Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
George Mplikas
September 2015
Contents
2 Misc. Exersizes
2.1 Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Logical Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
3
4
3 Unordered Pairs
10
6 Ordered Pairs
16
7 Relations
20
8 Functions
22
9 Families
23
27
11 Numbers
31
12 Peano Axioms
32
13 Arithmetic
33
14 Order
37
15 Axiom of Choice
38
16 Zorns Lemma
39
17 Well Ordering
42
18 Transfinite Recursion
44
19 Ordinal Numbers
46
47
21 Ordinal Arithmetic
48
22 The Schr
oder-Bernstein Theorem
49
23 Countable Sets
51
24 Cardinal Arithmetic
52
25 Cardinal Numbers
54
26 Extra Exercises
56
26.1 Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2
2.1
Misc. Exersizes
Logical Operators
Exercise 2.1. We show that , are commutative. We do this via truth table.
Proof. Consider the logical sentences p, q and the following truth table:
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
T
T
F
qp
T
T
T
F
Thus, p q q p
Proof. Consider the logical sentences p and q and the following truth table:
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
F
F
F
Thus, p q q p.
qp
T
F
F
F
2.2
Logical Rules
p
T
F
Thus, p p p
Proof. Consider the logical sentence p and the following truth table:
pp
T
F
p
T
F
Thus, p p p.
pq
T
T
T
F
q
T
F
T
F
Unordered Pairs
Exercise 3.1. Consider the sets , {}, {{}}, etc.; Consider all the pairs such
as {, {}}, formed by two of them; consider the pairs formed by any such two
pairs, or else mixed pairs formed by a singleton and any pair; and proceed ad
infinitum. Are all the sets obtained in this way distinct from one another?
Yes, all sets obtained in this way are distinct.
Proof. By the axiom of pairing, we can form A and B as given, and by the
axiom of specification, they are the only such sets which contain their elements.
Suppose, to the contrary, that A = B.
If A = B, then for all a A, a B, and for all b B, b A. Now, either A
and B are singletons, or they are pairs.
A and B are singletons: Say, A = {a}, and B = {b}. Thus, by the Axiom
of Extension, we have a = b. Implying that A and B were formed in the
same way.
A and B are pairs: Let A = {a, a0 }, B = {b, b0 }. Without loss of generality, suppose that a = b, and a0 = b0 . If this is the case, then by the Axiom
of Extension, again, we have that a, b were obtained in the same fashion,
as well as a0 , b0 . But in this case, A and B were constructed in the same
manner.
Either way, we have a contradiction. Thus, A and B are formed distinctly.
(1)
AB =BA
(2)
A (B C) = (A B) C
(3)
AA=A
(4)
A B A B = B
Proof. ( ) Since has no elements, for all a
(5)
S
C, a
/ and we have,
x A = {x : x A x } x A x = {}
x A
Thus, A = A
Proof. ( )
A B = {x : x A x B} = {x : x B x A} = B A
Proof. ( )
x A (B C) x A x B C
x A x B x C
x {x : x A x B} x C
x A B x C
x (A B) C
Proof. ( )
A A = {x : x A x A} = {x : x A} = A
Proof.
() We note that A B iff for all x A, x B. Thus, we have that
x A B = {x : x A x B} x A x B x B
by the comments above. And likewise,
x B x B x A x {x : x A x B} x A B
That is, A B = B.
() Suppose A B = B. Then,
x A x {x : x A x B} = A B = B
That is, A B.
Exercise 4.2. We show the following:
A=
(1)
AB =BA
(2)
A (B C) = (A B) C
(3)
AA=A
(4)
A B A B = A
(5)
(6)
()
x A = {x : x A x } x x A
x
()
( A) ( )
A
Proof. (2) ( )
7
A B = {x : x A x B} = {x : x B x A} = B A
Proof. (3) ( )
x A (B C) x A x B C = {x : x B x C}
x A x B x C
x {x : x A x B} x C
x A B x C
x (A B) C
Proof. (4) ( )
A A = {x : x A x A} = {x : x A} = A
Proof. (5)
() Suppose that A, B 6= . We note that A B iff for all x A, x B; then,
xAxB xAxB xAB
And likewise,
x A B = {x : x A x B} x A x B x A
That is, A B = A.
