CURRENT ELECTRCITY

Ohms law
The branch of physics, which deals with motion of electric charges, is called
current electricity.
Electric charges in motion constitute electric current.
The charged particles whose flow in a given direction constitutes electric
current are called charge carriers.

Solids: In solid conductors like metals, the loosely bound valence electrons are
moved in a particular direction by the application of a suitable electric field. Thus the
valence electrons are the charge carriers in solid conductors.

Liquid: In electrolytes, the positive ions and the negative ions move in opposite
directions by the application of a suitable electric field and constitute a current. Thus
the +ve ions and the ve ions are the charge carriers in liquids.

Gases: Normally gases are insulators. But under a strong electric field, ionization of
the gases takes place. The positive ions and electrons generated move to constitute
the current and hence they are the charge carriers in gases.
The rate of flow of electric charges across the cross section of a conductor is
called electric current.
dq
If dq charges flow in a time dt, the electric current is given by I
.
dt
ch arg e Q

For a steady current, I

time
t
If e is the charge on an electron and n electrons pass through a cross section in a
ne
time t, the current is given by I .
t
The current flowing per unit area is known as current density. The
magnitude of current density is given by
I ne
J
ampere / m2
A t
Where A is the area of cross section.
Dimension formula of current (I) is
Current density (J) is the current through a small area ds
considered normal to the direction of current around a point.
I
Hence current density at a point is J
ds
Electric current is a scalar and electric density is a vector.
The SI unit of current is ampere.
1

Andre Marie Ampere

M.N.Sharath kumar

If 1 coulomb of charge flows through a conductor in 1 second, the electric current is

said to be 1 ampere.
1 coloumb
1 ampere
1second
Materials, which allow electric charges to flow through them, are called conductors.
Materials, which do not allow electric charges to flow through them, are called
insulators.
Electric current can be classified into the following groups;
1. The current whose magnitude does not change with time is known as steady
current.
2. The current whose magnitude changes with time is known as variable current.
3. The current whose magnitude changes continuously with time and direction
periodically is known as alternating current.

Drift velocity and mobility

The average velocity with the charge carriers move in a conductor under the
influence of an applied electric field is called the drift velocity.
The time for which an electron accelerates between two successive collisions
is called the relaxation time ( ).
The drift velocity is found to be directly proportional to the applied field E.
Vd E or Vd E Where is called the mobility of the charge carriers.

Drift velocity
V
d
Electrical field
E
Mobility of the charge carriers is defined as the drift velocity acquired per unit
electric field strength.
Hence

Expression for electric current through a conductor

Let L be the length and A be the area of cross section of a
Conductor. Then the volume of the conductors is V = AL.
Let n be the concentration of the electrons per unit
volume
of the conductor. Then the number of electrons in
the volume is N= nV=nAL.
Let the electrons in the conductor move with a
drift velocity Vd .If e is the charge on an electron,
the total charge carried by the electrons in the
conductor is q = Ne = nALe.
If t is the time taken to travel through the conductor of length L with the drift velocity
Vd , then L Vd t .Thus q=nAeVd.
q nAVdet
I neAVd
By definition, electric current is given by I
t
t

Potential difference
In order to move electric charges amount of works has to be done. Such a work
is given by W = QV, Work = Charge potential difference.
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M.N.Sharath kumar

If Q = 1 (unit charge), then V = W.

