PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE

MANUAL

PIPELINES

PTS 20.180H
DECEMBER 1991

PREFACE

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of PETRONAS OPUs/Divisions.
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PETRONAS' OPUs in oil and gas production facilities, refineries, gas processing plants, chemical
plants, marketing facilities or any other such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical
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PREFACE TO THE PRODUCTION HANDBOOK, REVISION 1991

Objective
The objective of the Production Handbook is to contribute to efficient performance by all
Engineering, Petroleum Engineering and Operations staff, by providing quick access to
and practical guidance on their own and related disciplines' technology.
Being a comprehensive combination of condensed technical manuals, it provides a ready
source of information for reference and self-training.
It is not intended to replace detailed design manuals and state-of-the-art manuals; these
should remain the first source of reference for more experienced technical specialists. Neither
can the Production Handbook replace specialised training manuals.
Distribution
The Production Handbook should be available to all Engineering, Petroleum Engineering and
Operations staff at or above JG5, in Group E&P Operating Companies and SIPM. These staff
receive the Handbook as a personal loan; they may take it along when going on transfer within
the Group but must return it when leaving for other reasons. Staff of other Functions'
parentages temporarily working in E&P companies may use library copies.
The Handbook is confidential and holders should note the conditions stated opposite the title
page. Issue and recovery should be registered by company secretariats/libraries.
Reprinting and updating
The Production Handbook was first published by SIPM in 1986. It is the successor to the Field
Pocketbook versions of 1933,1947, 1952 and 1955 and the Field Handbook of 1963. The
1986 version comprised 3000 pages in five AS ringbinders; 6000 copies were distributed.
An update of some 250 revised pages was issued in 1987 and a list of further corrections was
published in the Production Newsletter of November 1988.
A complete reprint is necessary at this time (1991). For flexibility and cost-effectiveness this
updated reprint is in nine paperback volumes, each one dedicated to a major discipline with
clear ownership' by the SIPM-EP department concerned. These custodian' departments will
initiate further updates of their respective volumes as and when necessary. Additional volumes
and state-of-the-art manuals in the same format may be added later as special supplements.
Suggestions for revising and updating the Handbook should be directed to the SIPM-EP
custodian department of the respective volume, using copies of the Specimen
Amendment Sheet at the back of each volume.
Overall editorial custodianship of the Handbook rests with SIPM-EPD/1 1.

CONTENTS LIST PRODUCTION HANDBOOK SERIES (1991)

SIPM Custodian
Volume 1 Production General
- Units and Conversion Factors
- Health Safety and Environment
- Quality Management
- Economic Analysis

EPO/71
EPO/6
EPO/72
EPE/1

Volume 2 Drilling and Transport

- Drilling
- Civil Engineering for drilling locations
- Transport in Production Operations

EPO/51

Volume 3 Petrophysical Engineering

EPD/22

Volume 4 Reservoir Engineering

EPD/22

Volume 5 Production Technology

- Production Engineering
- Production Chemistry

EPD/41

Volume 6 Production Operations

EPO/53

Volume 7 Process Engineering

- Oil Processing
- Gas Processing
Custodian for Part I Ch. 7 Terminals:

EPD/42

Volume 8 Pipelines

EPD/61

Volume 9 Facilities and Maintenance

- Running Equipment
- Piping Systems
- Electrical Engineering
- Instrumentation
Telecommunications
- Reliability and Availability Assessment
- Corrosion Engineering
- Inspection Techniques and Maintenance Terminology
- Diving and Underwater Operations
- Air Conditioning

EPD/62
EPD/62
EPD/63
EPD/64
EPDI76
EPD/13-EPO/54
EPD/65
EP0154
EPO/54
MFSH/11

EPD/13

PREFACE TO VOLUME 8, PIPELINES, REVISION 1991

The subjects covered in this Volume were formerly included in the 1986 version of the
Production Handbook as Chapter 10, Pipelines. The following former Sections have, however,
been substantially condensed:
- 1.3
- 3.5
- 3.6

External Corrosion Protection

Pipeline Monitoring and Control
Internal Corrosion and Corrosion Monitoring.

More detailed information about these subjects can be found in Volume 9.

VOLUME 8, PIPELINES, REVISION 1991

SUMMARY CONTENTS LISTING
1. Design
2. Construction
3. Operations
4. Pipeline Standards
5. Safety Requirements for Pipelines
6. Documentation
7. References and Further Reading

Volume 8

PIPELINES

CONTENTS
1

DESIGN

1.1

Hydraulics

1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5

Physical Properties
General Energy Equation
Fluid Flow through Pipelines
Heat Transfer in Pipelines
Pump and Compressor Power Requirements

1.2 Materials
1.2.1 Line Pipe
1.2.2 Pipeline Components
1.3 External Corrosion Protection
1.3.1 External Coatings: General
1.3.2 Coating Materials
1.3.3 Coating Inspection by Electrical Means
1.3.4 Field Joint Coatings
1.3.5 Storage of Coated Line Pipe
1.3.6 Cathodic Protection
1.3.7 Internal Coatings and Liners
1.4
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.45
1.4.6

Pipe Stability
Introduction
Calculation of the Required Submerged Weight
Recommendations on Velocities and Coefficients
Required Concrete Thickness
Remarks and List of Symbols
Application of Concrete Weight Coatings

1.5 Stresses and Loads

1.5.1 Codes
1.5.2 Collapse/Buckling in Offshore Pipelines
1.5.3 Pipe Loads in Conventional Laybarge Laying
1.5.4 Suspended Spans of Pipe Laying on Bottom
1.5.5 Buried Lines
1.5.6 Risers
1.6

Design Requirements for Internal Inspection Tools

CONSTRUCTION

2.1

Landline Construction

2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3

Codes and Permits

Surveys, Landline Construction
Construction General
Special Construction
Submarine Line Construction
Survey
Construction
Submarine Protection

2.3
Field Welding and Inspection
2.3.1 Welding
2.3.2 Weld Inspection
2.3.3 Codes and Standards
2.3.4 Common Pipeline Welding Terms
2.4

Hydrostatic Testing

2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.5

Testing Requirements
Test Equipment and Instrumentation
Determination of Residual Air Volume in Pipeline
Hydrostatic Leak Test Evaluation
Location of Leaks During Hydrostatic Testing

2.5

Cleaning/Drying/Pigging

2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3

Cleaning
Drying
Pigging

OPERATIONS

3.1 Commissioning
3.1.1 Liquid Product Pipelines
3.1.2 Gas Pipelines
3.2
Pipeline Monitoring and Control
3.2.1 Process and Instrument Diagram
3.2.2 Leak Detection
3.3 Internal Corrosion and Corrosion Monitoring
3.3.1 Internal Corrosion, General
3.3.2 Corrosion and Control at the Design Stage
3.3.3 Corrosion Monitoring
3.3.4 Dryness Monitoring
3.3.5 Corrosion Prevention Methods
3.4 Pipeline Inspection
3.4.1 Pipeline Failures
3.4.2 Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring Methods
3.4.3 Intelligent Pigs
3.5 Routine and Special Operations
3.5.1 Cleaning
3.5.2 Inhibition
3.5.3 Liquid Removal
3.5.4 Product Separation
3.6 Pipeline Repair
3.6.1 Safety
3.6.2 Emergency Procedures
3.6.3 Temporary Repair
3.6.4 Permanent Repair
4

PIPELINE STANDARDS

4.1

General

4.2
4.3

External Standards
Group Standards

SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR PIPELINES

5.1 General
5.2 Onshore Pipelines
5.2.1 General
5.2.2 Liquid Pipelines
5.2.3 Gas and Liquefied Gas Pipelines
5.3

Offshore Pipelines

DOCUMENTATION

6.1

General

6.2 Engineering Stage

6.2.1 As-Built Reoords
6.2.2 Construction Report
6.3

Operations

7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

SPECIMEN AMENDMENT SHEET

TABLES
Table 1.1-1

Compositional calculations

Table 1.1-2

Representative equivalent length in pipe diameters(Lid) of various valves and

fittings

Table 1.1-3

Values of thermal conductivity, maximum allowable temperature

Table 1.2-1

Selection and typical valve application criteria

Table 1.2-2

Main dimensions and approximate mass of flanged ball valves reduced bore to
API Specification 6D

Table 1.2-3

Main dimensions and approximate mass of flanged ball valves full bore to API
Specification 6D

Table 1.2-4

Main dimensions and approximate mass of flanged gate valves to API

Specification 6D

Table 1.2-5

Main dimensions and approximate mass of full bore flanged ball valves to BS
5351

Table 1.2-6

Main dimensions and approximate mass of reduced bore flanged ball valves to
BS 5351

Table 1.2-7

Main dimensions and approximate mass of flanged globe valves to BS 1873

Table 1.3-1

Maximum stacking heights for coated pipe

Table 1.4-1

Recommended values for pipe stability calculations

Table 1.5-1

Stress levels allowed by ANSI B31.4 and B31.8

Table 1.5-2

Out-of-roundness function g(r, d)

Table 1.5-3a) Basic load conditions for single spans

Table 1.5-3b) Combined load conditions for single span
Table 1.5-4

One end deflection of a single span

Table 1.5-5

Global buckle length of single spans

Table 1.5-6

Uniformly loaded pipe resting on more than one support

Table 1.5-7

Natural frequencies single spans

Table 1.5-8

Values for Kb, Kz and If

Table 1.5-9

CD values for pipe in trenches as function of H/BD

Table 1.6-1

Pig trap lengths for internal inspection tools

Table 2.2-1

Multi-user positioning systems

Table 2.2-2

Tow methods for laying offshore pipelines

Table 2.4-1

Summary of methods for the location of leaks during hydrostatic testing

Table 2.5-1

Cleaning applications/methods

Table 2.5-2

Cleaning pigs

Table 2.5-3

Gauging pig and displacement/separation pigs(spheres)

Table 2.5-4

Swabbing/drying pigs

Table 3.2-1

Leak detection methods

Table 3.4-1

Types of commercially available intelligent pigs

FIGURES
Figure 1.1-1

Approximate relative
temperatures

density

of

hydrocarbon

fractions

at

different

Figure 1.1-2

Compressibility factors for natural gases

Figure 1.1-3a

Compressibility of low molar mass natural gases 1

Figure 1.1-3b

Compressibility of low molar mass natural gases 2

Figure 1.1-3c

Compressibility of low molar mass natural gases 5

Figure 1.1-4

Basic characteristics of Newtonian and non-Newtonian liquids

Figure 1.1-5

Kinematic viscosity vs. temperature, and other properties, for a wide range of
traditional crude oils

Figure 1.1-6

Hydrocarbon gas viscosity

Figure 1.1-7

Approximate specific heat capacity ratios of hydrocarbon gases

Figure 1.1-8

Bernoulli's Theorem

Figure 1.1-9

Bernoulli's Theorem applied to one pipeline profile, e.g. for three different flow
rates (q1< q2 < q3), shows the change in location of hmax and hmin, pump
locations and end-pressures hd

Figure 1.1-10

Moody diagram

Figure 1.1-11

Oil-transmission lines head-loss curves for engineering design

Figure 1.1-12

Horizontal flow regimes

Figure 1.1-13

Generalised flow regime map for horizontal two-phase flow

Figure 1.1-14

Normalised friction factor curve (see Ref. 5)

Figure 1.1-15

Eaton liquid hold-up correlation (see Ref. 4)

Figure 1.1-16

Liquid bulk modulus K of liquid hydrocarbons

Figure 1.1-17

Pressure surge due to line packing

Figure 1.1-18

Effect of moisture content on thermal conductivity of sand and clay soils

Figure 1.2-1

Pressure/temperature rating to ANSI B 16.5/ANSI B 16.34

Figure 1.2-2

Pressure/temperature rating for ball valves designed to BS 5351

Figure 1.3-1

Typical sacrificial anode system

Figure 1.3-2

Typical impressed current system

Figure 1.4-1

Cross-section of pipe on sea bed

Figure 1.4-2

Required concrete thickness for stabilising gas-filled submarine pipelines

Figure 1.4-3

Submerged density of concrete coated pipe and correction for asphalt coat

Figure 1.4-4

Relation waveperiod-wavelength

Figure 1.4-5

Typical particle size distribution

Figure 1.4-6

Typical cube/core relationship

Figure 1.5-1

Collapse pressure Pc as a function of D/t and steel grade

Figure 1.5-2

Moment vs. curvature as a function of D/t ratio for API 5LX-42 pipe

Figure 1.5-3

Moment vs. curvature as a function of D/t ratio for API 5LX-60 pipe

Figure 1.5-4

Notations for analysing a 2-D suspended pipe span

Figure 1.5-5

Sag-bend minimum radius vs. height at the inflection point. To is the bottom

Figure 1.5-6

Bending strain vs. developed length of pipe span

Figure 1.5-7

Angle of pipe axis vs. height at the inflection point. To is the bottom tension

Figure 1.5-8

Dimensionless curves for depression spans

tension

Figure 1.5-9

Dimensionless curves for elevation spans

Figure 1.5-10

Example riser model

Figure 1.6-1

Scraper trap length consideration when using internal inspection tools

Figure 2.1-1

Typical excavation and backfill operations

Figure 2.1-2

Typical trench dimensions

Figure 2.1-3

Trench configurations

Figure 2.1-4

Field bend

Figure 2.1-5

Typical ditch and minor stream crossing

Figure 2.1-6

Typical cased railway crossing

Figure 2.1-7

Typical uncased road/rail crossing

Figure 2.1-8

Typical casing installation details

Figure 2.1-9

Typical cathodic protection and test cable connection

Figure 2.2-1

Pull tube method

Figure 2.2-2

Bending shoe method

Figure 2.2-3

Barefoot riser method

Figure 2.2-4

Typical clamp for anchoring riser at top of jacket

Figure 2.2-5

Typical clamp with limited degrees of freedom for adjustments

Figure 2.2-6

Typical clamp with complete freedom for adjustments

Figure 2.3-1

Nomogram for preheating requirements

Figure 2.4-1

Typical schematic of test section

Figure 2.4-2

Determination of residual air volume

Figure 2.4-3

Bulk modulus of fresh water as a function of pressure and temperature

Figure 2.4-4

Bulk modulus of sea water as a function of pressure and temperature

Figure 2.4-5

Volumetric expansion coefficient of fresh water as a function of pressure and

temperature

Figure 2.4-6

Volumetric expansion coefficient of sea water as a function of pressure and

temperature

Figure 2.5-1

Gel cleaning train

Figure 2.5-2

Diagram of a typical launching/receiving trap

Figure 3.2-1

Simplified process and instrument diagram

Figure 3.4-1

Performance of oil pipelines in Western Europe and in the North Sea

Figure 3.4-2

The 'Linalog' inspection tool

Figure 3.4-3

The Linalog record

Figure 3.4-4

Kaliper run record

Figure 3.4-5

Intensive cathodic protection inspection

1 DESIGN
1.1

Hydraulics

1.1.1

Physical Properties

1.1.1.1

Density of Liquids

Figure 1.1-1 shows the approximate relative density of petroleum fractions versus
temperature.

1.1.1.2

Gases, Equation of State

The Equation of State (EOS) is required to describe gas properties in pipelines. For non-ideal
gases, which will generally be encountered by the field engineer, the EOS is given by:
pV = n z RT
where:
p = absolute pressure, Pa
V = volume, m3
z
R
T
n

=
=
=
=

compressibility
gas constant, 8314.3 J/(kmol . K)
temperature, K
number of kmols

The compressibility factor z can be read from Figure 1.1-2 using:

- reduced temperature Tr = T/Tc
- reduced pressure p r = p/pC
Critical temperature Tc and critical pressure pC can be calculated as a weighted average of Tc
and pC of the components of the mixture as outlined in1.1.1.5.

If the composition is unknown, the following empirical relationship can be used:

where:
rel
= relative density (air = 1)
p
= pressure, kPa.
Relative density is defined as follows:

At standard conditions of 15C and 101.325 kPa, Zair = 0.9996 and air =1.2255 kg/m3

For natural gases with various molar mass values M the compressibility factor z can be read
directly from Figures 1.1-3 a, b and c.
The vapour density at specified temperature and pressure is expressed by:

It should be noted that the graphs are reasonably valid for gases containing less than 5 mol %
non-hydrocarbons, e.g. CO2 , H2 S, N2 .

FIGURE 1.1-1 APPROXIMATE RELATIVE DENSITY OF HYDRACARBON FRACTIONS AT

DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

FIGURE 1.1-2 COMPRESSIBILITY FACTORS FOR NATURAL GASES

FIGURE 1.1-3A COMPRESSIBILITY OF LOW MOLAR MASS NATURAL GASES 1

FIGURE 1.1-3B COMPRESSIBILITY OF LOW MOLAR MASS NATURAL GASES 2

FIGURE 1.1-3C COMPRESSIBILITY OF LOW MOLAR MASS NATURAL GASES 3

1.1.1.3

Viscosity of Liquids

The viscosity characterises the fluidity of a liquid.

Most crude oils are Newtonian, where the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear
rate. Figure 1.1-4 shows the basic characteristics of Newtonian and non-Newtonian liquids. An
example of a liquid with Bingham plastic behaviour is a waxy crude oil below its pour point..

Dynamic and kinematic viscosity are distinguished and interrelated as follows:

where:

.
3

dynamic viscosity, Pa.s = 10 cP = 10 mPa.s

6

kinematic viscosity, m2 /s = 10 cSt = 10 mm2 /s

Figure 1.1-5 shows, for illustrative purposes, the kinematic viscosity versus temperature for a
wide range of traditional crude oils listed with their basic properties.

FIGURE 1.1-4 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN

LIQUIDS

FIGURE 1.1-5 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY VS TEMPERATURE, AND OTHER PROPERTIES, FOR A WIDE RANGE OF TRADITIONAL
CRUDE OILS

The pressure dependence of liquid viscosity is given by:

where:
p

= pressure, kPa (gauge)

= viscosity, Pa.s
= viscosity, Pa.s at atmospheric conditions (101.325 kpa)

1.1.1.4 Viscosity of Gases

The viscosity of gases depends on temperature, relative density, and pressure (see
Figure 1.1-6). Natural gases commonly encountered in field practice show Newtonian
behaviour.

1.1.1.5

Compositional Calculations

The properties of a gas mixture can be calculated as the weighted average of the properties of
the individual components of the mixture as shown in Table1.1-1.

Table 1.1-1 Compositional calculations

FIGURE 1.1-6 HYDROCARBON GAS VISCOSITY

The specific heat ratio as a function of gas mixture molar mass is given in Figure 1.1-7.
Note:

Molar specific heat capacity cpm is temperature dependent.

For example: at 0C: cpm = 38.3 kJ/(kmol . K)
at 50C: cpm = 40.8 kJ/(kmol. K)
(cp-temperature tables for the individual components can be found in Ref. 1)

1.1.2

General Energy Equation

The 'energy equation' for one-dimensional steady state flow through a pipeline is expressed by
the law of conservation of energy and for incompressible fluid is given by Bernoulli's Theorem:

where:
h(x)
he
hp

= total energy head at location x

= elevation above datum
= pressure head = p/g

hv

= velocity head = v2 /2g

hf

= friction loss head = f

L v2
d 2g

all expressed in metres of the pipeline fluid, and:

d
p

= internal diameter, m
= pressure, Pa

= density liquid, kg/m3

g
v
f
L

= acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

= velocity, m/s
= friction factor
= length of pipe between x = a and x = b, m

FIGURE 1.1-7 APPROXIMATE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY RATIOS OF

HYDROCARBON GASES

The Bernoulli Theorem is illustrated in Figure 1.1-8.

Usually for liquid lines the velocity head is equal at the beginning and end of a
pipeline and can therefore be omitted in head loss calculations.

FIGURE 1.1-8 BERNOULLI'S THEOREM

In pipeline design, Bernoulli's Theorem is used as shown in Figure 1.1-9. As a function of

head loss gradient (and thus of the internal diameter d and flow rate q) the maximum head
(hmax) at low points in the line can be found and also the minimum head (hmin) available to
pass high points. Also the location of pump stations can be chosen and the Figure shows the
pressure head at the end of the line (hd), which is important at the entry to a tank farm or a
pump station. If too much energy (pressure) is left in the end of the line, pressure reduction
may be required before entering a tank.
If the required pressure drop is very large, a normal control valve may not be suitable, and a
parallel set of low noise control valves or a set of parallel small diameter pipes may solve the
problem.
Note that Figure 1.1-9 can be seen not only as one pipeline with three different flow rates, but
also as three pipelines with different internal diameters but one flow rate.

FIGURE 1.1-9 BERNOULLI'S THEOREM APPLIED TO ONE PIPELINE PROFILE

1.1.3

Fluid Flow through Pipelines

1.1.3.1

Pressure Loss Term

The pressure loss term in the general equation for a pipeline is given by:

where:
p = pressure loss, Pa
f
= friction factor,
L
= length, m
d
= internal diameter, m
V
= average flow velocity, mis

= fluid density, kg/m3

1.1.3.2

Friction Factor

There are two factors in use, generally indicated by:

f
= Moody-Weissbach friction factor, which is the most universally used
fn
= Fanning friction factor The relationship is f = 4 fn
The type of flow is characterised by the dimensionless Reynolds number and
the friction factor is related to it i.e.

The types of flow are:

64
Re
2. Turbulent flow if Re > 3000: f can be calculated with the Colebrook-White equation, which
relates f, Re and roughness of the pipe wall by:

1. Laminar flow if Re < 2000: f =

This equation can only be solved iteratively.

Some values of are:
Clean steel
0.02 mm
Plastic coated
0.01 mm

Rusted steel
Asbestos cement
Concrete
Coflexip

0.1 mm up to 1 mm for badly corroded pipe

0.03 < < 0.1 mm
0.2 < < 1 mm
d/200 mm for flow in optimum direction

3. The remaining area between 2000 <Re <3000 isthecritical zone. In this zone no reliable
relationship exists as the friction factor often depends on the flow history. As an
approximation a linear interpolation can be used between the curves for laminar and
turbulent flow at Re = 2000 and Re = 3000 respectively.
Figure 1.1-10 shows the 'Moody diagram' which can also be used to find the value of the
friction factor.
For liquid turbulent flow a simplified friction factor developed by Shell Oil may be used:
f = 0.0072 + 0.636/Re0.355
7

For gas flow which due to low viscosity virtually always has a very high Re number (> 10 ) the
Colebrook-White equation simplifies to:

1.1.3.3 Pressure Loss in Liquid Lines

Using volume flow as input instead of velocity, the general pressure loss equation transforms
to:

where q = flow rate, m3 /s.

The relation between head loss and volumetric flow rate is illustrated in Figure 1.1-11.

1.1.3.4

Pressure Loss in Valves and Fittings

These losses are determined experimentally and are expressed either by the resistance
co&e&ffi&e&nt which must be added to the loss for the main line (Ref. 2) or as equivalent length of
pipe (Ref. 1), as shown in Table 1.1-2. The additional friction losses are only significant for
short pipelines with many fittings such as pump and production station piping.

FIGURE 1.1-10 MOODY DIAGRAM

Table 1.1-2 Representative equivalent length in pipe diameters (L/d) of various valves and
fittings

1.1.3.5

Pressure Loss in Gas Lines

For level gas lines containing no liquid, the AGA equation can be used to calculate pressure
losses, as follows:

z
p
L
T
q
d
f

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

compressibility factor (see Figures 1.1-3a, b, c)

pressure, MPa
length, m
flowing temperature, K
flow, m3 /s (standard conditions: 15 C, 101.325 kpa)
internal diameter, m
friction factor

Note: When is density of gas at standard conditions (101.325 kPa and 15C):
-10
C = 5.7 x 10 Mpa/K
If is relative density compared to air (at standard conditions)
C = 7.0 x 10

1.1.3.6

-10

MPa.kg/(K.m3 )

Two-Phase Flow in Pipelines

(a)
General aspects
For the field engineer, two-phase flow in pipelines mainly concerns oil and gas or condensate
and gas systems, both often complicated by the presence of water and/or glycol/methanol.
(i)

Important parameters
For evaluating the behaviour of a pipeline operating in two-phase flow a number of
important parameters must be considered, as follows:
- Liquid volume fraction ( l ):the fraction of liquid present locally in the fluid; this is
determined by the thermodynamic equilibrium between the two phases at the local
pressure and temperature.
- Liquid hold-up (Hl): the accumulation of liquid in the pipeline due to the difference in
velocity (slip) between the phases and the influence of gravity (Hl > l ; Hg = 1 Hl).
- Two-phase pressure loss: due to the presence of a second phase, pressure loss
increases compared to single-phase flow.

Superficial velocity (vs ): the velocity which one phase would have if it was flowing
through the total cross-sectional area of the pipe on its own.

Flow regime: the mode of flow in the pipeline which is an indication for the
distribution of the liquids over the cross-sectional area (see Figure 1.1-12 for flow
regimes and Figure 1.1-13 for a flow regime map).

Pipeline profile: representing the angle of inclination in every point of a pipeline; this
profile influences the liquid hold-up, the flow regime and thereby the pressure loss.

(ii)

Slugcatchers
Generally at the end of a two-phase flow gas/condensate pipeline a slugcatcher is
required. This is a large container, generally designed to pipeline pressure, which
has to handle large volumes of volatile liquids emerging from the line as slugs'. The
slugs may be created by changing flow conditions in the line or by a
pigging/sphering operation and will enter the slugcatcher at pipeline velocity (see
2.5, 3.5, 3.6). The slugcatcher should be designed such that if only liquid enters the
slugcatcher the gas supply to the downstream facilities (gas plant, LNG plant, compressor station) is not interrupted.

