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The Ionosphere
CURITIBA, 1994
Atmospheric electricity abounds in the environment; some traces of it are found less
than four feet from the surface of the earth, but on attaining greater height it becomes
more apparent. Electric currents created in sunward ionosphere.In outer space, the
magnetopause flows along the boundary between the region around an astronomical
object (called the "magnetosphere") and surrounding plasma, in which electric
phenomena are dominated or organized by this magnetic field. Earth is surrounded by
a magnetosphere, as are the magnetized planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Mercury is magnetized, but too weakly to trap plasma. Mars has patchy surface
magnetization. The magnetosphere is the location where the outward magnetic
pressure of the Earth's magnetic field is counterbalanced by the solar wind, a plasma.
Most of solar particles are deflected to either side of the magnetopause, much like
water is deflected before the bow of a ship. However, some particles become trapped
within the Earth's magnetic field and form radiation belts. The Van Allen radiation
belt is a torus of energetic charged particles (i.e. a plasma) around Earth, trapped by
Earth's magnetic field.At elevations above the clouds, atmospheric electricity forms a
continuous and distinct element (called the electrosphere) in which the Earth is
surrounded. The electrosphere layer (tens of kilometers above the surface of the earth
to the ionosphere) has a high electrical conductivity and is essentially at a constant
electric potential. The ionosphere is the inner edge of the magnetosphere and is the
part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. Photoionisation is a physical
process in which a photon is incident on an atom, ion or molecule, resulting in the
ejection of one or more electrons. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the
magnetosphere.
History
The ionosphere
The ionosphere is the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It plays
an important part in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the
magnetosphere. It has practical importance because, among other functions, it
influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth.
The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere is called the troposphere and it extends
from the surface up to about 10 km. The atmosphere above 10 km is called the
stratosphere, followed by the mesosphere. It is in the stratosphere that incoming solar
radiation creates the ozone layer. At heights of above 80 km, in the thermosphere, the
atmosphere is so thin that free electrons can exist for short periods of time before they
are captured by a nearby positive ion. The number of these free electrons is sufficient
to affect radio propagation. This portion of the atmosphere is ionized and contains a
plasma which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the negative free electron
and the positive ions are attracted to each other by the electromagnetic force, but they
Ionospheric Layers
D Layer
The D layer is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth.
Ionization here is due to Lyman series-alpha hydrogen radiation at a wavelength of
121.5 nanometre (nm) ionizing nitric oxide (NO). In addition, when the sun is active
with 50 or more sunspots, hard X-rays (wavelength < 1 nm) ionize the air (N2, O2).
During the night cosmic rays produce a residual amount of ionization. Recombination
is high in this layer, thus the net ionization effect is very low and as a result highfrequency (HF) radio waves aren't reflected by the D layer.
E Layer
The E layer is the middle layer, 90 km to 120 km above the surface of the Earth.
Ionization is due to soft X-ray (1-10 nm) and far ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation
ionization of molecular oxygen (O2). This layer can only reflect radio waves having
frequencies less than about 10 MHz. It has a negative effect on frequencies above 10
MHz due to its partial absorption of these waves. The vertical structure of the E layer
is primarily determined by the competing effects of ionization and recombination. At
night the E layer begins to disappear because the primary source of ionization is no
longer present. This results in an increase in the height where the layer maximizes
because recombination is faster in the lower layers. Diurnal changes in the high
altitude neutral winds also plays a role. The increase in the height of the E layer
maximum increases the range to which radio waves can travel by reflection from the
layer.
F Layer
The F layer or region, also known as the Appleton layer, is 120 km to 400 km above
the surface of the Earth. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV) (10-100 nm) solar radiation
ionizes atomic oxygen (O). The F region is the most important part of the ionosphere
in terms of HF communications. The F layer combines into one layer at night, and in
the presence of sunlight (during daytime), it divides into two layers, the F1 and F2.
The F layers are responsible for most skywave propagation of radio waves, and are
thickest and most reflective of radio on the side of the Earth facing the sun.
Ionospheric Model
The statements above assumed that each layer was smooth and uniform. In reality the
ionosphere is a lumpy, cloudy layer with irregular patches of ionization.
Winter Anomaly
Equatorial Anomaly
Ionospheric Perturbations
Radio Application
electrons in the ionosphere into oscillation at the same frequency as the radio wave.
