Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
PROEFSCHRIFT
door
Alexei Viktorovich Vostroukhov
Master of Science (Physics of Radiowaves), The Nizhny Novgorod State University
Geboren te Pavlovo, Russia
Samenstelling promotiecommissie:
Rector Magnificus,
Prof. ir. A.C.W.M. Vrouwenvelder,
Prof. Ph.D. C.Eng. M.P. Cartmell
Prof. dr. ir. G. Degrande
Prof. dr. ir. C. Esveld,
Prof. Dr. Sc. L. Frba
Dr. Sc. A.V. Metrikine
Prof. dr. ir. A. Verruijt,
Voorzitter
Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor
University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
Technische Universiteit Delft
Institute of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, Prague, Czech Republic
Technische Universiteit Delft
Technische Universiteit Delft
Acknowledgements
Contents
Introduction 1
Overview of models for a railway track .. 1
Objectives and Scope .. 7
Outline . 9
Chapter 1. Steady-State Response of Two- and Three-Dimensional Elastic
Systems to a Uniformly Moving Load . 11
1.1. Response of an elastically supported membrane 11
Subcritical motion V < c .13
Supercritical motion V > c ...14
Elastic drag for a single load .17
Elastic drag in the undamped case 18
Elastic drag in the damped case 19
1.2. Response of an elastic half-space to a normal constant load
uniformly moving over its surface . 21
1.3. Response of a visco-elastic half-space to a normal constant load
uniformly moving over its surface . 33
Chapter 2. Beam on a Visco-elastic Half-space as a Simple Three-Dimensional
Model for a Railway Track .. 39
2.1. Equivalent dynamic stiffness of a visco-elastic half-space 40
2.2. Steady-state response of the beam on the half-space to a moving load . 50
2.3. Elastic drag experienced by a high-speed train due to excitation
of ground vibrations ... 55
Chapter 3. Beam on a Visco-elastic Stratified Half-space as a Continual Model
for a Railway Track . 62
3.1. A three-dimensional continual model for a railway track . 62
3.2. The method of the dynamic flexibility matrix ... 65
The equivalent stiffness of a layered half-space . 72
Equivalent stiffness of a visco-elastic layer fixed at its bottom . 73
Equivalent stiffness of a layer on a half-space ... 77
3.3. Steady-state response of a beam on a layered half-space to
a moving load . 81
Layer fixed at its bottom 82
Layer on half-space 86
Chapter 4. Periodically Supported Beam on a Visco-elastic Layer
as a Model for Conventional Railway Track . 93
4.1. Equivalent dynamic stiffness of a visco-elastic layer
at the sleeper-layer interface ... 94
4.2. Steady-state response of the beam to a set of moving loads .111
4.3. Elastic drag experienced by a high-speed train due to excitation
of ground vibrations ...119
4.4. Comparison of responses of 3D and 1D models of the conventional
track 123
INTRODUCTION.
Modern means of railway transportation in Western Europe are being currently
developed to further reduce the travelling time for passengers. Cruise velocities of such
high-speed trains as French TGV, German ICE, Swedish X-2000, etc. are nowadays in
the range of 200-300 km/h and increase continuously. This velocity increase brought a
new problem to railway engineering, namely the problem of significant amplification of
the train-track vibrations at high train speeds. This amplification occurs when a train
moves with a velocity that is close to the Rayleigh wave velocity in the subsoil of a
railway track, which varies from 150 to 800 km/h, depending on the soil type.
Obviously, modern high-speed trains can easily reach the lower threshold.
There exist quite a few papers that report observed and measured amplification
of the railway track vibrations as the train speed reaches the Rayleigh wave velocity in
the ground. Among the recent ones, one can mention papers of Esveld [34] (1997),
Kaynia et al. [68] (2000) and Degrande & Shillemans [26] (2001), which report that the
amplification was measured in The Netherlands, Sweden and Belgium, respectively.
The amplification of the train and track vibrations at high-speed is a threatening
phenomenon, which may lead to a rapid deterioration of the track structure and might
cause derailment of a train, see Fig. I.
beam and studied its static response. Timoshenko extended this study to the case of the
dynamic loading.
Various Winkler-type models have been investigated by great number of
authors. One ought to emphasize the papers of Criner [24], Kenney [69], Mathews
[108], Achenbach [2], Kerr [70], Choros and Adams [20].
Criner [24], in 1953, considered an Euler-Bernoulli beam resting on linear and
non-linear foundation and subjected to a uniformly moving and accelerating load. In his
paper, one of the first electric-analog-computer techniques for calculation of the beam
response has been developed and presented. Thus, the beam response has been
numerically examined for the first time.
Later, in 1954, Kenney [69] found an analytical solution for the steady-state
response of an Euler-Bernoulli beam on Kelvin foundation to a uniformly moving load
and investigated the effect of damping on wave propagation and critical velocities. He
showed that there is a critical damping that removes the amplification of the beam
response at critical velocities.
In 1958, Mathews [108] considered the steady-state response of an EulerBernoulli beam on Winkler foundation to a moving, harmonically varying in time load.
He showed that there exist five qualitatively different solutions in the speed-frequency
plane of the load parameters. In 1989, this model has been extended by Bogacz et al.
[15], who examined a Timoshenko beam instead of the Euler-Bernoulli one. In [15] it
has been shown that for the Timoshenko beam there may be 22 qualitatively different
solutions.
In 1965, Achenbach and Sun [2] first investigated the dynamic response of
Timoshenko beam laying on the Kelvin foundation to a constant, uniformly moving
load. The solution for the undamped case resulted in three critical velocities at which
the displacement grows beyond bounds. The first critical velocity is smaller than the
shear wave velocity in the beam and equals to the minimum phase velocity of waves
propagating in the beam. The second critical velocity is related to the shear wave
velocity in the beam, whereas the third one equals to the largest possible group velocity
of waves in the beam. In this paper, the effect of damping in the beams foundation has
been investigated as well.
In 1972, Kerr [70] studied the effect of an axial force that can arise in a
continuously welded rail due to the temperature extension. For this purpose he
considered an axially compressed Euler-Bernoulli beam subjected to a moving
concentrated load. He found out that the critical velocity of the load tends to zero as the
axial stress approaches the buckling magnitude.
In 1979, Choros and Adams [20] considered the dynamic response of an EulerBernoulli beam resting on a tensionless Winkler foundation (non-linear problem) to a
uniformly moving load. The method for finding the contact and non-contact regions of
the beam and the foundation has been developed and presented by the authors.
In 1970 A.P. Filippov [37] and then, in 1972, L. Frba [39] published their
monographs devoted to the dynamic analysis of railway models known by then. The
book of the latter author has been supplemented and undergone the third edition in 1999
[40].
It should be also mentioned that in 1985-1988 Krysov, Holuev and Bychenkov
[17]-[18], [88]-[90] published a series of papers devoted to a new problem related to the
train motion at high velocities. They investigated a question concerning the wave drag
experienced by a rigid wheel rolling over a railway track and showed that this drag can
rapidly increase when the load velocity is close to the critical velocity. They studied this
question using a 1D model for railway track, namely an Euler-Bernoulli beam resting
on Winkler and Kelvin foundations.
In early 80th, researchers started to account for periodic character of the railway
structure that is introduced by the sleepers. Jezequel [64] was the first to publish in 1981
a paper in which the steady-state dynamic response of an Euler-Bernoulli beam laying
on periodically located supports to a uniformly moving force has been considered. A
technique based on application of the Fourier series has been employed in this paper.
