Symmetrical components and the per-unit system are two of the most fundamental and

necessary types of mathematics for relay engineers and technicians. We must practice
these techniques in order to fully understand and feel comfortable with them. This
presentation provides both theoretical and real-world examples with questions and
solutions that can be used to gain experience with symmetrical components.

The figure on this slide shows an example of a sinusoidal signal (or function) called
y(t), which can be either a voltage or a current. The signal is a function of time, t, and
has the maximum value Ym, the angular frequency , and the phase angle . The
angular frequency , in radians per second, equals the frequency, f, in hertz multiplied
by 2.
The steady-state currents and voltages of ac power systems are assumed to be a perfect
sinusoidal function at a constant frequency. This assumption allows us to represent
sinusoidal waves as a phasor that has a magnitude and a phase angle. The
representation of a sinusoidal current or voltage signal in the time domain is given as:
y t Ym cos t

where:
Ym peak amplitude
radian (angular) frequency = 2f
phase angle
f 50 or 60 Hz, depending on location

The analysis of ac power systems using the time representation of voltages and currents
can result in very tedious, complicated, and time-consuming computations. For steadystate conditions, the complication is greatly reduced by using phasor representations.
A phasor can be represented mathematically by a complex number (i.e., composed of
two terms such as magnitude, which is the root-mean-square [rms] value, and the phase
angle of the sine wave). A complex number that is represented by its magnitude and
phase angle is said to be on a polar form. Another form of representation for complex
numbers is the rectangular form. Rectangular form is also composed of two terms. The
first term is the real part, and the second term is the imaginary part. The real part of
phasor Y shown in the figure on this slide is Re(Y), and the imaginary part is Im(Y).
The imaginary part is always multiplied by j, which is equal to the square root of 1.
A phasor can be graphically represented as a two-dimensional vector, as shown in the
figure on this slide. Two axes are used to represent the real and imaginary parts of the
complex number.

Phasor operations are the same as for complex numbers. The given two phasors, A and
B, are both on polar and rectangular forms.
Addition and subtraction are easiest when the phasors are on a rectangular form.

Multiplication and division are easiest when the phasors are on a polar form.

To graphically add two phasors, join them together by placing the tail of the second
phasor at the tip of the first phasor. The resulting phasor starts at the tail of the first
phasor and ends at the tip of the second phasor. The resulting phasor is called the
summation phasor.
There are two methodologies to graphically subtract phasors. The method shown on
this slide is to add the complex conjugate of the second phasor to the first phasor. The
complex conjugate of a phasor is obtained by rotating the phasor by 180 degrees (if the
phasor is on a polar form) or changing the sign of the imaginary part of the phasor (if
the phasor is on a rectangular form). The second method is to place the tip of the first
phasor to the tip of the second phasor. In either case, the resulting difference phasor is
the phasor that fills the gap. The tail of the difference phasor will be at the tail of the
first phasor.

The linear elements of passive ac circuits are represented by their impedances. The
impedance of a given circuit element is defined as the complex number resulting from
the division of the applied voltage phasor by the resulting current phasor. As with any
complex number, the impedance has a real and an imaginary part. The real part is called
resistance (R) and the imaginary part is called reactance (X).
The following are examples of impedances:
Z = 2 + j6 ohms
Z = 2 j30 ohms
Z = j10 ohms (pure reactance)
Z = 2.5 ohms (pure resistance)
The inverse of impedance is called admittance (Y). For some power system
applications, the admittance is used instead of the impedance to represent passive
elements. The admittance also has real and imaginary parts. The real part is called
conductance (G), and the imaginary part is called susceptance (B). The relationship
between the admittance and impedance is shown in the following equation:
1
1
Y
G jB
Z R jX

A balanced three-phase system has voltage phasors that are of equal magnitude and
have a phase separation of 120 degrees. Likewise, the current phasors are of equal
magnitude and have a phase separation of 120 degrees. By convention, the phasors are
said to rotate counterclockwise. Using this convention, the sequence can be determined
by placing a small window over the phasor diagram and observing the phasors as they
rotate. For ABC rotation, the first phasor to pass through the window is A-phase, which
is followed by B-phase, and then C-phase.

