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bv
Filippo Bucci
Acquisitions and
Bibliographie Services
Acquisitions et
senkes bibliographiques
395.
-ON
WaWliglon
K1AW
CaMda
permission.
FIUPPO BUCCI
Deparfment of Civil Engineering
Univemity of Toronfo
The pracce of repair and upgrading of existing structures has gained importance
in the past twenty years, As a consequence, various techniques for the rehabilitation and
retrofitting of infrastructures have been developed- Some involve the use of traditional
materials, such as steel, concrete and different cernentitious rnaterials, others are based
reinforced concrete structures have been developed. Programs TRIX, for 2-0 membranes,
is based on the formulations of the Modified Compression Field Theory (Vecchio and
Collins, 1986). This thesis explores the present ability of this program to descnbe the
First of al1 Iwould like to thank my immediate family for their unconditionad love
and support. Words cannot express completely rny gratitude,
Professor Frank J. Vecchio and his work have been a constant inspiration
throughout my academic career- He provided the subject for rny thesis, the knoMedge, the
guidance and the patience mat allowed me to complete al1 my tasks. My most profound
appreciation goes to him.
Financial support of the School of Graduate Studies and the Department of Civil
Engineering is gratefully acknowiedged.
Thanks to my friends Dan Palemo, Gianni Gagliardi, Franco Scanga, Maum De
Franco, David De Rose, Bogdan Stanik, Gordon Bennet and Matt Czarnota and their
families for the advice and the great help lent in every-day Iife-
I would also like to express my gratitude to Professors M-P. Collins and G-T-Will
for their invaluable advice on school and professional work. The ideas and the enthusiasm
conveyed to me through their courses will always be part of my engineering culture.
Evan Bentz created program TRIXPOST, without which a great part of this thesis
wouId have been impossible, or almost
Last but not fewest... thanks to al1 the people who lent a hand in the Labs: Dan
(again). Nick, Tommy (1 know you did it for the free beer), Konst, Joe, Taira and the staff of
the Structures Laboratory at the University of Toronto.
iii
CONTENTS
Abstfacf
ii
Ackno wledgments
iii
Contenfs
iv
List of Tables
List of Figures
viii
ix
Cha~terf
INTRODUCT'N
1- 1
lntroducon
1.2
1.3
Program TRlX
1.4
Chanter 2
LlTERA TURE REVIE W
2.1
Introduction
17
2.2
18
2.3
20
CONTENTS
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Chanter 3
ANALYSIS OF STRENGTHENED R.C. STRUCTURES
Introduction
Analycal and Numencal Modelling
Analysis of the Slab Specimens
Test Preparations
Course of Testing
CONTENTS
Introducon
5.2
5.3
5.4
Discussion of Results
CONCLUSIONS
6.1
6.2
References
Appendix A
A. 1
A.2
Appendix 8
8.1
8.2
CONIENTS
Appendix C
Appendix D
D.1
0.2
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Chanter 5:
5.1 :Summary table
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 2:
2.1 : Load-displacement diagrams of CFRP plated beam.
2.5 : Cornparison of analytical and test results for beam SS-PRE12.6 : Moment-deflectioncuwe for the typical strengthened and control bearn.
2.7 : Expefirnental Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for the FRP laye=.
2.8 : Possible stress distributions for a bonded plate.
2.9 : Element library and plate-glue interface six-noded element2.1 O : Coarse and fine meshes for tower modelling.
2.1 1 : Nominal dimensions and reinforcement arrangement of test specimens.
UST OF FIGURES
Chapter 3:
3.1 :Slabs dimensions and reinforcamentdetailing.
3.2 :Test conditions: loading, supports and LVDTs locations.
UST OF FIGURES
74
4.4 :Top plan view of the section reihforcement and steel area percentages.
76
4.7 :Testing setup (web wall view) and the actuator locations (top view).
4.8 : Horizontal displacernent of top slab (LVDT Hl).
UST OF FIGURES
4.27.-
98
1O0
101
4.30 :Vertical displacement of the top slab wrt. the bottom slab.
102
104
105
4.33 :Comparison of peak envelopes for horizontal loads vs. top displaments. 107
Chanter 5:
5.1 :TR1X finite element meshl.
5.2 :TRIX structure defininon: different material types.
5.3 :TRIX finite elernent mesh2 and 3.
5.4 : F.E. simulation of the firot testing of the shear wall.
5.5 : F.E. simulation of oie testing of the repaired shear wall using 'meshl '.
5.6 : F.E. simulation of the testing of the repaired shear wall using 'mesh2".
5.7 : F.E. simulation of the testing of the repaired shear wall using 'rne~h3~.
5.8 :Cornpanson of experimental results with the finite elernent analyses.
A2.1 :TRlX predicted cracking patterns for the slab control specimen.
140
140
USTOF FIGURES
Appendix 8:
B2.1 :TRIX predicted md<*ng patterns for the beam wntrol opecimen.
B2.2 :TRIX predictad cracking patterns for the carbon-repaind beam.
Appendix C:
Cl. 1 :Web wall at -1 mm displacement
Cf. 2 : Web wall at -2 mm displacement
xiii
UST OF FIGURES
C5. 2 : South flange - vertical reinforcementstrainsCS. 1 : North fiange vertical reinforcement sbains,
Alonendix D;
D l .2 :Mesh-3 :repared shear wall at peak load, load stage 7.
02.2 : Mesh-3: repaired shear wall at failure.
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
In the design process for reinforced concrete structures, methods based on the
linear-elastic analysis are still widely used. This applies both to the initial dimensioning and
detailing phase as well as to the final checks. These approaches are appropriate for most
cases in which serviceability conditions are more important and difficult to meet. such as
esthetic concems dictate a conservative design with respect to the ultimate strength
requirements.
provide entirely useful results. Reinforced concrete shells for nuclear plants, water dams.
and offshore oil platfoms need to be verified under the most extreme conditions.
Extensive warehouses have to be built safely and at the sarne time ewnornically. In
general, though, design code provisions are based on previous experience, experimental
research and field applications, and stiII leave considerable space for the intuition or
constitutive models for plain and reinforced wncrete have been proposed, together with
new methods for computing, more or less sucssfully, capacities and strength of
structural elements. Recentiy. in this same field, another discipline has emerged that relies
on methods of nonlinear analysis: the praictice of repair and upgrading of exsting
structures.
As regards conuete, this phenomenon h mainly due to aging of materials,
changes in the design codes, or new functionality requirements, implying larger or different
loads. Accelerated corrosion of reinforcing steel, AAR expansion and freezethaw cycles
produce spalling and delamination of the cancrete cover, loss of transverse and
longitudinal steel area, unexpected eccentnkities in structural elernents and degradation of
the mechanical properties of concrete. Damage to structures can also occur because of
vanous other actions such as earthquake, wnd or explosions, with the main difference
being a lack of chernical contamination.
In the quest for a solution to these onerous problems, various techniques for the
rehabilitation and retrofitting of infrastructures have been developed. Some involve the use
of traditional materials, such as steel, concrete and different cementitious materials.
Others instead are based on advanced composite materials, also known as fiber
reinforced polymers (FRP). Field applications and experimental research have contributed
over tirne to assessing the adequacy and the applicability of most of these techniques, but
fumer studies are necessary in order to fully establish the standards for repair and
strength enhancement procedures. At this stage diable analycal tools are also required
for evaluating the strength or stifhess enhancement due to a certain type of structural
intervention.
Trying to predict the response of a reinforced concrete elernent that has been
some way darnaged and afterwards rehabilitated is definitely a nonlinear problem. Repair
materials have different mechanical pmperties hom the existing steel and concrete,
Furthemore the materials feft in pfa may suffer from residual damage such as cracking,
residual stresses and strains, yielding of steel, or fatigue. The most cornmon situation to
be found on site is that where the structure can be relieved only partially of the acting
loads or the permanent defiedons cannot be reduced ta zero. Among the possible
approaches to finding effective means for predicting the behavior of repaired structures,
the Finite Element Method seems to have the greatest potential. In this method, the
constitutive models assumed for the various materials appear to have considerable
importance.
At the University of Toronto, various F.E- programs for the nonlinear analysis of
reinforced concrete structures have been developed together with experimentally based
constitutive relationships. Programs TRIX, for 2-0 membranes, is founded on the
fomulations of the Modified Compression Field Theory [l].
In the following sections of mis
chapter the basic concepts of the MCFT will be briefly introduced and the structure and
main features of program TRIX will be descnbed. As well, the objectives of this thesis will
be discussed through some specific case studies.
normal stresses. In this model, the aa%ed concrete is treated as a new material with ifs
own stress-strain characteristics; tha is :equilibriurn, compatibility and constitutive
relationships are formulated in t e r n i of average stresses and average smns both for the
concrete and the reinforcing
the actual possible stability of the consideted element, New stress-strain relationships
were obtained for the cracked wncrete. The testing of two-hundred reinforced concrate
panels loaded under a variety of uniforrn biaxial stresses,including pure shear, provided
theory has been developed h m the compression field theory (21 for reinforced concrete in
torsion and shear. While the original theory ignored tension in the cracked concrete, the
present model takes into account these tensile stresses together with modified average
constitutive relationships and stress variations in reinforcing bars.
With reference to figure 1.1, the membrane etement shown can be representative
of a portion of reinforced concrete structure. The thickness is uniforni and of relative srnaIl
size. An orthogonal grid of reinforcernentwith the longitudinal and transverse directions is
chosen to coincide respectively with the X and Y axes. Loading is given through the
uniformly applied axial stresses f, , f, and the shear stress v,
defined by the two normal strains E , E, and ?heshear strain y,
these in-plane stresses and in-plane strains is determined with the aid of a number of
assumptions:
7. the direction of principal stresses coincides wiUl the direction of principal strains ;and
8. the stress state is independent of load history.
Finally, the tensile stresses and tensile strains are treated as positive quantities while
compressive stresses and strains will be taken as negative-
change in the average concrete strain is follaund by an qua1 change in the steel average
strain. Hence, for non-pmstressed reinforcement
direction can be found, From figure 1.2 the Mohts cirde of strains helps to derive the
follMng
relationships:
where si and
EZ
EQUlLIBRlUM EQUATIONS :Using the frae body diagram in figure f.3 ifs possible
toetw
ir
and
Assuming that v, = v, = v,
if f,. f, and v,
are know as well. Using a Mohfs circie for stresses another set of
relations may differ significantly from the local stress strain laws determined from
standard material tests. For the simplicity of the model, it is assumed that the relations for
concrete and for steel are completely independent-The steel is characterized by a triiinear response in which the stiffness assumes different values according to the values of
principal stresses. However, in Iight of the results obtained with the panel tests, the
assumption that these directions coincide seems quite reasonable. As a consequence, the
angle 8 used in the compatibility equations is the same as that used in the equilibrium
equations, and the average stress-average strain relationship for cracked conuete can be
expressed simply as a funcon of only il and ez. The suggested constitutive law for
compression is:
where
fP
=
f:
085-027-1
E,
strain for the peak cylinder Saenp. Note that 4 is a negative quanty and thus inueasing
E,
strain state,
fi = E,
61
for
o<E,<E~
(1-8)
After
LOCAL EQUlLlBRlUM :At a crack, the tensile stresses in the reinforcing bars are
higher Vian average, while midway between cracks they are lower than average. On the
contrary, the concrete tensile stresses are zero at a crack location and higher than
average midway between cracks- These local variations are important because the overall
stiffness and the ultimate capacity of a biaxially stressed element depend on the way
these stresses are transmitted across the cracks. Equilibrium can be govemed by the
stresses in the reinforcementand the possible shear and compressive stresses on the
crack. These conditions c m be summarized by the relations :
f., CP*
-(f9- f d ) - ~ o s ~ 4 ~
where, for the reinforcement in the i"-direction. Bi is the angle between the centeiline of
the bars and the crack normal. f+ is the yield stress and f* h the average stress. Fmm
Walraven's work (1981). Vs also given
where
v-,
normal stresses,,f
of the
are the rectangular, triangufar and truss fi&-order elements. Rectangular and tn'angular
eIements take into account reinforcement contribution through the formulation of a
composite stiffness matrix with a unifom distribution of the reinforcement over the element
performed until a convergence critenon is satisfied; this criterion can be chosen to follow
a) %lem.job wntains information on the analysis case name , other input file narnes, load
b) Kle". sdr contains al1 stnictunl infonation: mesh genemon, material properes.
c) "file". Idr has al1 the load conditions. induding steel prestrains, thermal or shdnkage
loads and imposed displawments.
2) The program detemines whether a new analysis is camed out or if data from a previous
Load stage have to be used. Typically, this step is repeated if the element secant stiffness
moduli have not onverged.
3) a) If a new analysis is to be done, the uncracked secant stiffness moduli for concrete
are used as an initial estimate of the overall stiffness matrixb) If convergence has not been achieved, the so called 'averaging factor" is used. An
D,,
,
= (computed coefficient ofD) - (averaging factor) +(1 - averaging factor) - Dmt,
where O is the secant stiffness matrix and the averaging factor is a number greater than
zero and smaller than one and specified in the ".jobn file.
4) The matenal component stifinesses are now wmputed for concrete and reinforcement
a) Starting with the strains from the previous iteration [G, E, ,y, ] , the corresponding
principal strains and crack directions are obtained using equations (1-2) :
b) Principal stresses in the concrete are then determined thmugh equations 1-1 to 1-1 1.
where
The one referred to the global axis is obtained in the same fashion as the concrete
material stiffness matrix, with the exception of the angle 4 that now represents the angle
concrete structures reveals that few tests aiming to reproduce real field conditions were
conducted. As previously mentioned, field conditions imply that a structure has been
sornewhat damaged; permanent deformations were induced and extensive cracking and
spalling of concrete areas can be obsewed. The load causing deterioration sometimes can
be totally relieved, but rarety inverted in order to eliminate defonnations. Enhancing an
undamaged structure is more of a rare case and the correspondent expenments are
oriented mostly toward assessing the actual efficacy of a certain strengthening technique
or procedure. In this work the first type of situation will be considered; thus a Iimited, but
representative, number of case studies have been chosen in order to provide material for
the analyses and the test data to compare with computed resultsThese cases include a couple of reinforced concrete slabs loaded up to 85% of
their flexural capacity and repaired using FRP and a deep beam loaded to 70% of it's total
capacity and repaired using FRP. steel plates and post tensioned ban. During the
application of the strengthening materials the load was maintained constant and, when
curing was complete, increased again up to failure 141.
Another structure used for the analyses was a RC shear wall. This wall had been
previously tested and extensively damaged under incraased transverse cydic loading (51.
Subsequentiy, the major msisting concrete portion was removed and replaced with new
and stronger concrete. For the purposa of this thesis, the whole structure was then tested
again and the previous loading conditions were repeated-This provided an extensive
database for material modelling under cyclic loading and further corroboration of finite
element programs.
The slabs and beams can be considered as typical2-D problems because of the
proportions between the three dimensions of the structures and of the symmetncl loading
conditions. The shear wall, instead, is a more complex structure and 3-0effects that
influence behaviour consistently corne into play. This represents another challenge for the
TRlX program and for our task of properly modelling the repaired stnrcture. In our
perspective, this meant the possibility of confimiing previous results and an opportunity to
understand which repair techniques are best depicted and which are more critical for our
computationaf means.
The layout of chapters will follow first a Iiterature review conceming the finite
element analysis of repaired structures, the finite element modelling of repair materials
and a brief introduction to the work done on shear walls- Then the details of the modelling
of the slabs and beams and the results of the analysis are reported and commented upon.
The experimental work on the shear wall is described to underfine some important
concepts pertaining to the discipline of structural repair and to properly reporting the test
results- Finally, space is given to the finite element analysis of the shear wall and to the
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The technique of stnictural strengthening by plate bonding has been widely used
for the last two decades in Europe as well as in North Amerka and Japan. Enhancement
of beams or slabs has also been obtnined with the installation of post-tensioning cables.
The numerous advantages offered by these methods attraded the attention of industry
bolts for cable and plate bonding were produced and tested; and effects on corrosion,
material degradation and structural aging were explorad furthe?.
The results of such intensive experimental investigations have Ied to sorne rapid
field implementations, even before the fundamental mechanics of repaired structures
were completely underotood. Soma basic expefiens that contributad to establishing the
plate bonding technique will be presented hem. Other work has been onenteci towards the
formulation of analytical models for predicng the structural response of plated beams.
and this is reviewed as well. Finite Eiement analysis of field applications have also been
perfonned; their main features are describeci and commented upon- Finally, space is
dedkated to a general overview of shear walls, repaired shear wall behavior and
modelling.
properties, plate ttiickness and load cycling- The results showed that in all test cases
failure occurred in the plated beam by horizontal shear in the concrete adjacent to the
steel plate (concrete ripoff), commencing at the plate curtailment. Also, after the plate
separation, subsequent failure seemed to ocwr by shear/cornpression failure of the
concrete at a load comparable to the failure load of the unplated beam. The observations
stated in this study may be summared as follows:
Bonding of steel plates increased the beam stiffness and resulted in more closely
spaced fiexural cracks- Ultimate loads were increased by 40% and stiffness by 190%.
