Aztec Architecture and Culture

The Aztec civilization occupied an immense mountainous region of approximately 3,000 square
miles which consisted of precipitous elevations and valleys (7,000 feet above sea level). The
adjacent areas ranged at an elevation limited to 18,000 feet in the volcano area of Popocatpetl.
The elevation and slopes combined with the climatic challenges caused a vast amount of
agricultural issues which required varied innovations and techniques. The problems ranged from
little or extreme precipitation, humidity, as well as severe frost. The sloping land also caused
regular erosion issues.
Most of the fertile land was sloped, so level land was scarce. To make matters worse, the remaining
square miles of somewhat level land consisted of chains of lakes with saturated shores.
As a result they had to devise techniques to allow them to coexist with these environmental issues.
They developed terraces that consisted of simple earth and maguey for the milder terrain and stone
terracing for the steeper angled areas. They also devised canal irrigation systems to solve the
humidity challenges and they resolved the frost issues with proper seasonal crop planning.
However, their most significant agricultural accomplishment was the system of swamp reclamation
which made farming and colonization of the surrounding lake areas more possible. This agricultural
technique used was called chinampa and is also popularly termed as "floating gardens" or artificial
islands.
The technique involved the agricultural use of small, rectangular areas of fertile cultivatable land in
the shallow lake beds. This impressive method of agriculture was extremely productive and yielded
an average three crops per year which supplied the needs of the rural areas as well as the city of
Tenochtitln.
The construction and components are also very impressive. They usually ranged typically from 98
by 8 feet or longer in area. They consisted mainly of rectangular wattle fencing with layers made of
mud, lake residue, decomposing vegetation and trees. The trees were used mainly as anchors on
the corners of the chinampas. They often placed the chinampas far apart to create channels for
the high traffic canoe activities.
For flood control, they constructed a series of stone based causeway dikes. These dikes combined
with sluice gates allowed the Aztecs to convert a section of the large brackish waters of Lake
Texcoco into a freshwater bay for additional chinampa development.
The various causeway dikes also served as interconnections for the mainland and the smaller rural
lakeside settlements.
This basin was also rich with major resources which were unfortunately often exploited for other
areas of civilization. For example, the northeastern area of the basin contained one of regions most
major deposits of Obsidian (a natural glass of volcanic origin). Obsidian was an excellent element
for the manufacture of various stone tools. The pine trees in the forests from the higher elevations
were used for lumber.
One of the most impressive architectural wonders of the Aztec civilization was the capital city of
Tenochtitln. It was considered as a gigantic metropolis than spanned for over five square miles.
However, it was initially two individual cities, Tlatelolco and Tenochtitln, which were merged as one
city after the Aztecs conquered Tlatelolco.
At first, they continued the division mainly for administrative reasons, however, growth and
development made it difficult to maintain. As a result, Tenochtitln was eventually divided into four
great wards known as calpulli.
The combination of these chinampa villages, other lakeshore settlements and the actual city made
Tenochtitln the largest and most densely populated Meso-American society.
The urbanized area city population consisted of non-food-laborers, such as craftsmen, builders,
business persons, religious figures, bureaucrats and warriors.
Aztec religious practices were sometimes considered elaborate and placed great emphasis on
sacrifice and austere manners of conduct as the required prerequisite for approaching the
paranormal state. The faction of gods required a great expert team of priests. As a matter of fact,
each temple and god was equipped with its individual associate religious order.
Aztec religion was considered as syncretistic because it consisted of elements of other
Mesoamerican religions and cultures especially with their cosmological beliefs. Their pantheon
consisted of different gods of nature and a god of war (Huitzilopochtli). Human sacrifice and
bloodletting were commonly practiced.
The Aztec calendar also had a correlation to their religious practices. The calendar shared some of
the commonalities of most Mesoamerica cultures such as a solar year and a sacred year as well as
the parallel two year cycles that produced the larger 52 year cycle.

The city consisted of hundreds of temples and associated religious structures.

Tenochtitlans great temple complex of consisted of three large pyramid temples
(the principal temple platform, dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc,
was 100 feet high and measured 300 feet on a side at its base).
There were also six small pyramid temples,
three calmecac buildings (dormitories and colleges for priests),
a ball court, a great wooden rack for the skulls of sacrificed victims,
a sacred pool, a sacred grove, and several large open courts.
All of these structures were placed within a vast walled enclosure,
1,200 feet on a side. The temple complex at Tlatelolco was at least half as large.- Britannica

The Aztec Empire flourished between c. 1345 and 1521

CE and, at its greatest extent, covered most of northern
Mesoamerica.Aztec warriors were able to dominate their
neighbouring
states
and
permit
rulers
such
as Motecuhzoma
II to
impose
Aztec
ideals
and religion across
Mexico.
Highly
accomplished
in agricultureand trade,
the
last
of
the
great
Mesoamerican civilizations was also noted for its art and
architecture which ranks amongst the finest ever
produced on the continent.
The Aztec state is actually the most well documented
Mesoamerican civilization with
sources
including archaeology, native books (codices) and
lengthy and detailed accounts from their Spanish conquerors - both by military men and Christian
clergy. These latter sources may not always be reliable but the picture we have of the Aztecs, their
institutions, religious practices, warfare and daily life is a rich one and it continues to be constantly
expanded with details being added through the endeavours of 21st century CE archaeologists and
scholars.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Sometime around 1100 CE the city-states or altepetl which were spread over central Mexico began
to compete with each other for local resources and regional dominance. Each state had its own ruler
or tlatoani who led a council of nobles but these small urban centres surrounded by farmland soon
sought to expand their wealth and influence so that by c. 1400 CE several small empires had formed
in the Valley of Mexico. Dominant amongst these were Texcoco, capital of the Acholhua region, and
Azcapotzalco, capital of the Tepenec. These two empires came face to face in 1428 CE with the
Tepanec War. The Azcapotzalco forces were defeated by an alliance of Texcoco,Tenochtitlan (the
capital of the Mexica) and several other smaller cities. Following victory a Triple Alliance was formed
between Texcoco, Tenochtitlan and a rebel Tepanec city, Tlacopan. A campaign of territorial
expansion began where the spoils of war - usually in the form of tributes from the conquered - were
shared between these three great cities. Over time Tenochtitlan came to dominate the Alliance, its
ruler became the supreme ruer - thehuey tlatoque ('high king') - and the city established itself as the
capital of the Aztec empire.
MASTERS OF THE WORLD, THEIR EMPIRE SO WIDE AND ABUNDANT THAT THEY HAD
CONQUERED ALL THE NATIONS. DIEGO DURN
The empire continued to expand from 1430 CE and the Aztec military - bolstered by conscription of
all adult males, men supplied from allied and conquered states, and such elite groups as the Eagle
and Jaguar warriors - swept aside their rivals. Aztec warriors wore padded cotton armour, carried a
wooden or reed shield covered in hide, and wielded weapons such as a super sharp obsidian swordclub (macuahuitl), a spear or dart thrower (atlatl), and bow and arrows. Elite warriors also wore
spectacular feathered and animal skin costumes and headdresses to signify their rank. Battles were
concentrated in or around major cities and when these fell the victors claimed the whole surrounding
territory. Regular tributes were extracted and captives were taken back to Tenochtitlan for ritual
sacrifice. In this way the Aztec empire came to cover most of northern Mexico, an area of some
135,000 square kilometres.
The empire was kept together through the appointment of officials from the Aztec heartland, intermarriages, gift-giving, invitations to important ceremonies, the building of monuments and artworks
which promoted Aztec imperial ideology, and most importantly of all, the ever-present threat of
military intervention. Some states were integrated more than others whilst those on the extremities
of the empire became useful buffer zones against more hostile neighbours, notably the Tarascan
civilization.

