Example 2.

1: Piezometric Head
Figure 2.17 shows a dam, using equation 2.2: h =

P
+ z , show that the Piezometric head on
g

surface AB = H1 at any point on surface AB, ( i.e. show that h1 = h2 = h3 = H1).

Figure 2.17

Answer 2.1
From equation 2.2: h =

h1 =

P1
+ z1
g

P
+z
g

h2 =

P1 = gd1 , z1 = H 1 d1

P2
+ z2
g

P2 = gd 2 , z 2 = H 1 d 2

Then,

P1
+ z1 =
g
P
h2 = 2 + z 2 =
g
P
h3 = 3 + z 3 =
g
h1 =

h3 =

g d1
+ H 1 d1 = d1 + H 1 d1 = H 1
g
g d 2
+ H1 d 2 = d 2 + H1 d 2 = H1
g
g d 3
+ H1 d 3 = d 3 + H1 d 3 = H1
g

So, on the surface AB h= H1, but the pressure is not the same.

91

P3
+ z3
g
P3 = gd 3 , z 3 = H 1 d 3

Example 2.2: Darcys Law and Groundwater velocity

A confined aquifer is 50 m thick and 0.5 km wide. Two observation wells are located 1.4 km apart
in the direction of flow. Head in well No. 1 is 50m and in well No. 2 is 42m. Hydraulic conductivity
is 0.7 m/day. Effective porosity is 0.2.
(i)
(ii)

What is the total flow of water through the aquifer?

What is the actual groundwater velocity between the two wells?

Answer 2.2
From equation 2.4, Q = KA

(i)

h2 h1
L

Where, K = 0.7 m/day, A= 50x500=25,000 m2, h1= 50m, h2= 42m, L= 1,400m.
So, the total flow of water through the aquifer = Q
From equation 2.6, u =

(ii)

= 0.7 25,000

8
= 100 m 3 / day .
1,400

K h

ne l

So, the actual groundwater velocity between the two wells = u

0.7
8

= 0.02 m / day .
0.2 1400

Example 2.3: Specific Discharge

Figure 2.18 shows two piezometers in a confined aquifer:
(i)
(ii)

What is the direction of the groundwater flow in the Figure?

What is the specific discharge using Darcys law, when the hydraulic conductivity is
2x10-3 m/sec?

Figure 2.18

Answer 2.3
(i)

The direction of the flow is

(ii)

From equation 2.5,

q = K

dh
,
dx

So the specific discharge = q = 2 10

92

12
= 4.8 10 5 m / sec .
500

Example 2.4: Groundwater Flow into a river

A river penetrates a confined aquifer of 10 m thick Figure 2.19. A long drought decreases the
flow in the stream by 0.5 m3/sec between gauging stations. A and B some 6000 m apart. On the
west side of the river, the piezometer contours parallel the bank and slope towards the river at
0.0004 m/m. The piezometric contours on the east side of the river slope away from the river
toward a well field at a slope of 0.0006 m/m.

Figure 2.19
(i)
(ii)

Explain the flow system along this section.

Using Darcys law and the continuity equation, compute the transmissivity of the
aquifer through the river section.

Answer 2.4
(i)

Flow into the river from the aquifer occurs on the west and flow from the river into the
aquifer occurs on the east.

(ii)

From continuity equation, we have:

Qin Qout = Q

Due to the slope of the piezometric surface, we assume the flow into the stream from the
aquifer occurs on the west and flow from the stream into the aquifer occurs at the east, or:

Qin = K A (dh ) west

dl

and

Qout = K A (dh ) east

dl

Thus,

K A (dh ) west K A (dh ) east = 0.5 m 3 / sec ( Decrease)

dl
dl
KA ( (dh ) west (dh ) east ) = 0.5 m 3 / sec
dl
dl
K (6000 m 10 m) [ 0.0004 m / m 0.0006 m / m ] = 0.5 m 3 / sec
K = 4.17 10 2 m / sec
but T = Kb = 4.17 10 2 m / sec 10 m = 4.17 10 1 m 2 / sec

93

Example 2.5: Vertical Hydraulic Conductivity

Three geological formations overlie one another with the characteristics shown in Figure 2.20
below. A constant-velocity vertical flow field exists across the three formations. The hydraulic
head is 11 m at the top of the formations and 6.5 m at the bottom.