The potential difference (p.d.) between two points is numerically equal to
the amount of work to be done in moving unit quantity of charge between the two
points.
The S.I. unit of p.d. is volt.
The p.d. between two points is said to be 1volt if 1 joule of work is to be done
in moving 1 coulomb of charge between the two points.
1 joule
1 volt
1 coloumb

Statement of Ohms law: (George simon Ohm 1826)

The current though a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference between its ends, provided the temperature and other physical
conditions remain constant.
If a current I flows through a conductor under a p.d. V.
V
Then by Ohms law, I V Cons tan t V RI
I
Where, R is a constant called the ohmic resistance of the conductor.
If I = 1(unit current), then R = V.
The resistance of a conductor is numerically equal to the p.d. between its ends
required to maintain unit current through it.
The resistance of a conductor is also defined as the
ratio of the p.d. between its ends to the current flowing
through it.
The S.I. unit of ohmic resistance is ohm().
The ohmic resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm
if 1 ampere of current flows through it under a p.d. of 1 volt
between its ends.
1 volt
1 ohm
1 amp
1. The obstruction caused to the flow of current is called
the electrical resistance.
George simon Ohm
2. Ohmic resistances of a conductor does not depend on
the direction of the current.
3. Electrical resistance of a conductor is the opposition offered by the conductor
to the flow of electrons through it.
4. Electrical resistance or ohmic resistance of a conductor is an indicator of the
opposition to the flow of electrical current through it.
5. The resistance of a conductor is independent of the potential difference applied
across its ends and the current flowing through it.
6. The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.
1 1
G is called the conductance. Conductance is expressed in ohm1 or
7.
V R
mho or siemen.
3

M.N.Sharath kumar

8. The current, which is taken to flow from +ve potential to ve potential is

called conventional current.
9. The current, which flows from ve potential +ve potential is called the electron
current.

Deduction of Ohms law

When electrons flow through a conductor under a pd, the drift velocity is given
by

eE
(1)
m
The current flowing across the cross section A of a conductor is given by
I neAVd (2)
Where n is the number of electrons per unit volume of the conductor, e is the
charge on the electron. Substituting (1) in (2),
eE
ne2
I neA
EA
m
m
V
If L is the length of the conductor across which a pd V is applied , E
L
2
2
ne A
ne V
I
AI
V
m L
mL
Vd

At a given temperature, n, e2 ,m, ,A and L are constants.

Hence I = (constant) V, i.e, I V .Hence the law.

ne2 A
mL
mL
is known as the
I
V V 2 I V RI , where R 2
ne

A
mL
ne

resistance of the conductor.

Resistivity or specific resistance of a material

The electrical resistance R of a conductor is, directly proportional to its
length (L) and inversely proportional to its area of cross (A). i.e.
mL
L
L
m L
R 2 2 R R
ne A ne A
A
A
Here is a constant of the material called specific resistance or resistivity.
If L = 1(unit length) and A = 1 (square unit), then = R.
The specific resistance of a material is numerically equal to the resistance
of a conductor of that material with a unit length and unit area of across section.
The resistivity of a material is also numerically equal to the resistance of a
unit cube of that material.
Resistivity varies over a wide range of values. For good conductors like copper
the resistivity is in the range of 108 ohm m, for insulators like fused quartz, it is
around 1016 ohm m.
For an ideal conductor, the resistivity is zero and conductance is infinity.
For a perfect insulator, the resistivity is infinity and conductance is zero.
The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity.
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M.N.Sharath kumar

Unit of resistivity:
L
RA
ohm m2
We have R

......ohm metre
A
L
m

Unit of conductivity: ohm m

Resistors and colour coding
1

The device or component used to introduce opposition to the flow of

electrical current in an electrical or electronic circuit is called resistor.
Resistors are introduced in the circuits to limit or reduce the current.
There are two basic classes of resistors namely fixed resistors and variable
resistors.
Resistors are colour coded for resistance values. Many resistors are very small
in size. It is difficult to print the resistance value on their body. Hence a colour code
is adopted.
The body of the resistor will have 4 bands.
First band: indicates the first significant figure.
Second band: indicates the second significant figure.
Third band: indicates the number of zeroes following the first two significant
figures.
Fourth (if any): indicate the percentage tolerance.