TENOCHTITLAN
The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan on the western shore of Lake Texcoco flourished so that the city
could boast at least 200,000 inhabitants by the early 16th century CE, making it the largest city in
the Pre-Columbian Americas. These inhabitants were divided into several social strata. At the top
were local rulers (teteuhctin), then came nobles (pipiltin), commoners (macehualtin), serfs
(mayeque), and finally slaves (tlacohtin). The strata seem to have been relatively fixed but there is
some evidence of movement between them, especially in the lower classes.
Not only the political and religious capital, Tenochtitln was also a huge trading centre with goods
flowing in and out such as gold, greenstone, turquoise, cotton, cacao beans, tobacco, pottery,
tools, weapons, foodstuffs (tortillas, chile sauces, maize, beans, and even insects, for example) and
slaves. The Spanish invaders were hugely impressed by the city's splendour and magnificent
architecture and artwork, especially the Templo Mayorpyramid and massive stone sculptures.
Dominating the city was the huge Sacred Precinct with its temples and monumental ball court.
Tenochtitlan's water management was also impressive with large canals criss-crossing the city which
was itself surrounded by chinampas - raised and flooded fields - which greatly increased the
agricultural capacity of the Aztecs. There were also anti-flood dykes, artificial reservoirs for fresh
water, and wonderful flower gardens dotted around the city.
The whole city was designed to inspire awe in the people, especially visiting nobles who, entertained
with lavish ceremonies, could see that the Mexica Aztecs truly were:
Masters of the world, their empire so wide and abundant that they had conquered all the nations and
that all were their vassals. The guests, seeing such wealth and opulence and such authority and
power, were filled with terror. (Diego Durn, the Spanish friar, quoted in Nichols, 451)
RELIGION
Mythology and religion, as with most ancient cultures, were closely intertwined for the Aztecs. The
very founding of Tenochtitln was based on the belief that peoples from the mythical land of plenty
Aztln (literally 'Land of White Herons' and origin of the Aztec name) in the far northwest had first
settled in the Valley of Mexico. They had been shown the way by their god Huitzilopochtli who had
sent an eagle sitting on a cactus to indicate exactly where these migrants should build their new
home. The god also gave these people their name, the Mexica, who along with other ethnic groups,
who similarly spoke Nahuatl, collectively made up the peoples now generally known as the Aztecs.
The Aztec pantheon included a mix of older Mesoamerian gods and specifically Mexica deities. The
two principal gods worshipped were Huitzilopochtli (the war and sun god) and Tlaloc (the rain god)
and both had a temple on top of the Templo Mayor pyramid at the heart of Tenochtitlan. Other
important gods were Quetzalcoatl (the feathered serpent god common to many Mesoamerican
cultures), Tezcatlipoca (supreme
god
at
Texcoco), Xipe
Totec (god
of
Spring
and
agriculture), Xiuhtecuhtli (god of fire), Xochipilli (god of summertime and flowers), Ometeotl (the
creator god), Mictlantecuhtli (god of the dead) and Coatlicue (the earth-mother goddess).
This sometimes bewildering array of gods presided over every aspect of the human condition. The
timing of ceremonies in honour of these deities was dictated by a variety of calendars. There was
the 260-day Aztec calendar which was divided into 20 weeks, each of 13 days which carried names
such as Crocodile and Wind. There was also a Solar calendar consisting of 18 months, each of 20
days. The 584 day period covering the rise ofVenus was also important and there was a 52 year
cycle of the sun to be considered. The movement of planets and stars were carefully observed
(albeit not as accurately, though, as the Maya had done) and they provided the motive for the
specific timing of many religious rites and agricultural practices.
The sun, not surprisingly, had great significance for the Aztecs. They believed that the world went
through a series of cosmic ages, each had its own sun but finally each world was destroyed and
replaced by another until the fifth and final age was reached - the present day for the Aztecs. This
cosmic progression was wonderfully represented in the famous Sun Stone but also crops up in
many other places too.
The gods were honoured with festivals, banquets, music, dancing, decoration of statues, burning of
incense, the ritual burial of precious goods, penances such as blood-letting, and animal sacrifices.
Humans, both adults and less often children, were also frequently sacrificed to metaphorically 'feed'
the gods and keep them happy lest they become angry and make life difficult for humans by sending
storms, droughts etc. or even just to keep the sun appearing every day. Victims were usually taken
from the losing side in wars. Indeed, the so-called 'Flowery Wars' were specifically undertaken to
collect sacrificial victims. The most prestigious offerings were those warriors who had shown great
bravery in battle. The sacrifice itself could take three main forms: the heart was removed, the
victim was decapitated, or the victim was made to fight in a hopelessly one-sided contest against
elite warriors. There were also impersonators who dressed in the regalia of a specific god and at the
climax of the ceremony were themselves sacrificed.
ARCHITECTURE & ART The Aztecs were themselves appreciative of fine art and they collected
pieces from across their empire to be brought back to Tenochtitln and often ceremonially

buried. Aztec art was nothing if not eclectic and ranged from miniature engraved precious objects
to massive stone temples. Monumental sculptures were a particular favourite and could be fearsome
monstrosities such as the colossal Coatlicue statue or be very life-like such as the famous sculpture
of a seated Xochipilli.
Organised in guilds and attached to the main palaces, artisans could specialise in metalwork, wood
carving or stone sculpture, with materials used such as amethyst, rock crystal, gold, silver, and
exotic feathers. Perhaps some of the most striking art objects are those which employed
turquoise mosaic such as the famous mask of Xuihtecuhtli. Common forms of pottery vessels
include anthropomorphic vases in bright colours and of special note was the finely made and highly
prized Cholula ware from Cholollan.
Aztec art depicted all manner of subjects but especially popular were animals, plants and gods,
particularly those related to fertility and agriculture. Art could also be used as propaganda to spread
the imperial dominance of Tenochtitlan. Examples such as the Sun Stone, Stone of Tizoc, and Throne
of Motecuhzoma II all portray Aztec ideology and seek to closely correlate political rulers to cosmic
events and even the gods themselves. Even architecture could achieve this aim, for example, the
Templo Mayor pyramid sought to replicate the sacred snake mountain of Aztec mythology, Coatepec,
and temples and statues bearing Aztec symbols were set up across the empire.
COLLAPSE
The Aztec empire, which controlled some 11,000,000 people, had always had to deal with minor
rebellions - typically, when new rulers took power at Tenochtitlan - but these had always been swiftly
crushed. The tide began to turn, though, when the Aztecs were heavily defeated by the Tlaxcala and
Huexotzingo in 1515 CE. With the arrival of the Spanish, some of these rebel states would again
seize the opportunity to gain their independence. When the conquistadors finally did arrive from the
Old World sailing their floating palaces and led by Hernn Corts, their initial relations with the
leader of the Aztecs, Motecuhzoma II, were friendly and valuable gifts were exchanged. Things
turned sour, though, when a small group of Spanish soldiers were killed at Tenochtitlan while Corts
was away at Veracruz. The Aztec warriors, unhappy at Motecuhzoma's passivity, overthrew him and
set Cuitlahuac as the new tlatoani. This incident was just what Corts needed and he returned to the
city to relieve the besieged remaining Spanish but was forced to withdraw on the 30th of June 1520
CE in what became known as theNoche Triste. Gathering local allies Corts returned ten months
later and in 1521 CE he laid siege to the city. Lacking food and ravaged by disease, the Aztecs, now
led by Cuauhtemoc, finally collapsed on the fateful day of 13th of August 1521 CE. Tenochtitlan was
sacked and its monuments destroyed. From the ashes rose the new capital of the colony of New
Spain and the long line of Mesoamerican civilizations which had stretched right back to
the Olmec came to a dramatic and brutal end.
Inca Architecture and Culture
The city of Machu Picchu is one of the greatest architectural marvels of the Inca Civilization and is
considered as the lost city of the Incas. Its located in the Andean mountain range overlooking the
Urubamba valley and sits 7,500 feet above sea level.
The Inca capital city of Cuzco served as another architectural model of their design and engineering
skills and techniques. One noticeable feature is the preciseness of the cut stones used in their
construction.
The Inca culture was based on societal rankings and was emperor ruled with the aid of noble
bureaucrats. This governmental structure often used more rigid and brutal methods of authority.
Although their construction methods seemed impressively innovative, their designs were not
considered original. The designs of their temples, palaces, reinforcement and irrigation systems
shared many similarities with other Mesoamerican civilizations.
They had an agriculture based economy which for the most part, made them self sufficient. They
cultivated various types of staples such as corn (maize) and potatoes. They also raised animals such
as, ducks, llamas and alpacas.
Houses were built out of stone or adobe mud walls with solid stone foundations and thatched roofs
with wooden beams. The designs and layout varied, but most of these dwellings were rectangular.
Curved walls and multi-level structures existed, but were not a common occurrence. The stone
work in the city of Cuzco definitely serve as a testimony to the skillfulness and rigidity Incan
masonry.