Some of the radio wave energy is given up to this mechanical oscillation. The
oscillating electron will then either be lost to recombination or will re-radiate the
original wave energy back downward again. Total reflection can occur when the
collision frequency of the ionosphere is less than the radio frequency, and if the
electron density in the ionosphere is great enough. The critical frequency is the
limiting frequency at or below which a radio wave is reflected by an ionospheric
layer at vertical incidence. If the transmitted frequency is higher than the plasma
frequency of the ionosphere, then the electrons cannot respond fast enough, and they
are not able to re-radiate the signal. It is calculated as shown below:
The cutoff frequency is the frequency below which a radio wave fails to penetrate a
layer of the ionosphere at the incidence angle required for transmission between two
specified points by reflection from the layer.
Other Applications
The open system space tether, which uses the ionosphere, is being researched. The
space tether uses plasma contactors and the ionosphere as parts of a circuit to extract
energy from the Earth's magnetic field by electromagnetic induction.
The A and K indices are a measurement of the behavior of the horizontal component
of the geomagnetic field. The K index uses a scale from 0 to 9 to measure the change
in the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. A new K index is determined at
the Table Mountain Observatory, north of Boulder, Colorado. The geomagnetic
activity levels of the earth are measured by the fluctuation of the Earth's magnetic
field in SI units called tesla (unit)s (or in non-SI gauss, especially in older literature).
The Earth's magnetic field is measured around the planet by many observatories. The
data retrieved is processed and turned into measurement indices. Daily measurements
for the entire planet are made available through an estimate of the ap index, called the
planetary A-index (PAI).
Skywave
Skywave is the propagation of radio waves bent back to the Earth's surface by the
ionosphere. As a result of skywave propagation, a night-time broadcast signal from a
distant AM broadcasting or shortwave radio station (or rarely, a TV station) can
sometimes be heard as clearly as local stations. Most long-distance HF radio
communication (between 3 and 30 MHz) is a result of skywave propagation. For
decades Amateur radio operators, limited to lower transmit power than commercial
radio, have taken advantage of skywave for distance or DX communication. The
ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere, where neutral air is ionized by solar
photons and cosmic rays. When radio waves reach the ionosphere at a shallow angle,
they are partly reflected by the surface. The ionosphere can also be similar to a prism
refracting light; different frequencies are "bent" by different amounts. Much as the
surface of the ocean interacts with the wind, the condition of the ionosphere is
constantly changing due to interaction with incoming radiation. When signals have
"bounced" off this irregular surface, they may fade in and out and have the "phasing",
"flanging" or "fluttery" character familiar to listeners of shortwave music broadcasts.
Depending on the transmitting antenna, the signals may reach the ionosphere at a
steep angle (vertical incidence) and be reflected almost straight down. Alternately the
antenna may "aim" the signal at the horizon; the signal reaches the ionosphere at a
shallow angle and returns to earth at a great distance. Under some conditions, the
Earth's surface (ground or water) may reflect the incoming wave back toward the
ionosphere again. As a result, like a rock "skipping" across water, the wave may
actually "bounce" or "skip" between the earth and ionosphere several times. This
phenomenon is known as "skip" or multihop propagation. Signals of only a few watts
can sometimes be received thousands of miles away as a result. Signals with
frequencies above about 30 MHz (VHF and UHF for example) are progressively not
returned to the Earth's surface, because they penetrate the ionosphere. (This includes
most communications with spacecraft and satellites.) Exceptions include rare
occasions of E-skip, when FM and TV signals are reflected. Skywave may be
disrupted during geomagnetic storms.
Low to mid frequencies below approximately 10 MHz (longer than 30 meters),
including broadcasts in the mediumwave and shortwave bands (and to some extent
longwave), travel most efficiently by skywave at night. Frequencies above 10 MHz
(shorter than 30 meters) travel better during the day. Frequencies lower than 3 kHz
have a wavelength longer than the distance between the Earth and the ionosphere.
The Maximum usable frequency for skywave propagation is strongly influenced by
sunspot number. Because the lower-altitude layers (the E-layer in particular) of the
ionosphere largely disappear at night, the refractive layer of the ionosphere is much
higher above the surface at night. This leads to an increase in the "skip" or "hop"
distance of the skywave at night. Near Vertical Incidence Skywave , NVIS, is a radio
antenna configuration that provides usable signals in the range between groundwave
and skywave distances (usually 30 to 400 miles, or 50 to 650 km). The usable
frequencies are between 1.8 MHz and 15 MHz. with the most common use being
between 3.5 MHz and 7.3 Mhz. NVIS configuration is a horizontally polarized
(parallel with the surface of the earth) radiating element that is from 1/20th
wavelength to 1/8th wavelength above the ground. That proximity to the ground
forces the majority of the radiation to go straight up. Overall efficiency of the antenna
can be increased by placing a ground wire of the same length as the antenna, parallel
to and directly underneath the antenna. While the ground wire is not necessary under
good to excellent propagation conditions antenna, gain in the 3 dB to 6 dB range are
common when the ground wire is used. Significant increases in communication will
be realized when both the transmitting station and the receiving station use NVIS
configuration for their antennas. NVIS is most useful in mountainous areas where
line of sight propagation at VHF or UHF frequencies is ineffective or when the
communication distance is beyond ground wave (less than 100 Km) and less than
sky-wave (450 to 2500 Km Approx.). More simply stated, NVIS communication is
most effective for regional use. This may be used to handle emergency
communication or simply for fun.
