lenders from Myanmar
also strained relations between two countries. Another cause of irritation between
two countries was differences over the delimitation of the maritime boundary in the
Bay of Bengal. But the issue was resolved through negotiations and an agreement
concluded by the two countries in December 1986. According to this agreement the
maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal was fixed in the vicinity of Andaman Sea
through the Coco Channel. The agreement was ratified by the two countries and they
exchanged instruments of ratification on 13 September, 1987.
With the democratic movement gaining in popularity in Myanmar in 1989-90, it
appeared that the relations between two countries would show an improvement.
However, these hopes were dashed to ground on account of ruthless suppression of
the democratic movement and re-establishment of military rule in Myanmar. On the
other hand the grant of asylum to large number of pro-democratic activists from
Myanmar in India was not liked by the Myanmar leadership. In fact the-Myanmar
leaders openly accused India of funding the democratic movement being headed by
Tin Do and Aung San Sun Kyi in Myanmar. As a result of all these developments
Myanmar stepped up surveillance on the Indian mission and its staff in Rangoon. It
even turned down the request of Indian mission for STD and ISD facilities.
However, gradually the hostility between the two countries died out and the
leaders of the two countries felt it desirable to effect improvement in their relations.
In 1992 India and Myanmar concluded two agreements for economic development of
areas along the international border to help keep firm check on insurgencies and
drug trade. It was decided that the agreement would be valid for a period of two
years from the date of its enforcement. The date when the agreement was to become
operational was to be decided by the governments of two countries by mutual
consent. In 1984 the two countries proceeded to sign an agreement which allowed
open trade across the border through custom posts set up by both countries. India
set up such posts at Moreh (Manipur) and Champali (Mizoram), while Myanmar set up
posts at Tamn and Hri. It was hoped that the closer
594
economic relations would pave way for dialogue on larger issues of peace and
security in the region.
The relations between two countries once again suffered a setback following
conferment of Nehru Award or Aung San Sun Kyi in May 1996. However, in
subsequent months India tried to repair relations with Myanmar. In March 1996,
Pranab Mukerjee the then External Affairs Minister of India, announced that India was
committed to a policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of another country
and that it considered the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar as an internal
matter. In fact, thereafter India tried to avoid policy of confrontation towards
Myanmar on account of security considerations. Towards the close of 1996 the two
countries decided to revive the World War II surface route with a view to further
transborder trade. This Rs. 100 crore strategically important project is to be executed
by the Border Roads Organization and would link Moreh in Manipur with Tamu across
the north-eastern frontier and then with Kalewa on the banks of Chindwin river via
Kyigone. The project is important because it would provide a direct link between
Imphal and Kalemyo in Myanmar and help to check transborder smuggling of
narcotics, arms and ammunition as well as combat insurgency.

The relations between India and Myanmar got somewhat strained on account of
agitation launched by the Samata Party President (George Fernandes) and others on
the border town of Morch in Manipur in October 1997. The Myanmar government
retaliated by sealing off the border and disallowing the movement of people. In
October 1997 when the pro-democratic National Coalition Government of the Union
of Burma (NCGUB) sought permission from India to set up an office of exile
government in India, the Indian Government refused to grant permission.
In February 1999 Indian Foreign Secretary (K. Raghunath) paid a visit to Myanmar
and held discussions with the representatives of Myanmar with a view to arrive at
some understanding regarding their mutual security. The two countries agreed to cooperate in checking cross border insurgency. The two countries also explored the
possibilities of increasing co-operation in the areas of economy, trade, commerce,
technology, investment, etc.
Several considerations prompted India to improve relations with Myanmar. In the
first place, the geostrategic importance of Myanmar prompted India to come closer to
that country. Myanmar shares border with China, Bangladesh and Eastern frontiers of
India and hence enjoys great strategic importance. Further, the South Eastern Coast
of Myanmar is very close to Nicobar and Andaman islands of India and the
developments in that area can affect India's security in the Bay of Bengal. Secondly,
drug smuggling, narcotic crimes, insurgency and security threats to the north-eastern
states were some of the other factors which prompted India to cultivate closer
relations with Myanmar. Failure to do so could leave the field open for China to
increase its influence in this area. Thirdly, India realised that though it was committed
to democracy it had no reason to unilaterally assume responsibility for establishment
of democracy in other countries. This task had to be better left for the people of
Myanmar.
On the other hand Myanmar was also convinced that there were certain security
and political concerns which the two countries snared. Therefore, Myanmar was
willing to cooperate with India in taking joint action to meet the security and strategic
interests of the two countries. Further, Myanmar was also keen to increase economic
and technological cooperation with India.
In February 2001 India's External Affairs Minister (Jaswant Singh) paid a visit to
Myanmar and inaugurated the Tamu-Kalewa Road, being built by the Border Roads
Organisation in collaboration with the Government of Myanmar. According to J.N. Dixit
several considerations prompted India to improve relations with Myanmar. First India
wanted to counter secessionist and terrorist activities on both sides of the IndoMyanmar border. Secondly, India wanted to ensure that Myanmar's security and
foreign policies remain balanced in terms of Myanmar's relations with China on the
one hand and India on the other. Thirdly, greater cooperation was essential to control
the illegal trafficking of drugs from the 'Golden Triangle' across sub-continental India,
to other parts of the world. Fourthly, to create equations with Myanmar to safeguard
our security interests in the
595
Bay of Bengal and shipping lanes which are of considerable importance to Indian
trade.
In the subsequent months greater cooperation was witnessed between India and
Myanmar in the field of development of human resources and infrastructure. The
leaders of the two countries exchanged frequent visits which provided new
dimensions to relations between the two countries. In August 2001 a seven-member
delegation under Myanmar's Deputy Minister of Industry, paid a visit to India. This
delegation, consisting of representatives of several industrial agencies, held
discussions regarding utilisation of credit of US$15 million made available by the
Government of India. Delegations from two countries visited each other and held
talks on variety of subjects. The main thurst of these talks was to promote crossborder cooperation. In July 2001 an Indian delegation visited Yangon and held
discussions on the multi-modal transport project
on river Kaladan. The two countries also agreed to carry out the first phase of the
project consisting of upgradation of the port of Sittwe, navigability of river Kalewa
and development of Highway from Kaletwa to Indo-Myanmar border at Mizoram. The
responsibility for preparation of detailed Report on this project was entrusted to
RITES. The two countries also agreed to co-operate in the field of energy-both hydroelectric and hydrocarbon. India a undertook a pre-feasibility study of a 1200 MW
hydropower project at Tamahthi. Indian teams visited Myanmar to explore offshore
explorations and supply of natural gas. In view of the general trend of cultivating
closer relations the two countries agreed to reopen their respective Consulates in
Mandlay and Kolkata.
All the above developments are indicative of the fact that the two countries have
come to realise that it is in their interest to build substantive and long-term relations.
_74India's Relations with

USA
The emergence of free India coincided with the emergence of United States and
Soviet Union as two super powers. Both these powers with faith in their respective
ideologies and way of life looked with suspicion towards each other and set up
military blocs like NATO, CENTO, SEATO, ANZUS, Warsaw Pact, etc., to meet the
possible threat from the other. When India gained independence it had option to join
either of the two power blocs. However, India decided to keep away from both these
blocs. Justifying this stand Nehru said: "If by any chance we align ourselves definitely
with one power group; we may perhaps from one point of view do some good but I
have not the shadow of doubt that from a larger point of view, not only of India but of
world peace it will harm. Because then we lose that tremendous vantage ground that
we have of using such influence as we possess and that influence is going to grow
from year to year in the cause of world peace." Thus in the interest of the country as
well as interest of world peace India kept aloof from the power blocs and adopted
policy of non-alignment. The adoption of policy of non-alignment did not imply that
India ceased to play a positive role in the international sphere. It expressed-positive
opinions on the issues facing the world on the basis of merit. Thus India condemned
North Korean aggression against South Korea in 1950, and British and French invasion
of Suez in 1956 as well as Soviet intervention in Hungary (1956). Later on India also
condemned USA for use of force in Vietnam. 'Despite the forthright stand taken by
India on the various international issues its relationship with the two super powers
has been the permanent pathological preoccupation of India's foreign policy'. Though
India has always
wanted to have balanced relationship with both the super powers it has not always
succeeded in this mission. In fact India's relations with the two superpowers have been influenced by the exigencies of international politics as well as domestic
demands. For a fuller understanding of India's policy towards the two super powers it
shall be desirable to make a detailed study of its relations with the two Super Powers
Relations. In fact in the present context the non-aligned countries are confronted with
several other challenges like proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, cross
border terrorism, natural disasters and environmental degradation. All these factors
pose a serious threat to peace and democracy. Hence at present non-alignment is
confronted with the problem of creation of a new world based on rational,
democratic, equitable and non-exploitative inter-state relations. Non-alignment shall
continue to be relevant as long as there is exploitation, war destruction, hunger,
poverty and disease on the earth. It remains relevant to the changing world scenario,
irrespective of the fact whether there is cold war or detente, whether the world is
unipolar, bipolar or multipolar. It can help in promoting greater economic and political
cooperation between the developing and developed countries on fair and equitable
basis and ensure respect for political independence of the developing third world
countries. But probably the most important role which non-alignment can play in the
changing context is to protect the economic interests of the third world countries by
acting against discriminatory trade compacts like Multifibre Agreements, and work for
creation of more favourable new order.

USA 597
In short it can be said that the philosophy of the movement is as relevant as ever
and its underlying tenets remain unchanged. As the aspirations of NAM countries for
true equality, genuine independence and unfettered development remain unfulfilled,
the movement can play a dynamic role towards the attainment of these objectives.
The other important issues on the agenda of the NAM are democratisation of the
United Nations and economic development. In short the movement still has a vital
role to play.
INDO-US RELATIONS FROM 1947-55
After attainment of independence, India tried to develop friendly relations with

United States of America. The Indian leaders acknowledged with gratitude the
positive role played by the American leadership in exerting pressure on the British
Government to expedite the grant of independence to India. Further the democratic
ideals of America also greatly facilitated the Indian leaders, specially Nehru, and they
tried to develop intimate relations with USA. Despite this the relations between the
two could not develop along friendly lines. No doubt the two countries succeeded in
establishing useful trade and economic links, but their political relations continued to
witness frequent ups and downs. The main factor which hampered the development
of intimate and mature relations between the two countries was difference in their
foreign policy perception. India decided to keep out of the prevailing cold war and
refused to join either of the two power blocs because it would have restricted her
freedom of action. Instead India decided to pursue policy of non-alignment based on
the principle of seeking friendly relations with all and judging each issue on its merits.
This was not liked by United States, which considered this as an unfriendly act
towards her. U.S. Secretary of State (John Foster Dulles) declared, "Those who are not
with us are against us." The refusal of India to join the military alliances sponsored by
USA and different stand taken by it on various international issues, viz., grant of
independence to Indonesia and recognition of the Communist regime of China was
also quite annoying to the American leaders.
On the other hand, India also did not like the partial approach of United States on
the Kashmir
issue. In January 1948 when India took the Kashmir issue to the United Nations for
securing a peaceful settlement of the dispute, it expected that America shall support
the legal accession of Kashmir to India. Contrary to Indian expectation, United State
supported Pakistan on this issue. The divergent approach adopted by the two
countries on the Korean issue in 1950 further strained their relations. Though both
India and America agreed that North Korea was an aggressor, but they differed with
regard to the means to be adopted for resolving the Korean crisis. Indian favoured
peaceful settlement of the Korean issue by establishing ceasefire along 38th Parallel
and ultimate unification and independence of Korea. India favoured involvement of
People's Republic of China in the UN for the solution of Korean problem. United State
rejected the Indian view and crossed the 38th Parallel which was described by India
as a move to pressurise China as a part of US policy of containment of Communism
and not as an attempt to resolve the Korean crisis.
In 1951 again some bickering was caused between India and USA due to refusal
of India to attend the San Francisco Conference convened to finalise the peace treaty
between USA and Japan. It may be noted that India abstained from the conference on
the ground that the draft treaty contained terms which were opposed to the
objectives and interests of India. Further/India also criticised United States for lot
inviting Soviet Union and China to the Conference. All this naturally caused tension in
Indo-US relations.
The policy of containment of Communist Soviet Union and People's Republic of
China through military alliances initiated by United States in mid-fifties also did not
find approval with India, which favoured promotion of a climate of peaceful coexistence and co-operation by recognising the vital differences between their political
and economic institutions. India felt that the forging of military alliances, in which
Pakistan was a member, could endanger her security through supply of huge
quantities of modern arms to Pakistan. Though US administration assured India that
the arms supplied to Pakistan were meant for use against communist countries, India
apprehended that these would be used by Pakistan against India.
598
In the face of all these developments, India drew closer to Soviet Union in the
fifties which caused further bitterness in the Indo-US relations. USA looked upon
India's growing friendship with Soviet Union as a threat to its policy of containment of
communism.
Despite differences in the political sphere, the relations between India and United
States of America continued to grow in the economic, cultural and educational
spheres. USA provided valuable assistance to India under the Technical Cooperation
Agreement of 1951. It also made available to India huge quantities of foodgrains to
tide over the problem of food-shortage facing the country. India also received
enormous assistance from various private foundations of United States like the Ford
Foundation, Rockfeller Foundation and Carnegie Foundation.

