Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
&
Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR)
EMRE ZTOKLU
2014
Dean
Professor Dr.Fuat GRCAN
Program Coordinator
Professor Dr. Migdat Hodzic
Referees
Assoc. Professor Dr. Izudin Dafi
Assist. Professor Dr. Emir Karamehmedovic
Date of the graduation
2014
To my parents
Contents
Abstract
1 Introduction
1.1 History of Electric Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Method of Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Conventional Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
4
7
8
2 Synchronous Generator
2.1 Main Components of a Synchronous Generator
2.1.1 The Stator: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 The Rotor: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Slip Rings: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 The Generators Synchronous Rotation Speed .
2.3 Field Excitation & Exciters . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Brushless Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Contents
Contents
Acknowledgments
71
.1 Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Bibliography
ii
81
Abstract
In this project, it will explain prensible that how to build three phase synchronous
generator with DC exitation. In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to
the rotor winding, which produces a rotor magnetic field. The rotor of the generator
is then turned by a prime mover, producing a rotating magnetic field within the
machine. This rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase set of voltages within
the stator windings of the generator. Moreover, I will explain and/or implement an
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) for the generator. For that reason, the part
of generator is more important for all generator to protect itself and our electrical
staffs. Although manufacturers often use the analog AVRs, advanced features of
microcontrollers that can be solved various control algorithms and protection designs
with simple softwares will cause the system to gain more performance. AVR designed
to keep the generator terminal voltage on nominal value.
1 Introduction
Classification of AC Rotating Machines
Synchronous Machines
Synchronous Generators : A DC current is applied to the rotor winding
producing a rotor magnetic field. The rotor is then turned by external means
producing a rotating magnetic field, which induces a 3-phase voltage within
the stator winding.
Synchronous Motors : A 3-phase set of stator currents produces a rotating
magnetic field causing the rotor magnetic field to align with it. The rotor
magnetic field is produced by a DC current applied to the rotor winding. It
used as motors as well as power factor compensators (synchronous condensers).
Asynchronous (Induction) Machines:
Induction Motors : Most widely used electrical motors in both domestic
and industrial applications.
Induction Generators : Due to lack of a separate field excitation, these
machines are rarely used as generators.
Energy Conversion
Generators convert mechanical energy to electric energy.
Motors convert electric energy to mechanical energy.
The construction of motors and generators are similar
Every generator can operate as a motor and vice versa.
The energy or power balance is :
Generator: Mechanical power = electric power + losses
Motor:
Chapter 1
Introduction
The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D).
When the disk was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from
the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact
m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the
axle.
Figure 1.1: The first electric generator ( Faraday disk )
This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions
that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced
directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions
that were outside the influence of the magnetic field. This counterflow limited the
power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc.
Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets
arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one currentflow direction.
Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single
current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple
turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output
voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to
produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became
a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs.
The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The dynamo uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical rotation
Chapter 1
Introduction
into direct current through the use of a commutator. The first dynamo was built by
Hippolyte Pixii in 1832.
A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, which provides a constant
magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On small
machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent
magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more
electromagnets, which are usually called field coils.
Through a series of accidental discoveries, the dynamo became the source of many
later inventions, including the DC electric motor, the AC alternator, the AC synchronous motor, and the rotary converter.
Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. The early machines were developed
by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii.
Faraday developed the "rotating rectangle", whose operation was heteropolar - each
active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was
in opposite directions.[3]The first public demonstration of a more robust "alternator system" took place in 1886.[4] Large two-phase alternating current generators
were built by a British electrician, J.E.H. Gordon, in 1882. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies between
100 and 300 Hz. In 1891, Nikola Tesla patented a practical "high-frequency" alternator (which operated around 15 kHz).[5]After 1891, polyphase alternators were
introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases.[6] Later alternators were
designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen and about one
hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric motors.[7]
Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal
use of alternating current for power distribution. Before the adoption of AC, very
large direct-current dynamos were the only means of power generation and distribution. AC has come to dominate due to the ability of AC to be easily transformed
to and from very high voltages to permit low losses over large distances.