TV DX
TV DX and FM DX are two terms, customarily grouped together, that refer to longdistance reception of TV and FM radio stations, respectively. These terms (DX) refer
to the active search for distant radio or television stations received during unusual
tropospheric lower atmospheric weather-related, or E-layer and F2-layer upper
atmospheric ionospheric conditions. VHF/UHF television and radio signals are
normally limited to a maximum "deep fringe" reception service area of approximately
60160 kilometers in crowded radio markets, and about 50 percent farther in the
absence of interference. However, providing favourable atmospheric conditions are
present, television and radio signals can sometimes be received at hundreds or even
thousands of miles outside their intended coverage area. These signals are received
using a large outdoor antenna system connected to a sensitive TV or FM tuner and/or
receiver. While only a limited number of local stations can be normally received at
satisfactory signal strengths in any given area, tuning into other channels may reveal
weaker signals from adjacent areas. More consistently strong signals, especially those
accentuated by unusual atmospheric conditions, can be achieved by improving the
antenna system. The development of interest in TV-FM DX as a hobby can arise after
more distant signals are either intentionally or accidentally discovered, leading to a
serious interest in improving the aerial and receiving installation for the purpose of
actively seeking long-range television and radio reception. The TV-FM DX hobby is
somewhat similar in scope to other radio/electronic related hobbies such as amateur
radio, Medium Wave DX, or short-wave radio, and organisations such as the
Worldwide TV-FM DX Association have developed to co-ordinate and foster the
further study and enjoyment of VHF/UHF television and FM broadcast DX.
The service area from a TV or FM radio transmitter extends to just beyond the optical
horizon, at which point signals start to rapidly reduce in strength. Viewers living in
such a "deep fringe" reception area will notice that during certain conditions weak
signals normally masked by noise increase in signal strength to allow quality
reception.
Such
conditions
are
related
to
the
current
state
of
the
air cools, as does the surface temperature, but at different rates. This produces a
boundary or temperature gradient, which allows an inversion level to form a similar
effect occurs at sunrise. The inversion is capable of allowing VHF and UHF signal
propagation well beyond the normal radio horizon distance.The inversion effectively
reduces sky wave radiation from a transmitter normally VHF and UHF signals
travel on into space when they reach the horizon, the refractive index of the
ionosphere preventing signal return. With temperature inversion, however, the signal
is to a large extent refracted over the horizon rather than continuing along a direct
path into outer space.Fog also produces good tropospheric results, again due to
inversion effects. Fog occurs during high-pressure weather, and if such conditions
result in a large belt of fog with clear sky above, there will be heating of the upper
fog level and thus an inversion. This situation often arises towards night fall,
continues overnight and clears with the sunrise over a period of around 45 hours.
Sporadic E, also called E-skip, is the phenomenon of irregularly scattered patches of
relatively dense ionisation that develop seasonally within the E region of the
ionosphere and reflect and scatter TV and FM frequencies, generally up to about 150
MHz. When frequencies reflect off multiple patches, it is referred to as multi-hop
skip. E-skip allows radio waves to travel many miles beyond their intended area of
reception. E-skip is unrelated to tropospheric ducting. By means of short-wave radio
it is possible to transmit signals to distant countries around the world. Such
communication is dependent upon a number of reflecting layers in the ionosphere,
high above the Earth's surface known as the E, F1, and F2 layers. The E layer E
region lies at an approximate distance of 100 km above the Earth's surface. Under
normal conditions the E layer reflects Short-Wave signals (at night, when the D layer
dissolves, Mediumwave signals are reflected as well). Normally, VHF and UHF
signals pass through the E and F layers into outer space. At certain times, however,
intense patches of ionisation form in the E layer, a phenomenon known as Sporadic
E. Incident VHF signals that strike these patches are reflected back to Earth. During
such conditions television and radio transmissions in band 1 (4588 MHz), band 2
(88108 MHz), and very occasionally Band 3 (175220 MHz), are capable of being
reflected, allowing reception at considerable distances. Although Sporadic E can
occur at any time of the year, the most active period is during the summer months,
from early May to November to February (Southern Hemisphere). A small peak of
activity is also usually noted in mid-winter. The length of a single-hop E-skip path
varies between approximately 7202,400 km. At times, double-hop Sporadic E can
propagate signals over a 3,1004,700 km path. During periods of extremely
widespread Es ionisation, multi-hop signals up to 60 MHz have been received out to
8,000 km. Television and FM signals received via Sporadic E can be extremely
strong and range in strength over a short period from just detectable to overloading.
