Food Chemistry 214 (2017) 622630

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Extraction of espresso coffee by using gradient of temperature. Effect on

physicochemical and sensorial characteristics of espresso
C. Alejandra Salamanca a, Nria Fiol a,, Carlos Gonzlez b, Marc Saez c, Isabel Villaescusa a
a

Chemical Engineering Department, Escola Politcnica Superior, Universitat de Girona, M Aurlia Capmany, 61, 17071 Girona, Spain
Rancilio Espaa S.A., Gran Via Carles III, 83, Barcelona, Spain
c
Department Economics, Facultat de Cincies Econmiques I Empresarials, Universitat de Girona, Campus Montilivi, 17071 Girona, Spain
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 19 November 2015
Received in revised form 13 July 2016
Accepted 20 July 2016
Available online 21 July 2016
Keywords:
Espresso brewing
Gradient of temperature
Physicochemical properties
Sensorial evaluation
Robusta
Arabica natural
Washed Arabica

a b s t r a c t
Espresso extraction is generally carried out at a fixed temperature within the range 8595 C. In this work
the extraction of the espressos was made in a new generation coffee machine that enables temperature
profiling of the brewing water. The effect of using gradient of temperature to brew espressos on physicochemical and sensorial characteristics of the beverage has been investigated. Three different extraction
temperature profiles were tested: updrawn gradient (8893 C), downdrawn gradient (9388 C) and
fixed temperature (90 C). The coffee species investigated were Robusta, Arabica natural and Washed
Arabica. Results proved that the use of gradient temperature for brewing espressos allows increasing
or decreasing the extraction of some chemical compounds from coffee grounds. Moreover an appropriate
gradient of temperature can highlight or hide some sensorial attributes. In conclusion, the possibility of
programming gradient of temperature in the coffee machines recently introduced in the market opens
new expectations in the field of espresso brewing.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The quality of brew coffee depends on multiple factors such as
coffee species (Campa, Doulbeau, Dussert, Hamon, & Noirot, 2005;
Maeztu et al., 2001) coffee blends (Fujioka & Shibamoto, 2008);
bean roasting conditions (Blumberg, Frank, & Hofmann, 2010;
Cavaco Bicho, Leitao, Cochicho Ramalho, de Alvarenga, & Cebola
Lidon, 2011; Ludwig, Bravo, de Pea, & Cid, 2013; Nunes,
Coimbra, Duarte, & Delgadillo, 1997), grinding of the roasted coffee
beans (Andueza, de Pea, & Cid, 2003a) and in a great extension the
brewing method i.e. drip, espresso (Gloess et al., 2013). One of the
most popular presentations of coffee brews in South-Europe is the
Italian espresso. Italian espresso coffee has been defined as a beverage prepared on request by extraction of ground roasted coffee
beans (6.5 1.5 g), with hot water (90 5 C) under pressure
(9 2 bar) for a defined short time (30 5 s) (Illy & Viani, 1995).
In the espresso brewing process, key operation variables of an
espresso coffee are: grinding, ground coffee portion, tamping,
water quality (Navarini & Rivetti, 2010), and also some parameters
controlled by the coffeemaker such as extraction temperature,
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: claudia.salamanca.r@gmail.com (C.A. Salamanca), nuria.fiol@
udg.edu (N. Fiol), cgonzalez@ranciliogroup.com (C. Gonzlez), marc.saez@udg.edu
(M. Saez).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.120
0308-8146/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

water pressure and percolation time that clearly influence the final
quality of the coffee brew. During the last decade, there has been
growing interest in studying the influence of some of these parameters on the quality of espresso coffee. The comparison of espressos
obtained by different common coffee makers such as capsules or
automatic and semi-automatic coffeemakers was studied by
Gloess et al. (2013) in terms of chemical analytical methods and
sensory analysis. Andueza et al. (2002) studied the influence of
water pressure on the quality of arabica espresso coffee. The same
authors investigated the influence of extraction temperature in the
quality of espressos obtained from different coffee varieties
(Andueza et al., 2003b). Results of this study evidenced differences
in terms of body, flavor characteristics and overall acceptability
of espresso coffees due to extraction temperature, and also differences as a function of the coffee varieties.
Thus, the selection of the optimal extraction temperature in
terms of overall acceptability should consider aspects related to
physico-chemical characteristics, and odour and flavor components. In some cases, optimal extraction temperature is selected
when positive and negative aspects are balanced or when positive
ones are predominant in the cup. In this sense, the extraction of
compounds that increase components related to positive aspects
while avoiding the extraction of components related to decrease
the coffee quality is a challenge in the coffee industry research.
In this context, the initial hypothesis of our research was that by