In respect to the proportions of plates, thin ones (large width and smafl thickness)
gave ductile failures with yielding of the plate and eventual cnishing of concrete .The
using a b / t greater than 60, Also, stiffer adhesives produce a more distributed
cracking pattern and thus are preferable.
of different plate thicknesses and the increase of ultimate loads, adhesive thickness and
strass concentrations. strengthening of damaged beams in the unloaded state and
strengthening in the ioaded state. The mort important and general conclusions are that
As the plate thicluiess increases the failure mode goes frorn flexural yielding ta
or concrete cnishing.
lncrease in ulmate loads nnged betwaen 44% and 100% ;greater loads usually
conesponded also to an achieved greater ductility.
Theoretical analyses were perfomed using a stress block of 0.6 fe and an ultimate
strain of E,, = 0.0035 for concrete, plus the actual stress-strain curve for steel. The
It is interesting to note that the anchorage stresses for the plates were evaluated using
conventional elastic theory, that is according to the formula :
where V is the maximum shear , A is the area of the ttansfonned sedion y' is the
distance fmrn the neutral axis to the midplane of the plate. b is the wWiof the plate and I
is the moment of inera of the transfonned section, The maximum shear stress is then:
In surnmary. these studies show how bonding of thin steel plates on the soffits of
RC beams can substantially improve structural perfonnance. However, prematun failure
may occur because shear or normal stress concentrations at the plate curtailrnents result
in debonding, progressive peeling of the plate or rip-off of the ancrete cover. As s h o w by
Sharif et al. [l
11, bolts or steel uja~ketedn
ends may prevent this phenornenon. Gkied steel
plates on the beam sides help achieve a better perfonnance, if coupled ta thicker plates
on the bottom, preventing brittle and prernature diaponal-tension shear failum. Shear
damaged RC beams c m be repaked using lateral steel plates or strips, set in place
Investigations on such systems were first undertaken in Switzerland [12], [13], by bonding
uniaxial CFRP plates 0.3 to 1.2 mm thick to concrete beams with an epoxy min- It was
shown that the bending strength of these beams could be calculated the same way as for
ultirnate load was about 22%, with an observed failure in bending similar to that observed
in the previous case and represented in Figure 2.1. After the appearance of the first crack
in the concrete, the intemal reinforcement steel and the external CFRP laminate cary the
tensile stresses. After the intemal steel bars reach yielding, only the CFRP contributes to
an additional increase of the load. Finally, the laminate fails in a briffle manner (tensile
faiture)- As mentioned earlier, the deflecons of the strengthened beams are smaller, but
are stilt sufficient to predict impending failure. The bending cracks have a classical
cracking sounds.
2) Classical concrete compressive failure in the top zone of the beam.
3) Continuous peeling off of the CFRP laminate due to an uneven concrete surface.
4) Sudden peel-off dunng loading due to the development of shear cracks in the concrete.
is a dangerous case which calls for careful considsntion of the shear problem dunng
design.
5) Results suggest that proper anchorage systems should be used, such as vacuum
Sharif e t al.
capacities and then the cracked beams were repaired with a varying nurnber of layers
(laminae) of woven roving fiberglass embedded in a plastic matrix- The single layers of
glass fabnc weighed 450 gr./m2 and their thickness was 0.5 mm; the plastic matrix was
basically made from liquid polyester resin. Three sarnples of GFRP plates were first tested
under uniaxial tension and al1 three specimens exhibited Iinear, elastic behavior up to
failure. Table 2.1 illustrates the various repair techniques investigated by Sharif et al..
A summary of expenmental results is presented in Table 2.2. Both the yield and
ultimate strength of the repaired beams are higher than those of the control beam (CE),
and the repaired bearns are not as ductile as the control beam. as revealed by ductility
index
Gmup
1 Beam designation
Plate thi'ckness
Mode of repair
Pfate bonded to beam somt
Plate bonded to beam soffit and
P3J
Steel-anchored bolts eliminated plate separation at the curtailment zone for thick
GFRP plates. However, the repaired beams failed due to diagonal tension failure.
1-jacket GFRP plates (sheets on the beam soffit and on the shear span of the sides)
provided the best anchorage system to eliminate plate separation and diagonal tension
failure and best developed the flexural strength of the repaired beams.
Repaired beams developing their flexural capacities revealed sufficient ductility despite
the brittleness of GFRP plates.
CS
51
1.1
PI
Sa
5.4
PZ
5;
6-0
PZB
50
pZBW
S3
5-4
59
5-4
P3
591
F knlcf
u r a l by )irelQnsor'
5;
61
t4-1
U I
1Z6
it
78
159
29
66
7.0
13
1.6
68
f~
56
P38W
PI
SI
9-0
9s
1
.
7
Plarc sepamaan
65
~ i a p cension
r ~ ~aadc
m.
80
HorironP1 and
v e e c a I ~
amund wing
b
58
5.3
sz
[&a
23
n e t u n i by
cnirning oiconaez
ultimate flexural capacity of plated beams have already been introduced in the previous
section. In the following, we will focus on further examples of numerical and analytical
models. These were mosty developed on the basis of test results similar to the ones
described in the previous section,
composite fabric plates. The beams, loaded in flexure up to failure, increased their ultimate
capacity from 60% to 150%. This paper reports various analyses of the plated beams
using finite elernent rnodels and also several parametrical studies; the dimmsions, sted
reinforcernentand FR? plates am s h o w in Figure 2.2. The iMtW phase of the numerical
study involvecl the devekpment of an accurate finite d m n t modd of the unwrappe
conbol beams. In the second phase, the control barn model was modifiad to indudo the
presence of extemal fabric reinforcement. AH computations reported wem perfomied ruing
Figure 2.2 :Bearn dimensions, steel reinforcernent and FRP plate details.
A mesh sensihivity study was fint penonned. The conaete was disaotked using
discretized using four-node membrane shell elements and the matenal was ideaiked as
isotropic, linear and elastic. Again a perfed bond between the concrete surface and the
FRP plates was assurned. Figure 2.3 reproduces the typical finite element mesh. The
inelastic constitutive relation for plain concrete available in this version of the ABAQUS
program was used. while the reinforcing steel was idealizad as an isotropie, elastic-
perfectly plastic material- The shell elements that account for the ex!ernal composite fabtc
ware suitably added to the cxrrespondingweb portion of the contiol-beam finite element
model.
SECllOiu A-A
SEcTlOcu 0-8
All analyses were displacement controlled and they teminated when a prescribed
displacement was exceeded. or if equilibrium could not be attained during a given load
increment The latter situation proves the occasional instability of the ABAQUS algorithm
associated with the assumed failure surface. flow nile and crack modelling. In summary.
the finite element model captured faidy acwrately the overall load-displacement response
of the wrapped beams, but was unsuccessful in predicting the localized strain distribution
in the vicinity of severe cracking regions. This problem was associated to the discrete
representation of cracks adopted by ABAQUS.
cornputer program that predicts the ultimate strength and moment-defiection behavior of
beams strengthened with CFRP laminates bonded on aie beam sotfits. The cornparison of
expenmental results with theoretical values is pfesented, along w*than investigationof the
failure modes- Figure 2.4 shows the test settings and the idealized cross-sectional model
of the test beam- The computer program is a 2-dimensional nonlinear finite element
program; it is able to take into account loading histories, and updates element material
properes at each new load stage.
The cross section was divided into several layers representing the concrete, steel
and CFRP layers. The span was divided into sections of variable length and the material
classification for each element was subsequently defined. The actual loading used in the
test was input into the program and applied in sixty load steps. The progfarn then used an
iterative procedure to calculate the moments, shears, stresses and defection throughout
~ 3 0i
5,
1567
LongitudinalSection
BoriCni
CFRP
Laver
Cross Section
10
15
20 25 30 35 40 45
Dedeaion (mm)
laminates. This also leads to the conclusion that one CFRP layer was inadequate for
controlling cracking and deflecon; the inability to control cracking resulted in initiating a
premature bond failure between the concrete and the CFRP laminate at the crack tips.
In estimating the nominal shear stress at the interface between concrete and the
laminate, the adhesive thickness was ignored. It was also assumed that the strain at the
contact face of both the laminate and concrete was the same. Considering longitudinal
forces in a short length of laminate. LX,a change in strain of & comsponds to a
difference in Ioad of :
AP= E - b + A &
(2-3)
thickness. This load must be balanced by a shear force exerted by the adhesive given by:
AV=r-B-AL
where r = shear stress at the interface. Therefore,
(24)
and
(&/a)
is the local stroin gradient
The calculated values are nominal since local stress is likely to be relatively
greater due to stress concentration effects. It was observed that the computed values of
the nominal midspan shear stresses incfease progfessively with the increasing number of
CFRP laminates. This analytkal conciusion confimis analogous ones previously reported
effectivenesr
analycal method was also developed to predict the stiffness and maximum strength in
bending of the plated beams. The AC1 method for detemining the ultirnate flexural
strength is based on the ability of the reinforcement to deform plastically - This is
incompatible with FRP since they have no yield plateau. An alternative analysis technique
must be used to deal with this condition. The one chosen to predict the stfength and
stiffness of these beams was an iterative analysis technique developed by Geymayer
(1968) in his study of reinforced cancrete beams with unconventional reinforcernent
1) Plane sections
remain plane.
Once all data are input in the cornputer program. the load and deflections are detennined
using strain compatibility. First, a top fiber concrete strain and a neutral axis depth are
assigned. The depth between the top compression fiber and the neutfal axis is divided into
ten slices. Assuming the average strain for each slice. the compression stress can be
found using the concrete stress-strain curve. Multplying this by the area of the slices gives
the compressive force. A similar method is used to determine the two tensile forces of the
reinforcing steel and the extemal plate. The neutml axis is then adjusted until the sum of
the ten compressive forces equals aie sum of the tensile forces.
When equilibriurn is achieved, the moment is detemiined by summing the ten
compressive forces and two tensile forces times their moment amis about a single point
The curvature is detemined from the top fiber strain and the neutral axis depth- Using a
coarse finite differen model, the slope and deflection of the beam are found by means
of the moment-area method. The maximum strength of the beam is detennined when
either the moment redus for an increase in the top fiber strain, or the reinforcement
fractures. This analysis method differs from the ACf building code in that the conuete
compressive strain is pemitted to exwed 0-003 i n . h The strength s not Iirnited by that
parameter but by the measured materiaf properties direcy.
The program was mainly developed to predict ultimate strength in bending. but it
also predicted the load-defiedion characteristics (sffness) of the beam. For the beams
that failed in shear at the plate end the program wuid not predict ultimate strength, but it
did provide the load deflecon relationship up to failure. In Figure 2.6. the progression of
the crack pattern and the moment-deflectiondiagram for a typical strengthened bearn and
are presented that simulate the failum of RC bearns strengthened wiai FR? plates and
flexible sheets. Different failum mechanisms can be simulated and verified. The numerical
model is based on finite element analysis; it follows the smeared aaek approach and uses
standard elements available in a commercial package. Compariwns with expeimental
data obtained h m stmngthened RC beams teste in the labontory ara presented as
well. The experimental part consists of four-point bending tests as well as coupon tests to
charactere material properes induding the concrete-adhesive interface stmngth-
Figure 2.6 : Moment-deflection curve for the typical strengthened and conttol beam.
For the analytical results a simple solution is offered to model the system by taking
into account the non-linear properties of concret8 in compression. the tensile strength of
concrete and the adhesive interface properties. Numerical results are obtained wth finite
element analysis using the package ABAQUS.
From the coupon tests described in (17Jit was possible to constnict the Mohr-
Coulomb failure envelope shown in Figure 2-7. Also, since the cnrshing of concrete is
infiuenced by the confinement action due to closed stimips, a new constitutive relation for
wncrete in compression is adopted according to the CEBFIP Model Code 90- For the
adhesive, a nominal thickness of 1mm b considered together with an isotropie elastic
behavior up to failure and a perfect bond between the two interfaces- Steel reinforcing
bars are modeled according to an elaitohardening behavior and the FRP plates and
sheets are considered linear elastic until rupture. In order to develop the analytkal model,
a final assumption is made that plane sections remain plane- With reference to Figure 2-8,
depending on the strain diagram at a given cross-section, four stress distributions are
possible:
1) The concrete fibers at both th8 top and the bottom of the beam are still in the elastic
range.
2) The concrete on the tension side has cracked, m i l e the top cornpressed fiber of
concrete is still non linear-elastic3) The concrete tension strain at the bottom fiber is higher than E,.
4) The cross-section is fully cracked and the concrete compression strain at the top fiber is
higher than E, (this case may occur during the softening phase or crack propagation).
Figure 2.7 : Experimental Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for the FRP layers*
A cornputer program was written to carry out the computations in a step-by-step
of section. mis procedure is guided by strain i n m e n t s at the bottom wnwte fibr sa.
Rien. for s givert value of the applied load the program crkulates the effective moment at
each segment and. knowing the effective moment, detemines cucvatum and deformaon
of each segment At the conuetbadhesiveinterface, shear stresses t am genemted from
the difierence behnreen the nomial forces N acting on tne FRP piated reinforcement a the
two ends of the segment The real distribution of shear stresses ha$ m axponenb'alfami.
but hem it is assurned to have a linear distribution, The mam*murnshear stress t
,
for the
1,.
.
1 i: \i i li 1' i ! ! l i i
.
i il.
t
where Mi is the moment generated by imposing equilibriwn conditions for the j segment of
the plate and by second order effects due to the increment of vertical defiection dv at each
segment In this model, the failure mechanisms that can be detected are :
segment, but does not originate failure of the beam. The presence of FRP sheets bonded
on the sides of the beam can be accounted for by their contribution to the fiexural
capacity, but only if the fibers are oriented in the longitudinal direction. During crack
In the uncracked region the analycal cuwes are generally stiffer than the experimental
ones. This is related to the fact that the material properties assumed for concrete are
those acquired from coupon specimens and not directly fram the beams.
The good correlation between predicted and experimental strain justified the
assurnption of perfed bonding between adhesive and concrete. However, the greater
stiffness of the analycal mudel in the post-yielding phase is probably due to the
existence of slipping at the twa interfaces in both horizontal and vertical directions,
The choice of the appropriate segment length (Dx) remains difficult to establish. In
these analyses Dx was assumed to be equal to 50mm, about two times the maximum
aggregate sire. There is a la& of experimental studies in the area of mechanical
properties related to sire effeds.
When numerous cracks are opening in the concrete, convergence cannot be reached,
and the solution is thetefore not attainable- This explains why the numerical model
falls short in the identification of the maximum load-camying capacity of the beam.
In a slightly more recent paper by the same authors [18] , the model is refined in
the various possible failure modes, in the influence of the dimensions of the adhesive layer
and it's mechanical properties. Still, in these proposed models and al1 the previously
reported ones, two main deficiencies are detected. The first concems shear resistance,
shear enhancement and the related possible brittle failure modes. No attempt is ever
made to include these important issues in the rnodefs. The second has to do with the fact
that al1 experirnental tests and analyses refer to the rnonotonic loading of RC beams which
had no load history before FR? or steel plates were bonded. That a brand-new beam or
column is considered to perfom below the standards for which it was designed, and thus
is in need of extemal enhanment, is a very unlikely situation.
Ziraba [Ag] produced a very detailed study on the behavior of beams strengthened
with steel or FRP plates on the soffit of beams- The result is a finite element computer
program which performs the nonlinear analysis of such beams subjected to any kind of
load history. This program can also account for strength enhancement interventions at any
moment of the load history; for example, the repair eiements can be added aRer a loa6
unload phase, The modelling of the additional materials is such that bn'ttle failure modes
that depend on the bond (surface interface) propsrties an, propsdy represente-
SECTION
UTERATURE REVIEW
extemal plate as well as the bond between the intemal reinforcement and concrete, the
the other components of the plate bonded beam, a six-noded element was considered
sufficient to represent the plate-glus-concrete interface. By defining equivalent pseudonodes f ', 2' and 3'. an isoparametricformulation with parabolic shape functions
was
possible. A three-point gaussian integntion rule is used for the element; refeience [le]
describes the rest of the fomulation. The result is that not only can the element pick up
the normal and shear stress concentration at the plate curtailment, but it is also capable of
separation if the peak normal and shear tresses are exceeded.
Furthemore the program has been provided with restaR options to enable the non
linear analysis to be broken d o m into separate distinct 'runs'. In one such option, the
program can be restarted from any level of loadirig with a modified finite element mesh.
This facility, which uses the acronym "REPAIR", is essential in simulating repair of beams
subjected to a certain level of damage. This is accomplished in several steps: first the
program reads the status of the damaged unrepaired beam; secondly it reads the
geometry and element incidences of the discretized mesh of the unrepaired beam; thirdly
the new geometry and element incidences of the repaired beam are input The transfer of
previous nodal displacements required special consideration- The damaged beam has a
deflected shape and as the repair is carried out, the added elements must conform ta the
existing defomed configuration. This is achieved by allowing any new node to assume the
displacements of the node among those ciosest to it Fnally, the new testart file can be
reloaded.
Exparimental and analytical results show close agreement behnreen the ultimate
loads, deflected shapas, stress distribuons and cracking patterns. Failure points, though.
are often detected fmm stopped executions due to the divergence in the computer
solutions, while failure modes are deduced by controlling the values of the stresses in the
last converged solution. A more stable algorithm is then required that would allow the load
redistribution to occur among the structure's elements, and be capable of following the
entire load-displacementhistory, thus making it possible to detect dearly and irnmediately
the failure point and mode. Furthermore, ths program has been applied only to beams that
were over-reinforced in shear. It's effectiveness still has to be proven for shear failures of
2.C. beams and failures that involve side bonded plates.