In 1956 Nehru undertook a visit to USA with a view to improve relations with her. But
the visit failed to produce the desired results, except that India was able to secure
some food aid from United States. Some improvement in their relations took place as
a result of their common stand on Suez crisis in 1956. But the reluctance of India to
criticise Soviet intervention in Hungary, and opposition to the American involvement
in Lebanon (Middle-East) further led to cooling of relations between the two. The
prospects of improvement of relations between India and USA improved following
visit of US President Eisenhower to India in 1959. By this time India was facing a
serious threat from China on her northern borders and was therefore keen to cultivate
friendly relations with USA. The prospects of closer relations with USA further
increased after victory of President Kennedy, who was sympathetically disposed
towards India.
He demonstrated his friendship for India in the wake of Chinese invasion by
shipping small arms and assuring air support for the defence of Indian skies. India felt
obliged for this timely help. However, differences persisted between the two. While
India refused to give up her policy of non-alignment, US built up pressure on India to
open negotiations with Pakistan over Kashmir and refused to provide help for the
establishment of
steel plant in the public sector at Bokaro. The assassination of President Kennedy in
November 1963 gave a further set back to the process of improvement of Indo-US
relations.
However, despite differences in the political fields, the economic relations
between the two countries showed considerable improvement. In 1960 India entered
into PL 480 agreement with United States under which the later agreed to supply
foodgrains to India against rupee payment. USA also helped in the training of the
Indian agriculture experts and helped in the establishment of agricluture research
institutes in India. In addition USA also provided aid for the completion of various
multipurpose projects and health projects. In December 1963 USA agreed to provide
8 million dollars to India for the setting up of an Atomic power plant at Tarapore. In
short, it can be said that India and America developed intimate economic relations
during the above period even though their political relations continued to be strained.
During the tenure of Lai Bahadur Shastri as Prime Minster Indo-US relations
continued to make steady progress because President Johnson continued the liberal
policy of Kennedy. In 1963 the two countries signed an agreement for the supply of
enrichment of uranium fuel for Tarapore Atomic power station. He also continued to
extend food aid to India. All this helped in the growth of healthy relations between
the two countries. However in 1965 the Indo-US relations suffered setback following
Indian criticism of US bombing of North Vietnamese positions in 1965. The relations
became so bitter that President Johnson refused to receive Prime Minister Shastri in
USA in May 1965. This led to rise of anti-US feeling in India. The things got further
aggravated following Pakistan's attack on India in 1965 with the help of American
Patton tanks. US reaction was quite favourable to Pakistan and it hardly did anything
to keep its earlier pledge that the American equipments would not be used by
Pakistan against India. In the United Nations also United States instead of supporting
India's stand on Kashmir suggested that a political solution of the problem should be
found strained relations between the

USA 599
two countries United States stopped all aid to India, except food aid under PL 480.
The dominant role played by Soviet Union in bringing the Indo-Pak War to a close by
arranging Conference at Tashkent, also contributed to the straining relations between
the two countries.

After assumption of power in 1966 Indira Gandhi made a serious bid to improve
relations with USA. She paid a visit to USA in a bid to improve relations with USA.
However, she could achieve only limited success and only succeeded in getting cuts
in aid to India restored and that too after India agreed to devalue Indian rupee.
Thereafter India's relations with US continued to cool on account of India's growing
friendship with Soviet Union. India's relations with US took a turn for the worst after
assumption of power by Nixon (1969-1974). Nixon tried to reduce US commitment in
Asia and adopted a foreign policy which aimed at preserving the dominant position of
America in international politics by checking expanding role of Soviet Union. He also
tried to bring about rapproachment with China.
The Indo-British relations reached an all time low in 1971 following India's signing
of Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union and her
involvement in Bangladesh war of 1971. During the Indo-Pak war of 1971, United
States took a clearly pro-Pakistan stand and charged India of interfering in the
internal affairs of Pakistan. US administration even used Gun Boat Diplomacy to
pressurise India and dispatched the US 7th fleet to the Bay of Bengal. US also
stopped economic assistance and supply of defence equipments to India. In the
subsequent months also India's relations with USA continued to be bitter. Decision of
India to upgrade her diplomatic relations with North Vietnam also contributed to this
bitterness.
Some improvement in the relations between India and USA took place in 1973
when USA decided to write off nearly 2/3rd of the accumulated PL 480 funds. But
soon differences over Vietnam, Diego Garcia, and resumption of US military supplies
to Pakistan, gave a set back to relations between two countries. In 1974 US bitterly
criticised India's Peaceful Nuclear
Explosion which was not liked by India. In the midst of deteriorating relations Dr.
Henry Kissinger, US Secretary of State paid a visit to India in October 1974 with a
view to effect an improvement in relations with India. On 28 October, 1974 the two
countries signed an agreement for the establishment of Joint Indo-US Commission on

Economic, Commercial, Scientific, Technological, Educational and Cultural
Cooperation. The prospects of improvement of relations between India and United
States further improved due to end of Vietnam War; emerging detente between USA
and Soviet Union, and resumption of US economic aid to India. But the criticism of
imposition of emergency by Mrs. Indira Gandhi in September 1975 was greatly
resented by the Indian Government and it drew closer to Soviet Union. All this
resulted in coldness in the Indo-US relations.
INDO-US RELATIONS DURING JANATA GOVERNMENT (1977-79)

After the formation of Government by the Janata Party in 1977, the prospects of
improvement of relations with USA considerably improved. Indian Prime Minster
(Morarji Desai) and Foreign Minister (A.B. Vajpayee) affirmed their resolve to follow a
genuine policy of non-alignment. This gave rise to the hope that the relations
between two countries would become friendly and cooperative. In January 1978
President Carter paid a visit to India to impart new warmth to the Indo-US relations.
However, he did not succeed. On the other hand differences developed between
India and US on the issue of Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), because India refused to
sign this treaty on the ground of being discriminatory and harmful for the national
interests of India. In June 1978 Indian Prime Minster (Morarji Desai) paid a visit to
America to promote greater co-operation between the two countries. One of the main
factor which prompted Morarji Desai to undertake US visit was to secure some
agreement regarding supply of enriched uranium for use in the Tarapore plant which
America had been delaying. During this visit President Carter assured Prime Minister
Morarji Desai that America would try to honour her commitment. Thus the visit
helped in removing some prevailing misunderstandings
between the two countries even though the two could not reach any agreement on
the issue of NPT. Thus during the Janata Government, despite best efforts by the
Indian Government, India's relations with USA could make only limited progress.
INDO-US RELATIONS IN 1980'S

In 1980 there was change of leadership in India as well as USA. In India Mrs. Indira
Gandhi staged a come back, while in USA Reagan assumed office as President. No
doubt the two leaders made a bid to evolve friendly and co-operative relations, but
these relations lacked warmth and depth. In fact the relations between the two
countries got strained due to different stands on various issues. India refused to rally
on the side of United States in its anti-Soviet crusade over Afghanistan and
advocated withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan at appropriate time. The

decision of the U.S. Government to provide arms aid and sell sophisticated weapons
to Pakistan despite strong protests from India also contributed to tension. In addition
above, a number of other factors also contributed to the strain in relations between
two countries. These included denial of critically needed nuclear fuel for the Tarapore
Atomic Power Station on the plea that India had not signed the Non-Proliferation
Treaty, and refused to accept full scope safeguards (USA did not insist on similar
conditions with regard to China); growing military presence of USA in the Indian
Ocean and the Indian demand for dismantling of the U.S. base in Diego Garcia and its
return to Mauritius; India's strong advocacy of New International Economic Order and
restructuring of the international monetary institutions; the presence of a feeling in
India that. USA is trying to disrupt its unity and stability by encouraging agitations in
Assam, Punjab, etc. Despite the above irritants, the leaders of the two countries
showed keenness to improve relations. The regular exchange of visits by high level
officials of the two countries was a clear proof of their intentions to improve relations.
With the assumption of power by Rajiv Gandhi, the youngest Prime Minister, in
1985 there was great optimism about improved relations between two largest
democracies. In 1985 Rajiv
Gandhi undertook a visit to USA to repair the badly strained relations of the two
countries. The United States also responded favourably and agreed to the transfer of
high technology (including the sale of, high-speed computers) and offered advanced
military technology and weaponry. As a follow up action of the several agreements
reached between Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and President Reagan, on 5 November
1987 the two countries signed an agreement on cooperation in high technology.
Despite these developments the relations between the two countries continued to be
far from friendly on account of induction of sophisticated arms into Pakistan even
after the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan and the emerging
rapproachment between India and Pakistan. The growing presence of the United
States in the Indian Ocean was also viewed with disfavour by India. Even an the issue
of Afghanistan sharp differences existed between the two countries. While Indian fully
supported Najibullah Government and established diplomatic contacts with that
government, USA was determined to replace that government by a friendly
Government in Afghanistan. India did not approve of the aid being provided by United
States to the Mujahideens and regarded it as an interference in the internal affairs of
Afghanistan. Thus despite numerous bids by the leaders of the two countries
relations between India and USA could not remain that cordial. In fact as a result of
US decision to invoke Super 30 law against India and branding of India as an unfair
trade partner, further tension was generated in their relations. However, the Indian
Government decided to adopt a low profile on this issue to avoid confrontation with
USA.
INDO-US RELATIONS IN 1990'S

With the assumption of power by the National Front Government in India in 1989,
fresh efforts were initiated to improve relations with USA. The Government also
responded quite favourably and suspended action against India under Super 301. A
change in US attitude was further evident from the fact that for the first time it
warned Pakistan against extending support to the militants and terrorists operating in
Kashmir from its soil and
India's Relations with USA
601
impressed on her that such support constituted a violation of the UN Charter. United
States also for the first time revised its stand on Kashmir and said, 'The U.S.
Government no longer urges a plebiscite on Kashmir as contained in the UN
resolutions of 1948 and 1949, neither do we oppose or rule it out, should the parties
agree in view of the Shimla Accord." India also adopted quite cooperative attitude
towards USA during the Gulf War of 1990-91 and providing refuelling facilities to the
American military transport aircrafts bound for the war zone in the Gulf, even at the
cost of internal as well as international criticism.
The end of the cold war and disintegration of the Soviet Union further obliged
India to develop closer relations with United States in view of the dominant role it was
expected to play in the international arena. India agreed to increase military cooperation with USA by according consent in principle to the Kickleighter proposals.
This was-a significant development in view of the fact that India agreed to enter into
a military agreement and work for bringing about stability through expanded cooperation in all fields. However, differences still persisted between the two countries
on several issues. US continued to exert pressure on India to sign the NonProliferation Treaty (NPT) despite her persistent resistance to sign the treaty on the
plea of security threats from both Pakistan and China. USA also continued to criticise
India for alleged violation of Human Rights. On the other hand, India expressed
unhappiness over growing US control over the United Nations and demanded
democratisation of the international organisation, specially the Security Council.
Differences also persisted between the two countries on issues of New International
Economic Order (NIEO), "Uruguay Round, Nuclear Disarmament and other issues. But
despite" these differences the two countries were convinced of the need of
strengthening their bilateral relations. In fact in May 1992 the two countries held joint
naval exercises in the Indian Ocean, which marked the beginning of a new era of
increased defence cooperation between two countries.
The policy of economic liberation and market economy adopt India also facilitated
development of closer relations with United State. The policy of liberalisation of
imports, decontrol, decanalisation, partia, convertibility of rupee, etc., announced by India in the budget of 1992
was welcomed by the American administration and business. They saw in it a big
opportunity for the export of American goods and flow of US expertise to India. In fact
India was obliged to welcome western aid, technology, imports and capital because
after the disintegration of Soviet Union, India's trade suffered a great setback. Further
India also lost an important source of supply of arms on this account. The two
countries were also drawn closer to each other on account of common interests like
promotion of democratic rule, preservation of regional and world peace, opposition to
Islamic fundamentalism and furthering of mutual trade and investment. Above all
America felt that in the changed context the geo-strategic significance of Pakistan
had greatly decreased and it no longer needed Pakistan to funnel military supplies
into Afghanistan. It therefore decided to improve relations with India on account of
vast size, population and strategic location. In June 1994 USA decided not to take any
action against India under US Trade Law Special 301, and preferred to enter into
negotiations with India on lightening up its provisions relating to intellectual property
rights. In December 1994 the two countries signed accords for promotion of
cooperation in the energy sector. The two countries also signed agreements for
textile imports and exports. In 1995 the two countries reached an agreement for cooperation in the field of defence with a view to promote commercial relations. A
special body known as US India Commercial Alliance was created with a view to
expand commercial and business relations between the two countries.
In 1995 the two countries made a serious bid to improve and expand their
relations. For this purpose the high level officials of two countries exchanged several
visits. But this process suffered a serious set back following US decision to modify the
Pressler amendment in September 1995 which paved the way for arms transfer
worth $ 370 million to Pakistan and return of money for sale of 28 F-16 aircrafts from
sale to a third country. In addition to the above there are several other irritants
present in Indo-US relations. While US is a status quo power which seeks to preserve
the present hierarchical international system based on inequality of wealth, status
and power, India on
602
the other hand stands for changing this system with a view to improve the access of
developing countries to global wealth, status and power. The two countries also had
differences over Tarapore reactor and the cryogenic engine sale. Tension was also
generated between the two due to differences with regard to intellectual property
rights and threat of USA to impose the Super 301 clause on India. Further India has
favoured a time bound programme of reduction of nuclear arsenals of the nuclear
states not acceptable to USA. India's opposition to the non- proliferation treaty as
well as the CTBT was another cause of irritation between the two countries. Despite
this economic relations between the two countries have grown more intimate due to
policy of economic liberation followed by India during the last few years. Further the
two countries have also reached agreement regarding cooperation in the military and
naval exercises. Efforts of China to expand its influence in the region has also obliged
USA to think of closer relations with India because India alone could be a balancing
factor in the Asian politics.
In short India's relations with United States continued to grow along friendly lines
and US continued to lay emphasis on reduction of tension between India and
Pakistan, and resolution or their differences through bilateral negotiations. The
relations between the two countries suffered a serious setback in the wake of nuclear
explosions by India in May 1998. United States not only condemned the explosions
but also proceeded to impose sanctions against India. At the meeting of the five
Permanent Members of the UN Security Council, the United States not only stepped
up pressure on India and Pakistan to sign the CTBT in its present form, but also
suggested the involvement of a third country for the resolution of the Kashmir
dispute. This was strongly resented by India which firmly believes in bilateral
resolution of the Kashmir issue through negotiations with Pakistan, and is opposed to
any international solution of the problem.
INDO-US RELATIONS IN TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