C.A. Salamanca et al. / Food Chemistry 214 (2017) 622630

controlling the espresso dispensing temperature the extraction of

the different components of coffee and resulting flavor would be
satisfactorily modulated in the espresso cup so as to obtain an
espresso of good quality. Recently, Rancilio Group (www.ranciliogroup.com), a reputed espresso machines manufacturer has
implemented in one model of their coffee machines a revolutionary technology for the temperature profiling of the brewing water
for espresso coffee.
In this study, the influence of using extraction temperature
ramps on physico-chemical properties and sensorial attributes of
espressos obtained from three different coffee varieties has been
investigated.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Coffee samples
Samples of ground roasted coffee, Robusta natural (pure Coffea
canephora) (R), Arabica natural (pure Coffea Arabica) (A) and
washed Arabica (WA) were provided by a local company. The differences between natural and washed coffee are related to the
methods used to extract the seed from the coffee cherry. Natural
coffee is obtained by drying the cherries in the sun and washed coffee by immersing the cherries in water tanks where fermentation
takes place (Odello & Odello, 2002). The beans of the selected types
of coffee were roasted by a coffee roasting company at a roast point
7 over 10 (dark medium). The beans were ground just before the
espresso preparation by means of a coffee grinder (MACAP MXDL,
Italy) that allows regulation of ground coffee size. In order to
obtain espressos in an appropriated volume (25 2.5 mL) and in
a fixed percolation time (25 5 s) (Odello & Odello, 2002) it was
necessary to find the appropriate grade of grinding for each coffee
type and ramp of extraction temperature. The search of the appropriate grinding point was made by trial and error that is, by grinding the beans using different positions of the grinder blades and
measuring the volume and the extraction time of the obtained
espressos by following the procedure specified in Section 2.4. As
it was reported that particle size distribution of ground coffee
beans can affect aroma and flavor of espressos (Andueza et al.,
2003a), particle size distribution of all the selected grinding grades
was determined For that purpose 100 g of each ground coffee sample was grinded and sieved by using a digital sieve shaker (CISA
BA200N, Spain). Particle size fractions were separated by using 8
sieves (1000, 630, 500, 400, 250, 150, 100 and 50 lm). Coffee fraction of each sieve was weighed and expressed as percentage. Particle distribution was determined in triplicate and the average is
presented.

2.2. The coffee machine

Espressos were prepared by using a XCELSIUS Classe 9 Rancilio
coffeemaker (Rancilio Group, Italy). The XCelsius system enables
the temperature of the brew water to be set dynamically, with
an increase or decrease of up to 5 C during the 2530 s it takes
for each individual delivery. The coffee machine used in the present study possesses three extractors. The independent nature of
the extractor group heads allows programming upward and descent gradients of temperature within the range (8595 C) for each
extractor independently. The temperatures of the three extractors
were programmed according to three specific thermal profiles:
increasing temperature profile from 88 to 93 C (ramp-up),
decreasing temperature profile from 93 to 88 C (ramp-down)
and fixed temperature at 90 C. The relative water pressure was
fixed at 9 atm.

623

2.3. Water for coffee extraction

For coffee extraction commercial bottled water was used. The
water quality analysis shown on the bottle label reports the following composition: bicarbonate (113 mg L 1), calcium (27.7 mg L 1),
chloride
(5.7 mg L 1),
fluoride
(0.9 mg L 1),
magnesium
1
1
(4.5 mg L ), potassium (4.9 mg L ), dry residue (139 mg L 1),
sodium (11.9 mg L 1) and sulphate (11.2 mg L 1). Taking into
account calcium and magnesium concentration, the mineral water
used in this study can be classified as soft water.
2.4. Espressos extraction
Two espressos were prepared in each extractor from 15 0.5 g
of coffee powder (Istituto Nazionale Espresso Italiano (www.
espressoitaliano.org) compacted by using a dynamometer coffee
press (MACAP NS 1106/0791). The volume of the two espressos
obtained in each extractor was of 25 2.5 mL and the percolation
time was 25 5 s to avoid over-extraction of substances with poor
flavours (Illy & Viani, 1995).
An experimental design of two factors, type of coffee (R, A and
WA) and extraction temperature profile (8893 C, 90 C and 93
88 C) was considered. A total of 18 samples of espressos obtained
in the same conditions (type of coffee and temperature profile)
were analyzed.
2.5. Physicochemical characterisation of espressos
2.5.1. Foam index and persistence of foam
Foam volume and coffee volume of the espressos were measured immediately after the extraction by using a graduated
borosilicate glass cylinder. Foam index was calculated as the ratio
of foam and liquid volumes measured after the extraction. Foam
persistence was measured as the time that foam persists while
the espresso is cooling down at room temperature. Persistence
time was measured when dark round spot appeared under the
foam layer (Andueza et al., 2003a).
2.5.2. Total volume, density, pH and viscosity
Espressos were cooled to room temperature (20 2 C) before
measuring total coffee brew volume in a 100 mL graduated cylinder; pH in a pH meter (Crison micro pH 2000), density in a
20 mL glass pycnometer and viscosity with an Ostwald viscometer
(Proton 100) (Andueza et al., 2003a). Turbidity was measured in a
turbidity meter (Hanna LP2000). For turbidity measurements,
0.4 mL of espresso was diluted to 100 mL in a volumetric flask.
2.5.3. Total solids and filtered solids
Total solids were determined by drying 10 mL of espresso coffee
in an oven at 100 C for 24 h. Filtered solids were determined by
weighting the dried solids retained in a glass microfiber filter
1.2 lm (Filter-Lab) after filtering 10 mL of espresso. Drying was
performed in an oven at 100 C until constant weight.
2.5.4. Lipid content
Total lipids content was determined by liquid-liquid extraction
with hexane (n-Hexane 99%, reagent grade Scharlau) following the
methodology proposed by Parenti et al., 2014. 50 mL of espresso
was extracted by adding 20 mL of hexane three times in a separating funnel. The organic fraction was washed with 60 mL of distilled
water three times. Solid sodium sulphate anhydrous powder
(Scharlau) was added to remove water from the hexane extract
and then the solid was filtered by a paper filter. The total lipid content was calculated by weight after solvent evaporation.