Beams with CFRP were designed for a flexure failure; tension steel yields first
followed by concrete aushing and subsequent nipturing of the CFRP. The CFRP sheet
placed longitudinally on the tension side of the beam was analyzed as another layer of
flexural reinforcement located at depth h. The CFRP sheet placed transvenely on the
tension side of the beam was analyzed as additional shear reinforcementwhich would
provide a shear strength of :
where
4 -fu"f
The slabs were analyzed using a nonlinear finite element mode1for pretest
analysis. Concrete was modeled with eight-noded 3 0 solids and a non-linear material
model which exhibits wshing in compression as weil as cracking and fmcture-energy-
based softening in tension. The program that uses these features is ADlNA ( Automatic
Dynamic Inuemental Nonlinear Analysis ). The steel reinforcement was represented as an
elastic-plastic material and lurnped into tmss elements placed as dose as possible to the
proper location. The CFRP sheet was modeled with shell elements and as an elastic-brite
material; only the wntrol slabs and the slabs with two orthogonal CFRP layers were
representedAdding only f i e m l CFRP reinforcement enhanced bending strength but resulted
in shear failure and reduced beam ductility- Adding both flexural and shear reinforcement
resulted in a bending failure with enhanced ductility and energy dispersion. Bonding FRP
sheets to the slabs produced an increased punching shear resistance provided by
increased in-plane restraint. The composite wraps around laterally loaded piles confined
the concrete compression zone and increased the values of cnishing strains. This resulted
in additional energy absorption. Analyses and laboratory test results are the basis for
further tests on a 1/2 scale models. Unfortunately, further details on the analytical
modelling and numerical results are not given in this report,
Huerner et al. 1211 describe the repair of a cracked cooling tower shell based on
numerical simulations. The actual condition of this thirty year old tower made of reinfond
concrete is characterized by a relatively large number of long, thennally induced
meridional cracks. For the purpose of designing the planned repair of the pre-damaged
cooling tower by stiffening RC rings. a comprehensive numerical investigation has been
perfomied by means of a FE cornputer program- In this investigation, geometric and
physical nonlinearities (cracking and piastification of concrete, yielding of the
reinforcement) were considered. The spatial distribution of the cracks and the state of
corrosion of the reinforcement were also pmperly reprodud. The numerical
representation of cracked cancrete is based on the LYixed-crack?concept in the context of
aggregate interlock and dowel action of the reinforcing bars, is considered by means of
the shear modulus Gegiven by Cedolin-Dei Poli (1977)- The ductile behavior of concrete
reinforcing steel.
All computations were performedwith the FE Program MARC. The numerical
meshes: the coane one serves for a comparative investigation to detemine the optimum
location of the stiffening rings: the fine one is employed for the numerid predictonof
structural safety of the repaired cooling tower at the end of its guanntaed sem-ce life. This
disuetiration is characteriuid by a local refinernent of the original mesh in the vicinity of
the two concrete rings. while the flexibility of the supporng columns is mpresented by
beam elements with -al,
the htegration points in the vicinity of these cracks. The opening of the cracks is tnggered
by the application of themat load history representing a winter-summer cycle.
FE Lfesha:
(a) C m ; (b) f i e
stiffening rings connected to the shell results in a suffiCient degree of safety against
coliapse of the structure within its expected service lifetime of 25 yean. Final detailing of
the stiffening rings is conducted with an interesting strut-and-tie rnodel (or truss analogy)
assumed for detemining the intemal forces.
In 1995, the University of South Fionda began a systemac study [22l to assess
walls damaged by in-plane laads due to foundation setiement Four full-sue walls were
built and subsequentiy damaged under smulated soi1 subsidence loads- Two of these
were repaired using Forca Tow sheets from Tonen Corporation of Japan. The second
phase of this research cons-
developed under the joint US-Japan Coordinated Program for Masonry Research. The
analysis of unreinforced masonry walls is cornplicated by the presence of planes of
weakness produced by vertical and horizontal mortarjoints- Although program F E M was
developed to analyze minforced-masonry building components, it surprsingly provided
reasonab[e agreement for both the plain and strengthened extemalry reinforced test walls.
Masonry, cancrete and rnortar material propertes were determined with actual
material testing when economically masonable, or from the literature ( Drysdale et al,
1979, Guo 1991, Haramid and Drysdale 1988 ). The masonry is rnodelled as a material
with bimodular orthotropy, while the tensile cracking used a rotating smeared crack
approach. The program adopts a bilinear stress-strain relationship for the reinforcing steel,
and the plastic modulus is derived by multiplying the elastic modulus & by the parameter
2,which estimates the effects of sttain hardening. The reinforcernent may be specified in
both vertical or horizontal directions, and is also considered smeared over the element.
The carbon fiber sheet used is unFdirectional and is almost perfectly linear elastic up to
the test results for botfi plain and strengthened walls- FEM\I did not predict the crack
pattern vefy accurately, but this was expected because of the lack of interface elements
that represent the effect of mortar. Although the predicted deflections at peak loads were
path from the achial expimental behavior. The analysis also suggests that comparable
strengthening c m be achieved with nanower strps than those evaluated in the tests.
with the nominal dimension indicated in Figure 2.1 1were built on a onethird
representationof five-storey walls. The floor slabs at each story Ievei were ornitted. The
walls were also delimited by column boundary elements at each end. Each specimen was
loaded laterally as a vertical cantilever with yaic f o m s applid thmugh the top slab. whik
at the same time an axial load was maintainad constant throughout the test
After testing, spetimens 85.89 and 811 exhibid sevem damge to the lower part
of their w b . Hoiiwver in each smmen
new concret8 layer having thickness and machmieai proprties similar te the old ancrete.
In specimen B9. the web thickness was increased as part of the repair. ln specimen B11.
supplementary reinforcement was added to the web before the concret8 was replaced at
the original thickness. The addiional reinforcement consisted of diagonal ties in the
hinging area; these ties developed shorl trusses that helped the shear transfer to the base
of the wall,
Continuous plots of the lateral loads versus the top deflections, for al1three
specimens and for both new and repaired specimens, help draw the following condusions:
1) the replacement of the concret8 webs proved to be a simple and effective repair
increased. The thicker web reduced nominal shear stresses at equivalent loads and
increased the capacity of the inciined compression stnits- 4) The additional diagonal
reinforcementwithin the hinging region at the base of the repaired wall reduced shear
distortions and increased the wall ductility.
In another work by 1. Lefas and M. Kotsovos [24], analogous tests were conducted
on largescale slender wall models. The experiments were extended to failure, then the
specimens were repaired and retested to wllapse under various types of cyclic loading.
The main parameters investigated here were the repair technique and the loading history.
To this purpose, four identical specimens were built at a1 to 2.4 sale: SW30, SW31,
SW32, SW33. Of these, only three of the specimens were repaired and retested as the
fourth (SW30) had been damaged beyond repair. The geometry and the reinforcement
arrangements are shown in Figure 2.12.
To simulate the loading sequence similar to that which might occur during an
C. each representative of a different type of event Table 2.3 summariras oie experimental
data and the principal results of the tested walls. Itmust be noted that the faifure mode of
the original specimens was characteriml by vertical splitting of the lower region of the
compressive zone combined with flexural and indined cracking. Two methods were used
to repair the specimens: method A involved only the mplament of the damaged concrete
in the compressive zone (SW33); method B involved also the healing of the principal
tension and incfined cracks in the wall web with high-vismsity epoxy resin (SW32 and
SW31).
The conmte removal was camed out through the thidmess of the wall in an area of about
150mm by 100mm in the compressive zone wen the aubiing occurred. Once agan. no
speaal matment uns dedicated to the yielde mbam. apart hom an approxirnate
straightening.
The condusions that wwe drawn indicate that 1) the strength and dudM
iy
of the
original speamens were found to be independent of the cydic loading regime. The
nominal amount of kngitudinal steel still al1owed considerable energy dissipation. 2) The
loadcarrying capacity of the repaired walls depended mainly on the strain history of the
reinforcing steel and is essentially independent of the concret8 strength. Repaired walls
exhibited lower stiffness and leu duclity than the original ones. 3) Use of epoxy-resin
appean not to have a significant affect on aie ultimae strength of the walls, although it
improved both the initial stiffness and dissipation characteristics of the walls. 4) The
observed uack patterns and failum modes of the original and repaimd walls are in
agreement with Vie concept of the compressive force path. which indicates that the wall
capacity is associated with the strength of the concrete in the hinging region.
Reinforcemm pcrcmtage
r
Specimcn
SW30
O-'
PI o h r
0.35
1 .
3.3
Cubt
strml;ih.
1..
p.5
MPa
0-9
3.1
TOP
horizontal
f ype of
l o i d h ~ r e p a r Ultimate
load, k N
mcthod
117-7
.Monotonid-
duplacement.
mm
20.9
SW3 1
0.35
3.3
0-9
3S.2
Cyclicl-
SW31R
0.35
1J
3.3
0.9
349
SfonotonidB
1 15.8
139.6
11-0
SW32
0-35
1.5
3.3
0.9
til.0
24-5
0.33
L.5
3.3
0.9
53.6
382
Cyclic/-
SW32R
CyclidB
82-8
14.0
SW33
0.33
3.3
0-9
49.2
Cyclid-
1LlS
3-0
SW33R
1 5
3 3 1 0.9
38.1
CyclidA
93 -9
16-7
12.2
Table 2.3 :Experirnentat data and the principal results of the tested walls
The wall being tested in the present work is a a?ow-risem
wall ( height h to depth d
ratio of the order of 1) and for such reason the following characteristics have to be kept in
rnind. As suggested by the ASCE Working Group on Stiffhess of Concrete Shear Wall
because, as previousiy mentioned, talt shear walls behave more like cantilever beams
when subjected to lateral seismic foads, but short walk behave more Iike deep beams. As
a result, the stress and crack distribution of lmrise walls Vary widely. Factors to bare in
mind are also the shear and elastic moduli of concrate, the presence and sue of flange
of the wall.
CHAPTER 3
or slabs retrofittedwith bonded steel plates or FRP sheets can be done in various ways. It
is clear though, that any method involving the use of finite element programs is more
versatile and useful. First of all, this is because the shape of the RC structure can be of
any type and, secondly, because FEM based prograrns provide information on a wider
number of parameters, It has also emerged that finite element programs and models have
to meet certain basic requirements in order to properly analyze these specific structures,
The material constitutive laws must account for the complete concrete nonlinearity both in
compression and in tension; the reinforcing steel must be able to undergo plastic flow and
hardening; and FRP plates and sheets must be characterired independently as linearelastic materials up to failure. From a geometn'cal point of view, the program must allow
the simple superposition of elements, each representing one of the materials contributing
to the global resistance.
A linear-elastic analysis of extemally strengthened structures is possible mainly
when the steel plates or FRP sheets are applied to unuacked concrete. Hem. the actual
stresses in al1 materals sll allow a linear approximation of their elastic moduli, The
configuration is such that strains and stresses in the structure can be computed exactly
everywhere. Corresponding models are based on the material campatibility condition
goveming strains, which indudes the perfect adhesion of surfaces and the conservation of
plain sections. We need only detemine, for each different layer, the value of allowable
stresses beyond which the linear-elastic hypothesis can no longer stand, and
subsequently verify the wmputed values.
A non-Iinear behavior of the loaded structure is reached when the stress-strain
relationship is clearly non-linear in one or more matetials. This could be because of local
tension cracking, compression crushing or plastic flow. In the load partition that makes
possible a new equilibnum configuration, the loading condition on the plates depends on
where the portion of the wnsidered plate is located on the structure itself. In general, the
plate can be loaded with in-plane and/or out of plane pressures and shear stresses. That
is, if we apply a carbon fiber sheet on the sofft of a beam subjected to shear and flexure
the sheet can limit deflecfions 1) by working as a membrane: in-plane loading; 2) by
resisting shear stresses at the contact surface: out-of-plane loading- The latter eventually
generates vertical pressures and transverse moments resulting from local equilibrium. The
balance of contributions 1) and 2) will also depend on the method used for bonding the
plates to the beam (with bolting, epoxy-adhesive layer or both) and the local conditions of
matetials (surfsce separations or cracks).
on the thickness of the FRP plate and inversely on the thidmess of the epoxy layet- Again
from experience we know that crack
homogeneous crack pattern is developed in the stressed ares. Fmm a modelling point of
view, and more precisely in a FE perspective, this situation is more wmplicated. The
simple superposition of a cracked concrete element and a FRP or steel plate element may
not reproduce the same degree of stiffness as that of the mal structure- The tangential
adhesion of plates influences crack propagation and formation, resulting in a greater
stiffness than that predided by the pmvious modelling. Thur,the shear affect of plates on
the deformations of the entire structure rnay not be properly taken into account
lt's hard to quantify this discrepancy between the model and reality. Depending on
the size chosen for the finite elements (sufficiently small) and on the effective stiffness of
the FRP plates (sufficiently high), the difference could be irrelevant, For a bearn loaded in
flexure, parametric studies tell us that stresses can stil be computed approxirnately using
the same cornpatibility condition over strains and neglecng tensile resistance in the
concrete below the neutral axis.
The modelling of a structure in which the repair or enhanment materials are
applied after a damage in the wncrete or in the steel reinforcement has been produced,
requires additional features. The present study revealed that the superposition of elements
at such points of the load history demands not only that a FE program should ocwunt for
any arbitrary loading sequence. but also that these elements must be applied to aie
strained shapes in a stress-free condition. These options have been recently induded in
the formulation of the finite element program TRUC, previousfy desaibed in Chapter 1. At
each new Ioad stage the element strains are retained and 'plastic
concrete and the reinforcement are defined. Effects produced by the offsets can be
accounted for through the use of prestrain nodal forees, M i l e the composite material
stiffness matrix is formulated with efective
elastic strains (Vecchio, 1998)The ability to engage and disengage elements at any time of the loading history
was then added. Elernents that are disengaged exparience the same strains that adjoning
elements would expen'ence, but these strains are treated entirely as plastic offset strains.
The net elastic strains on these elements are now equal to zero and consequentiy there is
no contribution ta the strength or stiffness of the structure- If an initially disengaged
element is engaged at a certain point of the loading sequence it will start to contribute to
the element's rigidity frorn a zero value of the elastic strains. On the contrary, an initially
engaged element that s disengaged halfway through an analysis simulates the removal of
a damaged portion of the structure. A finite element mode1 that represerits a repaired,
or substitutions,
The following case studies will use these developed features for program TRlX
along with other implemented second-order mechanisms, such as compression softenng
and tension stiffening of the concrete, crack shear slip, expansion and confinement effects
negligible thickness of the epoxy layers, a Iinear-elastic material mlationship for the FRP
sheets with a brittle failure in tension and no resistance offered in compression-
simulate the distress, as revealed by a condition survey, of the foundation walls of the
parking levels in a residential condominium, and to verify the efficacy of a possible repair
strategy using unidirectional FRP sheets. The slab panels were built according to the
structurai design plans for the foundation walls: the reinforcement ratio for the flexural
steel was approximately 0.15% and consisted of dlOM bottom bars and 3-i OM top bars in
the direction
of the span and 5-1OM top and bottorn bars in the transverse direction. All
control. In order to produce a cracking pattern similar ta that encountered in the field the
load was applied as two Iine loads, Figure 3.2 shows the loading, support conditions and
the locations of extemal instrumentationduring the test, Table 3.1 reports the matetial
properties of the various construction materials. m i l e the test of the control specimen
produced a flexural failure at a total load of approximately 193 khi, the slabs that were to
be rehabilitatedwith FRP sheets were initially loaded to approximately 135 kN (70% of the
1150-0
Bu t t o m Reinforcement
LO.J
Top Reinforcernent
Application of epoxy and carbon or glass fiben followed the schemo of figure 3.3; thme
strips of fabric were placed on the epoxy-saufated soffit and sidas of the slabs.
The test results indicate that such use of FRP sheets produced a substantial
increase in the ultimate capacity of the slabs. More preasely, the wall strengthened with
carbon FRP (CFRP) reached 478 kN, which is a 148% increase, while the wall
strengthened with glaso RP (GFRP) failed at 422 W. improving by 119% the original
capacity. It must be noted. though, that the FRP reinforcementwas aimed at impmving the
general flexural response. The load comsponding to the shear capacity was much lower
than that for the enhanced flexural capacity, tharefore the failwe in both repaired slabs
occurred in shear. No evidence of partial bond failum (peeling) was found. although there
was soma debonding in the f o m of ripping around the shear failum zone. A cornparison
between the load-displacernent curves of the control specimen and the repaired slabs
indicates that the latter were restored to stiffness values equaf to those of the original precracked control specimen; the GFRP repair resulted in a higher duclity. Figure 3.4 reports
the observed behavior of al1 three slabs at the bottom midspan point
15Cl-J
L 3 0 d
LM0
Figure 3.2 :Test conditions: Ioading, supports and LVDTs locationsThe finite element rnodelling of the slab specimens consisted of 171 rectangular
elements for the initial structure. Anather 144 rectangular and 16 tmss bar elements were
supermposed to the original mesh to reproduce the repair materials. The 144 rectangular
elements were used to represent the FRP sheeti applied to the sides of the slabs, whils
the 16 tniss elernents modelled the FRP layers applied to the slab soffits.
