2/18/2013

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

OBJECTIVES

Definition of weathering
Agents of erosion
Classification of sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary structures
Resources from sedimentary rocks

2/18/2013

Rock Cycle

FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1 Weathering
1.
2. Erosion
3. Transport
4. Deposition
5 Diagenesis
5.

2/18/2013

External processes shaping the Earth:

1. Weathering the physical breakdown
(disintegration) and chemical alteration
(decomposition) of rocks at or near the Earths
surface
2. Erosion the removal of material by mobile
agents such as water, wind, ice or man

Weathering
Occurs when a rock is mechanically
fragmented (disintegrated) and/or chemically
altered (decomposed)
Two types of weathering:
1 Mechanical
1.Mechanical
2.Chemical

2/18/2013

Mechanical Weathering
The physical breaking up of rock into smaller pieces
leads to an increase in surface area
requires the application of some
physical force or stress to be
applied to the rock
no accompanying changes to the
composition of rocks

Prevails in:
cold climates, high altitudes, dry regions

2/18/2013

Mechanical Weathering

1. Frost wedging
repeated cycles of
freezing and thawing;
the expansion force of
water as it freezes is
sufficient to split any
mineral or rock.

Mechanical Weathering
2. Heating and cooling - Differences in
temperature
p
in a rock g
give rise to differential
expansion (heating) and contraction (cooling).
3. Wetting and drying - The disruption of soil
results in the swelling and contracting of soil
particles.

2/18/2013

Mechanical Weathering
5. Organisms- Action of organisms, including
animals and plants, reduces the size of rocks and
minerals.
6. Unloading - the removal of thick layers of
sediments overlying deeply buried rocks by
erosion or uplift.

What produced these features?

Wetting and drying

2/18/2013

What produced these features?

Mechanical weathering by
biological activity

What produced these features?

Unloading

2/18/2013

Chemical Weathering
- breakdown of minerals by chemical reactions
with water,
water with chemicals dissolved in water or
with gases in the air
- progression from less stable minerals to more
stable minerals

2/18/2013

Chemical Weathering
1) Dissolution - the dissolving of a solid in a liquid
2) Hydrolysis
d l
- process off minerals
l reacting with
h water to
form hydroxides, which usually are more soluble than the
original mineral. example - pyroxene to Fe oxide 4FeSiO3
+ H2O + O2 4FeO(OH) + 4SiO2
3) Acidification - Weathering is accelerated by the
presence of hydrogen ion in water
water, such as that provided
by carbonic and organic acids.

4) Hydration - combination of a solid mineral or element

with water.
5) Oxidation and Reduction - used in mineral weathering,
i both
is
b th the
th chemical
h i l combination
bi ti off oxygen with
ith a
compound and the change in oxidation number of some
chemical element
(Reduction is the chemical process in which electrons
are gained.)
6) Ion
Ion-exchange
exchange - involves the transfer of charged atoms
(ions) of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium
between waters rich in one of the ions and a mineral
rich in another
(Most effective in clays.)

2/18/2013

Examples

Susceptibility of minerals to
chemical weathering

10

2/18/2013

Goldich Stability Series

describes the order in
which silicate minerals
weather.
Minerals which form at high
temperatures and
pressures are least stable,
and weather most quickly
because they are farther
from their "zone
zone of stability
stability
or the conditions under
which they formed.

The order of mineral stability in the weathering

environment is the same order as Bowen's
Reaction Series.

11

2/18/2013

The main products of weathering

(1). Soluble Ions
Sodium Na
C l i
Calcium
C
Ca
Potassium K
Magnesium Mg

(2) Clay Minerals

Kaolinite
M t
Montmorillonite
ill it

(3) Resistant Minerals

Quartz
H
Hematite
tit Fe2O3
F 2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4
Garnet, Gold,
Diamonds, etc.

Alterations due to Chemical Weathering:

**1. Decomposition of unstable minerals.
**2.
2. Generation or retention of those minerals which are in equilibrium
with the Earths surface.
**Account for predominance of certain minerals in soil.