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C.A. Salamanca et al. / Food Chemistry 214 (2017) 622630

2.5.5. Caffeine
Caffeine in espresso coffee was determined by HPLC analysis following the methodology proposed by Fox, Wu, Yiran, & Force, 2013.
with an analytical HPLC-UV unit (Agilent 1200 Series) equipped
with a 20 lL loop injector and UV detector at 270 nm. A Nucleosil
100 C18 column (5 mm particle size, 100  4.6 mm) was used. The
mobile phase was methanol:water (40:60) at a constant flow rate
(1 mL min 1). Coffee samples were diluted and filtered through a
0.2 lm nylon syringe filter before injection. The analytical standard
of caffeine was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, and methanol, 250
gradient quality super purity solvent from Romil.
2.5.6. 5-Chlorogenic acid
5-Chlorogenic acid (5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA)) was analyzed following the method developed by ChromaDex, Application
TN-1134 (Aqeel, Truong, Preston, & Lazzaro, 2012), by HPLC-UV
analysis in an Eclipse XDB C-18 column (5 lm particle size,
250  4.6 mm) and detection at 325 nm at room temperature. The
mobile phase was acetonitrile and water, both eluents containing
1% formic acid. The mobile phase composition was kept constant
at 5% acetonitrile for 15 min, followed by a linear change up to
100% acetonitrile The eluent flow rate was 0.8 mL/min.
The analytical standard of 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA) was
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, acetonitrile UV-HPLC grade
240 nm/far and formic acid 85% extra pure from Scharlau.
Before HPLC analysis, proteins and other high molecular weight
compounds were eliminated. 0.2 mL of each Carrezs solutions,
(K4[Fe(CN)6]
3H2O) (Scharlau Carrezs Reagent I) and (ZnSO4
7H2O)
(Scharlau Carrezs Reagent II) and 1.6 mL of ethanol were added to
8 mL of espresso sample in a centrifuge tub. The mixture was shaken for 5 s, let stand for 10 min and centrifuged for 10 min at
5000 rpm (Hettich Universal 320 centrifuge) (Trugo & Macrae,
1984). The supernatants were collected, filtered through a 0.2 lm
nylon syringe filter and analyzed by HPLC. The injection volume
was 20 lL.
2.5.7. Total polyphenol content
The total polyphenol content in the espresso samples was
determined by spectrophotometry in a Sequential Injection Analysis (SIA) equipment using gallic acid as standard, according to the
Folin-Ciocalteu assay (Singleton & Rossi, 1965). The calibration
curve was obtained by preparing different standard concentrations
of gallic acid within the range 0.10.6 mg L 1. Briefly, a 100 lL aliquot of extracts, gallic acid standard solutions (0.10.6 mg L 1) and
a blank (deionized water) were put in different tubes. Then, 4 mL of
the Folin-Ciocalteus phenol reagent diluted 1:10 were added to
each tube, the tubes were shaken and allowed to react for 5 min.
After this time, 4 mL of 7.5% Na2CO3 solution was added. After
incubation of the mixture in a thermostatic bath for 15 min at
45 C, the absorbance against a blank was determined spectrophotometrically at 765 nm (Hitachi U-2000 VIS/UV spectrophotometer). Total phenolic content was expressed as milligrams of gallic
acid equivalents (GAE) per litre of espresso.
2.6. Sensory evaluation
Sensory evaluation was performed by a trained sensory panel of
eleven panelists recruited from members of Forum Cultural del

Caf (http://www.forumdelcafe.com/cursos-forum.php) and coffee

roasting companies. Espressos were prepared immediately before
analysis and served in white, round, 50 mL cups preheated at
31 C (Cuadras, 2009). Each espresso was tasted in duplicate at
22 C in an air-conditioned room with separated booths in two
independent sessions. Deionized distilled water, and unsalted
crackers were served between samples tasting to cleanse the
palette.
The panelists were given a scorecard (evaluation form) and
asked to score the ten attributes described in Table 1 on a scale
from 0 (non detectable) to 10 (strong optic, smell or taste impression). Reference range of scores for each attribute which define an
espresso of proved acceptability and quality by coffee quality
experts from International Institute of Coffee Tasters (Odello &
Odello, 2002) were included in the scorecard evaluation form.
2.7. Statistical analysis
The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether there are any significant differences between the
means of physicochemical parameters determined at different
extraction profile and each type of coffee. The null hypothesis that
all means are equal was rejected when difference between means
was <0.05. Following the ANOVA test multiple comparisons were
made at those statistically significant variables using the test
HSD (honestly-significant-difference) Tukey with a significance
level of 10%.
Concerning sensorial analysis data the second quartile or median, interquartile range and quartile deviation was used as a robust
descriptive statistics. This tool provided characteristic information
of each set of data at different extraction profile and each type of
coffee that could be related to the range of acceptability established by specialists of the International Institute of Coffee Tasters.
It was not possible to apply a principal components analysis
because when data were discretized by temperature profile and
type of coffee the number of individuals was very small respective
to the number of variables. The application of this type of analysis
in these conditions would imply a matrix of incomplete range of
data that would lead to unreliable results. This is the reason why
median was used as a robust measurement of central tendency.
Percentiles deciles and quartiles were also used to look for characteristic information related to a data group that helped make the
discussion in Section 3.4.
All statistical analyses were performed using the R Statistical
Computing programme.
3. Results
3.1. Particle size distribution
The particle size distribution of the selected grinding grades
used to obtain espressos from R, NA and WA at different temperature profile (8893 C, 9090 C and 9388 C) is presented in
Fig. 1(a) (c), respectively. As can be observed, particle size distribution of the different grinds presents a bimodal profile and a similar pattern. All these distribution patterns seem appropriate to
obtain a good espresso: coarse particles provide a good structure
of the cake and finer particles favor the extraction of coffee

Table 1
Score ranges of quality for sensory attributes defined by International Institute of Coffee Tasters (Odello & Odello, 2002).
Crema

Scores range

Aroma

Scores range

Texture

Scores range

Flavor

Scores range

Colour
Texture

57
79

Intensity
Pleasant odors
Unpleasant odors

79
79
13

Body

79

Roasty
Acidity
Bitterness
Astringency

57
57
35
13

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C.A. Salamanca et al. / Food Chemistry 214 (2017) 622630