Concmte
esc
(mmlm)
Pc
(MPa)
Wall 1
Wall2 and 3
(E=200000 MPa)
48-4
53.9
YieId Strass
(MPa)
CFRP
Q (Nlmmnayer)
GFRP
850-956
Q (Nlmm/layer)
Steel
Mod. Elasticity
E (MPa)
31300
-1-86
-1-96
33000
Ultimate Stress
(MPa)
Rupture Strain
0.168
Rupture Stnin
1
t
T
0-04 42
Rupture Stnin
Cross-Se &.ion
1
r 2 2 5 mm
E a s t - West E l e v a t i o n
Figure 3.3 :Application pattern of epoxy and FRP sheets.
Figure 3.5 shows the portion of structure used for the analysis (symmetry
conditions were applied), the mesh detaiis, the repair elements and support idealizations.
The load was applied irnposing displacement incrsments on the top surface noe
conesponding to the axis of the load. To mode1 the contml specimen only the fint 171
elements were activated, or engaged. while the other 160 were kept inadive, or
disengaged, throughout the entire analysis. For the tMI strengthened specimens, at the
onset of loading, only those fint 171elements npresenting the original structure wre
engaged. The load series analyses were then momentarily intempted at a displacetnent
approximately equal ta 3.5mm and. to simulate the application of the FRP sheets. the
initially disengaged elements were activated.
500
Control specirnen
9
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
experirnental test and the performed finite elernent are compared in figure 3.6. The control
specirnen was very Iightly reinforced and expenenced a ducle yielding failure at a load
slightly greater than the cracking load. The overall behavior was simulated reasonably
well, particularly the pre-cracking stiffness, the post-cracking ductility and the peak load.
2 d iredional reinforcernent
2 diredional reinforcernent
TWSS
elements
shear failure modes. The failure loads though where overestimated by 15 to 20%. From
Figures 3.9 and 3.10 the moment-curvature responses can also be compared; they
confimi that the predictions by program TRIX are a good approximation of the structural
AMLYSIS
OF STRENGTHENED RC STRUCTURES
mechanical interaction with the FRP sheets. The epoxy will penetrate the surface to a
depth that depends on the porosity of the concrete; but mostly, mechanical and capillary
forces will drive the glue into the cracks. sealing them to soma extent Thanks to this
the concrete surface as well as in the cracks. producing a slight prestressing effect over
the repaired area. Even if the epoxy has a much lower modulus of elasticity than concrete.
the percentage area of adhesive along any cross-section of the strudun is so small that
Deflection (mm)
Deflection (mm)
stiffness value. Once again, t's difficult to quantify these affects, but as quite evident from
the experimental testing that the initial contribution to the restored rgidity is consideable.
From a FE modelling point of view, this stiffening effact of the epoxy was taken into
account by substituthg
the load-displacement coordinates of repair. Results are good, especially in the case of
carbon fibers where the prsvailing stiffness of carbon mduces the contribution of
secondary effects. In the case of glass repair, the relatively low stiffness of the GFRP
required that the epoxy be modelted using the same sti*ffmssas the concrete. Fgures 3.7
and 3.8 also show the corresponding behavion predicted by the sectional analysis
program RESPONSE.
As far as the overestimation of the ultimate loads is concemed, we might suggest a
few reasons for that as well. Sirnilady to the reinforcing steel, the carbon and glass fibers
and the epoxy adhesive were smeared through the elements, but no attempt was made to
model or account in any way for the bond properties and the actual rnechanics of the FRP
sheets. Furthemore, in order to allow the repair materials to take effect, the local
equiiibriurn checks performed by the program in proximity of the cracks were rninimized. AI1
limits on the crack-width openings were suppressed in the second part of the analyses.
These facts are certainly the cause, or part of the cause, for the excessive strength
attributed by the numerical results ta the enhanced slabs as the ultimate state is
approached. TRlX input files for these analyses and other data of interest (cracking
patterns and the principal strain distribution produd by the finite element analysis) can
be found in appendix A.
Figure 3.9 : Predicted vs. observed moment -cuwature response of giass repair.
= 250
'OO
**-O
*,
Predicted
,
i
..'
Pledicted
(Program Response,
KS. F a c t 0 ~ . 5 )
Experimental
(Average of Curvatuie
Figure 3.1 0 :Predicted vs. observed moment -curvature response of carbon repair.
De Rose [5]. In the same building where darnage was detecte in part of the substruchrre
in section B-B was less than the minimum required by A23.3-94 (CSA standards, 1995)
and it consisted of defomed Arnerican Number 3 bars. For this reason shear cracking was
expected in the other half of the beam, through section RB. The flexural reinforcement is
given by 5-25M bars at the top and 6-30M bars at the bottom.
Concrete
Beam 1
Beam 2
Steel
(E=200000MPa)
No.30
No.25
Amer.No.3
CFRP
Pc
(MPa)
447
45.7
Yeld Stress
(MPa)
492
490
507
Q (Nlmmiayer)
e'c
(mmim)
-1-96
-1-83
Ultimate Stress
(MPa)
650
688
778
Rupture Strain
Mod. Elasticity
E (MPa)
30000
30400
Rupture Stnin
0.150
0.147
0.21
PO
5 No. 25
No. 3(U.S)@400
6
No. 30
Na. 30
id3
Section B-B
Sect.ion A-A
AU dimensions in mm
Figure 3.1 1 : Beam dimensions and reinforcement detailing.
Steel plates and CFRP sheets were to be used for Me repair work Table 3.2
reports the main properties of al1 materials involved in the test, while figure 3.12 gives the
loading, the support conditions and the shear and moment diagrams. Testing of the control
specimen produced a briffle shear failure at a total load of appmximately 1700 kN in the
weak section of the beam (right of the point load). The second specimen was loaded
initially to 1180 kN and subsequently repaired with three unidirectional CFRP sheets while
the load was maintained constant. The wraps were placed transverseIy with respect to axis
of the beam. as shown in Figure 3.13. Afterwarbs, the epoxy was left to cure for three
days. Loadingwas then hcreased again to a value of 1911kN, at which point the top
haunched portion of the beam. when the load was applied. began to fail in compression,
The repair intervention now consisted of removing the damaged concrete and replacing it
with high-strength rnortar, confining this specifi
with steel rods irough the mortar. amund the sides. The test recommenced and the beam
failed in concrete cnishing when the loading reached 2528 kN; this was accompanied by
some teanng and debonding of the FRP oveday at a steep shear cracking region.
* * * * - * * - * . * . . * .
- 1 -0.474P
O. 96P
M
(kN8m)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\U\\\\\\\
Figure 3.12 :Test conditions: loading, supports, shear and moment diagrams.
response of the specimen to a vey ductile one. It can be said that the failure was now
govemed by yielding of the flexunl reinforcement steel. and the ultimate capacity of the
beam was increased by 49%. The transverse placing of the CFRP sheets on the beam. as
opposed to the longitudinal placing on the slabs, enhanced mainly the shear resistance
and the ductility more Vian the ultimate capacity. This behavior c m be observed in
elements, while a total of 286 rectangular and 57 tmss elements were added to account
for the repair materials. Of the rectangular elements. 280 repmsent the CFRP sheets
applied on the sides of the beam and 6 are for the steel plates applied on the haunch. Ot
the tniss, 40 modal the part of the wmps applied on the beam top and soffit 27 the
remaining steel plates and rods. Figure 3.14 shows the finite element mesh details. the
\
Caron elements
Superimposed rnesh
Vertical reinforcernent
Vertical reinforcement
2 direction
reinforcement
The load was applied through imposed vertical displacement increments on the top
surface node corresponding ta the axis of the load. To analyze the contrd beam only the
first 644 rectangular elements were engaged. but for the repaired bearn two separate
phases were used. In the first, only those 644 rectangular elements representing the
original structure were active and the analysid was temporarily intempted at a Ioad of
approximately 1200 kN. Then, in the second. al1 repair elements were engaged and the
analysis was recornrnenceduntil failure of the model- For the choice of the repair point
for the numetical analysis. uncertainties regardhg the accuncy of the experimentally
observed displacements. in this case. led us to refer to the total load values-
2000
Control beam
A
25 1500
u
a
O
io
1000
500
\
1
Analytical
I
The predicted and observed Ioad-deflection responses for the control specimen are
compared in Figure 3.15;Figure 3.16 gives the same variables as obtained for the repaired
beam. Analytical results yield excellent approximation of the ultimate capacity and failure
mode in both cases- On this P-Delta scale, the stiffness of the beams is considerably
response of Figure 3.17 the difference in rigidity is substantially smaller. This second trend
is confinned by the shape of the diagram shesr load vs. shear strain of Figure 3.1 8. Thus
Repaired beam
\
1
1
1
\
\
Defiedion (mm)
one must deduce that, although thare still may be a small difference between the
observed and the computed stiffness. this is not as relevant as it may seem. and that
experimental data regarding displacements observed at midpoint of the beam might be
affected by some kind of inaccuracy. The cracking patterns and strain distributions shown
in Appendix B and produced by program TRlX can help evaluate the simulated behavior.
case of a deep bearn the assumpon that plane sections remain plane which is at the
Figure 3.17 :Predicted vs. obsenred moment -curvature response of CFRP repair.
Predicted
'
(Program Responw)
Figure 3.1 8 : Predicted vs. observed shear load-shear strain response of CFRP repair.
properties and the crack width parameters still apply. The conclusions suggested by
figures 3.15 and 3.16 could also be partially explained as follows: it must be remernbered
that h e formulation of program TRIX is based on the Modified Compression Field Theory
and was comborated mainly on the test data relative to panels subjected to in-plane
normal and shear stresses. Th0 reinforcementof these panels was always such that it
provided limited crack spacing and cfackwidthcontroII In the case of a deep beam,
weakly reinforced in the transverse direction and subjected to flexure and shear loading,
the spacing of cracks is much greater and the opening is wider- It is then reasonable to
expect, dunng the post-cracked behavior, a certain amount of crack slip that does not
equilibrium check on the basis of an assumed pure opening of cracks- If the above
conditions were me, the overall r i g i d i of the structure might be slighffy overestimated. On
the other hand, a rotating crack model such as the one used by the MCR, may be able to
In Iight of the assumptions that were made at the onset of these analyses, of the
degree of complexity of the resulting composite structures and the load histones they were
subjected to, th8 presented results must be wnsidered satisfadory, In order to describe
more accurately al1 phases of the structural response and al1the various types of possible
repair interventions, further investigation is required on the material bond characteristics
CHAPTER 4
repair procedure, the influence of the various factors contribung to the global resistance
and, finally, the ability to model such situations using a finite element program.
The shear wall was built by D. Palermo (51 in the structural laboratones of the
University of Toronto- It consisted of an H section with two flanges and a central web. The
dimensions of the flanges were 2020 mm high by 3050 mm wide and 95 mm thick; the
web wall was 2020 mm high by 2885 mm long and 75 mm thick. This section was
connected to an upper and a lower slab. The upper slab provided anchorage to the
unifomiy to the wa!ls. The l w r slab was demped to the lobomtoy fiaor, thus rimulating
test specmert.
The reinforcement layout in both slabs consisted of No. 30 bars for top and bottom
reinforcement, equally spaced in both directions N-S and E-W by 350 mm. The resulting
percentages of steel area were 0.65 to 0.67%; these high values were requimd to prevent
significant deformations from occumng in the slabs and to ensure proper load
transmission. The flange and web walls of the H section were reinforced with 06 defomed
reinforcing steel. These ban were spaced at 140 mm in the horizontal direction and 130
mm in the vertical direction for the web. In the flanges, only the vertical reinforcernent
varied; near the web joint the bars were spaced at 130 mm, but near the fiange tips the
1b2885
the H section minforcement perwntages and layout The uincrete dear cover hem is
approximately 75 mm. Table 4-1 gives the mean material properties for the concrete and
reinforcement in the slab, fianges and web.
The testing devices used for the initial qdic loading of oie shear wall were two
1000 kN load aduators mounted on a strong wall and then connected to the top slab of
the structure, These actuators provided the horizontal load and were attached to the slab
by hrvo sets of threaded mds, inserted thmugh ducts created before the casting of the
slabs. Load celts were then placed at each end of the rods to determine the applied load
corresponding to the imposed displacernent A constant vertical load was also applied
during the test This was provided by four 600 kN actuators positioned at the
Tabk 4.1 :Shear wall material properties.
Element
Walls
Pc
(MW
21-72
Bottom slab
S'C
oJ)
&Y
fY
fu
(MW
(MW
E
(MW
2-04
-O=)
34.66
1.655
Top slab
43.93
1-93
Element
Pu
(kN)
487-5
No. 30 b a n
PY
(kN]
385
0.0025
550-1
696.4
21 9747
D6 bars
23-4
25.2
0.00318
604-5
651-9
200000
(XI
(XI
corners of the specirnen, fured at the bottom slab by floor bol& and connected to the top
slab by rods that engaged two Ioad spreader beams. The spreader beams were used to
ensure that the axial load was unifomly distributed along the upper slab. The applied load
was monitored by four Ioad cells mounted on the acbraton. Figure 4.7 and shows the
testing setup and the actuator locations- A wmputer controllad data acquisition system
collected data incorning from the load cells. LVDTs. stmin gauges and Zurich gauges.
b
@ 355 E.L.
Figure 4.4 :Top plan view of the section reinforcernentand steel area percentages.
Increasing horizontal cyclic displacements of the top slab were cornbined with a
constant vertical load of 1200 kN. The actuators were load controlled, but each load stage
was defined by incrernental 1 mm lateral displacements. The load history then consisted of
two cycles of displacements at each new displacement level; for exarnple. starting fr0m
the zero value, the fint load stage was 0, 1, 0. -1, 0. 1, 0,-1, O mm and the second 0, 2. 0,
-2, 0 , 2 . 0 , -2. O mm. This sequence continued until failure of the specimen was reached.
-4t-
2980
75
L.
Experimental results of mis test are presented in more detail in Sections 4.2 and 4.3,
where a cornparison with the behavior of the repaired structure is proposed. For the
purpose of a basic introductory description, a peak load of 1298 kN reached at the first
HORIZONTAL LOAD
IAL LOAD
Figure 4.7 :Testing setup (web wall view) and the actuator locations (top view).
As can be seen from Figure 4.8, when the structure first cracked at stage 1, the
excursions f o l l ~AmK
.
stage 1f the structure was in Ws port&
when extensive and progressive damage in the f m of erushiig and spalling of the
concrete was obsaind in the web dong numemus v d d pianes. Fur(her infornation
and in-depth discussion of these mwlts is g h m in mfennco [q.
-1400
general condition of the reinforcernent both in the web wall and in the flanges, ftom the
strain gauges located on various steel bars and from the LVDTs and Zurich targets. A
typiml cracking pattern associated with the lateal cyclic loading had forrned in the web
respect to the
vertical a i s . The concrete appeared thoroughly cnished and was marked by numerous
inclined planes of weakness spaced approximately at 100 mm. At the later load stages,
though, the greater part of the concrete cnishing occurred along vertical planes distributed
throughout the width of the wall. In the Ranges cracking occuned mainly in the horizontal
direction as a consequence of the flexuml resistance opposed by this portion of the
structure. Figures 4.9 and 4.10 show the darnage in the web concrete and flange walls at
In the web wall. the vertical reinforcement seemed not to have undergone plastic
defomations, and thus to be still in the elastic phase. Conversely. the horizontal rebars
instead appeared to have yielded unifomdy along their length. especially in the central
area of the wall where a certain amount of bulging is believed to have taken place. The
vertical reinforcement in the flanges had yielded only locally, in proximity of the cracks,
while the horizontal appeared undamaged. AU structural joints connecting the walls
the top and bottom slabs were judged to be still in good condition.
by leaving the flange walls unaltered and removing all the concret8 in the web area, with
the exception of a sound layer of ancrete at the construction joints about h o inches
deep. This concrete was then to be replaced by new concrete with similar pmperties and
was judged that residual $trains would not influence the ultmate capacity of the new
structurai system, A descrp
i to
in
was partially removed fmm the flange walls by mounting six steel shores between the
slabs; four were placed at each corner and two close to the vertical central axis of the
structure. All load actuators were diswnnected. The concrete was then removed using a
small pressurized chipping hammer. In the process, particular attention was paid to avoid
directly hitng the rebars and the strain gauges that were still functioning propedy after the
first testing. Dernolition initiated at the center of the wall and progressed towards the
extremities. The concrete in place confined the rebars which, at the time of repair, had
residuaf tensile strains. In fact, as the concrete was being removed, a consistent bulging of
the steel web started to develop as a wnsequence of the permanent strains that existed in
the horizontal reinforcement This process continued until it reached a few inches from the
top and the bottom slab. There a rough and inegular surface was created with the air-
chisel in order to create sufficiently resistant construction joints, see Figure 4.1 1.
When al1 the concrete had been removed, al1 the space around the shear wall was
cieared and the strain gauges tested again to venfy eventual damages. Part of the
wooden fomwork used for the original casting was retreved and modified to the new
required shape.
PRE-EXISTING
CONCRETE
be obseived in Figure 4.12 and 4.14. The other side was modified in order to accomodate
casting of the new concrete. Restraint to the fonnwork was obtained by nailing the ends to
other vertical plywood sheaths and horizontal 2*x4" studs, which were fixed to the walls
and the bottom slab by conmete anchored screws.
SHEAR WALL
The casting of the concrete was planned as follows: the plywood f o m on the west
side was divided in two, Aftennrards, the height of the top piece was reduced and this
shorter strip was ternporarily fixed to the top of the 2"X4"studs. Thus, when the formwork
was assembled and erected on this side of the wall, a 180 mm gap resulted slightly above
mid-height through which concrete could be poured to produce the bottorn part of the wall.