Most users of electrical energy may tolerate long-term voltage deviations from the
nominal value of not more than 5 percent. An increase of the voltage above its
nominal value leads to a shorter service life for electrical equipment, and a decrease
lowers the productivity and economically efficient operation of the machinery and
the capacity of the transmission lines; it may also interfere with the stable operation
of synchronous machines and induction motors.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Figure 1.3: via AVR , Brusless Excitations with exciter & without exciter
Pout = Kp e(t)
(1.1)
Where ;
Pout : Output of the proportional controller
Chapter 1
Introduction
Kp : Proportional gain
e(t): Instantaneous process error at time t [e(t) = SP P V ]
SP : Set point
P V : Process variable
With increase in K p :
Response speed of the system increases.
Overshoot of the closed-loop system increases.
Steady-state error decreases.
But with high Kp value, closed-loop system becomes unstable.
PI controller In control engineering, a PI Controller (proportional-integral controller) is a feedback controller which drives the plant to be controlled by a weighted
sum of the error (difference between the output and desired set-point) and the integral of that value. It is a special case of the PID controller in which the derivative
(D) part of the error is not used. The PI controller is mathematically denoted as:
Gc = Kp +
KI
s
Gc = K (1 +
10
(1.2)
1
)
sTi
(1.3)
11
2 Synchronous Generator
13
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
14
Synchronous Generator
The example above shows the basic construction of a synchronous generator which
has a wound salient two-pole rotor. This rotor winding is connected to a DC supply
voltage producing a field current, If .The external DC excitation voltage which
can be as high as 250 volts DC, produces an electromagnetic field around the coil
with static North and South poles. When the generators rotor shaft is turned by
the turbines blades (the prime mover), the rotor poles will also move producing a
rotating magnetic field as the North and South poles rotate at the same angular
velocity as the turbine blades, (assuming direct drive). As the rotor rotates, its
magnetic flux cuts the individual stator coils one by one and by Faradays law, an
emf and therefore a current is induced in each stator coil.
The magnitude of the voltage induced in the stator winding is, as shown above, a
function of the magnetic field intensity which is determined by the field current, the
rotating speed of the rotor, and the number of turns in the stator winding. As the
synchronous machine has three stator coils, a 3-phase voltage supply corresponding
to the windings, A, B and C which are electrically 120 apart is generated in the
stator windings and this is shown above.
This 3-phase stator winding is connected directly to the load, and as these coils are
stationary they do not need to go through large unreliable slip-rings, commutator
or carbon brushes. Also because the main current generating coils are stationary, it
makes it easier to wind and insulate the windings because they are not subjected to
rotational and centrifugal forces allowing for greater voltages to be generated.[16]
Then the synchronous generator operates in a similar way to the automotive car
alternator and consists of the two following common parts:
15
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
The Stator(Fig. 2.3) carries the three separate ( 3-phase ) armature windings
physically and electrically displaced from each other by 120 degrees producing an
AC voltage output. The stator of a synchronous machine has the same construction
as the stator of a three-phase induction motor. In review, the stator contains a
set of three-phase windings that establish the stator field. This field consists of P
magnetic poles, alternating between north and south around the circumference of
the stator and rotating at synchronous speed. In a synchronous machine, the set of
stator windings is called the armature. [15]
Ns =
120 f
P
where
f = frequency of the supply frequency [Hz]
p = number of poles
Ns = Synchronous speed
16
(2.1)
1. The voltage per phase is only 1/ 3 or 58%of the voltage between the lines.
This means that the highest voltage between a stator conductor and the
grounded stator core is only 58% of the line voltage. We can therefore reduce
the amount of insulation in the slots which, in turn, enables us to increase the
cross section of the conductors. A larger conductor permits us-to increase the
current and, hence, the power output of the machine.