Figure 2.20

(i)

Calculate the average vertical hydraulic conductivity?

(ii)

Calculate the velocity through the entire system?

(iii)

Calculate the hydraulic head at the two internal boundaries?

Answer 2.5
(i)

According to equation 2.74,

Kv =

b
n

b / K
i =1

So,

Kz =

280
= 6.2 m / day
50 20 210
+ +
18 0.5 85

94

(ii)

Now, we find the velocity through the entire system.

qz = K.

(iii)

6.5 11
h
= 6.2
= 9.96 10 2 m / day
l
280

Now, we use the calculated velocity in (ii) to find the change in head across each layer.

(h h )
h
= K 2 1 q z b = K (h2 h1 )
l
b
q b
q b
h2 = z + h1 or h2 = h1 z
K
K
qz = K.

Thus, at the bottom of the first aquifer we get:

qz b
9.96 10 2 50
= 11
K
6.2
h bottom of the first layer = 10.2 m.
h2 = h1

At the bottom of the second aquifer we get:

qz b
9.96 10 2 20
= 10.2
K
6.2
hbottom of the sec ond layer = 9.88 m.
h2 = h1

To check our calculations, we continue:

qz b
9.96 10 2 210
= 9.88
K
6.2
hbottom of the third layer = 6.50 m.
h2 = h1

So, our calculations are right since the head at the bottom of the formations is 6.5 m.

95

Example 2.6: Compressibility and Effective Stress

A confined aquifer with an initial thickness of 45 m consolidates (compacts) 0.20 m when the
head is lowered by 25 m. The porosity of the aquifer is 12 % after compaction.
(i)

What is the vertical compressibility of the aquifer?

(ii)

Calculate the storativity of the aquifer?

(iii)

How much water was released from storage for a head drop of 25 m averaged over
the aquifer, assume that the aquifer has an area of 106 m2?

Answer 2.6
(i)

The given parameter values are dP = 25 m, b = 45 m , and db = 0.20 m . A pressure head

of 25 m of water can be converted to a fluid pressure by multiplying the pressure head
by the density of water times the gravitational constant.

dP = 25 m 1000 kg / m 3 9.8 m / s 2 = 245,000 N / m 2

From equation 2.19,

db

b
dP

0 .2 m

(ii)

45 m
= 1.8 10 8 m 2 / N
245,000 N / m 2

Aquifer Storativity is found from equation 1.26

S = bg [ + n ]
The given parameter values are
and

b = 44.8m, n = 0.12, w =1000 kg / m 3 , g = 9.8 m / s 2

=1.8 10 8 m 2 / N , and = 4.6 10 10 m 2 / N .

S = (44.8 m)(1000 kg / m 3 ) (9.8 m / s 2 ) [1.8 10 8 m 2 / N + 0.12 4.6 10 10 m 2 / N ]

= (44.8 m) ( 9800 N / m 3 )(1.806 10 8 m 2 / N )
= 7.9 10 3
(iii)

From equation 1.30, Vw = S . A. h

The volume of water released from storage of aquifer = 7.9 x 10-3 x 106 m2 x 25 m =
197.5 x 103 m3.

96

Example 2.7: Groundwater Flow Equations

Define the model assumptions implicit in the following equations of groundwater motion (i.e.
state whether the flow is steady or transient; 1-dimenional or 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional;
homogeneous or heterogeneous; isotropic or anisotropic).

(i) K

d dh
=0
h
dx dx

(ii)

2 2
+
=0
x 2 y 2

(iii)

xi

a ( xi ) = S o
, i = 1,2
Tij
t
x j

Answer 2.7
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Homogenous, isotropic, 1-d, steady.