Figure 4.15 illustrates this situation. Frorn the photograph it can also be noted that
horizontal 2"anwailers were added to the fonnwark, prior to casting, to provide further
fiexural stiffness of the system and to ensure an approxirnately constant thickness of the
detached, rnoved down to close the gap and pemanently fixed with screws to the 2"x4" 'S.
Subsequentiy, the concrete would fil1 the rest of the gap up to 180mm from the top slab.
Figure 4.16 documents the completed casting. In the process, the bulging steel web was
forced into a position with an overall minimum concrete wver of 10 mm.
The remaining empty layer was grouted using a very fluid mixture of Masterflow
928 grout. This particular grout was chosen for a number of desired properties- Firstly, it
was non-shrinking; secondly, it reached a sufficientfy high strength even if mked with a
high percentage of water- This second characteristicwas required because the grout was
to be pumped by hand, For this phase, a new specific fomiwork had to b e built. A 314"
plywood sheathing was cut to a depth Wce ttie size of the gap and was fixed using nails
and screws to two lateral plywoods and a top horizontal 23~4".
OF A R G SHEAR WALL
These two boards and the 2k4. were rigidly conneded to the flange walls and top
slab with suews anchored in the concrete. Finally the bottom of the main plate was
supported by wstom cut wooden 4%. studs and 2w9braces of various length. Figure
4-17 shows the detailed system after grouting. The grout itself was purnped into a top feft
(North-West) port until it started to emerge ftom another port af the same height, but on
the opposite side (SouWWest)At this point the second opening was seaCed and the gmuting completed by slightiy
pressurizing the H o l e system. Between the time of the first casting and the completion of
the wall with the grout layer about two months had passed, and by the time the test was
wmpleted another two months elapsed- The matenal properties of the repair materials at
the time of testing are given in Table 4.2. The concrete was prepared and mixed at the
material laboratories of the University of Toronto. The proportions used were those
suggested by Neville (261 in order to obtain a 28 days strength equal and not greater than
30 MPa, and at the same time a high workability (slump of 180-200). The resulting
strength of the new cancrete, which was greater than the desired one, was most certainly
infiuenced by the lengthy time delay between the casting and the test. It is reported by
Neville that the gain in strength that concrete undergoes with time follows a loganthmic
law, and that for an expected four months of curing this increase can be estimated to be
about 25% of the 28 days strength value, depending on the concrete mix, on the
temperature and the humidity degree of the environment The grout tumed out slightly
weaker and less stiff than expected, but values still permitted a correct interaction between
the various portions of the structure. The properties of the grout were dictated more by the
water-dry m k ratio used, which at the time of casting was not strictly contmlled.
- Material properties
f c - average
Table 4.2
Material
Concrete
(MPa)
44
Ec average
(MPa)
28900
much as possible the pattern adopted for the first test [S], eventually pemitng a direct
comparison of results. The strain gauges rewrded the reinforcement local strain values.
Ouring testing, these values could be monitored in order to determine the strain path of the
rebars. A total of 20 strain gauges were used, su< of which were positioned on the web wall
and the remaining fourteen divided among the fianges. In the previous test a total of 40
gauges were mounted; of these. 24 were damaged dunng th8 first casting, strained over
the Iimit during the fint test, or mined in the following repair w o k Four wem fued so that
a sufficient coverage of the wall reinforcernent could be obtained. Zurich targets were also
placed on the flanges to obtain strains in the concrete and cross-check the strain-gauges
data regarding the reinforcement. Placing was achieved with epoxy-glue applied to the
conaete surface. The total number of Zurich targets was 54: 18 were placed on the
extemal East sida of the North flange; 18 on the intemal East face of the Norh Range; and
an other 18 on the external West side of the South flange. Of these, six had to be
replaced becausa of damage to the concrete surface suffered fmm the first test In the
present test, readings were taken a the fint zero displacement stage and only at the peak
displacement of every following cycle, for a total of 27 readings each cycle.
HZ. H3
HL, ~ 5 1
Figura 4.1 8 :LVDT's locations: West-side view.
The nurnber and locations of the LVDTs (Linear Variable Displacement
Transducers) can be seen in Figures 4.18 to 4.20. The number and locations are identical
to those used in the first test, For the six LVDT's positioned on the web wall toes, the
mounds had to be re-built as a consequence of the repair work, The purpose of the
LVDT's was that of recording displacements in key points. representative of the behavior
of the stmcture, and deformations at the locations where failure was expected. A total of
19 were mounted on the specimen, six to measute principal strains at the compression
The 'Hm labeled LVDT's recorded horizontal displacements, Mile the ones
labeled with the V measured the vertical displacements: in particular, Hl, H2 and H3
were meant to trace horizontal displacements and rotations of the top slab. H4 and H5
were supposed to verify possible sliding of the bottom slab, but the previous testing
showed that the influence of this phenornenon was very limited ,so these LVDTs were not
connected to the data acquisition system. H6 and H7 were used to measure the bulging of
the web and verify the proper transmission of the shear loading from the top slab to the
web. Instruments V1 to V6 recorded the relative vertical displacements of the top slab with
respect to the bottom slab; and V7 and V8 were used to assess the bond slip of the wall
with the base slab. The remaining LVDT's mounted on the web measured respecvely the
vertical, the horizontal, and the 45-degree strains at the two toes, and crossed each other
Before the load could be applied, al1 the four veRical actuators had to be connected
again to the structure and centered, because they had been disconnected and lowered
during the repair and preparation period. Also the N o horizontal actuators, fmed at one
end ta the stmng wall, were now reconnectedto the top slab. At this point, the cornputer
data acquisition program was initiated. An initial set of zero strain readings was taken for
the Zurich targets, the vertical axial loading of 741 kN was applied wit the vertical
actuators and another set of readings was taken to measure the strains induced by the
axial load. Finally the horizontal Ioading sequence could be applied, and this was done
according to the pattern followed by the first test and previously descnbed in section 4.1.
Recall Figure 4-7 for the representation of the loading horizontal and axial Iines of action.
A diagram for the load history is given in Figure 4.21.
every load cycle of each stage stafted from zero and proceeded with a positive value of
the displacement. This positive value is wnsidered to be in the North direction, that is
toward the strong wall. For this reason, durhg this phase of positive displacement, the
horizontal actuators are 'pulling' and to such acon we might refer to indicate the loading
condition on the wall. Vice-versa, when the wall is displaced in the South direction the
displacement has a negative value and the wall has been 'pushed". The first cycles of
each stage means that incremented displacements are reached for the first tirne. The
second cycle means that the displacement values are reached for the second and last
tirne.
Dun'ng the course of the test, the vertical axial load was rnaintained constant, while
the horizontal load was hand controlIed and depended on the values assumed by the
displacements. Figure 4.22 shows bath sides of the wall before the load sequence was
applied. At load stage 1, during the first cycle. the wall crackad irnrnediately. These cracks,
inclined at an angle of approximately 45 degrees, appeared near the four corners of the
web and were deady caused by diagonal tension. At stage 2 the first cracks developed
that completely crossed the web from top to bottom slab. All cracks were marked, when
they first appeared. with different colors depending on the sign of the displacement they
were associated with. Blue markers were used for the pulling phase (positive
displacement), and red for the pushing (negative displacement); see Figure 4.23.
With load stage 3, the grout used for the top layer started to crack as well. The
cracks that appeared were sufficientiy indined with respect to the horizontal diredon to
not compromise the shear resistance. These cracks are explainad simply by considering
the comparable stiffness of the grout with respect to the new concrete. The transfer of the
load. from the top slab to the concrete web through the grout, had to occur with strains in
the grout similar to those experienced in the new concrete. As the displawment values
escalated. the diagonal cracks increased in number leading to the focmation of indined
concrete stnits. At the end of load stage 5, a residual displacement of 0.3 mm was
recorded. Some twsithg
of the top slab was first noticed during load stage 6, but the entity
of this phenornenon was judged to be limited and consistent with the first testing of the
wall.
The cracking pattern of stage 7 can be seen in Figure 4.24. The spacing of the
cracks decreased as new cracks fomed or existing ones elongated, The latter seerned to
be the prevailing behavior during the second cycles of each displacernent amplitude; no
new cracks appeared, but previous ones becarne longer. During the second cycle, the
resulting stiffness and total load decreased slightiy as a resuit of the accumulating damage
in the concrete. At the first cycle of 11 mm displacement, the peak load was reached. Light
spalling of the grouted area and gnnding of the cracks had been noted since load stages 9
and I O .
web wall, and at the same time some new vertical cracks appeared at the exterior faces of
the flanges close to the web. This was the sign of a possible progressive failure of the
flanges due ta punching thraugh of the web concrete stnits- A maximum crack width of 6
mm was also noted on the web wall. Figures 4.25 and 4.26 show respectively the
condition of the wall and the flanges at load stages 11 and 12. Loading continued until a
displacement amplitude equal to 17 mm was reached,
At this point the test was terminated due to the excessive residual displacements
and the scarcely significant values of the loads. Figures 4.27-ah report the damage
observed at the end of the test Note the cnistiing of the concrete toes and the punched
flanges. Also, as the toes and flanges faled, the concrete wshing extended towards the
center of the web along the constructionjoint. This was a consequence of the
redistribution of forces in the resisting mechanism. In Appendix B a summary table and
pictures of the wall document cracks, loads and maximum crack-width values recorded
reference parameter assumed during the experiment was the lateral displacement of the
top slab as detected by the LVDT Hl. H l was located on the North side of the specimen
and recorded positive values OC displacements dun'ng the pullng phase and negative
during the pushing. In Figure 4.28. the kad-displacement values are reported-foral1 load
stages, including both first and second cycles. The behaviour of the stmcture c m be
appeared dufing and before this load stage. By stage 3, the structure ente= an inelastic
response phase which progresses with an appmxmately constant until slope load stage 9.
Dunng this phase, the ml1M l y develops it's loadioristing rnechanism comprisad of
inclined compressed concrete struts and horizontal and vertical steel tension ties.
horizontal load of 1192 kN on the pulling phase (load cells B+C) and 1081 kN on the
pushing phase (load cells A+D). Also. the peak loads of the second cycles were reached
here, and the difference between the cycle I and cycle II peaks started to be consistent
The post-peak branch is characterized as weil by a constant descending slope that finally
reached a load of 412 kN with load stage 17, in the pulling phase of cycle 1. During this
phase, the damage in the web toes and flanges increased and propagated to the adjacent
parts of the stnicturs. After the second cycles of stage 17 the test was terminated because
is sumrnarized in Figure 4.29. The decrease betwaen the peak loads reached in cycles I
and II, expressed as a percentage of the first load, passed from a nominal 0% at zero
displacements to a 5.9 % at ilmm displacements. Especially during the pushing phase,
this variation was gradual. After the utlimate strength was reached, the absolute difference
remained approximately constant (-70 kN), while percentage values increased constantly
to a 17 % at 17 mm displacements. Another effect of the cydic loading was that, as the
values of displacements incnased. the shape of the loops also changed from nanow and
pointed to wide and round, especially in the port-peak region. This gives further indication
of the non-reversible damage produd and the dissipated energy,
Figure 4.30 :Vertical displacement of the top slab wrt. he bottom slab.
An important parameter that can be used to describe
structure is the vertical displacement of the top slab with respect to the bottorn slab, at the
level of the flanges. Two LVDTs were used to monitor this type of movement; V6 on oie
South side and V3 on the North sida. Figure 4.30 shows the displacements recorded by
V3. These values give a better description of the response of the shear wall to the extemal
fiexural actions indud by the horizontal loading on the top slab. As can be noticed. the
values of displacements are not symrnetrical: when the top slab is pushed (load cells A+D)
the North flange extends by a mm*mum of 3.8 mm dufing stage 12, but when the slab is
pulled (load cells B+C) the North flange is in compression. In the latter load stages, bath
cracks close and the concrete mistance is engaged as well. In this second case, the
absolute values of the resuIting displaments are now obviously smaller.
Finally, it is typical of a low rise shear wall such as this to experience a certain
arnount of bulging in the web region. This is a consequen of the considerable shear
stresses and strains induced in the wall, and can be visualized using a strut and tie model:
inclined compressive struts tend to f o m along the entire length of the web. AI1 the struts
that are wnfined atone end by a slab and at the other by a flange engage the resistance
of the horizontal ties, which extend from one fiange to the other. Deformations of these
ties afong their length eventually results in differential displacements of the flanges in the
horizontal direction and partially acamodates the diagonal cracking of the web, This
phenornenon is desabed by Figure 4.31. The two LVDT's that were used, H6 and H7, are
located at the flanges' mid-height; white one records positive displacements the other
records negative ones (this is the reason for the sum H6+H7). The maximum value
recorded by the LVDT H6 was 7.6 mm, M i l e for H7 it was 7.3 mm. These displacements
also prove the effective transfer of the shear load through the grout laye?.
Strains have been computed for the toes of the web wall. Six LVDT's have been
positioned according to Figure 4.20. The displacement recorded by each of these LVDT's
has been divided by the original length of the gauge to obtain the deformations that
concrete just below and partially attached to the mounts of some of these LVDTs,
affecting results. For this reason, only the strains relative to Ioad stages previous to
assumed positive in this graph, almost reached the theoretical peak-strength value dumg
stage 11 (dc= 0.00213). At this point. mshing failure began at the interface surface
between the preexisting concrete and the replaced concrete nght below the gauge. The
damage soon extended to the flanges and the rest of the constnicu'onjoint. The strains
recorded by the horizontal and the vercal LVDT's were affected by the presence of
isolated cracks that cross the length of the gauge. The wnsequence of this is that the
recorded strain values cannot be considered average values and interpretation of results
might not be as straight forward,
Reported in Appendix C, for reference purposes, are the top siab rotations
detected using the displacement difference between LVDT H2 and LVDT H3, the web toe
strains in directions otherthan the diagonal. and the sttains in the reinforcement along the
flanges and the web. Not much importance is given to the latter deformations since none
of the reinforcement bars had been replaced in the repair work, and the values of
displacements experien during the second test were in al1 the same as the ones
reached wth the first test Instead, comments are provided on the rotational behaviorof
the structure.
narrowed down to what are considered to be the main parameters characteriring the
structural behavior of the wall. As previously mentioned some secondary phenornena
occurred in a very similar fashion: the M-stingof the top slab assumed comparable values,
a maximum angle of 0.32 rad in the first experiment and a maximum of 0.3 rad in the
second, both counter-dockwise, The relative vertical displacements of the two slabs was
also comparable; a maximum opening of 4.073 mm occurred at a load of 1160 kN in the
first case, while a maximum of 3.8 mm at a load of 1142 kN in the second. With regards to
strains at the toes of the web, the first test did not yield signifiant results. The maximum
Other parameters are affected more by the repair w o k To begin with. the load-
deflection response as detected by LVDT "Hl" gives a dear indication of the similarities
and main differences occumng between the two cases. In Figure 433 we compare the two
envelopes of peak horizontal loads versus top lateral displaments obtained for the first
and second cycles of displacements.
Figure 4.33 :Cornpanson of peak envelopes horizontal loads vs. top displacementsThe envelopes of peak Joads referred to the first cycles are drawn here using the
thick and dotted lines while the envelopes representing the second cycles are drawn with
the lighter Iines, as can be seen frorn the legend on the graph. Firstiy, the difference in
initial stiffness can be noticed. This is mainly due to the flanges, which were intact at the
beginning of the first test and left unrepaired for the second test As the flexural cracks
developed in the flanges, the stiffness of the first shear wall decreased until it matched or
became slightly less than the stiffness of the second shear wall. In this case it must be
remembered that the new concmte of the repaired web is stronger and stiffer than the f i r t t
effects. The envelopes of the second cycle peak loads are consistent with a decrease of
the load by a percentage that reaches 4 5 % at the peak load and 1647%at the last load
stage. Also, for the two experiments, the pulling phase is the 'strongest". The reason for
reach every new value of displacement and thus it would produce damage that would
influence the stiffness and the strength in the other direction, For instance. when
displacement 11 mm was mached it occurred the first time by pulling the slab, so when 11
mm were imposed in me opposite e
o
d
rc
int
cracks and old extended ones represent more planes of weakness for the compressive
concrete struts and produce higher local stresses in the reinforcement
The peak load in the first test was 1285 kN while in the second 1192 kN, which is
a difference of 7.1 % with respect to the original capacity. Both occurred during the first
cycle of load stage 11. Considering these facts, as well as the other similaries in the hnro
responses, we can Say that this repair strategy produced a rehabilitated structure that
could perfom and be relied on for analogous loading conditions. Another observation that
confimis these impressions regards the bulging of the web- In the first experiment the
bulging occurred symmetn'cally (with the same values in both the pulling and the pushing
phase) and the maximum bulging was recorded dun'ng stage 13 and equal to 6.52 mm.-
In the present test the bulging was reproduced by Figure 4.31, it is symmetfical and the
maximum value of 4.7 mm is reached again dunng load stage 13. The 1.82 mm difference
can be explained considering the greater contribution of the web wall and the reduced
contribution of the flanges to the shear stiffness of the repaired structure. The absolute
peak values recorded by the LVDT "He' in the two cases differ only by 0.2 mm.
failure that began fotming during the stage of 11 mm of displacement. near the web toes
During the post-peak range, the web was widely damaged by the severe cnishing of the
concrete along these planes, unl the load -ng
definitively impaired. See Figure 4.9. In the present case, failure was ultimately due to the
mshing of the concrete at the interface of the new c o n m e with the old one and at th8
toes of the web. At the same tirne, it appeared, the flanges were punched through at the
base of their connection with the central web. It is difficult to identify the sequence of
events: a weakness of the ancrete at the bottorn corners of the web might have caused
initial crushing, the load carrying mechanism was then transferred to the flanges and,
ultimately, towards the center of the wall along the lower construction joint.