FIGURE 1.1-12 HORIZONTAL FLOW REGIMES

FIGURE 1.1-13 GENERALISED FLOW REGIME MAP FOR

HORIZONTAL TWO-PHASE FLOW

(b) Calculafion techniques

(i) Empirical method
Two-phase pressure loss and liquid hold-up cannot be reliably calculated with one of the
many empirical correlations available from open literature. These have in general been
derived by curve fitting data obtained from low pressure small scale experiments with
air/water and ignore flow pattern and line profile. Using these correlations the results can
vary from one method to another by a factor of 2-8.

(ii) The 'KSLA design method'

The deficiencies of the published correlations have been overcome by the KSLA design
method which has been largely developed from physical principles and has been verified
by controlled flow tests in existing high pressure gas/condensate trunklines. This method
is too complicated to reduce to a few handy equations or graphs. Its calculated method
has been incorporated in the confidential Shell computer program available from
SIPM.

(iii) Order of magnitude calculation

Should order of magnitude calculations for peak flow conditions, i.e. for initial line sizing,
have to be made without the benefit of the computer program, the 'AGA case II' correlation
for pressure drop and the 'Eaton' correlation for liquid hold-up form the best combination.
This method is not recommended for slugcatcher sizing or for reduced flow conditions,
since the results are often conservative and could lead to oversizing.
'AGA-Case II' correlation for friction loss

FIGURE 1.1-14 NORMALISED FRICTION FACTOR CURVE (see Ref. 3)

A correlation has been developed for a normalised friction factor ftp/f vs. l and is shown in
Figure 1.1-14.
The friction factor f is obtained from:

Note:

The subscript tp denotes the two-phase equivalent for the parameter.

'Eaton' correlation for liquid hold-up

Liquid hold-up is calculated using the following correlation:

where:
vsl = superficial liquid velocity, m/s
vsg = superficial gas velocity, m/s
3
l = density liquid, kg/m
3

= density gas, kg/m

= surface tension liquid, N/m

= viscosity liquid, Pa.s

d
p
pb
g

=
=
=
=

pipe internal diameter, m

actual pressure, kPa
base pressure, = 101.325 kPa
2
acceleration due to gravity, m/s

This correlation is shown in Figure 1.1-15

Default values for surface tension:
Crude-gas: 0.02-0.03 N/m
Condensate-gas: 0.001-0.005 N/m
Recommended sequence for simplified two-phase flow calculations:
1. Calculate liquid hold-up at known pipeline inlet conditions (pressure, liquid/gas densities).
2. Calculate pressure drop with parameters at inlet condition.
3. Determine average pressure (pin + pout)/2.
4. Calculate liquid hold-up at average pipeline pressure (revised liquid/gas densities).

FIGURE 1.1-15 EATON LIQUID HOLD-UP CORRELATION (see Ref. 4)

5. Calculate pressure drop with parameters at average pipeline pressure.

6. Repeat Steps 3, 4 and 5 till no significant difference in pressure drop compared to
previous calculation occurs.
7. Calculate dimensionless numbers X, T, F and K (see Figure 1.1-13) and determine flow
pattern (horizontal pipe line).

1.1.3.7 Pressure Surges

Pressure surges in a pipeline are created by a change in momentum of the moving stream,
e.g. by closing a valve, the origin of the pressure surge being at the point where the
momentum of flow is changed.
Because of the low density of gases compared to liquids, pressure surges are not of concern
in gas lines.
The theoretical maximum pressure surge that can be created in a pipeline would be caused by
an instantaneous total blockage of the flow and would occur at the point of flow retardation,
e.g. the valve.
The maximum surge pressure is the sum of two components:
(a) The instantaneous pressure increase at the moment of total flow blockage
(b) The subsequent gradual pressure rise due to the 'line packing' effect.
(a) The magnitude of the instantaneous surge can be calculated using Joukowsky's equation:

where:
ps = surge pressure, Pa
3

= liquid density, kg/m

c
= speed of sound in liquid, m/s (typically about 1200 m/s in crude)
v = velocity change, m/s
c is calculated from:

where:
K
= liquid bulk modulus, Pa (see Figure 1.1-16)
9
E
= Youngs modulus of steel, 210 x 10 Pa
d
= pipe internal diameter, m
tw
= pipewall thickness, m
3

= liquid density, kg/m

FIGURE 1.1-16 LIQUID BULK MODULUS K OF LIQUID HYDROCARBONS

(b)

The pressure due to line packing at the point of closure will, if no protective
measures are taken, continue to rise until the positive surge travelling upstream has
reached the constant pressure end-point (e.g. a tank) and returned to the valve, i.e.
during the time t = 2L
, where L is the length of the pipeline section in metres.
c
The pressure rise due to the line packing effect can be calculated from
Figure 1.1-17.
FIGURE 1.1-17 PRESSURE SURGE DUE TO LINE PACKING

Small quantities of entrained gas in a liquid will drastically reduce K and consequently c (from
typically 1200 m/s to 100 m/s) thereby reducing the magnitude of the maximum surge
pressure pS .
If a potentially critical surge problem does exist, then a more thorough surge analysis should
be performed by modelling the pipeline using a transient pressure simulation program, e.g.
EPSURGE.

Methods of reducing surge pressures

The primary method of preventing the generation of unacceptably high surge pressures should
be the implementation and strict adherence to well formulated and clearly written operating
procedures. Additional measures which may be employed to reduce surge pressures are as
follows;
1. 'Slow' valve closure
By closing a valve over a sufficiently long period the surge generated may be significantly
reduced. This also allows more time to trip the pumps and hence reduce the maximum
pressure. This can be implemented either by slowing down the valve actuator or by
installing a two speed actuator which reduces the valve closure speed over the (critical)
last 10-20% of the valve's travel.
2. Installing a pressure relief system
If the creation of an unacceptable pressure surge cannot be avoided using option 1, a
pressure relief system can be installed as near to the point of surge origin as practically
possible. The system would vent a quantity of product from the pipeline once a pre-set
pressure limit is exceeded thereby limiting the final surge pressure. This can be
implemented using bursting discs or rapid response relief valves.
3. Initiating a pump trip
If the advent of a potentially dangerous pressure surge is detected early enough, the
tripping of the upstream pumps will generate a negative pressure wave which propagates
from the pumps to the origin of the surge and can counter the positive pressure surge.
The effectiveness of this form of surge protection depends on factors such as the pipeline
length, amount of line packing, etc.
Calculation example
Calculate the total pressure surge created in a 20 km pipeline due to an
instantaneous valve closure, where;
5
Inlet pressure
= 50 x 10 Pa
5
Outlet pressure
= 40 x 10 Pa
3
Liquid density
= 800 kg/m
Speed of sound in liquid
= 1000 m/s
Steady state liquid velocity
= 1 m/s
(a) Instantaneous surge

(b) Duration tLp of line packing after valve closure is:

From Figure 1.1-17 if tr = 2.5, then pr = 2.1. Total surge pressure above steady state
pressure prior to start of valve closure:

1.1.3.8

Waxy Crudes

A waxy crude contains paraffins, which crystallise when the temperature gets too low for them
to stay dissolved. Generally the crystals are of a plate or needle type and will interlock forming
a three-dimensional network trapping the remaining fluid. This wax structure has a certain
mechanical strength, causing problems in pipeline operation. The severity of the problems
depends on:
-

Crude oil
composition, e.g. wax content, distribution
thermal history, e.g. heating/cooling effects
mechanical history, e.g. shearing effects.

Pipeline
dimensions, e.g. diameter, length
operation, e.g. pressure, shut-in time
conditions, e.g. temperature, flow rate.

The problems are:

- wax deposition
gradual loss of capacity
blockage
-

solidification
arrest of flow
restart problems.

A crude oil may exhibit wax deposition when the pipeline operating temperature drops below
the cloud point of the crude oil; solidification problems may arise below the pour point (see
0
Figure 1.1-5). The pour point is generally 10 to 40 C below the cloud point. Contrary to a
physical property such as the melting point of a pure substance, the pour point of a waxy
crude is often strongly dependent on its thermal history.
1. Wax deposition
During flow through a pipeline the crude oil generally cools down, starting near the pipe wall
where the temperature is the lowest. Wax crystals will be formed throughout the oil, but those
in a small layer near the wall may adhere and build up a deposit.
Deposited wax can be removed:
- mechanically, e.g. scrapers, pigging
- thermally, e.g. steam/electrical heating
- by dilution, e.g. (hot) oil flushing
- by chemicals, e.g. surfactants (effect is dubious).
The build-up of wax deposits can be reduced by:
- dilution (results in lower wax content)
- optimal operating conditions, e.g. temperature and turbulence
- additives, e.g. Shellswim.
2. Flow behaviour
At temperatures above the onset of wax crystallisation, the waxy crude will, like many liquids,
have a viscosity independent of flow velocity or more precisely shear rate. This is Newtonian
behaviour. By contrast, a waxy crude will start to exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour at some
temperature below the onset of wax crystallisation. This behaviour is characterised by a shear
rate dependent upon viscosity and also a yield strength at zero velocity, both properties being
strongly dependent on temperature. The increase in a waxy crude's viscosity at lower
temperatures is greater than that which would be expected from a crude with a more
conventional (ASTM) viscosity-temperature relationship.
3. Solidification
If flow is interrupted, the crude cools statically, forming a gel with mechanical strength. When
the available shear force in the pipeline cannot overcome the yield stress, it will be impossible
to restore flow through the line.

where:
A
p
d
L

=yield stress of crude, Pa

= available pumping pressure, Pa
= internal diameter, m
= length, m

Possible solutions are:

- Increase shear force
increase p, e.g. booster pumps
decrease L, e.g. shorter sections
-

Reduce yield stress

dilute with less waxy oil
heating/insulation of pipeline
additives, e.g. Shellswim.

- Core flow (oil flow surrounded by a water annulus)

To obtain reliable procedures for handling and transport of such crude oils detailed laboratory
tests are required.

1.1.3.9

Drag Reduction

When the capacity of a crude pipeline system has to be increased this is generally
accomplished by either installing parallel pipes along those sections which form a bottleneck
and/or more pump power. Sometimes an attractive alternative can be the injection of a friction
reducing additive or 'drag reducer'. This is a high molecular weight polymer with a very long
chain molecule. The effect of a drag reducer is based on the suppression of energy dissipating
eddies which normally develop near the pipewall. Drag reducers therefore function only in fully
developed turbulent flow. The drag reducing effect slowly decreases in the direction of flow
due to a gradual breakdown of the long chain molecule. At booster stations with centrifugal
pumps the dissolved polymer is fully destroyed and for further downstream effect fresh
additive needs to be injected. Positive displacement pumps can be expe9ted to be far less
damaging to the dissolved polymer.
The drag reducer by its nature is an extremely viscous liquid and must be injected
downstream of the main pipeline pumps with a small positive displacement pump. A
pressurised nitrogen blanket is normally applied over the drag reducer supply vessel so as to
achieve the net positive suction head required by the injection pump.
The effectiveness of the drag reducer and the quantities required can be calculated from
known polymer and crude oil data but predictions are at present not always very reliable. A
first indication of quantities required is given below:

4-10 g/m for 5% capacity increase

3
8-25 g/m for 10% capacity increase
3
13-40 g/m for 15% capacity increase
The drag reducer is usually more effective at high flow rates (say over 1.8 m/s) and low
viscosities (less then 10 cSt) and short pipe sections (less than 75 km). The effectiveness will
decrease with increasing water cut since the drag reducer is only soluble in the oil phase.
Drag reducers are ineffective with waxy crudes at temperatures below their pour point.
Shell has built up a considerable knowledge of drag reduction in pipelines and in view
of the above it is recommended that the laboratory be contacted first to carry out preliminary
experiments with a representative crude oil sample followed by a full scale trial, if the first
indications are promising.

1.1.4 Heat Transfer in Pipelines

When liquids have to be transported at relatively high temperatures, e.g. viscous
crudes/products, temperatures and cooling rates can be determined using the following
formulae:
1.1.4.1

where:
Tx
Ts
T0
x
y

where:
cp =
q
=

=
d
=

Cooling Under Flow

= average temperature in cross-section of pipeline at distance x, K

= soil temperature at pipeline depth, K
= temperature in pipeline inlet (x = o), K
= distance, m
= characteristic heat transfer length (is the length over which temperature difference is
reduced by 63%) and given by:

specific heat capacity of line contents, J/(kg K)

3
flow rate, m /s
3
liquid density, kg/m
internal diameter, m

A reasonable approach for the convective heat transfer coefficient is given by:
For turbulent flow:

and for laminar flow:

where:
liq

= liquid thermal conductivity, W/(m.K)

=
=
=
=

average liquid velocity, m/s

liquid kinematic viscosity, m2/s
acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2
thermal expansion coefficient, K-1
(for crude oil 8 x 10-4 K-1)

b = bulk liquid viscosity, Pa.s

w

Tb
Tw

= liquid viscosity at wall temperature, Pa.s

= bulk temperature, K
= wall temperature, K

A general expression for the heat transfer coefficient of a specific layer can be written as:

where:
layer

Dl
dl

= thermal conductivity of the layer (steel wall, coating, insulation) (see Table 1.1-3 for
typical values), W/(m.K)
= outside diameter of layer, m
= inside diameter of layer, m

The heat transfer coefficient to the environment for buried pipelines is given by:

where:
h
= burial depth pipe axis, m
D0
= outer diameter of outermost layer, m
The thermal conductivity of the soil can be found from Figure 1.1-18 which shows
values of vs. moisture content of soil.
Table 1.1-3 Values of thermal conductivity, maximum allowable temperature

FIGURE 1.1-18 EFFECT OF MOISTURE CONTENT ON THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY OF SAND AND CLAY SOILS

1.1.4.2 Stationary Cooling

where:
Ts
= ambient soil temperature at pipeline depth, K
Tt, T0 = oil temperature at time t and 0 respectively, k
t

= dimensionless Fourier number =

cp
d
t

= thermal conductivity of liquid, W/(m.K)

3
= density llquid, kg/m
= specific heat capacity liquid, J/(kg.K)
= internal diameter, m
= time, s
= empirical coefficient (ranges from 6 to 10, depending on heat transfer in the
soil round the pipe, the pipe coating, pour point of the liquid and wax layer
on pipe wall. A higher value of means higher thermal conductivity of these
layers.

cp D2

1.1.4.3 Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of crude oil is dependent on the temperature and can be
approximated using the equation:

where:
cp(T) = specific heat capacity at temperature T, J/(kg.K)
T
= temperature, C
3
(T)
= density at temperature T, kg/m

1.1.4.4 Insulation
In some cases it may be required to insulate pipelines and piping in order to:
-

retain heat, e.g. in heated crude

avoid shrinkage of gas in above-ground lines
protect personnel
keep refrigerated lines cool
prevent condensation (hydrocarbons and water) in gas lines
prevent hydrate formation.

Some generally applied insulation materials are:

- rockwool mats
- polyurethane foam (PUF), closed cell
- syntactic tillers (composite of epoxy and hollow glass microspheres)
- "Plasticell" foam (high density PVC foam).
To protect against water ingress and mechanical damage these materials are usually
provided with an outer jacket and field joints made up of halfshells. It should be
ensured that the line temperature is not too high for the chosen insulation material.
Problems encountered with insulated lines are:
- water ingress causing loss of insulation capacity
- difficulty in leak detection
- corrosion protection needing extra care
- condensation between the cooled pipe and the insulation material in the case of
refrigerant lines.

1.1.4.5 Heating Systems

In some cases it is necessary to operate a heating system on a pipeline, e.g. to
transport viscous crude or products, or waxy crude or low pour point products.
The following systems can be used:
- Steam tracing or electrical tracing. These methods can only be used on very short
lengths, e.g. up to 2-3km, and usually they are confined to plant piping.
- Skin effect current tracing (SECT). This is an electrical system and can be used for
longer lengths. The maximum distance from a power point is approx. 25 km.
- Heaters. These can be used to heat the crude/product at the beginning of the line
and, if necessary, at intermediate points.
For most heating applications there are alternative methods, e.g.:
- Dilution with a less viscous crude, also transportation via the core flow method may
be an alternative.
- A waxy crude can be treated with a pour point reducing additive, e.g. Shellswim.
Diluting with kerosine may also be a viable alternative.

1.1.5 Pump and Compressor Power Requirements

For quick reference in pipeline calculations some formulae are given below. (For more
detailed information, see Volume 9.)
1.1.5.1 Pumps

where:
P
q
p

= power requirement, kW
3
= throughput, m /s
= differential pressure, kPa
= pump efficiency

1.1.5.2 Compressors

P
pd
ps
q
Tin
z
rel

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

power requirement, kW
discharge pressure, kPa
suction pressure, kPa
3
throughput, m (st)/s
input temperature, K
compressibility factor (see Figures 1.1-2 and 1.1-3)
relative density (air = 1)

= compressor efficiency

Outlet temperature:

Note that the maximum allowable outlet temperature per stage is 150 C (423 K).
The following assumptions may be useful for calculations:
- = 0.75 = overall compressor efficiency
- for intercoolers assume 100 kPa pressure loss
- for suction/discharge piping assume 70 kPa pressure loss each.
For turbine driven compressors the power requirement has to be increased to allow for
fouling, wear, elevation and ambient temperature (see Vol. 9).
For calculation of the fuel consumption of a compressor station in a long gas line the
following first approximation can be used:

where:
F
Pturbine
NHV

Psupport

= fuel consumption of the compressor and support functions, m (st)/hr.

= average turbine power requirement, kW.
3
3
= nett heating value of gas, MJ/m (st), e.g. natural gas 41 MJ/ m (st),
depending on composition
3
Groningen gas 35 MJ/m (st) (at 14.5 mol % N2)
= power consumption (kW) of support functions associated with the
compressor station, which includes electricity, lubricating oil system,
cooling, etc. This figure depends strongly on climatic conditions, and on
the extent of gas sourced power used for related activities.

1.2

Materials
(See also 'Corrosion Engineering' in Volume 9.)

1.2.1 Line Pipe

1.2.1.1

Steel Pipelines

(a) Types and Grades of Pipe

Due to the combination of strength, toughness, weldability and price the vast majority
of trunk-lines and flowlines are constructed from carbon-manganese steel pipe
manufactured and tested in accordance with API Spec 5L specifications for line pipe.
For pipelines, only pipe manufactured by the seamless, electric weld, (ERW/ EIW)
longitudinal submerged arc weld (SAW) and spiral SAW routes are considered.
Grades available are: Grade B (240 MPa, 35,000 psi yield strength) and the grades
X42 (290 MPa, 42,000 psi yield strength) through X46, X52, X60, X65 to X70.
Lower grade pipe, up to grade X52, generally obtains adequate strength from
normalised carbon manganese steels. For grades X52 and upwards in-creased
strength requires either additions of other strengthening elements (niobium/vanadium),
special rolling techniques (controlled rolling) or quenching and tempering. Satisfactory
Group experience has been obtained up to grades X70, with the majority of trunk-lines
in X52 and X60 grades.

(b) Pipe Sizes

The international nomenclature - Diameter Nominal - written as D n (50, 80, 100, etc.)
has been used for size of pipe, flange, valve etc. throughout this Handbook; the values
indicate a nominal size in mm; the inch sizes have also been retained and are shown
in brackets.
Full size and thickness ranges can be found in the relevant API specification. The total
ranges quoted are not universally available and pipe manufacturers offer a range of
diameters, wall thickness (WT) and grade combinations dependent on the production
route and specific pipe mill capabilities. Common sizes are shown below:

For the combination of extremes of dia./WT/grade the above manufacturing ranges

will be limited in source.

(c) Selection
With reference to the pipe production routes, traditionally ERW and spiral pipe had a
higher risk of undetected defects being present and they were therefore not used in
critical applications. However improvements have been made by some manufacturers
in the ERW process and it is now more widely used. (The Shell approved pipe is
called HFI welded pipe, from the improved welding process using "high frequency
induction").
In general the use of cold-expanded pipe is recommended. Cold expansion promotes
pipe roundness, it may reveal weld defects and can redistribute residual stresses after
welding in a favourable manner.

(d) Additional Requirements

(i)General
Each pipe manufacturing route has specific features which must be covered with
regard to inspection and testing to ensure a satisfactory product fit for installation and
service.
To this extent SIPM have developed supplementary specification
requirements and conducted mill evaluations to assess the overall quality control and
inspection capabilities of each mill.
Even when using standard API and SIPM specifications it should be recognised that
for certain pipelines additional considerations are essential with respect to:
- corrosion and operating modes
- toughness
- weldability,
etc.

(ii) Internal Corrosion (see also 3.3)

When selecting materials the overall operating mode of the lines should be
considered. In general the application of a corrosion allowance as a sate-guard
against corrosion is not considered to be effective for larger pipelines.
For sour service, NACE MR-01-75 gives limits of sour conditions and materials
suitably resistant to sulphide stress cracking. For pipelines, it is recommended that
resistance to hydrogen induced cracking is also specified.
If it is required to operate the lines wet, and if there is significant CO2 present (which is
often the case), then the overall aggressive nature of the contents can result in
excessive corrosion. In these cases consideration of inhibition, drying, or use of
special stainless steels should be given. The effect of CO2 partial pressure and
temperature on weight loss corrosion of carbon steels is shown in a nomogram in
'Corrosion Engineering' in Vol.9.
For two-phase or multi-phase lines the corrosivity of entrained water, its partition and
the effect of dissolved CO2/H2S will require detailed review and analysis. It is
recommended that the advice of an experienced corrosion engineer is sought when
designing for such lines.
(iii) Toughness
For gas and two-phase gas/condensate lines the pipe material should have sufficient
inherent toughness to resist fracture propagation. Two possible modes of fracture
exist, i.e. brittle (cleavage) and ductile (shear). By specifying a Drop Weight Tear Test
(DWTT) at a temperature lower than the minimum operating temperature (see API
Spec 5L SR6) propagation of brittle fractures can be avoided.
Even with fully ductile material it is possible to have long propagating fractures in high
pressure gas lines. For this to occur, the basic material toughness is only one
parameter, the others being type and pressure of gas, diameter and wall thickness,
backfill conditions, etc.
For conventional steels, it has been shown that by selecting material with a sufficiently
high, fully ductile 'Charpy' energy, arrest of propagation can be achieved. Several
empirical relationships have been derived from full-scale tests with methane to predict
the propagation behaviour.
For rich gas or two-phase lines operating at higher pressures these relationships are
not valid and may be non-conservative. In certain cases it may be impossible to arrest
a fracture by pipeline material selection alone and alternative mechanical crack
arrestors may be required. For offshore lines these have often taken the form of
modified buckle arrestors which have been used throughout the length of the line.

For vent or flare lines the minimum temperature during venting must first be
established. Such lines normally operate under low pressure conditions (typically < 2
or 3 bar); consequently insufficient stored energy is available for propagating
fractures. It is however, necessary that the pipe body, seam weld, and girth welds
possess a minimum 'Charpy' thoughness to avoid initiation of brittle fracture at the low
temperatures under external contraction stresses.

(iv) Weldability
Section 2.3 covers field welding of pipelines. A measure of weldability can be
expressed by the carbon equivalent (C.E.) formula:

(All elements in formula as % weight.)

Materials with C.E.'s below 0.45 can be readily welded with limited heat treatment
requirements. For low heat-input welding, e.g. mechanised CO2 welding, some
difficulties can be experienced in achieving hardness requirements for sour service
(RC22 or HV248). Where it is compatible with strength requirements, then by selecting
progressively lower C.E. steels, excessive heat treatment requirements may be
minimised.

1.2.1.2

Non-Metallic Materials

For certain projects, conditions may allow selection of alternative pipeline systems
such as:
- glass fibre reinforced epoxy (GRE)
- internally coated pipe
- internal lining (PE/cement)
These all have limitations on type of fluid, pressure, temperature, etc. The relevant
standards should be consulted for design and installation aspects (see 4 Pipeline
Standards).
1.2.1.3

Quality Control

Attention should be paid to quality control aspects during the entire materials
procurement phase. In the various codes and standards, requirements are given for
chemical analysis, destructive and non-destructive testing, pressure testing,
dimensional checks, etc.

Apart from witnessing such tests at appropriate moments due care should be given to
a proper system for recording and documentation. In addition to specifying the quality
measurements required the supplier should be required to operate a quality assurance
system (see Volume 1) to provide the internal control needed to achieve quality
consistently.

1.2.2 Pipeline Components

1.2.2.1 Valves
(a) General
A great variety of valve types is commercially available. For reasons of economy,
interchangeability and minimum stock, the utilisation of different types of valves shall
be kept to a minimum and, if possible, to standard types only.
To define the actual purpose of a valve, the following descriptions shall be adhered to:
Block valves
Open or closed; e.g. to stop the flow, with minimum restrictions and pressure loss
when open;
e.g. - Ball valves
- Gate valves
Throttling valves
Throttling service; e.g. regulation of the fluid, continuous or in various steps between
closed and open limits of the valve;
e.g. - Globe valves
- Needle valves
Check valves
Back flow prevention; e.g. reverse flow must be stopped if the upstream pressure
drops below static head or back pressure.
Relief valves
Overpressure control; e.g. to safeguard a system against excess pressure e.g. Safety relief valves.
(b) Standards
Important valve Standards and Codes:
API Spec 6D Pipeline valves, etc.

BS 1414
BS 5351
BS 5352
ANSI B 16.34

Steel wedge gate valves

Steel ball valves
1
Steel wedge gate, globe and check valves Dn 50 ) and smaller
Valves. Flanged and buttwelded ends.

(c) Selection of Valves

Valve selection is of major importance, both from necessity to obtain trouble-free
operation of the pipeline system and from the point of view of the overall economics
involved. An incorrect choice can cause serious trouble; sometimes involving major
changeover from initial selection. For a proper selection of type and design of valve
the guidelines mentioned in Table 1.2-1 may be used. The valves to API Spec 6D
follow the pressure/temperature rating to ANSI B 16.5 and ANSI B 16.34 up to a
0
maximum temperature of 120 C (see Figure 1.2-1). The pressure/temperature seat
ratings for ball valves to BS 5351 are shown in Figure 1.2-2.
Note: Submarine Valves
Many problems have been experienced with the applications of valves subsea. As a
result submarine valves and actuators are the subject fit an extensive evaluation
programme.
At present the best solution would appear to avoid their use under water wherever
possible. If this cannot be done it is recommended that advice be obtained from
Central Offices on the selection of suitable valves.