()Suppose that A B = A. Then,
x A x A B = {x : x A x B} x A x B x B
That is, A B.
Exercise 4.3. We wish show that (A B) C = A (B C) C A:
We first show (1) in the following, noting that (2) was proved in the text;
From page fifteen,
A (B B) = (A B) (A C)
(1)
and,
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Proof. ()
(2)
()
Suppose that (A B) C = A (B C). Then,
x C x {x : x A B x C}
= (A B) C
= A (B C)
by the assumption. Thus,
x C x A (B C)
xAxBC
xA
That is, C A.
(3)
Throughout these exercises we assume that all sets are subsets of one and the
same set E, and that all complements (unless otherwise specified) are formed
relative to that E (Halmos). Likewise, we will often use the more convenient,
yet less accurate notation {x : S(x)} in place of {x E : S(x)}
Exercise 5.1. We prove the following:
A B = A Bc
A B A B =
(1)
(2)
A (A B) = A B
(3)
A (A C) = (A B) (A C)
(4)
(5)
A B (A C) (B C )
c
(A C) (B C ) A B
(6)
Proof. (1) ( )
A B = {x E : x A x
/ B}
x A x
/B
x A x B c
x A B c
Proof. (2)
() Suppose that A B 6= , but A B; since A B, if x A, x B.
Thus, if x A B = {x E : x A x
/ B}, x
/ B. However x A, which
implies x B: A contradiction.
Proof. (4) ( )
x A (B C) x A x (B C)
x A x {x E : x B x
/ C}
x A x B x
/C
x
/ {x E : x A x C} x A B
x
/ AC xAB
x {x E : x
/ A C x A B}
x (A B) (A C)
Proof. (5) ()
Consider C
C, as stated above.
x A B x {x E : x A x B}
xAxB
(1)
(x A x B) (x C x C c )
x C (1) x A C x B C
(2)
x C c (1) x A C c x B C c
(3)
11
x (A C) (B C c ) x A C x B C c
(x A x C) (x B x C c )
(1)
(2)
(3)
Either way, x A B.
Exercise 5.2. We show that P(E) P(F ) = P(E F ):
Proof. Let E, F be sets such that E, F E ; via Axiom of Powers, P(E),
P(F ); specifically, from the discussion in Halmos1 , P(E) = {X : X E}, and
P(F ) = {X : X F }. Then, we have the following:
X P(E) P(F ) X P(E) X P(F )
X {Y : Y E Y F }
X E X F
x(x X (x E x F ))
x X, x E F
X = {x E : x X} E F
X {Y : Y E F }
= P(E F )
Exercise 5.3. We show that P(E) P(F ) P(E F ):
Proof. Let E, F be given as in the discussion of proof 5.2.0. We first claim that
if A, B are sets, then (x A x B x A B). Indeed; if x A, then
x A B and likewise, x B implies x B A. With this in mind, we have
the following:
X P(E) P(F ) = {X : X P(E) X P(F )}
X P(E) X P(F )
X {Y : Y E} X {Y : Y F }
X {Y : Y E Y F }
X {Y : Y E F }
= P(E F )
1 Halmos,
12
XC
P(X) = P(
XC
X):
XC
(X C)({z} P(X))
(X C)(z X)
\
z
X
XC
{z}
XC
z P(
X)
XC
()
z P(
X) z {Y : Y
XC
X}
XC
XC
(X C)(z X)
(X C)(v z)(v X)
(X C)(v z)({v} P(X))
(X C)(v z)(v P(X))
(X C)(z P(X))
\
z
P(X)
XC
XC
P(X) P(
XC
X):
Proof. Let C be a collection of sets. A common fact used in the following proof
is that if x P(X), then x X for any set X. This is indeed true, since
13
zY C
z {x : x X(X C)} =
XC
(s z)(s
X)
XC
(s z)(s P(
X))
XC
z P(
X)
XC
XP(E)
X = :
Proof. Let E be a set and consider P(E) = {Y : Y E}. We note that this
is non-empty because P(E), T
since is a subset of every set. We also note
that the statement (x x XP(E) X) is vacuously satisfied since has
no elements. Thus, we only show the forward inclusion:
()
x
X (X P(E))(x X)
XP(E)
x P(E)
And this completes the proof.
