2-Classification of Signals

CHAPTER 2
Classication of Signals
A signal s(t ) may be classied by identifying
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, the reader
will be able to:
List the different signal types in the

time domain
Recognize odd and even signals
and their properties
Identify common periodic signals by

their appearance
Explain the difference between
power and energy signals
certain characteristics that serve to predict its

behavior or appearance, to verify computational results and in many cases, to greatly
simplify the mathematics involved in signal
analysis. This chapter denes several important
categories of signals, each of which describes
some signicant characteristic, which, in turn,
may dictate the mathematical approach one
might take in signals analysis. Related computations and practical MATLAB examples are
Calculate the energy and power

and Vrms of signals
Describe new signals graphically in
terms of common signals
presented for each signal type.
Use MATLAB to dene and to plot

common signals
2.1 Introduction
Compute the phase and

magnitude of a complex signal
Explain the properties dening a

random signal
Dene a discrete time signal from a

continuous time signal
The list of categories shown below summarizes the

kind of characteristics that could be identied for a
signal st . These classications are not all mutually
exclusive, and it is expected that every signal st
can be classied according to each of these denitions. For example, the signal st cost can be
described as being periodic, even, power, real, continuous, and deterministic.

30
Periodic or Non-periodic
Odd or Even or Neither
Power or Energy
Real or Complex
Continuous Time or Discrete Time
Random or Deterministic
2.2 | Periodic Signals
2.2 Periodic Signals

Sines and cosines are examples of periodic signals, repeating every T seconds where
the constant T 1=f0 is called the period. By denition, a signal st is periodic with
period T if the same value of st can always be found T seconds away at st T , or:
DEFINITION 2.1
Periodic Signal
Given a signal st if, for all t and for constant T,

st T st
then st is a periodic signal, and T is its period.
This property is especially useful in signals analysis when it is observed that

computations performed over a single period of length T seconds would simply be
duplicated for all other periods of the signal.
A variety of useful and familiar periodic signals are described in this section. In each
case, a short example illustrates how the periodic signal may be generated and displayed using MATLAB. While the most common periodic signals are available directly
in MATLAB, any periodic waveform can be created by using the pulstran()
function to duplicate a given signal shape at regular intervals along the time axis. In
later chapters, it is shown that all periodic signals can be expressed as a linear combination of sine and cosine signal components.
2.2.1 Sinusoid
As discussed in Section 1.4, the sinusoid signal includes both sines and cosines.
MATLAB includes the functions cos() and sin() and both expect arguments
in radians rather than degrees, as can be easily shown with an example.
cos(pi / 4)
ans =
0.7071
The st cost has a period of 2 s, as can be seen in Figure 2.1, and generated in MATLAB as:
t = -10 : 0.01 : 10;
a = cos(t);
plot(t, a)
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ])
grid on
2.2.2 Half-Wave Rectied Sinusoid

The half-wave rectied sinusoid is the result of passing a sinusoid through an ideal
diode as shown in Figure 2.2 to give the waveform of Figure 2.3.
31
32
Chapter 2 Classication of Signals

cos(t)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
0
Time
10
FIGURE 2.1 CosinePeriod: T 2 s.
s(t)
s(t)
Vin
Vout
s(t) 0
s(t)
Vin
Vout
FIGURE 2.2 Ideal diode circuits accomplish a full-wave rectier (top) and half-wave rectier (bottom).
The effect of these circuits can be modelled mathematically as shown.
The electronic half-wave rectier can be accomplished mathematically by passing

only the positive part of a waveform. In MATLAB, when a conditional statement
such as (a > 0) is used within an expression, it returns 1 or 0 for each corresponding element of the vector a, as in the code below:
t = -10 : 0.01 : 10;
a = cos(t);
b = a .* (a > 0); % half-wave rectier
plot(t, b)
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ])
grid on

Half-wave Rectified cos(t)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
8
6
4
2
0
Time
10
FIGURE 2.3 Half-wave rectied cosinePeriod: T 2 s.
2.2.3 Full-Wave Rectied Sinusoid

The full-wave rectied sinusoid is the result of passing a sinusoid through an ideal
diode bridge as shown in Figure 2.2 to give the waveform of Figure 2.4.
The electronic full-wave rectier is mathematically equivalent to the absolute value
function or abs(a) in MATLAB. Note that the period of the resulting signal is half
that of the original sinusoid, and this circuit conguration is sometimes employed as
the basis for a frequency doubler application.
t = -10 : 0.01 : 10;
a = cos(t);
b = abs(a); % full-wave rectier
plot(t, b)
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ])
grid on
2.2.4 Square Wave

The square wave is dened as a periodic waveform that alternately for equal lengths of
time assumes one of two xed values [2]. For example, a square wave may have
alternating positive and negative values of equal magnitude and duration. The square
wave is a special case of the rectangular pulse train shown in Figure 2.7 and can also be
described as periodic rectangles in which each rectangle is one half period in length
(50% Duty Cycle). The square wave is a built-in MATLAB function called square(t).
Like cos(t), the default period of the square wave is T 2 s, and its range is
(21,11), as seen in Figure 2.5.
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34

Full-Wave Rectified cos(t)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
8
6
4
2
0
Time
10
10
FIGURE 2.4 Full-wave rectied cosinePeriod: T s.
Square wave
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
8
6
4
2
0
Time
FIGURE 2.5 Square wavePeriod: T 2 s.

t = -10 : 0.01 : 10;
a = square(t);
plot(t, a)
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ])
grid on
2.2.5 Sawtooth Wave

The sawtooth wave is dened by a ramp and return to initial value [2], typically a linear
rising slope followed by a discontinuous drop. This is also known as a ramp signal.
The sawtooth wave is a built-in MATLAB function called sawtooth(t). By default,
its period is T 2 s, and its range is (21, 11), as seen in Figure 2.6.
t = -10 : 0.01 : 10;
a = sawtooth(t);
plot(t, a)
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ])
grid on
2.2.6 Pulse Train

The pulse train is dened generally as a continuous repetitive series of pulse waveforms [2].
The shape of the pulse within each period further characterizes the pulse train.
Pulse waveforms of particular interest include pulses that are rectangular or triangular in shape.
Sawtooth
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
8
6
4
2
FIGURE 2.6 Sawtooth WavePeriod: T 2 s.
0
Time
10
35
36
2.2.7 Rectangular Wave

The rectangular wave or rectangular pulse train is characterized by its duty cycle,
expressed in percent, indicating what fraction of the each period is occupied by the
rectangular pulse. In particular, a rectangular pulse train with a 50 percent duty
cycle has the square wave appearance of Figure 2.5.
The generalized pulse train is a built-in MATLAB function that includes a
parameter to specify the pulse shape. A rectangular pulse train may be created by
repeating a series of rectangular pulses dened by rectpuls(). In this case, the
signal range is 0, 1, as seen in Figure 2.7. A rectangular wave with a 25 percent
duty cycle can also be generated directly using square(t,25).
t = -10 : 0.01 : 10;
w = pi/2;
% dene rectangle width
p = 2*pi;
% dene rectangle spacing
d = -10 : p : 10; % dene rectangle positions
s = pulstran(t, d, 'rectpuls', w);
plot(t,s)
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ])
grid on
In Figure 2.7, the pulse train has period T 2 s and a 25 percent duty cycle
given by:
duty cycle
pulse width =2
0:25
period
2
Pulse Train
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
8
6
4
2
0
Time
10
FIGURE 2.7 Pulse TrainA regular series of rectangular pulses. Duty Cycle: 25%, Period: T 2 s.