The paper of Jezequel [64] was followed by a number of papers among which
the papers of Popp and Muller [131], 1982; Vestnitskii and Metrikine [158], 1993,
Bogacz, et. al. [16], 1993; Belotserkovskiy [10], 1996, etc. In these papers, the steadystate dynamic response of a periodically inhomogeneous structure was considered by
employing the Floquet theorem or related periodicity condition.
In 1997, Krzyzynski and Popp [84] published a paper in which a twodimensional problem has been stated and studied. The authors considered the dynamic
behaviour of two Timoshenko beams mounted to a visco-elastic foundation by
periodically spaced sleeper. The beam was excited by two harmonically varying loads,
moving uniformly along the right and left rails. In this paper, a study was carried
out of a general case in which the loads move not necessarily in-phase. It was found
out that there are two modes of wave propagation in such a two-dimensional periodic
structure. The first mode corresponds to the in-phase propagation of waves in the rails,
whereas the second one represents the case of the half-wave-length phase difference
between the waves. Recently, in 1998 an overview on dynamics of periodic railway
structures has been published in [82] by Kruse, Popp and Krzyzynski.
It is worth mentioning here a paper of Nordborg [128], 1999, in which he
considered a 1D periodical model with track-support irregularities to model a lowfrequency response of the track to a slowly moving load. The results of the theoretical
study, being compared to laboratory experiments and onboard ICE train measurements
on ballast and slab track showed a good resemblance with the measurements.
All papers that were mentioned above dealt with linear models of infinite length
and were focused on the steady-state response. To model a structure of a finite length, a
structure with significant non-linearities or to calculate the transient response of a
structure, it is preferable to use the finite element methods (FEM) or finite difference
methods (FDM). Discussion on these methods is beyond the scope of this thesis. We
ought to mention that in 1999, an overview of known 1D and 2D railway models was
published by K. Knothe [78].
One may call the beginning of 90th years as an origin of intensive investigations
of 3D models for railway track. The basic reason for developing such models has been a
rapid introduction of high-speed trains and inapplicability of 1D models at train speeds
that are comparable to the wave speeds in the ground. One should mention, however,
that there was a number of pioneering works before the beginning of 90th, in which
some 3D-models for a railway track were considered.
First 3D modelling of a railway track was accomplished in 1961 by Filippov
[36]. He considered the steady-state response of an Euler-Bernoulli beam resting on an
elastic half-space to a uniformly moving over the beam load and showed that the
vertical deflection of the beam becomes infinite if the load velocity is equal to the
Rayleigh wave speed.
In 1975, Labra [93] extended the model of Filippov. He combined the Filippovs
model with that of an axially compressed track proposed by Kerr [70]. Labra found out
that the axial stress decreases the critical velocity in the 3D model at a much smaller
rate than it does in the related 1D model.
the method of stiffness matrix for layered soil developed by Thompson 1950 [150] and
Haskel 1953 [60]. The solution technique is based on the application of Fourier and
Hankel transforms to wave equations in each layer to reduce them to a system of
ordinary differential equations. But this method at first time has been used mainly to
discuss surface wave modes, to fit measured dispersion curves (Rosset et al. 1991
[135]), and especially to solve problems of the soil-structure interaction.
The first attempt to analyse a wave field in a horizontally layered soil was
presented by Auersch 1994 [6]. Auersch investigated and compared the response to a
point harmonic load of a homogeneous half-space to that of a soft and stiff layer
overlying a half-space and to that of a soil with continuously varying with depth
stiffness and damping. He studied the dependence of the displacement field on the load
frequency and found out that this amplitude strongly depends upon the soil structure.
In 1997, Dieterman and Metrikine [30] studied the steady-state response of an
elastic layer fixed at its bottom to a moving harmonically varying point load applied at
the layer surface. The authors have determined the critical velocities of the load as a
function of the load frequency. The critical layer depths have been derived for subseismic, trans-seismic and super-seismic ranges. In 2000, Metrikine and Popp [117]
extended this model for a railway track modelling it by an Euler-Bernoulli beam resting
on a visco-elastic layer. They showed that decrease of the layer depth results in increase
of the critical velocity and decrease of the vibration level.
In 1999, Sheng et al. [136]-[137] published a couple of papers devoted to the
ground vibration generated by a fixed-in-position load and a moving along a railway
track harmonic load. They studied the dynamic response of a sandwich beam-structure
resting on a layered half-space to the afore-mentioned loads. The investigation showed
that the dynamic response of the track depends on the subgrade structure crucially.
Grundmann et al. 1999 [58] considered the response of a half-space and a
layered half-space to a set of localized loads (train) with the help of technique of
Wavelet transform. They investigated the static and dynamic parts of the ground
response and showed the crucial role of the soil stratification.
In 2000 Kaynia et al [68] presented results of measurements carried out by
Swedish Geotechnical Institute at a site of the West Coast Line between Gteborg and
Malm where subgrade soil is extremely soft. The test runs were performed using a
Sweden X-2000 passenger train composed of locomotive and four cars. The
experiments showed that significant amplification occurs of the railway track vibrations
at velocities close to the Rayleigh wave speed, which turned out to be very low in this
part of the track about 40 m s . The authors proposed a method for simulation of
ground vibration from high-speed train based on the Kausel-Rosset Greens function
[67]. They modelled the ground as a layered visco-elastic half-space and the track as an
Euler-Bernoulli beam. Forces, uniformly moving at fixed distances from each other,
modelled the bogies of the train. Authors found out a very good agreement between the
measurements and their computational simulations. On the basis of the developed
model they studied the effect of stiffer embankment (beam) and showed that increasing
of the embankments bending stiffness results in substantial reduction of the vibration
level.
In 2001, Degrande and Schillemans 2001 [26] published results of experimental
investigations of the ground vibrations induced by Thalys high-speed train at a speed
varying between 223km h and 314 km h on the track between Brussels and Paris.
They studied the dynamic soil and track characteristics. According to their
measurements the Rayleigh wave speed in the subgrade can be estimated as 80 m s . But
unlike theoretical expectations the authors have not found large increase of the track
vibrations at high velocities.
Finalizing a literature overview of 3D models for a railway track and the
methods for their analysis, we should mention one method more, which, although
beyond the scope of this thesis, is being widely used nowadays.
Thanks to rapid development of computational technologies in 90th it became
possible to use the boundary element method (BEM) and hybrid BE-FE methods in
investigation of the dynamic response of the railway track. The BEM for the ground
response, applicable for earthquake engineering problems, was developed in 70th.
The first attempts to describe a 3D ground by technique of BEM may be related
to report of Dominguez 1978 [32] and paper of Karabalis and Beskos 1984 [65]. The
former author was the first to use the BEM to obtain the dynamic stiffness of the ground
in the frequency domain. The latter authors proposed a time domain BEM that allowed
evaluating the dynamic response of 3D foundation of an arbitrary shape. They indicated
that the proposed method could be a basis for extensions to non-linear soil-structure
interaction problems.
Gaitanaros and Karabalis 1988 [47], and Auersch and Schmid 1990 [5] extended
the approach developed in [65] by using combined FEM-BEM.
The first application of FDM-BEM to railway track is related to the paper of
Triantafyllidis 1991 [153]. The author examined the steady-state response of the track
modelled by an Euler-Bernoulli beam interacting with an elastic half-space by means of
ties, which were considered as rigid rectangular foundations.
From recent publications one should mention papers of Degrande and co-authors
[102]-[104] and paper of Grundman and Trommer [58].