Percentage (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

Particle size (m)

o

88-93 C
88-93oC

(a)

90-90 C
90-90oC

93-88 C
93-88oC

Percentage (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

grinding is suitable for all the extraction temperature profiles

investigated. Conversely, from the profiles plotted in Fig. 1(c) a different grade of grinding is needed to obtain a perfect espresso from
WA beans with the required volume and extraction time at the
studied extraction temperatures. Larger percentage of fine particles and lower percentage of coarse particles were observed in
grinding grade for WA espressos extraction at fixed 90 C. For the
other two temperature profiles the amount of fine particles was
similar but marked differences were found between percentages
of particles of 400 mm and 630 mm. Andueza et al., 2003a who
investigated the influence of grinding grade on the quality of
expressos extracted at different fixed temperature concluded that
finding the optimal grinding grade is essential to obtain a goodquality espresso coffee. Taking into account Anduezas findings,
the physicochemical characteristics of WA could be affected not
only by extraction temperature but also by the different grade of
grinding used for the extraction of WA espressos. Cuadras, 2009
reported that an appropriate grinding is a key for the correct
extraction of the coffee components. The use of a too fine grind
results an over extracted espresso as water pours slowly and as a
consequence of this the espresso smells roast, its taste is bitter
and astringent and there is no crema or a white spot appears on
it (Cuadras, 2009).

Particle size ( m)
o

90-90 C
90-90oC

88-93 C
88-93oC

(b)

3.2. Physico-chemical analysis

93-88 C
93-88oC

Percentage (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

Particle size (m)

o

(c)

88-93 C
88-93oC

90-90 C
90-90oC

93-88 C
93-88oC

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of ground beans used for different extraction
temperature profile of espressos (a) Robusta, (b) Arabica natural and (c) Washed
Arabica.

compounds (Andueza et al., 2003a). As seen in Fig. 1(a) and (b) particle size distribution profiles of R and NA ground coffee beans are
almost superimposed. Therefore, it seems that a similar grade of

The mean value and standard deviation of physicochemical

parameters analyzed in R, A and WA espressos extracted at different temperature profiles are presented in Tables 24, respectively.
In those tables superscripts (a, b and c) indicate significant differences (p < 0.1) between mean values corresponding to different
extraction temperature profiles. Results of foam layer persistence
were not included in the tables because in all the cases the value
of this parameter was higher than 8 min. Timing was stopped after
8 min when temperature of espresso dropped to 45 C. At this temperature the espresso loses most of its sensorial attributes.
The results presented in Table 2 correspond to the physicochemical parameters values of R espressos. As seen, espresso coffee
density seems not be affected by extraction temperature while significant differences are observed between the rest of the parameters analyzed. Illy & Viani, 2005 reported that the crema should
represent at least the 10% of the volume of an expresso. In
this work, R espressos presented the higher values of foam
indexes (around 33%) when extracted at ramp-up and fixed 90 C
temperature profiles. The high values of foam indexes found in this
work (>10%) are probably due to the immediate use of ground
coffee for making the espressos. Carbon dioxide responsible
for foam formation is released during coffee grinding. Illy &

Table 2
Influence of extraction temperature profile on physico-chemical parameters of Robusta espressos.
Extraction temperature profile

Foam index (%)

Density (g mL 1)
Viscosity (mN m 2 s 1)
Turbidity (NTU)a
Total solids (g L 1)
Filtered solids (g L 1)
pH
Total polyphenolic (GAE g L 1)
Caffeine (g L 1)
Total lipids (g L 1)
Chlorogenic acid (5-CQA) (g L 1)

(8893) 0.35 C

(9090) 0.35 C

(9388) 0.35 C

33.24 2.6a
1.026 0.003a
1.36 0.02a
973.0 160c
63.83 3.2b
2.05 0.4b
5.01 0.82b
12.16 2.0a
2.81 0.5a
0.06 0.01b
0.43 0.02a

33.47 2.0a
1.03 0.01a
1.30 0.01b
1844.6 79a
66.87 2.3a
3.05 0.7a
5.58 0.03b
8.59 1.2b
2.45 0.4b
0.09 0.01a
0.35 0.01c

23.21 1.4b
1.03 0.01a
1.25 0.02c
1110.9 105b
56.27 2.8c
2.25 0.5b
5.71 0.01a
7.37 0.8c
1.19 0.3c
0.03 0.01c
0.31 0.01b

All values are presented as meanstandard deviation (n = 18). Letters next to values indicate statistical significance. Values with the
same letter are not significantly different according to HSD test (P-value = 0.1).
a
Nephelometric Turbidity Units.

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C.A. Salamanca et al. / Food Chemistry 214 (2017) 622630

Table 3
Influence of extraction temperature profile on physico-chemical parameters of Natural Arabica espressos.
Extraction temperature profile

Foam index (%)

Density (g mL 1)
Viscosity (mN m 2 s 1)
Turbidity (NTU)a
Total solids (g L 1)
Filtered solids (g L 1)
pH
Total polyphenolic (GAE g L 1)
Caffeine (g L 1)
Total lipids (g L 1)
Chlorogenic acid (5-CQA) (g L 1)

(8893) 0.35 C

(9090) 0.35 C

(9388) 0.35 C

22.87 2.0ab
1.03 0.01a
1.27 0.02b
943.06 276b
68.92 7.5a
5.97 1.2a
5.28 0.07b
11.79 3.5a
1.74 0.3c
0.08 0.01b
0.51 0.03a

23.78 2.8a
1.026 0.003a
1.29 0.01a
1282.50 246a
59.88 3.1b
3.31 0.6b
5.74 0.04a
7.37 0.9c
2.56 0.5a
0.11 0.02a
0.49 0.01a

21.94 1.5b
1.02 0.02a
1.27 0.02b
1291.08 56a
60.76 3.5b
3.78 0.8b
5.17 0.01c
7.92 1.2b
2.14 0.2b
0.06 0.01c
0.47 0.03b

All values are presented as mean standard deviation (n = 18). Letters next to values indicate statistical significance. Values with the
same letter are not significantly different according to HSD test (P-value = 0.1).
a
Nephelometric Turbidity Units.