Triangle Wave
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
8
6
4
2
0
Time
10
FIGURE 2.8 Triangle WaveA regular series of triangular pulses. Period: T 2 s.
2.2.8 Triangle Wave

The triangle wave or triangular pulse train describes a periodic series of triangles. The
triangle wave may be created by repeating a series of triangular pulses using
the tripuls() function with the pulse train pulstran() function. In this
case, the signal range is (0, 11), as seen in Figure 2.8. A triangle wave can also be
generated directly using sawtooth(t,0.5).
t = -10 : 0.01 : 10;
w = 2*pi;
% dene triangle width
d = -10 : w : 10; % dene triangle positions
s = pulstran(t, d, 'tripuls', w);
plot(t,s)
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ])
grid on
2.2.9 Impulse Train

The periodic signal consisting of an innite series of unit impulses spaced at regular
intervals T is called variously an innite impulse train, comb function, or picket fence, and
may be dened as:1
combt, T
N
X
n N
This notation for combt, T is not a standard form.
t nT
37
38

1
3T
2T
T
2T
3T
FIGURE 2.9 This impulse train is an innite series of impulse functions spaced at regular intervals
T along the time axis.
Each term t nT is a unit impulse shifted to position t nT , as shown in

Figure 2.9.
The impulse train forms the basis for many periodic signals, including all the
other periodic signals shown in this section. Beginning with the impulse train, if any
shape such as a triangle is placed at every impulse, then arbitrary periodic functions
can be assembled.
DC Component in Periodic Signals Periodic signals are distinguished by their

shape and characterized by the appearance of a single period. Without changing
either the period or the overall appearance, a periodic signal could be moved up
and down with respect to the horizontal axis by the addition or subtraction of a
constant value or DC offset. Similarly, shifting the waveform in time or changing
its amplitude will have no effect on its general appearance when viewed on an
oscilloscope.
2.3 Odd and Even Signals

The operation st -st acts to reverse a signal in time, causing st to be
reected about the origin t 5 0. The behavior or appearance of a signal under
this reection serve to categorize st as odd, or even. Signals with no such special
reection properties will be called neither odd nor even.
A signal such as cost possesses the property of being unchanged when reected
about the origin t 5 0; in other words, cost cost . The observation denes an
even signal.
DEFINITION 2.2
Even Signal
Given a signal st if, for all t,

st st
then st is called an even signal, or a symmetrical signal.
Similarly, for every point in the signal sint sint ; the signal sint is
anti-symmetrical when reected about the t 5 0 axis. This observation denes an
odd signal.
2.3 | Odd and Even Signals

ODD
ODD
EVEN
EVEN
NEITHER
NEITHER
FIGURE 2.10 Odd or even signals are dened by reection about the origin.
DEFINITION 2.3
Odd Signal
Given a signal st if, for all t,

st st
then st is called an odd signal, or an anti-symmetrical signal.
Many signals are neither odd nor even, and the denition of a neither signal is
made here for completeness and in the interest of brevity.
DEFINITION 2.4
Neither Signal
A signal st that is neither odd nor even shall be called a neither signal.
Examples of odd and even signals are shown graphically in Figure 2.10. Many
signals such as rectt 2 or the unit step function in Figure 1.12 are neither signals,
but odd-ness or even-ness is a fundamental property that can be employed to simplify
computations. In particular, much integration can be saved by observing the following theorems that may be proved by inspection:
THEOREM 2.1
(Integration of even signals)
If st is even, then for constant k:

Z
Z k
st dt 2
k
k
0
st dt
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40

THEOREM 2.2
(Integration of odd signals)
If st is odd, then for constant k:

Z
k
k
st dt 0
2.3.1 Combining Odd and Even Signals

When two signals that are odd or even are multiplied or added together, the result is
another function, which may also be odd or even.
Let aN t be an even function, and let bN t be an odd function. Then, by definition, aN t aN t , and bN t bN t . By observing the appropriate sign
changes, Tables 2.1 and 2.2 show how odd and even signals combine under multiplication and addition.
Table 2.2 shows that the result of adding an odd function to an even function is a
neither function. In particular, this is the case for adding a constant (even) to some
odd function. This observation leads to two important conclusions.
1. No even function could ever be created by the addition (linear combination) of functions that includes any odd functions. The only linear combinations of functions that can result in an even function must consist
exclusively of even functions.
2. No odd function could ever be created by the addition (linear combination)
of functions that includes any even functions. The only linear combinations of
functions that can result in an odd function must consist exclusively of
odd functions.
TABLE 2.1
Multiplication of Odd and Even Signals

a1 t 3 a2 t a1 t 3 a2 t
even 3 even even
a1 t 3 b2 t a1 t 3 b2 t
even 3 odd odd
b1 t 3 b2 t b1 t 3 b2 t
odd 3 odd even
TABLE 2.2
Addition of Odd and Even Signals

a1 t a2 t a1 t a2 t
even even even
a1 t b2 t a1 t b2 t
even odd neither
b1 t b2 t b1 t b2 t
odd odd odd

These properties of odd and even functions under addition illustrate the concept of orthogonality. Any odd function is orthogonal to any even function over a
symmetric interval t0 , t0 and vice versa, because no linear combination of odd
functions will ever lead to an even function. The property of orthogonality is key to
expressing signals in terms of a unique set of component signals, as will be discussed in Chapter 3.
EXAMPLE 2.1
(Odd and Even Signals)
Evaluate the integral

Z
ct
cos10t sin13t dt
Solution:
Since the product of even and odd functions is odd, then by inspection and
from Theorem 2.2, ct 0. This example illustrates the value of recognizing
the properties of odd and even signals.
EXAMPLE 2.2
(The Sum of Two Sinusoids)
Consider the signal

g t cos2t cos3t
Determine if g(t) is odd or even and nd its period.
Solution:
The sum of two even signals will give an even result. This is conrmed in
Figure 2.11.
SIGNAL
Amplitude
Phase
Frequency
cos2t
1=
Period
cos3t
3=2
2=3
By inspection, the two cosines have periods and 2=3 s respectively. These
periods would coincide with each other every 2 s, after two periods of the
rst and three periods of the second waveform. The overall period of the
resulting signal g t would be given directly as the Least Common Multiple
(LCM) of the two non-zero cosine periods, as LCM , 2=3 2 s. In
MATLAB, the function lcm(a,b) returns the LCM of the positive integers
a and b. While the signal g t is periodic, its shape only vaguely resembles
either of the component signals, as shown in Figure 2.11.
41
42

cos(2t)
a(t)
1
0
1
2
10
8
6
4
2
10
10
10
cos(3t)
b(t)
1
0
1
2
10
3
2
1
0
1
2
10
8
6
4
2
cos(2t) cos(3t)
c(t)
8
6
4
2
Time
FIGURE 2.11 The Sum of Two Cosines ct at bt The overall period is the LCM
of the two periodsPeriod: T 2 s.
2.3.2 The Constant Value s(t) 5 A