Exercise 5.7. We show that (E F P(E) P(F )):
Proof. Suppose that E F for sets E, F . Then, we have the following:
e P(E) e E
(x e)(x E)
(x e)(x F )
(by Assumption)
eF
e P(F )
(by Definition)
P(E) =
XP(E)
X:
()
x
P(E) (Y P(E))(x Y )
xY E
xE
()
x E {x} P(E)
x {x} P(E)
[
x {X : X P(E)}
[
=
P(E)
15
Ordered Pairs
(1)
(A B) (X Y ) = (A X) (B Y )
(2)
(A B) X = (A X) (B X)
(3)
(A = B = ) (A B = )
(A X) (B Y ) (A X X Y )
(4)
(5)
Proof. (1)
()
(x, y) (A B) X (x, y) {(a, b) : a A B b X}
x A B y X
(x A x B) y X
(by Distributivity)
(x A y X) (x B y X)
(x A X y A X) (x B X y B X)
(x, y) (A X) (B X)
()
(x, y) (A X) (B X) (x, y) (A X) (x, y) (B X)
(by Definition)
(x A y X) (x B y X)
(x A x B) y X
x A B y X
x (A B) X y (A B) X
{{x}, {x, y}} P((A B) X)
{{x}, {x, y}} P(P((A B) X))
(x, y) (A B) X
Proof. (2)
()
(c, d) (A B) (X Y ) c A B d X Y
(c A c B) (d X d Y )
(c A d X) (c B d Y )
(by Commutativity)
(c A X d A X) (c B Y d B Y )
{{c}, {c, d}} P(A X) {{c}, {c, d}} P(B Y )
(c, d) P(P(A X)) (c, d) P(P(B X))
(c, d) A X (c, d) B X
(c, d) (A X) (B X)
()
(c, d) (A X) (B X) (c, d) (A X) (c, d) (B X)
(c A d X) (c B d X)
(by Commutativity)
(c A c B) d X
(c (A B)) d X
c (A B) X d (A B) X
{{c}, {c, d}} P((A B) X)
(c, d) P(P((A B) X))
(c, d) (A B) X
(c, d) A X (c, d)
/ BX
(c, d) (A X) (B X)
17
()
(c, d) (A X) (B X) (c, d) (A X) (c, d)
/ (B X)
(c A d X) (c
/ Bd
/ X)
(since (d X d
/ X, ))
(c A d X) (c
/ B)
(c A c
/ B) d X
c (A B) d X
{{c}, {c, d}} P((A B) X)
{{c}, {c, d}} P(P((A B) X))
(c, d) (A B) X
cX dY
cX Y dX Y
{{c}, {c, d}} P(X Y )
(c, d) P(P(X Y ))
(c, d) X Y
18
19
Relations
Exercise 7.1. We show that for each of symmetric, reflexive, and transitive
properties, there exists a relation that does not have that property but does have
the other two.
Proof. Let X be a set. We first show that if X = , then any relation in X is
an equivalence relation:
Lemma. Let X = . Then, by a previous theorem, we have X
X = . And so, if R is a relation in X, R = . However, R is an
equivalence relation, since all statements are vacuously satisfied.
Likewise, suppose that X = {a}; i.e. X is a singleton. We claim, also that any
relation in X is an equivalence relation:
Lemma. Let X = {a}. Then, by the comments of the previous
section, we have X X = {(a, a)}. Thus, since R is the set {(a, b) :
a X b X} it follows that R = {(a, a)} for any relation.2 It
is easy to verify that the transitive condition is vacuously satisfied
for R. And, it is symmetric, since (a, a) = (a, a). And, clearly, R
is reflexive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation.
We also show that for X = {a, b} each of which is distinct, there does not exist
a relation, which is symmetric, reflexive, but not transitive:
Lemma. Let X = {a, b}. Then, the relation R in question must
contain {(a, a), (b, b)} = I. However, it is easy to verify that this is
an equivalence relation.3 Thus, we must add an element of X X
which maintains its symmetry, yet is not transitive. However, this
is not possible since either way (a, b), (b, a) must be in R and
so we would have R = {(a, a), (b, b), (a, b), (b, a)}.And, this is an
equivalence relation since (x, x) R for all x X and, by the
comments above, R is symmetric, as well as transitive.4
Thus, let X = {a, b, c....}, for distinct elements. We first show the relational
properties which include reflexivity:
2 see
Halmos pg. 27
the above lemma
4 this is left to the reader
3 see
20
Exercise 7.2. We show that the set of all equivalence classes, X/R, is indeed
a set.
