<b>The Rise of Knights<b>

By the time of Charlemagne, mounted warriors had become the elite military units
of the Franks and this innovation spread across Europe. Fighting from a horse w
as most glorious because the mounted man rode into battle, moved quickly, and tr
ampled down lower-class enemies on foot. When cavalry faced cavalry, the charge
at speed and resulting violent contact was exhilarating. Fighting while mounted
was most prestigious because of the high cost of horses, weapons, and armor. Onl
y wealthy individuals, or the retainers of the wealthy, could fight mounted.
Kings of the late Dark Ages had little money with which to pay for large conting
ents of expensive cavalry. Warriors were made vassals and given fiefs of land. T
hey were expected to use their profits from the land to pay for horses and equip
ment. In most cases, vassals also supported groups of professional soldiers. At
a time when central authority was weak and communications poor, the vassal, aide
d by his retainers, was responsible for law and order within the fief. In return
for his fief, the vassal agreed to provide military service to his lord. In thi
s way, high lords and kings were able to raise armies when desired. The elites o
f these armies were the mounted vassals.
As the Middle Ages progressed, the elite mounted warriors of western Europe beca
me known as knights. A code of behavior evolved, called chivalry, which detailed
how they should conduct themselves. They were obsessed with honor, both at war
and at peace, although mainly when dealing with their peers, not the commoners a
nd peasants who constituted the bulk of the population. Knights became the rulin
g class, controlling the land from which all wealth derived. The aristocrats wer
e noble originally because of their status and prestige as the supreme warriors
in a violent world. Later their status and prestige were based mainly on heredit
y, and the importance of being a warrior declined.
<i>Chivalry<i>
When first used, the term "chivalry" meant horsemanship. The warrior elite of th
e Middle Ages distinguished themselves from the peasants and clergy and each oth
er by their skill as horsemen and warriors. Fast and strong horses, beautiful an
d efficient weapons, and well-made armor were the status symbols of the day.
By the twelfth century, chivalry had come to mean an entire way of life. The bas
ic rules of the chivalric code were the following:
* Protect women and the weak.
* Champion justice against injustice and evil.
* Love the homeland.
* Defend the Church, even at the risk of death.
In practice, knights and aristocrats ignored the code of chivalry when it suited
them. Feuds between nobles and fights over land took precedent over any code. T
he Germanic tribal custom that called for a chieftain's property to be split amo
ng his sons, rather than pass to the eldest, often triggered wars among brothers
for the spoils. An example of this was the conflict between Charlemagne's grand
sons. The Middle Ages were plagued with such civil wars in which the big losers
were usually the peasants.
In the late Middle Ages, kings created orders of chivalry, which were exclusive
organizations of high-ranking knights that swore allegiance to their king and ea
ch other. Becoming a member of chivalric order was extremely prestigious, markin
g a man as one of the most important of the realm. In 1347 during the Hundred Ye
ars War, Edward III of England founded the Order of the Garter, still in existen
ce today. This order consisted of the 25 highest-ranking knights of England and
was founded to ensure their loyalty to the king and dedication to victory in the
 war.
The Order of the Golden Fleece was established by Philip the Good of Burgundy in
1430 and became the richest and most powerful order in Europe. Louis XI of Fran
ce established the Order of St. Michael to control his most important nobles. Th
e Orders of Calatrava, Santiago, and Alcantara were founded to drive the Moors o
ut of Spain. They were united under Ferdinand of Aragon, whose marriage to Isabe
lla of Castile set the foundation for a single Spanish kingdom. He eventually be
came master of the three orders, although they remained separate.
<i>Becoming a Knight<i>
At the age of 7 or 8, boys of the noble class were sent to live with a great lor
d as a page. Pages learned basic social skills from the women of the lord's hous
ehold and began basic training in the use of weapons and horsemanship. Around th
e age of 14 the youth became a squire, a knight in training. Squires were assign
ed to a knight who continued the youth's education. The squire was a general com
panion and servant to the knight. The duties of the squire included polishing ar
mor and weapons (prone to rust), helping his knight dress and undress, looking a
fter his belongings, and even sleeping across his doorway as a guard.
At tournaments and in battle, the squire assisted his knight as needed. He broug
ht up replacement weapons and horses, treated wounds, brought a wounded knight o
ut of danger, or made sure of a decent burial if needed. In many cases the squir
e went into battle with his knight and fought at his side. A knight avoided figh
ting a squire on the other side, if possible, seeking instead a knight of rank s
imilar to or higher than his own. Squires, on the other hand, sought to engage e
nemy knights, seeking to gain glory by killing or capturing an enemy knight of h
igh rank.
In addition to martial training, squires built up their strength through games,
learned to at least read, if not write, and studied music, dancing, and singing.