2. When a synchronous generator is under load, the voltage induced in each
phase becomes distorted, and the waveform is no longer sinusoidal. The distortion is mainly due to an undesired third harmonic voltage whose frequency
is three times that of the fundamental frequency. With a wye connection, the
distorting line-to-neutral harmonics do not appear between the lines because
they effectively cancel each other. Consequently, the line voltages remain sinusoidal under all load conditions. Unfortunately, when a delta connection
is used, the harmonic voltages do not cancel, but add up. Because the delta
is closed on itself, they produce a third-harmonic circulating current, which
increases the I 2 R losses.
Single- layer winding: In this type of winding, as shown in Fig. 2.4, each slot
contains only one coil side. It means a coil occupies two complete slots. The number
of coils in the machine is equal to half the number of slots in the stator, or rotor
and armature[17]
Per slot only one coil side is placed
Used only in small ac machines
North and South pole are generated by one coil group per phase.
17
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
Double -Layer Winding: In this type, as shown in Fig. 2.5, each slot contains two
coil sides, housed one over the other. The number of coils is equal to the number of
slots in the stator and armature.[17]
Slot contains even number (may be 2,4,6 etc.) of coil-sides in two layers
Double-layer winding is more common above about 5kW machines
North and South pole are generated by two coil groups and direction of current
flow in N-pole and S-pole coils opposite.[18]
18
Z = R +jX
VA /|Z| = I
jX
= tan1 R = VB /|Z| = I 120
VC /|Z| = I 240
|Z| = Z
There are two types of connections in three-phase circuits: Y and 4:
19
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
Van = V 0
Vbn = V 120
Vcn = V 240
Ia = I 0
Ib = I 120
Ic = I 240
The current in any line is the same as the current in the corresponding phase:
ILL = I
(2.2)
Magnitudes of the line-to-line voltages and the line-to-neutral voltages are related
as:
20
VLL = V
(2.3)
In addition, the line voltages are shifted by 30 with respect to the phase voltages.
In a connection with abc sequence, the voltage of a line leads the phase voltage.
Delta (4) Connection: Assuming a resistive load is that:
Iab = I 0
Ibc = I 120
Ica = I 240
21
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
VLL = V
(2.4)
IL = I
(2.5)
For the connections with the abcphase sequences, the current of a line lags the
corresponding phase current by 30
22
Figure 2.9: Cross sections of two synchronous machines. The relative positions of
the stator and rotor poles are shown for motor action. Torque is developed in
the direction of rotation because the rotor poles try to align themselves with the
opposite stator poles
Therefore, synchronous generators are built with two types of rotors:
2.1.2.1 Salient-Poles rotor
Salient-Poles rotor: Salient-Pole rotors are usually driven by low-speed hydraulic
turbines.
The stator has a laminated iron-core with slots and three phase windings
placed in the slots.
They are usually four and more poles.
for example: to produce 50 Hz electricity
p=12, n=500 rpm
p=24, n=250 rpm
23
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
Most hydraulic turbines have to turn at low speeds ( between 50 and 300 r/min) in
order to extract the maximum power from a waterwheel, Because the rotor is directly
coupled to the waterweel, and because a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz is required,
a large number of poles are required on the rotor. Low-speed rotors always possess
a large diameter to provide the necessary space for the poles. The salient poles
are mounted on a large circular stell frame which is fixed to a revolving vertical
shaft. To ensure good cooling, the field coils are made of bare copper bars, with
the turns insulated from each other by strips of mica. The coils are connected in
series, with adjacent poles having opposite polarities. In addition to the DC field
winding, we often add a squrriel-cage winding,embedded in the polefaces. Under
normal conditions, this winding does not carry any current because the rotor turns
ay synchronous speed. However, when the load on the generator changes suddenly,
the rotor speed begins to fluctuate, producing momentary speed variations above
and below synchronous speed. This induces a voltage in the squrirel-cage winding,
causing a large current to flow therein. The current reacts with magnetic field of the
stator, producing forces which dampen the oscillation of the rotor. For this reason,
the squirrel-cage winding is sometimes called a damper-winding. [20]
The damper winding also tends to maintain balanced 3-phase voltages between the
lines, even when the line current are unequal due to unbalanced load conditions.