Proof. Let R be an equivalence relation on a set X. We show that X/R
P(X):
z X/R (x X)(z = {x/R} = {y X : (x, y) R} X)
z P(X)
{z} X
5 the
others follow
21
Functions
Exercise 8.1. We show the special cases in which the projections are 1-1.
Proof. Without loss of generality, we only consider g : X Y Y , the range
projection.
We first note that if X, Y have a pair or more of distinct elements, then
g is not 1-1:
Lemma 8.1. Suppose X, Y , have more than a pair of distinct elements,
then g is not 1-1: To see this, let {a, b} X, and {c, d} Y , then
{(a, c), (a, d), (b, c), (b, d)} X Y . If we suppose g is one-to-one, then
g((a, c)) = g((b, d)) implies (a, c) = (b, d). But this is a contradiction,
since a = b and yet a, b are distinct.
Next, if X = {x} and Y = {y}, then we claim g is 1-1.
Lemma 8.2. Let X = {x} and Y = {y}; then, X Y = {(x, y), (y, x)}.
Upon inspection, we see that g is 1-1: if (x, y) 6= (y, x), then y 6= x and
y = g((x, y)) 6= x = g((y, x). We note that this covers the case in which
x = y.
Next, we show that if either X or Y is a singleton and the other is an
arbitrary set, g is one-to-one.
Lemma 8.3. Suppose, without loss of generality, that X is the singleton.
Then either Y = or Y 6= . If Y = , then X Y = , by previous
exercise; which is trivially 1-1. Else, we assume Y has more than a pair
of distinct elements. Since X = {x} for some x, it follows that {(a, b) :
a X b Y } = {(x, b) : b Y }, which means g is 1-1.
Lastly, if X = Y = , then all conditions are vacuously satisfied, and so g
is 1-1.
Exercise 8.2. We show that Y has exactly one element, namely , whether Y
is empty or not; i.e. Y = {}.
Proof. Suppose that Y is a set. Consider f = Y . From page thirty, and by a
previous theorem, we have f P( Y ) = P() = {}, where f is a set of
elements which are ordered pairs. From the comments in section seven, is a
set of ordered pairs. It follows that f = {}.
Exercise 8.3. We show that if X 6= , then X is empty; i.e. X = .
Proof. Suppose that there is some function f X . Then, for all x X, there
exists some b such that (x, b) f . However, this is not true, since contains
no elements. Thus, X = .
22
Families
Exercise 9.1. After the comments on page thirty-five, we formulate and prove
a generalized version of the commutative law for unions.
Proposition 9.1. Let K be an arbitrary, non-empty set, and let p Aut(K K )
be an element of the set of one-to-one and onto functions from K to K. We note
that in the current notation this means that p is the family and {pi } denotes
the values of p evaluating some
S i K. SLet {Ak } be a family of functions with
domain K. We claim that kK Ak = iK Api .
Proof.