Homogenous, isotropic, can be 3-d, steady.
Heterogeneous, anisotropic, 2-d, transient

Example 2.8: Groundwater Flow Equations

Show that for constant density and viscosity the following two equations are related:

S op

P
. (p + g ) = Q p
t

and

So

K 2 = Q *
t

Hints:

1) S 0 = S op g ,

2) K =

kg

3) z = 1,

4) =

P
+ z,
g

5)

Qp

= Q*

Answer 2.8

P
. (p + g ) = Q p
t

S op

k p

P
. g
+ g = Q p
g
t

S op

k p
P
. g
+ 1 = Q p
t
g

S op

k p

P
. g
+ z = Q p
t

S op

gk

p
P
gk
= Q p , ( Note that 1 = z , =
.
+ z , and
=K )
t
g

S op

(divide all terms by cons tan t

but P = g ( z )
S op g
S0

S op

Qp
P
[K ]=
t

= g
t
t

K 2 = Q * , ( Note that S o = S op g )
t

K 2 = Q *
t

97

( Note that

Qp

= Q* )

Example 2.9: Groundwater Flow Equations

Given the piezometric heads in three observation wells located in a homogeneous confined
aquifer of constant transmissivity, T= 5000 m2/day.
Well
A
B
C

X(m)
0
0
200

Y(m)
0
300
0

(m)
15
10.4
12.1

(i)

Draw the contours of the piezometric surface

(ii)

Determine the discharge through the aquifer per unit width (magnitude and
direction).

(iii)

For the same data above except for T which is replaced by K =

30
8

aquifer thickness B=50m, what will be the discharge vector?

Draw the discharge vector and grad ( ) on your figure for (i).

Hint,

dh dh
q=T i+
dx dy

K xx
q x

j , q = = B
K yx

q y

Answer 2.9
(i)

98

dh
K xy dx

K yy dh
dy

8
for
10

(ii)

dh dh
q=T i+
dx dy

12.1 15
h
= 5000
= 72.5 m 2 / day
x
200 0
10.4 15
h
qy = T
= 5000
= 76.65 m 2 / day
y
300 0
qx = T

q=

(72.5)2 + (76.65)2

= 105.5 m 2 / day

76.65
o
= 46.6
72
.
5

= tan 1

from east

(iii)

h
2.9
4.6
h

q x = B k xx
+8
= 27.885 m 2 / day
+ k xy = 50 30

200
300
y

x
h
4.6
h
2.9
q y = B k yx
+ 10
= 13.467 m 2 / day
+ k yy = 50 8

200
300
y

x
q=

(27.885)2 + (13.467 )2

= 30.97 m 2 / day

13.467
o
= 25.78 from east
27.885

= tan 1

99

Example 2.10: Groundwater Flow Equations

Let Kx = 26 m/day and Ky = 16 m/day be the principal values of K in an anisotropic aquifer, in the
x and y directions respectively for two dimensional flow. The hydraulic gradient is 0.004 in a
direction making an angle 30 with the +x axis.
(i)

Determine q

(ii)

What is the angle between grad () and q.

Hint:

q x
K x
q= =
q y
0

d
0 dx

K y d
dy

Answer 2.10

d
= . i = cos = 0.004 cos (30 o ) = 3.464 10 3
dx
d
= . j = cos (90 ) = 0.004 sin (30 o ) = 2.000 10 3
dy

q x
36
q= =
0
q y

0 3.464 10 3

16 2.000 10 3

36 3.464 10 3
q x
0.125
q= =
=

3
16 2.000 10
0.032
q y

q=

(0.125)2 + (0.032)2

= 0.129 m / day

0.032
o
=14.36 from east
0.125

= tan 1

100

Example 2.11: Water Table Map

Figure 2.21 is a map showing the groundwater elevation in wells screened in an unconfined
aquifer at Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The aquifer is in good hydraulic connection with Lake Michigan,
which has a surface elevation of 580 ft above sea level. Lakes and streams are also shown on the
map.
(i)

Make a water-table map with a contour interval of 50 ft, starting at 550 ft.

(iv)

Why do you suppose that groundwater levels are below the Lake Michigan surface
elevation in part of the area?

Figure 2.21

Base map for example 2.11

101

Answer 2.11
(i)

Here is the Water table map,

(ii)

Water levels are below Lake Michigan because of pumping from the aquifer.

102

Example 2.12: Steady Flow in a Confined Aquifer

A river and a drainage channel are shown in Figure 2.22. The average elevation of the water
surface in the river is 144.6 meters, and in the channel 142.20 meters. The hydraulic
conductivity of the confined inter-granular aquifer developed in medium alluvial sand is 3.5x10-4
m/s. The hydrologic cross section in Figure 2.23 shows the relationship between the aquifer,
the overlying silty clay (aquitard) and the underlying dense (impermeable) clay.