(d) Selection of Valve Construction Materials

For the pressure containing parts, only forged or cast steel is allowed. The selection of
materials for internal components of valves is sensitive to the type of service. The
advice of an experienced corrosion engineer should be sought.

(e) Valve Dimensions and Weights

The dimensions and weights in Tables 1.2.-2 to 7 have been compiled to enable the
determination of the space required for installing valves, as well as to help select the
means of transporting them to the site.
The dimensions shown in the Tables are the largest found in a number of
representative manufacturers' catalogues, except for the face-to-face dimensions 'A'
which are based on the applicable code as mentioned in the relevant tables. The
weights are based on an average of those given in the catalogues.
1

) See 1.2.1.1 b

Table 1.2-1 Selection and typical valve application criteria

FIGURE 1.2-1 PRESSURE/TEMPERATURE RATING TO

ANSI B 16.5/ANSI B 16.34

FIGURE 1.2-2 PRESSURE/TEMPERATURE SEAT RATING FOR BALL VALVES

DESIGNED TO BS 5351

Table 1.2-2 Main dimensions and approximate mass of flanged ball valves reduced bore to API specification 6d

Table 1.2-3 Main dimensions and approximate mass of flanged ball valves full bore to API specification 6d

Table 1.2-4 Main dimensions and approximate mass of flanged gate valves to API specification 6d

Table 1.2-5 Main dimensions and approximate mass of full bore flanged ball valves to
BS 5351

Table 1.2-6 Main dimensions and approximate mass of reduced bore flanged ball
valves to BS 5351

Table 1.2-7 Main dimensions and approximate mass of flanged globe valves to BS 1873

1.2.2.2 Flanges
All flanges up to and inclusive D n 600 (24 in.) used in pipelines shall be according to
ANSI 16.5 (latest issue).
For sizes above Dn 600 (24 in.) the flanges shall be in accordance with MSS-SP-44
(MSS - Manufacturers Standardisation Society-USA, latest issue).
The pressure/temperature limitations of the flanges including the larger sizes
according to MSS-SP-44 shall be according to ANSI B 16.5. For graphic
representation of the flange ratings see Figure 1.2-1.
The flanges shall be provided either with a raised face or with a ring joint face.
Raised face flanges shall have a contact surface, suitable for the type of gasket to be
used, i.e.:
- For CAF (compressed asbestos fibre) gaskets;
'Serrated spiral finish', i.e. surface roughness of approximately RA 12.5 (m).
- For spiral wound gaskets:
'Smooth finish', i.e. surface roughness between RA 3.2 and RA 6.3 to ANSI B 46.1.
- Ring joint flanges shall be provided with a groove type and surface finish as
specified in ANSI B 16.5.

1.2.2.3 Fittings (Tees, Elbows, Reducers, etc.)

Fittings, used in pipelines shall be fully in accordance with the requirements as laid
down in ANSI B 16.9 and MSS SP-75. Mitered bends shall not be used.
For product pipeline systems the use of buttwelded components from forged or cast
steel is recommended. Threaded or socket welded connections are in general not
suitable.

1.2.2.4 Pressure Drop in Pipeline Components

Pressure drop due to pipeline components, e.g. valves and fittings, shall be expressed
as equivalent length and added to the straight pipeline. (For values of equivalent
length of valves and fittings see 1.1.3.4.)

1.3

Corrosion Protection

This Section gives a brief overview of external corrosion protection(see Volume 9 for
more detailed information). Internal corrosion aspects are covered in Section 3.3.

1.3.1 External Coatings: General

The most effective method of mitigating corrosion of the external surface of a buried or
submerged pipeline is by the dual system of a coating, supplemented by a cathodic
protection system which covers any damaged or deteriorated area of the coating.
Coating technology is rapidly developing and many protective coatings are now
available for pipeline use. For each specific pipeline system the selection is based on
the specific corrosion problems to be encountered, and upon economics.
The performance of any particular coating system is directly related to the conditions
encountered during the transport and storage of the pipes, their installation and the
operational life of the pipeline system, e.g. type of transport (rail, barge, etc.), duration
and conditions of storage, pipeline terrain, operational temperatures, backfill and soil
conditions. Therefore, before any pipeline coating selection is initiated it is imperative
that the environmental and construction conditions of the pipeline are well understood.
A coating system, with known and identified characteristics can then be matched to
the need of a specific project.
The main factors influencing the final coating performance are: adhesion, cohesion,
flexibility, electrical resistance, moisture absorption, impact resistance, cold flow
resistance, cathodic disbonding resistance, chemical and physical stability, ease of
application and weathering resistance.
Before applying a protective coating it is essential to ensure that the surface of the
pipe is free from rust, millscale, moisture, grease, loose dust or any other incompatible
material. The most efficient method for producing a perfectly clean surface is blastcleaning preferably executed in a plant or coating yard. Hand cleaning (wire brushing,
needle guns, etc.) is labour intensive and is therefore almost exclusively used for
small areas or where access is difficult, including repair of damaged coatings. For all
methods of surface preparation, priming and coating should be carried out at the
earliest opportunity to avoid contamination and/or re-rusting.

Some pipeline coatings require special application equipment, thereby limiting the
coating to a plant or coating yard.
Flexible coating materials can also be applied at the job site to the welded-up pipeline
just before it is lowered into the ditch, the so-called over-the-ditch application.
Although this method has been applied extensively, its use is no longer favoured due
to limitations of pipe cleaning and quality control. The selection and purchase of yard
applied coatings is therefore highly advisable.

1.3.2 Coating Materials

The most important coatings which are available for the external protection of oil and
gas transmission pipeline systems are:
-

Hot applied asphalt or coaltar enamels

Polyethylene coatings (PE)
Fusion bonded epoxy coatings (FBE)
Plastic tape wrappings
Asphalt mastic coatings
Cold applied epoxy coaltar coatings.

All the above systems are well known and have been used for many years, while
some coatings (PE and FBE) are being developed further today to make full use of
new formulae and application methods, in order to improve protection performance
and to reduce costs.
There are temperature limits for application of each of these coating systems which
need to be taken into account in the choice of coating.

1.3.3 Coating Inspection by Electrical Means

Pipeline protective coatings should be thoroughly inspected for 'holidays' (holes) both
after the coating is applied and before the pipes are finally buried, or before weight
coating is applied for offshore installation.
Visual inspection will detect major coating damage areas but minor coating flaws
require electrical inspection for complete holiday detection. Electrical inspection entails
applying an electrical voltage across the coating with a so-called 'holiday-detector'
whereby arcs to the pipe will occur at coating flaws. Required voltage for adequate
holiday detection varies with coating thickness and type of coating material.

1.3.4 Field Joint Coatings

With yard applied coatings, the coating of the field joints where the pipes have been
welded into a pipeline should be carefully selected, and applied with sufficient overlap
to ensure that the whole length of the pipeline is correctly protected.
For the protection of joints, a variety of suitable coverings are available. The most
commonly used systems are:
-

polyethylene shrink sleeves

epoxy field joint coatings (for FBE coated pipes)
fused polyethylene powder (for PE coated pipes)
cold applied tapes.

It is recommended practice to develop application procedures, which should contain

acceptance criteria, and to use specially trained crews for installation for each specific
job requirement.
The preferred method for the protection of the weld joints of submarine pipes,
protected with an asphaltic bitumen coating and provided with a concrete weight
coating, is the application of a self-adhesive cold applied tape wrap around the weld
joint followed by pouring hot asphalt mastic into a metal mould fitted around the weld
area.
When the mastic is applied the pouring procedure and temperature must be carefully
selected such that occurrence of holes or porosity is avoided.
The tape or wrap must be resistant to the temperatures that sometimes occur during
the application of the mastic. As an alternative to mastic, PUF may be applied in
combination with a cold tape or shrink sleeve wrapping.

1.3.5 Storage of Coated Line Pipe

Line pipe should be stored free from the ground. Stacked pipes should be protected
from ground surfaces and against movements by using suitable soft non-metallic
materials. If pipe is stacked on sand dykes (stone-free), then strong plastic sheeting
should be used to cover the sand dykes completely. All bearing surfaces should be
carefully levelled to provide a uniform load distribution.
To prevent flattening or damage to the coating the stacking height must be limited.
The maximum stacking height must in principle be advised by the manufacturer.

If this information is not available Table 1.3-1 gives an indication of the maximum
stacking height.
Table 1.3-1 Maximum stacking heights for coated pipe

Because of the variations in concrete coatings, no generally applicable maximum

stacking height for this type of coating can be advised.

1.3.6 Cathodic Protection

1.3.6.1 General
Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction of a metal or alloy with its environment that
results in degradation of the metal or alloy. Some parts of the metal(s) tend to become
positively charged (anodic) and other parts negatively charged (cathodic). At the
anodic areas the metal normally dissolves and corrosion occurs. This can be
eliminated by bringing anodic and cathodic areas artificially to approximately the same
potential. This technique is called cathodic protection (CP).
In general a CP system consists of an anode through which, or by which, positive
electric current is passed via the electrolyte, e.g. water, to the cathode (pipe to be
protected).
There are basically two different methods of cathodic protection:
(a) Sacrificial anode system
(b) Impressed current system

1.3.6.2 Sacrificial Anode System

The anode (Figure 1.3-1) must be a less noble metal than the structure to be
protected, capable of dissolving slowly and supplying the current for the structure to
be protected. The major advantage of this system is that the current control is fully
automatic.
FIGURE 1.3-1 TYPICAL SACRIFICIAL ANODE SYSTEM

1.3.6.3 Impressed Current System

In an impressed current system (Figure 1.3-2) there is an external direct current
source (usually a transformer/rectifier unit fed from an AC supply main).
FIGURE 1.3-2 TYPICAL IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEM

It no AC current is available the power required may also be obtained from diesel,
thermal or solar generators.
The direct current is discharged by 'inert' anodes. Typical anode materials (and their
applications) are platinised titanium/niobium (sea water); graphite, silicon/iron,
magnetite (soil or water); lead/silver (water).
Operation of an impressed current system requires specialised supervision. Particular
care should be taken to ensure correct connection of cables to pipeline and anodes as
reversal of the connecting cables can result in accelerated corrosion of the pipeline.
This has occurred in the past when insufficient attention was given to proper
connection of the cables.

1.3.6.4

Buried Onshore Pipelines

Whenever pipelines are to be buried, cathodic protection should be considered as an

anti-corrosion measure supplementary to the provision of a protective coating. The
prerequisite for successful cathodic protection is a continuous electrolyte between the
current source and the area to be protected. In areas with a low or varying water table,
such as may be the case where the climate causes infrequent but heavy rainfall, the
effectiveness of cathodic protection may be reduced. in such cases frequent
inspection/monitoring is essential.
The corrosion history of other pipelines or steel structures in the neighbourhood will
often indicate the degree of corrosion to be expected, but a soil survey may be
necessary to provide sufficient data for a rational installation design.
The cathodic protection scheme should be conceived at the pipeline design stage, and
should not beadded as an afterthought when the pipeline has been completed. The
system should be capable of operation immediately following construction of the
pipeline.

1.3.6.5

Offshore Pipelines

The low and uniform resistivity of sea water simplifies design of protection systems for
submarine pipelines.
Sacrificial anodes placed in the form of bracelets around the pipe are the preferred
method. The use of impressed-current systems on offshore pipelines is not usually
employed.

For protection of submarine pipelines by sacrificial anodes the latter are normally
applied as 'bracelets' at intervals along a new line. Zinc is the standard bracelet anode
material.
Regular inspection is hampered by the difficulty in contacting the pipe metal
underwater. Despite a number of surveying techniques being available there is no one
technique which is completely satisfactory as each has its inherent disadvantages.
The preferred method is diver or ROV assisted direct potential reading by the trailing
wire method. (Also refer NACE RP-06-75, Control of Corrosion on Offshore Steel
Pipelines.)

1.3.7 Internal Coatings and Liners

Internal coating of pipelines can provide a physical barrier between the steel and the
product being transported and this has been used as an internal corrosion prevention
measure against corrosive products. The internal coating of gas and oil transmission
pipelines as an internal corrosion prevention measure has only been used
infrequently, because of the risk of flaking off during depressurisation. Moreover other
corrosion mitigation measures are available which in most cases eliminate or reduce
to acceptable levels the risk of internal corrosion such as: dehydration of the gas, the
removal of liquid or solid contaminants by pigging, and the use of inhibitors. Nevertheless, internal coating may be considered where it is not feasible or economical to
employ other corrosion control measures, such as in small diameter gathering lines or
lines where corrosion cannot be adequately controlled with scraping, inhibitors, etc.
Long distance natural gas transmission lines are often provided with an epoxy paint
layer to reduce friction and/or to improve pipe internal cleanliness. Epoxy-coated pipe
is sometimes also used in finished oil product lines to improve flow characteristics and
maintain product quality or cleanliness.
Internal coating with epoxies can be accomplished joint by joint at a coating plant or by
coating entire line segments insitu. Plant application has the disadvantage that
uncoated pipe remains at circumferential field-welded joints necessitating special
techniques/procedures to cover the internal uncoated cutback areas to maintain
internal coating integrity. This is only necessary if the coating is required for internal
corrosion prevention. If the internal coating is required only to reduce friction and or
improve pipe cleanliness, coating of the internal field joint area is not necessary.

In-situ coating is accomplished by passing a paint slug, contained between two pigs,
through the clean and dry pipe segment. The internal pipe surface is cleaned and
etched with a suitable acid solution, rinsed and then dried. This procedure enables
coating of the entire internal pipe surface. Although internal inspection of the pipeline
is virtually impossible over its entire internal surface, camera pigs have been
developed to allow the assessment of internal pipeline surface condition by means of
video or photographs. Experience with such tools is so far limited.
An alternative internal corrosion protection. method is the insertion of a Poly-Ethylene
(PE) inner pipe (liner) into the carbon steel outer pipe. The PE-liner system is
considered to be proven technology for the onshore transportation of corrosive water.
For hydrocarbon service (oil and gas) the system is very encouraging, but still involves
some risks concerning liner collapse. The application is limited by certain chemicals,
such as aromatics. The system can be designed to operate at high pressures (> 35
MPa), but the temperatures have to be limited to 65 degrees C. For more information
refer to status report EP-89-1260.

1.4 Pipe Stability

1.4.1

Introduction

A pipeline resting on the sea bed is subjected to forces resulting from steady currents
and waves. To ensure that these forces do not cause the line to be displaced, a
concrete weight coating usually has to be applied (see Figure1.4-1).
FIGURE 1.4-1 CROSS-SECTION ON PIPE ON SEA BED

The minimum coating thickness can be determined from the minimum required
submerged weight calculated as shown below. For gas-filled pipe it can also be
determined as a function of pipe diameter from the graphs shown in Figure 1.4-2.
Having determined the ratio concrete thickness/pipe diameter, the graphs in Figure
1.4-3 enable the submerged weight per metre coated pipe to be estimated.

1.4.2 Calculation of the Required Submerged Weight

The symbols used in the calculations described in 1.4.2 to 1.4.4 are defined in1.4.5.

1.4.2.1 Active and Reactive Forces Working on Pipe

1.4.2.2 Wave Induced and Steady Current Velocity

The water velocity, as used here, represents the horizontal velocity component
perpendicular to the pipeline caused by steady current, waves or both combined.
The wave induced velocity is defined by:

For bottom stability purposes the significant wave height, e.g. of the once per hundred
year storm, is used to determine the maximum of the wave induced velocity at pipe
level which the pipeline has to survive. This maximum is given by:

(see also Figure 1.4-4)

The steady current effect at pipe level is given by:

This formula assumes a velocity profile with fully developed velocity vent at 1.5 m from
the bottom. The total velocity at pipe level is:

To determine the wavelength as a function of the waveperiod, formula (4) or

Figure 1.4-4 can be used.

1.4.2.3 Equilibrium Equation

If the pipe is in equilibrium:

The maximum of equation (7) gives the minimum required submerged weight for
lateral stability of the pipeline.
When the pipeline is laid on a slope with angle (), this maximum has to be increased
to:

1.4.3 Recommendations on Velocities and Coefficients

1.4.3.1 Velocities
Gas-filled pipe:
The steady current velocity should be the maximum expected in 100 years ( v st ). The
wave induced velocity amplitude should be derived from the significant wave height of
the once per 100 year storm ( v wi ).
Oil-filled pipe:
During laying period: For the air-filled line on the bottom the steady current velocity
should be the maximum expected in 1 year ( v st ), the wave induced velocity should be
derived from the maximum significant wave height in the heaviest storm expected to
occur in one year ( v wi ).

For the period of operation: The steady current velocity and the wave induced velocity
should be derived as for gas-filled pipe, but in calculating the required concrete
thickness the weight of the line-fill should be taken into account.

1.4.3.2

Coefficients

Table 1.4-1 gives the coefficients recommended for use in the formulae of 1.4.2.
Table 1.4-1 Recommended values for pipe stability calculations

1)These values for CD and CL are in principle only valid for diameters below Dn 300(12
in.) or for velocities above 2 m/s. For larger diameters or lower velocities CD and CL
vary with the Keulegan-Carpenter number (KC = vtot T/D0) and may be considerably
higher. In that case the advice of specialists is required, although the above values
can give a sensitivity check for calculation purposes.
2)The recommended value for the friction is for general use. In specific cases it may
be required to determine the friction of the soil by friction tests, e.g. for liquefied clay
soils (f) may be considerably lower.

1.4.4 Required Concrete Thickness

The required thickness of the concrete coating can also be determined from
Figure 1.4-2, which is valid for the following conditions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Pipeline is laid on a horizontal bottom

Pipeline is only filled with gas
Pipeline is continuously supported on the bottom
Friction factor against lateral sliding (f) is 1.0
The forces induced by the current are evaluated following Morison's equation
using for the different cases the coefficients from Table 1.4-1 and a waveperiod
(T) of 10 s.

FIGURE 1.4-2 REQUIRED CONCRETE THICKNESS FOR STABILISING GASFILLED SUBMARINE PIPELINES

Continued next page

FIGURE 1.4-3 SUBMERGED DENSITY OF CONCRETE COATED PIPE AND CORRECTION FOR ASPHALT COAT
(continued next page)

FIGURE 1.4-4 RELATION WAVEPERIOD-WAVELENGTH

6. For the evaluation of the concrete thickness no allowance for corrosion

coating has been made. If coating is required see Figure 1.4-3.
3
7. Density of steel
= 7850 kg/m
3
Density of sea water
= 1030 kg/m
Water absorption of concrete
= 3% of concrete mass
Mass of steel reinforcement
= 5%

1.4.5

Remarks and List of Symbols

(a) In addition to the horizontal stability the vertical stability of the pipeline must also
be considered.
Some silty soils may have a tendency to liquefy causing the pipeline to sink or
float depending on the density of pipe and liquefied soil.
(b) If for technical or economic reasons the weight coating cannot be made
sufficiently thick or heavy to stabilise the pipeline against the ocean forces,
burying the line in a trench or anchoring (e.g. concrete saddles) should be
considered.
The symbols used in the above calculations (1.4.1 to 1.4.4) are as follows:

1.4.6 Application of Concrete Weight Coatings

1.4.6.1 General
Concrete weight coatings are normally applied to offshore pipelines, river crossings
and marsh lines to maintain the lateral and vertical stability of the pipeline. The
amount of concrete is determined by the calculated required submerged weight of the
pipeline, also called negative buoyancy.
Most frequently the concrete is applied by the impingement method over an anticorrosion coating of asphalt or coaltar enamel. This design has demonstrated good
short-term and long-term characteristics. Combined with properly selected tensioners
on a laybarge this design has also been successfully installed offshore in many areas.
Application methods for concrete coatings other than by impingement are being
developed to resolve problems resulting from weight coating application over FBE
anti-corrosion coating. Current experience with these applications is limited.

1.4.6.2

General Impingement Concrete Coating

The horizontal or vertical impingement process is generally used for concrete weight
coating of pipelines.
The concrete has a low water-cement ratio (typically 0.3 by weight) and well
proportioned aggregates (see Figure 1.4-5).
It is recommended that concrete pressure strength is determined from cores or cubes
taken at random from the coated pipes. If cube strength is used as the acceptance
criterion, then regular checks shall be made of the cube/core strength ratio. A typical
cube/core relationship is illustrated in Figure 1.4-6 for vertically impinged heavy duty
concrete.

FIGURE 1.4-5 TYPICAL PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

FIGURE 1.4-6 TYPICAL CUBE/CORE RELATIONSHIP

The concrete coring process proposed by the contractor should be tested before
production starts. It should not permit moisture loss for a period of seven days unless
it can be demonstrated that there is no effect on the concrete quality.
Good quality control is required to ensure consistent product quality. A well controlled
coating plant will supply pipe with a calculated submerged weight not exceeding
10% of any joint and 2% on any day's operation. Water absorption of the concrete
should be checked at least weekly.
It is important that there is no metallic contact between the reinforcement and the pipe
wall, since this would lead to cathodic protection problems.
Normal duty concrete
The recommended minimum concrete core strength at 28 days is 25 MPa(3,500 psi).
The reinforcement may consist of one or more layers of wire mesh.
Heavy duty concrete
The recommended minimum concrete strength at 28 days is 35 MPa (5,000 psi). A
reinforcement of wire mesh or rebar is recommended with a total reinforcement crosssectional area of 0.5% of the total area.
Should the pipeline be subjected to severe bending during installation, e.g. by
laybarge, the increased stiffness of the pipeline may require a special design of the
reinforcement and slotting of the concrete to maintain a controlled stress distribution in
the steel.

1.4.6.3 Concrete Poured On Site

River crossings and short loading lines have been installed with concrete poured on
site. Because of the generally lower density of the concrete the cost of formwork and
the time required on site for preparation and curing this method is generally not
competitive with an impingement coating plant.
The recommended minimum concrete core strength at 28 days is 25 MPa.
Reinforcement should preferably be steel although also non-conventional materials
such as polypropylene rope have been used successfully.

1.4.6.4 Special Coatings

Development continues of new concrete coatings which can be applied by methods
other than impingement or pouring. Technically some processes are showing
potential, e.g. compression coating. Commercially they are as yet unproven. Technical
advice should be sought for these coatings.

1.5
1.5.1

Stresses and Loads

Codes

Generally, allowable stress levels are governed by local or national Codes of safe
practice for pipelines. When no such regulations exist it is recommended that ANSI
Codes B31.4 (Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Systems) and B31 .8 (Gas
Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems) are followed. An interpretation of the
stress levels in the pipeline allowed by these Codes is shown in Table 1.5-1.
Distinction is made between buried and above-ground lines mainly in recognition of
different reactions to weight, pressure (internal and external), thermal and pressure
expansion and/or external forces such as wind, current etc. To judge situations not
specified in the Codes it is recommended that the equivalent stress in accordance with
the von Mises criterion should be used:

For the symbols used see Table 1.5-1. Codes often consider different load conditions
separately. In some cases this results in the Code allowing stress conditions which
when combined in accordance with the von Mises criterion will exceed 1.0 Sy
As an example B31.4 allows a longitudinal (bending) stress SI < 0.75 x 0.72 Sy
(unrestrained lines) and a hoop stress Sc < 0.72 Sy Ignoring shear stresses von
Mises concludes that the equivalent tensile stress Seq = 1.095 Sy This example
illustrates that BS1.4 can be interpreted unconservatively
For compressor station piping BS1.8 recommends type C construction (a usage factor
= 0.5) but for pump stations B31.4 makes no special provisions except those for
unrestrained lines.
The Code for pressure piping in chemical plants and petroleum refining installations,
ANSI B31.3, is usually much more conservative in allowable stress levels than B31.4
and B31.8. One of the main reasons is that B31.3 is usually applied to relatively small
diameter piping, covering both steel and other material in unburied condition, with
hazard conditions typical for fired petroleum plants.
In offshore applications, risers to production platforms often require special analysis of
stress conditions due to functional loads (pressure, weight, expansion, prestressing)
and to additional environmental loads (wind, waves current, accidental loads).

The DnV 'Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems' (1981) specify for risers and pipelines on or
within 500 m from platforms a usage factor , which reduces the allowable stress level to:

= 0.5 for functional loads

= 0.67 for functional + environmental loads.

By comparison the DnV usage factor for pipelines located more than 500 m away from a
platform is:

= 0.72 for functional loads

= 0.96 for functional + environmental loads.

Fatigue is not normally a significant load condition for pipelines, the main exception being
offshore lines, where laying, wave actions on suspended spans etc. require design based on
detailed analysis of all relevant factors. The fatigue life can be assessed using appropriate S-N
(stress range versus number of cycles) curves and Miner's 'cumulative damage rule'. Finally it
should be noted that the use of the codes should be in agreement with sound design practice.

Note: Care should be taken to avoid anomalies at specification breaks. For example the
internal diameters of pipes to B31.3 (Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping) and to
B31.8 will be different for the same service. Consistent internal diameters are needed if
internal inspection tools are to be passed through the pipeline.

Table 1.5-1 Stress levels allowed by ANSI B31.4 and B31.8 (continued next page)

1.5.2

Collapse/Buckling in Offshore Pipelines

1.5.2.1 Collapse of Round Straight Pipe

and collapse occurs if the overpressure p approaches pc. The relation between pc and D/t is
shown in Figure 1.5-1.

FIGURE 1.5-1 COLLAPSE PRESSURE pc AS A FUNCTION OF D/t AND STEEL GRADE

1.5.2.2

Collapse of Initially Oval Pipe

Ovality reduces the collapse pressure ( p * ) of the pipe to a level defined by:

where:

and the out-of-roundness function

Table 1.5-2 gives values of g(r, d) for various steel grades,

ovalities.