()
x
kK
(since p is onto)
(x Ak0 ) (s K)(k0 = ps )
x Ak 0 = Ap s
[
x
Ap i
iK
()
[
iK
1 i=0
; it
0 i=1
is easy to show that p is 1-1 and onto. From the statement above, we have
[
Ak = A0 A1
(1)
To illustrate the previous proof, consider K = {0, 1} and pi =
kK
iK
23
(2)
Exercise 9.2. We show that if both {Ai } and {Bi } are families of sets, with
domains I, J, then
[ [ [
Ai
Bj = (Ai Bj )
(1)
i
Ai
i,j
Bj
\
= (Ai Bj )
i,j
mean
(2)
i,j
(i,j)IJ
Proof. (1)
( )
x
[
[
[
Ai
Bj x
Ai x
Bj
Proof. (2)
( )
x
\
i
\
\
\
Ai
Bj x
Ai x
Bj
j
(i I)(x Ai ) (j J)(x Bj )
(i I)(j J)(x Ai x Bj )
(i I)(j J)(x Ai x Bj )
((i, j) I J)(x (Ai Bj ))
\
x
(Ai Bj )
(i,j)IJ
24
Ai
i,j
Bj =
(Ai Bj )
(2)
i,j
Proof. (1)
( )
(a, b)
[
[
[
Ai
Bj a
Ai b
Bj
( )
(a, b)
\
i
\
\
\
Ai
Bj a
Ai b
Bj
j
(i I)(a Ai ) (j J)(b Bj )
(i I)(j J)(a Ai b Bj )
(i I)(j J)((a, b) Ai Bj )
((i, j) I J)((a, b) Ai Bj )
\
(a, b)
Ai B j
i,j
25
x Xj
(since j I)
Which proves the first inclusion. For the second, suppose j I is arbitrary,
then we have the following:
[
x Xj x
Xj
j
Xj
Xz
zIJ
Xi
Xi Y
Proof. (2) Suppose that {Xi } is a family of sets with domain I, such that j I.
And let Y be a set. Then, we have the following:
\
\
Y
Xj Y
Xi
j
26
10
(since Ai0
Ai )
x f0
Ai
()
x f0
[
f 0 (Az ) f 0 (Ai0 ) =
f 0 (Ai )
zI{i0 }
27
f ({a, b, c}) =
29
() Suppose that f (x) = f (y) for some x, y X. Let A = {x, y}. Then,
f (X {x, y}) Y f ({x, y}) = Y {f (x) = f (y)} = Y {f (x)}.By the
comments on page thirty-nine, we have that
f 1 f ((X A)) f 1 (Y {f (x)})
X A = X f 1 ({f (x)})
X {x, y} = X {x}
30
11
Numbers
Exercise 11.1. Let {Ai } be a family of non-empty successor sets for some
non-empty domain I. We show that
\
Ai
i
is a successor set.
Proof.
set, and so 0 Ai . This implies that
T For all i I, Ai is a successor T
0 i Ai . Likewise, suppose that n i Ai ; then n Ai for all iT I and so
n+ Ai for each i I; from the definition of intersection n+ i Ai . This
completes the proof.
31
12
Peano Axioms
32
13
Arithmetic
(1)
(2)
= pn (k) + m
< pn (k) + n
(3)
= pn (k )
We only note that (1),(2), and (3) follow from the inductive hypothesis and the
previous exercise. Therefore, S = .
Lemma 13.1. For any n , n is transitive.
Proof. Suppose that E = n and y E. Since y E, y is a proper subset
of E. Now, if x y, then x is a proper subset of y and it follows directly that
x y E. That is, x is a proper subset of E. That is x E.
Lemma 13.2. If m, n such that m 6= n, then m n iff m n
Proof. Let m, n be stated as above.
33
()
Suppose that m n. We show that m n: let x m, then by the lemma
above, x n. Thus, m n.
()
Suppose that m n. If m = n, then we are done. Otherwise, m 6= n. If
this is the case, then n m cannot happen (for them m would be a subset of
one of its elements), and therefor m n; this is by the comparability of and
x, y .
Exercise 13.3. We prove that if E is a non-empty set of natural numbers, then
there exists an element k E such that k m for all m E. This statement
says that any non-empty subset in has a minimum.
Proof. Let E such that E 6= . Since E is non-empty, we can form the
intersection of elements in E. Consider
\
z=
x
xE
34
Exercise 13.6. We prove that union of a finite set of finite sets is finite.
Proof. We proceed by mathematical induction. Let S be a finite set,
S such that
#(S) = n, for some n . Let B be the set of all N S
such that S is finite.
Note 0 B since, if #(S) = 0, then S = {} and {} = {} (which is finite).
Next,
suppose that k B: that is, if S is a finite set such that #(S) = k, then
S
S is finite. We show that k + B. Suppose that #(S) = k + . Then, there
exists some 1-1 and onto function f i.e. f : k + S. And we have the following:
[
[
[
S=
f (i) =
f (i) f (k)
ik+
ik
From the comments on page 53, and the induction hypothesis, we see that
k + B. Thus, B = .
Exercise 13.7. We prove the following: If E is finite, then P(E) is finite and,
moreover, #(P(E)) = 2#(E) .