During subsequent years relations between India and USA took a new turn due to
combination of
several factors. Growing terrorist attacks from Osama bin Laden based in Afghanistan
pushed US closer to India, which also became a victim of terrorism. Further, unlike
China which had conducted a massive spying operations in the USA to steal US
nuclear secrets, India never made any bid to develop nuclear arsenal clandestinely.
Further US also appreciated India's commitment to free markets. A large untapped
market of India also greatly appealed to the US companies. Above all pragmatically
also it was desirable for USA to increase cooperation with India to counter the
growing influence of China in true region. Another factor which facilitated closer
relations between India and USA was rejection of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
(CTBT) by the American Senate. This naturally led to easing of pressure on India to
sign the CTBT, an issue which had greatly strained the relations between the two
countries.
President Clinton's visit to India in March 2000 also helped in bringing the two
countries closer. Clinton did not approve of the killing 35 innocent villagers in Chitli
Singhpura in Kashmir by the militants to focus attention on the Kashmir issue. He
endorsed the Indian view that no negotiations could be held with Pakistan until
violence in Kashmir subsided and Pakistan respected the sanctity of Line of Control.
At the end of the three rounds of talks the leaders of India and USA signed a
document "India-US Relations: A Vision for the 21st Century." They also issued a joint
statement which committed the two countries to create a closer and qualitatively
new relationship in different areas. The main points emphasised in the 'Vision
Statement' were that Indian Prime Minister and US President would hold regular
bilateral summits; the Indian Foreign Minister and US Secretary of State will hold
annual foreign policy dialogue; the two countries would continue dialogue on security
and non-proliferation and would launch a dialogue on Asian security; the two
countries would cooperate with others to launch an international community of
democracies; a coordination group at the level of PMO and White House would be set
up for institutionising enhanced cooperation; the ministers of two countries would
hold dialogue to deepen ties between Indian and American
India's Relations with USA
603
business communities; a Joint Consultative Group on Clean Energy and Environment

would be set up. The two countries agreed to carry on joint research to eradicate
AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis.
During this visit President Clinton also announced partial easing of sanctions
imposed on India in the wake of explosions of May 1998. Clinton also made several
statements which greatly pleased India. These includes statement disapproving
cross-border terrorism and reiteration of the statement that US does not desire to
mediate in the Kashmir dispute. Though there were differences over the nuclear
issues, the US tacitly accepted India's need for minimum credible nuclear deterrent.
In short it can be said that the visit of President Clinton paved the way for closer
relations between the two countries.
In September 2000 Indian PM Vajpayee paid a return visit to USA and held wideranging talks covering political, economic and commercial spheres. During the visit
the two countries concluded five commercial deals worth $ 6 billion for projects in
power, e-commerce, banking, etc. The two countries agreed to coordinate on
Afghanistan, specially the position on the Pakistan-backed Taliban regime in Kabul
and its nexus with international terrorist outfits. US endorsed the Indian stand that
Indo-Pak dialogue could be resumed only when the cross-border terrorist violence
ends in Jammu and Kashmir. The two sides agreed to continue dialogue on security
and non-proliferation with a view to narrow differences on these issues. With regard
to CTBT, it was stated that while India has agreed to continue its effort to evolve a
political consensus, the US will also work for ratification of the treaty at the earliest.
After the election of George W. Bush as President of USA, doubts were raised in
certain
quarters that the new administration may not maintain the close bilateral ties
developed during the Clinton administration. However, the new US Secretary of State
(Gen. Colin Powell) told Senate panel that "India has to be a high priority for foreign
policy activities of the US".
In May 2001 President Bush proposed a hew global strategic framework, which
was endorsed by India in the course of discussions held between
Indian External Affairs Minister and US President's special personal envoy (Richard
Armitage). Effort was made to identify the different elements of new security
framework proposed by President Bush with India's own nuclear doctrine of no-firstuse, non-use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear states. According to political
analysts in view of the major geopolitical shift, the US is looking to forge closer
military ties with India as a counter to China. Though India has shown keeness to
develop closer military relations with USA, it has at the same time made it clear that
it does not intend to improve relations with US or other countries at the cost of its
relations with China.
India came closer to USA after the terrorist strike on New York and Washington on
11 September 2001 and declaration of war on global terrorism by America and its
allies India which had been a victim of trans-border terrorism for more than a decade,
felt happy that at least now there would be international action against global
terrorism. It pressed USA to exert pressure on Pakistan to take action against terrorist
outfits based in Pakistan. However, US only paid lip service to India's demand for
action against Pakistan-sponsored terrorism in Kashmir and felt concerned only about
liquidation of Osama bin Laden and his terrorist networks. After the terrorist attack on
the Legislative Assembly is Srinagar is October, 2001, Indian Prime Minister pointed
out that there were inherent contradictions in the international coalition against
terrorism taking Pakistan's help in hunt for Osama bin Laden, despite Islamabad
supporting militancy in Jammu and Kashmir.
Another important development in Indo-US relations took place in September
2001 when President George Bush announced the lifting of the sanctions imposed on
India and Pakistan in the wake of their nuclear tests. This clearly benefitted Pakistan J
"cause in the case of India most of the sanctions had already been lifted by Clinton
Administration except those related to dual use technology and international lending.
However, it cannot be denied that as a result of lifting of these sanctions the way was
cleared for the procurement of variety of equipment including radars and integrated
command and control system. It also
604
gave rise to the hope that the long-delayed project to manufacture the light combat
aircraft (LCA) would be now implemented.
In October 2001 US Secretary of State (Gen. Colin Powell) visited India. He
appealed to the Indian Prime Minister that in view of the focuss of on-going
international campaign against terrorism in Afghanistan, and the AI-Qaeda network,
India should exercise maximum restraint and resume dialogue with Pakistan.
However, India firmly held that dialogue could be assumed only if Islamabad curbed
terrorism in Kashmir. In November 2001 the US Secretary of Defence paid a visit to
India and urged India not to take any action which could compound problems for
Musharaf at home and pointed out that Gen. Musharaf's survival was important to
both India and USA. He said that fall of Gen. Musharraf could help in the ascendancy
of fundamentalist elements in Pakistan.
In December 2001 talks were held between India and USA to promote cooperation between the two military establishments in fighting terrorism and
proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. In a joint statement the two countries
asserted that they share strategic interests in Asia and beyond that their defence and
security cooperation can promote freedom, global peace, economic progress and
security. It is noteworthy that in the past defence ties between the two countries
could not succeed because of American concern on non-proliferation. In the new
context non-proliferation became an area of substantive bilateral cooperation. The
two countries emphasised the importance of joint counter-proliferation effort to
achieve their goals of defence cooperation. In fact the talks between the two
countries gave a big boost to defence ties in three areas defence, trade and
technology transfer; military to military co-operation and institutional structures to
promote dialogue on strategic assessments and doctrines.
The relations between the two countries grew more intimate during the
subsequent months. In July 2002 US Secretary of State (Collin Powell) paid a visit to
New Delhi. During this visit apart from holding discussions on Kashmir, he held
discussions on wide ranging topics such as military co-operation, energy, economic
cooperation, science and technology, etc. However,
India was quite disappointed with US role in checking cross-border terrorism in
Jammu and Kashmir. It realized that it could not depend too much on Washington for
checking cross border terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir as President Bush had
described the Pakistani leader (President Musharraf) as one of the most reliable allies
in the fight against terrorism. US administration also agreed to reschedule the $ 3
billion debt owed by Pakistan to US for 30 years. However, in the field of military
relationship the two countries drew closer to each other and Indian warships docked
at a strategic US naval base for the first time. Indian commandos does also travelled
to Alaska in September to take part in first joint exercise.
CONCLUSION
The above survey of Indo-US relations shows that despite the presence of democratic
governments in the two countries, the relations between the two could not grow
along intimate lines on account of their different foreign policy perceptions. India's
refusal to join the US sponsored military pacts and adoption of policy of nonalignment was not to the liking of USA. Likewise USA did not quite like India's
recognition of People's Republic of China and advocacy of her cause for admission in
the United Nations. The Indian stand on Korean issue, US Peace Treaty with Japan,
and Vietnam was also quite irritating to the United States. On the other hand India
felt greatly aggrieved over US support to Pakistan on Kashmir issue, anti-Indian stand
on the issue of Goa, open hostility towards India during indo-Pak conflict of 1971,
induction of highly sophisticated weapons in Pakistan, etc. Above all the intimate
relationship between India and Soviet Union and India's stand on CTBT
(Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) which was at complete variance with US stand also
greatly hampered the development of co-operative relations between the two
countries. Despite this the two countries continued to co-operate with each other in
economic and cultural spheres. Relations in these spheres grew more intimate after
the disintegration of Soviet Union and adoption of policy of liberalisation by India. At
the international level the efforts of China to expand its influence in the region also
obliged USA to cultivate closer relations with India which alone can be a balancing
factor in the Asian politics.
75India's Role in the United

Nations
India's association with the United Nations has been as old as the organisation
itself. In fact, India took part in the San Francisco Conference which created the
United Nations Organization. She signed the UN Charter on 26 June, 1945 and
became one of the original 51 members of the Organization. The organisation
actually came into existence on 24 October, 1945. Ever since then, India been
actively participating in the various activities of the United Nations and other
international agencies. India's approach towards the United Nations was summed up
by Jawaharlal Nehru in Constituent Assembly of India thus "India's approach towards
the United Nations shall be one of consideration and support without reservations
and that India would always undertake to carry out its due responsibilities towards
the international community." Similar sentiments were expressed by the Indian
representative in the first session of the United Nations.
INDIAN CONSTITUTION AND UNITED NATIONS

After attainment of independence, India reiterated her faith in the United Nations
and resolved to forcefully participate in its activities. The Constitution of India also
reaffirmed India's commitment to "promote international peace and security; to
maintain just and honorable relations among nations; to foster respect for
International law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised peoples with one
another; and to encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration and
other peaceful means (Art. 51)." This provision of the Constitution was in keeping
with India's commitment as member of the United Nations to promote world
peace, friendship and co-operation through the development of international
relations and through collective participation in the drive to secure a world free from
war, hunger, disease, tyranny, inequality and violence. Thereafter also India
expressed firm faith in the spirit of the UN Charter by incorporating provisions in
various treaties, declarations and agreements to this effect. For example the
Tashkent Declaration, Shimla Agreement, Indo-Soviet Treaty for Peace, Friendship and
Cooperation, etc., contained provisions which reaffirmed the resolve of the concerned
parties respect the aims and objectives of UN Charter.
FAVOURED UNIVERSALISATION AND

DEMOCRATIZATION OF UNITED NATIONS
India attached great importance to the United Nations and always supported its
expansion by supporting membership of new states. It was primarily due to efforts of
Jawaharlal Nehru that USA and Soviet Union, who had been opposing the entry of
pro-Soviet and pro-American state respectively, agreed to end the conflict over the
issue of admission new states, and 16 new states were admitted as members in
1955. India also extended support to Red China's admission to the United Nations. In
short, India always favoured universalisation of the United Nations. India has also
insisted on democratisation of the United Nations by giving effective representation
to the members and involving them in the decision making process on matters of
common and collective interests.
606
SERVICES OF INDIANS TO THE UNITED NATIONS