In papers [102]-[103], BEM was applied to the problem of traffic-induced
vibrations. Comparison of theoretical prediction to experimental data showed a good
agreement of the computer simulations and the practice. In [104], the authors
investigated the influence of the soil stratification on free field traffic-induced vibrations
by BEM. They showed that the soil stratification has a considerable influence on the
dynamic interaction between the road and the soil on the free field vibrations.
Grundman and Trommer 2001 [57] published an overview concerning
applicability of integral transform methods (ITM) to complicated models of railway
track. Having given examples of different models for illustration of applicability of
different integral transforms, authors emphasized that, although ITM are applicable only
if the considered system obeys some severe restrictions, they can give new
understanding of the problem, for the main features and effects of the system become
visible in the transform domain. The authors indicated also that ITM could be applied
for boundary element method on the basis of Parsevals theorem. This can allow for
describing the fundamental solution to complicated problems and for reducing the time
of evaluation to the original domain.
Summarizing information retrieved from the above-mentioned references one
can conclude that it is conventional nowadays to use 3D models to describe the dynamic
behaviour of the high-speed railway track. These models include
1. three-dimensional visco-elastic solid (half-space, layer or multilayered halfspace) as a model for the ground;
2. beams as a model for the rails;
3. lumped elements as a model for sleepers and pads;
Although the type of models that have to be used for dynamic analysis of a
railway track has become clear, there remain many problems to study on the hand of
these models. Some of those problems, which form the objectives of this thesis, are
discussed in the next section.
ground the knowledge on this issue is not systematic. Usually, to describe the material
damping in the ground, researchers use rheological Voigts model (see, for instance,
Kononov A.V. and Wolfert A.R.M. [80] 2000, Metrikine A.V. and Popp K. [117] 2000)
or the hysteretic damping (Sheng X. et al. [136]-[137] 1999, Verruijt A. and Cornejo
Crdova C.J. [157] 2001, Cornejo Crdova C.J [23] 2002). The former model describes
the damping that linearly increases with the frequency. The latter one corresponds to a
frequency independent damping. Kononov and Wolfert [80] were the first to study the
effect of the material damping on the steady-state response of the beam overlying a
visco-elastic half-space. Authors of [117] and of [136]-[137] although included the
damping effect in the considered models but did not investigate it. They paid their
attention to the analysis of critical velocities of the load ([117]) and to the study of the
track response ([136]-[137]). In this thesis, the effect of material damping is studied for
various 3D models of the railway track and of the ground. Voigts rheological model is
chosen to describe material damping in the ground. In our perception, this model is
more suitable for the low-frequency dynamics of a railway track, which is addressed in
this development.
The second central issue of the thesis is the analysis of energy loss of a highspeed train on excitation of elastic waves in the track. If the train perturbs waves in the
track subsoil, these waves consume some energy. It implies that a part of energy of the
locomotive engine can be lost due to generation of waves and it is interesting to
estimate this energy. To get confidence in importance of this problem, one can draw a
parallel between a high-speed train moving faster than waves in the ground and a supersonic plane. It is well known that supersonic planes have very high fuel consumption
due to radiation of sound waves into Mach cone, which forms behind the plane. The
phenomenon of the same kind arises if velocity of a high-speed train exceeds the
Rayleigh wave speed in the subsoil. In this case, the train is accompanied by powerful
surface waves propagating within a Mach angle the edges of which are determined by
the Rayleigh wave speed. This effect was predicted by Lansing [97] in 1966, who
analytically studied a motion of a point load over a surface of a pure elastic half-space
and showed that the surface deflection field has hyperbolic discontinuity at the edges of
the Mach angle, which arises when the load moves with a velocity larger than the
Rayleigh wave speed. These waves might consume a considerable energy, especially if
the train speed is close to the Rayleigh wave speed. That is why the analysis of the
energy loss on wave excitation by a high-speed train seems to be of high significance.
In this thesis, this energy loss is analysed in terms of elastic drag, which the moving
train experiences when generates waves in the track.
The third goal of the thesis is to develop an analytical 3D model for a railway
track, which would allow to account for such an important feature of a conventional
track as inhomogeneity of the track along its length (due to sleepers). The first attempt
to develop such a model was done in paper of A.V. Metrikine and K. Popp 1999 [116].
In this thesis the model proposed in this paper is extended, critical velocities of the load
are determined and the effect of physical parameters of the model on the track response
is investigated.
The fourth objective of the thesis is to study whether it is possible to detect
derailment of a wagon of long freight train by measuring the spectrum of the rail
vibration under locomotives wheels. The wagon derailment can happen because of
different reasons. Very often, however, the wagon returns back to the track thanks to
rigid joints between the wagons. In this case, the derailed wagon leaves behind a
considerably demolished piece of the track. To reduce destruction of the railway track,
the moment of derailment must become known to the trains driver as soon as possible.
The easiest solution for the problem is to mount to each bogie of the train an
accelerometer, which could register the derailment. However, such a way is very
expensive for companies, which exploit a huge number of wagons. For instance, in
Russia, there are more than 600000 wagons and about 2000 locomotives. For such kind
of companies, a possibility to detect the derailment with the help of an accelerometer
mounted to the locomotives bogie could be undoubtedly advantageous. Theoretical and
experimental analysis of such a possibility is performed and presented in the last chapter
of this thesis.
Outline.
The thesis consists of introduction, five chapters and conclusions.
In Introduction, the relevance of carried out theoretical investigations is
founded. The literature overview on the main topic is given, the objectives and scope of
the study are formulated and the contents of the thesis are briefly enounced.
In Chapter 1, the dynamic response of an elastically supported membrane and a
visco-elastic half-space to a uniformly moving constant load is investigated. The main
objective of the chapter is to demonstrate specific features of the dynamic response of
simplest two- and three-dimensional elastic systems to a moving load. The second
objective is to study the effect of material damping in the elastic systems on the
dynamic response and on the drag experienced by the load due to excitation of waves.
Analysis of afore-mentioned problems is carried out analytically by means of
application of the integral Fourier transforms and the contour integration method. For
both models, regimes of subcritical (Vload < cwaves ) and supercritical (Vload > cwaves )
motion are studied to show crucial influence of waves in the support on the dynamic
behaviour of both systems.
In Chapter 2, a simplest 3D model of railway track accounting for interaction
between the ground and other components of the railway track is investigated. This
model is composed of an Euler-Bernoulli beam and a visco-elastic half-space. The beam
is employed as a model for the rails, sleepers and ballast, whilst the half-space
represents the ground.
The chapter pursues the following objectives. First, the crucial role of the
Rayleigh waves in the ground on the dynamic response of the railway track is exposed.
Second, effect of shear stresses in the interface between the ground and the overlying
track structure on the dynamic response of the track is studied. And third, elastic drag
experienced by a high-speed train (French TGV) due to excitation of waves in the rails
and surrounding soil is estimated for different velocities and compared to results
obtained experimentally for aerodynamic and rolling drag. The investigation is carried
out by means of the method of equivalent dynamic stiffness of the ground developed by
Dieterman and Metrikine 1996 [29].
In Chapter 3, the model considered in Chapter 2 is improved by accounting for
stratification of the ground and visco-elastic and inertial properties of the rail-supporting
structure overlying the ground (sleepers, pads and ballast). The model allows to
describe low-frequency dynamics of conventional track and can be employed to study
dynamics of modern embedded tracks, which are truly continuous being built without
sleepers. The main objectives of the chapter are to study the effect of ground
stratification and to investigate the effect of material damping in the soil on the dynamic
response of the railway track.