Proof. It is only necessary to show that if #(E) = n for some n , then
# P(E) = 2#(E) ; we conclude that 2#(E) by a previous exercise. We
proceed by mathematical induction.
Let S be the set of all N such that #(E) = N and # P(E) = 2#(E) .
Note that 0 S, since #(E) = 0 implies E = {} and #(P(E)) = #({, {}}) =
2 = 20 . Next, assuming that k S, we show that k + S:
Suppose that #(E) = k + = k + 1, and consider the set E = E {0}. Note,
#(E ) = k. We note that either 0 is in a subset of E, or it is not. If it is not,
then we are forming subsets of E . From the inductive hypothesis, there are
35
36
14
Order
Totality:
(x, y X)(xRy yRx) (x, y X)(R(x) = y R1 (x) = y)
37
15
Axiom of Choice
Exercise 15.1. We prove that every relation includes a function with the same
domain.
Proof. Suppose that X and Y are sets and let R be a relation from X into Y .
By definition, R X Y , and so if X or Y is empty, the X Y is empty and
we are done. Otherwise, there exists at least an element in each of X, Y . Let
XR be the subset of X given by the first coordinates of R. Claim: there exists
some function f : XR Y .
Let y Y be arbitrary and consider Ty = {xS XR : xRy}. Let I be the
set of z Y such that Tz 6= . Then, define T = yI {Ty } = {Ti }. Assuming
the axiom of choice, and by the comments on page sixty, {Ti } is a family of
non-empty sets indexed by I and so, there exists a family {ti }, i I such that
ti Ti for each i I. Since R is a relation on XR , so defined, it follows that
f = {(ti , b) : i I b = R(ti )} is a candidate function.
Indeed; we verify that f is well-defined and everywhere defined:
Well-Defined : Suppose that ti = tj for some i, j I. By construction,
and the previous supposition, we have that Tti = {x XR : xRti } = {x
XR : xRtj } = Ttj . Thus, (ti , R(ti )) = (tj , R(tj )) = f (ti ) = f (tj ).
Every-Where Defined : This is clear by construction.
Thus, f is a function.
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16
Zorns Lemma
dom f P(X)
f F Im f X
40
41
17
Well Ordering
42
Exercise 17.4. We prove that the well ordering theorem implies the Axiom of
Choice.
Proof. The following proof was adapted from thisSwebsite:
Let C be a collection
of nonempty sets. Then SC S is a set. By the wellS
ordering principle, SC S
S is well-ordered under some relation <. Since each S
is a nonempty subset of SC S, each
S S has a least member mS with respect
to the relation <. Define f : C SC S by f (S) = mS . We show that f is a
choice function:
Well-Defined : Suppose that (a, x), (a, y) f . Then, there exists some
S1 C such that x S1 . Likewise, there exists some S2 C such
that y S2 . Without loss of generality, it follows that x, y S2 , and so
x = y = mS2 .
Everywhere Defined : This follows fromt he discussion above.
Therefore, f is a choice function. Hence, the axiom of choice holds.
Exercise 17.5. We prove that if R is a partial order in a set X, then there
exists a total order S in X such that R S; in other words, every partial order
can be extended to a total order without enlarging the domain.
Proof. Let (R, ) be a partially ordered subset of X. Let C be the set of all A
6
in R of partial orders, with respect to . Let (C, ) be the partial ordered
S set .
Let X be the collection of all chains in C. Note that for all y X y yX y.
Thus, every chain has an upper-bound. By Zorns Lemma, C has a maximal
element. Denote this by c. Claim: c is a total order in X:
Since c C, c is a partial order in X. Since it is maximal, for all c0 C,
we have c0 c. Thus, for all x, y X, either (x, y), (y, x) c. Either way,
we must have x y, y x or x = y.
6 This
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18
Transfinite Recursion
Exercise 18.1. We prove that a similarity preserves (in the same sense in
which the definition demands the preservation of ).
Proof. Let (X, ), (Y, ) be two partially ordered sets and that there exists
some function f : X Y , 1-1 and onto. f has the property that for all a, b X
with a b iff f (a) f (b), for all f (a), f (b) Y .