Memorize this way: B.B.ROY of Great Britain had a Very Good Wife.
E.g. (1) Bands are brown, green, black and silver
10
15 15 1.5 13.5 or 16.5 ohm
Resistance is 15 10% 15
100
(2) Colour code for 120 10% ohm ,
Hence 120 10% ohm is coded as brown Red Brown Silver.

Note: If the resistor has only 3 bands the third band silver or gold, then
(1) the first two digits are to be multiplied by 0.01 if the third band is silver and
(2) The first two digits are to be multiplied by 0.1 if the third band is gold.
E.g. (1) Orange, Yellow, silver, Resistance is 34 0.01 0.34 ohm
E.g. (2) Green, brown, gold, Resistance is 51 0.1 5.1ohm

Combination of resistances:
1. Series Combination:
Resistances are said to be connected in series, if the same Current passes
through all of them and the p.d. across the combination is equal to the sum of the
p.d.s across the individual resistances.

M.N.Sharath kumar

R1

R2

R3

V1

V2

V3

RS
I

Let R1,R 2 and R 3 represent three resistances connected in series across a p.d.
V. Let I be the current through the combination.
Let V1,V2 and V3 be the p.d.s across R1,R 2 and R 3 respectively.
By definition V V1 V2 V3
By Ohms law V = RI
Then V R1I R 2I R 3I
(R1 R 2 R 3 )I (1)
If R s is the effective resistance of the above said combination, then
V R s I (2)
From (1) and (2) R s I R1 R 2 R 3 I R s R1 R 2 R 3
For n resistances in series R s R1 R 2 R 3 ....R n
Thus the effective resistance of a series combination of resistance is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.

Parallel combination:
Resistances are said to be connected in parallel if all of them posses a
common p.d and the total current in the combination is equal to the sum of the
current through the individual resistances.
R1
R2

RP

R3

I
V

Let R1,R 2 and R 3 represent three resistances connected in parallel across a common
p.d V. Let the main current I branch out as I1,I2 and I3 respectively through
R1,R2,&R3.Then by definition, I I1 I2 I3 .
By ohms law, V RI I V / R .

1
V V V
1
1

(1)
R1 R 2 R 3
R
R
R
2
3
1
Let R p be the effective resistance of the parallel combination.
I

Then I

V
-------(2)
Rp

M.N.Sharath kumar

Then from (1) and (2)

1
1
1
1

R p R1 R 2 R 3

1
1
1
1
1

.......
R p R1 R 2 R 3
Rn
Thus the reciprocal of the effective resistance of a parallel combination of
resistances is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
For n resistors in parallel

Also R p

R1R 2 .......R n
R1R 2 ....R n 1

Note: A series combination of resistances increases the effective resistance and

hence decreases the effective resistance and hence increases the current.

Comparison of series and parallel combination of resistances:

Series Combination

Parallel Combination

1. Total pd across the combination is

equal to the sum of the pds across the
individual resistors.

1.Total current through the

combination is equal to the sum of the
currents through the individual
resistors.
2. All the resistors will have the same
pd.

2.Same current flows through all the

resistors.
3.Effective resistance of the
combination is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances.

R s R1 R 2 R 3 ........ R n

3. The effective resistance of the

combination is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual
resistances.

4.Effective resistance increases.

4. Effective resistance decreases.

5. Effective resistance of the

combination is greater than the
greatest among the connected
resistances.
6. This is a voltage dividing
combination.

5. Effective resistance of the

combination is lesser than the least
among the connected resistances.

1
1
1
1
1

......
R p R1 R 2 R 3
Rn

6. This is a current dividing

combination.

