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1.1
direct calculation:
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 ;
z1 z2 = z1 z2 ;
z n = (
z )n ;
z = z;
z z = a2 + b2 ,
where in the last line z =
a + bi.
Thus, z z 0, and z z = 0 if and
only if z = 0. We set |z| = z z = a2 + b2 , the absolute value, length or
modulus of z.For example, |2 + i| = 5. Note that, for all z1 , z2 C,
|z1 |2 |z2 |2 = z1 z1 z2 z2 = z1 z2 z1 z2 = (z1 z2 )(z1 z2 ) = |z1 z2 |2 ,
and hence |z1 ||z2 | = |z1 z2 |. The link between the absolute value and addition
is somewhat weaker; there is only the triangle inequality
|z1 + z2 | |z1 | + |z2 |.
If z 6= 0, then z has a multiplicative inverse:
z 1 =
z
.
|z|2
In terms of real and imaginary parts, this is the familiar procedure of dividing
one complex number into another by rationalizing the denominator: if at
least one of c, d is nonzero, then
a + bi
a + bi
c di
(a + bi)(c di)
=
=
.
c + di
c + di
c di
c2 + d2
Thus it is possible to divide by any nonzero complex number. For example,
to express (2 + i)/(3 2i) in the form a + bi, we write
2+i
2+i
3 + 2i
(2 + i)(3 + 2i)
4 + 7i
4
7
=
=
=
=
+ i.
3 2i
3 2i
3 + 2i
32 + 22
13
13 13
If z 6= 0, then z n is defined for every integer n, including the case n < 0,
z )n still holds.
and the formula z n = (
1.2
z is the same as rotating the point (x, y) by the angle . For a general z,
multiplying the complex number x + iy by z is a combination of these two
operations: rotation by the angle followed by scalar multiplication by the
nonnegative real number |z|.
Using the formula for multiplication, it is easy to see that if z has polar
form r(cos + i sin ), then
z n = rn (cos n + i sin n);
z 1 = r1 (cos() + i sin()) = r1 (cos sin ).
Here the first formula, which is easily proved by mathematical induction,
holds for all z and positive integers n, and the second holds for z 6= 0. From
this it is easy to check that, for z 6= 0, the first formula holds for all integers
n. This formula is called De Moivres Theorem.
We can use De Moivres Theorem to find powers
and roots of complex
numbers. For example, we have seen that 1 + i = 2(cos(/4) + i sin(/4)).
Thus
i.
4
4
2
2
For another example, to find all of the fifth roots of 3 + i, first write
!
3 1
+ i = 2 cos + i sin
.
3+i=2
2
2
6
6
Thus the fifth roots are given by
2k
2k
1/5
2
cos
+
+ i sin
+
,
30
5
30
5
k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
We can apply the above to the complex number 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0. Thus
there are exactly n complex numbers z such that z n = 1, called the nth roots
of unity: namely
2k
2k
cos
+ i sin
,
k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
n
n
It is easy to see that, once we have found one nth root w of a nonzero
complex number z, then all of the nth roots of z are of the form
2k
2k
cos
+ i sin
w,
n
n
for k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, i.e. any two nth roots of a given nonzero complex
number differ by multiplying by an nth root of unity.
Warning: the usual rules for fractional exponents that hold for positive
real numbers do not usually hold for complex roots; this is connected with
the fact that there is not in general one preferred nth root of a complex
number. For example,
p
1 = i2 = 1 1 6= (1)(1) = 1 = 1.
5
1.3
P
n
Given a power series
n=0 an x , we can try to substitute in complex values
for x and see what we get. Here we shall just consider the usual power series
X
xn
x
for the exponential function e =
. We begin by substituting a purely
n!
n=0
imaginary complex number it, where t is real. This gives
it
e =
n n
X
i t
n=0
n!
2n 2n
X
i t
n=0
(2n)!
2n+1 2n+1
X
i
t
n=0
(2n + 1)!
where we have simply broken the sum up into summing over even and odd
positive integers. Using i2n = (1)n , and hence i2n+1 = (1)n i, we see that
the sum is equal to
eit =
X
(1)n t2n
n=0
(2n)!
+i
X
(1)n t2n+1
(2n + 1)!
n=0
= cos t + i sin t.
n an integer.
=e
2 log 2
=2
=e
2 2n 2i)
2(ln 2+2ni)
= e 2 ln 2+2n 2i)
1.4
Homework
2+i
;
3+i
(b)
1 + 4i
;
2 + 8i
(c)
2 3i
.
3 + 2i
3i;
(b) 5 + 5i;
(c) i.
4. Write the complex number 3 2i in polar form (using inverse trigonometric functions if necessary).
5. (i) Write in the form a + bi:
(a) ei/4 ;
(b) e1+i ;
(c) e3+i .
(b) ii
(c) ie
(d) (1 + i) .