Another notable characteristic is the kancha, which is an enclosed rectangular area that houses
three or more rectangle shaped buildings that surround a courtyard. Kancha units were used for
various purposes and helped to form a backdrop for the layout of dwellings and also palaces and
temples. The kancha was a common feature in Cuzco palaces and the Temple of the Sun
(Qorikancha), however, the Inca settlement of Ollantaytambo (beside the Urubamba River) is home
to one of the best kancha.
The Incas developed a widespread system of roadways which spanned throughout their empire. It
consisted of two northsouth roads with one running alongside the coast for about a 2,250 mile
stretch. They also created inland interconnections equipped with tunnels and vine-supported
suspension type bridges.
The Inca religion was a combination of animism, fetishism, and pantheism. Their pantheon was
headed by Inti, the sun god, a creator god and culture hero, Viracocha, and the rain god Apu Illapu.
Inca Empire enforced their religion as a highly structured state religion, but, seemed to tolerate
other native religions. They believed in divinity and also practiced the sacrifice of humans and
animals.
The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru between c. 1400 and 1533 CE, and their empire
eventually extended across western South America from Quito in the north to Santiago in the south,
making it the largest empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the world at that time.
Undaunted by the often harsh Andean environment, the Incas conquered people and exploited
landscapes in such diverse settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and tropical jungle. Famed for
their unique art and architecture, they constructed finely-built and imposing buildings wherever they
conquered, and their spectacular adaptation of natural landscapes with terracing, highways, and
mountaintop settlements continues to impress modern visitors at such world famous sites as Machu
Picchu.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
As with other ancient Americas cultures, the historical origins of the Incas are difficult to disentangle
from the founding myths they themselves created. According to legend, in the beginning, the creator
god Viracocha came out of the Pacific Ocean, and when he arrived at Lake Titicaca, he created the
sun and all ethnic groups. These first people were buried by the god and only later did they emerge
from springs and rocks (sacred pacarinas) back into the world. The Incas, specifically, were brought
into existence at Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) from the sun godInti, hence, they regarded themselves as
the chosen few, the 'Children of the Sun', and the Inca ruler was Inti's representative and
embodiment on earth. In another version of the creation myth, the first Incas came from a sacred
cave known as Tampu T'oqo or 'The House of Windows', which was located at Pacariqtambo, the 'Inn
of Dawn', south of Cuzco. The first pair of humans were Manco Capac (or Manqo Qhapaq) and his
sister (also his wife) Mama Oqllu (or Ocllo). Three more brother-sister siblings were born, and the
group set off together to found their civilization. Defeating the Chanca people with the help of stone
warriors (pururaucas), the first Incas finally settled in the Valley of Cuzco and Manco Capac, throwing
a golden rod into the ground, established what would become the Inca capital, Cuzco.
40,000 INCAS GOVERNED A TERRITORY WITH 10 MILLION SUBJECTS SPEAKING OVER 30 DIFFERENT
LANGUAGES.
More concrete archaeological evidence has revealed that the first settlements in the Cuzco Valley
actually date to 4500 BCE when hunter-gather communities occupied the area. However, Cuzco only
became a significant centre sometime at the beginning of the Late Intermediate Period (1000-1400
CE). A process of regional unification began from the late 14th century CE, and from the early 15th
century CE, with the arrival of the first great Inca leader Pachakuti ('Reverser of the World') and the
defeat of the Chanca in 1438 CE, the Incas began to expand in search of plunder and production
resources, first to the south and then in all directions. They eventually built an empire which
stretched across the Andes, conquering such peoples as the Lupaka, Colla, Chimor, and Wanka
civilizations along the way. Once established, a nationwide system of tax and administration was
instigated which consolidated the power of Cuzco.
The rise of the Inca Empire was spectacularly quick. First, all speakers of the Inca language Quechua
(or Runasimi) were given privileged status, and this noble class then dominated all the important
roles within the empire. Thupa Inka Yupanki (also known as Topa Inca), Pachakuti's successor from
1471 CE, is credited with having expanded the empire by a massive 4,000 km (2,500 miles). The
Incas themselves called their empire Tawantinsuyo (orTahuantinsuyu) meaning 'Land of the Four
Quarters' or 'The Four Parts Together'. Cuzco was considered the navel of the world, and radiating
out were highways and sacred sighting lines (ceques) to each quarter: Chinchaysuyu(north),
Antisuyu (east), Collasuyu (south), and Cuntisuyu (west). Spreading across ancient Ecuador, Peru,
northern Chile, Bolivia, upland Argentina, and southern Colombia and stretching 5,500 km (3,400