24
25
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
26
Figure 2.14: Salient pole rotor (left side) & Non-Salient pole rotor (right side)
27
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
Figure 2.15: view of two slip rings of rotor and three slip rings of rotor
In conclusion, If the synchronous motor is single phase then there are two slip rings
& if this motor is three phase so the slip rings are three in number. A synchronous
motor has a separately excited field. If the excitation comes from a stationary DC
source it has 2 slip (collector) rings. A brushless induction motor has no slip rings
because the exciter armature rotates and so do the rectifiers. A permanent magnet
motor, used with variable frequency drives, is another type of synchronous motor
that has no slip rings. A three phase motor with 3 slip rings is a Wound Rotor motor.
Wound rotor motors are variable speed motors that were used for such applications
as bridges and cranes before variable speed drives.
28
fe =
Nm P
120
(2.6)
Nm = NS
(2.7)
m = S
(2.8)
Where
fe :
NM :
is mechanical speed of magnetic field (rotor speed for synchronous machine), [rpm]
NS :
is speed of stator
P :
omega [N.m]
In a synchronous motor, its angular velocity is fixed by the frequency of the supply
voltage so N is commonly known as the synchronous speed. Then for a "P"-pole
synchronous generator the speed of rotation of the prime mover (the turbine blades)
in order to produce the required frequency output of either 50Hz or 60Hz of the
induced emf will be:
So for a given synchronous generator designed with a fixed number of poles, the
generator must be driven at a fixed synchronous speed to keep the frequency of the
induced emf constant at the required value, either 50Hz or 60Hz to power mains
appliances. In other words, the frequency of the emf produced is synchronised
with the mechanical rotation of the rotor. Then from above, we can see that to
generate 60 Hz using a 2-pole machine, the rotor must rotate at 3600 [revs/min],
or to generate 50 Hz using a 4-pole machine, rotor must rotate at1500[revs/min].
For a synchronous generator that is being driven by an electrical motor or steam
generator, this synchronous speed may be easy to achieve however, when used as a
wind turbine synchronous generator, this may not be possible as the velocity and
power of the wind is constantly changing.
However, for a synchronous machine, the more poles it has the larger, heavier and
more expensive becomes the machine which may or may not be acceptable.
29
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
One solution is to use a synchronous machine with a low number of poles which can
rotate at a higher speed of 1500 to 3600 rpm driven through a gearbox. The low
rotational speed of the wind turbines rotor blades is increased through a gearbox
which allows the generator speed to remain more constant when the turbines blade
speed changes as a 10% change at 1500rpm is less of a problem than a 10% change at
100rpm. This gearbox can match the generators speed to variable rotational speeds
of the blades allowing for variable speed operation over a wider range.
However, the use of a gearbox or pulley system requires regular maintenance, increases the weight of the wind turbine, generates noise, increases power losses and
reduces system efficiency as extra energy is required to drive the gearboxes cogs and
internal components.
There are many advantages to using a direct drive system without a mechanical
gearbox, but the omission of a gearbox means a larger synchronous machine with
an increase in both size and cost of the generator, which then has to operate at a
low speeds. So how can we operate a synchronous generator in a low speed wind
turbine system whose rotor blade speed is determined only by the winds power.
By rectifying the generated 3-phase supply into a constant DC or direct current
supply.[16]
30
31
Chapter 2
Synchronous Generator
(Fig. 2.17a). With a constant load on the motor, when the field excitationis
increased, the counter EMF (Vg ) increases. The result is a change in phase
between statorcurrent (I ) and terminal voltage (Vt ), so that the motor operates at a leading power factorin Figure (Fig. 2.17b). Vp in Figure (Fig. 2.17) is
the voltage drop in the stator windings due to the impedance of thewindings
and is 90 out of phase with the stator current. If we reduce field excitation,
the motorwill operate at a lagging power factor in Figure (Fig. 2.17c). Note
that torque angle, also varies as fieldexcitation is adjusted to change power
factor.
Synchronous motors are used to accommodate large loads and to improve the power
factor oftransformers in large industrial complexes.