Figure 2.22 Plan view of the river and the drainage channel

Figure 2.23 Hydrogeological cross-section between the river and the drainage channel
shown in Figure 11 as determined by filed investigations.

(i)

Calculate the groundwater flow per unit width between the river and the drainage
channel?

(ii)

What is the height z of the piezometric surface at a midpoint between the river and
the channel?

103

Answer 2.12
(i)

According to Darcy law Q = K . A.

h
x

= K . b. w.

h
x

h
x
h h1
q = K .b. 2
L
(137.30 133.80) + (139.00 135.40) 3.5 + 3.6
but , b =
=
= 3.55 m
2
2

So, q = K .b.

(ii)

q=

(3.5 x10 4 ) (3.55) (142.20 144.5)

720

q=

4.14 x 10 6 m 2 / s

The position of the potentiometric surface at a midpoint between the river and the
channel. Since the aquifer is confined, the piezometric surface is linear.

h2 h1
x
h h1
q = K .b x
x
q
x
hx = h1
Kb
4.14 x10 6
hx = 144.6 (
x 3.55)
3.5 x10 4 x 3.55
hx = 143.4 m asl
q = K .b.

104

Example 2.13: Steady Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer

Refer to Figure 2.24; the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 1.2 m/day. The value of h1 is
17 m and the value of h2 is 12 m. The distance from h1 to h2 is 4525 m. There is an average rate
of recharge of 0.0002 m/day.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

What is the average discharge per unit width at x=0 m?

What is the average discharge per unit width at x=4252 m?
Where is the water divide located?
What is the maximum height of the water table?

Figure 2.24

Answer 2.13
(i)

at x=0, Use equation 2.111

K h12 h22
L

w x
qx =
2L
2

2
2
1.2 m / d (17 m 12 2 m 2 )
4525m
0.0002 m / d (
0)
q0 =
2 (4525)m
2
q 0 = 0.43 m 2 / day (negative sign implies movement in negative x direction)

105

(ii)

at x= 4525, Use equation 2.111

K h12 h22
L

w x
2L
2

2
2
1.2 m / d (17 m 12 2 m 2 )
4525m
0.0002 m / d (
4525)
q 4525 =
2 (4525)m
2
qx =

q 4525 = 0.47 m 2 / day

(iii)

From equation 2.112,

L K h12 h22

2 w 2L
4525 m
1.2 m / d (17 2 m 2 12 2 m 2

d=
2
0.0002 m / d
2 (4525)
d = 2166 meters.

d=

(iv)

From equation 2.113,

hmax = h

2
1

(h

2
1

h22 d w
+ ( L d )d
L
K

hmax = 17 2 m 2

(17

m 2 12 2 m 2 2166 m 0.0002 m / d
+
(4525m 2166m) 2166m
4525
1.2 m / d

hmax = 32.7 m

106

Example 2.14: The Potentiometric Surfaces for the Steady-State One-Dimensional

Groundwater Flow System
(i)

Sketch in, as accurately as possible, the potentiometric surfaces for the steadystate one-dimensional groundwater flow systems given below.

Figure 2.25
(ii)

For the following hydraulic parameter values determine the distribution of h(x) over
the length of the aquifer in Figure 2.25 (b).
K = 10 m/day
h1= 10 m
h2 = 5 m
Determine the largest abstraction that can be obtained theoretically from the aquifer
assuming the equation you derive is valid.

107

Answer 2.14
(i)

(a)

(b) There are two possibilities:

(1) All Q goes to the left hand side as this side has less head.
(2) Q is divided according to length.

(c)

There are three possibilities:

(1)
Q1 as well as Q2 is relatively small.
(2)
Q1 and Q2 are big, they seem equal.
(3)
Q2 > Q1

108

(ii)

Apply Dupuit Assumption, see Equation 2.98

1 h 2 h22
q = K 1
2 L

You can follow the derivation of this equation from Darcys Law, as shown below.