D
t

ratio and common ranges of

Table 1.5-2 Out-of-roundness function g(r, d)

1.5.2.3 Collapse Pressure and Axial Load

Axial forces will affect collapse resistance. For pipe under external (over) pressure (p) and
tension (+T) or compression (-T) the following expression can be derived:

The formula is based on the assessment of the equivalent stress of combined longitudinal and
hoop stress in accordance with the von Mises criterion, in which the shear stress is assumed
small enough to be neglected.
The factor 1.15 = 2/3 3 stems from the influence of external pressure (over-pressure) on
longitudinal stress. The formula tends to indicate that:

1.5.2.4 Bending - Buckling of Straight Initially Round Pipe

For undamaged line pipe, critical bending strain o reached when the bending parameter:

has reached a maximum value:

where:
D
= outer pipe diameter
t
= wall thickness
o
= minimum bending radius
and
o
= minimum bending strain.

where:
K

= 1 for minimum performance properties

= 1.5 for average bending resistance with high strain hardening.

The first criterion is normally used and implies:
K

and the second:

Ovality will be affected by bending and by external overpressure (p), such that:

The maximum bending moment just before buckling, M * , is affected by tensile (or
compressive) forces in the pipe:

where M is the maximum allowed moment without tension

M

To convert the

relation into terms of strain (as required for the bending + buckling

criterion) it is necessary to use moment-strain curves (see Figures 1.5-2 and 3) and to observe
that o now effectively has been reduced in accordance with a decrease of:

This combination of critical bending moment and tension may occur on the stinger.

FIGURE 1.5-2 MOMENT VS CURVATURE AS A FUNCTION OF D/t RATIO FOR API 5LX-42 PIPE

FIGURE 1.5-3 MOMENT VS CURVATURE AS A FUNCTION OF D/t RATIO FOR API 5LX-60 PIPE

1.5.2.5 CollapselBuckling by External Pressure, Bending and Tension

The criterion to be used is that for collapse/buckling, i.e. a combination of the criteria for
collapse and bending/buckling:

Correction for pc and o are to be applied for the tension load T. The influence of tension on pc
can be ignored (see 1.5.2.3) if:

The influence of T on o is calculated via:

The value of the out-of-roundness function g(r, d) can be obtained from Table1.5-2 by
interpolation or by calculation via the formula presented in 1.5.2.2.

1.5.2.6 Buckle Propagation

Tests have shown that pipe with a collapsed end or otherwise locally severely flattened pipe
will collapse progressively along its length if subjected to external pressure beyond a critical
value pp, called the propagating pressure.
The most simple approach is to use Batelle's formula:

to decide beyond which water depth, corresponding with pp buckle arrestors should be
installed around the pipe to avoid collapse propagation following buckling, e.g. whilst laying or
as a result of severe damage by anchors.

1.5.3 Pipe Loads in Conventional Laybarge Laying

The equations governing the static 2D suspended pipe span situation are indicated in
Figure 1.5-4. By suitable elimination these equations can be reduced to:

Even without allowing for wave and current forces (U = 0), the second equation can only be
solved by numerical methods and one of the ways to obtain indications of the top and bottom
conditions of the span is to use dimensionless curves, e.g. Figure 1.5-5, which allows
deduction of mininum sag bend radius (maximum bending strain) depending on water depth
and bottom tension T0. Each parameter is made dimensionless through the submerged
weight w (N/m) and the characteristic length Lc = EI

1
3

in which El signifies the bending

stiffness of the pipe (product of elasticity modulus E and moment of inertia I). The pipe top end
is at the inflection point L = Li; slightly below stinger touch-down point L = Li (see Figure 1.5-6).
In this approach T0 may be approximated by taking T0 =

wD
2 *

where * is equal to the

maximum allowable strain in sag bend conditions, following from:

This is a conservative approach towards T0 because it ensures that T0 is too high to allow
buckling at L = L *
As a next step the tension at the top is given by T1 T0 + w.Y Total sag bend length is
approximately equal to:

The pipe top angle can be determined from the dimensionless curves in Figure 1.5-7.
If more precise methods are required, e.g. because of the presence of considerable current
and inertia forces, then special computer programs should be used of which several versions
are available.

FIGURE 1.5-4 NOTATIONS FOR ANALYSING A 2-D SUSPENDED PIPE SCAN

FIGURE 1.5-5 SAG-BEND MINIMUM RADIUS VS HEGHT AT THE INFLECTION POINT To

IS THE BOTTOM TENSION

FIGURE 1.5-6 BENDING STRAIN VS DEVELOPED LENGTH OF PIPE SPAN

Cri

FIGURE 1.5-7 ANGLE OF PIPE AXIS VS HEIGHT AT THE INFLECTION POINT. To IS THE BOTTOM TENSION

1.5.4 Suspended Spans of Pipe Laying on Bottom

Suspended spans are subject to;
- lift and drag forces by steady current
- lift, drag and mass forces by wave induced velocities and accelerations
- submerged weight forces of filled and empty pipe
- vortex induced vibrations.
The first two types of forces are usually calculated for extreme conditions, e.g. the 50 or 100
year storm, using data on drag, lift and mass coefficients with the additional conditions that;
- steady current velocity is now equal to the undisturbed value at 1.5 m above bottom
- wave induced velocity and acceleration must be based on maximum wave height rather
than on significant wave height.
Bending moments caused by lift, drag and mass forces are occasional loads and maximum
stress conditions which include these forces may be judged using the criterion; Seq < Sy
(equivalent stress < specified minimum yield stress, provided that all loads, which may occur
at the same time, are included, e.g. for gas lines allow for liquid fill). The quantity W, signifying
the total distributed load will then not only represent submerged weight but also the
components of lift and drag/mass force and the direction of Win the plane perpendicular to the
pipe axis will not generally be vertical - as in the examples which follow-but will depend on the
size of these forces and on the weight.
Suspended spans are pipe runs over bottom irregularities and are generally of two basic
types; crossings of the depressions, and crossings of elevated points.
The actual configuration of the crossing will be affected by the bottom tension introduced in
the pipe during installation; the residual lay tension will tend to minimise bending stresses.
For (short) pipe spans for which residual tension may be neglected, beam theory can be used
to give approximate formulae for maximum loads. In the following Tables 1.5-3 to 6 basic load
cases are given. Note that the support conditions at the ends will only be satisfied to a certain
extent for a pipe span problem, and therefore the results are only indicative.

Table 1.5-3a) Basic load conditions for single spans

Table 1.5-3b) Combined load conditions for single span (continued next page)

Single pipe supports may deflect relatively to the others or an additional load may be applied
to a pipe end. Table 1.5-4 is intended to indicate superimposable base cases of loads
resulting from given deformation.
Table 1.5-4 One end deflect, on of a single span

A pipeline may try to expand in longitudinal direction due to temperature or pressure effects. If
such expansion is constrained, buckling of free spans can take place.
A particular situation may be approximately analysed with the use of Euler's formula. Given
the expansion forces PB, the buckle length LB can be estimated from Table 1.5-5 and
appropriate support measures taken.
Table 1.5-5 Global buckle length of single spans

Symbols:
E = Young's modulus, Pa
4
I = Moment of inertia, m
L = Buckle span length, m
P = Global buckle load, N

A pipeline resting on the bottom may under some circumstances be comparable to a situation
where it rests on equally spaced supports. In that case stresses may be checked by using the
formulae for uniformly loaded beams over equal spans; see Table 1.5-6 (note that tension is
not included in the Table).

Table 1.5-6 Uniformly loaded pipe resting on more than one support
(Uniform load per unit length = w; length of each span =1)

The numerical values given are coefficients of the expressions at the foot of each column.
Reproduced by permission, from Marks. Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers,
Eighth Edition, p.5-36, Fig. 46; p.5-37, Table B. McGraw-Hill Book Company
The associated diagram shows the values of the functions for a uniformly loaded continuous
beam resting on three equal spans with four supports.
Continuous beams are stronger and much stiffer than simple beams. However, a small,
unequal subsidence of piers will cause serious changes in sign and magnitude of the bending
stresses, reactions, and shears.

Table 1.5-6 (continued)

For depression spans, two distinct regions may be defined; (a) the pipespan in the depression
given by L (max. bending stress in middle of span), and (b) the pipe span outside the
depression given by 1 on either side of depression (max. bending stress at point with max.
curvature). (See Figure 1.5-8.) The graphs associated with this Figure allow both maximum
stresses, the deflection and the induced span length to be determined. As can be seen from
the curves both the bending moment and the deflection will decrease with increased tension.
In the dimensionless curves of Figures 1.5-8 and 9 the following parameters are used:

where:
El =
w =
D =
T =

bending stiffness of pipe, N.m

pipe weight per unit length, N/m
outside diameter of steel pipe, m
tension in pipe, N

Calculated:
Characteristic length

Characteristic stress

Dimensionless tension

Taken from curves in Figure 1.5-8:

Maximum bending stresses caused by elevated obstructions are virtually unaffected by

variation in pipe tension (symmetrical case with flat horizontal sea bed at either side is
assumed).
The pipe span length on each side will be affected by the tension. Figure 1.5-9 enables span
length and maximum stress to be determined if other influences such as pipe penetration into
the sea bed may be ignored.
Example:
Outside diameter of pipe
Wall thickness
Uniformly distributed pipe weight w
Considered pipe tension T
Elevated obstruction
Calculated:
Characteristic length

Characteristic stress

Dimensionless elevation

406 mm
19.05 mm
511 N/m
290 kN
3.1 m

(16 in.)
(0.75 in.)
(35 Ibs/ft)
(65 kips)
(10 ft)

FIGURE 1.5-8 DIMENSIONLESS CURVES FOR DEPRESSION SPANS

Taken from curves in Figure 1.5-9:

FIGURE 1.5-9 DIMENSIONLESS CURVES FOR ELEVATION SPANS

Vortex-induced oscillations occur basically within two adjacent flow regions. The first instability
region is accompanied by symmetrical vortex shedding (as if the flow started impulsively from
rest at each cycle) and the second by alternate vortex shedding. The parameter Vr, called
reduced velocity is generally used to determine the velocity ranges where these instabilities
may occur. Vr is defined as:

where:
V = flow velocity
fn = natural frequency of the pipe span
and
D = outer pipe diameter
As a conservative approach Vr can be taken as 1.0 (occurrence of the first instability region)
and safe span length frequencies for single span beams without any pretension or
concentrated loads:

(where the most likely value for = 22.4). As before, the equations are indicative only because
boundary conditions for actual pipeline situations are usually not identical with those assumed
in Table 1.5-7.
Table 1.5-7 Natural frequencies single spans

Symbols:
E
= Young's modulus, Pa
4
I
= Moment of inertia, m
L
= Length of span, m
m = Mass per unit length, kg/m
fn
= Natural frequency, rad/sec

1.5.5 Buried Lines

Symbols;
T1 = installation temperature
T2 = max. or mm. operating temperature
0
-4 -1

= thermal expansion coefficient (steel up to 100 C: 0.115 x 10 K )

= Poisson's ratio = 0.3 (steel)

E
= Young's modulus

= pipe movement
t
= wall thickness
La = pipeline anchor length
f
= friction force per unit length

= decay length for exponential distribution of pipeline temperature

Rm = mean pipe radius
Sh = hoop stress
Sl = longitudinal stress
Sy = yield stress
Other symbols as in Table 1.5.1

1.5.5.1

Limitation:

Fully Restrained Parts

1.5.5.2

Anchor Force

Assume result equivalent to fully restrained line:

1.5.5.3

Moving Portions (Partly Restrained)

The length over which movements occur (La) can be estimated as follows:

The element exp. (-La /) represents the temperature decay over the anchor length. Assuming
uniform temperature in the pipe, the element exp. (-La /) can be given a value equal to unity.
Pipe Movement

Note: if an end restraint force, such as caused by a riser or an expansion loop, is present then
the previous two equations must be modified to account for this effect.

1.5.5.4 Lateral and Longitudinal Movement

(This page to be read together with the next page.)

1.5.5.5

Upheaval Buckling

When a pipeline is subjected to an axial load, the pipe will tend to move in the vertical plane or
along the trench side slope when the pipe is not covered. This phenomenon is called upheaval
buckling (offshore) or overbend instability (onshore). The pipeline response might then be
unacceptable in terms of vertical displacements (the pipe protruding through the cover or
moving out of the trench), excessive yielding of the pipe material, or both. Upheaval buckling
is hence a failure mode that has to be taken into account for the design of trenched and buried
pipelines operating at elevated temperatures. A simplified calculation method is detailed
below. For advanced calculation refer to guideline EP-90-2539.
The additional symbols used are:
C
= soil cover shear strength
Do
= pipe outside diameter over coatings
f
= uplift coefficient
H
= soil cover from top of pipe to surface
min
= the smaller of the two values
Wins
= installation submerged weight
Wsub = operating submerged weight

= soil submerged weight

f
= foundation imperfection height

[kpa]
[m]
[m]
[kN/m]
[kN/m]
[kN/m3]
[m]

The axial compressive driving force is:

The uplift resistance in cohesionless soil or rock fragments is:

The uplift coefficient f should be taken as 0.5 for dense sand or rock cover and as 0.1 for loose
sand.
The uplift resistance in cohesive soil is:

The required downward force is given by:

The foundation profile imperfection height f is a measure of the roughness of the seabed. The
recommended value for design purposes is 0.3 [m].
To prevent upheaval buckling the uplift resistance Weft should exceed the required downward
force Wreq.

1.5.5.6 Weight Load on Buried Pipe

Stress Caused by external load from above

= Bending stress at point A. For assumed reasonably well compacted backfill this stress is

L =
wheel load, N
w = pipe load, N/m
D = outside pipe diameter, m
t = pipe wall thickness, m
E = Young's modulus, Pa
p = Internal pressure, Pa
Cd = load coeff. (see Table 1.5-9)
BD = width of trench at pipe top, m
H = depth of pipe top, m
Kb and Kz are coefficients defined by trench type (see Table 1.5-8)
If = impact factor (see Table 1.5-8)
-3
s = soil weight N.m
Table 1.5-8 Values for Kb, Kz and If

Table 1.5-9 CD values for pipe in trenches as function of H/BD

1.5.6 Risers
Riser design must take account of variations in temperature, internal pressure and external
environmental loads anticipated throughout the lifetime of the system. Installation loads may
also vary considerably with the installation method adopted (see 2.2.2.3). An example riser
model is shown in Figure1.5-10.
Inspection/maintenance requirements (see 3.4) and potential hazards and risks (see 1.7.3)
must also be considered.
A typical riser calculation sequence is as follows:
1. Establish temperature profile along the riser and the adjacent pipe section (see 1.1.4).
2. Estimate maximum pipeline expansion/contraction due to pressure and temperature
changes which will occur at the interconnection between the riser and the pipeline
(see 1.5.5).
3. Calculate riser stresses due to:
(i) Operating condition: includes imposed pipe-end displacements combined with
extreme values of functional and environmental loads
(ii) Hydrostatic testing condition: includes pipe-end displacement, functional loads and
environmental loads generated by a one-year return storm
(iii) Installation condition: anticipated installation loads.
4. Apply criteria dictated by applicable codes (see 1.5.1). It stresses are too high, modify
design by including an offset or alternatively an expansion loop in the pipeline adjacent to
the riser. Then, repeat above analysis from activity 2.
5. Check riser clamp distances to be within allowable riser spans with regard to vortexshedding induced vibrations (see 1.4.1 and 1.4.3.2).
6. Identify stress sensitivities with respect to uncertain design parameters.
In particular it is important to check stress sensitivity due to deviations in assumed:
(i) Temperature ranges
(ii) Burial/scouring of pipe sections next to the riser
(iii) Installation imposed stresses.
A riser is normally anchored close to the topside facilities to minimise expansion forces
imposed on deck piping.

FIGURE 1.5-10 EXAMPLE RISER MODEL

1.6

Design Requirements for Internal Inspection Tools

It is recommended that scraper traps (see 2.5) and pipelines are designed such that they can
accommodate an internal inspection tool (see Figure1.6-1).
Note: See Table 1.6-1 for approximate lengths of A and B for different diameters.

FIGURE 1.6-1 SCRAPER TRAP LENGTH CONSIDERATION WHEN USING INTERNAL

INSPECTION TOOLS

The approximate maximum length of tool and corresponding trap length are shown in Table
1.6-1.
The minimum acceptable ratio bend radius/pipe diameter (and minimum straight length
between bends) depends on pipe diameter and wall thickness, and is typically 5 or 8. The
exact limit may vary for different inspection tools, so it is recommended to first consult
potential survey companies. Large variations in pipe internal diameter (d) should be avoided
as this may cause problems (see also 3.4.3 on pipeline inspection tools).

Table 1.6-1 Pig trap lengths for internal inspection tools

CONSTRUCTION

2.1

Landline Construction

2.1.1 Codes and Permits

The regulations most generally applied for the construction of pipelines are the ANSI codes
B31.4 and B31.8. These both refer to API 1104 for specific welding requirements. Another well
known code is BS 8010 which refers to BS 4515 for welding aspects. In many countries there
are specific national requirements which may be stand-alone documents or additional requirements to other codes such as B31 .4. There is also likely to be a range of local requirements
covering land purchase, rights of way, easements, conservation, etc.

2.1.2 Surveys, Landline Construction

There are two general categories of pipeline survey; land and marine. This section outlines the
procedures used for land surveys (see 2.2 for marine surveys). Other types of terrain can be
covered by a combination of these two types with the occasional addition of a particular,
specialised technique.
A preliminary desk top study is carried out to study possible routes (scale 1:1000). A route for
a pipeline is then chosen on the map such that it is the shortest possible distance between the
two endpoints, whilst at the same time permitting economic design and construction. A
detailed site survey is then carried out where the route is fixed on the ground surface relative
to known benchmarks or fixed points (if existing). A report is made of topographical features
along the route (hills, deltas, rivers, canyons) together with obstacles in the immediate vicinity
of the route (houses, roads, cables, economic crops, land owners and other pipelines). For a
buried pipeline, a geotechnical survey is often made which yields information such as the
subsurface geological conditions likely to exist along the pipeline route.
A topographical survey is always necessary to obtain construction permits, operating licences,
and easements, as well as data for the design of the pipeline.

2.1.2.1

Land Survey Specifications for Pipelines

An aerial survey is to be used to establish the pipeline route which is then marked on the
aerial photographs and a large scale map, preferably at a scale of 1:50 000.

The route is then staked out, if possible with firmly fixed markers, so that each marker is
visible from adjacent markers. In desert country the markers should be placed at least every
500 metres.
Distances along the pipeline route (chainages) are measured for all markers, obstacles and
topographic features to an accuracy of 1:20 000.
Horizontal angles or bearings and distances, which are relative to the local co-ordinate grid
system, should be measured with instruments permitting a final accuracy of 1:20 000.
Elevations of every variation in the terrain are measured to a well defined datum. The
accuracy of the levelling traverse should be better then 2L cm, where L is the distance
between the end points of the traverse or loop in km.
A traverse is surveyed along
pillars or markers every 5
discriptions of these survey
survey report together with
elevation datum.

the pipeline route and marked by firmly fixed permanent survey

km within 500 metres of the pipeline route. Proper station
points and their reference markers should be included in the
the parameters of the local co-ordinate grid system and the

The survey report should also contain photographs or sketches of obstacles and features
within 100 metres of the pipeline route, a longitudinal profile (in general at a scale of 1:10 000
to 1:2500 horizontal and 1:1000 vertical), and a planimetric stripmap of the pipeline route
showing features, elevations, per-manent survey markers and eventual boundaries with their
appropriate landowners. The stripmap should show the local co-ordinate grid system and grid
projection information.

2.1.2.2

Geotechnical Survey

A geotechnical survey starts with a desk study by a geologist, which is then confirmed by
correlation with observed surface features. Pits or boreholes are then made to the pipeline
burial depth at 1 km intervals, and referenced to the route survey. The results are then graded
according to ease of trench excavation, e.g. standard backhoe, D-9 tractor ripper (up to two
passes), and rock blasting. In some locations a ripper survey can be carried out instead of a
borehole survey, as can certain seismic or ultrasonic techniques which give information on the
near-surface geology.

2.1.2.3

As-Built Surveys

An as-built survey is made of the pipeline after construction and is reported on a planimetric
strip map of the pipe route. Typically this has a horizontal scale of 1:2500, and a vertical scale
of 1:1000 and gives details of features, pipe, cable and road crossings on a map with the local
co-ordinate grid system, as well as pipeline burial depth, ground-level, chainages, bends and
cathodic protection points.

2.1.3 Construction General

2.1.3.1

Inspection Requirements (including Pearson Survey)

Pipeline construction operations tend to be spread over considerable distances and to involve
extended working hours. It is essential to provide adequate and sustained inspection of all
activities with particular emphasis on welding, coating, lowering-in, backfill and testing.
All inspectors should have a good knowledge and previous experience of the activities they
are to inspect.
Inspectors employed for the critical positions of senior pipeline inspector, all welding /NDT
inspectors and coating inspector(s) should be thoroughly assessed including, where
appropriate, a personal interview. They should be in possession of valid qualifications such as
the British Gas Corporation's ERS approval or equivalent. Reference should also be made to
Central Offices who maintain records of suitable qualified inspectors and can assist where
required in screening inspectors.
Prior to the start of construction, an Inspector's Manual should be prepared and issued to all
inspectors, clearly defining the responsibilities, work and reporting requirements of the
inspection team. It should also include the technical specification and any guideline notes that
may be useful for inspecting the work as executed by the contractor.
It is emphasised that the quality and consequently the lifetime of a finished pipeline depends
largely on the quality of inspection.
Pearson Survey: This is a method of detecting holes (holidays) in a pipeline coating after the
pipeline has been buried, by locating points on the ground above a pipeline, where a sensing
signal is picked up by emission from a break in the coating. There are various techniques for
ensuring accuracy of the readings and it is advisable to employ reliable apparatus in the hands
of experienced operators. A number of specialist CP and Inspection contractors offer this
service which is a useful method of monitoring the condition of the pipe coating after backfill
and during operation.

2.1.3.2

ROW/Working Strip

Prior to starting construction the pipeline, the owner will need to obtain a permanent easement
and a temporary working strip which should be of sufficient width to provide for economic
construction. The required width will depend on the type of terrain and the pipe diameter.
Where the possibility exists of a second pipeline being installed at some future date, it is
recommended that additional easement is negotiated at the same time as for the original
easement.
The limits of the working strip should be clearly marked and if applicable temporary fencing
with access gates must be erected.
Before work starts a pre-entry record should be made of any existing special features so that
they may be adequately reinstated after construction is completed.

2.1.3.3

Clearing/Grading

Where applicable, top soil should be removed and stored separately prior to grading/trenching.
The width and depth of top soil stripping, if any, will be governed by local circumstances.
Clearing should include the removal of all obstacles to construction works such as trees,
brush, crops, boulders, fences, etc. Subsurface obstacles such as tree stumps, roots, etc. in
proximity to the pipeline should also removed.
The working strip should be graded/levelled as required to permit transit and operation of
construction vehicles and equipment and to permit placement of the pipeline at the desired
elevation (see Figure 2.1-1).

2.1.3.4

Trenching

Pipelines will normally be laid to ground contour with a specified minimum cover. Trench
dimensions vary with pipe size, nature of the terrain, applicable regulations and other factors.
However the ditch should be wide enough to permit:

FIGURE 2.1-1 TYPICAL EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL OPERATIONS

(a) The pipeline to be lowered without damaging the coating

(b) The backfill to settle around the lower part of the pipe
(c) The removal of slings without damage to the coating
(d) The pipe to fit the ditch without the use of external force.
For typical trench dimensions see Figure 2.1-2.

FIGURE 2.1-2 TYPICAL TRENCH DIMENSIONS

The method of excavation will depend on the type of terrain. In areas of rock where
blasting is required it is imperative to follow the strict regulations covering the use of
explosives that are applicable in most locations.
Blasting also needs to be restricted near to buildings and/or other pipelines and,
where required, fly rock mats must be used to prevent damage to adjacent property. If
necessary ground vibration levels should be monitored to ensure they are within
acceptable limits.
Excavation in the immediate vicinity of existing pipelines/cables and other
underground obstacles should be by hand to avoid damage. It is normal for new
pipelines to cross under existing pipelines/cables and at such locations the trench
depth should allow for a minimum clearance of 300 mm, between the new pipeline
and the existing facility.
(For special requirements at road/rail and water crossings, etc. see 2.1.4.)

The bottom of the trench should be prepared to permit even bedding of the pipeline
and should be free from all objects or materials that might cause damage to or
deteroriation of the coating.
For typical trench configurations see Figure 2.1-3.
FIGURE 2.1-3 TRENCH CONFIGURATIONS

2.1.3.5

Material Handling/Transport/Slinging

During all material handling, transporting and slinging operations, care must be taken
to avoid damage to the line pipe and coating. Pipes shall be lifted carried and placed
in position. Lifting operations should be carried out using wide slings (mm. width =
pipe dia.) made from non-abrasive material or special lifting hooks designed to fit pipe
curvature and protect bevelled ends.
When storing or transporting pipe, special attention should be paid to weight
distribution to prevent flattening of the pipe and/or coating damage (pipe supplier's
recommendations on maximum stacking height should be followed).
Where ground conditions could lead to damage to pipe/coating, pipes should be
placed on suitable packing to avoid contact with the ground surface.
During transportation pipes should be loaded and stacked in such a manner that
flexing and movement of the pipe is avoided; wide non-metallic slings shall be used to
secure the pipe (refer also to API RP 5L1 and RP 5L5).
Pipes should be strung so as to cause minimum interference with the land crossed.
Where the possibility of blasting exists, trenching shall be carried out ahead of
stringing to prevent damage to pipe caused by blasting.