32
33
Voltage transformers provide signals proportional to line voltage to the avr where
it is compared to a stable reference voltage. The difference (error) signal is used
to control the output of the exciter field. For example, if load on the generator
increases, the reduction in output voltage produces an error signal which increases
the exciter field current resulting in a corresponding increase in rotor current and
thus generator output voltage. Due to the high inductance of the generator field
windings, it is difficult to make rapid changes in field current. This introduces
a considerable "lag" in the control system which makes it necessary to include a
stabilizing control to prevent instability and optimize the generator voltage response
to load changes. Without stabilizing control, the regulator would keep increasing
and reducing excitation and the line voltage would continually fluctuate above and
below the required value. Modern voltage regulators are designed to maintain the
generator line voltage within better than +/- 1% of nominal for wide variations of
machine load.
35
Chapter 3
36
1. Control System
The basic idea behind a PID controller is to read a sensor, then compute the desired
actuator output by calculating proportional, integral, and derivative responses and
summing those three components to compute the output. Before we start to define
the parameters of a PID controller, we shall see what a closed loop system is and
some of the terminologies associated with it.
Closed Loop Systems (Automatic Control Fig. 3.1):Once the initial operating parameters have been set, an open loop system is not responsive to subsequent
changes or disturbances in the system operating environment such as temperature
and pressure, or to varying demands on the system such as power delivery or load
conditions. For continual monitoring and control over the operating state of a system without operator intervention, for more precision or faster response, automatic
control systems are needed.[21]
Closed Loop System In a typical control system, the process variable is the system
parameter that needs to be controlled, such as temperature(C) , pressure(psi) , or
flow rate (liters/minute) . A sensor is used to measure the process variable and provide feedback to the control system. The set point is the desired or command value
for the process variable, such as 100 degrees Celsius in the case of a temperature
control system. At any given moment, the difference between the process variable
and the set point is used by the control system algorithm (compensator), to determine the desired actuator output to drive the system (plant). For instance, if the
measured temperature process variable is 100 C and the desired temperature set
point is 120 C, then the actuator output specified by the control algorithm might
be to drive a heater. Driving an actuator to turn on a heater causes the system
to become warmer, and results in an increase in the temperature process variable.
This is called a closed loop control system, because the process of reading sensors to
provide constant feedback and calculating the desired actuator output is repeated
continuously and at a fixed loop rate as illustrated in Fig. 3.2
37
Chapter 3
In many cases, the actuator output is not the only signal that has an effect on the
system. For instance, in a temperature chamber there might be a source of cool
air that sometimes blows into the chamber and disturbs the temperature. Such a
term is referred to as disturbance. We usually try to design the control system to
minimize the effect of disturbances on the process variable.[22]
38
39
Chapter 3
u(t) = KP e(t) + KI
U (s) = KP +
e( )d + Kd
d
e(t)
dt
KI
1
+ Kd s = KP (1 +
+ sTd )
s
s Ti
(3.1)
(3.2)
where;
Kp : Proportional gain, a tuning parameter
Ki : Integral gain, a tuning parameter
Kd : Derivative gain, a tuning parameter
e(t) : is the error or deviation of actual measured value (PV) from the
setpoint (SP). (Error = SP P V )
t : Time or instantaneous time (the present)
: Variable of integration; takes on values from time 0 to the present t.
Ti : is the integral time
Td : is the derivative time
U (s): The transfer function of the PID controller
Proportional Response
The proportional component depends only on the difference between the set point
and the process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The
40
(3.3)
Integral Response
The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a
small error term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral
response will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect
is to drive the Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference
between the process variable and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup
results when integral action saturates a controller without the controller driving the
error signal toward zero.[23]
The integral term is given by:
Iout = Ki
e( ) d
(3.4)
Derivative Response
The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable is
increasing rapidly. The derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of
the process variable. Increasing the derivative time (T d) parameter will cause the
control system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase
the speed of the overall control system response. Most practical control systems use
very small derivative time (T d), because the Derivative Response is highly sensitive
to noise in the process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the
control loop rate is too slow, the derivative response can make the control system
unstable. [23]
The derivative term is given by:
Dout = Kd
d
e(t)
dt
(3.5)
41
Chapter 3
u(t) = KP e(t) + KI
e( )d
(3.6)
s domain:
G(s) = Kp +
KP s + KI
KI
=
s
s
(3.7)
or
G(s) = Kp (1 +
1
)
s Ti
(3.8)
where;
e(t)=is the error or deviation of actual measured value (PV) from the setpoint (SP).