Suppose, to the contrary, that a b and f (a) f (b). However, this is a
contradiction, since, by definition, we must have b a. Thus f preserves strict
order.
Exercise 18.2. We prove the following statement: A 1-1 function, f that maps
one partially ordered set onto another is a similarity iff f preserves < (strict
order).
Proof. Throughout this exercise, we assume that (X, ) and (Y, ) are partially
ordered sets and f : X Y is 1-1 and onto.
(): Suppose that f is a similarity, then the previous exercise prove this
conclusion.
(): Suppose that f is as stated above, such that for any a, b X we
have a b iff f (a) < f (b). To show that f is a similarity, we show that
a = b iff f (a) = f (b):
(): Since f is 1-1, then f (a) = f (b) implies a = b.
(): Suppose, to the contrary, that a = b and, (without loss generality) f (a) < f (b). Since f preserves strict order, we must have a b.
However, this is a contradiction.
This completes the proof.
Exercise 18.3. We show that a subset Y of a well ordered set X is, again, well
ordered.
Proof. Let (X, ) be a well-ordered set, and Y X. If Y = X or Y = , then
Y is clearly a well-order. Thus, suppose that Y is proper subset of X. Suppose
that Y was not well-ordered. Then, some subset, Z of Y does not have a least
element. However, Z X, and so by definition of a well-ordered set, it has a
least element. A contradiction.
Exercise 18.4. We prove that each subset of a well-ordered set X is similar
either to X, or an initial segment of X.
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45
19
Ordinal Numbers
This page was intentionally left blank; there were not specified exercises for this
section.
46
20
This page was intentionally left blank; there were not specified exercises for this
section.
47
21
Ordinal Arithmetic
This page was intentionally left blank; there were not specified exercises for this
section.
48
22
The Schr
oder-Bernstein Theorem
49
compute:
= g f [Fx ] g f [F{} ]
= g f [Fx ]
(1)
= g f [Fx ]
= Fx
Where the second line follows form the comments above, and (1) is from
the construction of F. Indeed, from the comments above, X (F{}
F{f (x)} ) = Fx .
50
23
Countable Sets
Exercise 23.1. We prove that the set of all finite subsets of a countable set is
countable.
Proof. The following proof was suggested by this website:
Let A(n) be the set of subsets of A with no more than n elements. Thus,
A(0) = {a}, A(1) = A(0) {{a} : a A} and for all n 0:
A(n + 1) = {a(n) a(1) : a(n) A(n) a(1) A(1)}
We verify, by induction, that each A(n) is countable. Let A be countable. Then,
A(1) is countable, by construction. Suppose A(n) is countable. Then by since
the union of countable sets is countable, A(n + 1) is also countable.
Denote with Af as the set of finite subsets of A. It is apparent that every
finite subset is in some A(n), and so:
[
Af =
A(n)
nN
51
24
Cardinal Arithmetic
Exercise 24.1. We prove that if a, b, c and d are cardinal numbers such that
a b and c d, then a + c b + d.
Proof. Let a, b, c, d be stated as given. By definition, there exists sets A, B, C, D
(without loss of generality, pairwise disjoint) with cardinality a, b, c, d, respectively. Using the stated conditions, we have A B, C D. Thus, there exists
B 0 B, and D0 D such that A B 0 and C D0 i.e. card A = card B 0 and
card C = card D0 . Then, a + b = b0 + d0 b + d.
Exercise 24.2. We prove that if a, b, c and d are cardinal numbers such that
a b and c d, then ac bd.
Proof. We proceed in a fashion similar to exercise 24.1. Let a, b, c, d be stated
as given. By definition, there exists sets A, B, C, D (without loss of generality,
pairwise disjoint) with cardinality a, b, c, d, respectively. Using the stated conditions, we have A B, C D. Thus, there exists B 0 B, and D0 D
such that A B 0 and C D0 i.e. card A = card B 0 and card C = card D0 .
Thus, ab = card(A B) = card(B 0 D0 ). From a previous exercise and
the comments on page 94, we have B 0 D0 B D, and so it follows that
card(B 0 D0 ) card(B D).
Exercise 24.3. We prove that if {ai } (i I) and {bi }P(i I) Q
are families of
cardinal numbers such that ai < bi for each i I, then i ai i bi .