miles) north to south, 40,000 Incas governed a huge territory with some 10 million subjects speaking
over 30 different languages.
GOVERNMENT & ADMINISTRATION
The Incas kept lists of their kings (Sapa Inca) so that we know of such names as Pachakuti Inka
Yupanki (reign c. 1438-63 CE), Thupa Inka Yupanki (reign c. 1471-93 CE), and Wayna Qhapaq (the
last pre-Hispanic ruler, reign c. 1493-1525 CE). It is possible that two kings ruled at the same time
and that queens may have had some significant powers, but the Spanish records are not clear on
both points. The Sapa Inca was an absolute ruler, and he lived a life of great opulence. Drinking from
gold and silver cups, wearing silver shoes, and living in a palace furnished with the finest textiles, he
was pampered to the extreme. He was even looked after following his death, as the Inca mummified
their rulers. Stored in the Coricancha temple in Cuzco, the mummies (mallquis) were, in elaborate
ceremonies, regularly brought outside wearing their finest regalia, given offerings of food and drink,
and 'consulted' for their opinion on pressing state affairs.
Inca rule was, much like their architecture, based on compartmentalised and interlocking units. At
the top was the ruler and ten kindred groups of nobles called panaqa. Next in line came ten more
kindred groups, more distantly related to the king and then, a third group of nobles not of Inca blood
but made Incas as a privilege. At the bottom of the state apparatus were locally recruited
administrators who oversaw settlements and the smallest Andean population unit the ayllu, which
was a collection of households, typically of related families who worked an area of land, lived
together and provided mutual support in times of need. Each ayllu was governed by a small number
of nobles or kurakas, a role which could include women.
Local administrators reported to over 80 regional-level administrators who, in turn, reported to a
governor responsible for each quarter of the empire. The four governors reported to the supreme
Inca ruler in Cuzco. To ensure loyalty, the heirs of local rulers were also kept as well-kept prisoners at
the Inca capital. The most important political, religious, and military roles within the empire were,
then, kept in the hands of the Inca elite, called by the Spanish the orejones or 'big ears' because
they wore large earspools to indicate their status. To better ensure the control of this elite over their
subjects, garrisons dotted the empire, and entirely new administrative centres were built, notably at
Tambo Colorado, Hunuco Pampa and Hatun Xauxa.
For tax purposes censuses were taken and populations divided up into groups based on multiples of
ten (Inca mathematics was almost identical to the system we use today). As there was no currency
in the Inca world, taxes were paid in kind - usually foodstuffs, precious metals, textiles, exotic
feathers, dyes, and spondylus shell - but also in labourers who could be shifted about the empire to
be used where they were most needed, known as mit'aservice. Agricultural land and herds were
divided into three parts: production for the state religion and the gods, for the Inca ruler, and for the
farmers own use. Local communities were also expected to help build and maintain such imperial
projects as the road system which stretched across the empire. To keep track of all these statistics,
the Inca used the quipu, a sophisticated assembly of knots and strings which was also highly
transportable and could record decimals up to 10,000.
Although the Incas imposed their religion and administration on conquered peoples, extracted
tribute, and even moved loyal populations (mitmaqs) to better integrate new territories into the
empire, the Incas also brought certain benefits such as food redistribution in times of environmental
disaster, better storage facilities for foodstuffs, work via state-sponsored projects, state-sponsored
religious feasts, roads, military assistance and luxury goods, especially art objects enjoyed by the
local elite.
MOST SPLENDID WERE THE TEMPLES BUILT IN HONOUR OF INTI AND MAMA KILYA - THE FORMER WAS
LINED WITH 700 2KG SHEETS OF BEATEN GOLD.
CUZCO
The Inca capital of Cuzco (from qosqo, meaning 'dried-up lake bed' or perhaps derived from cozco, a
particular stone marker in the city) was the religious and administrative centre of the empire and
had a population of up to 150,000 at its peak. Dominated by the sacred gold-covered and emeraldstudded Coricancha complex (or Temple of the Sun), its greatest buildings were credited to
Pachakuti. Most splendid were the temples built in honour of Inti and Mama Kilya - the former was
lined with 700 2kg sheets of beaten gold, the latter with silver. The whole capital was laid out in the
form of a puma (although some scholars dispute this and take the description metaphorically) with
the imperial metropolis of Pumachupan forming the tail and the temple complex of Sacsahuaman (or
Saqsawaman) forming the head. Incorporating vast plazas, parklands, shrines, fountains, and canals,
the splendour of Inca Cuzco now, unfortunately, survives only in the eye-witness accounts of the first
Europeans who marvelled at its architecture and riches.
INCA RELIGION

The Inca had great reverence for two earlier civilizations who had occupied much the same territory
- the Wari and Tiwanaku. As we have seen, the sites of Tiwanaku and Lake Titicaca played an
important part in Inca creation myths and so were especially revered. Inca rulers made regular
pilgrimages to Tiwanaku and the islands of the lake, where two shrines were built to Inti the Sun god
and supreme Inca deity, and the moon goddess Mama Kilya. Also in the Coricancha complex at
Cuzco, these deities were represented by large precious metal artworks which were attended and
worshipped by priests and priestesses led by the second most important person after the king: the
High Priest of the Sun (Willaq Umu). Thus, the religion of the Inca was preoccupied with controlling
the natural world and avoiding such disasters as earthquake, floods, and drought, which inevitably
brought about the natural cycle of change, the turning over of time involving death and renewal
which the Inca called pachakuti.
Sacred sites were also established, often taking advantage of prominent natural features such as
mountain tops, caves, and springs. These huacas could be used to take astronomical observations at
specific times of the year. Religious ceremonies took place according to the astronomical calendar,
especially the movements of the sun, moon, and Milky Way (Mayu). Processions and ceremonies
could also be connected to agriculture, especially the planting and harvesting seasons. Along with
Titicaca's Island of the Sun, the most sacred Inca site was Pachacamac, a temple city built in honour
of the god with the same name, who created humans, plants, and was responsible for earthquakes.
A large wooden statue of the god, considered an oracle, brought pilgrims from across the Andes to
worship at Pachacamac. Shamans were another important part of Inca religion and were active in
every settlement. Cuzco had 475, the most important being the yacarca, the personal advisor to the
ruler.
Inca religious rituals also involved ancestor worship as seen through the practice of mummification
and making offerings to the gods of food, drink, and precious materials. Sacrifices - both animals and
humans, including children - were also made to pacify and honour the gods and ensure the good
health of the king. The pouring of libations, either water or chicha beer, was also an important part
of Inca religious ceremonies.
The Incas imposed their religion on local populations by building their own temples and sacred sites,
and they also commandeered sacred relics from conquered peoples and held them in Cuzco. Stored
in the Coricancha, they were perhaps considered hostages which ensured compliance to the Inca
view of the world.
INCA ARCHITECTURE & ROADS
Master stone masons, the Incas constructed large buildings, walls and fortifications using finelyworked blocks - either regular or polygonal - which fitted together so precisely no mortar was
needed. With an emphasis on clean lines, trapezoid shapes, and incorporating natural features into
these buildings, they have easily withstood the powerful earthquakes which frequently hit the
region. The distinctive sloping trapezoid form and fine masonry of Inca buildings were, besides their
obvious aesthetic value, also used as a recognisable symbol of Inca domination throughout the
empire.
One of the most common Inca buildings was the ubiquitous one-room storage warehouse the qollqa.
Built in stone and well-ventilated, they were either round and stored maize or square for potatoes
and tubers. The kallanka was a very large hall used for community gatherings. More modest
buildings include the kancha - a group of small single-room and rectangular buildings (wasi and
masma) with thatched roofs built around a courtyard enclosed by a high wall. The kancha was a
typical architectural feature of Inca towns, and the idea was exported to conquered regions.
Terracing to maximise land area for agriculture (especially for maize) was another Inca practice,
which they exported wherever they went. These terraces often included canals, as the Incas were
expert at diverting water, carrying it across great distances, channelling it underground, and
creating spectacular outlets and fountains.
Goods were transported across the empire along purpose-built roads using llamas and porters (there
were no wheeled vehicles). The Inca road network covered over 40,000 km and as well as allowing
for the easy movement of armies, administrators, and trade goods, it was also a very powerful visual
symbol of Inca authority over their empire. The roads had rest stations along their way, and there
was also a relay system of runners (chasquis) who carried messages up to 240 km in a single day
from one settlement to another.
INCA ART
Although influenced by the art and techniques of the Chim, the Incas did create their own
distinctive style which was an instantly recognisable symbol of imperial dominance across the
empire. Inca art is best seen in highly polished metalwork (in gold - considered the sweat of the sun,
silver - considered the tears of the moon, and copper), ceramics, and textiles, with the last being
considered the most prestigious by the Incas themselves. Designs often use geometrical shapes, are
technically accomplished, and standardized. The checkerboard stands out as a very popular design.