Factors Controlling Weathering

Source Composition
Specifically involves the mineralogy, texture and
rock structure
Source rock lithology
Fine-grained rocks decompose chemically more
readily than coarse-grained rocks

12

2/18/2013

Factors Controlling Weathering

Climate
Temperature fluctuations determine importance of icewedging and insolation
Precipitation governs the extent of hydrolysis, hydration
and solution
Topographic Relief
Infl
Influence
ence the amo
amount
nt of rock e
exposed
posed to the forces of
weathering
Slope steepness controls the rate at which weathering
products are eroded to be transported elsewhere

13

2/18/2013

What produced this colorful landscape?

14

2/18/2013

How was the Pedestal Rock formed?

Differential weathering

Cagayan Valley

Differential weathering

15

2/18/2013

Whose face do you see?

Differential weathering

Product of weathering
Soil combination of rock, air, water and organic
material
Soil type varies in color, texture, mineral content
Types (orders) of soil:
Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Histosols, Inceptisols,
M lli l Oxisols,
Mollisols,
O i l Spodosols,
S d
l Ultisols,
Ulti l Gelisols,
G li l
Andisols, and Vertisols

16

2/18/2013

Soil profile

O Horizon - organic layer of soil, made up mostly

of leaf litter and humus (decomposed organic
matter)
A Horizon - made up of humus (decomposed
organic
g
matter)) mixed with mineral p
particles
E Horizon - leaching layer; light in color; made up
mostly of sand and silt, having lost most of its
minerals and clay as water drips through the soil.
B Horizon contains clay and mineral deposits
(like iron, aluminum oxides, and calcium
carbonate) that it receives from layers above it
when
h water
t drips
d i ffrom th
the soilil above.
b
C Horizon it consists of slightly broken-up
bedrock. Plant roots do not penetrate into this layer
because of very little organic material..
R Horizon - unweathered rock layer

www.tn.nrcs.usda.gov

17

2/18/2013

Erosion
comes from old word meaning eat away
involves movement of rock or soil
Agents of Erosion:
1. gravity
2. ice
3 organism
3.
4. water
5. wind

Gravity as an agent of erosion

18

2/18/2013

Strong winds can also shatter rocks on impact

19

2/18/2013

result of glacial erosion

Through the years

1890

1920

1970

1990

20

2/18/2013

12 Apostles collapses

Parks Victoria, Sydney, Australia

Preventing erosion

21

2/18/2013

Preventing erosion

Weathering erosion deposition

22

2/18/2013

Transportation
Agents of sediment transport:
1. ice
2 water
2.
3. wind
Distance of sediment transport affects clast:
Roundness and Sphericity
Sorting
S ti

Ways of physically transporting particles:

Suspension
Saltation
Traction

23

2/18/2013

Sorting - measure of variation of grain sizes

Short distance

Poorly Sorted

Long distance

Well Sorted

24

2/18/2013

Roundness and Sphericity

measures how rounded corners are
measures sphere-like shape of clasts

Deposition
Transporting sediment requires energy
Grain size has relationship with energy
Smaller grains take less energy
Bigger grains take more
If river slows down, sediment will drop out
If river speeds up, water can pick up sediment
Larger
g sediments are deposited
p
in higher
g
energy
gy environments
Examples:
Gravel - needs fast moving water or rock slides
Sand - wind and wave action (beaches)
Silt and clay - lakes, swamps and deep oceans

25

2/18/2013

Diagenesis
physical, chemical, and biological processes which
collectively result in
transformation
t
f
ti off sediments
di
t into
i t sedimentary
di
t
rockk
modification of the texture and mineralogy of the rock
Stages of diagenesis:
Early diagenesis
takes place from sedimentation until shallow burial
Late diagenesis
from deep burial to subsequent uplift

The different types of diagenetic processes are:

Compaction
R
Recrystallization
t lli ti
Cementation
Replacement
Bioturbation

26

2/18/2013

Compaction is the process by which the

volume of a sediment is reduced as the
grains
i are squeezed
d ttogether.
th

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

27

2/18/2013

The simple ideal model for the evolution of sedimentary rocks says
there are three basic end products, that all sedimentary processes are
working to reach - quartz sandstone, shale, and limestone.
The three end products in the simple ideal model are not isolated,
each one stands for a class of weathering products.
Quartz
Q
t sandstone
d t
= all
ll visible
i ibl grains,
i
i l di such
including
h ones as
incompletely weathered feldspar from the granodiorite in the simple
ideal model.
Shale = all clay sized grains (clay is a generic name; there are
many kinds of clay minerals as well as other minerals that are clay
sized)
Limestone = all dissolved minerals, including
g not only
y calcite
CaCO3, but also halite (table salt; NaCl), and gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O)
among others.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

siliciclastic (or simply, clastic) rocks
chemical rocks
biochemical rocks

28

2/18/2013

Clastic rocks (sandstones,

shales, etc.) are classified on:
texture (grain size), and
composition.
iti

Clastic particles are divided into size categories based

on the WENTWORTH SCALE. The Wentworth scale is
straight
i h forward,
f
d and
d with
i h a ruler
l for
f scale
l iti iis relatively
l i l
easy to classify the rock.

29

2/18/2013

They have a clastic (broken or fragmental) texture

consisting of:
Clast (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel)
Matrix (mud or fine-grained sediment
surrounding the clasts)
Cement (the glue that holds it all together,
such as calcite, iron oxide, or silica)

Clastic rocks
Breccia - Grain size = 2
cm or greater
- Clasts are angular

C
Conglomerate
l
t - Grain
G i
size = 2 cm or greater
- Clasts are rounded

30

2/18/2013

Siltstone - Grain size =

1/256 to 1/16 mm
- gritty
itt texture
t t

Shale - Grain size =

less than 1/256 mm

Example:

Sandstone - Grain size =

1/16 mm to 2 mm
- classified according to the
amount of minerals found in
th rock
the
k
Arkose Sandstone - 75%
greater feldspar

Lithic Sandstone

31

2/18/2013

Quartz Sandstone - 95% or

greater quartz content

CARBONATES
composed of the mineral calcite (CaCO3 - calcium carbonate)
they form by both chemical and biochemical processes
tend to be mixed together in various combinations in the rocks.
They are extremely abundant and important.

32

2/18/2013

OTHER CHEMICAL ROCKS

Chert
a siliceous rock (composed of SiO2)
forms from the recrystallized skeletons of "animals "
(single-celled radiolarians and glass sponges) or singlecelled " plants " (diatoms, silicoflagellates)
Rock salt
(halite; NaCl) and gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O)
originally are dissolved in the sea water
water, thus making
the sea salty.
sea water evaporates in a closed area, such as a
lagoon, the salt concentration becomes very high,
supersaturated, and precipitates out.

OTHER BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS

Peat and coal
come from plant remains are biochemical
rocks
always form in the presence of clastic rocks sandstones and shales.

33

2/18/2013

34

2/18/2013

35

2/18/2013

COMMON SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURES
Common
Sedimentary
Structures

One of the most obvious

features of sedimentaryy rocks
and sediment is the layered
structure which they
exhibit. The layers are
evident because of
differences in mineralogy,
clast size, degree of sorting,
or color of the different
layers.

Layer
Thickness
> 300 cm

Names
Massive

100-300 cm Very thickly bedded

30 - 100 cm Thickly bedded
10 - 30 cm

Mediumly bedded

3 - 10 cm

Thinly bedded

1 - 3 cm

Veryy thinly
y bedded

0.3 - 1 cm

Thickly laminated

<0.3 cm

Thinly laminated

Common Sedimentary Structures

36

2/18/2013

Common Sedimentary Structures

COMMON SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

Common Sedimentary Structures

37

2/18/2013

Common Sedimentary Structures

cross bedding

Common Sedimentary Structures

38

2/18/2013

Common Sedimentary Structures

Ripple marks

Ano ito?

bioturbation

39

2/18/2013

What two sedimentary structures are seen

here?

What sedimentary structure is seen here?

Cross bedding

40

2/18/2013

Resources from sedimentary rocks

1. Sediments are used as:
a. sand and gravel: used as road base, components
of concrete, fill, sand for sandboxes; if pure sand, for
glass making
b. pure clays for ceramics (dinner ware/plate ware)
2. Fossil fuels (e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas)
3. Food additives (e.g. sodium and potassium salts)
4. Placer deposits (grains of economic minerals) e.g. gold,
diamond, garnet
5. Building stone, filtering materials

Sedimentary basins in the Philippines

41