Current through a branch:

Let R 1 and R 2 be two resistances connected in parallel across a p.d. V. Let a
main current I enter the combination and branch out as I1 and I 2 through R 1 and
R 2 respectively.
I1 I 2 I I2 I I1.....(1)
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M.N.Sharath kumar

Since this is a parallel combination,

Pd across R 1 =Pd across R 2
I1R1 I2R 2
I1R1 (I I1 )R 2 I1R1 IR 2 I1R 2

R1
I1

I2

R2

I1R1 I1R 2 IR 2

(R1 R 2 )I1 IR 2 I1

Current through one branch =

R2
R1
I Similarly I 2
I
R1 R 2
R1 R 2

Resistance of the other branch

Main current
Sum of the resis tan ces

Variation of resistance of a conductor with temperature:

The ohmic resistance of a pure metallic conductor varies directly as its temperature.
With the increase of temperature, the atoms in the metal vibrate with greater and
greater amplitude and frequency. Also, with the increase of temperature, the thermal
energy and the velocities of the electrons will also increase. As a result, the number
of collisions between the free electrons and the atoms increases. This results in the
increase in opposition to the flow of current. Hence the electrical resistance
increases with temperature.
If R and R t are the resistances of a conductor at 0 C and t C respectively,
R R
R t R (1 t) t
/ C
Rt
is called the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material of the
conductor.
The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the ratio of the
increase in the resistance per degree centigrade rise in temperature to the
resistance at 0 C .
If R 1 and R 2 are resistances of a conductor at t1 C and t 2 C respectively, then
with usual notation,
R1 R (1 t1 ) (1) and R 2 R (1 t 2 ) (2)
(1)
R
R (1 t1 )
1
R1 R1t 2 R 2 R 2t1
(2)
R 2 R (1 t 2 )

(R1t 2 R 2 t1 ) R 2 R1

R 2 R1
/ C
R 1t 2 R 2 t 1

R1

The variation of resistance with temperature can

be represented graphically plotting R t along the Y axis
and temperature t C along X axis. We get a straight

R0
0o

toC

M.N.Sharath kumar

line. The slope of the lines is R and the Y intercept is R .Hence

Slope
Y Intercept

Temperature co-efficient of resistance of a semiconductor:

Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivity lies in between
that of a conductor and that of an insulator. The electrical resistance of a
semiconductor decreases with the increase in temperature. Hence the temperature coefficient of resistance of a semiconductor is negative.
The resistance of a semiconductor at any temperature T on the absolute scale is
given by R aeb / T , where a and b are constants for a semiconductor.
Differentiating the above equation W.r.t. T,
dR
1 dR b
b
b
aeb / T 2 R 2
2
dT
T
T R dT T
1 dR
Change in resis tan ce

R dT Initial resis tan ce Change in temperature

Hence the temperature coefficient of resistance of the semiconductor is
b
2 .
T
If R 1 and R 2 are resistances of a semiconductor at
temperatures T1 (K) and T2 (K) , it can be shown that
2.303 log R 2 log R1

T2 T1

Superconductivity

H.K. Onnes

The resistance of normal conductors, decrease with the decrease in

temperature and approach the zero value at zero Kelvin. But certain materials (like
Hg, Sn, Pb and their alloys and compounds) show a different behavior. The
Resistance of such materials suddenly drops to zero at a
certain low temperature above zero Kelvin. In such a
state the material behaves almost as a perfect conductor
and offers no resistance to the flow of current.
1. The state in which a material offers almost zero
resistance to the flow of current through it is called
the superconducting state.
2. The phenomenon where a conductor offers zero
resistance for the flow of electric current through it
is called superconductivity.
3. Materials which offer zero resistance to the flow of current through them are
called superconductors.
4. The temperature at which the resistance falls to zero value is called the
transition temperature (Tc ) .
This phenomenon was first observed by H.K.Onnes (1911).
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M.N.Sharath kumar

The zero resistance of a superconductor implies that the current flows with no
expenditure of energy. Once a current is set up in a ring shaped superconducting
material, it maintains itself
indefinitely even in the absence of a potential difference.
Super conductivity is destroyed by applying an external magnetic field of a
suitable strength.
The magnetic field that causes a transition from the superconducting
state to the normal state at a given temperature is called the critical field.