One of the reasons for repeated designs was that pottery and textiles were often produced for the
state as a tax, and so artworks were representative of specific communities and their cultural
heritage. Just as today coins and stamps reflect a nation's history, so, too, Andean artwork offered
recognisable motifs which either represented the specific communities making them or the imposed
designs of the ruling Inca class ordering them.
Works using precious metals such as discs, jewellery, figures, and everyday objects were made
exclusively for Inca nobles, and even some textiles were restricted for their use alone. Goods made
using the super-soft vicua wool were similarly restricted, and only the Inca ruler could own vicua
herds. Ceramics were for wider use, and the most common shape was the urpu, a bulbous vessel
with a long neck and two small handles low on the pot which was used for storing maize. It is notable
that the pottery decoration, textiles, and architectural sculpture of the Incas did not usually include
representations of themselves, their rituals, or such common Andean images as monsters and halfhuman, half-animal figures.
The Inca produced textiles, ceramics, and metal sculpture technically superior to any previous
Andean culture, and this despite stiff competition from such masters of metal work as the expert
craftsmen of the Moche civilization. Just as the Inca imposed a political dominance over their
conquered subjects, so, too, with art they imposed standard Inca forms and designs, but they did
allow local traditions to maintain their preferred colours and proportions. Gifted artists such as those
from Chan Chan or the Titicaca area and women particularly skilled at weaving were brought to
Cuzco so that they could produce beautiful things for the Inca rulers.
COLLAPSE
The Inca Empire was founded on, and maintained by, force, and the ruling Incas were very often
unpopular with their subjects (especially in the northern territories), a situation that the Spanish
conquistadores, led by Francisco Pizarro, would take full advantage of in the middle decades of the
16th century CE. The Inca Empire, in fact, had still not reached a stage of consolidated maturity
when it faced its greatest challenge. Rebellions were rife, and the Incas were engaged in a war in
Ecuador where a second Inca capital had been established at Quito. Even more serious, the Incas
were hit by an epidemic of European diseases, such as smallpox, which had spread from central
America even faster than the European invaders themselves, and the wave killed a staggering 6590% of the population. Such a disease killed Wayna Qhapaq in 1528 CE and two of his sons, Waskar
and Atahualpa, battled in a damaging civil war for control of the empire just when the European
treasure-hunters arrived. It was this combination of factors - a perfect storm of rebellion, disease,
and invasion - which brought the downfall of the mighty Inca Empire, the largest and richest ever
seen in the Americas.
The Inca language Quechua lives on today and is still spoken by some eight million people. There are
also a good number of buildings, artefacts, and written accounts which have survived the ravages of
conquerors, looters, and time. These remains are proportionally few to the vast riches which have
been lost, but they remain indisputable witnesses to the wealth, ingenuity, and high cultural
achievements of this great, but short-lived civilization.
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian
America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in
modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th
century.

India 1400-1700
Bhakti Movement: Meaning, Features and Impact
Usually it is accepted that the most characteristic feature of the religious development during the
medieval period was the movement which emphasized single-minded intense devotion to God. It
was a complete surrender of oneself to God.
The movement which emphasized primarily these ideas was the Bhakti movementdevotion to God.
Bhakti to God was accepted as salvation.
Main Features of the Bhakti Movement:

1. Unity of God or one God though known by different names.

2. Bhakti, intense love and devotion, the only way to salvation.
3. Repetition of the True Name.
4. Self-Surrender.
5. Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
6. Rejection of idol worship by many saints
7. Open- mindedness about deciding religious matters.
8. No distinction of different castes, higher or low
9. Need of a guru for guidance advocated by some.
10. Preachings through local or regional languages and travelling from place to place for spreading
the religious message.
Many doctrines of the Bhakti cult may be found in the Bhagavad-Gita. The idea of the unity of God is
reflected in the words, Even those devotees who worship other gods worship Me alone. (IX 23). It
is not the way of worship but the love of a selfless devotee of pure heart that matters for Whoever
offers to me with devotion, a leaf, a flower, a fruit, or water I accept (IX, 26).
The doctrine of self-surrender is echoed in the words of Lord Krishna, Give up all religious paths,
and take refuge in Me alone. I shall deliver thee from all sins. (XVIII 66). The idea of an open mind to
decide for oneself in matters of religion may be discovered in the lines, you do as thou choosest
(XVIII 63).
However, the real development of Bhakti took place in South India between the 7th and the 12th
centuries through the teachings of poet saints known as Alvars and Nayanar whose hymns were
collected and compiled in the 10th century. The Sufi saints of the Muslims also emphasized devotion
to Allah (God). The spiritual yearning made Kabir, Guru Nanak, Mirabai, Surdas, Tulsi Das, Chaitanya
and others, the great exponents of Bhakti movement.
Impact of the Bhakti Movement on the Medieval Indian Society:
With a view to understand the impact of the Bhakti movement, we have to consider the background
under which the movement gained momentum. Under the impact of the Muslim rule, the Hindus had
suffered a lot materially, morally and spiritually. The Muslim rulers in general wanted to enforce the
Islamic laws on the Hindus. The Muslim rule had put dread in the hearts of the Hindu masses.
They wanted some solace to heal their despairing hearts. The Bhakti movement brought them hope
and support and inner strength to save themselves. During the course of time, several evil practices
had crept into the Hindu society. There was a lot of caste and class distinction. Several divisions had
occurred.
There was a good deal of bitter men between the two communities i.e. the Hindus and Muslims.
Some healing touch was needed. Fortunately with the foreign invaders, some Sufi Muslim saints had
also come to India and settled here. They were very liberal minded. They emphasized the virtues of
love and devotion, brotherhood and equality etc. This helped to bring the two communities nearer. It
also helped to harmonise the conflicting interests.
The saints of the Bhakti movement rejected the difference of caste and Uati. An important factor
which led to the popularity of Bhakti movement was that most of the promoters of this movement
attempted to reconcile the differences between the Hindus and the Muslims by stressing that Rama
and Rahim were one and the same. They condemned the hatred of the fanatic Pandits and Mullas
alike.
The Hindus realised that it was difficult to drive away the Muslim rulers and Muslims from India. On
the other hand the Muslims also appreciated that the Hindus were in absolute majority and it was

