WATER

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

odorless, colorless, tasteless liquid
exists in three states solid (ice), liquid (water), gas (steam)
density 1g/cm 3
bad conductor of heat
pure water freezing point (0oC); boiling point (100oC)
water containing dissolved substances has lower freezing point and higher boiling point.
Impurities in water increase the density of water (giving it a higher mass)

Temperature

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Temperature

1.1

Time

Time

Cooling Graph of Water

1.2

Heating Graph of Water

COMPOSITION OF WATER
-

water is chemical compound made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen; thus
giving the chemical formula of water H2O
Oxygen atom
Hydrogen atom

water is formed when hydrogen and oxygen are burnt in the air, forming hydrogen hydroxide
water can be separated into its elements through the process of electrolysis a process in which
electricity is conducted through water in order to break it down into hydrogen and oxygen
-

in this process, oxygen is collected at the anode

(positive electrode) and hydrogen is collected at
the cathode (negative electrode)
the ratio of gases collected at anode and cathode
is 1(oxygen): 2 (hydrogen)
confirmation test for these gases:
1. oxygen: a glowing splinter will burst into
flame
2. hydrogen: will burn with a pop sound
when tested with a lighted splinter

1.3

EVAPORATION OF WATER
a process in which water changes from the liquid stage to the gas stage below its boiling point
evaporation vs boiling:
EVAPORATION
SPEED
TEMPERATURE

PART OF WATER
INVOLVED
FACTORS
AFFECTING THE
RATE OF THE
PROCESS

slow
occurs at all temperature

BOILING
fast
occurs at the boiling point of the
water

occurs only on the surface of the water

occurs throughout the liquid
1. humidity
the amount of water vapor in needs enough heat energy
the air
the higher the humidity, the
lower the evaporation process

2. temperature
the higher the temperature, the
faster evaporation occurs

3. surface area
the larger the surface area of
water, the faster evaporation
takes place

4. moving air
the more the air around the
water moves, the faster the rate
of evaporation

1.4

WATER PURIFICATION METHODS

-

natural sources of water (e.g. rain,

groundwater,
river
water,
lakes,
seawater) contains impurities making
them unsuitable for drinking and daily
use
these impurities include: dissolved gases
and other substances, microorganisms,
wastes, poisonous substances, and dusts
therefore, water from these sources
must undergo purification process before
it can be used

four methods of water purification:

1. Filtration
removes suspended solid particles
carries out by using layers of find sand, coarse sand, small stones, and pebbles.
cheap and fast method
does not remove dissolved substances or microorganism

2. Boiling
bring the water to boil in order to kill microorganisms make it safe for drinking
does not remove dissolved substances or solid particles
suitable to treat small quantity of water

3. Chlorination
add chlorine to the water in order to kill microorganisms
safe for drinking but too much chlorine is hazardous to our health
suitable for treating large quantity of water
4. Distillation
Liebig Condenser

the process of changing water into steam and

condensing the steam to form water again
pure water is produced no microorganisms,
and no dissolved or suspended materials
however, the water is not suitable for drinking
because it lacks minerals needed by our body
used in labs, preparing medicines, and car
batteries
expensive, slow, use up a lot of energy
one form of distillation desalination a
method used in countries where only sea water
available. In this method, salt in seawater is
separated while pure water is distilled

1.5

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Slaked lime
Settling/

4
5

6
7

sand filter

1
mixing

1. storage reservoir
water from natural sources (streams, rivers) are kept for several days so that the sun can kill most
of harmful bacteria and suspended particles like mud and silt will sink to the bottom
2. coagulation tank
water is mixed with air to dissolved oxygen
then, slaked lime and alum is added slaked lime is used to reduce the acidity of water and
alum is used to coagulate fine solid particles making them stick together and form larger solid
lumps
3. mixing tank
here, water and the chemicals added are mixed well
4. settling tank
water flows very slowly into settling/sedimentation tank
heavy sediments settle at the bottom of the tank and are then removed
5. sand filter
remaining suspended substances and impurities are filtered and removed
6. chlorination and fluoridation
chlorine is added to kill harmful bacteria
fluoride salt (e.g. sodium silico fluoride) is added to help fight tooth decay
7. storage tank
finally, water is pumped into large storage tanks ready to be sent to consumers

1.6

PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION OF WATER

Water pollutants and their

effects

Industrial waste
- lead high blood
pressure, stunted
growth
- mercury
destroys nerve
cells, causes
mental retardation,
blindness,
deformed fetuses,
cancer, death,
giddiness and
vomiting
- radioactive
infertility,
deformed fetuses,
- heat reduce the
amount of
dissolved oxygen
in streams, rivers,
and lakes
+ these harmful metals
will be accumulated in
tissues of animals that we
consume

Domestic waste
- organic garbage
attraction for pests and
bacteria can lead to
cholera and dysentery
- sewage attraction
for pests and bacteria
can lead to cholera
and dysentery;
typhoid, hepatitis A;
reduce amount of
oxygen in the water

Siltation
- due to construction
and deforestation
-

suggest ways to control water pollution:

suggest ways to save water:

Agricultural waste
- nitrates and
phosphates can cause
algae bloom
- pesticidescannot
decompose; will enter the
body through food chain
lead to deformities of
fetuses and cancer of
throat, nose, and lungs

Oil spill
- harmful to aquatic animals
and plants

SOLUTION AND SOLUBILITY

1.1

SOLUTE, SOLVENT, SOLUTION

- solute: the substance which dissolves in a liquid
- solvent: liquid which dissolved substances
e.g. water is considered as a universal solvent as many substances (domestics, agriculture, industries,
body chemicals, etc.).
- some substances are not soluble in water but can dissolve in organic solvents
- e.g.
SOLUTE
ORGANIC SOLVENT
Paint
petrol, turpentine, kerosene
Oil
petrol, kerosene, benzene
Tar
petrol, turpentine
Plastic
chloroform
Ink
acetone, alcohol
Chlorophyll
alcohol
lipstick
acetone, amyl acetate, ethyl acetate
nail varnish
Iodine
alcohol
Rubber
benzene
- solution: a mixture that is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
characteristic:
1. homogeneous very part has the same color, density, and other characteristics properties
2. transparent and clear, does not deflect light
3. solute and solvent cant be separated by filtration method
types:
1. dilute contains very little solute and still can dissolve much more solute
2. concentrated contains a lot of solute and can only dissolve a little more of the solute
3. saturated contains the maximum amount of solute and in cannot dissolve anymore solute
solution vs suspension ( a mixture containing insoluble substances)
-

size of particles is larger than those in a solution

a suspension looks opaque and cloudy and it deflects light
solid particles in a solution are either settle to the bottom or float to the
surface (depending on the densities of the particles)
particles in a suspension can be separated from the solvent by filtration
method
non-homogenous

1.2

SOLUBILITY
-

def: the maximum amount of a solute in grams that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at
a certain temperature to form a saturated solution
this will help us to prepare saturated solutions of different solutes at different temperature
factors affecting solubility of a solute:
1. the nature of the solute
- different solutes have different solubilites in a given solvent
some solutes are more soluble than others (e.q. sugar is more soluble in water than flour)
2. the nature of the solvent
- solubility of a substance is different in different solvents
a solute may have a lower solubility in one solvent but higher solubility in another solvent
(e.g. sugar dissolves faster in water than in alcohol or petrol)
3. temperature
- solubility of solid in liquid solvents increases with temperature but the solubility of gases in
liquid solvent decreases with temperature

factors affecting the rate of dissolving:

1. the size of the solute particles
the smaller the size, the higher the rate of dissolving
2. the rate of stirring
the higher the rate of stirring, the higher the rate of dissolving
3. temperature of the solvent
the higher the temperature, the higher the rate of dissolving
4. volume of the solvent
the higher the volume, the higher the rate of dissolving

ACIDS AND ALKALIS

-

1.1

any substances that produce

hydrogen ions (H+) when
dissolved in water

any substances
hydroxide ions
dissolved in water

that produce
(OH-) when

COMPARING ACIDS AND ALKALIS

ACIDS

ALKALIS

Taste
Corrosive Nature
Feel
Reaction with metals

Sour
Corrosive
Watery
Gives off hydrogen
e.g. hydrochloric acid + zinc hydrogen
+ zinc chloride

Bitter
Corrosive
Soapy
No reaction

Reaction with
carbonates

Gives off carbon dioxide

No reaction
e.g. hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate
carbon dioxide + calcium chloride
+ water

Reaction with
ammonium salts

No reaction

Gives off ammonia gas

e.g. sodium hydroxide + ammonium
chloride sodium chloride +
ammonia + water

Red

Blue

orange/yellow

blue/violet

red

yellow

colorless
Less than 7 to 1
Inorganic (prepared from mineral salts)
hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric
Organic (found in plants and animals)
citric, acetic/ethanoic, formic, lactic,
malic, tannic, tartaric
e.g.

red
More than 7 to 14
Formed when oxides or hydroxide of
metals dissolves in water: e.g. potassium
hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium
hydroxide.

Detection
(by looking at changes
in color of indicators)
1. litmus (neutral no
change in color)
2. universal indicator
(neutral green)
3. methyl orange
(neutral orange)
4. phenolphthalein
(pink)
pH values (neutral 7)
Examples

Uses

e.g.

1.2

NEUTRALISATION
-

the chemical process in which an acid reacts with an alkali to form a neutral solution containing
a salt
the following is the example of titration:- the method used in neutralizing an alkali by adding
drops of an acid into it until the alkali is neutralised

Buret containing
hydrochloric acid

1.
2.
3.
4.

this process will cancel the effect of the acid or the alkali
application:
toothpaste alkali in toothpaste will neutralize acid formed by the action of bacteria on food
indigestion due to excess hydrochloricSodium
acid hydroxide
take medicine containing magnesium hydroxide
(milk of magnesia) to neutralize its effect
solution + universal
bee sting (formic acid) neutralize indicator
with calamine lotion, ammonia solution, baking soda
(sodium hydrogen carbonate)
to produce fertilizers by neutralizing ammonia solution with suitable acids