10
CHAPTER 1
Steady-State Response of Two- and Three-Dimensional
Elastic Systems to a Uniformly Moving Load
In this chapter the dynamic response of an elastically supported membrane and a
visco-elastic half-space to a uniformly moving constant load is investigated.
The main objective of the chapter is to demonstrate specific features of the
dynamic response of simplest two- and three-dimensional elastic systems to a moving
load. The second central issue, which is discussed in the chapter, is the effect of material
damping in elastic systems on the dynamic response and on the drag experienced by the
load due to excitation of waves.
In section 1.1, the response of an elastically supported membrane is considered.
The load is assumed to be point-like, constant and move along the membrane uniformly
and rectilinearly. It is also assumed that the contact between the load and the membrane
is frictionless. The steady-state solution to the problem is found analytically under the
assumption that there is no material damping in the membrane. Accounting for this
damping, the solution is found in the form of a single integral, which is then evaluated
numerically. In both cases a crucial difference is shown between the response in the
subcritical case, in which the load moves slower than the waves in the membrane
(Vload < cwaves ) , and that in the supercritical case Vload > cwaves . Further, an elastic drag
is introduced as a measure of the energy loss on excitation of waves. A general
expression for the elastic drag is obtained. This is done by employing the energy
variation low. Making use of the obtained solutions, dependence of this drag on the load
velocity is analysed.
In section 1.2, the steady-state response of the half-space to a normal surface
load is studied. This response is analysed neglecting the material damping in the halfspace. Main attention is paid to the crucial effect of the Rayleigh waves on the forced
deflection of the half-space surface.
In section 1.3, the material damping is taken into consideration according to the
rheological model of Voigt. The effect of this damping on the response of the half-space
is studied. Finally, the elastic drag experienced by the load is investigated. Results
obtained in this section are compared to that found on the hand of the membrane in
section 1.1.
Results presented in sections 1.1 and 1.3 are original. They are published in
[162]-[164]. In section 1.2, the results of Lansing [97] are used, who has studied the
response of a purely elastic half-space to a surface load.
11
load. This should be done, however, employing models that capture some properties of
the realistic track, which are significant for its dynamic behaviour.
Let us first consider one of the simplest models in which 2D wave field can exist
(as on the surface of the ground), namely an elastically supported membrane. To perturb
the membrane, a point load P that moves uniformly along the membrane is employed.
It is assumed that the contact between the load and the membrane is frictionless.
Equation for small transversal vibrations of the membrane in this case reads:
(1.1)
kg/m 2 and N [ N/m ] are the mass of the unit area of the membrane and the tension
in the membrane, k N/m3 is the stiffness of the foundation per unit area, V is the
load velocity, (...) is the Dirac delta-function.
In the steady-state regime the deflection field in the membrane is stationary in
the reference system = x Vt that moves together with the load. In this reference
system, equation (1.1) reduces to the following time-independent equation:
(V
c 2 ) w c 2 wyy + h 2 w =
( ) ( y )
(1.2)
with c = N the wave propagation speed in the membrane and h = k the cut-off
frequency. To solve equation (1.2), the following integral Fourier transforms with
respect to co-ordinates and y is applied:
W ( k1 , k2 ) =
w ( , y ) e
i ( k1 + k2 y )
d dy .
(1.3)
This yields an algebraic equation with respect to w , the solution to which is given as
12
W =
(1.4)
( c k 2 k12 + h 2 )
2
2
2
e ( 1 2 ) dk1dk2
c 2 k22 2 k12 + h2
4 2
P
i k + k y
(1.5)
As will be shown, the response of the membrane depends crucially on the ratio between
the load velocity and the wave speed in the membrane. Therefore, it is customary to
consider the subcritical motion V < c and the supercritical motion V > c separately.
1
2
e ik1 dk1
2 k12 c 2 k22 h2 .
(1.6)
This can be done by the method of contour integration [1]. For > 0 , in accordance
with Jordans lemma, the integration contour should be closed in the lower half-plane of
the complex variable k1 , whereas for < 0 the upper half-plane should be used, see Fig
1.2.
( k1 )
( k1 )
a)
b)
Fig. 1.2. Integration contours and relevant poles in the subcritical case for (a): > 0 and (b): < 0 .
In the case in question ( 2 < 0 ) , the integrand in (1.6) has two simple poles that
are located on the imaginary axis. These poles are complex-conjugated and,
consequently, lay symmetric with respect to the real axis. Applying now the residue
13
theorem [1] to evaluate integral (1.6) and substituting the obtained result into expression
(1.5), one obtains
w=
P
2 c c 2 V 2
cos ( k2 y )
k22 + ( h / c )
c
exp
c2 V 2
2
k22 + ( h / c ) dk2
(1.7)
The integral in (1.7) can be evaluated analytically by using the following formula [53]:
b 2 + x2
cos axdx
+x
2
= K0 a 2 + b2
(1.8)
in which Re b > 0 , Re > 0 and K 0 is the modified Bessel function of the second kind,
of the order zero. Using equation (1.8), expression (1.7) can be reduced to
w=
h
K0
2 + y 2 ( c2 V 2 ) c2
2
2
2 c c 2 V 2
c V
(1.9)
1
2
e ik1 dk1
2 k12 2iVk1 c 2 k22 h2
(1.10)
The poles of the integrand in (1.10) are located in the upper half-plane. These poles lay
symmetrically with respect to the imaginary axis as shown in Figure 1.3.
In accordance with the Jordans lemma, as in the subcritical case, the contour
should be closed over the upper half-plane if < 0 and over the lower half-plane if
> 0 . Since the integrand in (1.10) has no singularities in the lower half-plane, integral
(1.10) is equal to zero if > 0 .
In the case < 0 , this integral can be evaluated with the help of the residue
theorem to give in the limit 0 :
14
( k1 )
Fig. 1.3. Integration contour and the poles in the supercritical case for < 0 .
w=
cos ( k2 y )
k22 + ( h / c )
H ( )
c 2
2
sin
k2 + ( h / c ) dk2
(1.11)
with H (...) the Heaviside step-function. The integral in (1.11) can be evaluated
analytically by using the following formula [53]:
sin p x 2 + a 2
x +a
2
) cos bxdx = 2 J ( a
0
p 2 b2
0, ( b > p > 0 )
) , ( p > b > 0)
(1.12)
with J 0 the Bessel function of the first kind, of the zero order. Using (1.12), expression
(1.11) can be reduced to
w=
h 2
2
H ( ) H y J 0
( / c) y2
2 c
c
(1.13)
( < 0 ) .
Outside this angle, the membrane is not perturbed. The character of the
membrane response is analogous to the Mach cone that forms behind a supersonically
moving plane. At the edges of the angle that limits the perturbed area of the membrane,
the deflection of the membrane has a discontinuity that is equal to P 2 c .
The singularities of the membrane response, which take place for both the
subcritical and the supercritical regimes, actually violate the basic assumptions of the
linear model of the membrane. Indeed, the equation for the membrane vibrations is
valid if the slopes of the membrane are small (violated in the vicinity of the load in the
subcritical case) and the displacement field in the membrane is continuous (violated in
the supercritical case). Thus, a modification of the model is necessary that would allow
to remove the singularities from the response. There are several modifications possible.
The simplest ones are
15
wtt N + N1
( wxx + wyy ) :
t
( wxx + wyy ) + kw = P ( x Vt ) ( y )
t
(1.14)
with N1 [ N*s/m ] the coefficient characterizing the material damping in the membrane.