High temperature superconductivity

Since its discovery, superconductivity was believed to exist only at very low
temperatures. With advanced technology and research, superconductivity is
developed at higher temperatures, even at room temperatures.
The materials which become superconductors at comparatively higher
temperatures are known as higher temperature superconductors.

Properties of Superconducting materials

1. Their resistances is ZERO (almost zero) above zero Kelvin.
2. When impurities are added to superconducting elements, the transition
temperature is lowered.
3. Current once induced is persistent i.e., is sustained forever.
4. Transition temperature of superconducting elements, vary with isotopic
mass.
5. The thermal properties like specific heat, thermal conductivity change
abruptly at the transition temperature.
6. The superconducting phenomenon is reversible. When the material is
heated above the transition temperature, it regains the normal conductivity.
7. Below the transition temperature, the material behaves like a perfect
diamagnetic, i.e; it expels any magnetic line of force from within them, if
present before becoming a superconductor. This is called Meissner effect.

Applications:
1) To transmit electrical power over superconducting cables without any loss
of power across transmission lines.
2) To develop highly powerful superconducting magnets.
3) To develop magnetic levitated trains.
4) SQID (Superconductor Quantum Interference Device) that can detect very
low magnetic fields.
5) In MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), intense magnetic fields are
developed using superconductors.

Power dissipation in a resistor:

In order to drive charges (Q) through a resistor, the work done is given by W =
QV, where V is the p.d across the resistor.
Since Q = It, W = VIt joules.
Work VIt

P VI
By definition, Power
Time
t
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M.N.Sharath kumar

Since V = RI, P RI I, hence P I2R

V
V2
Since I {V / R},P V P
R
R
The SI unit of power is watt.

Note: When a current flows through a resistor, heat is generated within the
material of the resistor. The resistor must be capable of dissipating the heat to the
surrounding otherwise the temperature of the material increases continuously and it
may burn up the material itself. Therefore for larger dissipation of heat, the physical
size of the material must be adequately large.

Thermistor:
Thermistors are devices which are sensitive to heat. The electrical resistance of
a thermistor changes by a large magnitude against a small change in temperature.
Thermistors whose resistance increases with the increase in temperature are
called positive temperature coefficient thermistors (PTC).
Thermistors whose resistances decreases with the increase in temperature are called
negative temperature coefficient thermistors (NTC).
Thermistors are usually made up of oxides of semiconducting materials.
In principle a thermistor is obtained by fusing two platinum leads into a lump
of suitable material. Thermistors can be obtained in various sizes and shapes.
The electrical resistances of a thermistor
(semiconductor) is given by,
R aeb / t Where a and b are constants.
1 dR
b
2
The temperature coefficient of a thermistor is given by
R dT
T
On plotting log e R along Y axis and 1/ T along X axis, a
Straight line is obtained. The slope of the line gives the value of b and the Y intercept
gives log e a .From these values, the temperature coefficient of the thermistor can be
calculated.
The circuit symbol of a thermistor is as shown.

Uses: Because of their high sensitivity to heat, thermistors are used to sense the
variations and measure the temperature. In thermometers, they work in a wide range
of temperature with high efficiency sensitivity. Thermistors are easy to handle,
sensitive, inexpensive, rugged and available in a wide range of working temperature
and resistance.
Thermistors are used in various types of heat
control devices, thermostats etc. Thermistors are also used log R
e
in refrigerators, ovens, dynamos, motors, communication
equipments etc.