The constant value st A is an even signal. Adding a constant value (or DC-offset)
to another signal does not affect the shape or appearance of the waveform; it simply
moves the signal up or down.
An even signal will remain an even signal if a constant is added to it (even 1 even 5
even), while in general, an odd signal will become a neither signal when a constant
is added to it. In many cases, the addition of a constant makes the only difference
between a neither and an otherwise odd signal. In such cases, it may be useful to
remove the DC-offset early in computation, then to take advantage of the properties
of the remaining odd signal. For example:
st 0:5 cost is even
st 0:5 sint is neither
2.3.3 Trigonometric Identities

Trigonometric identities serve as an example of combining sine (odd) and cosine
(even) functions using addition and multiplication. Conversely, the rules for combining odd and even functions may help in remembering these useful identities.
Examine the three identities below in terms of odd and even functions. For
example, sinx 3 siny is the product of two odd functions and must equate to the
sum of two cosines (even).

2 sin x cos y sinx y sinx y
2 cos x cos y cosx y cosx y
2:1
2:2
2 sin x sin y cosx y cosx y
2:3
As a further memory aid, the exact order and signs required in these identities
can easily be conrmed with a pocket calculator.
EXAMPLE 2.3
With x 5 1 rad and y 5 4 rad, verify the rule in Equation 2.2.

Solution:
LHS 2 cos1 cos4
2 3 0:540 3 0:694 0:706
RHS cos1 4 cos1 4
cos3 cos5 0:990 0:284 0:706
Since RHS 5 LHS, the formula is shown to work for this specic example.
2.3.4 The Modulation Property

An important consequence of the above sine and cosine identities is the observation
that when sines and cosines of different frequencies are multiplied (mixed) together,
the result is always two sinusoids at the sum and difference of their two frequencies,
respectively. Modern communication systems could not exist without recourse to this
modulation property of mixing sinusoids. The modulation property is used extensively
in electronic circuits to alter the frequency of a signal by multiplying it by a cosine.
A Television Tuner Box Cable and satellite providers generally transmit multiple
television channels on different frequencies, and an external tuner box is used to
select one channel for viewing. To this end, the frequency of the selected channel
must be brought down to a single common frequency that is used to feed an
attached television. This frequency conversion is accomplished using the modulation property of sinusoids, and the tuner box essentially contains a cosine generator
and a mixer.2
Let the nal target frequency be f0 Hz and the channel N of interest be at fN Hz.
If the desired signal at fN is multiplied with some mixing frequency fm , then the output
will include the sum fsum fm fN and the difference fdiff fm fN . To achieve the
2
In the days of analog television, such a box would be connected to the cable system and to a television
set that remained tuned typically to Channel 3 regardless of the channel being watched.
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44

CABLE/SATELLITE TUNER BOX
DESIRED
CHANNEL
freq. fN
VIEWING
CHANNEL N
freq. f0
MIXER
a(t)
cos(2 fN t)
b(t)
cos(2 f0 t)
a(t) b(t)
CHANNEL
SELECT
DIFFERENCE
cos(2 [2fN f0] t)
SUM
cos(2 [ f0 fN] t)

FIGURE 2.12 A television tuner box uses the modulation property to select a channel by varying
the frequency of an internal cosine generator.
desired frequency f0 , the mixing frequency can be chosen to be fm fN f0 giving a

difference fdiff f0 and a sum fsum 2fN f0; which may be discarded. The signal of
interest is found in the difference term at the frequency f0 .
In Figure 2.12, if the input from the cable (containing all available channels) is
fed to this mixer, then the desired channel at fN can be selected by setting the cosine
generator to the frequency fm fN f0 after which a lowpass lter isolates only the
signal components near f0 Hz. Different channels at other frequencies can be
viewed by changing the oscillator frequency in the box and without changing anything on the television receiver.
Desired channel
fN
Mixing frequency
fm fN f0
Sum
fsum 2 3 fN f0
Difference
fdiff f0
EXAMPLE 2.4
(The Product of Two Sinusoids)
What is the period of the signal g(t) 5 cos(2 t) 3 cos(3t)?

Solution:
From the modulation theorem, the product of two cosines should give one
cosine at the sum of the two frequencies plus another at the difference of the
two frequencies. By inspection, the components in the sum are cos2 3t
and cos2 3t. Since cosine is an even signal, the even terms are cos5t
and cost . This observation may be conrmed by applying a trigonometric
identity from Section 2.3.3.
g t cos2t 3 cos3t
1
cost cos5t
2
SIGNAL
Amplitude
Phase
Frequency
Period
1
2 cost
1/2
1=2
1
2 cos5t
1/2
5=2
2=5

The new period is given by LCM[2, 2=5 2 s, as seen in Figure 2.13.
Check: From the graph, the product of two even signals has led to an even
result. The nal waveform resembles a rapidly changing cosine slowing
oscillating up and down; these are the sum (high) and difference (low) frequency components.
cos(2t)
a(t)
1
0
1
2
10
8
6
4
2
10
10
10
cos(3t)
b(t)
1
0
1
2
10
3
2
1
0
1
2
10
8
6
4
2
cos(2t) cos(3t)
c(t)
8
6
4
2
0
Time
FIGURE 2.13 The product of Two Cosines ct at 3 bt The overall period is the LCM
of the two periodsPeriod: T 2 s.
Squaring the Sinusoid Squaring a sinusoid such as st A sin2f0 t gives a

raised cosine with amplitude A2 =2 and a frequency that has doubled.3 Multiplying
any signal st by itself yields s 2 t , which is strictly non-negative. Furthermore, if any
signal st is odd or even, the squared signal s 2 t will always be even.
For the squared cosine, use the identity 2 cosx cosy cosx y cosx y
from Eqn. 2.2 and let x y, giving:
2 cos y cos y cosy y cosy y
1
cos 2 y 1 cos2y
2
2:4
It is a common error to imagine that the squared sinusoidal signal resembles a full-wave rectied cosine.
45
46

cos(t)
2
1
0
1
2
10
8
6
4
2
10
10
cos2(t) = 1/2[1 + cos(2t)]
2
1
0
1
2
10
8
6
4
2
0
Time
FIGURE 2.14 Squaring a cosine doubles its frequencyNew Period: T s.
For the squared sine, use the identity 2 sinx siny cosx y cosx y from
Eqn. 2.3 and let x y, or:
1
sin 2 y 1 cos2y
2
2:5
Consider the signal st A cos2f0 t, and let y 2f0 t, then from Eqn. 2.4,
s t 12 A2 1 cos4f0 t that is strictly positive, even, and has a value of
s 2 0 A2 at the origin (t 5 0). Moreover, the cosine term has double the frequency of the original cosine. The result is shown in Figure 2.14 for A 1 and
f0 1=2 Hz
The appearance of cos2 2f0 t is a raised cosine with double the frequency f0 .
2
EXAMPLE 2.5
(Manipulating Odd and Even Signals)
Let s(t) 5 3 sin(t) What is the appearance of s2(t)? Sketch s2(t) as a function
of time.
Solution:
This signal s 2 t should be non-negative, even, and have a value of zero at the
origin. Figure 2.15 conrms the observation that squared signals must be
strictly non-negative. An odd signal becomes even when squared.
2.4 | Energy and Power Signals

s(t) = 3 sin(t)
10
5
0
5
10
10
8
6
4
2
0
Time
10
10
s2(t) = 9 sin2(t)
10
5
0
5
10
10
8
6
4
2
Time
FIGURE 2.15 When the odd signal s(t ) is squared, the result must be both even and non-negative.
2.4 Energy and Power Signals