Introducing dimensionless variables = ht and
{ x, y} = ( h c ){ x, y}
and the
(1.15)
w ( , y ) e
i ( k1 + k2 yn )
d dy ,
(1.16)
{k ( 1 iAk ) 1} {1 + iAk } ) dk
(1 + iAk ) ( k ( 1 iAk ) 1)
exp ik1 + i yn
2
1
2
1
(1.17)
16
changes qualitatively only at the edges of the angle, where the membrane deflection
becomes a continuous function that tends smoothly to zero outside the angle.
Thus, the material damping indeed helped to remove all singularities from the
membrane response.
a)
b)
Fig. 1.4. Characteristic profiles of the membrane deflection in the (a) subcritical case and
(b) supercritical case.
(1.18)
By adding and subtracting terms Nwx wxt and Nwy wyt on the left-hand side of equation
(1.18) and then collecting some terms, equation (1.18) can be rewritten in the form:
wtt wt + Nwx wxt + Nwy wyt + kwwt + N ( wx wxt + wxx wt ) N ( wy wyt + wyy wt ) =
(1.19)
= Pwt ( x Vt ) ( y )
time
The expression in the first square brackets in (1.19) is nothing but the partial
derivative of the generalized density of energy of the membrane
17
h = (1 2 ) wt2 + N ( wx2 + wy2 ) + kw2 . The second square brackets describe the
divergence of the flux of the generalized energy: S = Nwt w . The right-hand side of
equation (1.19) is the surface density of the power input by the load.
Thus, we obtain the generalized energy variation law for an element of the
membrane:
h
+ divS = Pwt ( x Vt ) ( y ) ,
t
(1.20)
Integration of equation (1.20) over x and y gives the global energy variation
law for the elastically supported membrane. The right-hand side of the obtained
expression describes the power input Q into the membrane, which is equal to the
energy per unit time that is spent on perturbation of waves in the membrane:
Q=P
w ( x Vt ) ( y ) dxdy .
t
(1.21)
De =
Q P
= wt ( x Vt ) ( y ) dxdy
V V
(1.22)
(1.23)
In the subcritical case, substituting representation (1.23) and the expression for the
membrane deflection (1.9) into (1.21) we obtain
De =
2
h
2 d dy
2
2
y
(1.24)
2
1 c 2 V 2
2
c
2 3 2 c 0
2
2
2
2
2
2
( + )( y + ) y
c2
Ph
lim
18
The integrand in (1.24) is an odd function of the variable . Because of this, the
integral over , as an integral with symmetric limits from an odd function, is equal to
zero. Therefore, if the load moves subcritically, the steady-state deflection field in the
membrane consumes no energy. Nor a drag is experienced by the load.
In the supercritical case (V > c ) , substituting expressions (1.13) and (1.23) into
(1.21), and taking into account that J 0 ( 0 ) = 1 , and J 0 ( 0 ) = J1 ( 0 ) = 0 , we obtain
1
d
1
dy
+
De = 3
lim 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 c
( ( / c ) y ) + ( + ) ( y + 2 )
+
P2
(1.25)
P2
lim
4 c 0
+ 2 )
dy
P2
=
lim 3 3 =
2
2
0
2
( y + ) 4 c
(1.26)
Integration of the second (positive) term can only increase the total result. This
allows us to conclude that in the supercritical case the load experiences infinitely large
drag due to excitation of waves in the membrane. Such a result is a consequence of the
physically unrealistic discontinuity of the membrane deflection at the edges of Mach
angle.
with g ( k1 ) =
( ) ( y )
{k (
2
1
d dy
k12 ( 2 1 iAk1 ) 1
(1 + iAk1 ) (
(1.27)
} {1 + iAk } .
1 iAk1 ) 1
The easiest way to evaluate expression (1.27) would be to first take the
derivative of the integrand with respect to , then to use the properties of the deltafunctions to arrive to a single integral with respect to k1 and finally to evaluate this
integral numerically. Thus obtained single integral, however, would be divergent. This
does not imply that the original expression (1.27) is divergent. The point is that the
integral with respect to k1 in (1.27) is not uniformly convergent as and y tend to
zero. Consequently, the order of differentiation with respect to and integration with
19
P w
w
= P
V t x =Vt
=0
y =0
(1.28)
y =0
We have shown above that for the damped case the derivative w is limited at any
point of the membrane and, consequently, we can evaluate this partial derivative
numerically having calculated the deflection field. The latter can be calculated by
employing a standard program for numerical integration.
N N1 = 100
Dnorm
N N1 = 50
V c
Fig. 1.5. Normalized drag versus the load velocity.
Results of the numerical analysis are depicted in Figure 1.5, which shows the
dependence of the elastic drag De , normalized by P 2 h 4 c3 , on the load velocity for
two different values of the damping in the membrane. One can see from the figure that
in contrast to the undamped case, whatever the load velocity is, there is an elastic drag
experienced by the load. The drag increases as the load velocity approaches the wave
speed in the membrane. The effect of the damping is controversial in the subcritical and
the supercritical case. In the former case the increase of the damping leads to the
increase of De , while in the latter case the larger is the damping, the smaller is the drag
De (in the considered range of the damping coefficients).
20
V
P
x, u
y, v
z, w
Fig. 1.6. Constant normal load moving over the surface of elastic half-space.
(1.29)
2
2
2
+
+
is the Laplacian operator, u = iu u ,
x 2 y 2 z 2
) are scalar and vector products, respectively.
= i =
( i ) and (
21
zz ( x, y, 0, t ) = P ( x Vt ) ( y )
xz ( x, y, 0, t ) = yz ( x, y, 0, t ) = 0,
(1.30)
2
2
2 1 2
+
, v=
+
, w=
+
.
x x z
y y z
z z 2 cT2 t 2
(1.31)
( + 2 ) /
1 2
= 2 2 ,
cT t
(1.32)
zz =
2 3
2
2
+
2+ 3
cL2 t 2
z
z
3
2
z t 2
2
3
3
2
x t 2
x z x z
zx = 2
(1.33)
2
3
3
,
2
y t 2
y z y z
zy = 2
We will solve the problem (1.29)-(1.30) by using the following integral Fourier
transforms over time t and horizontal co-ordinates x and y :
22
f ( k1 , k2 , z , ) =
( x, y, z, t ) exp ( i ( t k x k y ) ) dxdydt
1
g ( k1 , k2 , z , ) =
( x, y, z, t ) exp ( i (t k x k y ) ) dxdydt
1
u ,k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 , z , ) =
u ( x, y, z, t ) exp ( i ( t k x k y ) ) dxdydt
1
(1.34)
v ,k1 , k2 ( k1 , k2 , z , ) =
v ( x, y, z, t ) exp ( i ( t k x k y ) ) dxdydt
1
w , k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 , z , ) =
w ( x, y, z, t ) exp ( i ( t k x k y ) ) dxdydt
1
Applying these transforms to (1.30), (1.32) and (1.33), one can obtain the following
equations in the Fourier domain:
Equations of motion for the inner element of the half-space (from (1.32)):
2 f 2
+ 2 k12 k22 f = 0
2
z
cL
2 g 2
+ 2 k12 k22 g = 0
2
z cT
(1.35)
2 f 3g
g
2 f + 2 2 + 3 + 2 2
= 2 P ( k1V )
z
cL
z z
f 2g
+ 2 + 2 g = 0,
2
z z
(1.36)
f = A ( k1 , k2 , ) exp ( zRL ) ,
g = B ( k1 , k2 , ) exp ( zRT ) ,
(1.37)
23
( , k1 , k2 )
2 P ( k1V )
B=
(1.38)
2 RL
,
( , k1 , k2 )