India has also provided large numbers of personnel who rendered valuable
services to the various agencies of United Nations in different capacities. Some of the
prominent personalities who rendered great service to the International organisation
include Mrs. Vijay Lakshmi as President of UN General Assembly; Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad and Dr. S. Radhakrishnan as Chairmen of UNESCO, Mrs. Rajkumari Amrit Kaur as
Chairperson of WHO, Shri V.R. Sen as President of FAO, Dr. K. Krishna Rao as
Chairman of the Legal Committee of General Assembly; H.J. Bhabha as Chairman of
Atoms for Peace Commission, etc. This list is by no means exhaustive. In addition to
this several others occupied important positions under the UN in various capacities.
Even at present several Indians are serving in various capacities with the United
Nations.
India has served as non-permanent member of the Security Councils for six terms
(each of two years duration) from 1950-52, 1965-67, 1970-72, 1976-78,1983-85 and
1990-92. During its tenure as non- permanent member of Security Council, India
played quite an important role and considerably influenced its decision-making.
India attached great importance to the General Assembly and took active part in
its deliberations India was one of the first countries to raise voice against apartheid,
colonialism and imperialism. It v/as mainly on. account of the efforts of India that the
General Assembly decided to impose political sanctions against the racialist regime
of South Africa in 1954. In 1965 also India extended full support to the UN sponsored
economic boycott of Rhodesia. India also played active role in supporting demand for
New International Economic Order, and raised it's voice for the rights of the
developing countries in the General Assembly. It also waged struggle against
apartheid and opposed all types of racial discrimination.
SUPPORT TO UN RESOLUTIONS AND PROGRAMMES
India has extended wholehearted support to the various UN solutions and tried to
implement
them, India has also helped in the implementation of the various programmes
sponsored by different international bodies like the WHO, UNESCO, FAO, UNICEF, etc.
INDIA'S ROLE IN PEACE KEEPING OPERATIONS

India has played key role in various peace keeping operations undertaken by the
United Nations. In 1950 India played a key role in resolving the Korean crisis and was
largely instrumental in getting 38th parallel as cease-fire line. In the mid-fifties India
played an important role in securing cease-fire agreement in Indo-China. In view of
the effective role played by India, she was offered Chairmanship of the International
Control Commission on which Poland and Canada served as members. India also
played important role in restoration of international peace during the Suez Canal
crisis, Congo crisis and Angolan crisis. India contributed military contingents to peace
keeping forces under the UN flag several times, viz., in Congo, Gaza, and Cyprus.
India also played an important role in securing peaceful transfer of power to SWAPO
in Namibia. In recent years the Indian contingents have given good account of
themselves in Cambodia, Yugoslavia, etc. The growing involvement of India in various
peace keeping operation shows that it willingly accepted its responsibility towards
maintenance of international peace and security.
SUPPORT TO ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT

India has fully supported UN efforts to bring about general and complete
disarmament. It has strongly opposed the use of nuclear technology for military
purposes and supported the right of nations to develop nuclear technology for
peaceful purposes. As member of the 18 Nation Disarmament Committee India
played an important role in securing general consensus in favour of disarmament. It
is noteworthy that though India has supported comprehensive disarmament in a
planned manner, it has opposed partial, half hearted and discriminatory treaties like
the NPT. India firmly holds that only comprehensive disarmament can put an end to
India's Role in the United

Nations 607
armament race. Even at present India is an active member of the Geneva

Commission on Disarmament and has been playing an active role to bring about
disarmament.
FINANCIAL SUPPORT TO UN
Though India is quite a poor country it has extended full financial support to the
United Nations and discharged its responsibilities faithfully. While other advanced
countries have often defaulted in making their contributions to the United Nations,
India generally has discharged its liabilities without default and made its
contributions towards the working of the United Nations.
KEEN INTEREST IN IMPROVEMENT OF UNITED NATIONS

India has not only faithfully carried out its obligations under the UN Charter but
also taken keen interest in making the UN more effective organisation. With this
objective in mind India has come forth with several suggestions to make UN a more
effective body by making necessary modifications in the UN Charter. In the first
place, India has strongly pleaded for the expansion of the Security Council to give
representation to African and Latin American countries. India has demanded that in
the changed international system with 188 members (as against 51 members at the
time of founding of UN), more states should
be made permanent members of the Security Council. India has favoured the
inclusion of countries like Germany, India, Japan, Egypt, Brazil and Nigeria as
permanent members of the Security Council.
Secondly, India has demanded replacement of the existing economic system by a
New International Economic order which shall be able to take better care of the
interests of the developing countries. India wants that the countries of the third world
must be given due share in the various foruns, committees and institutions of the
United Nations.
Thirdly, India is in favour of expanding the role of the United Nations. It should not
be concerned only with the promotion of international peace, justice and cooperation, but also make efforts to bring about qualitative changes in the present
world by undertaking international development plans and programmes.
Fourthly, India wants the United Nations to be freed from the control of some big
powers which at present are dominating its proceedings and decisions. These powers
are making use of the United Nations to further their own national interests. They
often resort to sanctions to control the policies of small, weak and developing
countries. India holds that it would be desirable that the United Nations works on the
collective will of all the member states rather than on the views or predilections of a
few powerful countries.
Chapter
76
India and
SAARC
The term South Asia is used for the countries lying south of Himalayas and
Hindukush mountains and surrounded by the Indian Ocean from three sides. The
countries of this region include India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and
Bhutan. Some writers include even Afghanistan and Maldives in this region. Except
Afghanistan, Nepal and Bhutan, the remaining countries of this region have been
under colonial rule. These countries gained independence after the Second World
War. India got independence in 1947; Pakistan came into existence as a result of
partition of India the same year. Sri Lanka attained independence in 1948.
Bangladesh, though originally a part of Pakistan, emerged as an independent
sovereign state after the breakaway from Pakistan in 1971. Though the countries of
South Asia differ from each other with regard to climate, race, religion and history,
they constitute a single region and possess several common futures. First, most of
the countries of the region are economically poor and majority of their people live
below poverty line. Secondly, religion is a predominant factor in these states. In fact
some of the states like Pakistan and Bangladesh were created on the basis of religion.
Thirdly, these countries are faced with the problems of unemployment, illiteracy, over
population, etc. Fourthly, these countries are predominantly agricultural and are
industrially quite backward. The only country which is an exception to this is India,
which has made considerable industrial progress. Fifthly, most of the countries of the
region, with the exception of India, are faced with the problem of political instability.
Finally, most of the countries (except Pakistan) do not have any close military links
with the super powers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUTH ASIA
According to Prof. S.D. Muni there are two outstanding characteristics of the
region of South Asia. First, it is all Indo-centric region. This means that India is central
to it geographically and in terms of socio-cultural and economic infrastucture of the
region. All the countries of the region, viz., Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a common border with India and are related to India
separately and individually in terms of their cultural identities, economic patterns,
philosophical trends and historical experience. On account of this Indo-centric nature
of the region, India has come to occupy a central position in the scheme of things in
this region.
Secondly, the region has unbalanced and asymmetric power structure, in which
India occupies a dominant position. "In terms of size, population, resource base,
potential for economic growth, military strength and viability of the constitutional and
political system, India is far too superior to any of its neighbours". According to Prof.
Muni the above two characteristics of the region together make South Asia an Indiacentred and India-dominated region They make India the proverbial Big Brother with
all the negative connotation of that expression for the healthy growth of regionism on
the subcontinent. The disparity in power between India and its neighbours has
certainly generated legitimate and understandable apprehensions in the latter. There
is no denying this fact. Nor can it be disputed that such apprehensions create
difficulties in the task of regional co-operation."
India and
Saarc 609
CONFLICT AND TENSION

In the post-colonial period the relations between states of South Asia have been
characterised by conflict and tension, which naturally hampered the process of cooperation among the state of the region. In the main three causes, all legacies of the
colonial rule have been responsible for the conflict. Firstly, the absurd manner in
which the British rulers brought about the partition of the subcontinent resulted in
the creation of unnatural and absurd state system. This not only led to a series of
conflicts but also hampered co-operation among the states of the region. Secondly,
while partitioning the countries the British did not clearly demarcate the boundary
between India and its neighbours. This gave rise to territorial disputes amongst these
states and strained bilateral relations. Thirdly, almost all the countries or the region
are confronted with problem of ethnic minorities, viz, Tamils in Sri Lanka, the Hindus
in Pakistan and Bangaldesh, the Biharis in Nepal, the Nepalese in India and the
Indians in Burma.
In addition to the above three causes of conflicts, certain other factors also
contributed to tension in the region. These include different paths and strategies
adopted by various states of the region for their social, economic and political
development, presence of particularistic religious, ethnic and linguistic components
of the social fabric in various countries; and the fear among the smaller states of the
region that in any scheme of regional co-operation India, as a dominant partner, was
bound to dominate and exploit them, and may even obstruct their natural growth and
prosperity. Therefore the states of the region preferred to have economic
collaboration with Japan and countries of West Europe with a view to undermine the
position of India in the region.
FACTORS IN FAVOUR OF CO-OPERATION

On account of the above factors scholars tended to take a view that the prospects of
co-operation among the states of the region were not quite bright. However, they
forgot that if traditional rivals like France and Britain could engage in regional cooperation in the form of EEC, why countries of South Asia could not co-operate with
each other. In fact several factors impelled the countries of South Asian region to
cooperate with each other.
First, the growing rivalry between USA and Soviet Union, and Soviet Union, and
China encouraged the outside powers to intervene in the affairs of the South Asia.
Thus USA was able to interfere in Pakistan because of its conflict with India and
Afghanistan. Likewise Soviet Union and China were able to interfere in the region due
to conflicts between various countries. These interventions by foreign powers in their
affairs convinced them of the need of cooperating with each other to prevent
interference by outside powers.
Secondly, as the countries of the region were economically quite backward, they
felt that they could improve their bargaining power with the developed countriesonly
by attaining self-reliance through mutual co-operation. This desire of the states of
region was confirmed by their support to the New International Economic Order.
Thirdly, the economical considerations also prompted the countries of the region to
co-operate
with each other. There existed a number of problems which could be solved only
through cooperation among the states of the region. For example Bangladesh was
faced with the problem of soil salinity. This problem was caused due to flow of tidal
waters on land and could be solved only if India agreed to augment waters of Ganges
river system. Similarly problem of floods and soil erosion being faced by India in the
states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar was intimately connected with the problem of
deforestation and harnessing of fast flowing rivers in Nepal.
Fourthly, the presence of naval forces of the European powers in the Indian Ocean
also posed a serious threat to the freedom of the region. Therefore it was vital for the
states of the region to avoid mutual fight so that they could not be exploited by the
outside powers.
EFFORTS TO PROMOTE CO-OPERATION

According to Prof S.D. Muni several factors hampered the development of peaceful,
healthy and co-operative relations amongst the states of
610
the region till the beginning of the seventies. These factors were the colonial
legacies, problems of national integration, nation-building, unequal economic
development and regime stability, power disparities in the region super-imposed by
an artificial balance between India and Pakistan, and the role of external powers.
However, as a result of diffusion of cold war and bipolarity, certain regional power
centres emerged which encouraged the formation of regional groupings in the third
world for the attainment of broad economic and strategic objectives.
In South Asia the first step in the direction of promoting co-operation with other
states of region was taken by India in 1972 when it signed Shimla Agreement with
Pakistan. Under this agreement the two countries agreed to 'put an end to the
conflict and confrontation which had hitherto-marred their relations' and to 'work for
the promotion of a friendly and harmonious relationship and the establishment of
durable peace in the sub-continent.' This was followed by a Tripartite Agreement
between India, Pakistan and Bangladesh in 1973. Though even after the conclusion of
the above agreement the relations between the three countries could not be
normalised but these agreements certainly provided a useful base for normalisation
of relations. Thereafter the countries of the region acted in unionism on various
issues.
But the most important step in the direction of encouraging regional co-operation
was taken by Ziaur Rehman of Bangladesh; who undertook visits to Nepal, India,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka and held consultations with the leaders of these countries on
the need of promoting co-operation amongst the countries of the region. In the light
of these consultations he addressed letters to Heads of Governments of these
countries and impressed on them the need of establishing some institutional
arrangement for regional co-operation. He also circulated a working paper which
provided the basis for further discussion. The paper stated "Economic and technical
co-operation on a regional basis was accepted by all developing countries as a
desirable and necessary strategy within the framework of ECDC and TCDC. In South
Asia, as in another region of the world, we have countries at different levels of
development,
some are relatively less developed than others. Any proposal for economic cooperation must consequently be formulated with the greatest care in order to ensure
that the weak are not exploited and that the strong do not dominate. The areas
selected should only be those in which cooperation will mutually benefit all the
countries irrespective of existing economic disparities so as to make a region
cooperation meaningful, strengthen the spirit of mutual trust and understanding and
bridge the developmental gaps existing among the region."
The working paper identified eleven areas of possible cooperation, viz., (1)
Telecommunications; (2) Meteorology; (3) Transport; (4) Shipping; (5) Tourism; (6)
Agricultural-Rural Sector; (7) Joint Ventures; (8) Market Promotion in selected
commodities; (9) Scientific and Technical Cooperation; (10) Education and Technical
Cooperation; and (11) Cultural Co-operation.
MEETING OF FOREIGN SECRETARIES AT COLOMBO (APRIL,

1981)
In April, 1981 the Foreign Secretaries of seven South Asian. Countries (Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) met at Colombo to consider
the proposals outlined in the working paper submitted by Bangladesh President. At
this meeting the Foreign Secretaries agreed on the need of regional co-operation but
asserted that it should not be a substitute for bilateral or multilateral co-operation. It
could compliment bilateral and multilateral cooperation. The meeting agreed to
explore possibilities of cooperation in five fields, viz., Agricultural; Rural
Development; Communication; Meteorology; and Health and Population activities.
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India and Nepal respectively were to act as
coordinators for the above five and to make concrete recommendations for
consideration by the Foreign Secretaries at the next meeting to be held within six
months. The meeting also decided to set up a Committee of the whole consisting of
the senior officials of the seven countries to identify and report on other areas of
possible co-operation. Sri Lanka was to act as the Co-ordinator of this
India and Saarc
611
Committee. This Committee subsequently met at Colombo and identified 13 areas of

possible cooperation. These areas also included some of the areas which had been
earlier recommended in the working paper submitted by Bangladesh.
KATHMANDU MEETING (NOVEMBER 1981)