The transformer ratio is the ratio between the rated voltages of the two transformer
windings. The turns ratio is the ratio between the number of turns of the two
transformer windings. For an ideal transformer, the ratio between the rated voltages is
the same as the turns ratio.
This perfect relationship is only true for ideal transformers. Even though they do not
exist in reality, the ideal transformer is a good approximation that can be used as an
auxiliary for more complex models in power systems.

10

The ideal transformer relationship described on the previous slide leads to the fact that
an impedance connected to one side of the ideal transformer can be reflected to the
other side and changes to the impedance value multiplied by the square of the
transformer turns ratio.

11

Using percent and per-unit representation makes calculations simpler and more
informative than using actual volts, amperes, and ohms.
The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the quantity to its base
(expressed as a decimal, ranging from 0 to 1). The product of two quantities expressed
in per unit is also expressed in per unit.

12

The voltage, current, power, and impedance are so closely related that the selection of
the base values for any two determines the base values of the remaining two. The most
common method of selection is to select the base voltage and base power and calculate
the base current and base impedance.

13

The power base must remain constant when using per-unit values. Therefore, the power
base is selected once and then used for all further calculations.
In the case of a transformer, the transformer rating is usually selected as the power base.
In the case of a two-winding transformer, both windings will have the same power
rating. The base voltage is different for each side of the transformer. Assuming an ideal
transformer, the voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio. This results in a voltage base
equal to the transformer winding rated voltage and is used for both sides of the
transformer.

14

If calculations are performed using per-unit values, with a proper choice of the base, the
transformer disappears. This is the main advantage of using the per-unit method.
The impedance value of power transformers is normally on the nameplate of the
transformer and is given as a percentage (Z per unit multiplied by 100) of the
transformer base impedance.
As seen from the per-unit equivalent circuit on this slide, the impedance of a
transformer can be measured by making a short-circuit test of the transformer because:
Zt = V1(pu) / I1(pu), with V2 = 0 (short circuit)
This is why the transformer impedance is usually referred to as the short-circuit
impedance.

15

The transformer impedance is assumed to be purely inductive. The resistive part, which
is the resistance of the copper windings, is so small when compared with the winding
inductance that it can be neglected.

16

17

Note: The phase shift is considered in per-unit representation. This is done in posterior
analysis. The magnitudes, however, are the same in per unit.

18

This slide shows an example of the steady-state functioning of a power line, with
phase-to-phase voltages and three-phase powers.

19

The example on this slide shows the advantages of using the per-unit system. The
values are much more informative.

20

The per-unit system follows the same principles when it is applied to a three-phase
system. The only difference is that the square root of 3 is used because the line-to-line
voltage is selected as a base voltage instead of line-to-neutral voltage.
In power systems, always select the base power in either kilovolt amperes (kVA) or
megavolt amperes (MVA) and the base voltage in kilovolts (kV).

21

Often, it is necessary to convert an impedance to a different base. For example, if a

transformer impedance is given on a 20 MVA base, it may need to be converted to a
100 MVA base to match the base of a system model. If the voltage base is not changed,
that portion of the equation becomes equal to 1 and can be neglected.

22

Find the equivalent reactance of the system on the slide (for both the generator and the
transformer) in per unit on a 100 MVA base.

23

24

A generator and a transformer are to be combined into a single equivalent reactance

using a 100 MVA system base and a 110 kV base on the high side of the transformer.
The transformer bank is operating on its 3.9 kV tap on the low side. Find the generator
reactance, transformer reactance, and total reactance in per unit.

25

26

Note: It does not matter which side of the transformer is used as a reference when
converting the impedance. The per-unit impedance is always the same.

27

28

Now that we have learned the per-unit system, we will introduce the simplest type of
fault on the power system: the balanced fault.

29

Power systems experience four main types of short circuits (faults): three phase (three
phase to ground), single phase to ground, phase to phase, and phase to phase to ground.
The only balanced (symmetrical) fault is the three phase (three phase to ground)
because the current is the same in all three phases and the phases will be spaced
120 degrees apart during the fault. The other three types are called unbalanced
(unsymmetrical) faults, and they will be addressed later in this presentation.

30

Single-line-to-ground faults are the most common type of fault, followed by doubleline-to-ground, line-to-line, and, finally, three-phase faults. Three-phase faults are very
rarely found in nature, and most three-phase faults are caused by human errors such as
leaving grounding chains on.