2.1.3.6

Bending/Tie-In

Bending
All field bends (cold bends) should comply with the minimum requirements of the ANSI
B31.4/B31.8 Codes and should generally conform to Figure 2.1-4.

Tie-ins
To prevent joints being left under stress, tie-ins should be properly aligned without the
use of external force. When tying-in long lengths of exposed pipe due consideration
must be made for temperature effects. All tie-in welds should be subject to 100% NDT.

FIGURE 2.1-4 FIELD BEND

2.1.3.7

We/ding/NDT (see 2.3)

2.1.3.8

Field Joint Coating/Coating Inspection

The uncoated external portion of the pipeline joint should be protected to a standard
equivalent to and compatible with the line pipe coating. For details of the various types
of field joint coatings and their suitability see 1.3.4.

Immediately prior to lowering-in, the whole of the pipeline coating should be carefully
examined by means of a holiday detector, the setting of which should be suitable for
the thickness and nature of the coating material. All defects located should be clearly
marked and repaired before the pipe is lowered.

2.1.3.9

Lowering-In

Before lowering-in is commenced particular attention should be paid to the suitability

of the trench to allow the pipeline to be lowered without damage to the coating and to
give an even support to the pipeline.
Where excavated material is unsuitable, e.g. in rock areas, the trench bottom shall be
padded with sand or similar material to support the pipe at least 150 mm off the high
points of the bottom prior to lowering in.
Wide non-abrasive belts or rubber tyred roller cradles should be used and throughout
the lifting and lowering operation care should be taken to: avoid damage to the
protective coating and overstressing the pipe. The pipe shall fit the trench without the
use of external force to hold it in place until backfill is completed.

2.1.3.10 Backfill/Clean- Up/Reinstatement

Backfill should follow closely on the lowering of the pipe so that the pipe coating is
exposed to accidental damage for a minimum period.
Fine grade material free from sharp edged stones should be used and carefully
compacted all around the pipe to a minimum consolidated height of 150 mm above the
pipe. Where excavated material is unsuitable, e.g. in rock areas, sand or equivalent
material must be imported.
(See Figures 2.1-1 and 2.1.-3.)
On sloping ground care shall be taken to prevent the backfilled trench forming a
natural drainage channel.

In remote areas, e.g. deserts consideration should be given to forming a

windrow/bund over the pipeline to prevent vehicles, etc. crossing the pipeline at points
other than planned crossing points. However adequate breaks in the windrow should
be provided to prevent excessive water build-up during rain storms.
As soon as possible after backfilling, the site should be cleared and all surplus
materials removed. Rock excavated from the trench can be a major clean-up problem
especially where land is cultivated.
The working strip should then be reinstated as nearly as possible to its original
condition.

2.1.4 Special Construction

Some aspects of construction require the use of specialised equipment and
procedures, and in some cases specialist organisations/contractors in order to perform
it. These specialists often work as sub-contractors but where the work can be
considered as a major project in itself, e.g. large river crossings, such projects may be
contracted for separately for economic and/or time constraint considerations.

2.1.4.1

Water Crossings

In general, pipeline crossings of major rivers, canals or other bodies of water are more
expensive on a cost per unit length basis than nearly any other type of pipeline
construction. Preparation of the ditch across many water courses is itself a major cost
item and as a consequence, in exceptional cases, additional pipelines have been
installed as spares for future use. The pipeline must be buried in the stream bed well
below the future scour level and factors such as plans for future widening, deepening
for navigation purposes, or flood control schemes must be taken into account during
both design and construction. In some cases installation of the crossing is only
permitted within certain periods to avoid interference with navigation, seasonal fishing
or other considerations.
Construction procedures vary widely because of the unique features of each crossing
but it is quite common that the pipeline string/strings are made up on land prior to
pulling into place. The pulling into place is made easier in some cases by the
installation of temporary floats attached to the pipeline to reduce the submerged
weight and hence the pulling force required. Hydrostatic testing of the pipeline
string/strings is performed prior to installation because of the difficulty and high cost of
finding and repairing leaks after the pipe is in place.

Further hydrostatic testing is performed after installation and again after backfilling
unless natural backfill mg is allowed to occur. Depending on pipeline diameter, it
contents, soil conditions, current velocities etc., it is often required that the pipeline be
provided with a concrete weight coating to provide adequate stability. Extra wall
thicknesses may be required to overcome additional stresses in the pipe due to the
necessity for it to conform to natural flexing in the installed position. Extra wall
thickness may also be used to increase the design safety factor of the crossing. It is
usual to install isolation valves on both sides of major water crossings.
For a typical sketch of a minor stream crossing see Figure 2.1-5.

FIGURE 2.1-5 TYPICAL DITCH AND MINOR STREAM CROSSING

2.1.4.2

Road/Rail Crossings

Wherever possible, installation of road crossings should be carried out by the uncased
method. On minor roads this can be achieved by open-cutting the road but on major
trunk roads or other heavily utilised roads the thrust bore technique is used. Normally
the local legislative authority will dictate which roads can be open-cut and which are to
be thrust bored. Extra wall thickness may be required in some cases to overcome
additional external loading problems and this should be identified at the design stage.
Alternatively local legislative authorities may stipulate the use of extra wall thickness
pipe at certain road crossings.
Rail crossings generally have to be constructed by the bored technique and again the
uncased crossing method is preferred, however, it is very common for railway
companies to insist on the installation of cased crossings. Where such crossings are
to be used, it is essential to ensure that the pipeline is adequately supported on either
side of the crossing such that settlement of the carrier pipe and hence direct contact
with the casing pipe is avoided. An additional problem associated with cased
crossings is the ineffectiveness of the cathodic protection system to protect the carrier
pipe inside the casing.
Recommendations on pipeline crossings of roads and railways are contained in API
RP 1102. For typical sketches of both cased and uncased crossings see
Figures 2.1-6 to 9.
FIGURE 2.1-6 TYPICAL CASED RAILWAY CROSSING

FIGURE 2.1-7 TYPICAL UNCASED ROAD/RAIL CROSSING

FIGURE 2.1-8 TYPICAL CASING INSTALLATION DETAILS

FIGURE 2.1-9 TYPICAL CATHODIC PROTECTION AND TEST CABLE CONNECTION

2.1.4.3

Unstable Soil Conditions

Soils with low load-bearing capacity may exist for considerable distances along a
pipeline route. To be able to install the pipeline, special provisions may be necessary
to support construction equipment and to maintain the ditch open for sufficient time to
install the pipeline. Such measures may include construction of log 'rip-rap' access
roads and well pointing or ground dewatering. Alternatively the construction of
channels for floating the pipeline into position or even canals for the use of floating
equipment may be necessary particularly in swamp areas.
A further problem with this type of soil, particularly if it is saturated with water, is the
buoyancy of the installed pipeline which can cause the pipe to float to the surface after
installation. This is particularly relevant for larger diameter and/or gas pipelines.
Weighting or anchoring of the pipe may be necessary in order to maintain the pipeline
at the buried depth although in some cases backfilling with specially imported material
can be carried out. Weighting of pipelines can be achieved either by a continuous
concrete weight coating or by bolt-on or set-on gravity weights. Set-on gravity weights
of concrete are the most economical of the gravity anchors, however, great care is
necessary in both their design and installation to protect the pipeline against possible
damage.
Mechanical anchoring, using the steel auger type of anchor, is probably the most
economic method of anchoring pipelines over extended lengths. The steel anchors are
driven into the ground alongside the pipeline and attached to the pipe with some sort
of strap. Mechanical anchors achieve their holding power from the shear strength of
the soil. Where used it is necessary to test their hold-down capacity after installation to
determine their adequacy. If necessary anchors must be driven to a greater depth or
alternatively additional anchors installed to achieve the overall hold-down capacity
required. A disadvantage of mechanical anchors is that different soil types may require
differently designed anchors and installation in areas containing rock or boulders is
difficult.
Of the methods available for weighting or anchoring pipe to maintain the required
depth, the continuous concrete weight coat is the most reliable, albeit the most
expensive, to install (see also 1.4.1).
Before selecting a method for anchoring it is essential to conduct a thorough
investigation along the pipeline route of the soil type, strength and any other tests
pertinent to anchor design.

2.2

Submarine Line Construction

2.2.1
2.2.1.1

Survey
Pipeline Pre-Lay Surveys/Sea-Bottom Survey Procedures

Objectives
To identify the most suitable route for a pipeline which may be laid on the seabed or
trenched and buried below the seabed. Potential problems which may require
identification include:
- Seabed topography and bathymetric features which may produce adverse slopes,
gradient changes or freespan formation
- Wrecks, boulders, coral outcrops or other objects which may damage the pipe
during laying, hinder the laybarge, cause excessive abrasion on the pipe or the
formation of freespans
- Seabed and sub-seabed geology and soils types. Thickness and properties of soils
units within 2 to 5 metres of the seabed which may dictate trenching and burial
methods, or the most economic way of 'smoothing' the seabed.

Survey Pattern
After an initial desk study or a reconnaissance survey line, a corridor must be covered,
say 500 metres wide, for optimum route selection. A minimum of three survey lines
should be run, centred on the proposed pipe route, employing the simultaneous
operation of the selected survey systems. Regular tie lines, perpendicular to the major
survey lines should be run to ensure good agreement of data. Additional longitudinal
lines and tie lines must be run if further data are required in difficult areas to ensure
that sufficient information is available for route planning and pipeline design.

Comments
On-board data interpretation by qualified personnel should be undertaken to ensure
data obtained are sufficient for the survey objectives. This will also ensure optimum
selection of sites for seabed sampling (if required). A pipeline engineer should also be
on board to assist in the survey pattern modification if any route deviations are
required on the basis of the data obtained.
In deep water areas where layback errors to tow fish mounted sensors will become
large, a tow fish positioning system such as the Simrad HPR should be employed.
Survey line spacing must be selected to provide 100% overlap of data.

2.2.1.2

Pipeline Post-Lay Surveys/Sea-Bottom Survey Procedures

Objectives
To inspect a pipeline either laid on or trenched and buried beneath the
seabed. There may be several objectives including;
- To accurately map the as-laid position of the pipeline
- To monitor the depth of burial or condition of pipeline trench where appropriate
- To monitor changes in sediment cover with time, especially in areas of mobile
seabed sediments, e.g. sand wave areas or sand banks
- To ensure no suspensions or freespans have been produced either during the
laying or at a later date
- To monitor any freespan rectification or other pipeline maintenance
- To monitor debris accumulation along the pipeline and to monitor sites of potential
or actual damage to the pipeline.

Survey Pattern
At least one survey line should be run along each side of the whole length of the
pipeline utilising echo sounder and sidescan sonar. When surveying along exposed or
trenched pipe, the vessel's track must be controlled from the sonar records. The exact
position of the pipe can only be plotted by means of regular pipe crossings, using an
echo sounder or, if the pipe is buried, a microprofiler which is either hull mounted,
towed on a short cable or monitored with a tow fish positioning system.
Trench conditions, exposed pipe conditions or problem areas are best examined by
means of a combination of short sonar and profiler lines run in the area of interest.

Comments
The sonar will provide an overview of the pipeline condition along its whole length and
the pipe crossings will provide more detailed information on the pipe at a number of
points along its length. The accuracy of the results will depend not only on the inherent
accuracy of the survey systems but also on the way in which they are operated and
then interpreted. These 'remote' systems will not consistently detect minor damage or
low order pipe suspensions above the seabed. It is therefore essential that a video
inspection (usually by ROV) is made of the pipeline after laying and then at any points
where problems are identified on subsequent surveys.
Since the survey vessel's track must be controlled from the sonar records, the chosen
vessel must be manoeuvrable and responsive.

The accuracy of data obtained from the sonar and microprofiler systems depends
upon the accuracy of the sensor positioning. If sensors are not hull mounted or towed
close to the vessel, a tow fish positioning system such as the Simrad HPR should be
employed.
All charting and reporting of annual surveys should be in a format to allow easy
comparison of data, particularly in problem areas.
Small diameter pipes, or pipes in areas of irregular topography or boulder
concentrations may require more sophisticated survey techniques.
Other survey systems have been developed for remote sensing of pipelines, e.g.
sector scan sonar, GVSS (colour processed sonar data), multi-transducer pipe
tracking devices. These have been used with limited success but are considered
outside the scope of this brief overview.

2.2.1.3

Positioning and Survey Equipment

Positioning equipment for survey and construction vessels

A large variety of radiopositioning systems for surface vessels exist, all with
their pros and cons. Only a summary can be given here. In all cases the
Topographical department should be consulted for further details.
The following criteria govern the choice of a survey system:
- Distance from shore
- Accuracy requirements, both in absolute and in relative sense
- Number of craft involved
- System's availability, frequency allocation and economics.
General statements:
(a) The higher the frequency, the shorter the range
(b) The higher the frequency, the greater the accuracy
(c) There is no system which does not suffer from ambiguities and adverse
propagation effects, whether they be skywave or other reflections, land-and
seapath anomalies or ambient radio noise
(d) All systems need thorough hardware calibration
(e) All systems need continuous, real-time quality control by qualified and
experienced survey personnel; redundancy of position lines for this purpose and
as a safeguard against gross errors is essential.
Some of the most common multi-user systems for pipeline operations are shown in
Table 2.2-1.

Table 2.2-1 Multi-user positioning systems

The c.w. (continuous wave) systems suffer much more from instability due to moving
cranes, etc. and from skywave effects than pulse systems. The accuracy for all
systems except Pulse-8 can vary from a few metres under ideal conditions to several
tens of metres and worse under adverse conditions. For Pulse-8 the best accuracy
achievable is of the order of 25-50 metres.

Survey Equipment
Bathymetry
Hydrographic echo sounder such as Atlas Deso 10, Deso 20, Simrad EA (or
equivalent). Calibration by 'bar-check', and salinity/temperature or velocity meter, pre-,
syn- and post-survey. Tidal corrections to LAT should be checked against a tide
gauge installed in the area for the duration of the survey.

Sidescan Sonar
Dual channel high frequency (100 kHz) system such as EG + G, Klein (or similar)
system shall be capable of single channel operations with data display on a recorder
with sweep speeds of up to 1/16 second. Tow cables must be carefully monitored to
permit accurate layback calculations. System shall be operated at sweeps
commensurate with optimum resolution, continuous tracking of pipeline route and
100% data overlap. As a rule of thumb, fish height above seabed should be 10% of
range. All sonar data shall be taped.

Sub-Bottom Profiler
High resolution, short pulse length source such as EG + G Uniboom. Prior to
acceptance of equipment, the boomer signal shall be monitored to ensure a resolute,
repeatable, outgoing source signature. Graphic recorders shall be capable of 1/16
second sweep. All data should be taped to permit replay at expanded scale.
Control of data is essential to ensure data will meet survey objective.
Note: In very soft seabed conditions a 'pinger' source may be suitable but such a
system is not generally recommended.

Seabed Sampling
Either a gravity corer or a vibrocorer depending on expected seabed conditions and
depth of interest below seabed. Careful logging of samples and storage is essential.
Laboratory testing of samples is required.

Debris/Obstruction Detection
Sidescan sonar will be adequate for most projects. If buried cables are expected, a
magnetometer may be required. On infield routes, close to existing facilities, a visual
inspection of problem areas is recommended utilising either diver or ROV video
systems.

2.2.2 Construction
2.2.2.1

Pipeline Installation Methods

Laybarge
This is the most common method for submarine pipeline installation. The production
line of a laybarge is usually limited to installing a single line at a time. Pipeline bundles
can be laid using a laybarge, but the line-up problems involved and the low laying
speed make it in general unattractive both technically and economically. A pipeline is
normally initiated by positioning a 'dead man' anchor on the seafloor attached to the
first pipe joint via a cable. During laying a pipeline the barge moves on its anchors.
These anchors and anchor cables used for moving and holding the barge in position
can damage existing pipelines and structures in the vicinity of the laybarge. To
minimise the risk of damage to other facilities detailed anchoring plans should be
prepared beforehand by the lay contractor.
During laying the contractor should continuously record the applied tension to the pipe
to ensure that the approved laying procedures are being followed. The required
tension should be determined such that the pipeline departs the stinger some distance
up from the last roller.

Load cells in the roller cradles together with a TV camera permit the monitoring of the
pipe behaviour. In adverse weather conditions the pipe should be abandoned by
lowering to the seabed via a cable, before impact against the stinger rollers results in
excessive damage to the pipe coating.

During laying of the pipeline a buckle detector should be pulled through the pipeline at
the touch-down point of the pipe on the seabed to confirm that the pipeline has been
laid buckle-free. The buckle detector is a simple steel frame equipped with rollers and
a steel plate with a diameter slightly smaller than the pipe internal diameter. It is
connected to the barge via a cable which should be fitted with a weak link
arrangement, a tension meter and an alarm.

Reel-Barge
The reel-barge installation method permits the installation of pipeline up to Dn 400 (16
in.) in diameter. Tests should be carried out to check the corrosion coating behaviour
during reeling/unreeling. The maximum length that can be installed in one continuous
section depends on pipe diameter, reel capacity, and barge capabilities but up to 22
km of Dn 250 (10 in.), or 9 km of Dn 400 (16 in.) pipeline is possible (Apache reelbarge).
Pipeline bundles can be installed by means of the reel-barge technique; individual
pipes are unreeled from separate reels and bundled together at the stern of the barge.
Portable reels in conjunction with locally available equipment can be used to lay
flexible lines. When the use of flexible flowlines is considered it is recommended that
advice is obtained from SIPM.

Vertical or J-Lay Method

This method is primarily of interest for installation of pipeline in very deep water. To
date its application has been mainly restricted to tests and it requires the use of a
single station welding technique, e.g. friction welding, flash butt welding, electron
beam welding, and others which are not as yet fully proven or developed.

Tow Methods
Table 2.2-2 outlines the alternative tow methods that are available. Installation by a
tow method may be particularly attractive for shore approaches, shallow water areas,
short lengths of pipeline or for complex bundles.

Table 2.2-2 Tow methods for laying offshore pipelines (continued next page)

2.2.2.2

Offshore Tie-Ins

Underwater tie-ins between pipeline sections and pipeline to riser connections utilise
similar techniques and can be divided into three categories.
- Welding
- Flanges
- Mechanical connectors.
Welding
In general welding is the preferred method for permanent tie-ins wherever practicable.
The welding can either be performed at the surface or subsurface.
At the Surface
The pipeline is lifted to the surface using davits. Where the length of the pipe required
to be supported exceeds the length possible from the barge, usually occurring in
deeper water, additional supports can be provided by the fixing of buoyancy floats to
the pipeline. The welding is carried out with conventional welding procedures. The
method is fast but, generally, is limited to shallower waters and to the smaller pipe
diameters.
Sub-Surface
Sub-surface or hyperbaric welding is performed with the pipeline on the seabed.
Special frames are required to align the pipeline and the welding itself is performed in
a special habitat. The systems presently available are operated from a barge or a
diving support vessel. The method requires extensive diving capability and special
welding procedures.
As an alternative to hyperbaric welding, the weld can be performed inside an
atmospheric chamber into which the pipeline is pulled. However, this method requires
further development to be fully operational and is not presently recommended.
Flanges
Flanged tie-ins performed by divers on the seabed are effected by installing a flanged
make-up spool between the flanged ends of the lines to be connected The spool is
fabricated at the surface to the exact dimensions required, using a template which has
been made up on the bottom and retrieved at the surface. Ring-joint flanges are used
for sub-sea installation and to assist in making up each pair of flanges, one of the
flanges is normally of the swivel ring type. Uniform tightening of the flange stud bolts
can be achieved by hydraulic bolt tensioners. This bolt tensioning method should be
used wherever possible.

Flexible spools, such as made by Coflexip (small diameters only), can be installed
directly without the necessity of preparing a template, and can considerably speed up
the tie-in work. Flexible spools also have the ability to accommodate thermal
expansion/contraction.
Mechanical Connectors
Mechanical connectors are alternatives or supplements to flanges and can offer
certain advantages depending on their design, e.g.:
- some are easier to install (boltless flanges)
- some can accommodate a degree of misalignment (ball joints)
- some can be installed directly onto the bare pipe end.
A variety of mechanical connectors are available and they generally consist of two
components:
- A gripping system to anchor the connector onto the pipe
- A sealing system using either metallic or elastomeric seals.
The reliability of mechanical connector systems cannot as yet fully compete with the
quality of a welded or flanged connection, and hence these connector systems are
mainly used for emergency repairs to pipelines where time is essential and the
equipment for other repair methods is not available.
A development of the mechanical connector is the type that can be activated from the
surface by hydraulics and without direct diver intervention. To achieve this type of
connection, accurate positioning of the end of the pipeline is essential. Once
positioned, the pipeline is pulled into the connector which is activated and clamps
around a special hub fitted to the end of the pipeline.
2.2.2.3

Riser Installation Methods

Pipeline risers can be installed:

- either as a specific pipe section which is tied to the pipeline at the bottom of the
platform (see 2.2.2.2), or
- as an integral part of the pipeline itself, which is pulled up to the platform deck.
Three basic types of riser installation fall into this second category:
Pull Tube (see Figure 2.2-1)
The pull tube method utilises a curved conduit having an inside diameter several
inches larger than the pipeline outside diameter. The conduit is constructed as an
integral part of the platform during onshore fabrication.

A cable is passed from the deck of the platform through the conduit to a special
pulling head welded to the end of the pipeline. The end of the pipeline is positioned on
the bottom in alignment with the mouth of the pull tube. The pipeline riser is then
pulled through the conduit to the surface using a winch located on the platform deck.
Installation of the riser by this method can be done without divers (for example the 12"
Cognac pipeline, Shell Oil - 300 m water depth).

Bending Shoe (see Figure 2.2-2)

This method consists of installing a curvature limiting shoe on the platform during the
onshore fabrication. The pipeline is laid along the platform and positioned under the
bending shoe. It is then bent around the shoe under tension and secured in specially
designed clamps.
This method can also be used for concrete coated pipelines.
Barefoot Riser (see Figure 2.2-3)
This method consists of approaching the platform with the pipe suspended vertically at
the water surface. The pipe is then positioned tangent to and in contact with the upper
end of a series of pipeline clamps on the platform. The lifting load is decreased
according to a prescribed schedule which forces the riser pipe into each successive
clamp and puts the bottom span into compression. The riser is then secured into the
clamps once the desired curvature in the sag-bend is achieved.

FIGURE 2.2-1 PULL TUBE METHOD

FIGURE 2.2-2 BENDING SHOE METHOD

FIGURE 2.2-3 BAREFOOT RISER METHOD

2.2.2.4

Riser Clamps

Depending on the type of riser installation to be employed (see 2.2.2.3) clamps may
be required on the jacket to support the riser. In some instances it may be possible to
pre-install the clamps on the jacket prior to installation of the structure offshore but
often the clamps are installed on the jacket after the jacket itself has been installed
offshore.
Selection of riser and jacket clamps should be such that the difficulties of installation
offshore of both the clamps and the riser are minimised.
Practical installation aspects such as:
- alignment between top and lower clamps
- proper marking of clamps and positions on jacket
- handling of clamps subsea by divers
- positioning of clamps by means of locating rings
- opening and closing of clamps for riser setting and removal (hinges recommended)
- adjustability of clamps to accommodate installation tolerances
- access to and clearance around bolts for tightening.
should be considered.
In general the top clamp on a riser is the clamp which supports the weight of the riser.
Lower clamps locate and restrain the riser in the horizontal plane but may permit axial
movement of the riser. Generally clamps which are clamped around the riser pipe are
provided with a neoprene type lining.
Depending on specific requirements different types of clamps can be utilised to fulfil
the different functions required. Some examples of clamps with different degrees of
adjustability and riser constraints are shown in Figures 2.2-4 to 2.2-6.
For the structural design of clamps the API RP 2A (Recommended Practice for
Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms) and AISC
(Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Execution of Structural Steel for
Buildings) are generally used.

FIGURE 2.2-4 TYPICAL CLAMP FOR ANCHORING RISER AT TOP OF JACKET

FIGURE 2.2-5 TYPICAL CLAMP WITH LIMITED DEGRESS OF FREEDOM FOR

ADJUSTMENTS

FIGURE 2.2-6 TYPICAL CLAMP WITH COMPLETE FREEDOM FOR

ADJUSTMENTS

2.2.3
2.2.3.1

Submarine Protection
Trenching

Trenches can be made by dredgers for river crossings and shore approaches. Backfill
is in general required in these areas in order to protect the lines against scour and
breaking wave impact. The possibility of soil liquefaction during backfilling operations
should be evaluated. A high pipe weight is in general required to combat float-up
through soil liquefaction. The use of hydraulic dredgers for backfilling operations is in
general not recommended as it will increase the chance of pipeline float-up by
producing a very high density soil/water mixture in the trench.
Trenches can be made offshore with jet sleds, plows (ploughs), mechanical cutters or
explosives. The choice of trenching equipment is of concern in sandy soil areas where
trenches are required for stability and where natural trench backfilling does not occur.
A jet sled will in general produce an unsatisfactory trench in such sandy areas as it
creates a very wide trench which does not entirely eliminate the influence of currents
and waves. Plows and mechanical cutters will produce steeper sided trenches in such
areas and hence are preferred. A pipeline can also be lowered in sand by fluidising
the sand around the pipe. The use of the fluidisation technique can be considered in
shallow waterdepths if it can be ascertained that no clay is present. The existence of
(unknown) clay lenses and debris (tree trunks) has produced some failures in the
application of this technique.

2.2.3.2 Gravel or Rock Dumping

Gravel can be dumped on the seafloor by three basic method: mass dumping, side
dumping and dumping via a guide pipe
- Mass dumping is carried out using split hopper barges. This method is basically
uncontrolled as the entire barge load is dumped simultaneously. Due to excessive
spreading of material in deeper water the method is restricted to shallow waters.
- When dumping by means of a side dumping vessel, the load is dumped slowly and
gradually. Greater control is achieved resulting in greater accuracy in deeper water.
However to-date water depths have been limited to approximately 100 metres.
- Dumping gravel via a guide pipe reduces the lateral spread and hence the volume
of gravel required to be dumped. The velocity of the falling stones is only very
slightly modified compared to side dumping as the stone's equilibrium velocity is
reached very soon after leaving the pipe. This method has been successfully
carried out at water depths of up to 155 metres.