Although polarisation shift can occur, single-hop Sporadic E signals tend to remain in
the original transmitted polarisation. Long single-hop 1,4502,400 km Sporadic E
television signals tend to be more stable and relatively free of multipath images.
Shorter-skip 6501,300 km signals tend to be reflected from more than one part of
the Sporadic E layer, resulting in multiple images and ghosting, with at times phase
reversal. Picture degradation and signal strength attenuation increases with each
subsequent Sporadic E hop. Sporadic E usually affects the lower VHF band I (TV
channels 26) and band II (88108 MHz FM broadcast band). The typical expected
distances are about 9702,250 km. However, under exceptional circumstances, a
highly ionised Es cloud can propagate band I VHF signals down to approximately
550 km. When short-skip Es reception occurs, i.e., under 800 km in band I, there is a
greater possibility that the ionised Es cloud will be capable of reflecting a signal at a
much higher frequency i.e., a VHF channel 7 TV signal since a sharp reflection
angle (short skip) favours low frequencies, a shallower reflection angle from the same
ionised cloud will favour a higher frequency. At high, i.e., polar latitudes, Sporadic E
can accompany auroras and associated disturbed magnetic conditions.
Ionogramas
Reflexo Ionosfrica
Measurements
Ionograms show the virtual heights and critical frequencies of the ionospheric layers
and which are measured by an ionosonde. An ionosonde sweeps a range of
frequencies, usually from 0.1 to 30 MHz, transmitting at vertical incidence to the
ionosphere. As the frequency increases, each wave is refracted less by the ionization
in the layer, and so each penetrates further before it is reflected. Eventually, a
frequency is reached that enables the wave to penetrate the layer without being
reflected. For ordinary mode waves, this occurs when the transmitted frequency just
exceeds the peak plasma, or critical, frequency of the layer. Tracings of the reflected
high frequency radio pulses are known as ionograms.
Ionogram
Ionospheric Layers
Solar radiation, acting on the different compositions of the atmosphere with height,
generates layers of ionization:
D Layer
The D layer is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth.
Ionization here is due to Lyman series-alpha hydrogen radiation at a wavelength of
121.5 nanometre (nm) ionizing nitric oxide (NO). In addition, when the sun is active
with 50 or more sunspots, hard X-rays (wavelength < 1 nm) ionize the air (N2, O2).
During the night cosmic rays produce a residual amount of ionization. Recombination
is high in this layer, thus the net ionization effect is very low and as a result highfrequency (HF) radio waves aren't reflected by the D layer. The frequency of collision
between electrons and other particles in this region during the day is about 10 million
collisions per second. The D layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio
waves, particularly at 10 MHz and below, with progressively smaller absorption as
the frequency gets higher. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday.
The layer reduces greatly after sunset, but remains due to galactic cosmic rays. A
common example of the D layer in action is the disappearance of distant AM
broadcast band stations in the daytime.E Sporadic Layer
The Es layer or sporadic E-layer. Sporadic E propagation is characterized by small
clouds of intense ionization, which can support radio wave reflections from 25 225
MHz. Sporadic-E events may last for just a few minutes to several hours and make
radio amateurs very excited, as propagation paths which are generally unreachable,
can open up. There are multiple causes of sporadic-E that are still being pursued by
researchers. This propagation occurs most frequently during the summer months with
major occurrences during the summer, and minor occurrences during the winter.
During the summer, this mode is popular due to its high signal levels. The skip
distances are generally around 1000km.
When the sun is active, strong solar flares can occur that will hit the Earth with hard
X-rays on the sunlit side of the Earth. They will penetrate to the D-region, release
electrons which will rapidly increase absorption causing a High Frequency (3-30
MHz) radio blackout. During this time Very Low Frequency (3 - 30 kHz) signals will
become reflected by the D layer instead of the E layer, avoiding the signal loss
through the D layer. As soon as the X-rays end, the sudden ionospheric disturbance
(SID) or radio black-out ends as the electrons in the D-region recombine rapidly and
signal strengths return to normal.