The second meeting of the Foreign Secretaries of the South Asian countries was held
in November, 1981 at Kathmandu. This meeting endorsed the recommendations of
the five study groups as well as the report of the Committee of the whole. It also
decided to institute studies in the following areas of co-operation: Transport, Postal
Services and Scientific & Technical Co-operation. Maldives, Bhutan and Pakistan
respectively were to act as coordinators for these fields.
ISLAMABAD MEETING (AUGUST, 1982)

The Third Meeting of the Foreign Secretaries of the South Asian States was held at
Islamabad (Pakistan) in August 1982. The meeting considered the report of the Study
Groups in Transport, Postal Services, Scientific and Technological Cooperation and
endorsed the recommendations contained in these reports. The meeting also agreed
to constitute new study groups on Sports, Arts and Culture.
It may be noted that as a result of these deliberations a fairly broad based and
comprehensive scheme of South Asian Regional Cooperation was evolved and almost
all the fields outlined in the working paper of Bangladesh, with the exception of
tourism and joint ventures, were accepted. In fact some of the new subjects like
telecommunications, postal services and sports were also included.
A notable achievement of the meeting of the Foreign Secretaries of the South
Asian countries at Islamabad was that it emphasised the "importance and imperative
necessity of holding a ministerial meeting at an early date." It decided to recommend
to their Foreign Ministers to convene a meeting at their level between May and
September, 1983, to be preceded by a preparatory meeting of the Foreign
Secretaries.
DACCA MEETING (MARCH, 1983)
The next meeting of the foreign ministers of South Asian countries was held at Dacca
in March, 1983. It endorsed the recommendations contained in the report of the
Committee of the Whole and recommended the adoption of the Integrated
Programme of Action by the Foreign Ministers. It decided to set up a Standing
Committee at regional level for coordinating and monitoring the Integrated
Programme of Action. The meeting asserted that necessary preparatory work for a
ministerial level meeting has been successfully completed and expressed the
necessity of holding a Ministerial Meeting at an early date. It suggested that the
meeting of Foreign Ministers be held at New Delhi. However, it left the precise dates
for the meeting, to be settled through consultation. The meeting also agreed that
studies be initiated in due course to identify the areas of co-operation in addition to
those already identified.
NEW DELHI MEETING (AUGUST, 1983)

In August, 1983 the foreign ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal
and Pakistan met at New Delhi. Their meeting was preceded by a meeting of the
Foreign Secretaries of these countries at New Delhi in July, 1983. At the conclusion of
the meeting, the foreign ministers signed a Declaration on South Asian Regional
Cooperation. The foreign ministers expressed their concern about the common
probes and aspiration of the people of South Asia and emphasised the need of
accelerating their economic and social development through regional co-operation.
They also expressed their conviction that increased cooperation, contacts and
exchanges among the countries of the region would contribute to the promotion of
friendship, amity and understanding among their people. The declaration highlighted
the following objectives of the South Asian Regional Co-operation: (1) to promote
welfare of the people of South Asia and improve quality of their life; (2) to accelerate
economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and to
provide all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realise their full
potential; (3) to promote and strengthen collective self-reliance
612
among the countries of South-Asia; (4) to contribute to mutual trust, understanding
and appreciation of one another's problem; (5) to promote active collaboration and
mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields; (6)
to strengthen cooperation with other developing countries; (7) to strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums on common interest; and (8) to
cooperate with international and, regional organisations with similar aims and
purposes. The declaration asserted that co-operation in the above fields shall be
based on the principle of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political
independence, non-interference in internal affairs of other states and mutual benefit.
It reiterated that cooperation shall not substitute but compliment the bilateral and
multilateral relations.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
The Foreign Ministers also agreed on certain institutional arrangement for making the
cooperation more effective. They envisaged the following institutional arrangements:
1. Technical Committees
Technical Committees consisting of representatives of all member states for the
implementation, coordination and monitoring of the programmes each area of cooperation. The committees were to determine the potential and scope of regional cooperation in agreed areas; formulate programme of action and prepare necessary
plans; determine financial implications of the sectoral programme of action;
formulate recommendations regarding the apportionment of costs; implement and
coordinate sectoral programmes of action; and monitor the progress of
implementation. The Technical Committees were expected to submit periodic reports
to the Standing Committee.
2. Standing Committee
The declaration envisaged a Standing Committee consisting of the Foreign
Secretaries of the member states. The committee was expected to coordinate and
monitor South-Asian regional cooperation with regard to (a) approval of projects and
programmes and modalities of their financing;
(b) determine
the
intra-sectoral
priorities
and
overall co-ordination of programmes of action;
(c)
mobilisation of regional and external resources;
and (d) identification of new areas of cooperation
based on appropriate studies. The Standing
Committee was expected to meet at least once a
year but more frequent meetings could be held if
the members deemed it necessary. The Standing
Committee was expected to provide necessary
support services for the meetings of the Foreign
Ministers of the member countries. It was also
expected to refer to the matters relating to
decisions
on
policy
guidelines
approval
of
projects,
authorisation for financing the same.
with
regard
programmes
to
and
3. Action Committees
The Declaration also envisaged Action Committees which were to be set up for
implementation of projects involving more than two countries. However, such Action
Committees could be set up only with the prior approval of the Standing Committee.
4. Finances
As regards the finances for the programmes of cooperation the same were to be
raised through voluntary contributions. The Technical Committees were to have
power to make recommendations for the apportionment of the cost for the
implementation of the proposed programmes. However, while making
recommendations the Technical Committees were expected to keep the following
points in mind: (i) the cost of travel and subsistence for participants in seminars,
workshops and training and other programmes shall be met by the respective
governments and the cost of organising seminars, workshops and training and other
programmes may be met by the host country or apportioned among the participants
in proportion to the facilities availed of; (ii) the cost of subsistence for the experts
shall be met by the receiving countries and cost of travel and or salary of the experts
may be paid for by the sending countries; or shared among participant countries; (iii)
other costs, including the cost of preparation of studies shall be shared on a mutually
agreed basis; and (iv) in the case of long-term projects the Technical Committee was
to estimate
the cost involved
and make
India and Saarc
613
recommendations to the Standing Committee the modalities for meeting the cost.
The cost of the projects and programmes for which sufficient financial resources
could not be mobilised within the region external assistance could be procured from
regional or other appropriate sources with the approval of the Standing Committee.
NEW DELHI MEETING OF SARC (1984)

The SARC (South Asian Regional Co-operation) held its first meeting at New Delhi on
27 February 1984. This meeting asserted that friendly political relations among the
countries of the region must go hand in hand with co-operation in economic, social
and cultural-fields. The meeting emphasised the need of reducing the dependence on
outside countries for essential requirements, and affirmed the collective resolve of
the government to pursue actively South Asian Regional Co-operation and to launch
an integrated programme of action.
MEETING AT MALE (1985)

Another notable development was the meeting of the Standing Committee of South
Asian Regional Co-operation at Male in February 1985. This meeting recommended
the establishment of a Ministerial Council of SARC countries to institutionalise their
collective resolve to pursue mutual co-operation and launch an integrated
programme of action. The Ministerial Council shifted emphasis from studies and
workshops to action-oriented projects. The proposal was cleared by the Foreign
Ministers and put up for adoption before the first session of the Heads of State and
Government of SARC countries at their meeting at Dhaka in December 1985.
SOUTH ASIAN
(SAARC)
ASSOCIATION
OF
REGIONAL
CO-OPERATION
In December 1985 the heads of states and governments of seven South Asian
countrie viz., Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka held
a summit meeting at Dhaka. After due deliberations they unanimously decided to set
up a Secretariat and issue a declaration for the creation of SMRC. The
Declaration stated the objective of Association as promotion of welfare of people,
improvement in the quality of the life of people, acceleration of economic growth;
promotion of collective self-reliance; promotion of mutual trust and understanding;
promotion of collaboration in economic social, cultural, technical and scientific fields;
strengthening of co-operation with other developing countries and themselves
besides cooperation with regional and international organisations with similar
objectives. This cooperation amongst the members was to be based on respect for
principles of sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, political independence,
noninterference in internal affairs of other states and mutual benefit. It was further
asserted that cooperation among the member states shall not be a substitute for
bilateral and multilateral cooperation but shall complement them and it shall not be
inconsistent with bilateral and multilateral obligations. Further, decisions at all levels
shall be taken on the basis of consensus and that bilateral and contentious issues
shall be excluded from the deliberations.
The declaration stated that the heads of the state or government,- shall meet
annually and a Council of Ministers consisting of foreign ministers of the member
states shall be constituted to formulate policies, to review the progress of
cooperation, to establish additional mechanism and to decide on matters of general
interest. This Council of Ministers shall be assisted by foreign secretaries. The
Declaration also envisaged the setting up of Technical Committee comprising of
representatives of member states for implementing, coordinating and monitoring of
programmes and Action Committee for implementation of projects involving more
than two member states. The Declaration stated that a Secretariat for the association
shall be established at the appropriate time. The expenses of the Organisation shall
be met out of voluntary contributions of members.
The formation of SAARC was welcomed and a hope was expressed that it would
contribute to the economic development of the region as a whole regardless of the
size and geographical location of individual countries. Though SAARC is the youngest
of the regional groupings, it is biggest in
614
terms of number of people it represents (it represents over one billion people).
The formation of SAARC evoked mixed reaction. King of Bhutan described it as a
'manifestation of our collective wisdom and political will to bring about meaningful
regional co-operation in spite of the differences on foreign policy and security
perspectives.' On the other hand President Zia of Pakistan expressed apprehensions
about the dominant position of India which could deter the fulfilment of the
objectives and ideals of SAARC. Similar misgivings were entertained by other smaller
countries. These misgivings arose due to the size and population of India. Therefore it
is desirable that India should try to allay these feelings by demonstrating both by
words and deeds that she will always be ready to enter into constructive and
mutually beneficial co-operation with such countries as may seek it.
Despite these misgivings it cannot be denied that the formation of SAARC was a
significant step forward because it could stimulate regional cooperation through
collective approach and action. No doubt the seven countries had different political
systems, ideologies and links, but they were also beset with identical problems of
growth and development which encouraged them to cooperate with each other and
evolve a common approach for development.
SECOND SAARC SUMMIT (1986)

The second Summit of SAARC was held at Bangalore in November 1986. The heads of
states and governments of Seven South Asian countries who attended this summit,
committed themselves to devise common policies and approaches for finding
common solutions to the shared problems. At this summit they institutionalised
SAARC by establishing a permanent secretariat to co-ordinate the implementation of
the SAARC programme. It also decided to set up technical committees on women's
participation in the development activities and in the implementation of the
measures to end drug abuses and drug trafficking. The Summit agreed in principle to
extend cooperation among members in five additional fields, viz., launching of South
Asian broadcasting
programme covering both radio and television; promotion of tourism; provisions of
facilities to students and academicians; and harnessing of idealism of youth. Above
all the Summit called upon the member states not to allow their territories to be used
for terrorist activities against another state. The leaders agreed to co-operate
combating and eliminating terrorism from the region.
SAARC FOREIGN MINISTERS MEET (1987)

Foreign ministers of seven SAARC countries met in New Delhi in 1987 and approved
proposals for a common strategy to curb drug trafficking. They approved five new
action programmes including exchange of radio and TV Programmes; common
programme on organised tourism within the region with facilities for limited
convertibility of national currencies for this purpose to be launched in July 1988;
fellowships and scholarships to be instituted in universities. They also approved
schemes for a documentation centre and youth volunteers programme for the region.
Above all they also approved proposal for a regional food security system, with a
reserve of 200,000 tonnes.
THIRD SAARC SUMMIT (1987)

The third SAARC Summit was held at Kathmandu in November 1987 and greatly
contributed to the creation of an atmosphere conducive to the strengthening of the
process of consolidation of the gains of SAARC. It also provided a renewed thrust and
direction to the future course of cooperation in South Asia. The leaders called for
increasingly orienting SAARC to the people's needs and aspirations so that the
people of the region are drawn into the mainstream of its activities and contribute to
peace, friendship and co-operation in the area. The leaders of SAARC expressed
concern over structural disequilibrium in the world economy and emphasised the
urgent need for resumption of North-South dialogue. They called for equitable
participation of the developing countries in the international trading and economic
system. They urged the developed countries to liberalise multilateral trading and to
lower protectionist barriers. They reached an
India and Saarc

615
agreement on terrorism which was a significant step in the direction of prevention

and elimination of terrorism from the region. Besides tackling political issues such as
terrorism and drug trafficking, it has come to exercise a perceptible influence on
bilateral relations. It would not be wrong to say that high level Indo-Pak dialogue at
various levels and several rounds of talks between Rajiv Gandhi and President
Jayawardane of Sri Lanka could be possible only on account of SAARC meetings.
FOURTH SAARC SUMMIT (1988)