31

The fault impedance can vary widely depending on fault type. For phase faults, the only
fault impedance is the resistance of the arc itself. For ground faults, however, the
impedance of the tower, ground path, and cause of the fault are all added to the arc
resistance, which results in the total fault impedance.

32

Because the fault impedance can vary widely and the fault impedance is not known in
every case, it can be very difficult for protection engineers to design protection
schemes. High values of fault impedance result in lower fault currents and less voltage
sag, which limits the sensitivity of the most common types of protection.

33

When calculating fault current, both the minimum and maximum fault currents must be
calculated. The maximum fault current must be known in order to ensure that the
breaker can interrupt that level of current, while the minimum fault current must be
known in order to ensure that the protective device can detect low current faults. Both
maximum and minimum fault currents are used in maintaining coordination with other
protective devices.

34

To understand the nature of short circuits, it is convenient to perform an analysis of a

short circuit at the terminals of a simplified generator. The simplified generator can be
used to represent, as an equivalent, the behavior of almost any type of system during
fault conditions.
The simplified generator consists of an ideal three-phase voltage source with series
branches. Each of these branches has a self-impedance and a mutual inductance with
the other two branches. For simplicity, it is assumed that the mutual coupling between
phases is constant. That is, it is the same between any two phases.

35

The equations describing the individual phases can be manipulated using the boundary
conditions to make them independent of the effects of mutual coupling. This means that
during a perfectly balanced short circuit, the simplified generator can be represented by
an even simpler model in which the three phases are independent of each other (i.e., not
magnetically coupled).
As with any other balanced condition, the fault can be analyzed by examining only one
of the phases. The impedance is the impedance found for one of the phases, as shown
on this slide.

36

The simplified calculations assume the fault current is perfectly sinusoidal (symmetric)
and perfectly balanced. As a result, the A-phase current is equal to the calculated
current. The currents for the other phases are equal in magnitude to the calculated
current, but they are shifted by 120 degrees.
Because the voltages are commonly specified as rms, the resulting current is an rms
value.

37

The method commonly used to determine system currents and voltages for a threephase short circuit at any point on the network is derived from Thvenins theorem.
The first step is to find the Thvenin equivalent circuit. The second step is to use the
equations for the simple generator to determine the fault current. Finally, use network
solution techniques to calculate the voltages and currents along the network.
For a balanced three-phase condition, each phase of each network element can be
modeled by a simple impedance. This implies that the currents and voltages can be
calculated for a single-phase system. The resulting phasor solution can be rotated by
120 degrees to obtain the results for the other two phases. In other words, the problem
becomes a simple single-phase ac network problem.

38

The Thvenin equivalent circuit that is applied to one phase is the simplified model
shown on this slide.

39

In the example on this slide, all of the element impedances are shown in per unit.

40

The Thvenin equivalent circuit is created by connecting the fault point to the neutral
bus and simplifying the circuit using parallel and series impedance combinations. The
current base is calculated as follows:
Ibase

100 MVA
3 13.8 kV

41

4.18 kA

To simplify the Thvenin equivalent circuit, combine the two parallel impedances on
the lower part of the diagram on the previous slide into one.

42

Because both voltage sources are the same, they can be combined into one source to
further simplify the circuit.

43

Combining the series impedances allows the Thvenin equivalent circuit to be

simplified even further.

44

Combining the parallel impedances allows the Thvenin equivalent circuit to be

simplified even further.

45

Combining the last two series impedances results in the final Thvenin equivalent
circuit.

46

Using the Thvenin equivalent technique, the complex circuit on the left of this slide is
simplified to the much simpler circuit on the right. It is now much easier to use the
simplified circuit to calculate fault currents.
The current through the final Thvenin equivalent circuit is 6,715 A at the angle of
88 degrees.

47

Up to this point, the discussion has assumed the fault is a bolted fault. That is, the fault
resistance is equal to zero. However, it is easy enough to include the effect of fault
resistance. To consider the effect of fault resistance, simply add it to the Thvenin
equivalent impedance before calculating the fault current.

48

For a radial line, if the effect of load is not considered (which is the usual assumption),
the circuit is a simple series circuit. The circuit consists of an equivalent source
impedance connected in series with the impedance of the line.
If we define m as the per-unit line length to the fault, then the equivalent circuit line
impedance is equal to m times the total line impedance. To calculate m, divide the
distance to the fault by the total length of the line (m = d / L).