Table 4
Influence of extraction temperature profile on physico-chemical parameters of Washed Arabica espressos.
Extraction temperature profile

Foam index (%)

Density (g mL 1)
Viscosity (mN m 2 s 1)
Turbidity (NTU)a
Total solids (g L 1)
Filtered solids (g L 1)
pH
Total polyphenolic (GAE g L 1)
Caffeine (g L 1)
Total lipids (g L 1)
Chlorogenic acid (5-CQA) (g L 1)

(8893) 0.35 C

(9090) 0.35 C

(9388) 0.35 C

19.63 2.1a
1.028 0.002a
1.43 0.06a
1212.22 184c
53.68 2.4b
3.57 0.4b
5.30 0.04a
15.15 2.3a
1.60 0.4b
0.07 0.01b
0.56 0.03a

17.78 2.5b
1.02 0.01a
1.26 0.01c
2492.17 357a
63.76 2.2a
4.81 0.9a
5.34 0.01a
8.04 1.1b
2.32 0.4a
0.07 0.01b
0.50 0.01b

16.82 1.8b
1.022 0.002a
1.289 0.005b
1759.17 136b
54.52 1.8b
2.77 0.4c
5.14 0.02b
6.06 0.9c
0.73 0.4c
0.10 0.02a
0.46 0.01c

All values are presented as mean standard deviation (n = 18). Letters next to values indicate statistical significance. Values with the
same letter are not significantly different according to HSD test (P-value = 0.1).
a
Nephelometric Turbidity Units.

Navarini, 2011 recommend that the time expired after grinding

should not be longer than 30 min to avoid carbon dioxide loss.
Its remarkable the 30% decrease of foam when using the rampdown temperature profile. Other authors who investigated the
effect of different fixed temperatures of extraction on physicochemical characteristics of R espresso found that foam index
increased with the increase of temperature within the range
(8898 C)(Andueza et al., 2003b).
As seen in Table 2, when the ramp-down temperature profile is
used viscosity, total polyphenolic compounds, caffeine and chlorogenic acids values decrease. No clear trend with the extraction profiles was found for the rest of physicochemical properties.
Viscosity is influenced by the amount of liquid droplets in the
emulsion. A high viscosity is related to a high foam index, body, flavor and odor (Illy & Viani, 2005). Significant differences were found
between viscosities of R espressos extracted at different temperature profiles. The highest viscosity was found for espressos brewed
at ramp-up gradient of temperature. These results contrast with
the ones reported by Andueza et al., 2003b for R espressos
extracted at fixed temperature. These authors found lower viscosity values that increased with temperature in the range 88 C up to
96 C.
Turbidity is defined by the lack of transparency of a liquid due
to the presence of suspended particles. This parameter is directly
related to total solids, filtered solids and viscosity (Navarini,
Ferrari, Liverani, Liggieri, & Ravera, 2004) which are related to
the body of espressos. Robusta espressos extracted at 90 C presented the highest values of turbidity, total solids and filtered

solids. No clear trend of the effect of extraction ramps of temperature on these three parameters was observed.
From the scientific side pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. Cup acidity depends on the carboxylic
acids content in the brew. Acetic, malic and citric acids are the
most important carboxylic acids influencing the perceived acidity
(Maier, 1987). Phosphoric acid and chlorogenic acids also contribute to cup acidity. Therefore, the measure of pH must be considered as a balance between acidic and alkaline compounds
whose content varies depending on coffee species and roasting
conditions. As seen in Table 2, the lowest acidity (higher pH) was
found at ramp-down temperature profile. These values are significantly different from the ones of espressos brewed at the other two
temperature profiles.
Polyphenolic compounds are the responsible for color, astringency and bitterness of espresso. These compounds are present
in different chemical structures and play an important role in quality of espresso and human health due to their strong antioxidant
properties (Charurin, James, & del Castillo, 2002). It is noticeable
the high value of polyphenolic compounds content in R espresso
extracted at 8893 C gradient of temperature as compared to
the content in the espressos brewed at the other two temperature
profiles. At this ramp-up temperature polyphenolic compounds
content is around 30% and 60% higher than the ones observed for
fixed 90 C and ramp-down profile, respectively. The antioxidant
capacity of coffee is attributed to the presence of polyphenolic
compounds, therefore the use of the ramp-up gradient enhances
the antioxidant properties of R espresso. No references were found