The Fourth SAARC Summit was held at Islamabad from 29-31 December 1988. The
leaders arrived at several positive decisions including elimination of menace of drugs
and terrorism. They expressed concern at the high incidence of drug production,
trafficking and abuse, and decided to declare 1989 as the SAARC Year Against Drug
Abuses in order to focus attention on drug related problems facing the region. They
stressed the need of measures at national level to fully implement the regional
convention on suppression of terrorism. They called for a perspective regional plan
with specific targets of meeting basic needs to be met by the end of the century in
core sectors such as food, clothing, shelter, education, primary health care,
population, planning, and environmental protection. The Summit welcomed the
establishment of South Asian Food Security Reserve in August 1988 and described it
as a major break-through in the common endeavour of the governments of member
countries to assist each other in food emergency situation. They reiterated their
determination to accord priority to the needs of children in national development
plans and decided to declare 1990 as SAARC Year of Girl Child. Finally the leaders
agreed to have a SAARC passport (initially available only to MPs and Supreme Court
Judges of the member countries) to facilitate travel among the seven countries.
Gradually the journalists and other categories of persons would also be eligible to
receiv* this passport.
The Islamabad Summit was a great landmark in number of ways. In the first
instance it provided a new impetus to SAARC by initiating a number of actionoriented
plans
with
far
reaching
consequences for the quality of the people of South Asia. Secoi. Jly, it encouraged the
member states to reorient their foreign policies in order to inject positive bilateralism.
The signing of three important agreements between India and Pakistan during the
Islamabad meeting is a clear proof of
it.
FIFTH SAARC SUMMIT (1990)

The Fifth SAARC Summit was held at Male, the capital of Maldives, in November
1990. Though the summit did not mark any material progress towards regional
cooperation, it signed a Convention on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
to deal effectively with the menace of drug abuse and suppression of illicit traffic in
the region. It decided to enlarge visa-free travel beyond the present categories of
Members of Parliament and Supreme Court Judges. It was agreed that heads of
national academic institutions, their spouses and dependent children should also be
entitled to the special SAARC travel document. It was decided to observe 1991 as
SAARC Year of Shelter, 1992 as SAARC Year of Environment and 1993 as SAARC Year
of Disabled Persons. In addition they decided to observe the Decade of 1990's as
SAARC Decade of Girl Child, to end the discriminatory treatment meted out to the
female children in the region.
The leaders of SAARC countries agreed to initiate steps for launching Joint
Ventures in cottage industries and handicrafts to set the stage for promoting
collective self-reliance in the region. It directed the ministers to prepare a strategy for
mobilising regional resources which would strengthen individual and collective selfreliance in the region.
In its declaration the SMRC leaders called for the withdrawal of Iraqi forces from
Kuwait and restoration of latter's legitimate government. It noted that the Gulf crisis
had badly hit the economy of the SAARC countries and called for massive
international assistance to overcome the difficulties.
The Summit noted inherent relationship between disarmament and development
and stressed the need for early conclusion of a comprehensive test ban treaty. They
agreed that second ministerial meeting on International issues should be held in
1991 to review the outcome of
616
the Uruguay Round and to coordinate their approach at international conferences,

including the UN Conference on Environment and Development, 1992.
SIXTH SAARC SUMMIT (1991)

The Sixth SAARC summit was scheduled to take place in Colombo on 7 November,
1991. However, the summit had to be postponed because the heads of state of the
seven member countries failed to reach a unanimous decision on the question
whether the conference could be held in the absence of King of Bhutan, who had
expressed his inability to attend the summit on account of sensitive security situation
in his country. While India, Nepal and Bhutan favoured postponement of the Summit,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka insisted on holding the summit. Ultimately the
summit was cancelled. It is noteworthy that it was for the first time that SAARC
summit was cancelled after pre-summit deliberations had taken place. Despite the
cancellation of the summit the Prime Ministers of Pakistan and Bangladesh reached
Colombo and had mini-summit with the Presidents of Sri Lanka and Maldives. After
about month and a half later, the seven leaders of SAARC met at Colombo on 21
December, 1991 for one day. At this meet they agreed to liberalise trade in the region
and gave a call for greater cooperation and interaction among member states to
combat terrorism in the region.
SEVENTH SAARC SUMMIT (1993)
The Seventh SAARC Summit was held at Dhaka in April 1993, after being postponed
twice in December 1992 and January 1993, on account of disturbed conditions in
Bangladesh in the wake of demolition of Babri Masjid at Ayodhya. The Summit
adopted a Declaration which sought to pull down trade barriers in the region. It also
endorsed the South Asian Preferential Trade Agreement (SAPTA) for the liberalisation
of trade among the seven member-nations of the Association. The summit leaders
agreed that the time was now opportune to provide a dynamic impetus to activities in
the core of economic, social and cultural cooperation in the SAARC regions. The
Summit endorsed an Integrated Programme
of Action (IPA) on eradication of poverty in South Asia, trade, manufacture and
services, the environment, population, shelter, children, youth, disabled persons,
women's development, science and technology, terrorism, drug trafficking, security
of small states, people to people contact, etc. The other notable decisions taken by
the Summit included formation of an Association of SAARC Speakers and
Parliamentarians and establishment of South Asian Development Fund (SADF).
EIGHTH SAARC SUMMIT (1995)

The Eighth SAARC Summit was held in New Delhi in May 1995. It accepted the
recommendation of the sub-continent foreign ministers meeting of April 1995 which
had proposed the launching of the South Asian Preferential Trading Arrangement
(SAPTA), which would take SAARC closer to an economic role. The members agreed
to operationise SAPTA by 8 December, 1995. The Summit also decided to establish a
South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) to promote intraregional trade. The other
important decisions taken by the leaders of SAARC countries included designation of
1995 as the SAARC Year of Poverty Eradication. The Delhi declaration unequivocally
condemned all acts, methods and practices of terrorism as criminal and stressed that
the highest priority be accorded to enactment of legislation at the national level to
implement the SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism. The
Declaration also urged the member states to implement the 1993 SAARC Convention
on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic substances. The member states committed
themselves to the global objective of shelter for all by 2000 A.D. The Summit
stressed the importance of international co-operation for building up national
capabilities, transfer of technology and promotion of multilateral project and research
efforts in minimising natural disasters. Protection of the environment through
concerted action was also emphasised. The Summit reiterated and reaffirmed its
resolve to strengthen the UN as the central instrument of peace, security,
disarmament, development and cooperation in the world. With regard to nuclear
disarmament, the Summit urged the conference on
India and Saarc

617
disarmament to negotiate an international convention barring the use of

threat of use of nuclear weapons under any circumstances. The declaration
also welcomed the World Trade Organisation and hoped that it would expand
international trade.
NINTH SAARC SUMMIT, 1997

The ninth SAARC summit was held in Male from 12-14 May, 1997, and was
attended by the leaders of all the seven member countries. At this Summit
the members unanimously adopted a declaration asserting that the region
should be transformed into a free-trade area by 2001 (instead of 2005, as
earlier agreed) by removing all the trade barriers and structural impediments.
The Declaration asserted that the sub-regional co-operation, instead of being
abandoned, should be further extended. The members agreed to hold
informal political consultations to reduce tension in the region. They also
vowed to combat terrorism and drug trafficking in the region and to launch a
war against poverty.
TENTH SAARC SUMMIT, 1998

The tenth summit of the heads of the governments of SAARC countries
was held in Colombo (Sri Lanka), in July 1998. The leaders of SAARC countries
reiterated their commitment to the promotion of mutual trust and
understanding as a means for solving bilateral and multilateral problems. The
summit criticised major nuclear powers for maintaining huge arsenals of
nuclear weapons and urged the Geneva based Conference on Disarmament
to start negotiations for prohibiting the use of nuclear weapons and
elimination of such weapons in the existing arsenals. In the economic field
the SAARC leaders agreed to accelerate the process for the conclusion of the
South Asian Preference Trading Agreement (SAPTA). The other economic
measures recommended by the summit included extension of tariff
concessions to products actively traded; removal of discriminatory practices
and non-tariff barriers on the items covered by the tariff concessions; drafting
of a treaty to create a free trade area; coordination of SAARC position before
the WTO; and encouragement of sub-regional cooperation.
SAARC FOREIGN MINISTERS CONFERENCE
The 21st Meeting of the SAARC Foreign Ministers was held at Nuwara
Eliya, a hill station of Sri Lanka in the third week of March 1999. The
Conference discussed wide range of common issues like the steps leading to
SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Agreement) and vital development and social
issues concerning the region. The Conference also lauded the efforts made by
India and Pakistan to sort out outstanding bilateral problems in the spirit of
mutual understanding as evident from the Lahore Declaration. The
Conference also discussed and finalised the agenda for the next SAARC
Summit to be held in Kathmandu.
ELEVENTH SAARC SUMMIT (KATHMANDU, JANUARY

2002)
Eleventh SAARC Summit, which was initially scheduled to be held in
November 1999, was postponed indefinitely after military takeover in
Pakistan in October, 1999. The Summit was ultimately held in January 2002. It
ended on 7 January 2002 with the II-page SAARC Declaration. The Summit
was attended by the Heads of State and government of the seven member
countries. These included A.B. Vajpayee, Prime Minister of India; President
Musharaf of Pakistan; President Ms. Chandrika Kumaratunga of Sri lanka; Sher
Bahadur Deuba, the Prime Minister of Nepal; Prime Minister Khaledia Zia of
Bangladesh; President MA. Gayoom of Maldives; and Prime Minister Lyonpo

Wangchuk of Bhutan.
The Summit reiterated its support to the UN Security Council Resolution
1373 (adopted in the wake of September 11, 2001 attacks in United States).
The member emphasised that international cooperation to combat terrorism
should be conducted in confirmity with UN Charter, international law and
relevant international conventions. The members agreed to take speedy
measures to 'suppress the financing of terrorists, eliminate the supply of
weapon to terrorists, halt cynical abuse of refugee and asylum status, and
enact domestic legislation to deal with extensive international terrorist
networks'. The SAARC
618
members reaffirmed their commitment to SMRC Regional Convention on Suppression

of Terrorism which recognised the seriousness of the problem of terrorism as it effects
the security, stability and development of the region.
The Declaration emphasised the need of regional cooperation in economic field to
move quickly towards a South Asian Free Trade Area. The Council of Ministers was
directed to finalise the text of the Draft Treaty Framework by the end of 2002. The
other principles and issues emphasised by the Declaration related to proverty
alleviation, cooperation in social and cultural sectors, women and children,
education, international political and economic environment. While emphasising this
the leaders acknowledged that as an organisation SAARC has failed the 1.3 billion
people living in the world's poorest region.
SLOW PROGRESS OF REGIONAL CO-OPERATION

It is evident from the above discussion that over the years the countries of South Asia
have realised the need of co-operation. But the progress in this regard has been quite
slow. This slow progress has been attributed to the difference in the approaches,
attitudes and perceptions of the countries of the region. It is argued that this was
quite natural in view of the different socio-economic character and varying
geopolitical and strategic objectives of the countries of the region. For example,
Bangladesh favoured co-operation in the economic sphere to start with, which could
be subsequently extended to the social and cultural spheres. Sri Lanka on the other
hand pleaded for more comprehensive cooperation and favoured extension of
cooperation to the political fields as well. Initially Pakistan's attitude was more
restrained and it wanted regional co-operation to be limited only to four out of the
eleven areas identified in the Bangladesh Working Paper. Pakistan's Foreign Secretary
said at first meeting: 'We have to move forward in a, measured manner; one step
at a time without forcing the pace of progress.' However, Pakistan's attitude