49

If the line is not radial, then two equivalent sources are needed, one for each line end.
The total fault current, I, is calculated by solving the resulting equivalent circuit. The
contribution from each line end is calculated by using current dividers and other
network techniques, such as Kirchhoffs current or voltage laws (KCL or KVL).

50

During a three-phase fault, the phase current magnitudes increase and the voltage
magnitudes decrease. If the fault is perfectly balanced, the faulted quantities remain
separated by 120 degrees.
During normal operation, the currents will lag or lead the voltages by the power factor
angle. During the fault, the currents will lag the voltages by the characteristic angle of
the faulted line. The characteristic angle is the angle associated with the line impedance
ZL.

51

The graph on this slide shows the voltage profile for a bolted three-phase fault. As can
be seen, the voltage is zero at the fault point but increases to full voltage at the source.

52

Now that we have learned how to analyze three-phase balanced faults, we will describe
how to analyze unbalanced faults. The analysis of unbalanced faults is more
complicated than three-phase faults, but it is made easier using symmetrical
components. This section introduces the symmetrical component method.

53

The operator = 1 120 degrees is useful when analyzing three-phase systems.

Because the phase separation in a balanced system is 120 degrees, the a operator allows
a reference phase to be selected, after which the remaining phases can be easily shown
in terms of the reference phase (commonly the A-phase). When the a operator is
applied to a phasor, it provides a 120-degree phase shift without changing the
magnitude.
The remaining discussion assumes the power system has a normal phase rotation of
ABC.

54

The symmetrical component method is used to analyze unbalances in power systems.

When applying the symmetrical component method to three-phase systems, any
unbalanced set of three phasors can be decomposed into three subsets of phasors,
namely:
A set of three phasors that are in phase and of equal magnitude, called the zerosequence set
A balanced set of three phasors called the positive-sequence set
A balanced set of three phasors called the negative-sequence set

For a set of three-phase voltage or current phasors with ABC phase sequence or rotation
order, the positive-sequence set will typically have an a1, b1, c1 rotation order. If the
phase sequence nomenclature is ACB, the sequence nomenclature of the positivesequence set will have an a1, c1, b1 rotation order.

55

The phase quantities are found by applying the equations shown on this slide. The
reference phase current is found by adding the sequence currents together. The
remaining phase quantities are found by adding the sequence currents together after
properly applying the a operator to the positive- and negative-sequence currents.
While the equations are shown using currents, the same equations are used to determine
the phase voltages.
The equations are also used to determine the available phase fault current after
simulating a fault using the symmetrical component method. The techniques for
simulating different fault types are shown later in this presentation.

56

The equations shown on this slide are used to mathematically decompose a three-phase
system into its symmetrical components. While the equations shown use the phase
currents to determine the sequence currents, the same equations are used to decompose
the phase voltages. While not explicitly stated, the equations use A-phase as the
reference. The reference phase is indicated by the phase that is not altered by the
a operator.
Notice that, for a balanced system with ABC rotation, the positive-sequence current
will equal the reference phase current. Another point of view is that the positivesequence current is the normal, or load, current that is present in the power system.
The equations are often used to determine the sequence quantities that were present
during a fault or other system event. The results are then used to evaluate the behavior
of protective relays that depend on sequence quantities for their operation.

57

As seen on this slide, there should not be any zero-sequence current or voltage for a
balanced system. The sum will not be zero if the magnitude and/or phase angle of one
of the phases is altered. This is expected because zero-sequence current occurs during a
system unbalance that involves a return path other than the three phase conductors. This
will be shown later when the sequence network connections for different fault types are
discussed.

58

The positive-sequence component for a balanced system is equal to the reference phase
quantity. Any unbalance will cause the positive-sequence component to equal
something other than the reference. The positive-sequence component can therefore be
considered the normal load voltage or current.

59

The negative-sequence component for a balanced system is equal to zero. The

summation will not equal zero if the magnitude and/or phase angle is changed for one
or two of the phases. As a result, the negative-sequence components appear when there
is an unbalance between phases.
Note that when the B-phase current or voltage is rotated by 240 degrees in a balanced
system, the current or voltage is positioned where the C-phase current is expected to be.
Likewise, when the C-phase current or voltage is rotated by 120 degrees in a balanced
system, it is positioned where the B-phase is expected to be.