Proof. The following proof was suggested to me by Sophie C..
Note,
Y
X
ai = a0 + a1 + . . . a0 a1 =
ai
i
Initial Case: a1 b1 .
Q
Q
Inductive Hypothesis: Suppose that iI ai iI bi such that card I =
C.
Q
Q
Q
Q
Step: If iI ai iI bi , then iI ai a iI bi b, since a b.
Q
Q
Thus, iI ai iI bi where card I = C + 1. And so, ac bc
Exercise 24.5. Prove that if a and b are finite, greater than 1, and if c is
infinite, then ac = bc .
Proof. The following proof was suggested by Sophie C.. We take the definition
of ac as multiply a by itself c times. And likewise for bc . If c is countable then,
ac , bc are countable, and if c is uncountable, then ac , bc are uncountable. Thus,
ac = bc
Exercise 24.6. We prove that if a and b are cardinal numbers at least one of
which is infinite, then a + b = ab.
Proof. The following proof was suggest by Sophie C.. Suppose that a, b are
given as stated. Without loss of generality, there exists sets A, B such that
card A = a, card B = b, and A B 0 , for some B 0 B. Thus, a + b = card A
card B 0 card B = card(A B) card(B 0 B) = card B = b = ab. Therefore,
a + b = ab.
Suppose that a and b are both infinite, then as above, we have a+b = a+a =
a and ab = aa = a. Therefore, a + b = ab.
Suppose, without loss of generality, that a, and b are both infinite such that
card A < card B. Then, a + b = b and ab = b, thus, a + b = ab.
Exercise 24.7. We prove that if a and b are cardinal numbers such that a is
infinite and b is finite, then ab = a.
Proof. The following proof was
Q suggested by Sophie C.. Suppose that a, b are
given, as above. Then, ab = iI ai where card I = b and where ai = a, for all
i I. Then, we have the following:
ab = card(A A . . . A)
where card A = a
= a a ... a
b times
= a a ... a
= a a ... a
..
.
=a
This completes the proof.
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25
Cardinal Numbers
Exercise 25.1. We prove that each infinite cardinal number is a limit number.
Proof. This proof was inspired from this website.
Suppose to the contrary that k is an infinite cardinal which was not a limit
number. Then, k = a+ for some ordinal a+ . If a is finite, we are done. Otherwise, we proceed to show that k = a.
Not that since k is infinite, k, and in particular, a. Thus, consider
: a k given by (0) = a, and (m+ ) = m (if m ), and (x) = x (if
x a ). We show that is a 1-1 and onto function:
Well-Defined : Since no ordinal is equivalent to its successor, it follows
that is well-defined.
Everywhere Defined : By construction, this is clear.
1-1 : If (x) = (y), then in any of the cases, we have x = y.
Onto: Let k1 k. Then, either k1 a, or k1 = a. In either case, there
exists a ` a for which (`) = a.
Thus k = a, a contradiction.
Exercise 25.2. We answer a few questions: If card A = a, what is the cardinal
number of the set of all 1-1 and onto in A? What is the cardinal number of the
set of all countably infinite subsets of A?
Proof. If A is infinite, then A and we can consider the infinitely manly
maps fi , such that i , given by fi (x) = x + 1 (if x ), and fi (x) = x (if
x A ). However, if A is finite, then a simple counting argument show that
the number is the multiplication of all predecessors of a, except zero.
This answer was suggested by this website: A has a countably infinite
subsets, and theres not much more that you can say unless you know something
about the cardinal a. For example, 2 a 2 , then a = 2 . If cf a = , i.e.,
if a has cofinality , then a > a.
Exercise 25.3. We prove that if , are ordinal numbers, then card( + ) =
card + card and card = card card . We use the ordinal interpretation
of the operations on the left side and the cardinal interpretation on the right.
Proof. The following proof was suggested by Sophie C.. We compute:
card = card(ord A ord B) = card(ord(A B)) = card(A B)
(card )(card ) = (card(ord A))(card(ord B)) =
card(A) card(B) = card(A B)
Thus, card = (card )(card )
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55
26
Extra Exercises
Many of these exercises were collaborations with other student. They are
not marked exercises in the text, however, they are useful.
26.1
Arithmetic
58