The practical use of signals in electrical engineering often involves the calculation
of the power or the energy contained in a signal. For example, when a signal passes
through a system, the input and output energy or power may be compared to
measure losses in the system. Because a signal is a voltage or current changing in
time, then power and energy may also be useful as a means of classifying different
signal types.
Using Ohms law, the
instantaneous power in a real signal st at a given time t, is
2
equal to power t V Rt or I 2 t R; however, in the study of signals, it is commonplace to simplify these denitions by assuming a 1 resistive load. With R 5 1, the
instantaneous signal power is identical for both voltage and current signals, or:
power t s 2 t
The energy in a signal st is given by the integral of power over all time, or:
DEFINITION 2.5
Signal Energy
For a signal st, let E be dened such that

Z N
E
s 2 t dt
N
then E is called the energy in the signal.
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48

The power (or average power) in a signal is given by the average instantaneous
power computed in the limit as:
DEFINITION 2.6
Signal Power
For a signal st, let P be dened such that

Z x
1 2 2
s t dt
P lim
x-N x x
2
then P is called the power in the signal.
For some signals, such as st cost , the energy will be innite, while the
average power will be nite. In particular, periodic signals will have innite energy,
since the squared magnitude is positive and this energy integral can only grow to
innity as the signal is dened for all time. Signals can be classied accordingly as:
DEFINITION 2.7
Energy Signal
Let the energy in a signal st be E, where:

Z N
E
s 2 t dt
N
if 0 , E , N, then st will be called an energy signal.
DEFINITION 2.8
Power Signal
Let the average power in a signal st be P, where:

Z x
1 2 2
P lim
s t dt
x-N x x
2
if 0 , P , N, then the signal st will be called a power signal.
From the above discussion, all power signals will have innite energy. On the
other hand, all energy signals will have zero power (as the term x1 will ensure that this
integral tends to zero as x grows). If a periodic signal is turned on and off, the
resulting st has nite energy. An exponentially decaying signal is another signal
with nite energy. These results are summarized below.
Energy Signal
Power Signal
Energy
nite
innite
Power
zero
nite

The average or mean voltage of a power signal is the square root of the effective
signal power, or the square root of the power averaged over all time. The square root
of the mean squared voltage or root mean squared (Vrms ) level of a signal is given by:
s
Z x
1 2 2
p
s t dt
lim
root mean squared voltage average power
x-N x x
2
2.4.1 Periodic Signals 5 Power Signals

For a periodic signal with period T, the average power in st is the same over one
period as for the entire signal and reduces to:
1
average power
T
T2
T2
s 2 t dt
(Power and Vrms )
EXAMPLE 2.6
Determine the power and V rms of the voltage signal st A cos2f 0 t.

Solution:
Let the period be T 1=f0 , then,
1
average power
T
T2
T2
1
A cos2f0 t dt
T
2
T2
T2
A2 3
1
1 cos4f0 t dt
2
A2
0
2
Since the integral of a cosine over any complete period is zero, only the
constant term remains, leaving:
A2
2
p
A
average power p
2
average power
Vrms
The familiar factor of 0:707A pA2 emerges from this computation. Note that
since this Vrms calculation is performed over a complete period, it would be the
same for any frequency cosine. For a given periodic waveform, Vrms is a function
of amplitude only.
p
Vrms Does not Equal A= 2 for All Periodic Signals The root mean squared
voltage ofpan
arbitrary periodic signal with amplitude A is not always given by
Vrms A= 2 0:707A. This relationship refers specically to a sinusoidal signal
with no DC offset, as computed above. Of course, in a study ofpalternating
current
circuits, waveforms are implicitly sinusoidal, and the factor 1= 2 is often applied
routinely during calculations in power systems or electronics, leading to the
49
50

Vrms
T0
A
Sinusoid
A
Full-wave
rectified
sinusoid
A
Half-wave
rectified
sinusoid
A
2
A
A
Square wave
A
X A

T0
T0
A
Pulse train
A
Triangle wave
3
A
A
3
Sawtooth
wave
FIGURE 2.16 Vrms for some common periodic signals. Each signal has amplitude A.
common misconception that the result applies to all periodic signals. Worse,
because of this, an inexpensive AC voltmeter may simply scale a reading by this same
factor, assuming a sinusoidally varying input voltage. Only a true rms voltmeter can
give accurate readings for a square wave and other periodic signals; such instruments are generally more expensive than ordinary AC voltmeters. Figure 2.16 shows
the calculated Vrms for various periodic signals, each of amplitude A.
MATLAB Exercise 1: Computation of Vrms In the section, the Vrms value is

found for a sawtooth waveform with period T 2 s and amplitude A 5.
Numerical computation of Vrms requires integration
p of the squared waveform over a
A=
3, independent of period. Therecomplete period. From Figure 2.16, Vp
rms
fore, the expected answer is Vrms 5= 3 2:887.

The same result can readily be conrmed using MATLAB. First, dene a period
T 2 s using a spacing increment 0.01, for 100 signal points per unit time.
t 5 0 : 0.01 : 2*pi;

Next, use the built-in sawtooth function to dene a sawtooth waveform with an
amplitude of 5.
s 5 sawtootht; % default period is 2 pi
The waveform must now be squared. Multiply the signal point by point with itself.
Call the squared signal s2.
s2 = s .* s;
Numerical integration in MATLAB is accomplished using the trapz() function.
integral = trapz(t, s2)
integral =
52.2860
The mean value is found by dividing the integral by one period T 2, after
which the square root gives the root mean value.
result = sqrt (integral / (2*pi))
result =
2.8846
p
This conrms the expected result Vrms 2:89 given by the formula Vrms A= 3
for a sawtooth wave.
2.4.2 Comparing Signal Power: The Decibel (dB)