C.A. Salamanca et al. / Food Chemistry 214 (2017) 622630

in literature related to the effect of extraction temperature on

polyphenols of espressos. Hecimovic, Belscak-Cvitanaovic, Horzic,
& Komes, 2011 reported that antioxidant properties are affected
by the roasting conditions.
Caffeine is an alkaloid that contributes to the bitter taste of
espresso (Fox et al., 2013). As seen in Table 2 the use of ramp-up
gradient of temperature significantly increases the amount of caffeine in R espresso. Mora & Rodrguez, 2010 reported that after 5 s
of extraction 40% of caffeine is already extracted and this percentage reaches 60% after 5 s more. Therefore the extraction temperature that acts during the first 510 s seems crucial in caffeine
extraction and our study evidences that the use of ramp-up gradient is suitable if a high amount of caffeine is desired.
The amount of lipids in the espresso depends on several parameters, coffee variety, roasting, grinding, water quality, pressure,
temperature and extraction time. The lipids play an important role
in the retention of aroma, thus a high lipids extraction ensures the
increase of the aroma in the final cup of espresso (Illy & Viani,
2005; Speer and Klling-Speer & Klling-Speer, 2006). Furthermore
the lipids concentration strongly affects the foam phase of the
espresso (Parenti et al., 2014). Indeed, when looking at Table 2 it
can be observed that the highest and lowest content of lipids were
found at fixed 90 C and at ramp-down temperature profiles that
correspond to the highest and lowest foam index values measured
at both temperatures, respectively.
Chlorogenic acid is a trivial name used to describe a range of
phenolic acids found in plant materials, included coffee (Trugo &
Macrae, 1984). The most abundant chlorogenic acid is 5-CQA.
The results found in this study show a decrease of 5-CQA with
the increase of initial temperature of the extraction profiles used,
the highest value being the one measured in the espresso brewed
at 8893 C.
Results in Table 2 evidence that the use of ramp-up temperature profile highly enhances the extraction of polyphenolic compounds whose concentration is around 30% higher than the one
of espressos obtained at the other two temperature profiles. Moreover, the use of ramp-up temperature profiles results in a slightly
increase of caffeine, acidic components and chlorogenic acid content in R espressos.
Table 3 shows the results obtained when analyzing the physicochemical parameters in Arabica espressos brewed at different
temperature profiles. As observed in the table, no significant differences as a function of extraction temperature gradient were
observed between density values. Foam indexes were found to
be lower than the ones observed for R espressos. Nevertheless,
same correlation between foam index and lipids content as the
observed for R espressos was found. Some authors also reported
lower foam indexes for Arabica than for Robusta (Andueza et al.,
2003b; Maeztu et al., 2001). Nevertheless, Illy & Navarini, 2011,
concluded that the role played by coffee species in espresso foam
is not established and postulates that the interplay between carbon
dioxide content and lipid content is more relevant as far as foamability is concerned.
Significant differences can be observed between viscosity of A
espressos extracted at 90 C fixed temperature and espressos
obtained when ramp gradients of temperature are used. Masella
et al., 2015 who investigated the effect on viscosity of fixed temperatures of extraction within the range 75 and 85 C found that
viscosity was not significantly affected.
Turbidity and caffeine of A espressos were found to increase
when coffee erogation was performed at fixed 90 C and rampdown gradient of temperature. Conversely, total solids, filtered
solids and 5-CQA were found to decrease their concentration value
at higher initial temperatures of extraction. The highest values of
these parameters were obtained when ramp-up temperature was
used. In this study, the content of 5-CQA in A espressos was higher

627

than in R espressos. Marin & Puerta, 2008, also found higher content of this acid in A than in R espressos.
Significant differences on pH of espressos as a consequence of
extraction temperature were noticed. The highest acidity was
recorded for espressos brewed at ramp-down gradient of
temperature.
The extraction of polyphenolic compounds of A was favored at
8893 C as happened in the case of R espressos. This time the
increase of extraction yield was 37% and 33% higher than the
extraction at 90 C and 9388 C, respectively.
The effect of brewing temperature profiles on physicochemical
properties of WA can be observed in Table 4. The comparison
between parameters values as a function of the extraction temperature highlights that at a fixed 90 C turbidity, total solids, filtered
solids and caffeine values are higher than those obtained for
espressos when upward and downward gradients of temperature
were used. Polyphenolic compounds and chlorogenic acid were
higher extracted at 8893 C. The lowest concentration of these
two parameters was found when the ramp-down temperature of
extraction was used. Same trend was observed in R and A espressos
(Tables 2 and 3). Acidity of WA espressos brewed at ramp-down
and 90 C was found to be lower than at ramp-up temperature.
Concerning total lipids an opposite trend to the observed for R
and A espressos with extraction temperature profiles was found.
The total lipids highest extraction yield was obtained when espressos were brewed at 9388 C temperature profile. Unlike the
results obtained for foam index of R and A espressos the highest
WA foam index was observed in the espressos extracted at 88
93 C. It is remarkable the low values of foam index found in WA
espressos analysis as compared to the ones for R and A presented
in Tables 2 and 3. It has been reported that foam depends on grinding among other factors as extraction temperature, extraction
grade (Illy & Navarini, 2011). As seen in Fig. 1 the grinding grade
and consequently the particle distribution of fine and coarse particles of WA grounds is different for each temperature and differs
from the ones of R and A. This fact could explain the differences
observed between foam index of WA and the other espressos. It
has been reported that grinding destroys the roasted coffee cell
structure and this results in a remarkable release of carbon dioxide,
with obvious consequences on crema (Illy & Navarini, 2011).
Andueza et al., 2003a who studied the effect of grinding on physicochemical properties of R and A espressos found the lowest values
of the studied properties when coarse particles were the major
portion of ground coffee and espressos were extracted at the highest tested fixed temperature (92 C). In this study, foam values did
not show any trend with the increase of neither fine nor coarse
percentage shown in Fig. 1. The highest coarse particles percentage
of WA grounds was the one corresponding to the grinding grade
used for WA espressos extraction at 9388 C profile temperature
at which the lowest values of pH, total polyphenols, caffeine and
5-CQA attained their lowest value. Therefore it seems that the
effect of temperature is stronger than the one of grinding as the
trend of these parameters with extraction temperature was the
same as the observed for R and A espressos.
As previously discussed results presented in Tables 24 show
few trends of increasing or decreasing values of studied parameters with the three temperature profiles used in this study. Coffee
extraction is a dynamic process that lasts around 25 s during which
various compounds are sequentially being extracted influenced by
temperature and other variables. The resulting cup of espresso has
a complex physical and chemical nature.
In spite of this, some aspects related to the use of 90 C fixed
temperature and ramps of temperature that are common to the
espressos obtained from the three varieties of coffee investigated
can be highlighted: (1) Any effect of extraction temperature profiles on density (2) The lowest foam indexes were found when