impossible to force all of them to embrace Islam. So under the impact of the new movement both
sides started making efforts for coming closer to each other.
For the Hindus the effort was initiated by the Hindu saints of the Bhakti movement and for the
Muslims by the Sufi Saints.
The Hindu and as well as the Muslim saints emphasized religious simplicity. They stressed human
qualities and moral attitudes. They stressed that a true religious man is one who is pure in thought
and action.
The Bhakti saints believed in equality of man and man. According to them there was no distinction
and consideration of high and low on the basis of birth. Their doors were open to all classes.
The Bhakti saints tried to generate an environment of good will between the Hindus and the
Muslims.
The Bhakti saints were social reformers also. They condemned several social evils.
The Sufi Saints like Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti, Bakhyiya Kaki, Nizamudin Aulia and Nasiruddin Chiragi-Delhi etc. attempted to restrain the fanaticism of the Muslims and tried to bring them nearer to the
Hindus. Several Hindus became followers of the Sufi saints but without relinquishing their own
religion.
Social impact:
The most important social impact of the Bhakti movement was that the followers of the Bhakti
movement rejected the caste distinction. They began to mix together on the basis of equality. They
took their meals together from the common kitchen. The movement tried to loosen the bond of
caste.
A spirit of harmony among different sections of society and religion received impetus.
The evil practice of Sati received some set back.
The status of women received more importance.
Religious impact:
The movement aroused awakening among the Hindus and Muslims regarding the futility of ritualism
and superstitions. The feeling of appreciation of the difference between the thought and practices of
the two religions emerged. The movement encouraged religious toleration. Guru Granth Saheb the
holiest book of the Sikhs which was complied later on included the messages of saints belonging to
different sects. This was on account of the spirit of toleration preached by the Bhakti saints.
Promotion of regional languages of the common people:
In place of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian, the Bhakti saints preached through the medium of local
languages which could be understood very easily. For instance the language of Kabir was a mixture
of several languages of every day use. Surdas used Brij dialect. Goswami Tulsi Das composed his
works in Awadhi.
Political influence:
Some of the rulers adopted liberal religious policies under the impact of the Bhakti movement.
Moral influence:
The movement attempted to infuse a spirit of piety in the daily life of the people. It emphasized
earning of wealth through hard work and honest means. It encouraged the value of social service to
the poor and the needy. It developed a humanitarian attitude. It pointed out the virtues of
contentment and self control. It drew attention to the evils of anger, greed and vanity.
Summing up:

The Bhakti movement succeeded to a very small extent in realizing its two-fold objective i.e.
bringing about reforms in Hinduism and developing harmonious relations between the Hindus and
the Muslims. It gave birth to a new sect i.e. Sikhism. It is perhaps far-fetched to say that Akbars
broad outlook was on account of the impact of the Bhakti movement. The movement further divided
the Hindu society. For instance the followers of Kabir came to be known as Kabir Panthis.
THE MUGHAL STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE
The Mughal rulers were visionaries and their own personalities reflected in
the all-round development of various arts, crafts, music, building and
architecture. The Mughal dynasty was established with the victory of
Babar over Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat in 1526 AD.
Babar took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have
survived.
Mosque Kabuli Bagh at Panipat in Punjab
the Jami Masjid at Sambhal near Delhi, both constructed in 1526,
have survived.
Humayun
laid the foundation of a city called Dinpanah ("refuge of the faithful")
at the Purana Qila in Delhi but the city could not be completed.
7
The Mughal Empire briefly fell to the Suris in 1540 but was reestablished
by Humayun in 1555.
The Persian influence into the Mughal architecture was largely a
result of Humayun's observance of this style at the court of Shah
Tahmasp during the period of his exile.
However, the Persian elements could manifest and mature only
several years after his death, as is evident in the Humayun's Tomb at
Delhi, which was designed in 1564 by his widow Haji Begum as a
mark of devotion, eight years after his death.
Humayun's Tomb represents an outstanding landmark in the
development and refinement of the Mughal style. In fact the design of
the Taj Mahal was modelled on this tomb.
Akbar (1555-1605).
The chief feature of the architecture of Akbar's time was the use of
red sandstone. In principle the construction was of the trabeate order,
although the "Tudor" arch was also used. The domes were of the "Lodi"
type, while the pillar shafts were many-sided with the capitals being in the
form of racket supports.
One of the first major building projects was the construction
of a huge fort at Agra.
The most ambitious architectural exercise of Akbar, and one
of the most glorious examples of Indo-Islamic architecture,
was the creation of an entirely new capital city at Fatehpur
Sikri. It has been described as "a frozen moment in history".
Its structures have been modelled after the simple canvas
tents used by semi-nomadic ancestors of the Mughals. The
free-standing pavilions are constructed as stone analogues of
the tents.
8
The Buland Darwaza, the Panch Mahal and the Darga of
Saleem Chisti are the most imposing of all the buildings of
Fatehpur Sikri.
The Diwan-e-Khas, which was designed for private audiences
is of cube-like form with an elaborate central column
connected to the four corners by bridges. The square plan,
although of Central Asian origin, would have represented to
the Hindu craftsmen the "mandala" model of the cosmos.
There are several palaces in the complex including Jodaha
Bai's Palace and the houses of Miriam, the Sultana and Birbal.
Jahangir (1605-1627) concentrated more on painting and other forms of art
than on building and architecture. However, some note-worthy monuments
of his time include

 Akbar's Tomb at Sikandra near Agra, which was completed in 1613.

Sandstone compositions of Akbar were adapted by his successors
into opulent marble masterpieces.
Jahangir is the central figure in the development of the Mughal gardens.
Shalimar Bagh on the banks of Lake Dal in Kashmir.
The adjoining Nishat Bagh built by Asaf Khan also belongs to this
period.
The Jahangir's Tomb at Shadera near Lahore, built by his wife Nur
Mahal, is another outstanding architectural production of this time.
The style of Mughal architecture found expression of exceptional
splendour during Emperor Shah Jahan's reign (1628-1658). The single most
important architectural change was the substitution of marble for the red
sandstone.
9
He demolished the austere sandstone structures of Akbar in the
Red Fort and replaced them with marble buildings such as the
Diwan-i-Am and the Diwan-i-Khas.
In 1638 he began to lay the city of Shahjahanabad besides river
Jamuna
The Red Fort at Delhi represents the pinnacle of centuries of
experience in the construction of palace-forts.
Outside the fort, he built the Jama Masjid, the largest mosque in
India.
Shah Jahan built the Jami Masjid at Agra in 1648 in honour of his
daughter Jahanara Begum.
The Wazir Khan's mosque in Lahore built in 1634 is another fine
example of the Mughal art during Shah Jahan's time.
However, it is for the Taj Mahal as a memorial to his beloved wife,
Mumtaz Mahal, that he is most often remembered.
The high point of the Mughal architecture during the Shah
Jahan's time was
1. the mellow marble has subtle low relief carving,
2. lace like jalis,
3. exquisite inlays,
4. pietra dura and calligraphy. The pietra dura work was first
incorporated in the Itamad-ud-Daula's Tomb at Agra built by
Ghyas Beg, father of Nur Jehan. The extensive decoration of the
interiors of monuments with precious and semi-precious stones
using the pietra dura technique, which developed in Florence in
the 16th century, and the use of pictures, jewellery and metalworks
indicate considerable European influence on the Mughal
art of this period.
10
Jahan Ara, daughter of Shah Jahan, was also a generous patron of
architecture
She built the famous Begum Ka Bagh and Begum Serai at Delhi.
She also built her own tomb near the shrine of the dargah of Hazrat
Nizauddin.

COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE
European colonists brought with them to India concepts of their
"world view" and a whole baggage of the history of European architecture -- Neo-Classical, Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance. The initial
structures were utilitarian warehouses and walled trading posts, giving way

to fortified towns along the coastline.