It is believed that the difierence in the two failure modes was detennined by the
differences in strength and stiffness of the concrete between the first and second webs.
Also the relative lower stifftiess of the flanges, in the second case, caused more severe
loading conditions at the ultimate stages. The pre-existing bottom layer of concrete was
left in place after the repair work in a position wtiich proved to be critical. This might help
explain the only similarity between these twa failures that initiated at the same value of
displacements of 11 mm, In fact, the compressive strains in the web toes at peak load
during the first test was near to the peak-strength strain, When this portion of concrete
was reloaded, the strains exceeded the ultimate strain at a value of the displacements
approximateiy equal ta the failure initiation of the first wall. Although it is not yet clear in
which proportions, it is correct to Say that al1 the previously mentioned factors contributed
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Introduction
The npaired shear wall was analyzed using three different finite element models.
All the element meshes were similar to mat used in the analysis camed on for the onginal
wall [5]. In addition to the elements used for the first analysis, layen of rectangular 2-0
elements representing the new repair materials were included. The various details
regarding the finite element meshes used are descn'bed in section 5.2. The procedure
followed for the analysis is then briefly ovewiewed; some of the features of the TRlX F E
program that were used and the vanous phases in which the analyses were conducted are
also illustrated. Section 5.3 presents partial and final results of the analyses. Here a basis
for the cornparison with the experimentat results is provided by a summary table. In section
5.4 various comments are made regarding the outcorne of this last part of the research
work .
structure is constituted of 540 membrane elernents: the top and bottom slab were
rnodelled with 3x26 rectangular elements, the two side flanges with 16x2 elements each,
while the central web was modelled using 16x20 elements. ln a first mesh, referred to as
Mesh-1, 300 rectangular elements were added in the web area to rnodel the repaired wall.
Of these, a top layer of 20 elements was defined using the mechanical properties of the
grout, and the remaining elements were characterized by the properties of the new
concrete. Figure 5.2 shows different shades of colon, each representing a layer of
elements with different geometncal or mechanical properties used in the analysis of the
repaired shear wall, The bottom row of rectangular elements in the web wall identify the
old concrete that was left in place during the rehabilitation process.
The procedure for the analyses of this shear wall followed the same basic scheme
of the analyses conducted previously and described in Chapter 3. Using the given mesh of
540 + 300 elernents (Mesh-i), the first testing was simulated. The same vertical loads and
horizontal loading sequence of the initial experiment [5]were used. In this phase, only the
540 elements representing the original structure were active or 'engagedu. An incremental
displacement procedure was adopted to ensure better control and description of the peak
and post-peak behavior. Recent features of the TRIX progfam allowed the analysis to
perform automatically the reversed displacement conditions. the repetitions of each
displacement value (thus producing the load cycles) and finally the displacernent
increments at each new load stage- Strain histones were also retained throughout the
entire analysis- This first analysis was stopped aftet the second cycfe of displacements
equal to 7 5 mm-
3~ Wall
1
rn 2
M3
m4
Test simulation of the repaired structure was made possible by activating the 300
repair elements representing the grout and the new concrete layers, and by de-activating
or "disengaging" the corresponding old concrete elements. The analysis was then
resumed using a so-called 5eed filew;the k s t output file produad by T R K during the last
load series of the andysis was retneved and used to read geometrical and mechanical
conditions of the structure (permanent displacernents, stifness
of the conctete and of the steel reinforcement) at the end of the first test. The horizontal
displacement sequence was starte over again. while new vertical loading conditions were
imposed. This second analysis was stopped after the fkst cyde of displacements equal to
f 7 mm. Copies of the input files use4 for the simulation of the test of the repaired shear
the bottom layer of the web wnaate. In order to allow the old original wnaete to better
develop ifs mechanical propefties. the corresponding layer of 20 rectangular elements
was subdivided into three layes of elements. For compatibility reasons, this partition was
extended ta the adjacent elements representing the flanges, As a result this finite elernent
rnodel has a total of 888 elements, but the nurnber of elements representing the repair
materials is unchanged. Figure 5.3 represents both Mesh-2 and Mesh-3.
Mesh-3 was introduced to partially model threedimensional effects. On the H
shape of the shear wall acts a combination of loads: axial, flexural and shear loads- But
the flanges contribute to the stiffness and strength of the H shape in their whole width only
for the first two cases. The shear loads and deformations are resisted by only a part of the
fianges; this part is the closest to the web wall and ifs width is about 0.5 to 0.2 times the
width of the flanges. In the attempt to accaunt for this effect the elements representing the
flanges were increased: for each flange, a row of 18 rectangulat elements was
superposed to the original 2 rows and 18 elements of Mesh-2. These new rows had nodes
defined independenffy fmm the previous nodes, except for the ones shared by the slabs,
and numbered such that the resulting bandwidth would be minimued. The onginal
elements npresenting the Ranges had a thickness of 3045 mm. but in Mis model they are
given a thickness of only 800 mm (0.26 * 3045 mm). while the ~
t dements
w
are 2245
mm thick. These values are suggested appmximately by the CA Standards in the case of
made of 924 elementr in which. once again. the number of elements accounting for the
Figure 5.5 : F.E. simulation of the testing of the repaired shear wall using "Mesh-1".
7-
--
- -
I(0RIZOUTAL D I S P U C E I E Y I OF T O I S U D (mm)
Figure 5.6 : F.E. simulation of the testing of the repaired shearwall using "Mesh-2".
difference is recordecl both in the initial stifhesses and the post-peak descending
branches. These results, though, can Vary depending on the displacement steps adopted
within each load senes and the constitutive models chosen to represent the 2-0 response
of concrete under cydic loading. It is believed that the predicted response can be
irnproved with an appropriate sensitivity study on the parameten that have most influence
on this type of pmblem. Furthet comrnents are provided in section 5.4.
Figure 5.7 :F.E. simulation of the testing of the repaired shear wall using 'Mesh-3".
The results of the second part of the analyses (simulation of the test on the
repaired s+mcture)are presented using Figures 5.5 to 5.8. In Figures 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7 the
total horizontal load applied on the top slab is represented as a funaion of the horizontal
displacements of the same slab and obtained using, respectively, Mesh-1, Mesh-2 and
Mesh-3. To facilitate the cornpanson between the experimental and the numerical results,
Figure 5.8 shows the envelopes of peak loads for the observed and predicted fimt cycles
of all displacement values for the thme cases. Also. a summary table is presented in which
Vital signs
Expen'mental
Mesh-1
Mesh-2
Mesh-3
Disp. (mmy
Disp- (mm)/
ioad (kN)
9 / 1467
at a crack
10 / 1571
general
9 / 1324
at a crack
10 11456
general
9 / 1091
at a crack
10 / 930
general
11 / 1605
at a crack
12 / 1570
general
12 1 1450
at a crack
13 / 1448
general
9 11091
at a crack
9 / 1091
general
9 / 1467
at a crack
10 / 1571
general
9 11488
at a crack
10 / 1456
general
not
applicable
lord (kN)
Web wall :first
shear cracking
2 / 463
initiation of vert.
reinforcement
1 7 11192
not
avaliable
reinforcement
Flange walls :
yield initiation of
vertical
reinforcement
1111192
general
Web wall :
initiation of
concrete
crushing
121 1120
new concrete
7 11176
new element
'IO / 1571
old element
6 / 1294
new element
5/1154
old element
6 / 1313
new element
5/1190
old element
Flange walls :
initiation
of punching
failure
Max.
Displacement
11/ 1192
fi7/4
cyde I
not
applicable
not
applicable
8/1199
+15 1 1611
cycle I
kt5 / 1138
cycle I
i l 5 1421
cycle I
the exprimental peak load obtained during the "pulling phase* of the first cycle of load
stage il is 1192 kN, while the numerical peak load obtained during the same phase is
1605 kN, which represents an increase of about 33%- The principal compressive strains
E
~ the
,
bulging of the web and the relative vertical displacements of slabs follow similar
trends to those indicated for the horizontal loads. Additional information is provided in
appendix 0.
This type of result for Mesh-1 was expeded for various reasons: first of all, the 3-0
shear wall structure was modeled using a 2-D membrane element mesh. Typical three
dimensional effects. such as the torsional behavior of the top slab or the considerable
horizontal slendemess of the flanges which reduces their effective width, cause nonuniform stress distributions and deflected shapes and tend to increase the flexibility of the
whole system. The 2-0 modelling concentrates ont0 a single plane al1 the flexural and
shear stiffness properties of the various parts of the structure and dearly neglects the
contributions of the aforementioned 3-0 effects, thus overestimating the resulting stiffness.
Another reason can be found in the concrete hysteretic model used. As one of the
options, program TRlX features a non-linear constitutive model for cyciic loading. This
particular formulation has proven to perfom well for vuideand single unload-reload
excursions, but, as these excursions am repeated at the same cydic load-displacernent
values. the model is not capable of desaibing completely the damage pmduced in the
concrete. The msult is that the cornputed second or third cyde peak loads. relative to the
same displacement value, will be very similar. Expen'mental results show that the same
peak load cannot be reached on subsequent cycles and the following peak loads will
aIways be smaller than the previous ones, especially in the descending branches of the
curves. This fact can be obsenmd ciearly in Figure 4.28 of cbapter 4. Finally, the
incomplete modelling of the damage to the concrete, due to cyciic loading, produces
greater post-peak stiffhesses and load-carrying capacities. This conclusion can be drawn
comparing initially the observed load-displacernent response of the original wall in Figure
4.8, with the corresponding predicted response of Figure 5.4. Here the computed
and the damage produced along the cracks are al1 somewhat underestimated, In addition
to the stiffness, it is believed that this affects also the failure loads of the repaired
specimen, in that the test exhibited a cnishing failure of the old concrete and puncfiing of
the flanges at a much lower load than the one wmputed by TRlX (see Figures 4.27, 5.5).
Mesh-2 and Mesh-3 yidd different results. A s can be seen from Figure 5.6, Mesh-2
produces a peak horizontal load of 1488 kN at a displacernent value of 9 mm, which
represent an overestimation of the observed peak load of 24% .The predicted strength
has decreased as a resutt of the mesh refinernent in pmimity of the bottom concret0 layer
of the web: Table 5.1 shows how the ciushing of the concrete is predicted to occur at
much lower displacement value with Mesh-2 than
Mesh-1-
In the final analysis conducteci using Mesh-3, the computed peak horizontal load
decreases again to 1332 kN at a displacement value of 7 mm. This load is only 12% in
excess of the experirnental ultimate capacity- This last model is also the only one that is
able to capture the punchinq shear failure of the flanges as a consequence of the
concrete cmshing in the web and the tfansfer of the load carrying mechanism from the
web to the flanges- A msult of this phenomenon is the earlier yield initiation of the
horizontal web reinforcement cornpared to the previous analyses. See again Table 5.1.
Finally, Mesh-3 reproduces better the descending branch of the load-displacement
behavior. As previously menoned, the post-peak stiffness is an index of the damage
produced in the structure and is paroally a function o f the constitutive model used for
reinforced concrete under cyclic loading.
The initial stiffness of the shear wall is overestirnated by approximately the same
amount in al1 three cases. From the experimental data it appean that. during this part of
the load history, the web wall gives the main contribution to the stiffness of the entire
structure, whereas, as the cracking progresses and the reinforcernent starts yielding, the
flanges become more active. Thus, the mesh refinements over the old concrete layer and
the flanges produced better results in ternis of ulmate capacity and post-peak response,
but still couldnt descri-becomcy the initial phase of the test. It is then to be concluded
for reinforced concrete subject to cydic loading and that a 3-0 finite element analysis is
Figure 5.8 :Cornparison of experirnental results with the finite element analyses.
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
6.1 General conclusions and Recommendations
The objective of this work has been to address the problem of modelling and
in order to allow a better description of the behavior of these particular structures. A few
other requirements that were found to be necessary for a complete modelling of repaired
structures, are presented in section 6.2 and suggested as possible improvements to
achieve with future studiesThe type of reinforced concrete structures chosen for the analyses indude: two
slabs repaired under maintained load, one with glass FRP and one with carbon FRP; a
"deep" beam repaired under maintained load with carbon FRP; and a shear wall repaired
by replacing the web concrete at zero load conditions. The shear wall was repaired and
retested within the experimental program of this thesis.
CONCLUSIONS
wmmon procedure was followed in which each finite elernent madel was first comborated
comparing the predicted and observed results from the conttol specimens- Except for a
few cases, stiffnesses and ultimate capacities of members were ahvays predicted M i n
acceptable limits. The strength of the slab repaired with CFRP was substantially
overestimated (20%) (see Chapter 3) and the computed initial stiffness of the repaired
shear wall was greater #an aie observed one by a factor of appmxrnately 1.55 (see
Chapter 5). Predictions are always given in various forms: load-displacements, momentcurvatures, shear load-sheaf stmins, concrete and reinforcernent strains, cracking patterns
and spacings. The overall descriptions of the structural response are good in every case-
These results were obtained by providing program TR1X with a few additional
features, specific for the modelling and analysis of repaired or enhanced structures. One
of these is the inclusion of pafticular constitutive laws for FRP or steel materials applied in
the f o m of sheets or plates. These Iaws are such that portions of plates subjected to
compression do not contribute to the total strength of the structure, thus simulating the
possible outward buckling of these plates. Furthemiore, in the case of FRP sheets or
plates, the stress-strain diagram is always specified to be Iinear-elasticwith a brittle type of
failure. Another important innovation is the possibility of defining superimposed elements.
with each new load stage and by defining the so called "plastic offset strains".
CONCLUSIONS
the failure mode describeci in Chapter 4, that the new ancrete should have mechanical
was assumed between the FRP or steel plates and the wncrete surfaces. Experimental
evidence, though, shows that this does not aiways apply and that bond properties are
often the basis of failure mechanisms. Laboratory tests could be perfomed to provide the
necessary data for the formulation of a bond failure surface, expressed in ternis of shear,
normal and axial stresses, for the cancrete and the FRP-epoxy layer. From the analytical
CONCLUSIONS
point of view, new finite elements could be derived that account for these bond properes,
expressed by the faure surface. and implemented UIt0 the more general formulation of
cyclic 3-D sttess states. Existing rnodels could be refined in order to better desuibe
damage produced to conctete by reversed and repeated load cycles.
the
['il
Vecchio, F.J., and Collins, M.P.. (1986). 7he Modifed Compression Field Theory
for Concrete Elements Subjected to Sheaf. ACI Structural Joumal, Vol. 83, No. 2, pp.
219-231.
[2]
Mitchell, D., and Collins, M.?., (1974). 'Diagonal Compression Field Theory a
Rational Model for Structural Concrete in Pure Torsion', AC1 Structural Journal, Vol. 71,
NO-8, pp. 649-666.
[3]
Palemo, D., (1998). Testing of a 3-0Shear Wall Under Cyclic Loading". M.A.Sc.
[6]
Shanf, A., Al-Sulaimani, G.J., Basunbul, I.A., Baluch, M.H., and Ghaleb, B.N.
(1994). "Strengthening of Initially Loaded Reinforced Concrete Beams Using FRP Platesn.
r]
Jones, R.. Swamy, R.N., and Ang, T.H., (1982). "Under- and over-Reinforced
REFERENCES
[9]
Jones, R.. Swamy. R.N.. and Charif, A.. (1989). The Effect of Extamal Plate
ilO]
Jones. R., Swamy, RN., and Charif, A., (1988). uPlateSeparation and Anchorage
R.. "Analysis of
[16] Ritchie, P.A., Thomas. D.A., L M , L., and Connelly. G.M., (1991). 'Extemal
Reinforcement of Conaete Beams Using Fiber Reinforced Plasticsm,AC1 Structural
Arduini, M., Di Tommaso, A., Nanni, A., (1997). 'Brittle Failure in FRP Plate and
Sheet Bonded Beams". ACI Structural Journal, V. 94, No- 4, pp- 363-370.
[18]
Arduini, M., Di Tommaso, A.. Nanni. A., (1997). 'Parametric Study of beams with
Extemally Bonded FRP Reinforcemenr. ACI Structural Joumal. V. 94, No. 5, pp. 493-501.
[19]
Beams Repaired by Plate Bonding". Ph.D. Thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, pp. 326.
[20]
Inaba, C.M., Warren, GE., Malvar, LJ., (1996). 'Upgrade of Navy Pien with
Huemer, T., Kropik, C., Mang, H.A.,and Gunther, M.. 'Repair of a Cracked Cooling
Engebretson, D., San. R., Mullins, G., Hartley, A., (1996). 'Strengthening of
Concrete Block Walls Using Carbon Fiber. Materials for the New Millennium, Proceedings
of the Materals Engineering Conference, Vol. 2, ASCE. pp.1592-1600.
1231
Behavior of Earthquake
Resistant Structural Walls Before and After Repair." AC1 Structural Journal, Vol.
September-October, Title no. 8-39, pp. 403-413.