By the age of 21, a squire was eligible to become a knight. Suitable candidates
were "knighted" by a lord or other knight of high standing. The ceremony for bec
oming a knight was simple at first, usually being "dubbed" on the shoulder with
a sword and then buckling on a sword belt. The ceremony grew more elaborate and
the Church added to the rite. Candidates bathed, cut their hair close, and staye
d up all night in a vigil of prayer. In the morning the candidate received the s
word and spurs of a knight.
Knighthood was usually attainable only for those who possessed the land or incom
e necessary to meet the responsibilities of the rank. Important lords and bishop
s could support a sizable contingent of knights, however, and many found employm
ent in these circumstances. Squires who fought particularly well might also gain
the recognition of a great lord during battle and be knighted on the field.
<i>Tournaments<i>
Mock battles between knights, called tournaments, began in the tenth century and
were immediately condemned by the second Council of Letrán, under Pope Innocent
ius II, and the kings of Europe who objected to the injuries and deaths of knigh
ts in what they considered frivolous activity. Tournaments flourished, however,
and became an integral part of a knight's life.
Tournaments began as simple contests between individual knights but grew more el
aborate through the centuries. They became important social events that would at
tract patrons and contestants from great distances. Special lists (tournament gr
ounds) were erected with stands for spectators and pavilions for combatants. Kni
ghts continued to compete as individuals but also in teams. They dueled against
each other using a variety of weapons and held mock mêlée battles with many knig
hts on a side. Jousts, or tilts, involving two charging knights fighting with la
nces, became the premier event. Knights competed like modern-day athletes for pr
izes, prestige, and the eyes of the ladies who filled the stands.
So many men were being killed in tournaments by the thirteenth century, that lea
ders, including the pope, became alarmed. Sixty knights died in a 1240 tournamen
t held in Cologne, for example. The pope wanted as many knights as possible to f
ight on the Crusades in the Holy Land, rather than be killed in tournaments. Wea
pons were blunted and rules attempted to reduce the incidence of injury, but ser
ious and fatal injuries occurred. Henry II of France was mortally wounded, for e
xample, in a joust at a tournament held to celebrate his daughter's wedding.
Challenges were usually issued for a friendly contest, but grudges between two e
nemies might be settled in a fight to the death. Tournament losers were captured
and paid a ransom to the victors in horses, weapons, and armor to obtain their
release. Heralds kept track of tournament records, like modern baseball box scor
es. A low-ranking knight could amass wealth through prizes and attract a wealthy
wife.
<i>Military Orders<i>
During the Crusades military orders of knights were created to support the Chris
tian goals of the movement. They became the fiercest of the Crusaders and the mo
st hated enemies of the Arabs. These orders carried on after the Crusades in Pal
estine ended in failure.
The first of these orders were the Knights of the Temple, or the Templars, found
ed in 1108 to protect the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. The Templars wore a white
surcoat supplanted with a red cross and took the same vows as a Benedictine mon
k-poverty, chastity, and obedience. The Templars were among the bravest defender
s of the Holy Land. They were the last Crusaders to leave the Holy Land. In the
following years they grew wealthy from donations and by lending money at interes
t, attracting the envy and distrust of kings. In 1307 King Philip IV of France a
ccused them of many crimes, including heresy, arrested them, and confiscated the
ir lands. Other European leaders followed his lead and the Templars were destroy
ed.
The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, or the Hospitallers, were set up originall
y to tend to sick and poor pilgrims visiting the Holy Sepulcher. They converted
shortly into a military order. They wore a red surcoat with a white cross and al
so took the vows of St. Benedict. The Hospitallers set a high standard and did n
ot allow their order to become rich and indolent. When forced out of the Holy La
nd following the surrender of their great castle, the Krak des Chevaliers, they
retreated to the island of Rhodes, which they defended for many years. Driven fr
om Rhodes by the Turks they took up residence on Malta.
The third great military order was the Teutonic Knights, founded in 1190 to prot
ect German pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land. Before the end of the Crusades t
hey had turned their efforts toward converting the heathens in Prussia and in th
e Baltic States.
<i>Heraldry<i>
To distinguish knights on the battlefield, a system of badges called heraldry wa
s developed. A special badge was designed for each nobleman to be shown on his s
hield, surcoat, flags, and seal. A surcoat decorated with a knight's badge becam
e known as a coat-of-arms and this term came to describe the badges themselves.
An independent organization known as the College of Heralds designed the individ
ual badges and ensured that each was unique. Badges were recorded by the heralds
 in special books under their care.
Coats-of-arms were handed down from one generation to the next and would be modi
fied by marriage. Certain designs were reserved for royalty in different countri
es. By the late Middle Ages towns, guilds, and even prominent nonnoble townsmen
were granted coats-of-arms.
On the battlefield, combatants used coats-of-arms to distinguish friend and foe
and to choose a worthy opponent in a mêlée. Heralds made lists of knights about
to fight based on their badges. Heralds were also considered neutrals and would
act as intermediaries between two armies. In this manner they might pass message
s between the defenders of a castle or town and its besiegers. After a battle, h
eralds identified the dead by their coats-of-arms.