The Portuguese
The Portuguese adapted to India climatically with appropriate
Iberian galleried patio house and the Baroque churches of Goa.
Se Cathedral and Arch of Conception of Goa ,The St. Francis
Church at Cochin, fort of Castella de Aguanda near Mumbai
18
and added fortifications and structures to the Bassein fort
built by Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat, in 1532 AD, are
examples of their architecture. The Bassein fort is famous for
the Matriz (Cathedral of St Joseph), the Corinthian pillared hall
and the Porte da Mer (sea gate).
The Danes
The Danish influence is evident in Nagapatnam, which was laid out in
squares and canals and also in Tranquebar and Serampore.
The French
The French gave a distinct urban design to its settlement in
Pondicherry by applying the Cartesian grid plans and classical
architectural patterns.
The Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus (Eglise De Sacre Coeur
De Jesus), the Eglise de Notre Dame de Anges and the Eglise
de Notre Dame de Lourdes at Pondicherry have a distinct
French influence.
The British
However, it was the British who left a lasting impact on the Indian
architecture. They saw themselves as the successors to the Mughals and
used architecture as a symbol of power. The British followed various
architectural styles Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English Renaissance and
Victorian being the essentials.
19
The first buildings were factories but later courts, schools,
municipal halls and dak bungalows came up, which were
ordinary structures built by garrison engineers.
A deeper concern with architecture was exhibited in churches
and other public buildings. Most of the buildings were
adaptations of the buildings designed by leading British
architects of that time like Wren, Adam, Nash and others in
London and other places. For instance, the Church of St. John
at Calcutta was built in 1787 inspired by St. Stephens Church
at Walbrooks, the Government House in Calcutta was built by
Capt. Charles Wyatt modelled on the Kedleston Hall of
Derbyshire,
the Indian Government Mint in Calcutta is a half-scale replica
of the Temple of Minerva at Athens and
the Pachaiyappa's Hall in Chennai was modelled on the
Athenium Temple of Theseus. Unlike Europe, however, these
buildings were built mostly of brick and stuccoed with lime .i.
Neo-Gothic architecture
Neo-Gothic architecture flourished in different parts of India under
the British, inspired by the Houses of Parliament in London.
Colonel Thomas Cowper built the town hall in Bombay during 1820
to 1835. Governor Sir Bartle Frere tried to give a truly imperial
ambience to the city of Bombay. During his reign the old town walls
were broken down and the Gateway of India was built in the Gothic
style of architecture. The Secretariat, University Library, Rajabai
Tower, Telegraph Office and the Victoria Terminus all followed the
Victorian Gothic style, similar to buildings in London. Undoubtedly,
the Victoria Terminus, designed by the architect Frederick Willaim
20
Stevens , is the finest example of Gothic architecture with a subtle
hint of the Indo-Saracenic motifs.
In Varanasi, one of the true Gothic monuments is Queens College,
built in a perpendicular style by Major Kitoe from 1847 to 1852.

 In Allahabad, the British built a series of edifices including the

University, All Saints Cathedral, the High Court and the Mayo
College.
In Calcutta, a High Court was constructed following the Gothic style.
The Howrah Bridge (1943), with its red brick facade surrounded by
eight square towers represents a combination of the Oriental and
Roman styles. Fort William, the stronghold of the British in mid 19th
century that took 13 years to construct at a cost of more than $3.5
million and the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta (1921), designed by Sir
William Emerson, are probably the most imposing of all British
structures in India.
Indo-Saracenic architecture
The passing of power from the East India Company to the British
Crown, the rise of Indian nationalism and the introduction of Railways were
the watersheds in the British Colonial Indian architectural history. New
materials like concrete, glass, wrought and cast iron opened up new
architectural possibilities. The British also started assimilating and
adopting the native Indian styles in the architecture. All these factors led to
the development of Indo-Saracenic architecture towards the end of the 19th
century.
Victorian in essence, it borrowed heavily from the Islamic style of
Mughal and Afghan rulers. The Indo-Saracenic style was Indian on the
outside and British inside.
21
F.S.Growse, Sir Swinton Jacob, R.F.Chisholm and H.Irwin were the
pioneers of this style of architecture.
The Chepauk Palace in Chennai designed by Paul Benfield ,
Law Courts, Victoria Memorial Hall, Presidency College and
Senate House of Chennai, Muir College at Allahabad, Napier
Museum at Thiruvanthapuram, the Post Office, Prince of Wales
Museum and the Gateway of India in Mumbai, the Maharaja's
Palace at Mysore and M.S.University and Lakshmi Villas
Palace at Baroda.
The architecture of New Delhi was the crowning glory of the British
Raj. Robert Byron described New Delhi as "The Rome of Hindostan". The
British built New Delhi as a systematic planned city, after it was made the
capital in 1911.
The British Viceroy made Sir Edward Lutyens responsible for the
overall plan of Delhi. He was specifically directed to "harmonise externally
with the traditions of Indian art".
Thus, the western architecture with oriental motif was realised
with chajjas, jalis and chhattris, as stylistic devices in the
Viceroy's House (now Rashtrapati Bhawan).
Herbert Baker added the imposing buildings of the South
Block and the North Block, which flank the Rashtrapati
Bhawan.
Another Englishman called Robert Tor Tussell built the
Connaught Place and the Eastern and Western Courts.
St Martins Garrison Church marks the culmination of the
British architectural ventures in India. The Church is a huge
monolith with a high square tower and deeply sunken window
ledges reminiscent of Dutch and German architecture.
Renaissance-Style Architecture (1400-1620)
Background
Financed by commercial prosperity and competition between city-states, such as Florence, Rome
and Venice, as well as rich families like the Medici banking dynasty in Florence and the Fuggers
banking family in Germany, the Renaissance was neverthess a triumph of will over world events. Not
long before, there had been a run of disastrous European harvests (1315-19); the Black Death
plague (1346) which wiped out one third of the European population; the 100 Years War between
England and France (1339-1439), and the Christian Church was polarized by schism. Hardly ideal
conditions for the rebirth or rinacimento that followed. As it was, the 16th century Popes in Rome

almost bankrupted the Church in the early 16th century due to their profligate financing of fine
buildings and the visual arts.
Architectural Style
Renaissance architecture was catalyzed by the rediscovery of architectural styles and theories of
Ancient Rome. The first depictions of this Classical architecture emerged in Italy during the early
15th century when a copy of De Architectura ("Ten Books Conerning Architecture") by the 1st
century Roman architect Vitruvius, was sudddenly unearthed in Rome. At the same time, the
Florentine architect and artist Filippo Brunellesci (1377-1446) had begun studying ancient Roman
designs, and was convinced that ideal building proportions could be ascertained from mathematical
and geometrical principles. It was Brunellesci's magnificent 1418 design for the dome of the
Florence Cathedral (1420-36) - now regarded as the first example of Renaissance architecture which ushered in a new style based on the long-neglected placement and proportion rules of
Classical Antiquity.
Famous Renaissance Architects
Another important Renaissance architect was Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72), who is still revered as
one of the founders of modern architectural theory. Believing that ideal architectural design was
based on the harmony of structure, function and decoration, he was greatly inspired by the theory
and practice of ancient Roman architects and engineers.
Other famous Italian architects included: (1) Donato Bramante (1444-1514), the leading designer of
the High Renaissance; (2) Guiliano da Sangallo (1443-1516), an important intermediary architect
between the Early and High Renaissance periods; (3) Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), a leading
architect, as well as one of the greatest sculptors and painters of the age; (4) Baldassare Peruzzi
(1481-1536), an important architect and interior designer; (5) Raffaello Santi (Raphael) (1483-1520),
a visionary designer as well as painter; (6) Michele Sanmicheli (1484-1559), the most famous pupil
of Bramante; (7 & 8) Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570) and Andrea Palladio (1508-1580), the two top
figures in Venetian Renaissance architecture; (9) Giulio Romano (1499-1546), the main exponent of
Italian Mannerist-style architecture; (10) Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) who designed the loggia for the
Uffizi gallery and the connecting Vasari Corridor; and (11) Vincenzo Scamozzi (1548-1616) one of the
great theorists of the late Renaissance.
Features of Renaissance Architecture
Put simply, Renaissance buildings were modelled on the classical architecture of the Greeks and
Romans, but retained modern features of Byzantine and Gothic invention, such as complex domes
and towers. In addition, while replicating and improving on Classical scupture, they also incorporated
modern mosaics and stained glass, along with outstanding fresco murals. Renaissance architecture
can be seen in countless examples of churches, cathedrals and municipal buildings across Europe,
(eg. in many French Chateaux, such as Fontainebleau Chateau, home of the Fontainebleau School:
1528-1610) and its style has been reapplied in later ages to famous structures as diverse as the US
Capitol and the UK National Gallery. (In England, the style is sometimes known as Elizabethan
architecture.)
Supreme Examples of Renaissance Architecture
The two greatest Renaissance-style structures are undoubtedly the redesigned St Peter's Basilica in
Rome and the cathedral in Florence, both of which were highlights of the Grand Tour (1650-1850).
Inspired by civic rivalry between the Ducal States, Brunellesci's dome made the Florentine cathedral
the tallest building in Tuscany. In its architectural design, it combined the Gothic tradition of stone
vaulting and the principles of Roman engineering. Its herring-bone bonding of brickwork and
concentric rings of masonry blocks dispensed with the need for centring, which was unmanagable at
the height involved.
Commissioned by Pope Julius II (1443-1513), the rebuilding of the 1,100 year old church of St Peter's
in Rome (1506-1626) was the work of numerous architects, including Bramante, Raphael, Sangallo,
Maderno, Michelangelo and Bernini, and extended beyond the High Renaissance into the Mannerist
and Baroque eras. Its features include a 87-feet high lantern on top of a huge ovoid dome (altered
from Michelangelo's hemispherical design due to fears of instability), and a frontal facade