dh
q = Kh

dx

h2

h1

h22 h12
qL = K
2
2

q dx = K hdh
Then,

1 h 2 h22
q = K 1
2 L

Now, we can calculate the total flow in the aquifer,

1
100 25
3
qTotal = 10
= 3.125 m / day / m
2
120

Now, Q = q1 + q 2

q1 =

10 10 2 ho

2 70

5
100 ho2
=
70

2
10 5 2 ho
5
25 ho2
q2 =
=
2 50
50

5
5 2 5
5 2
100
ho + 25
ho
70
70
50
50
50
5 2 5
1 2
Q=

ho +
ho
7
70
2 10
dQ
10
2
= ho ho = 0
dho
70
10
Q=

24
ho = 0
70

ho = 0

5
5
[100 0] +
[25 0] ) = 7.14 + 2.5
70
50
Q = 9.64 m 3 / day / m width
Q = q1 + q 2 = (

109

Example 2.15: The Potentiometric Surfaces for the Steady-State One-Dimensional

Groundwater Flow System
Sketch in, as accurately as possible, the potentiometric surfaces for the steady-state onedimensional groundwater flow systems given below.

Figure 2.26

110

Answer 2.15
(a)

Recharge = qL

and Discharge = qL/2

(b)

(c)

111

Example 2.16: The Potentiometric Surfaces for the Steady-State One-Dimensional

Groundwater Floe System
Sketch in, as accurately as possible, the potentiometric surfaces for the steady-state onedimensional groundwater flow systems given below.

Figure 2.27

For Figure 2.27 b, assume that

B K (h2 h1 )
L
B K (h2 h1 )
Q2 = +
L
Q1 =

112

Answer 2.16
(a)

You need to locate ho at the abstraction line as Q = q1 + q 2

q1

q2

2 B K (h1 ho ) 2 B K (h2 h0 )
2 B K (h2 h1 )
=
+
L
L
L

=
+
h2 h1
h1 ho
h2 h0

(b)

Q1 = q1 + q 2

2 h1

h1

and

2 h0
h0

Q2 = q 2 + q 3

113

First

Q1

q1

q2

3 B K (h1 ho ) 3 B K (h3 h0 )
B K (h2 h1 )
=
+
L
L
L

h2 + h1
=
3h1 3ho + 3 h3 3h0

6 h0

2 h1 + h2 + 3 h3

(1)

Second

Q2

q3

3 B K (ho h3 ) 3 B K (h2 h3 )
+
L
L
=
3h0 3h3 + 3 h2 3h3

B K (h2 h1 )
L

h2 h1

q2

3 h0

h1 + 2 h2 6 h3

( 2)

Multiply [(1)x 2] and add (1) to (2)

12 h 0

4 h1 + 2 h 2 + 6 h 3

+
3 h0

h1 + 2 h 2 6 h 3

__________ __________ __________ ______

9 h0

5 h1 + 4 h 2

h0

5
4
h1 + h 2
9
9

Solving for h3 , substitute ho in (2)

3 h0

h1 +

2 h2 6 h3

5
4
h1 + h2 =
9
9

h1 +

2 h2 6 h3

6 h3

h3

5
4

4 14
h1 h1 + 2 h2 h2 = h1 + h2
9
9

9 9

4
14
h1 +
h2
54
54

114

Example 2.17: One-Dimensional Flow Regime

For the one-dimensional flow regime shown in Figure 2.28,
(i)

(ii)

Calculate how long it will take a particle to travel from point A to the river B
assuming that it travels with the averaged advective velocity of the groundwater
flow.
Sketch in, as accurately as possible, the potentiometric surface for the steady-state
one-dimensional groundwater flow systems given in the Figure.

Figure 2.28 (Not to scale)

Answer 2.17
(i)

From the continuity equation q1 = q 2

q1

= q3 ,

q2

K (h1 h A )
K (h2 h1 )
=
L
L
10 (h1 35) = 13 (h2 h1 )

10 h1 350

( Note L is the same)

= 13 h2 13 h1

23 h1

= 13 h2 + 350

q1

(1)

q3

K (h1 h A )
K (hB h2 )
=
L
L
10 (h1 35) = 15 (10 h2 )

10 h1 350

( Note L is the same)

= 150 15 h2

10 h1

= 15 h2 + 500

2 h1

= 3 h2 + 100

115

(divided by 5)
( 2)

Multiply [(1)x 3] and [(2)x 13] and add them

69 h1

39h2 + 1,050

26 h1

39h2 + 1300

+
____________________________________
95h1
2,350
=

h1

24.74 m

Solving for h2 , substitute h1 in (1)