60

This slide shows an example of current phasors captured by a relay during a fault. The
fault appears to be a B-phase-to-C-phase fault due to the high currents on the
B- and C-phases and the 180-degree angle difference between the two.

61

This slide shows the equation and solution for the zero-sequence current. The equation
is in terms of 3I0because that is the value obtained by connecting the current
transformers (CTs) in wye and measuring the current in the return path. Additionally,
digital relays will calculate the 3I0 quantity for use in metering, as well as protection
elements.
The diagram on this slide shows the phasor math.

62

This slide shows the equation and solution for the positive-sequence current. Note that
the B-phase current is advanced by 120 degrees and the C-phase current is advanced by
240 degrees before the B-phase and C-phase currents are added to the A-phase current.
The division by 3 is used when calculating the positive-sequence quantity because it is
the value that can be directly compared to the panel meter.
The diagram on this slide graphically shows the phasor math with the exception of the
division by 3.

63

This slide shows the equation and solution for the negative-sequence current. Note that
the B-phase current is advanced by 240 degrees and the C-phase current is advanced by
120 degrees before the A-phase and B-phase currents are added to the A-phase current.
The formula has been left in terms of 3I2 because that is the value that is generally used
by digital relays as the operating quantity for negative-sequence overcurrent elements.
Additionally, a digital relay will often display the 3I2 quantity as part of its metering.
The diagram on this slide graphically shows the phasor math.

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

If there are sequence currents and sequence voltages, there must also be sequence
impedances so that the relationships of Ohms law can be maintained. The sequence
impedances of common power system components are examined next.

74

The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of a transmission line are equal. This
makes sense because a transmission line is not impacted by the rotation of the applied
quantities. This relationship between the positive- and negative-sequence impedances
holds true for all nonrotating pieces of equipment.
Note that the zero-sequence impedance is larger than the positive- and negativesequence impedances. In general, the zero-sequence impedance falls within the range of
two to four times the positive-sequence impedance. It is common to use a factor of 3
when the zero-sequence impedance is not known. This generality is useful when
reviewing the line impedance settings of a digital relay.
The development of sequence impedances assumes that the self-impedance of each
conductor is the same and that the mutual impedance between all conductor pairs are
the same. While this is not explicitly true, it is a convenient assumption that introduces
a small amount of error.
Once the sequence impedances are known, they can be applied as elements in a
network or circuit. When applied as part of a network for analyzing a power system, the
transmission line is a series impedance within the model.
How the networks can be interconnected to simulate different fault types is shown later
in the presentation.

75

The positive-sequence impedance of a generator is represented by three different

impedances referred to as the subtransient, transient, and synchronous impedances. The
values are used to simplify the exponentially decaying magnitude of symmetrical fault
current available from a generator. The value used in an analysis depends on the time
frame of interest. The subtransient impedance is used to model the fault current for the
first few cycles of the fault. The transient impedance is used to model the fault current
for the next several cycles after the subtransient period. The synchronous impedance is
used to model steady-state fault currents. Because most studies concentrate on the first
few cycles of a fault, the subtransient impedance is typically used during analysis.
The negative-sequence impedance is either equal or nearly equal to the subtransient
positive-sequence impedance, depending on the construction of the generator.
The zero-sequence impedance depends on the pitch of the armature winding, but it is
generally considerably smaller than the subtransient positive-sequence impedance.
Note that the positive-sequence network is connected to the reference bus through an
ideal generator because the generator provides positive-sequence current and voltage to
the power system.

76

For a wye-wye transformer, the currents on either side are in phase and the magnitudes
differ by the turns ratio of the transformer.

77

The sequence impedances of a transformer can be determined in a manner similar to

that used for transmission lines. Transformers complicate any analysis because
impedances are transferred through a transformer by the square of the turns ratio. If the
analysis is performed using per-unit impedances, the complication is removed and the
transformer becomes a series impedance in the sequence network.
As with other nonrotating pieces of equipment, the positive- and negative-sequence
impedances are equal, whereas the zero-sequence impedance depends on the
construction of the transformer. The zero-sequence impedance of three single-phase
transformers will be the same as the positive-sequence impedance. The same is true for
a three-phase shell-type transformer. The zero-sequence impedance of a three-phase
core-type transformer will be in the range of 90 to 100 percent of the positive-sequence
impedance.