4 RL RT ( k12 + k22 ) .
As it follows from (1.31) and (1.34), the Fourier components of the half-space
displacement may be expressed as
u ,k1 ,k2 = ik1 f + ik1
w , k1 ,k2
g
,
z
v , k1 , k2 = ik2 f + ik2
g
z
f 2g 2
g
=
+
+
z z 2 cT2
(1.39)
Substituting solutions (1.37) into these expressions and using (1.38), the following
expressions for the Fourier components of the displacement of the half-space surface
can be obtained:
2
2
2
2 P ( k1V ) ik1 ( 2 RT + cT ) 2 RL RT
u ,k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) =
( , k1 , k2 )
2
2
2
2 P ( k1V ) ik2 ( 2 RT + cT ) 2 RL RT
v ,k1 , k2 ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) =
( , k1 , k2 )
w , k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) =
2 P ( k1V )
(1.40)
2 RL
cT2 ( , k1 , k2 )
F ( x ) ( x x ) dx = F ( x ) ,
0
(1.41)
and introducing the notation = x Vt , we obtain the following expression for the
components of the half-space surface displacement:
u ( x, y, 0, t ) = uS ( , y ) =
k1eik1 +ik2 y
( 2 RT2 + k1 T2 ) 2 RL RT dk1dk2
2
4 ( k1 , k2 )
v ( x, y, 0, t ) = vS ( , y ) =
k2 eik1 +ik2 y
( 2 RT2 + k1 T2 ) 2 RL RT dk1dk2
2
4 ( k1 , k2 )
iP
w ( x, y, 0, t ) = wS ( , y ) =
iP
PV 2
4 2 cT2
24
(1.42)
4 RL RT ( k12 + k22 ) , L = V cL , T = V cT
RL ( ) eik1 +ik1 y
RL ( ) eik1 +ik1 y
PV 2
d
dk
d dk1
+
1
2
2
( )
( )
4 cT
0
with ( ) = 2 (1 + 2 ) T2
(1.43)
4 RL ( ) RT ( ) (1 + 2 ) , RL ,T ( ) = 1 + 2 L2,T .
Due to the symmetry of the problem at hand with respect to y = 0 (the load
path), the surface displacement of the half-space should be symmetric with respect to
this line. Therefore, it is sufficient to consider the problem assuming that y > 0 and
than, in the final result, replace y by y .
To simplify (1.43), it is customary to consider the following auxiliary integral
RL ( ) exp ( ik1 y ) d
,
( )
I=
(1.44)
which we will calculate by the method of contour integration. The integrand in (1.44) is
a multi-valued function because of the presence of radicals RL and RT . Besides this, the
integrand becomes infinite at so-called Rayleigh poles, which are simple zeros of the
equation ( ) = 0 . Therefore, to apply the contour integration, it is necessary to modify
the integration contour in the vicinity of the poles that are located on the integration
path and to define the branch of the radicals.
Branch points. The branch points of the integrand in (1.44) are determined by
the zeroes of radicals RL and RT . Their location depends upon the ratio between the
load velocity V and the wave speeds cL and cT . Since the argument of both radicals
has the same form 1 + 2 2 (where = L in RL and = T in RT ), it is sufficient
to consider both radicals simultaneously.
In the complex plane ( ) , the branch points are located at the positions
25
radicals are then assumed to be real and positive on the path of integration (along the
real axis).
Im ( )
Branch cut
1 = i 1 2
Re ( )
2 = i 1 2
Branch cut
Fig. 1.7. Branch points and branch cuts in the case < 1 .
In the case > 1 , the branch points are located on the integration path, i.e. on
the real axis. To make a decision on how to deform the path in the vicinity of these
points, one should take into account a small material damping in the half-space, as
explained in [3]. The simplest way to account for this damping is to perform in
expressions (1.40) the following replacement
2 2 + i .
(1.45)
Parameter << 1 in this expression is real and positive. Such a replacement, obviously
will cause a small imaginary part of the parameter :
2 =
2
k12 c 2
=
= k1V
V2
c2
2 =
2 + i
k12 c 2
=
= k1V
V 2 iV
+
c 2 k1c 2
(1.46)
Expression (1.46) shows that the sign of the imaginary part of 2 depends on the sign
of k1 . Let us first consider k1 > 0 . In this case the imaginary part of 2 is positive,
which implies that introduction of the material damping can be accounted for by the
replacement
2 2 + i , > 0
(1.47)
1,2
1 i /
= 1 1 +
2
2 1
2
26
(1.48)
Thus, introduction of a small material damping in the elastic half-space results in the
shift of the branch points, which is shown in Figure 1.8 (for k1 > 0 ). Consequently, in
the limit 0 (vanishing damping), the integration path should be chosen above the
left branch point and below the right branch point.
Im ( )
Branch cut
1 = 2 1
Re ( )
2 = 2 1
Branch cut
Fig. 1.8. Branch points and branch cuts in the case > 1 ( k1 > 0 ) .
We cut the plane of the complex variable along the real axis from 1 to 0 + i 0
and then from 0 + i 0 to +i for 1 and from 2 to 0 i0 and then from 0 i 0 to i
for 2 (see Fig. 1.8). These cuts ensure that the real part of the radicals does not change
over the complex plane (we assume this part to be positive).
Rayleigh poles. The Rayleigh poles are the roots of the equation ( ) = 0 .
Introducing the variable 2 = 1 + 2 , this equation can be reduced to
( 2
+ T2 ) 4 2 2 L2 2 T2 = 0
2
(1.49)
This equation is studied in the book of Achenbach, [3]. As it is shown there, if both
square roots in this equation have a positive real part, then this equation has two real
roots, which can be defined as = R , where R = V cR and cR is the Rayleigh wave
speed.
Thus, there are two Rayleigh poles in the complex plane ( ) . We will introduce
them as 3 and 4 . These poles are located in the points i 1 R2 when R < 1 and in
the points R2 1 when R > 1 . To get physically sensible results, we should again
take into account the material damping. As in the case with the branch points, the pole
+ R2 1 will then shift to the upper half-plane while the pole R2 1 will move to
the lower one (provided that k1 > 0 ). Consequently, the integration path should be
chosen between these two poles likewise in the case with the branch points.
27
It is easy to show that in the case k1 < 0 , the poles and the branch points located
in the point + R ,T , L 1 shift to the lower half-pane while the singularities located at
the point R ,T , L 1 move to the upper one.
As follows from the discussion on the branch cuts and the poles, there are four
possible, qualitatively different distributions of the singular points over the complex
plane ( ) . These configurations depend on the load velocity and turn out to be different
in the following four cases:
1.
2.
3.
4.
V < cR
cR < V < cT
cT < V < cL
V > cL .
It is not within the scope of this development to discuss all these cases in detail.
This is done by Lansing [97], although for a particular case of the Poisson ratio
= 0.25 only. We will consider two first regimes that are of primary importance for
practice.
Case V < cR . In this case R , L and T are smaller then 1. If k1 > 0 and
y > 0 , then in accordance with Jordans Lemma to evaluate integral (1.44) the
integration contour should be closed over the upper half-plane of ( ) . The integration
contour, the poles and the branch points for this case are shown in Figure 1.9.