When the magnitudes or powers of two signals are compared, the ratio of the two
quantities is a simple fraction and has no units. The decibel (dB) is a unit of measure
describing the ratio of the power of two signals on a logarithmic scale. For example,
in the ideal amplier at -kat the gain in power is typically expressed in dB. The
use of the decibel is commonplace in electrical engineering as it easily expresses
very large or small ratios, and the overall effect of a signal passing through multiple
systems can be found by simply adding the respective gains.
DEFINITION 2.9
Decibel
If P1 and P2 are the power in signals s1 t and s2 t then:

P1
n 10 log
P2
is the power ratio measured in decibels and written as n dB.
The decibel is dened as a power ratio, so when comparing the Vrms voltages V1
and V2 in two signals s1 t and s2 t , it is assumed that power P1 V12 and P2 V22 to
construct the corresponding ratio:

2

P1
V1
V1
10 log
dB
20 log
10 log
P2
V2
V2
51
52

TABLE 2.3
Decibel Units (dB)

Ratio
Power
Voltage
10
110 dB
120 dB
13 dB
16 dB
0 dB
0 dB
1
2
23 dB
26 dB
1
10
210 dB
220 dB
1
100
220 dB
240 dB
1
1000
230 dB
260 dB
Table 2.3 shows a change in power or magnitude (voltage or current) as a ratio

and the corresponding change in power expressed in dB. For example, in the top
row of the table, a 10 times difference in power is described by 110 dB, while a
10 times difference in voltage equates to a 100 times difference in power (120 dB).
In Table 2.3 it may be observed that:
An increase in magnitude (power) is a positive dB change, while a decrease in
magnitude (power) is a negative dB change, and 0 dB represents no change in
magnitude (power).
The overall result of several magnitude (power) changes may be added in dB units.
EXAMPLE 2.7
(Systems in Series)
A voltage signal st passes through two systems in series, described by at- 0:5 at
then bt-10 bt. What is the overall change in power expressed in dB?
Solution:
The voltage is divided by 2 in the rst system (26 dB), then multiplied by 10
in the second (120 dB), so the overall system is like ct -5ct . The corresponding power changes in dB can be added to give the overall power gain
as 6 20 14 dB.
Check: A voltage gain of 5 is found directly as: 20 log
5
1
5 13.98 dB.
2.5 Complex Signals

While signals in the laboratory are necessarily real, it is mathematically useful to
allow for complex signals. A complex signal is dened as having real and imaginary
parts,
where
imaginary components are the product of a real function with
p
j 1. A complex signal st can be dened as;

st at j bt
2:6
where at and bt are real functions and its complex conjugate as:
s t at j bt
2:7
2.5 | Complex Signals

The real and imaginary parts of s(t ) are given by:
Real part: Rest Reat j bt at
2:8
Imag part: Imst Imat j bt bt
2:9
Using the usual vector notation for the Argand (complex) plane, the magnitude
(or modulus) and phase of a signal st at j bt can be dened as:
p q
Magnitude of st:jstj sts t a 2 t b 2 t
2:10
Phase of st: t tan1

Imst
bt
tan1
Rest
at
2:11
Check: For a purely real signal, bt 0, and the magnitude is simply

jst j jat j while the phase term becomes t 0.
The complex exponential e j has a special role in signals analysis as it incorporates both real and imaginary sines or cosines. Real sinusoids can conveniently be
expressed as complex functions by Eulers identity:
e j cos j sin
2:12
The identity can be rewritten with 2f0 t to give the general form of an
expression for all sinusoids, both real and complex.
e j2f0 t cos2f0 t j sin2f0 t
2:13
This form of the general sinusoid has the further advantage that the derivative of
an exponential is easily computed by hand, as are the corresponding integrals. The
identities shown below for both sine and cosine will prove to be especially important.
cos2f0 t
e j 2f 0 t e j 2f 0 t
2
2:14
sin2f0 t
e j 2f 0 t e j 2f 0 t
2j
2:15
To fully represent a complex signal graphically requires a three-dimensional

graph as (real, imaginary, time). In two dimensions, one of two conventions is
generally employed to graph complex signals:
1. As real and imaginary components, often on the same graph in different
colors (or using a dotted line for the imaginary part).
2. As magnitude and phase, drawn on separate graphs.
The utility of using a complex signal representation stems in part from the second
graphical form above, since the terms Magnitude graph and Phase graph bring to mind
the one-sided cosine Amplitude vs. frequency and Phase vs. frequency graphs, both of
which are required to represent both sines and cosines. The implication of this
comparison is that these two graphs can be combined into a unied (complex)
mathematical form. This assertion is borne out by the fact that both sine and cosine
signals can be directly expressed in terms of the complex exponential e j 2f0 t. While
there is no such thing as a complex signal in the laboratory, use of such a representation is commonplace in electrical engineering as a mathematical toolone that
ultimately simplies signal manipulations.
53

EXAMPLE 2.8
(Plotting a Complex Signal)
Sketch the complex exponential signal st e jt.

Solution:
A complex function can be graphed in two different ways, either as real and
imaginary parts, plotted on the same graph, or as magnitude and phase,
plotted on different graphs.
1. Recognizing that e j 2f0 t cos2f0 t j sin2f0 t, and that this st is
this same expression with f0 1=2, the real and imaginary parts of this
signal can be sketched as the (real) cosine and (imaginary) sine as seen
in Figure 2.17 (top).
1
s(t) ejt
REAL
IMAG.
Real and imaginary parts
Phase
54
(t) t
Slope 1
0
Magnitude vs. time
Phase vs. time
FIGURE 2.17 Complex Signal st e j 2f0 t as real and imaginary parts (top) and as
magnitude and phase (bottom).
2. From Equation 2.10, the magnitude jst j is constant 1. From Eqn. 2.11,
the phase changes linearly with frequency, as shown in Figure 2.17
(lower part).
In Figure 2.17 the magnitude jst j 1. Consequently, if another signal g t
was multiplied by e j 2ft , the magnitude of g t would not be affected.
Furthermore, note that this linear phase plot is identical in form to the phase
change associated with shifting a time domain signal as seen in Section 1.4.2.
This observation suggests that shifting a signal in time is directly related to this
frequency-related multiplication by e jt . This relationship will often be
encountered.
MATLAB Exercise 2: Complex Signals Complex numbers may be readily

manipulated in MATLAB where both the variables j and i are predened to equal
2.5 | Complex Signals

p
1. Care must be taken to not overwrite i and j with different values.4 When
displaying complex values, MATLAB labels the imaginary part using the letter i as is
conventional in mathematics. For example, it may be conrmed with a calculator5
that the value of e j has two parts with real part cos1 0:5043 and imaginary
part sin1 0:8415.
exp(-j)
ans =
0.5403 - 0.8415i
The complex function at e jt can be dened as shown below. The real and
imaginary parts of a complex variable can be found using real() and imag(),
respectively. This signal may be shown as real and imaginary parts on the same
graph as in Figure 2.18 (top).
t = -10:0.01:10;
a = exp(-j*t);
re = real(a);
im = imag(a);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,re,t,im,':');
grid on;
%
%
%
%
%
dene time axis

dene complex signal
real part of a
imag part of a
plot 1 of 3
The phase and magnitude can now be calculated using angle() and abs() to
produce the second form of the graph in Figure 2.18. As a practical matter, any
REAL + IMAGINARY
Amplitude
1
0
1
10
8
6
4
2
0
2

MAGNITUDE
8
4
Magnitude
10
10
10
2
1
0
1
10
2
0
PHASE
(rad)

0

10
8
6
2
0
t (s)
FIGURE 2.18 Complex Signal st e jt showing real and imaginary parts, magnitude and phase.
Period 5 2 s.
4
5
The command clear j would restore j to its default value.