The size of gravel for dumping is determined by the minimum size required to be
stable at maximum current velocity, and the maximum size which produces
acceptable impact forces on the pipe coating during dumping. To meet these
requirements two layers of different grain sizes may sometimes be required. In
general sizes from 20 to 200 millimetres are used to cover offshore pipelines in deep
water, and up to 750 millimetres in shore approaches.

2.3

Field Welding and Inspection

2.3.1
2.3.1.1

Welding
Codes and Standards

Acceptable codes and standards for welding of pipelines and related facilities are
given in the relevant pipeline Design and Construction Codes such as ANSI B31.4,
B31.8, etc. For certain project locations national or local requirements may dictate the
application of a particular Standard The most common International Standards for
construction welding of pipelines are API Std 1104, B54515 and DNV Rules for
Submarine Pipeline Systems. Each standard lists the minimum requirements for:
- weld procedure and welder qualification testing
- preparation for welding
- inspection, defect acceptance limits and repair, of pipe to pipe girth welds, pipe to
fitting, and fitting to fitting welds.
Pipeline systems, up to and including the receiver trap, are designed according to the
pipeline code. Exceptionally, some on-plot pipeline facilities are designed to pressure
vessel standards. In these cases, welding should be in accordance with the design
standard.
Recommendations on pipeline welding are given in International Institute of Welding
(IIW) Document XIE/13/76 and some of the major welding consumable manufacturers
issue handbooks/brochures giving specific advice on pipeline welding.
Other less common areas of pipeline welding which require further consideration are;
- hyperbaric welding
- alternative or new welding processes
- welding for sour conditions
- hot tapping/live welding.

2.3.1.2 Welding Processes

Some common welding processes are given below. The first abbreviation is according
to the American Welding Society definition; the second represents the more common
terminology for the same process.
SMAW (MMA) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Manual Metal Arc - stick electrode), e.g.
typically used for girth welding.

GMAW (MIG/MAG) Gas Metal Arc Welding (Metal Inert Gas/Metal Active Gas, using
Ar and CO2 respectively), e.g. as applied by the newer, mechanised girth welding
systems.
SAW Submerged Arc Welding, e.g. used for longitudinal pipe welding and double
jointing.
ERW/EIW
welds.

Electric Resistance (Induction) Welding, e.g. as for ERW longitidunal

GTAW (TIG) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (Tungsten Inert Gas), e.g. occasionally used
for on-plot work and hyperbaric welding.
FCAW (Flux Cored MIG) Flux Cored Arc Welding, e.g. generally restricted to shop
fabrication.

2.3.1.3

Welding Consumables

Welding consumables (electrodes, wires, fluxes) are manufactured by a variety of

companies from a multitude of component sources. Consumables should be of a type
and brand previously approved by a Certification Authority as being in accordance
with an international consumable specification, e.g. AWS 5.1-69 or BS639 for MMA
electrodes.
All consumables should be stored, handled and treated in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommended procedures for that particular product.
The choice of consumables is generally made by the contractor and reviewed/approved by the client. For manual metal arc welding of C-Mn steel pipelines
types E6010, E7010 or E8010.G (cellulosic) or E7016/7018, E8016/ 8018 (low
hydrogen) electrodes, as given in AWS 5.1/5.5, are most commonly applied.
For onshore, mainline construction, MMA downhill welding using cellulosic electrodes
is still the main process. Choice of consumable grade (E6010/ 7010, etc.) depends on
matching the pipe steel grade.
For offshore welding, mechanised short-arc CO2 (MAG) welding offers higher
production rates and is increasingly used, e.g. CRC-Crose, H.C. Price, Saturn welding
systems.
For high restraint welds such as fittings, tie-ins etc. where alignment is more difficult
the use of uphill welding using cellulosic or low hydrogen electrodes is recommended.
For double jointing, then SAW/MAG/MMA or a combination of these processes can be
applied, generally by roll-welding.

2.3.1.4

Welding Procedures

Welding procedures must be established according to the particular Standard being

applied. The goal of the procedure should be to describe the method of working;
define the welding parameters and the scope of validity, to ensure that the properties
of the metal deposited are the same as those of the base material, and to report the
test conditions and results.
Standards like API Std 1104 (ch. 2) list the items considered as essential variables,
e.g. pipe grade, diameter, electrode type, etc. A change in an essential variable will
require requalification of the procedure.
A review of all material certificates (pipe, fittings, consumables, etc.) should be made
to ensure that essential variables are not changed, or to establish if alternative
procedures should be qualified. Welding procedures should be qualified using the
techniques, equipment, and method of working to be used on the line.
Once the procedure is qualified, welders or welding machine operators should be
qualified to use that procedure. Welders may qualify for part of the weld, e.g. fill/cap
passes, or for the whole weld (API Std 1104, ch. 3).

2.3.1.5

Heat Treatment

One of the functions of the procedure qualification is to establish the requirements of

any heat treatments. Three types of heat treatment are possible -warming, preheat
and postheat (stress relief). The following recommendations are given by the IIW and
BS4515:
(a) Warming
Warming the pipes before welding:
- dries the weld preparation and burns off traces of grease, paint, etc., thus
minimising porosity
- improves the appearance of the root bead due to improved 'wetting' of the
preparation by the weld pool.
0

For welding at ambient temperatures below + 10 C warming of the pipe ends to

0
approx. 50 C should be a routine procedure.

(b) Preheating
Preheating serves to reduce the risk of hydrogen assisted underbead cracking by:
- reducing the hardness of the first pass
- assisting hydrogen diffusion out of the weld region
- better distribution of shrinkage stresses.

As a general rule, preheating of large diameter/higher grade pipe/thicker wall pipe to

0
100-150 Cshould be the norm.
Assistance in deriving preheat requirements can be obtained from BS4515-1984 and
the nomogram shown in Figure 2.3-1, as follows:

Assume the following conditions:

Heat input for single run weld
Pipe thickness
Pipe material carbon equivalent
(all elements as % weight)

=
=
=

1.2 kJ/mm
25 mm
0.43

Using these values with Figure 2.3-1 it can be seen that underbead cracking will be
0
avoided at a preheating temperature of 60 C.

FIGURE 2.3-1 NOMOGRAM FOR PREHEATING REQUIREMENTS

(c) Stress Relief (Post-Welded Heat Treatment - PWHT)

Stress relieving affects the residual stresses after welding and the hardness of the
weld and heat affected zone. It is rarely applied to line welds under 25 mm WT. It may
be required for welds in large, thick, asymmetrical fittings.
(d) Sour Service Pipelines - PWHT
For sour service pipelines, where a combination of high carbon equivalent, large wall
thickness and low heat input process exist, e.g. mechanised CO2 welding, then it may
be necessary to conduct PWHT to reduce HAZ hardness values.
Generally the NACE MR-01-75 limit of Rc 22 (H.v. 248) is applied. In these cases the
requirement for PWHT, method of application and resulting mechanical properties
should be evaluated in detail.

2.3.1.6

Hot Tapping/Live Welding

Where total interruption of flow and line inerting is undesirable or impractical hot
tapping, or live welding, provides an alternative maintenance/repair technique. The
precise procedures to be employed will depend on a number of factors (medium,
pressure, location, material, etc.) and must be fully tested and established.
API PubI 2201 gives guidance on procedures for Hot Tap Welding and API RP 1107
covers recommended Pipeline Maintenance Welding Practices. Background data on
techniques, welding, safety, etc. are available from industry sponsored development
programmes.
In view of safety requirements, and the limited post-weld inspection capabilities of Hot
Tap Welding, aspects of procedure development and 100% surveillance during
application are paramount.

2.3.1.7

Hyperbaric Welding

The welding techniques available for hyperbaric (increased pressure) welding are
similar to those for surface welding, i.e. MMA basic low hydrogen, TIG or MIG/FCAW.
Requirements for procedure and production welding are included in DNV rules
together with welder qualification requirements.
In addition to the weld and welder procedure qualification the inspection and weld
repair procedures should be established. Efforts to optimise the inspection procedure
(generally gamma radiography) should be made.
Attention to general working procedures for removal of weight coating, pipe alignment,
sealing, etc. will help minimise on-site problems.

2.3.2
2.3.2.1

Weld Inspection
Requirements

The minimum inspection requirements, as a percentage of welds, are given in the

Design/Construction Codes. Techniques and standard of inspection are covered in the
pipeline welding standard. For high duty lines (offshore/ gas/sour service) 100%
inspection is recommended.

2.3.2.2 Defects
The various types of defects and levels of acceptance are given in the welding
standards, e.g. API Std 1104 (ch. 6). As a general rule linear defects are most
significant in terms of potential failure:
- cracks; should be cut out.
- surface breaking linear defects such as lack of root fusion/root penetration should
be assessed according to their allowable lengths and repaired if excessive.
- volumetric defects (slag, porosity etc.) are generally of less significance but indicate
a poor level of workmanship (repair if excessive).
Most welding standards are based on level of workmanship rather than an engineering
basis. Over recent years alternative defect acceptance criteria based on Fracture
Mechanics and Fitness for Purpose analysis have been devised. Before using this
approach expert advice should be sought.

2.3.2.3

Inspection Techniques

(a) Visual
Surveillance during construction ensures that the qualified procedure is being applied
and helps minimise defects.
Visual examination after welding helps to judge the standard of workmanship and
indicates if additional inspection techniques are required to assist interpretation.
(b) Radiography
Both X-ray or gamma ray can be used although the superior image quality of X-ray is
preferred and allows for better interpretation. For larger diameter pipes (> 0.25 m, 10
in.) an internal X-ray crawler, and panoramic technique, is used. For smaller
diameters, or sit-on fittings, or limited weld numbers, external source double wall
single image/double wall double image is used. Radiography is best suited for
detecting volumetric defects (slag, porosity, lack of penetration, etc.). Given a good
level of film quality and correct defect orientation then linear defects (cracks, lack of
sidewall fusion, etc.) may be detected.

(c) Magnetic Particle Inspection (Dye Penetrant)

Useful for detecting/confirming tight surface breaking defects (cracks). Interpretation is
assisted by grinding the weld flush.
(d) Ultrasonics
Generally applied as a back up to the other techniques to confirm/detect suspected
defects. Principally for buried volumetric defects, but a highly qualified operator may
be able to detect surface defects as well.

2.3.2.4

Inspectors

Since inspectors are generally sub-contracted but have a major role in judging the
overall weld quality, only qualified inspectors should be employed. A review of the
inspectors qualifications and experience should be made prior to employment and
ongoing checks made on their performance. Several levels of inspector are approved
by welding inspector schemes. Their qualifications/approvals should be checked
against the scheme requirements, e.g. ASNT, CSWIP, BGC-ERS (for pipelines).

2.3.3 Codes and Standards

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

API Std 1104, Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities
BS4515, Specification for Field Welding of Carbon Steel Pipelines
DNV, Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems
API RP 1107, Recommended Pipeline Maintenance Welding Practices
API PubI 2201, Procedures for Welding or Hot Tapping on Equipment Containing
Flammables
IIW Doc. XIE/13/76, Recommendations on Pipeline Welding
AWS A 3.0-69, Terms and Definitions
AWS 5.1-69, Specification for Mild Steel Covered Arc-Welding Electrodes
AWS 5.5-69, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Covered Arc-Welding Electrodes
AWS A5.18-79, Specification for Carbon Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc
Welding
PTS 30.10.60.18, Welding of Metals

Note:

The above standards and Specifications are subject to periodic revision.

2.3.4

Common Pipeline Welding Terms

See AWS A3.0-69, Terms and Definitions, for a complete list of welding terms.
Arc blow

Deflection of the welding arc due to magnetic forces

(exceptionally may require degaussing).

Arc gouging

Using an arc to melt and remove metal such that a bevel or

groove is formed.

Arc strikes

Spots outside the weld joint which have been caused by

inadvertent contact of the electrode. Results in rapid
quenching which can cause excessive hardness and microcracks (lightly dress and inspect - exceptionally may require
cut out).

Back-gouging

Forming a bevel or groove on the inside of the weld prior to

welding from that side.

Basic electrodes

Lime coated electrodes of the type E--16 or E-18.

Bead

A weld pass (may also mean root bead).

Bead welder

Welder qualified to make the root pass.

Blowhole

Gas pocket/cavity formed by entrapped gas.

Burn through

Excessive melt through, a hole in the root pass (caused by

excessive current/poor electrode manipulation).

Buttering

Process of depositing weld metal on the pipe surface (fillet

welds) or weld preparation (butt welds) to build up the
surface(s) and allow the final gap to be bridged.

Cellulosic
electrodes

Electrodes with a coating containing a high proportion of

organic (cellulose) materials. Typically used for crosscountry pipeline welding. Electrodes exhibit a fierce, deep
penetrating arc.

Compound bevel

Used on thicker pipe ( 20 mm and above) whereby a

reduced angle on the outer part gives savings in weld metal
and time.

Concave root

Internal root profile concave. Also termed suckback.

Commonly caused by excessive rootgap.

Crater crack

Crater formed at end of weld bead which can contain small

shrinkage cracks.

Heat-affected zone

Portion of the base metal which is not melted but

whose properties or structure have been altered by
the welding heat.

Hi-Lo

Misalignment of internal surfaces.

- root pass

First pass

- hot pass

Second pass (applied immediately after first pass,

whilst still hot).

- filler passes

- cap

Passes:

Subsequent passes which 'fill up' the joint

Final pass.

Piping

Linear shrinkage cavities in the root bead (also called

wormhole).

Procedure qualification

The demonstration that welds made by a specific

procedure can meet the prescribed standard.

Residual stresses

Stresses remaining as a result of thermal (or mechanical) effects.

Reverse polarity

Electrode positive, work negative.

Straight polarity

Electrode negative, work positive.

Root face

Land, landing edge.

Root gap/opening

Distance between root faces.

Slag inclusion

Non-metallic material entrapped in weld metal (often

resulting from inadequate interpass cleaning).

Spatter

Small, easily detatched droplets of weld metal

adjacent to weld.

Stove pipe welding

Technique for welding cross-country lines using

cellulosic electrodes deposited vertically down.

Stringer bead

A weld bead deposited without significant weave or

transverse oscillation (sometimes the root bead is
referred to as the stringer bead).

Tack weld

A short weld made to hold parts together in good

alignment until final welds are made.

Toe crack

Crack in the base metal adjacent to weld toe.

Underbead crack

Crack in HAZ, not always extending to surface of base

metal.

Undercut

Groove melted into the base metal, adjacent to toe of

the weld and left unfilled by weld metal.

Underfill

Depression on the cap or root surface extending

below the surface.

Weave bead

Weld bead made with transverse oscillation.

Weldability

Capability of the base metal to be welded using

normal procedure(s).

Wetting

The spreading and bonding of the liquid metal on the

base material.

Welding
- uphill

Welding progresses from bottom of pipe to top

(vertical up).
Welding progresses from top to bottom of pipe(vertical
down).
Welding with pipe axes vertical and welding pro
gresses horizontally.
Welding at one position (12 o'clock) whilst pipe is
rotated.

- downhill

- horizontal

- roll

Note: The terms listed are for information - they do not imply recommended practices.

2.4

Hydrostatic Testing

Hydrostatic pressure testing is the accepted method of demonstrating the structural

integrity of pipelines after the completion of construction. Prior to commencing the
hydrostatic test the pipeline should have been adequately cleaned of construction
debris and have successfully passed a gauging plate (preferably aluminium) of 95
percent minimum internal diameter undamaged through the section to be tested.

2.4.1 Testing Requirements

The minimum requirements for testing are detailed in the relevant sections of the ANSI
B31 .4 and B31.8 Codes and include test mediums other than water. Extreme caution
should be exercised if testing with air or gas due to the enormous release of energy in
the event of any pipeline failure. A strength test and a leak test (commonly at a lower
pressure) may be conducted separately but these can be combined into a single test
at the higher strength test pressure provided the necessary test procedures have been
established. The minimum recommended duration for a strength test, leak test or
combined strength/leak test is 24 hours.
For very long pipeline test section lengths, particularly of the larger diameter, leak test
durations should be increased after giving due consideration to the volumetric content
of the test section, its location and to the detectability of possible small leaks.
Variations in pressure during the strength test can be compensated for by the addition
or removal of test water to maintain the correct pressure. For the leak test or
combined leak/strength test it is not permissible to add water to the test section but
water can be removed if pressure build-up is excessive. However any water that is
removed should be measured and taken into account in the test evaluation. In general
large pressure increases are unlikely to occur unless a significant proportion of the
pipeline is exposed to ambient effects.
In determining test section lengths, the profile of the pipeline and hence static head
pressures are to be taken into account, such that the minimum requirements of the
Code are maintained while not exceeding the maximum test pressure. The test
pressure itself should not exceed the pipe mill hydrostatic tests (normally 95 percent
SMYS based on nominal wall thickness for SIPM specification pipe).
Heavier
wall thickness pipe installed at special crossings, e.g. roads, can be tested at the
same pressure and time as the main pipeline subject to any special provisions in the
design or as required by local regulatory authorities. Valves included in a test section
should be in the open position.

In some instances valves are used to segment a completed pipeline for testing
purposes. In such cases it is necessary to ensure that the differential pressure across
the valve is within its design allowance and that special provisions are made to
monitor possible leakage across the valve. Scraper trap facilities included in any test
section are to be tested to the same design code as the pipeline.
Depending on the quality of the water to be used for hydrostatic testing and/or the
length of time it is likely to remain in the pipeline after testing consideration should be
given to protecting the pipeline by the addition of inhibitors, biocides and oxygen
scavengers. Water analysis should be carried out to determine these requirements.

2.4.2 Test Equipment and Instrumentation

Figure 2.4-1 illustrates the minimum requirements for test monitoring equipment.

FIGURE 2.4-1 TYPICAL SCHEMATIC OF TEST SECTION

Legend:
PI
=
PR
=
DWT
Tl1
Tl2
Tl3
M

=
=
=
=
=

pressure gauge, range 1 times test pressure

pressure recorder, range 1 times test pressure recording time 24 hrs.
min.
dead weight tester, accuracy 0.01 bar, with current calibration certificate
pipeskin temperature probes, sensitivity 0.1C
intermediate pipeskin temperature probes (onshore pipelines only)
ambient temperature measurement, sensitivity 0.5 C
volumetric measurement device during pipeline pressurising i.e.
flowmeter or pump stroke counter

2.4.3 Determination of Residual Air Volume in Pipeline

The presence of residual air in the pipeline test section will influence the behaviour of
the test section during the leak test hold period and will tend to disguise the presence
of small leaks. It is necessary, therefore, to demonstrate that the quantity of residual
air that may be present in a pipeline is below a minimum acceptable value prior to
commencing the leak test hold period.
The method for calculating the residual air volume is demonstrated in Figure 2.4-2.
FIGURE 2.4-2 DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL AIR VOLUME

Method:
The air content shall be determined by constructing a pressure/volume plot from
atmospheric pressure up to the linear section of the pressure volume plot curve and
extrapolating back to the axis. The volume of the air shall then be read directly from
the horizontal axis and compared with the total volume of the section. The maximum
residual air contained in the system when filled with water shall not exceed 0.5% of
the calculated volume of the system. If the air content is found to exceed this volume
the section of pipeline shall be refilled. In special circumstances where the availability
of water is very limited and it is not practical to refill the pipeline it is possible to
proceed with the leak test. However due allowance for the presence of residual air
should be included in the evaluation method and where necessary the leak test
duration extended accordingly.

2.4.4 Hydrostatic Leak Test Evaluation

Prior to commencing the leak test hold period, sufficient time should have been
allowed for the pipeline and its contents to stabilise to the prevailing surrounding
temperature. Once stabilised the leak test is commenced and, provided the pipeline
does not contain a leak or excessive quantities of air, any variations in the test
pressure over the hold period should be as a result of minor temperature fluctuations.
To determine whether any pressure variations are a result of temperature fluctuation
or whether a leak is present, the pressure/volume and temperature/volume
relationship for the particular pipeline test section must be considered. For an infinitely
long, fully restrained pipeline this relationship is governed by the following equations:

where:
V
p
T
V
D
E
t

= incremental volume, m
= incremental pressure, bar
0
= incremental temperature, C
3
= pipeline fill volume, m
= pipeline outside diameter, m
= Youngs elastic modulus of steel, bar
= pipe wall thickness, m
= Poisson ratio, = bulk modulus of water, bar
0 -1
= volumetric expansion of water, C
0 -1
= linear expansion of steels, C

By comparison of the incremental volume changes due to pressure and temperature

fluctuations over the leak test hold period, the acceptability of the test can be
established. In the event of there being any doubt after evaluation of the hold period,
the test should be extended until such time as the acceptability is adequately
demonstrated or alternatively the presence of a leak is confirmed. In the latter event
the leak has to be located and removed from the pipeline prior to retesting.
For reference values of the bulk modulus and volumetric expansion of both fresh
water and sea water are given in Figures 2.4-3 to 6.

FIGURE 2.4-3 BULK MODULUS OF FRESH WATER AS A FUNCTION OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

FIGURE 2.4-4 BULK MODULUS OF SEA WATER AS A FUNCTION OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

FIGURE 2.4-5 VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION COEEFICIENT OF FRESH WATER AS A FUNCTIONAL OF PRESSURE AND
TEMPERATURE

FIGURE 2.4-6 VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION COEEFICIENT OF SEA WATER AS A FUNCTIONAL OF PRESSURE AND
TEMPERATURE

2.4.5 Location of Leaks During Hydrostatic Testing

While the incidence of leakages/failures during hydrostatic testing is relatively low, its
occurrence can cause considerable delays and additional costs. To minimise potential
delay and cost it is prudent to formulate a contingency plan at an early stage in the
project which can be swiftly put into action if required.
Such a contingency plan could, for example, include the addition of a dye to the test
water in an offshore pipeline so that in the event of a leak occurring it would not
become necessary to refill the pipeline with water containing dye.
A variety of techniques are available for locating leaks both in onshore and offshore
pipelines. Table 2.4-1 summarises the presently available techniques together with
some pertinent information.

Table 2.4-1 Summary of methods for the location of leaks during hydrostatic testing

2.5
2.5.1

Cleaning/Drying/Pigging
Cleaning

Pipelines built for the transportation of liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons normally

require thorough cleaning to achieve the following objectives:
(a)
To reduce the risk of corrosion induced by the presence of debris.
(b)
To protect downstream plant facilities from fouling.
(c)
To maintain the transport efficiency and the quality of the product.
Table 2.5-1 summarises the main pipeline cleaning methods and their application to
pipelines at different stages in their lifetime.

Table 2.5-1 Cleaning applications/methods

2.5.1.1

Cleaning Methods

Depending on the operational service and the actual condition of the pipeline an
appropriate cleaning method has to be selected for the degree of cleanliness required.
(a) Water Flush
This entails flushing with water at velocities above 3 m/s with the aim of washing out
loose debris. If sea water is used as the primary flushing agent, fresh water must be
used subsequently to flush out the residual salt water. The method is, however, limited
by the available pumping and/or storage and disposal facilities.

(b) Scraping/Brush Pigging

In this method a number of cup pigs equipped with either brushes or scraper blades,
or foam pigs with wire brushes, are driven through the line propelled by water or air.
By this method loose debris and loosely attached rust and mill scale can be effectively
removed.
Removal of hard or tightly adhering deposits or scale will require the use of special
tools or a chemical cleaning programme.
To reduce a risk of pile build-up of debris ahead of a tool, pigs should first be run with
open bypass holes. This allows the propellant to pass through the pig.

(c) Gel Plug

This is a new method developed by Shell Development Company, USA, capable of
removing relatively large quantities of loose debris from a pipeline system. The
method can be particularly attractive for long distance trunk-lines when an
unacceptably high risk of line blockage exists if conventional pigs are used, or when a
water flush is ruled out for technical or economic reasons.
A gel cleaning train consists of batches of visco-elastic and visco-plastic gel
interspaced with separation pigs (see Figure 2.5-1). The train is propelled by air, water
or gas at a controlled speed of approx. 0.3 m/s.
In principle, the separation pig forces the fluid in the vicinity of the pipe wall to pick up
loose debris, and move it into the central plug flow region, where it is then carried
forward and distributed in the gel batch and eventually removed from the pipeline.
A gel does not possess abrasive or chemical cleaning properties. It should be noted
that a gel cleaning train must be specially designed for a particular application (Central
Offices to advise). (See Figure 2.5-1.)

FIGURE 2.5-1 GEL CLEANING TRAIN

(d) Special Cleaning

Methods known for cleaning of pipelines to bare metal conditions required
for a particular service or for internal coating preparation are;
- the shot/grit blast process
- chemical cleaning.
The first method is restricted to short distance pipelines (max. length depends on
diameter) whilst in-situ chemical cleaning, using batches of a specified acid
concentration followed by a rinsing cycle, can be designed for longer distance
pipelines but requires specialised contractors.
The requirements for and the application of internal protective coatings are described
in 1.3.7.

2.5.1.2

Guidelines on Cleaning Methods

From the moment a pipe is manufactured until it becomes operational as part of an

integrated pipeline system, it is of great importance to keep the pipes as clean and dry
as possible. Rust and debris will absorb and retain water and even fully treated sweet
water remaining in debris may adversely affect the condition of the line.
It is therefore essential that the protection of pipe and its cleaning is implemented by
appropriate contractual provisions during transport, storage and construction, and by
sound supervision and inspection practices.
Prior to the execution of any cleaning operation it is advisable to make provisions
enabling reliable control of the cleaning pig runs by means of pressure and flow
control. Further, it must be ensured that the vendors specifications are adhered to.