[24]
Reinforced Concrete Walls under Load Reversalsu. AC1 Structural Journal, Vol. 87, No. 6
November-December, pp. 716-725.
[25]
REFERENCES
1251
Neville, A.M., (1996).' Proparties of Concrete 4th. Edition". John Wiley & Sons
1271
A. 1 TRIX i n ~ ufiles
t
for the slab analyses.
Ta follow are the input files for the control slab and the input files for the carbonrepaired slab. The glass-repaireci slab has the identical input files, with exception for the
values of the elastic modulus E and the rupture strain E* of the glass fibers :
TRIX
**********te
Job TiNe
(30 char, max)
:control slab DER1
Job File Name ( 8 char. max.)
:DER1
Date
(30 char- m a )
:Aug 06,1997
STRUCTURE DATA
File Name
( 8 char. m a )
:DER1
LOADlNG DATA
No- of Load Stages
:31
:1
Starting Load Stage No.
:DER1
Load Series 10 ( 5 char- max)
Load File Name
Case (8 char. rnax.)
O
1 DER1
O
2 NULL
O
3
NULL
Factors
Initial Final LS-lnc Type Reps C-lnc
1 1 0.000
6
0.2
0 0 0
O
O
O
O
0 0 0
ANALYSE PARAMETERS
:N U L
:1.O001
:0.6
:65
:2
:1
Results Files
STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS
Structure rrtle
(30 char. max-) :repaired slab DER1
Structure File Name ( 8 char. m a )
:DER1
Worlting Units
(Imperia! or Metric) :metrie
No. of R.C. Material Types
:4
No. of Steel Material Types
:1
No. of Rectangufar Elements
:486
No. of Triangular Elements
:O
No. of Tmss Elements
:16
No- of Joints
:200
No. of Restraints
:11
CONCRETE
MAT. f c ft Ec MU Cc T A Srnx Smy Sma #REINF.
TYPE# MPa MPa MPa
IC mm mm mm mm deg COMP.
1 48.4 2.3 31300 0.15 O 1200 20 100100 O O
2 48.4 2.3 31300 0.15 O 1200 20 100 100 O 1
3 48.4 2.3 31300 0.15 O 1200 20 100100 O 1
REINFORCEMENTCOMPONENTS
>
esh Cs Dep
me IFJC me
()STEEL
-
me
COORDINATES
cmm+.i+,
<NOTE:> UNITS: in OR mm
<<<ceFORMAT w>w>>
NODE X Y [MODES d(N0DES) d(X) d m J [#NODES d(N0DES) d o d(Y) J f
1 O 0
31050 O 2 1 020 /
3 040
31050 O 4 1 0 3 6 /
70184
31050041022/
31 1500
11 1OSQ.l O 2 1 020 /
3315040 11 1059,l O 4 1 0 3 6 1
37150184 111059.1 O 4 1 0 2 2 /
141 8000 6 10 50 O 2 1 O 20 1
143 80040 61050 O 4 1 O36 /
147 800184 61050 O 4 1 O22 f
/
SUPPORT RESTRAINTS
<NOTE:> CODE: 'O' FOR NOT RESTRAlNED NODES AND '1' FOR RESTRAlNED ONES
c e < < FORMAT w>>>w
N O D E X-RST Y-RST [ #NODE d(N0DE) J f
191 1 O101 /
31 0 1 /
/
LOAD CASE
DATA
*t***t*****t*
JOINT LOADS
<NOTE:> UNITS: KlPS OR KN
<cc FORMAT >ww>>
SUPPORT DISPLACEMENTS
<NOTE:> UNITS: MM OR IN
<<<c<FORMAT >>>>>
JNT DOF DISPL [ WNT d(JN7)
150 2 -1.000 /
1/
TEMPERATRE LOADS
<NOTE:> UNITS: F OR C
<ex<FORMAT >>SB>
ELMT TEMP (ELMT d(ELMf) dCfEMP) ) [ELMT d(ELMT) dmMP) 1 1
1
CONCRETE PRESTRAINS
<NOTE:> UNITS: me
<cc<< FORMAT >>>a>
LMT d(ELMT) d(STRAIN) ] [ ELMT d(ELMT) d(SfRAlN)
ELMT STRAIN [ E
1
INGRESS PRESSURES
Job Title
(30 char. max.)
:repaired slab DER1
Job File Name ( 8 char. maxi)
:DER2
Date
(30 char. max.)
:Aug 06,1997
STRUCTURE DATA
FileName
(8char.max.)
:DER2
LOADING DATA
No. of Load Stages
:36
:1
:DER2
"***********
* STRUCTURE
*
DATA
'
'************
STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS
Structure T'le
(30 char. max.)
:repaired slab DER1
Structure File Name ( 8 char. max.) :DER2
Working Units
(Impetial or Metric) :metnc
:4
No. of R.C. Matenal Types
No. of Steel Matenal Types
:1
No. of Rectangular Elements
:486
No. of Triangular Elements
:O
No. of Tmss Elements
:16
No, of Joints
:200
No. of Restraints
:11
COORDINAES
<NOTE:> UNITS: in OR mm
<<cc< FORMAT >>>
NODE X Y [#NODES d(NODES) d(X) d(Y) J (IYNODES d(N0DES) dm d(Y) ] 1
1 0 0
31050 O 21020 1
3040
31050041036/
7 O184
31050 O 4 1 022 1
31 1500
11 lOS8.l O 2 1 020 /
3315040 111059.1 0 4 1 0 3 6 1
37150184 11 1059.1 O 4 1 0 2 2 /
141 8000 6 1 0 5 0 O 2 1 0 2 0 f
143 80040 6 1 0 5 0 O 4 1 0 3 6 1
147 800184 6 1 0 5 0 O 4 1 0 2 2 1
/
SUPPORT RESTRAINTS
<NOTE:> CODE: 'O' FOR NOT RESTRAINED NODES AND '1' FOR RESTRAINED ONES
<<<cc FORMAT >>>>>
NODE X-RST Y-RST [ #NODE d(N0DE) 1 I
Y91 1 0 1 0 1 f
31 0 1 1
1
JOINT LOAOS
SUPPORT DISPLACEMENTS
<NOTE:> UNITS: MM OR IN
<cc<< FORMAT w>>
JNT DOF DlSPL [KINT d(JNT) ] /
150 2 -1.000 1
1
TEMPERATURE LOADS
<NOTE:> UNITS: me
INGRESS PRESSURES
TRlX are shown both for the sfab control specimen and the carbon-repaired slab:
Figure A2.1 : TRlX predicted cracking patterns for the sfab control specimen.
Figure A2.2 :TRlX predicted cracking patterns for the carbon-repaired slab.
APPENDIX B
repaired beam:
TRIX
JOB DATA
************
Job TRle
(30 char. max.)
:control beam DER3
Job File Name ( 8 char, rnax.)
:DER3
Date
(30 char. max.)
:Aug 06,1997
STRUCTURE DATA
File Name
( 8 char. m a )
:DER3
LOADING DATA
No. of Load Stages
Starting Load Stage NoLoad Senes ID ( 5 char. max.)
Load File Name
Case (8 char. max.)
O
1 DER3
O
2 NULL
3 NULL
O
:29
:1
:DER3
Factors
Initial Final LS-lnc Type Reps C-lnc
0.5
1 1 0.000
14
0 0 0
O
O
O 0 O
O
O
ANALYSlS PARAMETERS
Seed File Name
(8 char. marc)
:N U L
Convergence Limit (factor > 1.0)
:1.0005
Averaging Factor ( 0.0 to 1.O )
:0-6
Maximum No. of lterations
:65
Convergence Criteria
:2
Results Files
:1
MATERIAL BEMVIOUR MOOELS
Concrete Corn-on
Base Cuwe
(0-2) :2
Concrete Post-Peak Ouctility
(0-1) :2
Concreten
ois
C
e
m
orp
Softening
(0-8) :3
Concrete Tension Stiffening
(0-3):2
Concrete Confinement Strsngth
(M):1
Concrete Variable Expansion
(Gl) :1
Concrete Tension Splitting
(0-1) :O
Concrete Cracking Criterion
(013) :1
Concrete Crack Slip Check
(0-1) :1
Concrete Comp Stability Check
(C3) :2
Concrete Residual Terision
(0-2) :2
Concrete Hysteresis Model
(0-2) :O
Reinforcement Stress Response
(0-3):2
Strain Histories Retained
(0-1) :1
TRlX "stnicture*file
- control beam:
STRUCTURE
DATA
**+**********
STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS
Structure Tiile
(30 char. m a ) :control beam DER3
:DER4
Structure File Name ( 8 char. max.)
Working Units
(Imperia1 or Metnc) :metric
:14
No. of R.C. Material Types
No. of Steel Material Types
:3
:930
No. of Rectangular Elements
No. of Tnangular Elements
:O
No. of Tniss Elements
:57
No. of Joints
:706
No. of Restraints
:3
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
(A) REINFORCED CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT COMPONENTS
MAT. SRF ORIENT, PERCI NT Fy Fu Es Esh esh Cs Dep
WPTYPdeg
%
M sa MPa MPa MPa me /F,IC me
1 1 90 0.1632 507 7 8 20 300 10000 15 0 O
2 1 0 19.07 492 650 200a 30 10000 15 O0
2 1 90 0.1632 507 778 200 100 10000 15 0 0
3 1 0 11.O91 492 688 200 300 10000 l S 0 0
3 1 90 0.1632 507 778 200 100 10000 15 0 0
4 1 90 0.167 507 778 200( 100 IOOOO 1s 0 0
5 1 90 0.2464 507 778 200 300 10000 15 0 O
6 1 O 19.07 492 650 200 30 10000 15 O0
6 1 90 0.2464 507 778 200 100 10000 15 O0
7 1 0 11.O91 492 688 200 DO0 10000 1s 0 0
7 1 90 0.2464 507 t78 200 300 10000 15 0 0
8 1 0 0.4444 507 778 200i 100 1O000 15 O 0
8 1 90 0.3333 507 ?78 200 300 10000 15 0 O
9 1 90 0.0672 507 778 200 300 10000 15 O0
10 1 0 19.07 492 650 200 300 1O000 15 0 0
10 1 90 0.0672 507 7 8 20 3000 10000 15 0 0
11 1 0 ll.O9l 492 688 20 3000 1O000 15 0 0
11 1 90 0.0672 507 778 20 3000 10000 15 0 0
1 3 3 0 100 90 100 550( i 5500 18.2 O 0
1 3 3 9 0 100 1000 1050 9( 1000 90000 11-2 0 O
14 1 O 100 492 688 2000i 10 10000 15 O0
14 1 90 100 492 688 2000 I O 10000 15 0 0
() STEEL
<NOTE:> TO BE USU) FOR TRUSS ELEMENTS ONLY
MAT. SRF AREA Es
Fy
Fu esh Esh Cs Dep
TYP TYP mm2
MPa
MPa MPa me MPa IFJC me
13550 5500 90 100 18.2 5500 O 0
2 1 750 200000 492 68 15 10000 O O
3 1 1400 200000 492 688 15 10000 O O
1
ELEMENT INCIDENCES
o d(lNC) ] /
(B)TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS
ce<<< FORMAT >>>>>
ELMT INC1 INC2 INC3 (IYELMT d(ELMT) d(lNC)] [IYELMT d(ELMT) d(lNC) ] 1
/
2885 1 4 15 9 1 /
2977 1 4 1s /
2988 1 4 15 3 1 /
34612 1 20 13 /
34710 1 23 13 /
3489 1 23 13 9 1 /
35711 1 23 13 /
35812 1 23 13 /
60612 1 3 13 1
645 13 O 20 13 13 f 1
90512 O 20 1 1
92514 O 3 2 2 1 1
931 1 O 20 1 1
951 1 O 20 1 /
9712 O 1 O 2 1 /
9733 O 1 O 1 S 1 /
1
COOROINATES
<NOTE:> UNITS: in OR mm
<ce<< FORMAT >>w>w
NODE X Y [MODES d(N0DES) do() dCI) J [#NODES d(N0DES) dm d o J 1
1 O0 316158.3330 2 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 1
2 0 4 5 3 1 6 158-3330 2 1 1 O910 1
3 0 8 5 318158.3330 1 0 1 092.221
15 O1150 316158.3330 2 1 0 1 5 0 1
49 4750 16 1695,31250 2 1 3 0 1000 /
50 47545 161695.31250 2 1 1 0910 1
51 47585 16 16 95.31250 10 1092.221
63 4751150 16169S131250 2 1 O 150 /
30520000 5 1 6 1 0 0 0 2 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 /
306200045 5 1 6 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 O910 1
307200085 5 1 6 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 9 2 2 2 1
319 2000 1150 5 16 IO0 O 2 1 O 150 1
385 2496.25 O 20 14 96.25 O 2 13 O 1000 /
386 2496.25 45 20 14 96.25 O 2 11 O 910 /
387 2496.25 85 20 14 96.25 O 1O 1 O 92.22 /
665 4483.333 O 3 14 158.333 O 2 13 O 1000 /
6664483.33345 3 14158.3330 2 1 1 O910 1
667 4483.333 85 3 14 158.333 O 10 1 O 92.22 /
1
SUPPORT RESTRAINTS
<NOTE:> CODE: 'O' FOR NOT RESTRAINED NODES AND '1' FOR RESTRAINED ONES
<<<cc FORMAT >w>>w
NODE X-RST Y-RST [#NODE d(N0DE) 1
49 1 1 1
651 0 1 /
/
'
*****t******t
L W CASE PARAMETERS
Structure r i e
(30 char, m a ) :controt beam DER3
Coad Case Tiile
(30 char. m a ) :VRTICAL DISPLACEMENT
Load Case File Name (8 char. m a ) :DER3
Units
(Imperia1 or Metric) :metn'c
No. of Loaded Joints
:O
No, of Prescn'bedSupport Displacements :1
No. of Elements with Temperature Loads :O
No. of Elements with Conmte Prestrain :O
No, of Elementswith Ingress Pressute :O
JOINT LOAOS
<NOTE:> UNlfS: KlPS OR KN
<<<<< FORMAT >>w>>
NODE Fx Fy [ #NODE d(N0DE) d(Fx) d(Fy) ] /
1
SUPPORT DISPLACEMENTS
<NOTE:> UNITS: MM OR IN
<cc<< FORMAT >>>w>
JNT DOF DISPL [ WNT d(JNT) ] /
368 2 -1 .O00 /
TEMPERATURE LOADS
ELMT TEMP [ E
LMT d(ELMT) d(TEMP) ] [ E L M T d(ELMT) d(lEMP)
1
CONCRETE PRESTRAINS
]/
<NOTE:> UNITS: me
<ce<< FORMAT >>a>>
ELMT STRAIN [ E L M T d(ELMT) d(STRAIN) ] [ ELMT d(ELMT) d(STRA1N) ] /
/
INGRESS PRESSURES
Job Title
STRUCTURE DATA
File Name
( 8 char. max.)
:DER4
LOADING DATA
:33
No. of Load Stages
:1
Starng toad Stage No.
Load Series 10 ( 5 char. m a )
:DER4
DER4
2
3
NULL
NUL
Factors
Initial Final LSlnc Type Reps Glnc
4.5
20.5 0.5
1 1 0.000
O
O
O
O 0 0
O
O
O
O 0 0
ANALYSE PARAMETERS
Seed File Name
(8 char. max-)
:DER3-10
Convergence Lirnit (factor > 1.O)
:1-0005
Averaging Factor ( 0.0 to 1.0 )
:0.25
:95
Maximum No. of Iterations
:
2
Convergence Criteria
:1
Results Files
ReinforcementStress Response
(CM) :3
Strain Histories Retained
(61) :1
STRUCWRAL PARAMETERS
Structure Tle
(30 char. max.)