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C.A. Salamanca et al. / Food Chemistry 214 (2017) 622630

using ramp-down extraction profile (3) The highest values of turbidity and total solids were obtained at 90 C fixed temperature
(4) The use of ramp up temperature profile produced a slight
increase of chlorogenic acids (5-CQA) and an increase higher than
30% in polyphenolic compounds content.
These two last aspects are very important to take into account
as turbidity and total solids are related to body of the espresso
and polyphenolic compounds and chlorogenic acids are responsible for the color, astringency and bitterness in espressos. Therefore,
the selection of extraction temperature profile might enable to
exalt or depress these sensorial attributes in the brewed coffee.
3.3. Sensory evaluation
Median of sensory attributes scores of R, A and WA espressos
extracted at ramp-up, fixed 90 C and ramp-down temperature
profiles are shown in Fig. 2(ac). In the same figure the range of
acceptability established by specialists of the International Institute of Coffee Tasters for each attribute was also plotted. The plot
of the scores given by the panelists relative to R espressos
(Fig. 2a) shows that scores for crema color, roast flavor and
unpleasant odors, were within the reference range independently
of the extraction temperature profile used; some attributes scores

ROBUSTA

(a)

Cream color

Astringency

Bitterness

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

as pleasant odors and acidity were lower that the lowest value of
the range for all temperature profiles, aroma intensity and body
when using ramp-down profile and fixed 90 C and crema texture
when the espressos were brewed at ramp-up and fixed 90 C temperature; and astringency and bitterness scores were higher than
the upper bound of the range of quality for all the tested extraction
temperature profiles. According to sensory evaluation the tested R
espressos can be qualified as espressos with low acidity and aroma
and high bitterness and astringency. It is noticeable that the use of
ramp-up temperature profile was found to increase the aroma
intensity, pleasant odors and body of the espressos up to values
within the range of quality.
The plot in Fig. 2b evidences that scores of aroma intensity,
unpleasant odors, roasty flavor and acidity of A espressos extracted
at the three temperature profiles were within the reference range.
Other attributes were also qualified within the reference range
when brewed at upward gradient as crema color, body, bitterness
and astringency. Bitterness and crema texture were also found to
be in that range when A espressos were extracted at fixed 90 C
temperature. Lower scores than the lowest bound of the reference
range were obtained by crema texture at ramp-up profile and
pleasant odors at the three tested temperature profiles. Like it happened in the case of R espresso astringency and bitterness got

ARABICA

Cream
texture

Acidity

Bitterness

Pleasent
odors

Acidity

Unpleasant
odors

Rosty

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Astringency

Aroma
intensity

88-93 C

Cream
texture

Aroma
intensity

Pleasent
odors

Unpleasant
odors

Rosty
Body

Body
Range Quality

(b)

Cream color

90-90 C

93-88 C

Range Quality

88-93 C

WASHED ARABICA

90-90 C

93-88 C

(c)
Cream color

Astringency

Bitterness

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Cream
texture

Aroma
intensity

Pleasent
odors

Acidity

Unpleasant
odors

Rosty
Body
Range Quality

88-93 C

90-90 C

93-88 C

Fig. 2. Spider plots showing consensus mean scores of espressos sensory evaluation and espresso quality range (a) Robusta (b) Arabica natural (c) Washed Arabica.

C.A. Salamanca et al. / Food Chemistry 214 (2017) 622630

scores higher than the upper value of the reference range but in
this case it occurs only when the espressos were extracted at
ramp-down temperature profile. In general A espressos were perceived as espressos with fine aroma and balanced acidity and
roasty flavor. The use of upward gradient produced in general
espressos of good color of crema and well balanced aroma intensity, body and flavor. Conversely, espressos extracted by using
downward gradient presented high bitterness and astringency,
low body and low level of pleasant odors.
The plot of WA sensory evaluation (Fig. 2c) reveals that in general, crema, aroma, texture and flavor attributes were scored
within the reference range. The use of upward gradient resulted
in well balanced espressos however downward gradient and fixed
90 C resulted in espressos which were perceived to have high bitterness and astringency and pleasant odors scores below the reference range values.
From the obtained results the better qualified espressos were
those brewed at ramp-up temperature profile. Therefore, it seems
that starting brewing at 88 C, a quite low temperature compared
to the standard 90 C, and sequentially rising the temperature up
to 93 C results in an espresso of superior sensory quality.
3.4. Relationship between analytical results and the sensory evaluation
Physicochemical properties of the espressos presented in Tables
24 can be related to a greater or to a lesser degree with the
organoleptic attributes perceived by the panel of experts. With
regard to taste characteristics, (Farah, 2012). chlorogenic acids,
polyphenols and caffeine content are the major responsible for
the perception of these attributes in espressos. Another physical
property related to acidity is the pH that is in turn related to the
amount of chlorogenic acids (Bhre & Maier, 1996) and other
organic acids that have not been determined in this study.
Boeneke, McGregor, & Aryana, 2006 reported that pH tended to
decrease when chlorogenic acids were present in a high concentration. Therefore, any slight increase or decrease of the concentration
of these compounds could modify the typical bitterness-acidity
balance recognized in espressos that could be only perceived
through the sensorial attribute acidity (Parenti et al., 2014).
In this study, R espressos showed the highest content of
polyphenols, caffeine and chlorogenic acids when espressos were
extracted upward gradient and the lowest one when falling temperature profile was used. Conversely, the pH followed the opposite trend being the highest pH the one of espressos extracted at
falling temperature profile. In the tasting, all espressos presented
low acidity and high bitterness and astringency at all the extracting temperature profiles. Arabica Natural espressos also presented
the highest content of polyphenolic compounds and chlorogenic
acid at upward gradient but at this temperature profile the content
of caffeine was the lower than the obtained at the other two temperature profiles. These espressos brewed at 8893 C showed a
certain balance between astringency and bitterness was perceived
in cup. In the espressos brewed at downward gradient a greater
perceived astringency and bitterness was noticed while acidity
was scored in the range of quality. Presumably this fact is due to
the low content of polyphenols, caffeine and chlorogenic acids.
The highest and the middle values of the pH were observed for
the fixed 90 C and ramp-up profile where the content of polyphenols, caffeine and chlorogenic acids was lower. Nevertheless, it
seems that the content of these compounds did not affect the acidity since the scores for this attribute were within the target values.
In the case of WA espressos, the highest values for polyphenols and
chlorogenic acids was observed when using rising and fixed 90 C
temperature profiles which was reflected in cup as higher bitterness for these two profiles than for the one of falling temperature
while acidity and bitterness were kept within the target values.