Taking into account that
1) the integrals over the large quarter-circles C1 C2 vanish as their radii tend to
infinity and
2) the integrals around the branch points vanish as the radii of the circles
surrounding these points tend to zero,
employing the residue theorem, one may write the following equation:
R ( )
f ( ) d = + + + + f ( ) d = 2 i L
exp ( ik1 y ) ,
d d
1
2
3
4
28
(1.50)
is to be understood in
( )
i 1 L2
C2
C1
i 1 T2
i 1 R2
2 I1 ( k1 y ) 8 I 2 ( k1 y )
1 R2
( k1 > 0, y > 0 )
(1.51)
with
Z=
R2 L2
2B
1 R2
I1 ( k1 y ) =
I 2 ( k1 y ) =
R2 L2 R2 T2
L2 + 2 1 exp ( k1 y ) d
1 L2
2 R2 L2 T2
, B = 2 ( 2 R2 T2 ) 2 R2 L2 R2 T2 R2
( 2 (1 ) )
2
2
T
+ 4 (1 2 ) L2 + 2 1 T2 + 2 1
(1 ) + 1 (1 ) exp ( k y ) d .
( 2 (1 ) ) + 16 (1 ) ( + 1)( + 1)
1 L2
1 T2
2
T
2
T
2 2
2
L
2
L
2
T
1 R2
2 I1 ( k1 y ) 8 I 2 ( k1 y ) .
(1.52)
Obviously, expression (1.52) follows from expression (1.51) once k1 in the latter
expression is replaced by k1 .
Substituting now (1.51) and (1.52) into (1.43), we obtain the following
expression for the vertical displacement of the half-space surface:
29
0
PV 2 k1 y
wS ( , y ) = 2 2 Ze
4 cT
+ Ze
k1 y 1 R2
2 I1 ( k1 y ) 8 I 2 ( k1 y ) eik1 dk1 +
1 R2
2 I1 ( k1 y ) 8 I 2 ( k1 y ) e dk1 ,
ik1
(1.53)
( y > 0)
PV 2
Ze k1 y
2
2
2 cT 0
1 R2
2 I1 ( k1 y ) 8 I 2 ( k1 y ) cos ( k1 ) dk1 ,
( y > 0)
(1.54)
cos ax exp ( bx ) dx = a
b
,
+ b2
(1.55)
1 R2 y
PV 2
2
,
8
,
Z
J
y
J
y
) 2 ( ) ,
1(
2 2 cT2 (1 R2 ) y 2 + 2
( y > 0)
(1.56)
with
J1 ( , y ) =
L2 + 2 1d
y
2 2 + y 2 2
2 (1 2 ) T2
1 L
+ 4 (1
+ 1 + 1
2
L
2
T
1 2 ) T2 + 2 1 (1 2 L2 ) d
(
y
.
J 2 ( , y ) = 2
+ y 2 2 2 (1 2 ) 2 4 + 16 (1 2 )2 ( 2 + 2 1)( 2 + 2 1)
1 T2
T
L
T
1 L2
As aforementioned, this solution can be generalized for the case of arbitrary y with the
help of replacement y y to give
1 R2 y
PV 2
2
,
8
,
w ( , y , 0 ) = 2 2 Z
J
y
J
y
(
)
(
)
1
2
2 cT (1 R2 ) y 2 + 2
(1.57)
Case cR < V < cT . In this case L and T are smaller than 1, while R > 1 .
Consequently, in comparison to the previous case, the branch points remain their
positions, while the Rayleigh poles shift to the real axis. Therefore, the integration
contour, the branch points and the poles for k1 > 0 assume the positions shown in
Figure 1.10.
30
( )
i 1 L2
C2
C1
i 1 T2
i 1 R2
Fig. 1.10. Integration contour in the case cR < V < cT , k1 > 0 , y > 0 .
The integration steps here are analogous to that explained in the previous case. Taking
advantage of this, we will write the result of integration of the auxiliary integral (1.44)
at once, skipping the intermediate steps:
I = iZ1e ik1 y
I = iZ1eik1 y
with Z1 =
R2 L2
2B
R2 1
R2 1
R2 1
2 I1 ( k1 y ) 8 I 2 ( k1 y ) ,
2 I1 ( k1 y ) 8 I 2 ( k1 y ) ,
( k1 > 0 )
(1.58)
( k1 < 0 )
(1.59)
Z1 sin ( k1 ) eik1 y
R2 1
Expression (1.60), though looking simple, does not determine the vertical
displacement of the half-space surface. The problem is that the integral
ik y
Z1 sin ( k1 ) e 1
R2 1
dk1
is undefined. Such a situation is common in dynamics of solids under moving load, see
[40]. To overcome this uncertainty, the displacement of the half-space surface should be
calculated as the limit of z 0 from u ( x, y, z , t ) . This is accomplished below.
As follows from (1.37)-(1.39), the vertical ( z -dependent) displacement of the
half-space reads
31
w ( , y , z ) =
RL eik1 +ik2 y
( 2 RT2 + k12 T2 ) e RL z 2 ( RT2 + k12 T2 ) e RT z dk1dk2 ,
2
4 ( k1 , k2 )
P
( y > 0)
(1.61)
0
k1RL ( ) z
k R z
2
2
2 ( RT2 ( ) + T2 ) e 1 T ( ) +
( 2 RT ( ) + T ) e
2
4
+ ( 2 RT2 ( ) + T2 ) e
k1 RL ( ) z
2 ( RT2 ( ) + T2 ) e
with ( ) = 2 (1 + 2 ) T2
k1RT ( ) z
RL ( ) eik1 +ik1 y
d dk1 ,
( )
(1.62)
( y > 0)
4 RL ( ) RT ( ) (1 + 2 ) , RL ,T ( ) = 1 + 2 L2,T .
I=
k R z
k R z
RL ( ) ( 2 RT2 ( ) + T2 ) e 1 L ( ) 2 ( RT2 ( ) + T2 ) e 1 T ( ) exp ( ik1 y ) d
( )
. (1.63)
For small positive values of z this integral can be evaluated in exactly the same manner
as integral (1.44). In the limit z 0 this gives
k1 > 0 :
lim I =
z 0
ik y
= lim iZ1e 1
z 0
R2 1
( 2 2 2 ) e k1
R
T
R2 L2 z
2 ( R2 T2 ) e
k1 R2 T2 z
2 I ( k y ) 8I ( k y ) ,
1
1
2
1
(1.64)
k1 < 0 :
lim I =
z 0
ik y
= lim iZ1e 1
z 0
R2 1
2 2 2 ) e k1
T
( R
R2 L2 z
2 ( R2 T2 ) e k1
R2 T2 z
2 I ( k y ) 8I ( k y ) ,
1
1
2
1
(1.65)
with Z1 , I1 and I 2 defined in (1.51).