:contml beam DER3
Structure File Name ( 8 char- m a ) :DER4
Working Un&
Qimprial or Metric) :metric
:14
No. of R-C- Material Types
:3
No. of Steel Material Types
:930
No. of Rectangular Elements
No- of Triangular Elements
:O
:57
No. of Tniss Elements
No. of Joints
:706
No. of Restraints
:3
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
(A) REINFORCEO CQNCRETE
<NOTE:> TO BE USE0 IN RECTANGULAR AND 1RIANGUCAR ELEMENTS ONLY
CONCRETE
___)
REINFORCEMENTCOMPONENTS
MAT. SRF ORIENT, PERCENT Fy Fu Es Esh esh Cs Dep
TYP TYP deg
%
MPa MPa MPa MPa me F , / C me
I1 90 0,1632 SOT 778 200000 iom IS O O
2 1 0 19-07 492 650 200000 10000 15 0 0
2 1 90 0-1632 507 778 200000 10000 15 0 0
3 1 O 11.091 492 688 -2
tOW0 15 0 0
3 1 9 0 0.1632 507 778 200000 10000 15 0 0
4 1 90 0.167 507 778 200000 10000 15 0 O
s 1 90 0 . 2 4 ~507
200000 IWW 15 O O
6 1 0 19.07 492 650 200000 10000 15 0 0
6 1 90 0.2464 507 778 200000 10000 15 0 0
7 1 0 11.091 492 688 200000 10000 15 0 0
7 1 90 0.2464 507 778 2WOO IWO0 15 O O
8 1 0 0.4444 507 778 200000 10006 15 0 0
8 1 90 0,3333 507 778 200000 10000 15 0 0
9 1 90 0.0672 507 778 200000 1OOOO 15 O0
1O 1 0 19.07 492 650 200000 10000 15 0 0
10190 0.0672 507 778 200000 10000 15 0 0
11 1 O 11.091 492 688 200000 1000015 O0
11 1 90 0.0672 507 778 200000 10000 15 O O
1 3 3 0 100 90 100 5500 5500 18.2 0 0
13390 IO0 1000 1050 90000 90000 11.2 0 0
1 4 1 0 100 492 688 200000 10000 15 O0
14 1 90 100 492 688 200000 f 0000 15 0 0
ne
(e) STEEL
-
ELEMENT INCIDENCES
<<<ccFORMAT >>>>>
ELMT MAT ACT [ ELMT d(ELMT) J [ E i M T d(ELMT) ] /
1 12 1 23 15 1
2 2 1 19 1 5 /
3 1 1 19 1s 9 11
12 3 1 19 1s 1
13 4 1 19 15 3 1 /
2876 1 4 15 1
2885 1 4 15 9 1 1
2977 1 4 15 1
2988 1 4 15 3 1 1
34612 O 20 13 1
34710 1 23 13 1
3489 1 23 13 9 1 1
35711 1 23 13 1
35812 1 23 13 1
60612 1 3 13 1
64513 1 20 13 13 11
90512 1 20 1 1
92514 1 3 2 2 1 1
931 1 1 20 1 1
951 1 1 20 1 /
9712 1 1 O 2 1 1
9733 1 1 O 15 11
/
COORDINATES
<NOTE:> UNITS: in OR mm
<<cc<FORMAT >w>>w
NODE X Y [ MODES d(N0DES) dm d o ] [MODES d(N0DES) d o d(Y) ] 1
1 O 0 316158.3330 21301000 /
2 0 4 5 316158,3330 2 1 1 OB10 /
SUPPORT RESTRAINTS
<NOTE:> CODE: 'O' FOR NOT RESTRAINED NOOES AND 't' FOR RESTRAINED ONES
cc<<< FORMAT >>>>>
NODE X-RST Y-RST [ #NODE d(NO0E) ] /
49 1 1 1
651 O 1 /
/
Structure Title
JOINT LOADS
SUPPORT DISPLACEMENTS
<NOTE:> UNITS: MM OR IN
<<c FORMAT w>>>w
JNT DOF DlSPL [WNT d(JNT) 1 1
368 2 -1.000 1
f
'IEMPERATURE LOADS
<NOTE:> UNITS: F ORC
cc< FORMAT >w>w>
ELMT TEMP [ #LW d@MT) d m P ) 1 [ ELMT d(ELMT) d(TEMP) ]
1
CONCRETE PRESTRAINS
<NOTE:> UNITS: me
<cc<< FORMAT wwww>
ELMT STRAIN [ # L W d(ELMT) d(STRAIN) J [ E
LMT d(ELMT) d(STRAIN) ] 1
I
INGRESS PRESSURES
Figure 62.1 :TRlX predicted cracking patterns for the beam controi specimen.
Figure 82.2 :TRIX predicted cracking patterns for the carbon-repaired beam.
shear wall at the end of each displacementlevel. Additional photos of the failure locations
have been included, showing the cnishing of the web concrete, the shear ailure of the
bottorn constructionjoint and the punching-through of the reinforced conaete Ranges.
Displacement value
(mm)
Maximum
crackwidth
O. 1
0.2
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.5
(mm)
--
CrackWidth values rernain approxmately constant for al1 load stages following the 8th.
APPENDIX C
of hysteretic nature and it yielded a greater rotation realized during the negalive cycles.
that is when the walt was pushed. in a clockwise direction. The magnitude of the hnisting
values was never significant. For completeness of results. this behaviour was monitored
also during the second test Results are very similar to the previous ones; the maximum
rotations are now slightly greater. but still considered of minor significance within the
analysis of the global behaviour of the structure.
TOP SLAB ROTATION
I
H2.m OISPLACEMENTS {m)
allow a good cornparison between the original test and the second t e e LVDTs were
mounted at the toes of the web wall to record the surface coricrete strains. As in the
previous test.
six LVDTsuvere mounted to the conaete. thme at each toe. to measum the
horizontal, vettical and diagonal stnins. The diagonal stniins am pnsented in Chapter 4.
To follow are the vertical and horizontal strains recorded at the North web toe; note that
compression strains hem are assumed positive-
are again positive, thus ilMbe noted mat after a few cydes in the compressive fange
both rebaro shift pemanently to the tensile ange. This is due most pmbably to the
cracking and the permanent defornation undergone by the fianges Local strain values
recorded by these gauges indiats that no yielding occurred. as the yield strain for D6 bars
is 3.18~10%
those recordeci during the fimt test [5]. although a greater constant vertical load had been
applied then. Also, al1 $train and displament values presented in the present and
previous appendices wiere compared with the analycal results obtained with Mesh-1,
Mesh-2 and Mesh-3 (see Chaptef 5). Prediconswere a h y s judged to be in good
agreement with the expenmental results.
Figure C6.1 : Opening and closhg of the slabs on the South side.
L V O I : v r ~ v a + i c l r r ~ ~ ( n i n )
Figure C6.2 : Openhg and dosing of the slabs on the NoNi side.
TRlX Miobw
file original ~ a l:l
*****-******
TRIX
JOB DATA *
************
Job Title
(30 char- max)
:DP wall
Job File Name ( 8 char. max.)
:wf
Date
(30 char- ma=)
:MAY 12, t 997
STRUCTUREDATA
File Name
( 8 char. max.)
:wf
LOADING DATA
:225
No- of Load Stages
Starting Load Stage No:1
Load Series ID ( 5 char- m a )
:wf
Factors
Case (8 char- max.)
Initial Final LSlnc Type Reps Ginc
1 wfvl
1.000 1.000 0.000 f 1 0.000
2 wfdl
0.000 1.000 1.000 3 2 1.600
3 NUL
0.000 40.0 0.500 1 1 0.000
MATERIALBEHAVIOUR MOOELS
(&a
Concrete Corn-on
Base Cuwe
:2
Concrete P-Peak
Duaility
(SI) :2
Concrete ComQressCon Saffening
(M)
:3
Concrete Tension Stiffeiiing
(013) :2
Concrete Confinement Strength
(Cl) :1
Concrete VariaMe Expansion
(si):1
Concrete Tension Spiitting
(o-i) :O
Concrete Cracking Criterion
(013):1
Concrete Crack Slip Che&
(0-1) :f
Concrete Comp Stability Check
(013) :2
Concrete Residual Tension
(012):2
Concrete Hysteresis Model
(M)
:2
Reinforcement Stress Reqmnse
(0-3) :3
Strain Histories Retained
(0-1) :1
STRUCTUR E
*
DATA
*
*********t***
STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS
Structure r i l e
(30 char. max.) :DP Wall
Structure File Name ( 8 char. max.)
:wall
Working Units
(Irnperial or Metric) :rnetric
:7
No. of R.C. Material Types
No. of Steel Material Types
:O
No. of RedangularEIements
:924
No. of Triangular Elements
:O
No. of Tniss Elements
:O
No. of Joints
:709
No. of Restraints
:!i4
WTERiAL SPECIFICATIONS
@) REINFORCED CONCRETE
<NOTE:> TO BE USED IN RECTANGULAR AND TRlANGUiAR ELEMENTS ONLY
CONCRETE
-
MAT. f c
Pt Ec
MU Cc T
A
S
SREINF,
TYPE# ksi,MPa ksi,MPa ksi,MPa
F J C in,mm in,mm in,mrn COMP.
121.61.53172700,150 75 15707002
221.6 1.53 172700,150 615 15707002
3 34.7 1.94418000.150U15 15707002
443.92.18455000.1501115 15707002
5 44.1 2.1222370 0.15 O 70 10 70 70 O 2
6 50.2 2.00 22337 0.15 O 70 10 70 70 O 2
7 21.6 1.53 l?27OO-lSO243O tS707002
/
REINFORCEMENT COMPONENTS
MAT REF ORIENT, PERCENT Fy
Fu
Esh esh
N P TYP deg
% lol.MPa G , ~ ~ ksi,MPa
a
ka',MPa me
1 1 O 0.737 605 652 200000 550 3.025 O O
1 1 90 0.794 605 652 200000 550 3.025 O O
2 1 O 0.018 605 652 200000 550 3.025 O O
4
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
t
6
6
1
1
1
1
3
3
4
7
1
Cs Dep
FJC me
(B) STEEL
<NOTE:> TO 8E USED FOR TRUSS ELEMENTS ONLY
MAT. AREA Es
Fy
Fu esh Esh Cs Dep
N P E X in2,mm2 ksi,MPa ksi,MPa ksi,MPa me ksi,MPa F , / C
/
ELEMENT INCIDENCES
(A) RECTANGULAR ELEMENTS
<<cc< FORMAT >>>>>
me
o d(lNC) ] 1
<cc<< FORMA'>>>a>
ELMT INC1 INCZ [ E L M T d(ELMT) d(1NC)J [ ELMT d(ELMT) d(lNC) ] 1
1
COORDINATES
<NOTE:> UNITS: in OR mm
<<<<< FORMAf >>>>>
NODE X Y [#NODES d(N0DES) d(X) d o ] [MODES d(N0DES) d(X) d(Y) ] /
1 -500. 0. 4 27 O. 206.667
1
2 O. O. 4 27 0. 206.667 2 1 47.5 O. /
4 95.
0. 4 27 O. 206.667 21 1 1U.25 O./
25 3027.5 0. 4 27 O. 206.667 2 1 47.5 O. /
27 3500. O. 4 27 O. 206.667
1
111 O. 662.08 2 29 0. 42.083 3 1 47.5 O. 1
109 0. 662.08 2 29 O. 42.083 2 1 95.0 O- 1
114 239.25 662.08 2 29 O. 42.083 19 1 144.25 0. 1
133 2980.0 662.08 2 29 O. 42.083 3 1 47.5 0. /
<NOTE:> CODE: '(r FOR NOT RESTRAINED NOOES AND '1' FOR RES-INED
c<<<<FORMAT a>>>>
NODE X-RST Y-RST [MODE d(NO0E) 1 /
111271 /
1
Vertical load
LOAD CASE *
DATA
*
*************
JOINT LOAS
ONES
SUPPORT DISPLACEMENTS
TEMPERATURE LOADS
<NOTE:> UNITS: F OR C
<ce FORMAT >>>>>
ELMT TEMP [ElMi'd
CONCRETE PRESTRAINS
<NOTE:> UNITS: me
cc< FORMAT >>>>>
ELMT STRAIN [ # U T d(ELMT) d(Sll?AIN) [#LW d(ELMT) d(STRAIN) ] 1
/
INGRESS PRESSURES
Horizontal load
*t*t*+*n*****
JOINT LOADS
mm)
SUPPORT DISPLACMENTS
<NOTE:> UNITS: MM OR IN
<<cc< FORMAT >ww>w
J N T DOF DlSPL [ WNT d(JNT) 1/
669 1 1-01
I
TEMPERATURE LOADS
CONCRETE PRESTRAINS
INGRESS PRESSURES
o d(PRS) 1
Job Title
(30 char. max.)
:DP wall
Job File Name ( 8 char- m a )
:wr
Date
(30 char. max.)
:MAY 12,1997
STRUCTURE DATA
File Name
( 8 char- m m )
:wr
LOADING DATA
:225
No-o f Load Stages
:1
Starting Load Stage No.
:wrl
Load Series ID ( 5 char. m a )
deLMT) d(PRS) 1 1
Concrete Compe
rssoin
Base Cuwe
(0-2) :2
Concrete Post-Peak Duclity
(0-1) :2
Concrete C o m ~ o SoRening
n
(04) :3
Concrete Tension Stiffening
(0-3):2
Concrete Confinement SImngtti
(M):1
Concrete VafiaMe Expansion
(04):1
Concrete Tension Splitting
(0-1) :O
Conmte Cracking Criterion
(0-3):1
Concrete Crack Slip Check
(0-1) :1
Concrete Comp Stability Check
(013).Y 2
Concrete Residual Tension
(0-2) :2
Concrete Hysteresis Model
(0-2):2
Reinforcement Stress Responss
(0-3):3
Strain Histories Retained
(CM):1
STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS
Strudure Tiile
(30 char. max.) :DP Wall
Stnidure File Name ( 8 char. m a ) :wall
Working Units
(Imperial or Metn'c) :metric
:7
No. of R.C. Material Types
No. of Steel Material Types
:O
:924
:O
:O
:700
:SI
N P
(6) STEEL
APPENDMD
(A) RECTANGULAREiEMENTS
<a<<
FORMAT >w>>>
ELMT INC1 lNC2 INC3 lNC4 [ ItELMTd(ECMT) d(lNC) ] [ELMT d(ELMT) d(1NC) 1/
1 1 2292826 1 1 326271
79 83 84112111 24 1 1 1
103111 112141 140 24 1 1 2 24 291
151 169 170 189198 24 1 1 14 24 29/
487 575 576 604 603 24 1 1 /
511 602 603 630 629 28 1 1 3 26 27 /
589 171 172201 200 20 1 1 14 20 29/
869 577 578 606 605 20 1 1 1
88983 85 t I 0 109 /
890 105 107 137 136
891 109110139138
923573574605603
924 600 601 625 627
2 127 16 2 291
/
/
<ex<FORMAT >>>
ELMT MAT ACT [ E i M T d(ELMT)] [ E
LMT d(EWT) ] /
8 1 1 1 2 0 1 3241
153 1 O 20 1 15 24/
7 9 2 1 2 1 1824/
101 2 1 2 1 18 241
1 3 1 7 8 11
511 4 1 78 1 /
589 5 1 20 1 14 201
869 6 1 20 1 /
889 7 i 2 1 18 2 1
i
COORDINATES
<NOTE:> UNITS: in OR mm
<<<cc FORMAT >>www
NODE X Y [ #NODES d(NO0ES) d(X) d o J [#NODES d(N0DES) dm dCI) J /
1 -500. 0. 4 27 O. 206.667
1
2 O.
0. 4 27 0. 206.667 2 1 47.5 O. /
4 95- O. 4 27 O. 206.067 21 1 144.25 O, /
25 3027.5 0. 4 27 0. 206.667 2 1 47.5 O-/
27 3500. O, 4 n O- zoe-ear
1
111 O. 662.08 2 29 O, 4 2 . m 3 1 47.5 O- 1
109 0. 662-08 2 29 O, 42.083 2 1 95.0 O- /
114 239.25 662-08 2 29 O. 42.083 19 1 14435 O. 1
133 2980.0 62-08 2 29 O. 42.083 3 1 47-5 O. /
136 2980.0 662.08 2 29 0. 42.083 2 1 95.0 O. /
169 O. 746.25 15 29 O- 126.250 3 1 47.5 O- /
167 0. 746.25 15 29 0. 126.250 2 1 95-0 0, 1
172 239.25 746.25 15 29 O. f 26250 t 9 1 144.25 0.1
191 2980.0 746.25 15 29 0. 126.250 3 1 47.5 O. /
194 2980.0 74.25 15 29 O. 126.250 2 1 85.0 0. /
602 -500. 2610, 4 27 0- 213.333
/
603 O, 2640. 4 27 0- 213,333 2 1 47.5 O- 1
605 95, 840, 4 27 O, 213.333 21 1 1U.2S 0-1
626 3027.5 2640. 4 27 0, 213.333 2 1 47.5 O. /
628 3500. 2640, 4 27 O, 213.333
1
/
SUPPORT RESTRAINTS
<NOTE:> CODE: 'O' FOR NOT RESTRAINED NODES AND '1' FOR RESTRAINED ONES
<<cc< FORMAT >>w
NODE X-RST Y-RST [ MODE d(N0DE) ] /
111271 /
1
Vertical load
LOAD CASE
DATA
'
*+***********
LOAD CASE PARAMETERS
Structure Title
(30 char- max) :OP Wall
Load Case Tiile
(30 char- m a ) :Vert Load
Load Case File Name (8 char. max.)
:wallvl
Units
(Imperia1 or Metnk) :metric
:56
No. of Loaded Joints
No. of Prescribed Support Displacements :O
No. of Elements with Temperature Loads :O
No. of Elements with Concrete Prestrain :O
No. of Elements with Ingres Pressure :O
JOINT LOADS
CONCRETE PRESTRAINS
<NOTE:> UNITS: me
<<c FORMAT >>>>>
ELMT STRAIN [ #M
d(ELMT) d(STRAIN) J [ELMT d(ECMT) d(STRAIN) 1 1
1
INGRESS PRESSURES
<NOTE:> UNITS: MPa
<cc<< FORMAT >www>
ELMT PRESSURE [#ELMT d(ELMT) d(PRS) ] [ELMT d(ELMT) d(PRS) ] 1
1
Horizontal load
LA CASE "
DATA
*
************"
<NOTE:> UNITS: MM OR 1N
<<c FORMAf >>>>>
JNT DOF DISPL [WNT d(JNT) ] /
669 1 1.0I
/
TEMPERA'RE LOAOS
<NOTE:> UNlS: FOR C
<<c FORMAT sw>>w
ELMT TEMP [ @LWd(ELMT) d(TEMP) J [E L M T d e w d W P ) 1
CONCRETE PRESTRAINS
INGRESS PRESSURES
TRlX are both shown for the r e p a i d shear wall at peak and post+peakloading. These
resuits refer to the finite element modd of Mesh-3 (see Chapter 5)-
Figure D1.2 :Mesh-3 :repaired shear wall at peak load, load stage 7.