towards the scope of regional cooperation became more flexible in the subsequent
meetings. India's approach was somewhat identical to that of Bangladesh. It laid
emphasis on expanding co-operation in the cultural,
infrastructural, scientific and technological fields and refrained from making any
reference to political or security objectives.
On the question of the institutional framework for the South Asian Regional Cooperation also the members adopted different attitudes. Bangladesh consistently
emphasised the need of evolving some institutional framework. Sri lanka emphasised
the need of establishing an association for the purpose of promoting and
safeguarding the interests of the participating member states. Nepal too favoured an
additional institutional framework, for regional co-operation. On the other hand both
India and Pakistan favoured institutional framework, which must evoke enthusiastic
response for an informal forum for consultation.
PROSPECTS
The South Asian regional co-operation has been a lively issue for the past few years,
even though the progress in this direction has been quite slow. This has largely been
due to lack of stability and continuity of the existing political systems in the region.
On the other hand the various international forums like the UNCTAD, Non-aligned
Movement, the Group of 77, etc. have been extending every possible encouragement
to the countries of the region to enhance their cooperation. Even powers like U.S.A.
and China encouraged regional co-operation amongst the countries of the region
because they saw in it a possible check to the growing influence of Soviet Union in
this region. On the other hand, Soviet Union was not favourably inclined to the idea
of greater regional co-operation and tried to project that U.S.A. and China were using
this as a cloak to increase their hold over the region.
But the most positive factor in favour of regional co-operation in South has been
growing realisation among the countries of the region that the co-operation should
not be imposed from above, rather it should grow from within. Highlighting his point
P.N. Haksar says, 'We must certainly explore and promote the concept of South Asian
Regional Co-operation. Such a cooperation must not be 'sponsored' co-operation. It
must not be under the influence of some undisclosed principles. It must arise out of
and
Chapter
77
India and
ASEAN
India's relation with countries of South-East Asia viz., Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia (Kampuchea) are
to be viewed in the context of her overall foreign policy and her relations with the big
powers. The importance of India's relations with the countries of South East Asia lies
in the fact that her role in the South-East Asia largely influenced policies of the major
powers towards her. Except for North-Vietnam, which allied itself with Soviet block
and Thailand, Philippines and South Vietnam which joined the Anglo-American bloc,
most of the other countries of the region preferred to remain neutral. Another notable
feature about the countries of South-East Asia was that most of them adopted antiimperialist postures because they were always scared that the imperialist powers
may not stage a comeback. The existence of close cultural bond between India and
countries of South-East Asia also contributed to closer relations between India and
countries of the region.
India from the very beginning felt the need of developing intimate relations with
the countries of South-East Asia and to prevent the domination of the region by the
communist or Western powers. India particularly looked at the armed struggles in the
region as a positive threat to her stability and emphasised the need of keeping the
countries of South-East Asia free from the influence of the Super Powers. Nehru
particularly wanted India to play a prominent role in the region and said in the course
of his inaugural address to the Asian Relations Conference in March 1947:
"It is fitting that India should play her part in this new pliase of Asian
development. Apart from the fact that India herself is emerging into freedom and
independence, she is the natural centre and focal point
of the many forces in Asia. Geography is a compelling factor and geographically she
is not situated as to be the meeting point of Western and Northern and East and
South-East Asia."
In 1949 India took a lead in convening a Conference on Indonesia and projected itself
as the leader of the anti-colonial struggle in Asia. However, India wanted to see the
area free from Communist domination and, therefore, expressed reservations about
the Liberation Movement in Indo-China under Ho Chi Mirth. She on the other hand
rendered indirect help to France and Britain to maintain their dominance over IndoChina and Malaya. India also helped the Burmese Government in crushing the armed
struggles of the Communists and Koreans and sided with the Anglo-American bloc
during the early phase of Korean war. All these actions of India were clearly
dominated by the consideration that she wanted to see South-East Asian region free
of Communist domination. Despite her keen interest in the region, India's relations
with the countries of South-East remained somewhat formal during the initial years.
However, gradually, India assumed
a leading role in Asia.

During the period from Bandung Conference (1955) and Belgrade Conference
(1961) differences cropped up between India and Indonesia. While India held that
colonialism was dead and the main task of the non-aligned countries was to bring
about a rapprochement between the U.S.S.R. and U.S.A., the Indonesian leaders
stood for bringing about unity among the newly independent countries against the
old established forces, and wanted to wipe out the last vestige of colonialism.
Further, Indonesia showed a clear tilt towards China. As a result in 1962 when China
attacked India, Indonesia did not show expected
understanding of the Indian position and preferred to remain neutral. It preferred not
to go into the merits of. the case and merely concentrated on efforts to restore
peaceful relations between India and China. The Indonesian posture of neutrality
greatly disappointed India, which had earlier extended whole-hearted support to
Indonesia against the Dutch. On the other hand, the Indonesian leadership also
viewed India's pro-Malaysian attitude as an unfriendly act.
India's defeat at the hands of China in 1962 exposed her economic and military
weakness, which greatly undermined her prestige. With the exception of the
countries of region who were camp-followers of the Western countries, most of the
other countries preferred to remain neutral. These countries did take initiative to
arrange direct negotiations between India and China, but could not succeed. Thus
India's strained relations with Indonesia and China prevented her playing a significant
role in the South-East Asia.
The setback received by India during the Sino-Indian war and her tilt towards the
western countries created a feeling among countries of South-East Asia that this may
lead to greater interference by the western countries in the Asian affairs. The prowest countries of South-East Asia tried to utilise this opportunity to build a broad
alliance against China with Indian collaboration. The non-aligned countries were
reluctant to develop close relations with India at the cost of straining their relations
with China, which emerged as a mighty Asian Power. Soviet Union, however, showed
greater understanding of the Indian problem.' In short as a result of these
developments^ sort of stalemate was created in India's relations with countries of
South-East Asia.
India's relations with countries of South-East Asia entered a new phase after the
Indo-Pakistan War of 1965. During the war Indonesia tended whole-hearted support
to Pakistan and described India as an aggressor. North Vietnam and Combodia also
criticised India, largely because of her failure to take a firm stand against the U.S.
aggression. Malaysia, however, maintained neutrality. However, the victory scored by
India over Pakistan restored her lost prestige in South-East Asia. The Indonesian
policy towards India underwent a change following coup of 1965. The
new leadership abandoned pro-peking and pro-Pakistan posture and showed
eagerness to normalise relations with India. This was naturally viewed with great
relief by India which tried to cultivate more intimate political, economic and
commercial relations with Indonesia.
In the wake of the Cultural Revolution in China, there was an increase in the
activities of the Communists in the countries of South-East Asia. This encouraged the
non-Communist countries to come closer. The ouster of Sukarno in Indonesia and end
of confrontation between Indonesia and Malaysia paved the way for greater cooperation among he countries of the region. This also paved the way for
improvement of India's relations with these countries. However, her relations with
North Vietnam, Cambodia and Burma continued to be formal.
The conflict between the U.S.S.R. and China: the partial withdrawal of the
Americans from Vietnam and normalisation of relations between China and U.S.A.,
also had its impact on the policy of the countries of South-East Asia. The countries of
South-East Asia tried to gain the best advantage out of the world situation by keeping
their bargains with all the big powers alive. This provided a good opportunity to India
to cultivate better relations with countries of South-East Asia. No doubt the countries
of South-East Asia attached more importance to their relations with China and Japan,
but they could not completely ignore India on account of her close relations with
theU.S.S.R.
The conclusion of Indo-Soviet Treaty in 1971 created further apprehensions in the
minds of South-East Asian countries that this would lead to increase in the Soviet
sphere of influence. Therefore, the countries of the region preferred to follow a policy
of waiting and watching.
The politics of Indian Ocean also influenced India's relations with the countries of
South-East Asia. As most of the countries of South-East Asia were in the Indian Ocean
littoral, they felt the need of improving relations with India and demanded creation of
a zone of peace in the Indian Ocean region. However, India could not fully subscribe
to the views of the South-East Asian countries specially Malaysia, Indonesia and
Philippines, which opposed deployment of both the super
India and Asean
625
powers. Their stand, however, underwent a change as a result of the Soviet role in
Afghanistan and Kampuchea and they moved in favour of a power balance rather
than a withdrawal of the foreign powers from the region.
It cannot be denied that India's pro-Soviet tilt in the foreign policy greatly
hampered the development of friendly and cooperative relations with the countries of
South-East Asia. However, with the disintegration of the Soviet Union towards the end
of 1991, the pro-Soviet tilt of India automatically disappeared. This removed one of
the chief hurdles for India to improve relations with the countries of South-East Asia.
In January 1992 the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) at its
summit held in Singapore accepted India as Sectorial Partner in specific areas like
trade, investment, science and technology and training, in the hope that it would
help the process of global economic introgration.
In the economic field India has not been able to develop close ties with the countries
of South-East Asia. This was largely due to failure of the Indian diplomacy to create
an image that India was an industrialised country. It was also partly due to the
reasons that India could develop only formal relations with these countries till early
sixties. After the Sino-Indian War the Indian leadership paid more attention to the
strengthening of the economic ties with South-East Asian countries and the volume of
trade between India and South-East Asian countries increased.
However, on account of the aggressive, trade policies of Japan in the region, this
increase could not be consistently maintained. Though in terms of value India's trade
with South-East Asian countries considerably increased but in terms of the
percentage of the total trade of the region it was quite insignificant. In the economic
field also the changed international scenario demands that India should try to
develop closer economic relations with countries of South-East Asia. It is true that the
high cost economy of India will pose serious problems for effective; collaboration with
countries of South-East Asia but the size of Indian economy, the heavy industrial
base, diversified defence production, the range of services which India can offer, and
the better educational facilities available in the country provide considerable
complementarity.
RELATIONS WITH ASEAN
The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) consisting of I Indonesia,

Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, came into being in 1967. This
association was formed with a view (a) to accelerate the economic growth, social
progress and cultural development in the region; (b) to promote regional peace and
stability; (c) to promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in matters of
common interest in the economic, social, cultural, scientific and administrative field;
(d) to provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities
in the educational, professional, technical and administrative spheres; (e) to promote
South-East Asian Studies; and (f) to collaborate for the greater utilisation of their
agriculture and industries, the expansion of their trade, etc. Though the Association is
apparently meant for economic co-operation it is basically a security-oriented
organisation. Its main concern is to fight Communism through joint action and to
keep the countries going by introducing economic reforms within the existing
structural set-up.
Initially, India showed keenness to join the ASEAN , but countries like Indonesia,
Thailand and Philippines were not in favour of India joining the same because of the
possible risk of India dominating the association on account of her vast size and
resources. India's close ties with the U.S.S.R. also stood in the way. However, India
tried to cultivate intimate economic relations with the various countries of the ASEAN
on bilateral basis. India cooperated with Malaysia and Singapore and undertook joint
ventures in these countries. The self-seeking economic policies pursued by U.S.A. and
Japan also contributed to more favourable attitude of the ASEAN countries towards
India. The leadership of ASEAN also favoured more closer economic links with India,
specially in the field of technology and training.
The Indian stand on Soviet presence in Afghanistan and recognition of the
Vietnam backed Heng Samarin regime in Kampuchea created some bickerings in
relations with the ASEAN countries and they stated drawing closer to China.
However, gradually India made a bid to cultivate closer relations with ASEAN
and
626
ultimately succeeded in joining the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) on 23 July 1996 as
full dialogue partner. This would enable India to take a closer look at the many issues
which are in dispute among the countries of the region. India's entry as a fulldialogue partner into the ASEAN reflects India's growing interest in this part of the
world which has gained considerable economic prominence.
Following acquisition of status of 'dialogue partner' by India, New Delhi stepped
up efforts to promote a 'strategic partnership' with ASEAN and started a political
dialogue with the group. In February 1998 a meeting was held between Indian
Foreign Secretary and the ASEAN delegation headed by the Foreign Secretary of
Singapore and the two decided to intensify their security dialogue to facilitate the
establishment of a 'pluralistic security order' in the region. On this occasion India also
discussed issues like denial of membership of influential Asia Pacific Economic
Community (APEC) and Asia European Forum (ASEM). In the wake of the financial
crisis of 1997 in the region, India expressed full confidence in the economies of
ASEAN countries staging a recovery, and reiterated its desire to develop closer
relations with ASEAN. It may be observed that with Myanmar becoming a member of
ASEAN, for the first time India and South-East Asia, have been connected by land
corridor, which has reduced physical distance between the two and offered fresh
opportunities for people to people contact.
India and ASEAN are co-operating in the field of science and technology. Under
the India-(ASEAN Cooperation Programme called AIDA-ASEAN India Digital Archive)
they have developed a multi-lingual and multi-cultural digital archive. The archive
contains text, voices, pictures and video clippings of common words, phrases and
events in the local languages of Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia Philippines,
Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos, Brunei and Hindi. The command interface would, however,
be English. This archive has been developed through joint efforts of research
institutions and universities in ASEAN-India region. The archive is expected to be of
immense help to people in India-ASEAN region, specially entrepreneurs interested in
opening up new business avenues and teachers
who wish to expose their students to the economic, social and cultural variety of the
region.
In July 2001 the foreign ministers of ten member countries of ASEAN met at
Hanoi. At the end of this meet they issued Hanoi Declaration which pledged to bring
the impoverished members closer to the first world standard of living. They asserted
that the ASEAN countries would strengthen transport linkages through developing
and implementing more extensive land, sea and air infrastructural projects to
facilitate the flow of goods and people and to generate higher income for the people
of the region. It was decided to develop a Competitive Air Services Policy; which may
ultimately lead to open Sky Policy in ASEAN. The Foreign Ministers made an appeal to
US and China to continue to make their contribution to strengthening peace, security,
cooperation and development in the region and throughout the world. With regard to
National Missile Defence (NMD) ASEAN is in favour of initiating a process of dialogue
to ensure that world security and stability are not adversely affected.
India's External Affair Minister (Jaswant Singh) during his visit to Singapore in
2000 showed keenness to get India included in ASEAN 3 (China, Japan and South
Korea), but the request was turned down on the plea that India did not fall under the
'geographical scope of East Asia'. Thus the ASEAN leaders have favoured deeper
cooperation among its own members rather than expand the group.
MEKONG-GANGA COOPERATION
On 10 November 2000 Ministers from India, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam

and Laos launched a new grouping by issuing 'Vientiane Declaration', to develop
closer relations and better
understanding among the six countries. They agreed to enhance friendship,

solidarity and cooperation in the tourism sector. They decided to launch the MekongGanga Tourism Investment Guide (MGC) which will facilitate the travel of people in
the region, expand multi-modal communications and transportation links and
promote cultural-religious package tours. The Declaration committed the member
countries to
India and Asean
627
develop transport network. The grouping also agreed to promote research in the
fields of dance, music and theatrical forms and organise round tables for journalists,
writers. Other area of cooperation include conservation of heritage sites,
networking among universities in the region, translation of the classics and
organisation of book fairs. The formation of MGC marks a new beginning in India's
cooperation with Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.
EEQX
ZS/QH
India
n
Ocean
!
!
This Indian Ocean, which was once considered as

a 'neglected ocean' has of late become the hub of
political and military activities and become an
;,~
arena of acute tension due to the presence of
j
conventional and nuclear naval vessels of the
j
major powers in the area. This posess a serious
, threat to the world peace and naturally the powers
of the world in general and India in particular
have expressed concern over these, developments,
and demanded the making of Indian Ocean as a
Zone of Peace.
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
I
The Indian Ocean which has an area of 28,35,000

sq. miles is the smallest of the three major oceans of
the world (the other two being Pacific and