23 h1

13 h2 + 350

(23 24.74) = 13 h2 + 350

= 16.85 m

h2

Now,

u1 =

K 1 (h1 h A )
10 (24.74 35)

n1
L1
0 .2
300

t1 =
u2 =

L1
300 m
=
= 175.44 days
u1 1.17 m / day

K 2 (h2 h1 )
13 (16.85 24.74 )

=1.37 m / day
n2
L2
0.25
300

t2 =
u3 =

= 1.71 m / day

L2
300 m
=
= 218.98 days
u 2 1.37 m / day

K 3 (hB h2 )
15 (10 16.85)

n3
L3
0.27
300

t3 =

= 1.27 m / day

L3
300 m
=
= 236.22 days
u 3 1.27 m / day

It will take a particle to travel to travel from point A to the river B about 631 days
(ii)

Note that the sketch is not to scale.

116

Example 2.18: Flow Net

Figure 2.29 is a piezometric map of a shallow unconfined groundwater catchment running down
to the sea.
(i)

Sketch streamlines on this map in order to form a flow net.

(ii)

Estimate the flow rate of groundwater across the line on the map indicated by the
20 m contour, assuming an aquifer transmissivity of 250 m2/day.

Figure 2.29

117

Answer 2.18
(i)

(ii)

Q =T.
*

dh
. width
dl
From Figure 2.29, it is approximated (measured) that distance between contour
80 and contour 20 is about 5 cm, i.e. 0.05 m.
It is also approximated (measured) that the width of contour 20 is 10 cm (0.1m).
Note that the scale is 1:25,000.

dh
. width
dl
80 20
Q = 250
[0.1 25,000]
0
.
05

25
,
000

Q =T.

Q = 30,000 m 3 / day

118

Example 2.19: Flow Nets and Well Operation

(i)

The attached map (Figure 2.30) gives the positions of seven observation boreholes
in a limestone aquifer, with piezometric levels for each borehole in meters above sea
level. The mean stage of the river is 65 m above sea level. Construct a flow net

representing the equipotential lines and selected flow lines in the aquifer.

(ii)

Pumping tests in wells 2 and 6 have yielded transmissivity values of 110 m2/day and
95 m2/day respectively. The effective saturated thickness of the aquifer in the area
is 45 m. Use Darcys Law to calculate the flow of groundwater into the river when the
potentiometric surface is in the configuration you have sketched on Figure 2.29.

Figure 2.30

Piezometric levels (meters above sea level [masl]) in the Sherburn Limestone
Aquifer, 1-7-1992

119

Answer 2.19
(i)

(ii)

From the given scale: 1 km = 1.7 cm.

So, the distance between well No.2 and well No.6 = 10.5 cm = 6.176 km
And the length of the segment of the river that faces the groundwater flow = 11.2 cm =
6.588 km.

dh
. width
dl
110 + 95 93.4 65
Q=
[6588]

2 6176

Q = 3,105.19 m 3 / day
Q =T.

120

Example 2.20: Analysis of Groundwater Flow Systems

INTRODUCTION
Analysis of groundwater flow system involves identification of groundwater flow directions and
qualification of fluxes. The main method for achieving these objectives is the construction of
flow nets. A flow net is an assemblage of contours of groundwater head, with flow-lines drawn at
right angles to the contours. It is usual to construct flow nets in two orientations, i.e. a plan view
[water table map] and one or more vertical profiles [usually cross sections along the trace of a
flow line identified on the water table map].

MATERIALS
You are provided with a map showing groundwater levels (in meters above mean sea level) on a
single day in July 1990 in an extensive limestone aquifer (lithologically similar to the deep West
Bank aquifer). You should bring drawing equipment (rulers, protractors, set-squares, coloured
pencils etc.). (Should you complete the manual steps of this exercise, software is available for
step 8).

WHAT YOU HAVE TO DO

1

Draw water table contours on the map provided. Pay particular attention to the need to
represent cones of depression around abstraction boreholes (i.e. pumping wells). [Hint: the
coast-line is fixed head boundary of 0 meter water table elevation].
Compute the flow net in plan by adding ten flow lines, perpendicular to the contours.

Examine the shape of your flow net:

a.
b.
c.

Does the pattern of contours (spacing, orientation) tell you anything about local
variations in aquifer permeability?
How many distinct discharge areas can you recognize?
What is the hydrogeological influence of the fault at the southern edge of the
mapped area?