incorporating a gigantic Order of pilastered Corinthian columns, each 90 feet high. At 452 feet, St
Peter's is taller than any other Renaissance church.
More Information
Proto-Renaissance Art
Early Renaissance Art
High Renaissance Art

Baroque Architecture (1550-1790)

As the 16th century unfolded, the religious, political and philosophical certainties which had
prevailed during the Early (c.1400-85) and High (1486-1520) Renaissance periods, began to unravel.
In 1517, Martin Luther sparked the Protestant Reformation, casting European-wide doubt on the
integrity and theology of the Roman Church. This was the catalyst for several wars involving France,
Italy, Spain and England, and led directly to the Counter-Reformation movement, launched by Rome,
to attract the masses away from Protestantism. Renewed patronage of the visual arts and
architecture was a key instrument in this propaganda campaign, and resulted in a grander, more
dramatic style in both areas. For the rest of the century, this more dynamic style was known as
Mannerism (style-ishness), and thereafter, Baroque - a term derived from the Portugese word
barocco, meaning 'an irregular pearl'.
Key Features of the Baroque Style
Baroque architecture can be seen as a more complex, more detailed, more elaborate, more
ornamented form of Renaissance architecture. More swirls, more complex manipulation of light,
colour, texture and perspective. On the outside of its churches, it featured more ostentatious
facades, domes, columns, sculpture and other embellishments. On the inside, its floor-plans were
more varied. Long, narrow naves were displaced by wider, sometimes circular shapes; separate
chapels and other areas were created, along with trompe l'oeil effects; ceilings were covered in
fresco paintings. The whole thing was designed to interest, if not dazzle, the spectator.
Baroque was an emotional style of architecture, and took full advantage of the theatrical potential of
the urban landscape. This is exemplified above all by Saint Peter's Square (1656-67) in Rome, in
front of the domed St Peter's Basilica. Its architect, Giovanni/Gianlorenzo Bernini rings the square
with colonnades, which widen slightly as they approach the cathedral, conveying the impression to
visitors that they are being embraced by the arms of the Catholic Church. The entire approach is
constructed on a gigantic scale, to induce feelings of awe.
In general, Baroque architecture constituted part of the struggle for religious superiority and for the
hearts and minds of worshippers across Europe. On a more political level, secular Baroque
architecture was employed to buttress the absolutism of reigning monarchs, like King Louis XIV of
France, among others. From Italy, it spread to the rest of Europe - especially Catholic Europe - where
each country typically developed its own interpretation. See also: German Baroque Art.
Celebrated Baroque Architects
Famous Baroque architects included: Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1507-73), papal architect to Pope
Julius III and the Farnese family; Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), a designer who perfectly
expressed the ideals of the Counter Reformation; Francesco Borromini (1599-1667), a lifelong rival of
Bernini; Pietro Berrettini da Cortona (1596-1669), a protege of Pope Urban VIII (see also quadratura);
Francois Mansart (1598-1666), designer of French townhouses and chateaux like the Chteau de
Maisons, whose name was given to the mansard roof (sic); his great-nephew Jules Hardouin Mansart
(1646-1708), designer of the great dome of Les Invalides in Paris; and Louis Le Vau (1612-70),
another famous French Baroque architect, responsible for the church of Saint-Sulpice in Paris and the
Wings of the Louvre. Jules Hardouin Mansart and Louis Le Vau were the main architects of the Palace
of Versailles (begun 1623), creating such extravagancies as the Hall of Mirrors and the Marble Court.
In Germany, an iconic Baroque structure is the Wurzburg Residenz (1720-44), designed by Balthasar
Neumann (1687-1753).
In England, the leader of the Baroque style was Sir John Vanbrugh (1664-1726), designer of
Blenheim Palace; while in Russia, Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700-1771) was chiefly responsible for the

style known as Russian Baroque, but which incorporated elements of both early Neoclassical and
Rococo architecture. Rastrelli designed the Winter Palace (1754-62), Smolny Cathedral (1748-57) in
St Petersburg, and redesigned Catherine's Palace, outside the city.
Rococo Architecture (1715-89)
During the last phase of Baroque, the reign of King Louis XV of France witnessed a revolt against the
earlier Baroque style of Louis XIV's court, and the emergence of a more decorative, playful style of
architecture, known as Rococo. An amalgam of the words 'rocaille' (rock) and 'coquillage' (sells),
reflecting its abundance of flowing curved forms, Rococo was championed by Nicolas Pineau, who
partnered Jules Hardouin-Mansart in designing interiors for the royal Chteau de Marly.
Unlike other major architectural movements, like Romanesque, Gothic or Baroque, Rococo was really
concerned with interior design. This was because it emerged and remained centred in France, where
rich patrons were unwilling to rebuild houses and chateaux, preferring instead to remodel their
interiors. And the style was far too whimsical and light-hearted for the exteriors of religious and civic
buildings. As a result, Rococo architects - in effect, interior designers - confined themselves to
creating elaborately decorated rooms, whose plasterwork, murals, tapestries, furniture, mirrors,
porcelain, silks, chinoiserie and other embellishments presented the visitor with a complete
aesthetic experience - a total work of art (but hardly architecture!)
Rococo perfectly reflected the decadent indolence and degeneracy of the French Royal Court and
High Society. Perhaps because of this, although it spread from France to Germany, where it proved
more popular with Catholics than Protestants, it was less well received in other European countries
like England, The Low Countries, Spain and even Italy. It was swept away by the French Revolution
and by the sterner Neoclassicism which heralded a return to Classical values and styles, more in
keeping with the Age of Enlightenment and Reason.