e(t) = SP P V
(3.9)
42
have the ability to control DC output. Based on their design and output, rectifiers can be bridge or midpoint rectifiers, single or three phase rectifiers, half or full
wave rectifiers. Six pulse three-phase rectifiers shown inFig. 3.7 is considered in the
following.[24]
Im most cases in each phase there is a single phase transformer before the rectifier
used to isolate rectifier from AC supply and to adjust the desired voltage level. Also,
different three phase transformers can be used to shift voltages and currents (depending on transformer connection Wye or Delta ).This way it is possible to remove
some low order harmonics. Six pulse rectifier is built of six diodes or thyristors.
Cathodes of first three resistors are connected to one point as well as the anodes
of the remaining three. At any instant, only two diodes conduct: one from the
cathode-connected group, and one from the anode-connected group. Resulting output voltage consists of six pulses per period. Combinations of open diodes from
Fig. 3.7 in one period are: D1 and D6, D6 and D2, D2 and D4, D4 and D3, D3 and
D5, D5 and D1. When poly-phase AC is rectified, the phase-shifted pulses overlap
each other to produce a DC output that is much smoother (has less AC content) than that produced by the rectification of single-phase AC. This is a decided
advantage in high-power rectifier circuits, where the sheer physical size of filtering
components would be prohibitive but low-noise DC power must be obtained. The
diagram in (Fig. 3.8 ) shows the full-wave rectification of three-phase AC.
43
Chapter 3
Vout
3 2 VL
=
(3.10)
our generator connected as a Wye connection, magnitudes of the line to line voltages
and the line to neutral voltages are related as in Formula (3.11) ;
44
VL = VLL =
3 V
(3.11)
IL = I
(3.12)
In general;
Vout =
3. 2 V
(3.13)
45
We said that synchronous generator carries the three separate ( 3-phase ) armature
windings physically and electrically displaced from each other by 120 degrees producing an AC voltage output. Because of that, I had to create one stator and each
phases have to sperate from each other 1200 and each slots should be sperated from
each other 600 .the stator is as shown under.
47
Chapter 4
Ns =
120f
P
12050
2
= 3000 [rpm]
number of poles are two in our generator, becuse of that, the rotor should turn with
3000 rpm.( frequency is 50 Hz). if our frequency would be 60 Hz , our rotation will
be 3600 rpm.
48
49
Chapter 4
50
V = EA + Estat
(4.1)
Assuming that the load reactance is X, the armature reaction voltage is:
Estat = j XS IA RA IA
(4.2)
V = EA j XS IA RA IA
(4.3)
Bnet = BR + BS
(4.4)
where
BR =Rotor Field
BS =Stator Field
51
Chapter 4
when we apply 1.6 amper excitaton current (IF ) , our output voltage (V ) shows
10.2 volt,
so when we put in formula 4.1 V = EA + Estat = 10, 2 = EA + Estat and now, we
have to know that Estat to find that our EA
how can we find our EA ?
Example : A 200 kVA, 480 V, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator with a
rated field current of 5 A was tested and the following data were obtained:
1. VT,OC = 540 V at the rated IF .
2. IL,SC = 300 A at the rated IF .
3. When a DC voltage of 10 V was applied to two of the terminals, a current of
25 A was measured.
Find the generators model at the rated conditions (the armature resistance and the
approximate synchronous reactance).
Since the generator is Y-connected, a DC voltage was applied between its two phases.