The effectiveness of debris removal is difficult to measure and the specification of a

'degree of cleanliness' is even more difficult to establish. It is advisable to monitor the
condition of a pipeline when filled with inhibited water over a length of time. This can
be achieved by the use of coupons, made from pipe material and by keeping the
coupons under the same conditions as the pipeline.
The specification of storage, pumping, fluid treatment, and disposal facilities for a
water flush, a gel cleaning or any special cleaning operation, requires special
investigation or advice from Central Offices (Pipelines Section) when such operations
are contemplated.
The application of cleaning methods during operation are described in more detail in
3.5.1 (Routine and Special Operations).

2.5.2 Drying
After construction and hydrostatic testing of pipelines it is sometimes necessary to dry
the pipeline completely prior to putting it into service. This may be required to prevent
corrosion or hydrate formation in the pipeline or to comply with stringent product
specification requirements. The drying process is to be preceded by thorough cleaning
and dewatering to ensure that no debris and no pools of water are left in the pipeline.
Under certain conditions it may be possible that deficiencies in dryness can be
compensated for by inhibition (see 3.3.5 and 3.5.2).

2.5.2.1

Drying Methods

The principles and the limitations of two currently recommended drying methods are
described below.
(a) Air/Gas Drying
This method relies on the absorption of the remaining water film into dry air or dry gas.
This is commonly achieved by passing dry air or dry gas, at low pressure, through the
pipeline in conjunction with foam pigs until the desired degree of dryness has been
achieved. The application of this method in long pipelines (i.e. 25km or longer) is
limited by the effectiveness of the foam pigs to remove all the fine rust particles. As a
0
result the drying time to achieve a dryness level below - 10 C water dew point may
become impractically long.
(b) Vacuum Drying
This method relies on the vaporisation of the remaining water film in the pipeline and
the evacuation of the water vapour from the pipeline.

The vaporisation is effected by lowering the pressure in the pipeline to a vacuum level
at which the water will boil at a temperature slightly lower than the surrounding
temperature.
Application of this method is for practical reasons limited to diameters above, say, 10
inches, because in smaller diameters the high pipeline pressure drop affects the pump
mass flow capacity resulting in long drying times. In cold climates the method is limited
because the low-temperature conditions lead to low water boiling pressure and
subsequent low vapour density which reduces the mass flow capacity of the pump,
again resulting in long drying times.

2.5.2.2

Equipment/Utility Requirements

Air/Gas Drying
- Air compressors or gas flow of sufficiently large capacity to propel pigs at a velocity
of 1-2 m/s.
0

- Dryers capable of drying the air or gas to a water dew point of at least 50 C.
- Polyurethane foam pigs.
- Pressure and dew point measuring instruments.
- Inert dry gas supply to purge line after an air drying operation.
- Flow instrumentation.
Vacuum Drying
- Vacuum pumps, e.g. Roots blower, liquid ring pumps, etc., and/or vacuum ejectors
of sufficiently large capacity to evacuate line to boil-off level and to accomplish the
specified dryness within a predetermined time interval.
- Air or steam supply for the ejector units.
- Cooling water supply for condensors and vacuum pumps when applicable.
- Flow, pressure and dew point measurement instruments.
- Inert gas supply to check the dryness and to fill the line if necessary.

2.5.2.3

Guidelines on Drying Methods

The most appropriate method depends on many factors, including the parameters of
the pipeline to be dried, its location, the degree of dryness required, logistics, timing,
economics, etc.
The degree of dryness depends upon the operational service whereby (as a 'rule of
thumb') no corrosion is expected if the line is dried to a water dew point at
0
atmospheric pressure approximately 10 C below the water dew point of the fluid at
the design pressure (specified dew point).

The success of a drying operation depends largely on the success in removing

residual pools of water from the line during the dewatering operation. To accomplish
this, a number of pigs are passed through the line to pre-condition the line prior to the
drying cycle.
The drying time should be estimated as accurately as possible prior to starting the
drying operation. The accuracy depends largely on the estimate of the water film left in
the line after dewatering, assuming that all loose debris has been removed during the
construction cleaning operation (see 2.5.1.1) and that no pools of water have been left
in the line (see 2.5.2). Some of the factors influencing the wafer film are:
- condition of the pipewall (millscale, rust and effective roughness)
- profile and length of line, and their influence on pigging
- effectiveness of pigging.
As a 'rule of thumb', under average conditions, it can be assumed that a liquid film of
0.1 mm thickness is left in a clean pipeline after dewatering.
In order to confirm the success of the drying operation, the pipeline must be purged
with at least one line fill of a dry gaseous medium with a dew point equal to the
specified dew point. If the dew point (adjusted for pressure) at the outlet remains equal
to the dew point at the inlet, the line can be considered to have been dried to the
required dew point.

2.5.3 Pigging
The use of pigs and spheres in pipeline operation has become a well accepted
procedure. However, the full extent of the advantages that their use may provide is not
always recognised. This may be due to various reasons such as inexperience in pig
operation, and unfamiliarity with the recent and fast growing development of new
applications which form part of routine operation in other pipelines or plants.
This Section summarises pig operation in pipelines. The various field applications, the
different types of pigs available together with their characteristics, and the conditions
required for correct operation are described so as to provide guidelines for each
application. This Section does not fulfil the function of a detailed handbook (such as
Ref. 1). The reader is therefore recommended to contact a reputable manufacturer
and/or Central Offices, The Hague, when specific advice is required.

Notes:
1. When ever the word 'pig' is used here under without any special indication, it
refers to all types of pigs and spheres.
2. Cup types are not bi-directional and should not be used if there is any likelihood
that they may get stuck.

2.5.3.1

Application and Types of Pigs

For the various applications shown the following types of pigs are used:
(a)For pipeline cleaning see Table 2.5-2.
Cup Types
Pigs having a steel body fitted with cups and either hardened steel brushes, to remove
rust, or polyurethane scrapers to remove wax deposits.
Foam Types
Made of hard polyurethane foam, covered with abrasive coating or wirebrush bands to
remove rust.
(b) For gauging product displacement or separation see Table 2.5-3.
Cup Types
Pigs having a steel body and fitted with two or more cups.
Type 1 gauging pig: used during construction to check the pipeline for buckles or
dents.
Type 2 displacement/separation pig: primarily intended for use in multi-bend
pipelines to maintain a seal between batches of different liquids or
between gas/liquid phases.
Disc Types
Pigs having a steel body and fitted with four or more diaphragm discs to allow bidirectional use, especially during filling and dewatering operations before, during and
after hydrostatic testing, when there is a chance that a cup-pig may get stuck.
Spheres
Spherical moulded tools made of polyurethane or neoprene (of which the larger sizes
are inflatable); mainly used for product separation, and controlling liquid hold-up.

Table 2.5-2 Cleaning pigs

Table 2.5-3 Gauging pig and displacement/separation pigs (spheres)

(c)For pipeline swabbing and drying see Table 2.5-4.

Foam Types
Pigs made of plain soft polyurethane foam used for water absorption in swabbing and
drying service.

Table 2.5-4 Swabbing/drying pigs

(d) To carry instruments:

See 3.4.3 (Intelligent Pigs) for details on application.

2.5.3.2

Launching and Receiving Traps

A typical procedure which allows the easy insertion into, and withdrawal of pigs from,
a pipeline without shutting down the whole line is described in Section 2.6 of Vol.6. A
basic line diagram is shown in Figure 2.5-2.
Launching and receiving traps consist of a barrel made of steel pipe at least 50 mm (2
in.) larger in diameter than the pig and of sufficient length to contain the required
number of pigs. Additionally, the receiving trap must be sized for any expected
accumulation of solid material or wax. The traps are usually equipped with quick
closures, while their mechanical design must meet the applicable pipeline Design
Code requirements. Vents, drains, balance lines, door safety mechanisms, etc are
required on the traps, together with double valves in some instances.

The safety aspects of these requirements are discussed in EP 55000-21 and detailed
requirements will be included in a planned Group standard called "Design of pig trap
systems for transmission pipelines".

The launching and receiving barrels may be inclined to facilitate both the introduction
and the retrieval of the pig.

Note. Mechanics handling gear is usually provided for larger size pig launching and
receiving traps. The use of 'intelligent pigs' may require barrel lengths longer than
those normally required for conventional pigging (see 1.6).

FIGURE 2.5-2 DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL LAUNCHING/RECEIVING TRAP

2.5.3.3

Ancillary Equipment

(a) Intermediate Traps

An intermediate trap is a combination of a receiving and launching trap.
Modern methods for bypassing pumping stations, however, no longer require the
removal of the pig from the line and the operation can be fully automated. On reaching
the pumping station, the pig is diverted into the bypass section, while the main flow
passes through the pumps. The pig is re-injected into the main flow at the pumping
station outlet.
(b) Pig Signallers
Pig signallers are usually of the mechanical type. The plunger type is preferred and
should be of the type that can be serviced under line pressure.
(c) Pig Locators
Pig locators are used either to follow the course of the pig in the pipeline from the
outside or to detect the location of a pig jammed in the line.
(d) Tees
The maximum diameter branch opening for each pig size is indicated in
manufacturers' catalogues. Guide bars are required to prevent jamming of the pig in
the branch opening if the branch line exceeds a certain diameter. Furthermore, in the
case of spheres, construction should be such that inadvertent lodging of spheres is
prevented. Ready-made tees for pig or sphere duties are available from
manufacturers.
(e) Radii of Bends
Bends in pipelines which have to be pigged or scraped regularly without undue
restriction to flow should have radii equal to, but preferably more than, three times the
pipe diameter especially when designed for use of intelligent pigs. In the case of low
velocities or in cases where space is at a premium, bends with radii 1 times the pipe
diameter can be negotiated by most pigs (but rarely intelligent pigs) and all spheres.
The advice of the selected manufacturer should be sought on this matter. Mitred
bends should not be used.
(f) Valves
For valve types which are suitable for pigging/scraping, reference should be made to
valve catalogues. Valves must be of the full-bore type.

3. OPERATIONS

3.1

Commissioning

The commissioning of a pipeline system commences when the pipeline is connected

10 the upstream and downstream production facilities and considered ready for its
operational duty, i.e.:
- Construction is completed and checked in accordance with design.
- Pipeline is preconditioned to a specified degree of cleanliness and dryness to
prevent unacceptable corrosion or hydrate formation during commissioning.
- Pipeline is filled with a suitable medium which can be safely displaced by the
transport medium.
- Pipeline operating control system is tested for its operability.
During the commissioning period, the performance of the pipeline system will have to
be checked, against realistic predetermined initial operating conditions.
Additionally, there are certain aspects related to the operation of the liquid product or
gas pipelines respectively, which will require verification during the initial start-up
period and subsequently as outlined below.

3.1.1 Liquid Product Pipelines

These pipelines are designed to transport liquid hydrocarbons or chemical feedstocks.
Monitoring of the following aspects will be important to ensure that no hydrate
formation or corrosion takes place.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Product contamination, sediments or deposits and their removal.

Pressure, flow, temperature and moisture content.
Presence of corrosive components in combination with presence of free water.
Corrosion rate.
Effectiveness of corrosion control programme when applied.
General condition of the pipeline system.

3.1.2 Gas Pipelines

Pipelines designed to transport natural gas can be subdivided into:
- Sweet gas
Gas which may or may not contain CO2 but no H2S.

- Sour gas
Gas which contains H2S (see HSE in Volume 1) with or without CO2.
Pipelines transporting one of these gases will be sensitive to corrosion and! or hydrate
formation if free water is present. Therefore it is necessary to monitor the following
aspects:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Dryness of gas produced into and out of the pipeline.

Pressure, flow and temperature.
Corrosion rate and other possible corrosion aspects.
Liquid and/or sediment build up and their removal.
Effectiveness of corrosion control programme when applied.
General condition of the pipeline system.

3.2

Pipeline Monitoring and Control

3.2.1 Process and Instrument Diagram

This section gives a general overview of a pipeline system via a simplified Process
and Instrument Diagram (Figure 3.2-1).
The types of instrumentation in a pipeline system can comprise the following:
(a) Flow, pressure, temperature measurements
(b) Quality measurements
(c) Safety systems
(d) Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems.
(e) Leak detection systems.
Except for (e), all the above types are covered in Volume 9, to which reference should
be made for more detailed information.

FIGURE 3.2-1 SIMPLIFIED PROCESS AND INSTRUMENT DIAGRAM

3.2.2

Leak Detection

Although in some countries certain methods of leak detection may be required by

law, in general they are installed for the following reasons:
- safety, with particular regard to products transported
- environmental protection
product conservation
minimisation of third party compensations
minimisation of loss to users.
Different methods are available for the detection of leaks of which an overview is
given in Table 3.2-1.
Table 3.2-I Leak detection methods

It should be noted that the figures given in Table 3.2-1 are indicative only and basically
relate to cross-country oil pipeline experience. In general, the detectability of leaks
decreases with increasing compressibility of the fluid transported.

3.3

Internal Corrosion and Corrosion Monitoring

This Section gives a brief overview of internal corrosion monitoring and control (see
Volume 9 for more detailed information). External corrosion and corrosion protection
are covered in Section 1.3.

3.3.1 Internal Corrosion, General

The potential for corrosion almost always exists. Its effects can be minimised and
delayed through good design, monitoring, and a knowledge of corrosion processes
and protection.
Corrosion in carbon steel pipelines can take place when the following agents occur
(singly or in combination):
WATER (always required) and

- CO2 (sweet corrosion)

- H2S (sour corrosion)
- O2
(oxygen corrosion)

The severity of corrosion is controlled by the physical variables of the environment (in
addition to the concentration of the corrosive agents), i.e.: temperature, pressure,
conductivity, pH and fluid velocity.

The severity is modified by mill scale, stresses (constant, cyclic), heat treatment,
combinations of metals, etc.

3.3.2 Internal Corrosion and Control at the Design Stage

Corrosion control must always start at the design stage and be based on the
anticipated presence of water in combination with the possible presence of any or all
of the following: H2S, CO2, O2, chlorides (especially with stainless steels), other salts
and debris.
Whatever measures are chosen, careful monitoring is required to check their
effectiveness.
The following methods are available to remove water from liquids and gases
(after separation):
(a) Liquid
- separator
- electrostatic precipitator.
(b) Gas
- absorption with liquid desiccants,
e.g. glycol in a continuous system

- adsorption with solid desiccants

(alumina, silica gel, silica-alumina beds, molecular sieves) all in cyclic,
regenerative systems
- expansion refrigeration.
Further possibilities for dealing with internal corrosion of pipelines are:
- Oxygen scavenging (typically for waterlines)
- Chemical inhibition
- Chemical control (removal of dissolved gases)
- pH adjustment
0
- Internal coating (limited to less than 80 bar and less than 110 C, limited lifetime)
- Use of corrosion-resistant materials or linings (metallic or non-metallic)
- Stress, shock load and vibration reduction
- Elimination of sharp bends and high turbulence
- Corrosion allowance on wall thickness (only where uniform corrosion can be
predicted)
- Regular removal of debris and deposits by pigging (see 2.5.3).

3.3.3 Corrosion Monitoring

Corrosion monitoring is essential, and adequate provision should be made for this at
the design stage of any project. An overall picture of the rate and types of corrosion
that are occurring is achieved by considering the combination of results of the
appropriate available methods, i.e.:
- corroding specimens
coupons
probes
test spools
- electrical/electrochemical methods
- linear polarisation instruments
- hydrogen patch probes
- chemical methods
inhibitor tests
corrosion product analysis
bacteria counts
dissolved iron counts
- physical methods

radiography

ultrasonics

eddy current (see 3.4.3, internal inspection tools)

3.3.4 Dryness Monitoring

Where it is the intention to minimise pipeline corrosion by drying the medium to be
transported, it is essential that reliable monitoring is carried out of the amount of water
present (for gases, this is dew point measurement). 100% back-up facilities and
frequent (weekly) instrument calibration is needed. Continuous measurement is
preferred. Particular care is needed to prevent wet upsets during start-ups, shutdowns and transition periods. Appropriate remedial action such as inhibition, diverting
of the medium away from the pipeline, or recycling can be initiated by dryness
measurements. Note that in sour service, H2S can combine with iron oxides (rust, mill
scale, etc.) to produce sulphur and water.

3.3.5 Corrosion Prevention Methods

As discussed previously in this Section, corrosion prevention starts at the design stage
and consists of choice of suitable material (see 1.2), coatings and cathodic protection
(see 1.3) and inhibition.
Inhibitors can be grouped according to the way in which they work as follows:
- Barrier Layer Formers
- Neutralising Inhibitors
- Scavengers (Oxygen)
- Miscellaneous (such as biocides and scale inhibitors)
Inhibitors should:
- reduce corrosion significantly and (in sour service) at the same time reduce
hydrogen absorption.
- be soluble in a solvent present in or compatible with the medium to be transported.
- be compatible with downstream operations, e.g., should not lead to foaming in
glycol plants or present toxicity problems in effluents.
0
- be stable throughout the range of operating temperatures (not exceeding160 C).
- not form a stable emulsion in oil/water systems.
Specialist advice and laboratory screening are recommended to determine the
appropriate inhibitor.
A suitable application method in the field is best decided from a combination of the
manufacturer's recommendations and the results of testing.

Inhibitors can be injected continuously to mix with the medium or applied in slugs. In a
batch or slug, the inhibitor is mixed with a carrier and sent down the pipeline between
two spheres or cupped pigs. The test results will give information about concentrations
and batching frequency to be used.
It is important that pipelines to be protected are well-cleaned, as inhibitors are
ineffective in the presence of dirt and/or scale which allows corrosion to take place
beneath it. Cleaning pigs will disturb a film of inhibitor on the pipewall, so such
operations should precede inhibition treatment.
To limit turbulence caused by weld upsets, and consequent localised lack of inhibition
film, weld upsets on the inside of the pipe should be limited to 0.5 mm or less. This
can be expensive, but should be done when the risk of corrosion from this source is
high.
The effectiveness of inhibitors is measured by reduced corrosion rates being
observed, so good record-keeping is important in order to obtain protection at
minimum cost. Inhibitor slugs or batches should coat the whole internal surface of the
pipe, and measurement by the neutron back-scattering technique can determine if the
slug or batch covers the whole cross-sectional area of the pipeline. Where continuous
injection is carried out, the upstream and downstream inhibitor concentrations should
be monitored to ensure that inhibitor is being steadily received at the end of the
pipeline.

3.4

Pipeline Inspection

3.4.1 Pipeline Failures

Although pipelines are considered as the safest means of bulk transportation for
hydrocarbons when compared with others, e.g. rail, road or barge, some failures do
occur which result in spillages.
FIGURE 3.4-1 PERFORMANCE OF OIL PIPELINES IN WESTERN EUROPE AND
IN THE NORTH SEA

Figure 3.4-1 shows a graphical presentation reported by QONCAWE (The Oil

Companies European Organisation for Environmental and Health Protection,
Brussels) and UKOGA (United kingdom Oil Operations Association) on the causes of
incidents relating to pipelines, in Western Europe and the North Sea respectively.
It can be seen from the graphs that the majority of incidents can be attributed to three
major categories, i.e. mechanical failure, corrosion and third party activity external
impact.

3.4.2 Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring Methods

The main causes of incidents are briefly discussed below together with measures to
identify and locate potential leaks and reduce the frequency and severity of their
occurrence.

3.4.2.1

Third Party Activities

Pipeline surveillance by flying or walking the route are the principal visual methods in
use to obtain early information on activities potentially hazardous to the pipeline, e.g.
civil construction near or on the pipeline way-leave, etc. The frequency of visual
inspection should be based on local requirements.
In certain areas the so-called 'one-call system' has been introduced whereby the
contractor planning to perform works in a certain location may call one telephone
number.
In other areas the prospective contractor is required by local law, before performing
the works, to consult a central body where plans and drawings of all pipelines in the
area are kept up-to-date.

3.4.2.2

Corrosion

Prevention of external corrosion commences with the design and installation of the
appropriate pipeline coating and cathodic protection (CP) system (see 1.3.6
and 3.4.2.4). If there is a risk of internal corrosion, this can be combatted by
appropriate operational methods, e.g. regular pigging of the pipeline by sending
spheres or pigs through the line to prevent settling out of water at low points along the
route, and/or in certain cases the application of appropriate corrosion inhibitors
(see 3.3).
The occurence of internal/external corrosion may be determined by means of special
metal loss inspection tools sent through the pipeline with the medium acting as
propelling agent (for a survey of commercially available inspection tools see 3.4.3).

Examples of intelligent pigs are:

Tuboscope/ Linalog
British Gas/On-Line Inspection Tool (OLI)
Pipetronix/ Ultrascan
The first two operate on the principle of magnetic flux leakage whilst the last
one uses ultrasonics. The Linalog tool is shown in Figure 3.4-2. The metal
loss measurements are recorded in the tool for off-line processing and evaluation. The data can be evaluated visually, as shown in Figure 3.4-3, or by
computer techniques
FIGURE 3.4-2 THE 'LINALOG' INSPECTION TOOL

FIGURE 3.4-3 THE LINALOG RECORD

3.4.2.3

Mechanical

Sound pipeline design including proper material selection, manufacturing quality assurance,
inspection and testing of pipes, valves, fittings, pumps etc., together with proven construction
techniques, rigid supervision, X-ray testing of welds and hydrostatic testing are essential
procedures for minimising the occurrence of mechanical failures during operation.
On-line inspection of the mechanical condition of the pipeline can be done by means of
Inspection tools, e.g. the Kaliper Pig and the Gee-pig (see 3.4.3). The Kaliper Pig's rear cup
contains a finger mechanism which detects deformations. These deformations are recorded
inside a sealed instrument container within the Kaliper Pig for retrieval and analysis.
As an example a Kaliper run record is shown in Figure 3.4-4.
FIGURE 3.4-4 KALIPER RUN RECORD

3.4.2.4

Inspection of Cathodic Protection (CP) Systems on Pipelines

(a) Onshore (buried)

For major lines which are normally protected by impressed current the following inspection
procedure is recommended:
(b) Routine Inspection
Potential measurement via access posts along the right-of-way:
- Preferred reference electrode: Copper - Copper sulphate with porous end plug. Ensure
contact by watering soil.
- Voltmeter input impedance: > 1 M. For desert areas (high soil resistivity) 100 M is
recommended. For optimum measurement the use of a 'compensator' is to be preferred.
Current-off technique should be used when possible.

(ii) Intensive Inspection

This should be carried out 1 year after commissioning and repeated every 5 years. The
inspection should cover close-to-pipe potentials between scheduled access posts (see Figure
3.4-5).
FIGURE 3.4-5 INTENSIVE CATHODIC PROTECTION INSPECTION

(b) Offshore
Options (in order of decreasing ease of application):
- Diver measurement at selected spots.
- Permanent monitoring via acoustic telemetry system.
- Survey via wire and contact to pipe with diver or ROV.
- Remote electrode method: one reference electrode towed over pipe, one remote electrode
at surface: gives potential profile.
- Potential gradient measurement: Measures current flowing through seawater to pipe (or out
of anode).

3.4.3 Intelligent Pigs

There are several commercially available intelligent pigs, as shown in Table 3.4-1.
SIPM, in conjunction with SIRM, is continually assessing the performance of available
tools. Status report EP 88-2280 was the last formal report on these tools but a replacement
EP report, 'Status Report on On-line Inspection Tools', will be issued in 1991.
In most cases intensive line preparation is required before intelligent pigs can be applied. The
order of sequence is as follows:
- Ensure that all bends can be negotiated by intelligent pig
- Install launching and receiving facilities (if required)
- Remove any known obstructions
- Clean pipeline
- Run geometry inspection pig, e.g. T.D. Williamson Kaliper

Remove any detected dents that can obstruct intelligent pig

Run dummy intelligent pig with gauging plate
Run intelligent pig.

Table 3.4-1 Types of commercially available intelligent pigs

3.5

Routine and Special Operations

During the lifetime of a pipeline, conditions may develop which will require routine and/or
special operational measures in order to maintain the Integrity of the pipeline system, or to
warrant its efficient, reliable and economic operation. Such conditions may be due to the
following:
-

corrosivity of the fluid

hydrate formation
formation of inorganic deposits
formation of wax deposits
condensation or carry-over of water ('wet upset')
product contamination.

Operating and maintenance procedures should ensure that operating parameters and line
status are monitored and analysed as a matter of routine and that information obtained from
inspection surveys (see 3.4) and corrosion monitoring exercises (see 3.3.3) is evaluated. This
will enable early identification of significant changes and timely implementation of corrective
action.
The methods available to maintain a pipeline system in an optimum condition
are:
- cleaning
- inhibition
- liquid removal
- product separation.
The application of each method depends on many factors, including amongst others the
characteristics of the product and the existing condition of the pipeline.

3.5.1 Cleaning
The build-up of corrosion products or other deposits will gradually increase
the internal roughness of the pipeline thereby reducing the flow and increasing the head loss.
Routine cleaning during operation is therefore of vital
importance to maintain the pipeline in an optimum condition, i.e.:
- to prevent loss of efficiency
- to reduce the risk of corrosion
- to ensure effectiveness of inspection tool survey
- to facilitate effective corrosion inhibition.
Some cleaning methods for application during operation are described in 2.5.1.1.

3.5.2 Inhibition
Inhibition of pipelines during operation is considered as the second line of defence to control
internal corrosion. The primary measure remains the control of the dryness of the product
transported. The reasons for an inhibition programme and the various types of inhibitors
applied are described in 3.3.5.

3.5.3 Liquid Removal

Pipelines transporting liquids, gas or a combination of both, may have to be operated under
conditions whereby other fluids may settle out of the transported medium. This condition may
be the flow velocity being insufficient for entrainment, or an intermittent flow pattern or
pressure/temperature related solubility changes.
The fluids, which settle out, may upset flow conditions, cause hydrate formation and/or may be
corrosive. The removal of such fluids is therefore essential for the proper operation of the
pipeline.
Under some conditions removal can be effected without the use of pigs (if the flow velocity is
sufficient to maintain entrainment, e.g. for oil lines water pick up is at velocities in the region of
1 m/s). However under conditions where settlement is expected, periodic pigging or sphering
must be applied to ensure maximum transport efficiency.