629

The pH values were high, medium and low for the flat, rising and
falling temperature profiles at which the acidity was perceived to
be within the limits of the reference range. It should be noted that
although the highest value of pH and caffeine was observed for
espressos brewed at 90 C the content of both polyphenols and
clorogenic acids was intermediate.
Results obtained in this study cannot completely describe the
aromatic profile of the espressos investigated but some discussion
about the content of lipids and aroma attributes can be carried out.
Lipids content has been directly related to the aroma of espresso.
The lipid fraction protects from the aromatic compounds degradation during the Maillard reaction (De Oliveira, Cruz, Eberlin, &
Cabral, 2005). Concerning aroma attributes, aroma intensity values
of R espressos were lower that the target values except the ones of
espressos brewed at rising temperature profile. No direct relation
between the content of lipids was found as the highest lipids content was found at fixed 90 C profile at which aroma intensity was
out of the range of quality. Aroma intensity perceived in Arabica
natural espressos extracted at the three temperature profiles was
found to be within the range of quality. Conversely the attribute
pleasant odors were qualified to be below the reference range of
values. As lipids content found in these espressos was in the same
range of the other two tested espressos the low level of pleasant
odors could be due to degradation of some aromatic compounds
responsible of aromatic notes in the aroma of the espressos. The
aroma intensity of Washed Arabica was qualified within the reference range. Note that only the use of upward gradient produced
espressos with the appropriated level of pleasant odors in spite
of the similar content of lipids in espressos obtained at rising and
fixed temperature profiles and the highest content observed at falling temperature profile.
Body of an espresso is an attribute related to physicochemical
properties as turbidity, total solids, filtered solids and viscosity
(Illy & Viani, 2005; Masella et al., 2015). In general, espressos
obtained from R grounds stand out as having a good body. In spite
of this, only the body of R espressos brewed at rising temperature
was considered to be within the range of quality. The body of
espressos brewed at the other two temperature profiles was qualified to be lower than the target values in spite of the fact that turbidity, total solids and filtered solids at 90 C were higher than at
rising temperature profile. In the case of A espressos the highest
total solids and filtered solids content was found at rising temperature profile at which body was evaluated as being within the
range of quality. However, at this temperature viscosity and turbidity values were lower than the ones found at the other two temperature profiles. In WA espressos turbidity, total solids and
filtered solids were high at fixed 90 C and intermediate at rising
temperature, conversely, viscosity was high at the rising temperature and low at fixed temperature.
The discussion carried out in this section reveals that finding a
direct relationship between sensory attributes evaluation and the
physicochemical properties values presented in Tables 24 is not
always possible due to the large amount and complex reactions
taking place during erogation that constitutes the cup. On the other
hand, the sensory attributes perceived in cup are associated to
more than one of the studied variables or to other variables that
have not been considered in this study.

4. Conclusions
The effect of using ramps of temperature to brew espressos
from coffee of three different varieties on espressos physicochemical properties and quality has been investigated. The results
showed: (i) Significant differences between most of the physicochemical properties as a function of the extraction temperature

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C.A. Salamanca et al. / Food Chemistry 214 (2017) 622630

profile in all the espressos investigated (ii) The use of ramp of temperatures affects in a different way the physicochemical properties
of espressos extracted from different coffee species (iii) Sensorial
evaluation of the espressos also varies depending on the extraction
temperature profile leading to espressos of different quality (iv)
The use of 8893 C gradient of temperature contributes to
increasing the quality of all espressos investigated.
In conclusion, the possibility of programming gradient of temperature in the coffee machines recently introduced in the market
opens new expectations in the field of espresso brewing. The use of
gradient temperature for brewing espressos allows increasing or
decreasing the extraction of some compounds from coffee grounds
according to consumers demand. For instance, caffeine and
polyphenols are very appreciated by the consumers for their stimulating and antioxidant effects, respectively. Therefore the physicochemical analysis of espressos is an adequate tool to help making
decisions on the temperature profiles to get the preferred content
of compounds. Of course, the physicochemical analyses dont
assess quality of the espressos as quality is associated at the consumers visual, olfactory and gustative sensations of some attributes of a complex beverage such as an espresso. Nevertheless,
an appropriate gradient of temperature can be used to highlight
or hide some of the sensorial attributes so as to enhance the quality
of an espresso.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Rancilio group for
providing the coffee machine and for their financial support to this
study. Thanks are also extended to Cafs Saula for providing the
coffee samples, Maria Peirol for her help in the experimental work
and the panel of experts for their assessment.
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