Ohms applied to the entire circuit:

A circuit is a closed path for the electric current. To
initiate and maintain a flow of current in a circuit a source
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M.N.Sharath kumar

is necessary. Any device, which generates electrical energy, is

E
called a source of electrical energy.
r
1. Cell is unit source of direct current.
I
R
2. A group of cells connected to one another is called a
battery.
3. A cell will have a capacity to drive electric charges through the circuit to
which it is connected. Such a force, which motivates electric charges, is called the
electro motive force (emf).
4. A cell is said to be in an open circuit if no current is drawn from it.
5. A cell is said to be in closed circuit if current is drawn from it.
6. The p.d. between the terminals of a cell in an open circuit is called the
emf of the cell.
7. The emf of a cell in a closed circuit is given by the amount of work to be
done by the cell in moving unit quantity of charge round the circuit once
completely.
8. The emf of a cell is expressed in volt.
9. Internal resistance of a cell is the effective opposition offered by the
electrolyte of the cell to the flow of electric charges between its electrodes.

Expression for current in a simple circuit consisting of a cell

and a resistor
Consider a cell of emf E and internal resistance r to be
Connected to an external resistance R. Let I be the current in
the circuit.
By the definition emf is the work done in moving 1 coulomb of Charge all
round the circuit once.
Hence work done in moving 1 coulomb of charge through r = pd across r= V1 =Ir.
Work done in moving 1 coulomb of charge through R=Pd across
R = V2 = IR
E
E
E V1 V2 Ir IR I(R r) I
In general I effective
rR
R e ffective
The p.d between the terminals of a cell in a closed circuit is called the terminal
p.d.(TPd).
Terminal p.d = Emf loss due to internal resistance.
TPd = E rI

Note: The TPd is always less than the emf of the cell.
E
rR
r
RE

r R r

TPD

= E 1
r R
rR
r R
RE
E

Also TPD
R 1 r / R 1 r / R

Consider TPd E rI E r

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If r = 0 or R = , TPd= E. Practically r cannot be zero. Hence When R =

i.e when the cell is an open circuit, the TPd will be equal to the emf of the cell.
Hence an ideal or a high resistance voltmeter is connected to the terminals of a
cell gives actually the TPd which can be taken to be the emf of the
cell.(approximately).
When a voltmeter is connected across the terminals of a cell, it reads a value
less than the actual emf of the cell. This is because a part of the emf will be utilized
in overcoming the internal resistance of the cell.
The terminals of a cell should never by connected directly as it causes short
circuiting. It reduces both the life and the efficiency of the cell.

Limitations of Ohms law: Ohms law is applicable to a conductor when its

temperature is maintained constant.
Ohms law is not applicable to:
1. A conductor, if its temperature is changing, 2. Ionic conductivity, 3. Gas
filled tubes, 4. vacuum tubes, 5. Semiconductors etc.

Note:
1. A device which obeys Ohms law is called an Ohmic device.
2. A device which does not obey Ohms law is called a non Ohmic device.
3. A standard cell in one whose e.m.f remains constant with time and
temperature.

Effects of electric current

When an electric current flows through a conductor various effects are
observable. Such effects are broadly classified as follows.
*Magnetic effect: When a current passes through a conductor, it produces a
magnetic field around it.
*Mechanical effect: When a conductor carrying current is placed in a magnetic
field it experiences a mechanical force.
*Heating effect: When a electric current passes through a conductor, the conductor
gets heated up. This effect is known as Joules heating effect which is not reversible.
The heating effect can also be used in producing light (incandescent electric lamps).
*Chemical effect: When an electric current passes through liquid conductors or
electrolytes like solutions of salts, bases acids etc. dissociated radicals move towards
appropriate electrodes.
*When a current passes through a conductor one or more effects may be produced
simultaneously.
Absent-Minded Ampere

The famed physicist and mathematician Andre Marie Ampere was famously absent-minded.
While riding in a carriage to an important meeting at the Academy in Paris one day, he was
struck by a brilliant notion which he immediately noted: dH=ipdl/r^2...
Arriving at the Academy, Ampere paid the driver, raced into the building to share his discovery,
and promptly realized that, in his excitement, he had scribbled his notes not on a page but on the
carriage itself! Ampere's equations were found - after an extensive search of the surrounding
streets.
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