Given a mean transmissivity of 250 m2/day, what volume of water flows daily from the
aquifer into the ocean? Is the flow rate constant along the coastline, or does it vary from
one stretch to another?
Given that the abstraction boreholes shown on the map are long-established (with steady
drawdowns), and given their combined abstraction rate is around 100,000 m3/day, estimate
the amount of recharge this aquifer is receiving.
Choose one of the flow lines you have drawn on the map, and for each construct a vertical
profile flow net, showing the inferred distribution of groundwater head in the subsurface.
You may assume that, from its outcrop position, the base of the aquifer dips eastwards at
a gradient of 25 m per kilometer.
Assuming a hydraulic conductivity of 25 m/day is valid for both profiles, what would be the
average transit time to the coast for a molecule of water entering the aquifer near the
outcrop of the base of the limestone? Does the result surprise you? If so, why?

121

Figure 2.31

122

Answer 2.20
(1) and (2)

123

a.
b.
c.

Closer contour lines indicate lower hydraulic gradient, hence lower permeability.
Nearly 2.
It acts as a no-flow boundary.

dh
. width
dl
Q = Q1 (disch arg e area 1) + Q2 (disch arg e area 2)

Q =T.

(42 0)
10,000 = 17,500 m 3 / day
6000
(70 0)
Q2 = 250
16,000 = 18,667 m 3 / day
15,000
Q1 = 250

Q = 17,500 + 18667 = 36,167 m 3 / day.

The flow rate along the coastline varies from one stretch to another.

The Abstraction = 100,000 m3/day

Flow to the ocean = 36,167 m3/day
So, theoretically, the amount of recharge that this aquifer is receiving = 136,167 m3/day.

The vertical profile flow net for the flow line marked by (1).

50
Q
= K i = 25 m / day
n
10,000
u = 0.125 m / day.

u =

t=

10, 000
= 80,000 days = 219 years.
0.125

124

Example 2.21 Application of Darcys Law in Landfills

A landfill liner (very low permeable material) is laid on a top of permeable sand unit while the
sides of the liner have very contacts with the sand unit and a good clay unit as shown in Figure
2.32. The landfill can be represented by a square with length of 150 m on a side and a vertical
depth of 15 m from the surface. Thickness of landfill clay liner = 0.45m. Hydraulic conductivity
of landfill clay liner = 8.64x10-4 m/day. The regional groundwater level for the confined sand is
located 3 m below the surface. How much water will have to be continuously pumped from the
landfill to keep the potentiometric surface at 18 m above sea level within the landfill?
(Hint: Assume horizontal flow and use Darcys Law only)

Figure 2.32

125

Answer 2.21
Flow into landfill = flow to be pumped
Since flow is horizontal, Darcys law can be applied

Q = K . A.

h
l

Flow to landfill will come form the sides of the landfill that have contacts with sand +
from the bottom of the landfill because it also has contacts with landfill.

To apply Darcys law for horizontal flow, means that head is constant vertically, then
hydraulic gradient for the given situation is

i=

h 27 18
=
= 20
l
0.45

Note that the thickness of the clay liner = 0.45 m

9

Now, we have four sides that the landfill has contact with them. These four sides are
identical;

Area of each side = (22.5 15) x 150 = 1125 m 2

Total area of the four sides ( As ) = 4 x 1125 = 4500 m 2
h
l
m
= 8.64 x10 4
x 4500 m 2 x 20
day

Flow int o landfill from sides Qs = K . A.

Qs = 78 m3 / day
9

Now, we have one bottom that has contacts with the landfill;

Area of the bottom ( Ab ) = 150 x 150 = 22,500 m 2

Flow int o landfill from bottom Qb = K . A.

h
l

= 8.64 x10 4

m
x 22,500 m 2 x 20
day

Qb = 389 m3 / day
9

The flow into landfill = Q s + Q b = 78 + 389 = 467 m3/day, which is the same as
volume of water that should be pumped to keep the landfill hydraulics as shown in the
figure.

126

2.22

127

2.23

128

129

2.24

130

Example 2.25

131

132

133

Example 2.26

Example 2.26

134

135

Example 2.27

136

137

138

Example 2.28

139

Example 2.29

140

Example 2.30

141

142

Example 2.31

143