Associated with solar flares is a release of high-energy protons. These particles can
hit the earth within 15 minutes to 2 hours of the solar flare. The protons spiral around
and down the magnetic field lines of the Earth and penetrate into the atmosphere near
the magnetic poles increasing the ionization of the D and E layers. PCA's typically
last anywhere from about an hour to several days, with an average of around 24 to 36
hours.
Geomagnetic Storms
Solar flux
The planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer
(ABL), is the lowest part of the atmosphere and its behavior is directly influenced by
its contact with the planetary surface. It is also known as the "exchange layer". There
is a potential gradient at ground level and this corresponds to the negative charge in
and near the Earth's surface. This negative potential gradient falls rapidly as altitude
increases from the ground. Most of this potential gradient is in the first few
kilometers. Conversely, the positive potential gradient rises rapidly as altitude
increases from the ground.
Earth-Ionosphere cavity
cause this waveguide to act as a resonant cavity for electromagnetic waves. The
cavity is naturally excited by energy from lightning strikes.
Scientific research on Ionospheric propagation
Scientists also are exploring the structure of the ionosphere by a wide variety of
methods, including passive observations of optical and radio emissions generated in
the ionosphere, bouncing radio waves of different frequencies from it, incoherent
scatter radars such as the EISCAT, Sondre Stromfjord, Millstone Hill, Arecibo, and
Jicamarca radars, coherent scatter radars such as the Super Dual Auroral Radar
Network (SuperDARN) radars, and using special receivers to detect how the reflected
waves have changed from the transmitted waves.
Diffraction
Absorption
Low frequency radio waves travel easily through brick and stone and VLF even
peneterates sea-water. As the frequency rises, absorption effects become more
important. At microwave or higher frequencies, absorption by molecular resonance in
the atmosphere (mostly water, H2O) is a major factor in radio propagation. For
example, in the 58 - 60 GHz band, there is a major absorption peak which makes this
band useless for long-distance use. This phenomenon was first discovered during
radar research during World War Two. Beyond around 400 GHz, the Earth's
atmosphere blocks some segmets of spectra while still passes some - this is true up to
UV light, which is blocked by ozone, but visible light and some of the NIR is
transmitted.
Fresnel zone
Schumann Resonance
The Schumann Resonance is a set of spectrum peaks in the extremely low frequency
(ELF) portion of the Earth's electromagnetic field spectrum. The terrestrial stationary
waves phenomenon is named after physicist Winfried Otto Schumann who predicted
it mathematically in 1952. Schumann resonance is due to the space between the
surface of the Earth and the conductive ionosphere acting as a waveguide. The
limited dimensions of the Earth cause this waveguide to act as a resonant cavity for
electromagnetic waves in the ELF band. The cavity is naturally excited by energy
from lightning strikes. Since the ninth overtone lies at approximately 60 Hz, the
cavity is also driven by the North American power grid. The lowest-frequency (and
highest-intensity) mode of the Schumann resonance is at a frequency of
approximately 7.83 Hz. Detectable overtones extend upwards into the kilohertz
range.
Tropospheric ducting
175.25
MHz
ch4
TV
received
by
Robert
Copeman,
Sydney,
form an effective barrier to tropospheric signals. Ideally, a relatively flat land path
between the transmitter and receiver is ideal for tropospheric ducting. Sea paths also
tend to produce superior results. In certain parts of the world, notably the
Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf, tropospheric ducting conditions can become
established for many months of the year to the extent that viewers receive regular
quality reception of television signals over distances up to around 1,600 km. Such
conditions are normally optimum during very hot settled summer weather.
Tropospheric ducting over water, particularly between California and Hawaii, Brazil
and Africa, Australia and New Zealand, Australia and Indonesia, and Bahrain and
Pakistan, has produced VHF/UHF reception ranging from 1,6004,800 km.
Tropospheric signals exhibit a slow cycle of fading and will occasionally produce
signals sufficiently strong for noise-free stereo reception on FM or noise-free TV
pictures, sometimes in full colour. Virtually all long-distance reception of digital
television occurs by tropospheric ducting (due to most, but not all, DTV stations
broadcasting in the UHF band). No conclusive theory has yet been formulated as to
the origin of Sporadic E. Attempts to connect the incidence of Sporadic E with the
eleven-year Sunspot cycle have provided tentative correlations. There seems to be a
positive correlation between sunspot maximum and Es activity in Europe.
Conversely, there seems to be a negative correlation between maximum sunspot
activity and Es activity in Australasia.