3.5.4 Product Separation

To prevent contamination of products in multi-product pipeline systems the liquids transferred
in succession are commonly separated by spheres. The arriving batches at the end of each
transfer can be easily routed into proper tankage when pig-passage signallers, situated some
distance upstream of the terminal, give an early warning of the arrival of each batch.

3.6
3.6.1

Pipeline Repair
Safety

Execution of effective and safe repair work requires careful planning. In case of a pipeline
rupture involving escape of flammable and toxic hydrocarbon gases or liquids, emergency
procedures should be followed aiming at avoiding risks of personnel injuries, and minimising
material and environmental damage (see 3.6.2). Pre-planning and special training is considered good practice in order to ensure that all personnel involved, Company as well as
contractors, are familiar with measures to establish and maintain safe working and
environmental conditions at the repair site, to be aware of and avoid potentially hazardous
situations, know the resources available (manpower, equipment, material) and the
responsibilities and reporting relationships within the emergency organisation.
Safety measures will be required after a pipeline rupture mostly because of the risk of fire or
explosion and sometime because of toxic or other hazards. Such measures fall outside the
scope of this Handbook.
However, it is strongly recommended that all personnel involved in implementing repairs
familiarise themselves with relevant safety manuals (see also 3.6.2).
Repair work on pipelines with exposure to hydrocarbons requires hot work permits, to be
issued by the responsible operating department's representative.

3.6.2 Emergency Procedures

The development of emergency procedures is recommended covering:
(a) Pipeline shut-down
(b) Leak search
(c) Organisational procedures for handling emergencies including notification of authorities (if
required)
(d) Safety
(e) Repair methods
(f) Re-commisioning, if required, and start-up.
The procedures concerning repair methods should cover a range of techniques in order to
cope with varying conditions of leak sizes. Options may include construction techniques for
swamp, dry land, habitated areas or beach area, shallow and deep water (offshore).

The availability of materials should be analysed and where necessary pipe, connectors,
fittings, clamps and special repair equipment should be procured and kept in working order in
separate storage. It may be necessary to have standby contract arrangements with
contractors to ensure availability of construction equipment for emergency repatrs

The availability of emergency procedures will avoid or reduce confusion and consequently
minimise repair time.

3.6.3 Temporary Repair

Temporary repairs are often made aiming at maintaining flow in the pipeline, with reduced
pressure if necessary, while the final repair can be planned and implemented in due course.
Various types of clamps (PLIDCO, etc.) are available for temporary repair or for repair of minor
leaks in pipelines. These clamps will in most cases only re-establish the pressure holding
capability of the pipeline. If the pipeline is experiencing bending moments and/or tension at the
leak point it may be necessary to use a clamp which has the capability to transmit such forces
adequately, e.g. Hydrotech and Gripper.
Small cracks should be mapped using ultrasonic equipment and drilled at the crack tip in order
to prevent further crack growth.
See also the split sleeve method described in Section 3.6.4.1 below.
3.6.4 Permanent Repair
3.6.4.1 In-Service Repair
A well proven method of in-service repair is by welding full encirclement split sleeves over the
defective section of pipe. This method is however generally only suitable for external damage
or defects. Internal defects, normally corrosion, can be expected to worsen and result in
product leaking into the sleeve. Although the sleeve may be fully pressure containing, the
integrity of the fillet welds and the sleeve itself is likely to be in doubt since the annulus will
become filled with stagnant product and any water or debris drop-out. This method may
however be useful as a short-term temporary repair of internal defects.
The sleeves can be of two types: fillet-welded ends and non-welded ends. The former is
generally the preferred method for long term integrity but it does involve 'hot' working.
The beneficial effect of filling external defects, such as gouges and dents, with epoxy filler
prior to installing the sleeves is well established.

3.6.4.2

Major Repair

Major repair work, e.g. replacement of pipe sections or pipeline components such as valves,
requires shut-down of operations, depressurising, and evacuation of the pipe section to be
repaired.
Some typical aspects of major repair jobs are mentioned below:
Planning: Careful planning aims at limiting risks involved as well as controlling costs incurred
by major repair work and loss of production. Again, safety and protection of the environment
should have highest priority (see 3.6.1 and 3.6.2).
Comprehensive and detailed work programmes, including check-lists should be established
comprising all operating manipulations required for safely shutting down and restarting the
system. Critical path schedules can be useful tools in planning complex repair jobs.
Evacuation of pipelines: Liquid products can be removed from pipelines
using one or a combination of the following methods:
- gravitation and/or suction from low points
- replacement of line content by gas, air or water.
The method to be selected depends on evaluation of a variety of technical, environmental, and
economic factors, e.g. pipeline profile, accessibility, volume and properties of product,
environmental conditions, logistics, availability and costs of gas, air and water supply.
Some repair aspects: Pipe deformation and other damage (buckles, dents, cracks, corrosion
holes) which materially affect the capability of the pipe to carry pressure, bending moment
and/or tension should be repaired by replacement of the damaged section. If clamps are used
as a (temporary) joint connection for such repairs, manufacturers' instructions for maximum allowable pressures and anchoring requirements should be followed carefully.

In offshore lines, new sections can be attached to the pipeline by hyperbaric welding or
mechanical connectors. The use of hyperbaric welding is preferred for high pressure gas lines.
In shallow water it is sometimes feasible to repair the pipeline by lifting both pipe ends
(damaged section cutout on the seabed) above water. A new pipe section is welded in place
and the line is laid sideways on the seabed (see also 2.2.2.2).
Central Offices can assist with the selection of the repair method most suitable for local
conditions, e.g. as part of the preparation of a pipeline repair manual.

4 . PIPELINE STANDARDS
4.1 General
In the absence of statutory requirements it is common practice to design and operate pipelines
in accordance with the ANSI Codes B31.4 and B31.8, for liquid and gas pipelines respectively,
and with the documents that are referenced therein, These, together with several other
relevant external standards, are listed below.
Additional requirements to these external standards are being developed, where considered
necessary by SIPM, to form 'Common Base' Group Standards. Stand-alone Group Standards
are also being developed for use where no appropriate internationally recognised standards
exist. Development of these Group standards is commencing in 1991.
The list of proposed Group Standards is also given below.
4.2 External Standards
The 'base' American codes for design, construction and operation of pipelines are:
ANSI B31.4
Liquid transportation systems for hydrocarbons, LPG,
anhydrous ammonia, and alcohols
ANSI B31.8
Gas transmission and distribution piping systems
ANSI B31.11
Slurry Pipelines
Documents referenced in the above Codes:
Other Codes
ANSI B31G
ANSI B31.3
ASME VIII

Manual for determining the remaining strength of

corroded pipelines
Chemical plant and petroleum refinery piping
Boiler and pressure vessel code

Standards
ANSI B16.34
ANSI B16.10
ANSI B16.11

Steel valves (flanged and buttwelding ends)

Valve dimensions
Forged steel fittings socket, welding and threaded

ANSI B16.25
ANSI B16.5
ANSI B16.9

API Std 1104

Butt weld ends

Steel pipe flanges, flanged valves and fittings
Factory made wrought steel buttwelding fittings

Welding of pipelines and related facilities

Recommended Practices
API RP 5 L1
API RP 5 L2
API RP 5 L3
API RP 5 L5
API RP 5 L6
API RP 14 C
API RP 1102
API RP 1107
API RP 1109
API RP 1110
API RP 1111

NACE RP-01-75
NACE RP-01-69

Recommended practice for railroad transportation of linepipe

Recommended practice for internal coating of linepipe for noncorrosive
gas transmission service
Recommended practice for conducting drop-weight tear tests on linepipe
Recommended practice for marine transportation of linepipe
Recommended practice for inland waterway transportation of linepipe
Details of protective devices on pipelines connected to platforms
Recommended practice for liquid petroleum pipelines crossing railroads
and highways
Recommended pipeline maintenance welding practices
Recommended practice for marking liquid petroleum pipeline facilities
Recommended practice for pressure testing of liquid petroleum pipelines
Recommended practice for design, construction, operation and
maintenance of offshore hydrocarbon pipelines

NACE RP-02-74
NACE RP-06-75

Sulfide stress cracking resistant metallic materials for oilfield equipment

Control of external corrosion on underground or submerged metallic
piping systems
High voltage electrical inspection of pipeline coatings prior to installation
Control of corrosion on offshore steel pipelines

Publications
API Pub 2200

Repairing Crude Oil, LPG, and Product Pipelines

API PSD 2201

Procedures for welding or hot tapping equipment containing flammables

Bulletins
API Bul 5 C3
API Bul 5 T1

Calculations for pipe

Nondestuctive testing terminology

Specifications
API Spec 5 L
API Spec 5 LU
API Spec 6 D
API Spec 15 HR
API Spec 15 LR

Specifications for linepipe

Specifications for ultra high test heat treated linepipe
Pipeline valves
Specification for high pressure fibreglass linepipe
Specification for low pressure fibreglass linepipe

MSS-SP-44
MSS-SP-75

Steel pipe line flanges

Specification for high test wrought buttwelding fittings

AWS 5.1-69
AWS 5.5-69
AWS AS.18-79
ASTM 662-87

Specificatiori for mild steel covered arc welding electrodes

Specification for low-alloy steel covered arc-welding electrodes
Specification for carbon steel filler metals for gas-shielded arc-welding
Standard test method for holiday detection in pipeline coatings

Other external standards include:

SIS O5 59 00

4.3

Pictorial surface preparation standards

Group Standards

The existing and proposed PETRONAS Technical Standard relating to pipelines,

comprising mainly PTS, are listed below together with the appropriate external reference.
Planned documents are designated PTS xx.xx.xx.xx.

PETRONAS Document

External Reference

General Company Documents

EP 86-0500
EP 64000
EP 55000

TMS Catalogue - Pipeline

Engineering (code CB)
E&P Project Management Guide
E&P Maintenance Management
Guide
EP Safety Manual
Engineering Computing Portfolio
(ECP Pipeline Engineering)

General Manuals
PTS 00.00.05.05
PTS 00.00.06.06
PTS 30.10.01.10
PTS 40.10.01.11

Specific Manuals
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx

PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx

Index to PTS Publications

Index to Standard Drawings
Requisitioning
Coding system for the
administration and control of capital projects
(Piping and Pipelines - groups 38 to 45)

Recommended Practices for

Pipelines Transporting
Hydrocarbons
Guidelines on the design of pig
traps
Guidelines on the design of slug
catchers
Guidelines on the selection of
pipeline valves
Guidelines on the selection of
pipeline coatings/field joints
Guidelines on leak detection
systems
Guidelines on pipeline operations,
maintenance and inspection
Guidelines on pipeline repairs

ANSI B31.4/8

ANSI B31.4/8
API 1107

PETRONAS Document

PTS 30.10.73.10
PTS 31.38.01.15
PTS 31.38.60.10

Cathodic protection
Piping classes-E and P
Guidelines for hot tapping of
pipelines, piping systems and
equipment
(updated with new title)

Technical Specifications
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
design of c.p. systems for land
pipelines
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
design of c.p. systems for offshore
pipelines
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
design of pig trap systems for land
pipelines
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
design of pig trap systems for
offshore pipelines
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
design of GRP/GRE linepipe and
fittings
PTS 30.10.73.31
Cathodic protection of pipelines
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
linepipe for non-critical service
SS L-2-2/3
linepipe for critical non-sour
pipelines
SS L-3-2/3
linepipe for sour service pipelines
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
duplex stainless steel linepipe
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
clad linepipe
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
NDT of linepipe (draft IS-1)
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
GRP/GRE linepipe and fittings
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
flexible pipe for flowlines and
risers
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx

pipeline valve actuators

carbon steel fittings for pipelines
carbon steel fittings for sour
service pipelines
hot bends for carbon steel
pipelines
high grade pipeline flanges

External Reference

ANSI B31.3
API 2201

API 5 L
API 5 L
API 5 L
API 15 HR
-

MSS SP 75
MSS SP 75
MSS SP 75
MSS SP 44

PETRONAS Document
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
pipeline isolating joints
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
pipeline end closures
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
duplex stainless steel fittings for
pipelines
SS L-4-1/2/3
PE coating of linepipe
SS L-5-1/2/3
FBE coating of linepipe
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
coatings for pipelines (various)
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
concrete coating for submarine
Pipelines

External Reference
MSS SP 75
-

PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx

API 1104

PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx
PTS xx.xx.xx.xx

Standard Drawings
PTS 00.00.06.06

installation of GRP/GRE pipelines

c.p. cable connection welding
field welding of carbon steel
pipelines
field welding of duplex s.s.
pipelines
field welding of clad pipelines
hyperbaric welding of carbon steel
pipelines
hyperbaric welding of duplex
stainless steel pipelines
coating of pipeline field joints
hydrotesting, cleaning and drying
of pipelines
commissioning of pipeline c.p.
systems

DIN 30670
-

API 1104
-

Index to standard drawings

Standard Drawings are listed in PTS 00.00.06.06, with Group S 38
referring to Piping and Piping
Components:
S 38.010 Minimum length of welded branches on pipelines
S xx.xxx Standard barred tee

PETRONAS Document
Standard Requisitions
PTS 30.10.01.10

External Reference

Requisitioning
Standard Requisitions are listed in PTS 30.10.01.10, with the
following requisitions relating to pipelines:
Data Sheets
PTS 31.38.01.93 Piping (sheets 1 and 2)
Data/requisition Sheets
None
Requisition Sheets

PTS 31.36.90.93
PTS 31.38.81.93
PTS 31.38.81.94
PTS 31.38.82.93
PTS 31.38.82.94
PTS 31.38.82.95
PTS 31.38.82.96
PTS 31.38.82.97
PTS 31.38.84.93
PTS 31.38.85.95
PTS 31.38.85.95
PTS 31.38.89.93
PTS 31.38.89.93
PTS 39.40.20.93
PTS 40.10.01.93

Safety Relief Valves

Pipe
Linepipe for Transmission Systems
Butt-welding Fittings
Welding Branch Fittings
Branch Outlet Nipples (welding ends)
Branch Outlet Nipples (flanged)
Branch Outlet Fittings
Flanges
Valves (standard)
Valves (special)
Stud Bolts and Nuts
Stud Bolts and Nuts (heavy series)
Metal/Polymer Flexible Pipe
Engineering Documentation

PTS 40.00.10.93

Electronic Data Processing (EDP) Supplement

5 . SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR PIPELINES

5.1

General

Basic safety requirements for pipelines are included in all stages of a project, i.e. in design,
construction, operation and maintenance procedures. Minimum design criteria regarding
allowable pressures and other loads during installation and life of the pipeline are given by
generally accepted pipeline design Codes, e.g. ANSI B31.4 for liquid pipelines and ANSI
B31.8 for gas pipelines. The Institute of Petroleum Model Code of Safe Practice - Part 6
Petroleum Pipelines, contains more elaborate guidelines on safety-related matters.
It is the task of the Inspection function to ensure that such design conditions are not violated
during construction, commissioning and operation, and that the pipeline is not damaged by
external factors.
A selection of main aspects as given in the above references, supplemented or amended by
SIPM experience is given below.
The recommendations made are to be considered as minimum requirements; Operating
Companies may impose more stringent requirements based on their experience and/or on
statutory requirements in their area of operations. The recommendations given shall not be
construed as replacing any Law, Rule or Regulation of a relevant Government Agency.
The crucial aim of all safety measures is to ensure the safety of the public and personnel
whilst maintaining reliable operations.
Potentially undesirable events during pipeline operation are mainly over-pressure and leaks.
Overpressure is primarily counteracted by pressure sensors at the upstream end of the
pipeline with feed-back to the input source, e.g. pump station, which is normally provided with
pressure or flow regulating devices, set to protect the pipeline against overpressure.
Low pressure and backflow resulting from a leak can be detected by a pressure sensor and
counteracted by a check valve located at the downstream end of a pipeline section.
In emergency situations downstream facilities may have to be separated from the pipeline
using an emergency shut-down valve. Alternatively over-pressure protection of such facilities
may be provided by installing a surge relief system.
Pipeline systems have to be provided with adequate protection against internal and external
corrosion (see 1.3). This includes appropriate protective coatings and cathodic protection
facilities for external protection. Protection against internal corrosion may require the use of
inhibitors.

Pigging facilities should be accessible for instrumented tools to check the integrity of the
pipeline (see 1.6).
Pipeline systems containing toxic components, e.g. H2S, require special attention for safe
operation (see HSE in Volume 1).
5.2

Onshore Pipelines

5.2.1 General
Block Valves
In order to limit the effects in case of major leaks, block valves are installed at intervals
depending on diameter, pipe contents, type of environment and at major crossings, e.g. at
waterways. Typical intervals between block valves in built-up areas (type B construction in
Table 1.5-1) range from 10-20 km.
The operation of block valves can be either manually or from the pipeline control centre. This
depends mainly on pipe size, type of product and area population, and should therefore be
considered for each specific case. The operational condition of the block valves should be
checked at regular intervals.
Patrolling
A periodic pipeline patrol programme, usually by air, shall be maintained to observe surface
conditions, leak indications, unknown third party construction activities, etc.
Emergency Procedures
In order to ensure that all operating staff and others likely to be involved, including the public
services, are adequately informed regarding the action to be taken in the event of an
emergency, specific procedures must be developed and formalised to meet the particular
needs of every pipeline. The following aspects should be covered:
-

liaison with public services and authorities

description of pipeline system
responsibilities of staff
communication, alerting procedure
information on contents of pipeline
initial action and shut-down procedures
emergency equipment
remedial actions.

Such procedures should be rehearsed at regular intervals to ensure that all people concerned
know their task and that procedures will be updated where necessary.
Marking and Fencing
The pipeline route should clearly be marked, especially at waterway crossings, road crossings
and other places where third party interference may be expected. The telephone number of
the pipeline control room should be prominently displayed on all warning signs.
Block valve and measuring stations should be adequately fenced against unauthorised
access; however, full protection against premeditated interference, e.g. sabotage, can
generally not be obtained.

5.2.2 Liquid Pipelines

Special attention should be paid to the possible occurrence of surge pressures resulting from
inadvertent closing or opening of valves. Adequate controls and protective equipment shall be
provided so that the level of pressure rise at any point will not exceed the internal design
pressure by more than 10 percent.
5.2.3 Gas and Liquefied Gas Pipelines
The design, construction and inspection requirements have to be matched to the environment,
i.e. mainly the population density. Moreover, in many countries a certain distance should be
maintained between pipelines and houses/ buildings which varies with pipeline diameter,
working pressure, contents and effect-reducing facilities such as closely spaced block valves,
etc.
Limits on low temperatures resulting from rapid depressurisation, particularly of liquefied
gases, should be considered in design, materials selection and operational procedures (see
Volume 7, Part II).
Special attention should be paid to above ground sections which may be exposed to fire.
Protective measures may include liquid containment systems, sprinkler systems, fireproofing,
etc.
5.3

Offshore Pipelines

Details of protective devices on pipelines connected to platforms are given in API RP 14C.
These include pressure and flow sensors, check valves and pressure relief facilities.

It is recommended that long submarine pipeline routes be inspected regularly by air patrol.
Moreover, regular underwater inspection should be carried out where there is
risk of damage to the pipeline or where scour conditions may occur.
Particular attention must be paid to design and location of pipeline risers, with respect to
collision damage, inspectability, expansion, scour, surfzone protection, etc.
The installation of a subsea emergency shut-down valve or check valve in longer gas and
condensate pipelines might be considered as a measure to provide additional protection for
platforms.

6 . DOCUMENTATION
6.1

General

Documentation is produced at all stages during the life of a pipeline, from design to
abandonment. All essential documentation should be retained, be accessible and regularly
updated, as required, throughout the life of a pipeline
6.2

Engineering Stage

Handover from Engineering to Operations asset holder at the commissioning stage is a

particularly important step. This should be formalised and include the handover of documents
which effectively 'certify' the pipeline. This 'certification' documentation should be initiated at
the project definition stage and include a pipeline design and operating philosophy setting out
the purpose of the new system and its main design, construction, operational and
maintenance features. It will also include as-built records and a construction report as detailed
below.

6.2.1 As-Built Records

Upon completion of pipeline construction activities an as-built record of the pipeline should be
made.
The as-built record provides an official record of the installed pipeline and includes such
information as:
-

precise routing of the pipeline

pipeline size, grade, wall thickness, coating, etc.
facilities installed on the pipeline, i.e. block valves, cathodic protection points, markers, etc.
facilities crossed by the pipeline, e.g., other pipelines, rivers, roads and railways (onshore
only), etc.
- depth of cover over pipeline
other relevant features, i.e. location of span lengths, buckle arrestors, anodes in offshore
pipelines.
The as-built records are essential information required by the pipeline operator for future
inspection and maintenance of the pipeline.

In many cases extracts from the as-built records, e.g. pipeline routing, are incorporated into
legal documentation defining the extent of the permanent pipeline easement, or into operating
licences which permit the pipeline owner to utilise the pipeline.
In addition to the foregoing it is strongly recommended, and in some cases mandatory subject
to local legislative requirements, for the inspection records compiled during the construction
phase, and in particular the pipe and weld numbers/locations and the weld X-ray or
radiographs, to be retained by the pipeline operating company for a minimum specified
number of years after putting the pipeline into service. This information can be invaluable
when investigating a failure in the pipeline during its operational lifetime and if not identifying
the likely cause can at least eliminate some of the possibilities.

6.2.2 Construction Report

The objective of the construction report is to briefly review the execution of the construction
phase with particular reference to problems/difficulties encountered and which could be
avoided or planned for in any future similar project.
Photographs, which can be a very useful supplement to the report, should be made use of
wherever possible. The report should also contain a brief summary of contractors'
performance
In order to avoid key information being lost it is suggested that a single summary document
'Critical Operating Parameters' be used as the prime handover document to Operations. This
should cover, in addition to any specific licence requirements:
- the Code with which the installation is meant to comply
- the design basis i.e. operating limits, design life, any special features, etc
- the main operating, maintenance and inspection requirements.
6.3

Operations

The 'Critical Operating Parameters' should be the base against which future hardware or
procedural changes are made i.e. the basis of an operations change control procedure. In
order to be effective in safeguarding the technical integrity of the pipeline the change control
procedure must be applied continually throughout the operations phase through to
abandonment. Implicit in this procedure is the regular updating of the base documentation.

7 . REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

DESIGN (1)

Hydraulics (1.1)
References

1. Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) SI Engineering Data Book, 1980

2. Perry, R. H. and Chilton, C. H., Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 5thEd., McGraw Hill, 1983
3. Baker et al., Design Manual for Two-Phase Flow. American Gas Association
4. Eaton et al., The prediction of flow patterns, liquid hold-up and pressure losses occurring
during continuous two-phase flow in horizontal pipelines. October 1966, American Instit.
Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineering

Further Reading
- Waxy Crudes in Relation to Pipeline Operations. Several articles in J. Inst. Pet. Vol.57,1971

Pipe Stability (1.4)

Further Reading
-

Hassan, U., Jewsbury, C. E. and Yates, A. P. J., Pipe Protection. Published by: BHRA Fluid
Engineering, Cranfield, Bedford MK 43 OAJ, U.K., 1978

Stresses and Loads (1.5) Further Reading

- Marks: Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers; 8th Ed. by Theodore Baumeister et
al., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York
- Mousselli, A. H., Offshore Pipeline Design, Analysis and Methods. Penn-Well Books,
PennWeII Publishing Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma
- Pierce, R. N. et al., Design Considerations for Uncased Road Crossings. Pipeline Industry,
May 1978
- Roark, R. J. and Young, W. C., Formulas for Stress and Strain. 5th Ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York
Timoshenko, S., Theory of Elastic Stability. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1936
- Design of Piping Systems. M. W. Kellog Company, 2nd Ed., 1967 (Edited by John Wiley and
Sons, New York)
- Den Hartog, J. P., Advanced Strength of Materials. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1952

CONSTRUCTION (2)

Landline Construction (2.1)

Further Reading
- Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities. API Std 1104, Sixteenth Edition, 1983
- Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Systems. ANSI/ASME B 31.4
- Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems. ANSI/ASME B 31.8
- Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refining Piping. ANSI/ASME B 31.3
- Recommended Practice for Railroad Transportation of Line Pipe. API RP 5L1, Third Edition,
April 1972
- Recommended Practice for Marine Transportation of Line Pipe. API RP 5L5, First Edition,
March 1975

- Recommended Practice for Liquid Petroleum Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways.
API RP 1102, Fifth Edition, 1981

Cleaning/Drying/Pigging (2.5)
References
1. T. D. Williamson, Inc., Guide to Pigging. August 1979

Further Reading
- Pipeline pigging - An art? a science?. PEB (Pipeline Equipment Benelux), Sept 1983
- Comparative description of the various methods used to dry pipelines. Petrole Informations,
Sept 1979

OPERATIONS (3)

Routine and Special Operations (3.5)

Further Reading
- Krass, W., Kittel, A. and Uhde, A., Pipeline Technik: mineraloel fernleitungen. Verlag Tuer
Rheinland, GmbH, Ko&& ln , 1979

Pipeline Repair (3.6)

Further Reading
- Kietner, J. F., Repair of Line Pipe Defects by Full Encirclement Sleeves. Batelle Columbus
Laboratories, 1977
- Kiefner, J. F., Welding Criteria Permit Safe and Effective Pipeline Repair. Pipeline Industry,
Jan.1980
- Pickell, M. B., Pipeline Plugging Methods Keep Pace with Industry Needs. Oil and Gas
Journal, March 3, 1980

Note: Comments by letter or telex should include all the above information and be sent to the
PETRONAS custodian department concerned (see title page).