Be sure that the calculator mode is set to radians rather than degrees.
55
56

change in phase of 2 rad may be reduced to no phase change as seen by the
apparent phase discontinuities; the phase change is actually a continuous straight line.
This MATLAB code continues from above:
mg = abs(a);
ph = angle(a);
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(t,mg);
grid on;
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(t,ph);
grid on;
%
%
%
%
magnitude of a
phase of a
plot 2 of 3
plot the magnitude
% plot 3 of 3
% plot the phase
2.6 Discrete Time Signals

Consider the impulse train of Section 2.2.9. For each term cnT t nT an
impulse is shifted to a different position in time. If a continuous signal st is multiplied by cnT , then each impulse takes on the area of the signal at each time nT:
st 3 combt,T
N
X
st t nT
2:16
n N
and the resulting sequence of impulses with different areas appears graphically as
arrows having heights that follow the variations in st , as shown in Figure 2.19. In
this way, the impulse train serves to extract values of st (called samples) at regularly
spaced intervals nT. The resulting array of values sn is called a discrete time signal.
Unlike a continuous time signal st , the discrete time signal exists only at the
specic times nT and yet the values in sn nonetheless reect the variations that
characterize the continuous function st . The subject of discrete signals is fully
covered in Chapter 8.
Any signal manipulated or stored using a digital computer is necessarily represented as a discrete signal where specic memory locations may hold each of the
values sn. Using MATLAB, for example, the mathematical function cost is continuous but a xed number of points is necessarily chosen to represent the signal for
display or calculation. In the example code below, 51 values of time are dened as
t = -10:0.4:10 to represent a set of sample times taken every 0.4 s, and the
corresponding samples of the variable c describe a discrete time signal. Sample
points from a discrete time signal are best seen on a graph using the stem()
function as in Figure 2.20. Another choice of plot maintains the level of each sample
point until the next sample time6 by using the stairs() plotting command that
gives a continuous stepped appearance as in Figure 2.21. In either case, the discrete
time signal cosnT is shown for T 0:4 sec.
t = -10 : 0.4 : 10;
c = cos(t);
stem (t, c, '.')
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ]);
grid on;
6
Also known as a sample and hold.
% one sample every T=0.4 sec

% sampled values as cos(nT)
2.6 | Discrete Time Signals

Continuous time signal
s(t)
1
0
1
2
10
8
4
2
10
10
35
40
45
50
Impulse train
(t-nT)
1
0
1
10
8
6
4
Discrete time signal

s(n)
1
0
1
2
0
10
15
20
25
n
30
FIGURE 2.19 A discrete time signal sn can be created by multiplying the continuous time signal st
by an impulse train ct . The elements of sn hold the corresponding value snT as found in the
area of each impulse.
Discrete form of cos(t)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
15
20
25
n
30
35
FIGURE 2.20 A discrete time signal sn cosnT , as discrete samples.
40
45
50
57
58

Discrete stairs form of cos(t)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
15
20
25
n
30
35
40
45
50
FIGURE 2.21 A discrete time signal sn cosnT , as stepped values.
2.7 Digital Signals

Digital signals are fundamental to applications in modern digital signal processing (DSP)
where a signal is to be processed in a computer. Digital signals may be thought of as
practical discrete time signals, since getting an analog signal st into digital form
requires the use of voltage sampling hardware (analog-to-digital converter), which necessarily constrains each value of sn to a xed set of discrete voltage values. The resulting
signal is both discrete time and discrete voltage. In an analog-to-digital converter, sample
values are acquired as N-bit integers, which correspond to one of 2N discrete voltage
levels. In Figure 2.22, the signal cost is shown as a digital signal with regular 4-bit
samples taken every T 5 0.4 s; this digital signal is constrained to one of 16 voltage levels.
The cosine signal in Figure 2.22 may appear somewhat distorted because of the
discrete time and voltage restrictions. Because each sample value is rounded off to
the nearest allowed voltage level, digitizing a signal in this way introduces roundoff
error or noise into the resulting digital signal. This effect may be minimized by using
more steps; for example, with 10 bits there would be 210 1024 voltage levels. For
large N the digital signal resembles the stepped discrete time signal of Figure 2.21.
2.8 } Random Signals

If a signal st is random, the value of st at any given time cannot be known in
advance. Random signals are instead characterized by their statistical properties
over time. In comparison to the deterministic signals seen so far and that can be
expressed as an explicit function of time, the random signal is non-deterministic and
its value at any given time cannot be predicted.
2.8 | } Random Signals
Discrete voltage levels
Digital form of cos(t)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
10
15
20
25
n
30
35
40
45
50
FIGURE 2.22 A digital signal sn cosnT using 4 bits 5 16 discrete voltage levels.
Rand(t)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
10
8
6
4
2
0
Time
10
FIGURE 2.23 A random signal is described by its statistical properties, such as the mean and standard
devation of its value over time.
Random signals are encountered as the unavoidable (hopefully small) noise

inevitably added to signals of interest. For example, the random signal st may
represent the ever-present hiss in a stereo amplier or heard when an AM radio is
tuned between active stations.
Random signals are also useful as test input signals to determine the frequency
response of analog and digital circuits. In this case, the ever-changing nature of the
random signal implies that the characteristics of a circuit can be tested across a
range of input frequencies with a single test signal.
Consider the random signal st shown in Figure 2.23 and existing for all time.
The exact value of the waveform at any time t is unpredictable, yet it can be seen that
59
60

the values seem to uctuate around 0. This observation denes a zero mean random
signal. The statistics of the values taken on by the random st over time further
distinguish one random signal type from another. By inspection, the above
random signal takes on values that are distributed in the range (21, 11).
The random signal is a power signal since the time integral of the squared signal
goes to innity. These properties can be used to model random signals and to study
the effect of noise on real systems.
The rand() function in MATLAB generates pseudo-random values distributed
uniformly in the interval (0.0, 1.0). The term pseudo-random refers to the fact that
the values generated by a computer program may have the properties of a
random signal but are totally predictable if the generating algorithm is known.
A random signal plot may be created as:
t = -10:0.01:10;
r = 2*rand(size(t))-1;
plot (t,r);
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ]);
grid on;
% dene time interval t