52
Figure 4.7: when we appyl an external dc source to output of our generator we can
find our values of Ra , Rf, Xa and Xf with this methode
Therefore:
2 RA =
10
Vdc
=
= RA = 0.2 []
Idc
2 25
(4.5)
(4.6)
XS =
(Z)2 (RA )2 =
s
311.8
300
2
(0.2)2 = 1, 02 []
(4.7)
We observe that if XS was estimated via the approximate formula, the result would
be:
XS =
V
311, 8
=
= 1, 04 []
ISC
300
(4.8)
Which is close to the previous result. The error ignoring RA is much smaller than
the error due to core saturation.
Therefore; when we apply this example to our generator;
Vdc = 4.5Volt & Idc = 2, 4Amper,
Then;
2 RA =
4.5
Vdc
=
= 0, 9375 []
Idc
2 2.4
53
Chapter 4
XS =
(Z)2 (RA )2 =
XS =
V
= 7, 55 []
Iscc
it means that:
XS 1 RA
(4.9)
Also EA is :
EA = Kw
54
(4.10)
is flux in it
w=
Since flux in the machine depends on the field current through it, the internal
generated voltage is a function of the rotor field current.
55
Chapter 4
VR =
Vnl Vf l
100%
Vf l
(4.11)
Where;
Pin = app m
56
(4.12)
Pconv = ind m =
3 VT IL cos() = 3V I cos()
(4.13)
Pconv Pout
= cos1 (P F )
where;
P F : power factor
: is the angle between V and I (Recall that the power factor angle is the angle between
V and I and not the angle between VT and IL )
Pout =
3 VT IL cos()
(4.14)
Qout =
3 VT IL sin()
(4.15)
57
Chapter 4
c. What is the efficiency of this generator (ignoring the unknown electrical losses) when
it is operating at the rated current and 0.8 PF lagging?
d. How much shaft torque must be applied by the prime mover at the full load? how large
is the induced counter torque?
Answer:
VLL VT
VT
100% =
480410
100%
410
= 17%
b.2. For the generator at the rated current and the 1.0 PF ;
therefore; = cos1 (1) = 0
EA2 = (V + jXS IA sin)2 + (jXS IA cos)2 = 2772 = (V2 + 72V + 7488)= 270 [V ]
VT = 3V = 468 [V ]
The voltage regulation of the generator is for 1.0 PF:
58
VLL VT
VT
100% =
480468
100%
468
= 2.5%
b.3. For the generator at the rated current and the 0.8 PF leading :
therefore= = cos1 (0, 8) = 36.83
EA2 = (V + jXS IA sin)2 + (jXS IA cos)2 = 2772 = (V2 + 72V + 7488)= 308 [V ]
VT = 3V = 535 [V ]
The voltage regulation of the generator is for 0.8 leading:
VR =
VLL VT
VT
100% =
480535
100%
535
= 17%
Pout
%100
Pin
34.1
37
100 = %92
Pin
m
37
188.5
= 196.2 [N.m]
Pconv
m
34.1
188.5
= 180.9 [N.m]
59
Chapter 4
10
Vphase
0
0
0.5
1.5
Excitation
IA = ISC = q
60
EA
2
RA
+ XS2
(4.16)
Isc
1.5
0.5
Ia vs. If
I scc
Ia vs. If (smooth)
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
Value of Excitation Current ( If )
Measuring of Test:
Excitation Current ( If )
Excitation Current ( If )
0,20,15
0,6
0,20,15
0,16
0,40,35
2,1
0,40,35
0,32
0,60,57
4,2
0,60,53
0,48
0,80,71
5,2
0,80,78
0,71
1,00,99
7,2
1,00,92
0,84
1,21,08
7,8
1,21,14
1,01
1,41,42
9,6
1,41,40
1,17
1,61,52
10,2
1,61,52
1,35
1,81,71
10,8
1,81,72
1,53
2,01,90
11,5
2,01,99
1,75
2.22,10
12,2
2.22,22
1,95
2.42,29
12,7
2.42,37
2,16
61
Chapter 4
10
6
Vphase vs. If (smooth) OCC
Ia vs. If (smooth) Iscc
0
0
0.5
1.5
Excitation Current
to understand and how to work a PI controller , we can use some special electronic
simulink program such that Matlab, Multisim ,Proteus to simulate a hardware of
PI controller. n the industry, some manufacturing companies use hardware PI
controller or software PI controller , both of two types have some advantages. I will
show in this part that, how to simulate a PI controller and which kind of equipments
it has in a PI controller. n this project, I will use a LM358 opamp which has two
operational amplifier.