Atlantic). It is surrounded by the continents of
Africa, Asia and Australia. The Persian Gulf and
the Red Sea are the gulfs of the Indian Ocean. On
the eastern side the Indian Ocean is separated by
the Australian continent. In the north, the Indian
Ocean is surrounded by the Asian landmass, the
Indian sub-continent. Its northernmost portion is
divided between what is known as the Arabian
Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Although the Indian
(
Ocean stretches for more than 20,000 kilometres
between southern tips of Africa and Australia, it
comprises only about 20 per cent of the total ocean
area. i
The Ocean is bound by India, Pakistan and
Iran to north; the Arabian Peninsula and Africa to
the west, Australia, the Sundra Island of Indonesia
and Malaya Peninsula to the east and Antarctica to
the-south. In fact the problem of defining the
|
oceanic limits of the Indian Ocean is riddled with
complications and still remains unsettled. Its
clearest border lies with the Atlantic Oceanrunnling from Cape Aguehas at the southern tip of Africa, to the south along the 2000
meridian upto the shores of Antarctica. It borders with Pacific Ocean to the East and
South East. In the South-East its border runs from South East Cape in the Island of
Tasmania up to Antarctica.
The Indian Ocean has 36 states around its littoral belt with a population of over
ten billion. In addition there are eleven hinterland countries (e.g. Nepal, Afghanistan
etc.) which though landlocked are keenly interested in the Indian Ocean, specially in
the coastal states through which they have access to the Ocean. As these states are
vitally interested in the development in the Indian Ocean, these may also be
regarded as states of the Indian Ocean. Majority of these states gained their
independence after World War II and are non-aligned. Thus, the Indian Ocean can
very well be described as the Ocean of the non-aligned and developing countries. As
the countries surrounding the Indian Ocean have great diversity of race, politics,
strength and opportunities, it has not been accepted as a 'unit'.
|
j
!
|
K
j.
'
[
Importance of Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean has great economic, political and strategic importance. It
contains several important minerals, raw materials and natural resources. It contains
80.7 per cent of world extraction of gold; 56.6 per cent of tin; 28.5 per cent
manganese; 25.2 per cent nickel; 18.5 percent bauxite; 12.5 per cent zinc and 77.3
percent of natural rubber. It also contains large oil bearing regions and plenty of
marine food. The industrial nations of the world, including the big powers, are
interested in exploiting raw materials and oil of this region. They also find it profitable
to fish in the Indian Ocean. The region also contains sea lanes
Indian Ocean
629
which connect the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean and constitutes the only marine
link between Far Eastern regions of Soviet Union and its European part throughout
the year.
The Indian Ocean is also an important area of navigation and marine trade.
Almost one-fourth of the entire cargo in the world marine trade and two-thirds of the
oil are loaded and unloaded in the parts of Indian Ocean. As such any power which
controls the Indian Ocean would have great say in the regulation of the trade.
Strategically also the Indian Ocean occupies an important position in the global
nuclear warfare. The superpowers a. ? therefore, placing great reliance on fleet
missile submarines (FBMSs) carrying submarines launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs)
for their second strike capability. The United States has special interest in this area
because it is located to the South of Soviet Union's soft belly and can be used for
deployment of submarines by USA.
Sardar K.M. Pitikkar highlighted the importance of Indian ocean for the industrial
development and security of India in 1945 thus:
"While to other countries, the Indian ocean is only one of the important oceanic
areas, to India it is the vital sea. Her life lines are concentrated in that area. Her
future is dependent on the freedom of that vast water surfare. No industrial
development, no commercial growth, no stable political structure is possible for her
unless the Indian Ocean is free and her own shores (are) fully protected. The Indian
Ocean must, therefore, remain truly Indian"
Control over Indian Ocean

The Indian Ocean was a some of commercial and cultural communication since the
earliest times. From about fourth century B.C. to 5th century A.D. the Indian shipping
predominated this region. For the next six or seven centuries. A Sumartan (Indonesia)
based empire dominated the Eastern waters. With the emergence of Islam the Arabs
and the Persians appeared on the scene and dominat d the Ocean. With the decline
of Abbasid Caliphaie the Chinese increased their influence from Somalia to Arabian
Peninsula and from about 1200 to 1433
A.D. the Ocean virtually became a Chinese lake. The Chinese lost control over the
region on account of internal conflicts.
Towards the close of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century the
control over the Indian Ocean passed into the hands of Europeans. The lead in this
regard was taken by the Portuguese who established their control at various points of
entry viz. Alfonso d' Alburqurque captured Malacca., Socotra, Onnuz and Goa.
Subsequently the Portuguese conquered Ceylon, Mombasa and Timor. This assured
them hegemony in the region throughout the sixteenth century. After the emergence
of Britain as a leading naval power in the early eighteenth century she acquired a
number of bases and established her control over several Strategic islands on the
littoral. Earlier in 1622 the British had already established their supremacy in the
Persian Gulf by defeating the Portuguese. Gradually the British began to expand their
control and by the end of nineteenth century they brought the whole of the region
under their control. Britain continued to enjoy this predominant position till the
Second World War, when her economy was greatly crippled and her national strength
greatly sapped. Britain was obliged to wage withdrawal from the Indian subcontinent,
South East Asia, continued till early 1970's. As a result of this withdrawal by Britain a
sort of power vacuum was created In the Indian Ocean region and a number of
powers like China, Japan, Russia, USA showed keen interest in this region.
U.S. Interests
USA developed interest in this region following the handing over of the security of
Iran to it by Britain in 1947. USA sought to check the influence of communism in this
region and started looking for bases and facilities in this region. In 1963 USA signed
an agreement with Australia and secured from Australia a station in North West Cape
to direct submerged submarines in the Indian Ocean. This station was commissioned
in 1967 and was linked with the US installation in the Indian and Pacific Ocean. In the
meanwhile in November
1. K.M. Panikkar, India and the Indian Ocean, p.84.
630
1963 USA formed a separate Indian Ocean Command and sent its fleet in the Indian
Ocean on 5 April 1964 to check China and secure the area for (he use of its Polaris A3 submarines. In December-1966 USA obtained from Britain BIOT for 50 years. It also
secured a share in military and naval base facilities in numerous other islands like
Gan Island (the Maldives), Masirah Island (Oman), Maha (Seychelles). USA also set up
a number of communication centres in other areas. The American interest in the
Indian Ocean grew after the British announced their policy to withdraw from the East
of Suez and they tried to strengthen their hold over this region to still Russian
domination. For this purpose they not only established by there but also assisted
local powers like Iran and Saudi Arabia with arms and supplies. The Indian Ocean
policy of USA was in the main dictated by economic and Strategic considerations. In
fact, the United States has for all practical purposes taken over the responsibility of
protecting the strategic interests of America, Britain and Japan in the Indian Ocean.
According to Admiral E. Zumwalt, a former Chief of US Naval Staff, the American
interests in the region were directly connected with the interests of the USA in Europe
and Asia. The American strategists consider the Indian Ocean as "the area with
potential to produce major shifts in the global power balance
over the next decade (during the 1970's). They assert that America must have
the ability to influence events in that area to deploy their military power as an
essential element of such influence." In nutshell the policy of USA in the Indian
Ocean seems to be to expand and reconstruct the existing bases and create new
bases over the whole of the Ocean area.
The US influence in the region considerably declined after the upheavals in
Iran in 1978-79, which resulted in the overthrow of Iraniou monarchy. As a result
of successful Soviet coup d'etat against Daud in Afghanistan, the position of USA
was further weakened. It therefore decided to expand the Diego Garcia base,
create a separate fifth fleet and perfect the RDF strategy. This change was
reflected in the Carter Doctrine of January 1980. President Carter not only refused
to hold talks on demilitarisation of Indian Ocean but also decided to upgrade
Diego Garcia as a lift-off
base for emergency intervention in West Asia. The

U.S. intervention in the area grew deeper with
growing hostility of Iran's leaders and it decided to
v
beef up naval and military presence to counter
^SIranian threats in the Persian Gulf. In fact US built j
one
of
the
largest
peace-time
US
combat
forces
>J
the region. The growing military involvement of
US in the region has been viewed by military analysts with great concern and
they have expressed fear that this could lead to serious consequences in the
Persian Gulf.
in
Soviet Interests
The
Soviet
Union
on
the
other
hand
did
not
takeany
interest
in
the
Indian
Ocean
till
1955
when
they for the first time resorted to giving of military
-;
economic
and
technical
aid
to
the
Africa-Asian
countries
to
counter
the
Western
strategy
in
the
Indian
Ocean.
It
came
closer
to
Afghanistan,
Bunna,
India,
Egypt,
Indonesia
and
Syria.
In
1958
it
helped
a
coup
d'etat
in
Iraq.
It
also
established
intimate
relations
with
Syria,
Yemen
and
Somalia.
But
by
and
large
the
naval
strategy
of
Soviet
Union
in
the
Indian
Ocean
was
shorebased.
After
the
development
of
Polaris
A-3
missiles
by
USA
in
the
Indian
Ocean,
the
Soviet
Union
also
decided
to
deploy
its
navy
forward
and
it
decided
to
operate
ocean
fleets
which
could
be
maintained
without
depending
upon
base
facilities
abroad.
In
1968
Admiral Gorchkov, Commander-in-Chief of the _-Soviet Navy declared. "The flag of the Soviet Navy now proudly flies over the
oceans of the world. Sooner or later, the United States will have to
understand that it no longer has the mastery of the seas." Thereafter Soviet
Union started wooing South Yemen and Somalia for shorebased facilities and
succeeded in securing the same by 1972. The United States tried to counter
the Soviet presence by expanding Diego Garcia base and staging a
successful Counter-coup against Soviet Union in Somaliland, which obliged
Soviet Union to move into Ethiopia.
A number of considerations prompted Soviet Union to take keen interest
in the Indian Ocean. In the first instance it sent its fleet to counter the
presence of the Western military which posed a threat to Soviet trade.
Secondly, as the Indian Ocean is the only all-year sea route between the'
western and eastern flanks of Russia, it thought it

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Prefa

SECTION 2: COMPARATIVE POLITICS AND POLITICAL ANALYSIS

15. Organs of Government: Judiciary

34. Political Parties, Pressure Groups, Public Opinion and Media

SECTION 5: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

47. Theories and Approaches to the Study of International

50. Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, Conflict Resolution, Diplomacy,

UNIT III: COMPARATIVE POLITICS AND POLITICAL ANALYSIS

19. Approaches to the study of Comparative Politics

UNIT IV: POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

32. Political Elite

33. Making of the Indian Constitution

39. Local GovernmentRural and Urban

UNIT VII: GROWTH OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A DISCPLINE

UNIT VIII: THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

End of Cold War

UGC COMPULSORY PAPER

Four students W, X, Y, Z appeared in four papers, I, II, III and

Where 'A' Stands for absent

24. Which one of the following is not

artist and the layman

It is time we looked at the latent causes. Where does the

help the bank management in

can generate information pertaining to various parameters under

the lesson plan

38. If MOBILITY is coded as 46293927, then EXAMINATION is coded as

Furry means violent excitement (rage) and ire is anger. Difference

tonnes. Hence, minus 20 tonnes growth.

In the question a related pair of words in capital letter is followed by

D. all of the above

324 318 312 306

A. Meeting the needs of target

happiness, he continues to be self-centred and therefore, does not

over a period of time

B. you've composed but not yet sent

with non-chat users

33. Logic of induction is very close to

the other words in the group

41. How many successful operations

First No = - of 180 =36 5

10. using short cut method

E. carbon paper : bollpoint pen

Even-minded endurance is called TITIKSHA in Sanskrit. I have practised

(B. Facing odds with mental equlibrium

41. If 50 % of contigencies funds are used towards health and

Section 1 POLITICAL THEORY AND THOUGHT

However, in one respect Kautilya failed because, he completely neglected

feature of Kautilya's contribution to political theory was his emphasis on education

Objective Type Questions

5. According to Kautilya there

(c) six elements of State

(b) Kautilya mainly concentrated on the problems of monarchiac states

(b) soldiers of fighting corporations

(d) 1,2 and 4 are correct

(b) the people grew greedy and selfish

(c) nine ministers

according to the capacity of the people

FEATURES OF ANCIENT GREEK POLITICAL THOUGHT

and contribute towards the development of human faculties. 9. The meaning

Aristotle justified the institution of slavery and considered it essential for

Like other contemporaries, Aristotle also attached great importance to the

principle of separation of powers; importance of middle class in preservation of

Objective Type Questions

(b) in the form of lectures delivered at his Academy