78

For a delta-wye transformer, the currents on either side are out of phase by 30 degrees.
In the transformer shown on this slide (DACY winding configuration), the high-side
no-load voltage will lead the low side by 30 degrees. The current magnitudes differ by
the turns ratio of the transformer times the square root of 3. From another perspective,
the current magnitudes differ by the ratio of the voltages. Because of the delta
connection, the turns ratio is not the same as the voltage ratio.
When configured per ANSI standards, the high side leads the low side by
30 degrees.

79

Delta-wye transformers are also modeled as a series impedance when the analysis is
performed using per-unit values. The sequence impedance values behave the same as
the impedances for a wye-wye transformer.
Note that a 30-degree phase is incorporated in the loop equation in the positive- and
negative-sequence networks. The direction of the phase shift will depend on the
configuration of the delta connection. Also note that the negative-sequence phase shift
is in the opposite direction of the positive-sequence phase shift.
It is especially important to note the transformer connection in the zero-sequence
network. As shown on this slide, zero-sequence current cannot pass through the delta
connection even though zero-sequence current flows through the wye winding. The
delta connection is often referred to as a zero-sequence trap, while the wye-winding
connection to the reference bus is often referred to as a zero-sequence source.

80

The transformer ratio only affects the magnitude. Therefore, it can be neglected in the
calculations show on the slide. Zero-sequence currents will have the same phase angle
on both sides because there is no phase shift associated with zero-sequence quantities.
The delta-side positive-sequence voltage will lead the wye side by 30 degrees, and the
delta-side negative-sequence voltage will lag the wye side by 30 degrees.
The currents are reflected from the wye to the delta side, but the zero-sequence currents
will circle within the delta-connected windings.

81

Now that we have learned how to construct sequence networks, we will learn how to
connect these networks in order to analyze various types of faults.

82

This slide shows the sequence networks for a simple radial system. Because a delta-wye
transformer is being used, special attention must be paid to the connection within the
zero-sequence network. Note that the generator is fixed at 1 per-unit voltage.
The sequence networks are drawn using the common convention of placing the
sequence reference bus at the top.

83

The example on the previous slide can be expanded to represent the two-terminal
equivalent of an interconnected power system. Equivalent sources are generally
connected grounded wye to easily model the zero-sequence sources that exist in the
interconnected power system.

84

Because a three-phase fault is a balanced fault, only the positive-sequence network is

involved in the calculation. As a result, the A-phase fault current is equal to the
positive-sequence current. The B- and C-phase currents are then obtained by applying
the proper phase shifts to the positive-sequence current.
The connections for the negative- and zero-sequence networks are typically not shown
because they have no source and, hence, no current.
Although one might think that RG should be included in the fault current calculation,
remember that a three-phase fault is balanced and results in zero current at the
summation point. Because no current flows through RG, it has no impact on the
magnitude of the fault current.

85

The network connection used to determine the three-phase fault current for a twoterminal system is similar to the connection for a radial system. The line impedance
must be divided into two parts. The relative magnitudes of the two parts are determined
by the location of the fault. For the example shown on this slide, m is the per-unit
distance of the line length from Bus S to the fault point. If the fault is placed 25 percent
of the total line distance away from Bus S, then 25 percent of the line impedance is
placed between Bus S and the fault point. The remaining 75 percent of the line
impedance is placed between Bus R and the fault point.
The connections for the negative- and zero-sequence networks are typically not shown
because they have no source and, hence, no current.

86

During a three-phase fault, the magnitudes of the voltages decrease while the
magnitudes of the currents increase and their phase angle, with respect to the voltage,
also changes. During normal operation, the currents will lag or lead the respective
voltage by a small amount, depending on the power factor of the load. During a bolted
fault, the currents will lag their respective voltage by an angle equal to the characteristic
angle of the faulted equipment impedance. If the fault is perfectly balanced, the faulted
quantities maintain the 120-degree separation.
For a bolted fault, the positive-sequence voltage will be zero at the fault point and will
increase to 1 per unit as the observation point moves back to the voltage source.