% random value range [-1,+1]
2.9 Useful Hints and Help with MATLAB

While MATLAB is a powerful tool for visualizing and analyzing signals, it must be
used with care if results are to be accurate and meaningful. A few common pitfalls
can be readily avoided once they are identied.
Care has been taken to limit example code to functions present in the Student
Version of MATLAB. In particular, certain useful functions such as square()and
rectpuls()are part of the add-on Signals Toolbox that is included with the Student
Version. Any such functions that are provided with the Student Version may be
optional in other congurations of MATLAB. If some known function cannot be
found, this toolbox may be missing from the installation being used.
MATLAB, like all software on a digital computer, represents signals as discrete
samples, meaning that the time axis is never continuous. Depending on how a user
denes t and the time interval, unexpected or inaccurate results may be obtained.
When dening the time axis as t = -10:0.01:10;the second parameter
denes the spacing T between time points; in this case, 0.01. Most of the potential
problems listed here are related to differences between ideal continuous signals and
the corresponding stored discrete values in a computer.
1. Time intervalIn theory, periodic signals like cost and even the constant
value k are dened over all time. When represented in a computer, only a
nite range of values for t is available. Consequently, sinusoids must be cutoff somewhere in time, and results will be affected accordingly. For periodic
signals, problems can often be avoided by taking care to dene t to span an
integral number of periods.
2. Integration accuracyThe accuracy of the trapezoidal approximation used
by trapz()to perform numerical integration is a function of the chosen
time increment, where a smaller increment gives better results. To integrate
the signal st where t = -10:0.01:10;the function trapz(s)*0.01 is
scaled by the time increment; alternatively, the form trapz(t,s)may be
2.10 | Conclusions
used with no adjustment necessary. Care must be taken in checking
numerical answers against theoretical results.
3. Vertical linesRectangles that do not appear exactly square, impulses that
look like triangles, or jagged vertical lines will inevitably be seen in plots,
depending on the time increment and the chosen display axes. The time
increments suggested for the examples in this chapter have been chosen to
minimize such effects.
4. Dening the impulse t A workable approximation to an impulse can be
created in MATLAB as a vector that is zero everywhere except at the point of
interest, where a single value 1 can be placed.
For example, consider three impulses to be placed at 0, , 5 s:
t = -10 : 0.01 : 10;
impA = (t == 0);
impB = (t == 5);
impC = (t == pi);
plot(t, impA + impB + impC);
axis([-10 10 -2 2 ]);
grid on;
%
%
%
%
impulse at t= 0
impulse at t= 5
impulse at t= pi
plot 3 impulses
In practice, any of these denitions could fail. Given that t is dened in

terms of a series and a xed-time increment, the limitations of nite word
size binary arithmetic mean that t may never exactly satisfy (t 0) or
(t 5). It is certain that (t ) will never be satised on this interval;
consequently the impulse at t is absent on this graph.
5. Vector sizeWhile using a smaller time increment can increase the accuracy
of results, the speed of computation will be slowed, and the vector lengths
can become unmanageably long. In general, either the time increment or
the number of points can be specied when dening a time axis.
%
t
t
t
Specify an increment, number of points is implicit

= -10:0.1:10;
% denes 201 points
= -10:0.01:10; % denes 2001 points
= -10:0.001:10; % denes 20001 points
%
t
t
t
Specify a number of points, increment is implicit

= linspace(-10,10,200);
% denes 200 points
= linspace(-10,10,2000); % denes 2000 points
= linspace(-10,10,20000); % denes 20000 points
2.10 Conclusions
A signal st dened as a time-varying voltage or current often has specic properties that characterize its appearance or behavior. Several commonplace signal
types have been introduced and their properties explored. Signals analysis is made
easier by recognizing fundamental signal types and classications, and by expressing
signals in terms of those fundamental components. Many signals will be more
readily appreciated if viewed in the frequency domain, where their properties and
behavior can be visualized from a different perspective. The mathematics that allow
signal decomposition and a unique frequency domain representation of any signal
st will be explored in the next chapter.
61
62
End-of-Chapter Exercises
2.1 Consider a complex function of time zt
xt jyt .
(a) What is the complex conjugate of zt ?
(b) What is the magnitude of zt ?
2.2 Show that the even part of the product of two
functions is equal to the product of the odd parts
plus the product of the even parts.
2.3 Identify which of the following signals are even or
odd or neither.
at 2 sint
bt 3 cos2t
ct 10 sin2t =4
dt cost =2
2.9
Evaluate the denite integral below making use

of the rules for odd and even computations. The
signals at and bt are dened in Figure 2.24.
st
wt 30 sin100t =2
at xt yt
xt 30 cos100t
yt 10 cos300t
bt xt yt zt
ct xt 3 yt
zt 6 cos500t
dt wt 3 wt
FIGURE 2.24 Periodic Signals for Questions 2.4 to 2.10.
2.5 Consider the signals in Figure 2.24.

(a) Identify each signal as being odd, or even, or
neither.
(b) Compute the value of the signal at t 5 0.
2.6 Carefully sketch by hand the signals w, x, y, z
from Figure 2.24 as amplitude vs. time, and
identify the amplitude and period of the signal on
your graph. Check your sketches for consistency
as odd and even signals.
2.7 Use MATLAB to plot the signals a, b, c, d from
Figure 2.24 as amplitude vs. time, and identify the
amplitude and period of the signals on your
graph. Check each plot against the answers from
Question 2.5.
2.8 Carefully sketch by hand each of the eight signals
in Figure 2.24 as amplitude vs. frequency, or the
one-sided cosine graph and identify the amplitude A
and frequency f0 of the (cosine) signal components on each graph.
10
at 3 bt dt
2.10 Evaluate the denite integral below, making use

of the rule for integrals involving t . The signal
at is dened in Figure 2.24.
st
10
10
at 3 t 1 dt
2.11 Let st be some well-behaved function of time,

and dene at and bt as:
at js2t 3j
bt s4t 52
et 5 sint 1
2.4 Express each of the signals in Figure 2.24 as a
linear combination of signals of the form st
A cos2 f0 t :
10
(a) What simple observation can be made about

a graph of the signals at and bt ?
(b) Use MATLAB to plot at and bt , and
conrm the above answer for the case of
st sint .
2.12 Show how a full wave rectied cosine with period
2 sec (see Figure 2.4) can be modelled as the
product of a cosine and a square wave.
2.13 Show how the half-wave rectied cosine with
period 2 sec (see Figure 2.3) can be modelled
as the product of a cosine and a square wave.
2.14 The trigonometric identities relating sines and
cosines can be manipulated to give additional
rules. Show that the relationships below are
consistent with the rules for combining odd and
even functions.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
sinx y sinx cosy cosy sinx

cosx y cosx cosy sinx siny
sinxsiny 2sinx y=2 cosx y=2
cosxcosy 2 cosx y=2 cosx y=2
2.15 Consider the signals at cost and bt

rectt . Sketch each of the following signals by
hand and without the use of a calculator.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
at and bt on the same graph.

ct at 3 bt
dt at 3 bt 2
et 1 at
f t et 3 bt=2
2.16 Consider a pulse train with a repetition rate of