62
Vout =
R9
(SetP oint M easured V alue)
R7
(4.17)
63
Chapter 4
C (s + a)
Ki
= Kp +
s
s
U (s) =
Proportional
ntegrating
(4.18)
R5
R3
1
R3 C1
e(t)
e(t) dt
u(t)
U(s)
Kp e(t)
KP
KI
Ki e(t)dt
s
The transfer function of a PI controller may be implemented with the circuit shown
inFig. 4.16.
nverting Opamp:
In this opamp, it changes only sign of PI output signal for the input of voltage
controlled current source.
R13
Inverter
output =
R11
Vin
64
(4.19)
i=
(4.20)
(4.21)
if A 1 then;
i=
1
Vin
R
(4.22)
65
Chapter 4
Step Response
0.5
System: Mc
Settling time (seconds): 4.6
0.45
0.4
Amplitude
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
3
4
Time (seconds)
. It can be seen that the step response output is close to 0.035. The steady state
error = 1-0.035 = 0.965. Thats quite high! Also observe that the settling time is
around 3 sec. As we can see the step response of system is same like our open circuit
test characteristic.
Now lets see what is the effect of PI controller on the system response. Lets see the
effect of proportional element on the system output.
Keeping Kp = 10, Ki = 0 the step response of the system is shownFig. 4.19
66
Step Response
0.25
Amplitude
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0.5
1.5
2
Time (seconds)
2.5
3.5
The output is now 0.25 (The curve in red shows the open loop step response of the
plant). Now let me increase the Kp further and observe the response. Keeping Kp
= 100, Ki = 0 the step response of the system is
Step Response
0.8
0.7
Amplitude
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
1.5
2
Time (seconds)
2.5
3.5
the output is now 0.77. So its clear now that increasing Kp will reduce the steady
state error.
Keeping Kp = 200, Ki = 200 the step response of the system is
67
Chapter 4
Step Response
1.4
1.2
System: Mc
Final value: 1
Amplitude
1
System: Mc
Settling time (seconds): 1.19
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
System: M_noController
Settling time (seconds): 2.37
0.5
System: M_noController
2.5
3
3.5
1.5
2
Time (seconds)
System:
1.2 Mc
Peak amplitude: 1.06
Overshoot (%): 5.74
At time (seconds): 0.293
System: Mc
Settling time (seconds): 0.401
System: Mc
Final value: 1
Amplitude
System: Mc
Rise time (seconds): 0.142
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
1.5
System: M_noController
Peak amplitude: >= 0.0322
Overshoot (%): 0
At time (seconds): > 3.5
System: M_noController
Settling time (seconds): 2.37
System: M_noController
Rise time (seconds): 1.31
2.5
Time (seconds)
68
3.5
20
30
Gp =
1
s ^2 + 20 s + 30
Continuoustime t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n .
H =
69
Chapter 4
1
M_noController =
1
s ^2 + 20 s + 31
Continuoustime t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n .
Gc =
1
Kp + Ki
s
with Kp = 2 0 0 , Ki = 300
Continuoustime PI c o n t r o l l e r i n p a r a l l e l form .
Mc =
200 s + 300
s ^3 + 20 s ^2 + 230 s + 300
Continuoustime t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n .
70
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my thanks to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Izudin Dafi,
for his motivation, encouragement, sincerity,valuable guidance and assistance in the
preparation, and completion of this project. I would also like to express my gratitude
to Senior Assist. Tark Namas for his supports,valuable guidance and suggestions
throughout the study. I would like to thank my family for their continuous support.
Lastly, I want to thank all who gave a hand during my project.
71
Chapter
.1 Generator
72
.1 Generator
Figure .24
73
Chapter
Figure .26
Figure .27
74
.1 Generator
Figure .28
75
Chapter
76
.1 Generator
77
Chapter
78
.1 Generator
79
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