87

The positive- and negative-sequence networks are connected in parallel to determine

the currents for a phase-to-phase fault. Circuit analysis techniques are applied to find
the sequence currents and voltages. The fault current and voltage is then found by
applying the symmetrical components equations.
Note that the fault voltage has a phase shift and an increase in magnitude compared
with the positive-sequence voltage. Also note that the fault current magnitude for a
bolted fault is 86.7 percent times the magnitude of the bolted three-phase fault current
when the positive-sequence impedance equals the negative-sequence impedance.

88

As with the three-phase fault, the line impedance for a phase-to-phase fault is split
between the two sources based on the fault location. The techniques of superposition
are then applied to determine the sequence currents and voltages.

89

For a phase-to-phase fault, the currents of the faulted phases will be the same
magnitude and 180 degrees apart. The faulted voltages will decrease in magnitude and
collapse toward each other. The degree of separation is determined by the location of
the fault. The least amount of separation occurs for close-in faults.
Notice that the summation of the currents is equal to zero. Therefore, there is no zerosequence current, which confirms the sequence connection shown on the previous slide.
It is important to note that the symmetrical component method assumes that there is no
load current flowing prior to the fault. Because this is rarely the case in actual practice,
real-world phase-to-phase fault currents will tend to be close to 180 degrees apart, but
seldom will there be exactly 180 degrees of separation.
The positive-sequence voltage will be at a minimum at the fault point and will increase
to 1 per unit at the voltage source. The negative-sequence voltage will be at a maximum
at the fault point and will decrease to zero at the voltage source. When the positive- and
negative-sequence impedances are equal, the positive-sequence voltage will equal the
negative-sequence voltage at the fault point.

90

The analysis can be extended to include ground in the fault condition. All three
sequence networks are connected in parallel to simulate a phase-to-phase-to-ground
fault.
The sequence voltages are equal at the fault point, and the resulting sequence currents
depend on the respective sequence impedances, as well as any fault resistance.

91

Similar to the previous fault types, the line impedance is split between the two sources
based on the fault location. The techniques of superposition are then applied to
determine the sequence currents and voltages.

92

The voltages for a bolted phase-to-phase-to-ground fault react in a manner similar to a

phase-to-phase fault. For a phase-to-phase fault, the currents were 180 degrees out of
phase with each other. Because of the inclusion of the zero-sequence network in the
model for a phase-to-phase-to-ground fault, the currents will not be at opposing angles.
The diagram on the right on this slide assumes that the positive- and negative-sequence
impedances are equal and the zero-sequence impedance equals three times the positivesequence impedance. Under these conditions, the sequence voltages will be 0.43 per
unit at the fault point. The positive-sequence voltage will increase to 1 per unit at the
voltage source. The negative- and zero-sequence voltages will decrease in magnitude to
zero at their respective voltage sources. Note that the generator is the source of the
negative-sequence voltage while the delta-wye transformers are the source of the zerosequence voltage. Also note that the values presented are valid only for the given
assumptions. The actual relationship between the sequence impedances will depend on
the power system equipment.

93

To simulate a phase-to-ground fault, the sequence networks are connected in series. The
fault current obtained with the symmetrical component transformation is three times the
sequence current. This occurs because the A-phase current is equal to the sum of the
three sequence currents and the sequence currents are equal in magnitude and phase.

94

Similar to the previous fault types, the line impedance is split between the two sources
based on the fault location. The techniques of superposition are then applied to
determine the sequence currents and voltages.

95

For a bolted phase-to-ground fault, the voltage magnitude of the faulted phase will
collapse while the current magnitude increases and its phase angle changes such that it
lags the voltage by the characteristic angle of the faulted equipment.
The lower diagram on this slide assumes that the positive- and negative-sequence
impedances are equal and the zero-sequence impedance is three times the positivesequence impedance. Under these conditions, the positive-sequence voltage will be
0.8 per unit at the fault point and will increase to 1 per unit at the voltage source. The
negative-sequence voltage will be 0.2 per unit at the fault point and decrease in
magnitude to zero at the voltage source. The zero-sequence voltage will be 0.6 per unit
at the fault point and decrease in magnitude to zero at its voltage source. Note that the
delta-wye transformers are the voltage source for the zero-sequence voltage. Also note
that the values presented are valid only for the given assumptions. The actual
relationship between the sequence impedances will depend on the power system
equipment.

96

97

98