1843 Hz and a percent duty cycle of P percent,
2.10 | Conclusions
where 0 # P # 100. The signal is at 1 V for P
percent of its period and is 0 V otherwise.
The following hints may be useful in the
question:
Let the period be T. (The exact period is not
relevant to the Vrms calculation. In any case, the
specic value for T could be inserted
afterwards.)
Sketch the waveform to help set up the
integration.
Using a pulse centered on the origin may save
some math (make an odd or even function).
(a) Compute Vrms for this waveform, as a function of P.
(b) Use the result from (a) to nd Vrms for P 50%
(square wave with DC-offset).
(c) Use the result from (a) to nd Vrms for P 25%
(pulse train).
(d) Use the result from (a) to nd Vrms for
P 75% (pulse train).
(e) Use the result from (a) to nd Vrms for
P 100% (DC value : : : checks your result.)
(f) Use the result from (a) to nd Vrms for P 0%
(Zero : : : checks your result.)
(a) Complete the table:

Value at
t50?
Odd or
even or
neither
ct
at bt
at 3 bt
(b) Referring to the signals dened above,

make a neat labeled sketch by hand of the
signals below.
f t 5ct 10 5ct 10
g t 2ct=10
a 2 t 1156 cos2 200t
2.18 Refer to the signal st in Figure 2.25 and answer
the following questions.
Identify st as odd, even, or neither.
Find the period of st .
Find the value st at t 5 0.
Determine the two sinusoidal components
that add to give this signal.
(e) Is the above answer unique?
To answer the nal part (d), use your observations from a through c above, and make some reasonable assumptions about the component signals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
bt 99 sin150t
ct rectt
s(t) = the sum of two unknown sinusoids
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
1.5
FIGURE 2.25 Diagram for Question 2.18.
1
0.5
Period
(sec)
bt
at 34 cos200t
5
2
Energy
or Power?
at
2.17 Consider the signals:
63
0
Time
0.5
1.5
64

s(t) the sum of two unknown sinusoids
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Time
0.5
1.5
2.19 Repeat Question 2.18 using the signal st in

Figure 2.26.
2.20 Use the MATLAB square() function to create
a square wave with amplitude 10 V and period 5 s.
(a) Use MATLAB to compute Vrms for a 1000 Hz

triangle wave with amplitude 3 V.
(b) What is the power in the above signal?
(c) Compare the above answers to Figure 2.16.
(a) Show the steps necessary to create this signal.

(b) Does the MATLAB square wave function
create an odd or an even signal?
(c) How could you modify your steps to create
an even function?
2.23 Sinusoidal inputs to a system are output with

different magnitudes depending on frequency
as shown in Figure 2.27, where the magnitude
variations are shown in dB. If the input signal
is st A cos2 f0 t, determine the magnitude
and power of the output signal at the three frequencies f0 ffA , fB , fC g in the graph.
2.24 Sinusoidal inputs to a system are output with
different magnitudes depending on frequency
as shown in Figure 2.28, where the magnitude
variations are shown in dB. If the input signal
is st A cos2f0 t, determine the magnitude
and power of the output signal at the three frequencies f0 ffA , fB , fC g in the graph.
2.25 Consider the continuous signal st cos22t
and a train of impulses spaced every 0.1 seconds.
A discrete signal is formed as the product of the
impulse train with the cosine st .
2.21 Use the MATLAB sawtooth() function to

create a sawtooth wave with amplitude 2 V and
period 7 s.
(a) Show the steps necessary to create this signal.
(b) Does the MATLAB sawtooth function create
an odd or an even signal?
(c) Can a sawtooth ever be an even function?
2.22 Determine the energy and power in each of the
signals below:
at 5 cos2t
bt 5 cost
ct 5 sint
dt 5 rectt=3
et t
(a) What is the period of st ?

(b) Construct a table showing values of the discrete signal on the time interval 0, 1
seconds.
103
65
101
Frequency (rad/s)
102
System: sys
Frequency (rad/s): 33.6
Magnitude (dB): 9.86
(c) From the table, make a sketch of the discrete

signal.
(d) Comment on the period of the waveform in
your sketch. Suggest how this problem may
be overcome.
2.26 Consider the continuous signal st cos22t
and a train of impulses spaced every 0.1 seconds.
A discrete signal is formed as the product of the
impulse train with the cosine st .
101
10
5
10
102
30
20
10
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
System: sys
Magnitude (dB): 20
System: sys
100
System: sys
101
100
Frequency (rad/s)
B System: sys
Frequency (rad/s): 1
101
C System: sys
102
2.10 | Conclusions
(a) Use MATLAB to nd values of the discrete

signal on the time interval [0, 1] seconds.
(b) Plot the discrete signal and comment on its
period.
(c) Repeat this question using impulses spaced
every 0.01 seconds.

2-Classification of Signals

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2-Classification of Signals

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CHAPTER 2

A signal s(t ) may be classied by identifying

List the different signal types in the

Identify common periodic signals by

certain characteristics that serve to predict its

Calculate the energy and power

presented for each signal type.

Use MATLAB to dene and to plot

Compute the phase and

Explain the properties dening a

Dene a discrete time signal from a

The list of categories shown below summarizes the

2.2 | Periodic Signals

2.2 Periodic Signals

Given a signal st if, for all t and for constant T,

This property is especially useful in signals analysis when it is observed that

2.2.2 Half-Wave Rectied Sinusoid

Chapter 2 Classication of Signals

FIGURE 2.1 CosinePeriod: T 2 s.

The effect of these circuits can be modelled mathematically as shown.

The electronic half-wave rectier can be accomplished mathematically by passing

2.2 | Periodic Signals

FIGURE 2.3 Half-wave rectied cosinePeriod: T 2 s.

2.2.3 Full-Wave Rectied Sinusoid

2.2.4 Square Wave

Chapter 2 Classication of Signals

FIGURE 2.4 Full-wave rectied cosinePeriod: T s.

FIGURE 2.5 Square wavePeriod: T 2 s.

2.2 | Periodic Signals

2.2.5 Sawtooth Wave

2.2.6 Pulse Train

FIGURE 2.6 Sawtooth WavePeriod: T 2 s.

Chapter 2 Classication of Signals

2.2.7 Rectangular Wave

2.2 | Periodic Signals

FIGURE 2.8 Triangle WaveA regular series of triangular pulses. Period: T 2 s.

2.2.8 Triangle Wave

2.2.9 Impulse Train

This notation for combt, T is not a standard form.

Chapter 2 Classication of Signals

T along the time axis.

Each term t nT is a unit impulse shifted to position t nT , as shown in

DC Component in Periodic Signals Periodic signals are distinguished by their

2.3 Odd and Even Signals

Given a signal st if, for all t,

2.3 | Odd and Even Signals

Given a signal st if, for all t,

(Integration of even signals)

If st is even, then for constant k:

Chapter 2 Classication of Signals

(Integration of odd signals)

If st is odd, then for constant k:

2.3.1 Combining Odd and Even Signals

Multiplication of Odd and Even Signals

even 3 even even

even 3 odd odd

odd 3 odd even

Addition of Odd and Even Signals

even even even

even odd neither

odd odd odd

2.3 | Odd and Even Signals

(Odd and Even Signals)

Evaluate the integral