Substitution of (1.64) and (1.65) into (1.62) yields
lim w ( , y, z ) =
z 0
2 0
P ik y
lim 2 Z1e 1
z 0 2
0
( I ( k y ) + 4I ( k y ) ) cos k ydk
1
R2 1
sin ( k1 ) ( 2 R2 T2 ) e
k1
32
R2 L2 z
2 ( R2 T2 ) e
k1
R2 T2 z
dk
1
(1.66)
The second integral in (1.66) can be taken analytically. This leads to the following
expression:
( 2 R2 T2 )
Z1 lim
lim w ( , y, z ) =
z 0
2 2 z 0 y 2 ( R2 1) 2 ( R2 L2 ) z 2 2 y R2 1 R2 L2 z
2 ( R2 T2 )
(1.67)
+
y 2 ( R2 1) 2 ( R2 T2 ) z 2 2 y R2 1 R2 T2 z
P
( I ( k y ) + 4 I ( k y ) ) cos k ydk
1
PV 2
2
J
,
y
8
J
,
y
) 2 ( )
1
1(
2 2 cT2 y 2 ( R2 1) 2
(1.68)
Analysing solutions (1.57) and (1.68), the following conclusions can be drawn
with respect to the steady-state response of the half-space. In the subcritical case
(V < cR ) the vertical displacement of the half-space in the loading point is infinite, as in
the case of elastically supported membrane. In the supercritical case (V > cR ) the
vertical displacement of the half-space surface experiences a hyperbolic discontinuity
along the edges of the Mach angle. Besides this, this displacement tends to infinity
everywhere, if V = cR .
To remove these singularities we will introduce a material damping in the halfspace, analogously to that what has been done in 1.1 for the membrane.
(1.69)
33
u=
2
2
2 2
+
, v=
+
, w=
+
.
x x z
y y z
z z 2 t 2
(1.70)
+ 2 = 2 ,
t
2
.
t2
(1.71)
( + 2 )
zz
2
2
3
3
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
=
2
t2
z3
z t 2
z
2
3
3
+
zx = 2
2
x t 2
x z x z
(1.72)
2
3
3
+
2
y t 2
y z y z
zy = 2
Applying the integral Fourier transforms (1.34) to the equations of motion (1.71) and to
the boundary conditions (1.30) that remain unchanged in the damped case, one obtains:
2 f 2
+ 2 k12 k22 f = 0
2
z
cL
2 g 2
+ 2 k12 k22 g = 0
2
z cT
(1.73)
+
= 2 P ( k1V )
f
2
2 + 3 + 2
2
z
cL
z z
f 2g
+ 2 + 2 g = 0,
2
z
z
(1.74)
with = i / , = i / .
The general solution to equations (1.73), accounting for the proper behaviour for
large positive values of z , is
34
( )
g = B ( k , k , ) exp ( zR ) ,
f = A ( k1 , k2 , ) exp zRL ,
1
(1.75)
provided that the branches in the complex domain are chosen such that the radicals have
a positive real part, i.e. Re RL ,T > 0 .
wS ( , y ) =
PV 2
4 2
(1.76)
with
Thanks to the damping, the integrand in (1.76) has no singularities and decays
proportionally to (1 ki3 ) as ki . Therefore, the double integral in (1.76) can be
evaluated numerically. Results of the numerical integration are schematically shown in
Figures 1.11 and 1.12.
x Vt
Fig. 1.11. Vertical displacement of the half-space surface in the case V < cR .
35
x Vt
Fig. 1.12. Vertical displacement of the half-space surface in the case cR < V < cT .
Figure 1.11 demonstrates that in the subcritical case the displacement field in the
half-space is localized around the load. In the supercritical regime of motion that is
shown in Figure 1.12, the displacement of the surface varies rapidly only at the edges of
the Mach angle. Inside the angle the displacement tends quickly to zero. The flat
surface inside the Mach angle is the direct consequence of the half-space model,
which, in the absence of damping, is non-dispersive. The material damping introduces
dispersion, but, being assumed as small in our calculations, does not change the
response dramatically (except at the edges of the Mach angle).
Having found the response of the half-space that is free of singularities, we can
analyse the drag experienced by the load due to excitation of waves in the half-space
The power input into the half-space, by definition, is given as [3]
Q = ti ui ds
(1.77)
with ti the components of the surface traction vector and ui the components of the
displacement vector. The repeated subscript implies summation. Taking into account
that the load is vertical and employing the Cauchys stress formula
ti = ij n j ,
(1.78)
with ij the components of the stress tensor and n j the components of the unit normal
vector, expression (1.77) can be rewritten as
Q=
zz
w
dxdy
t z =0
(1.79)
Substituting into this expression the boundary conditions (1.30) that relates the vertical
stress on the surface to the load intensity, we obtain the following expression for the
elastic drag
36
De =
Q
P wS
=
V
V t
(1.80)
x =Vt
As follows from (1.80), the elastic drag experienced by the load is fully
determined by the vertical displacement of the elastic half-space at the loading point,
which is given by (1.76).
Results of numerical evaluation of expression (1.80) are depicted in Figure 1.13
for two different values of the material damping in the half-space. Calculations were
carried out using the following parameters of the half-space:
(1.81)
with the Poissons ratio. Parameters (1.81) describe a very soft soil (peat) with
relatively small speeds of the Rayleigh and shear waves ( 193 km/h and 210 km/h ,
respectively).
120
Dnorm
/=0.001
80
/ = 0.01
40
V , km/h
0
0
100
200
(P V
2
300
Figure 1.13 shows that the elastic drag experienced by the load increases as the
load velocity approaches the Rayleigh wave velocity ( 193 km/h ). In the subcritical
case, the larger is the damping, the larger is the drag De . The increase of the damping in
the supercritical case leads to the decrease of the drag De .
Comparing the response of the half-space to that of the membrane, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. In the subcritical case, the deflection field in both the half-space and the
membrane is localised in the vicinity of the load and is almost symmetrical
with respect to the loading point (if the material damping is small).
2. In the supercritical case, both models show the Mach angle on the surface.
Within this angle, the membrane displacement is wavy, whereas the surface of
the half-space is almost flat.
37
3. The velocity dependence of the drag experienced by the load is similar for both
models. The material damping results in the increase of the drag in the
subcritical case and in the reduction of the drag in the case of supercritical
motion.
Although the half-space can better catch properties of the ground than the membrane, it
remains a single component of the railway track model. The other components are the
rails, the sleepers and the ballast. In the next chapter the latter three components will be
accounted for in a simplified manner.
38
CHAPTER 2
Beam on a Visco-elastic Half-space as a Simple
Three-Dimensional Model for a Railway Track
In this chapter, a simple model that accounts for the dynamic interaction of the
ground with the other components of the railway track is studied. This model is
composed of an Euler-Bernoulli beam and a visco-elastic half-space. The beam is
employed as a model for the rails, sleepers and ballast, whilst the half-space represents
the ground.
The chapter has the following objectives:
1. To expose the crucial role of the surface waves in the ground on the dynamic
response of the railway track.
2. To study the effect of shear stresses in the interface between the ground and the
overlying track structure on the dynamic response of the track.
3. To estimate the drag experienced by a high-speed train due to excitation of
vibrations and waves in the rails and surrounding ground.
The chapter consists of three sections. In section 2.1, an equivalent stiffness of
the half-space eq is considered [29]. It is shown that the original three-dimensional
(3D) model can be reduced to a one-dimensional (1D) model by replacing the halfspace by a 1D visco-elastic foundation. This replacement is exact provided that the
foundation stiffness is a function of angular frequency and wave number of waves in the
beam. Introduction of the equivalent stiffness is customary for further analyses.
Additionally, it allows for demonstration of a fundamental role of the Rayleigh waves in
the dynamics of railway tracks.
In section 2.2, the steady-state response of the beam on the half-space is
analysed to a vertical load that uniformly moves on the beam. The critical velocities of
the load are determined and the beam deflection for different load velocities is studied.
Section 2.3 is devoted to the analysis of an elastic drag experienced by a highspeed train due to excitation of vibrations and waves in the ground and railway track.
First, vibrations perturbed by a single load are considered to study the effect of the load
velocity and material damping on this drag. Second, by studying vibrations of the
system under two loads, the effect of the distance between these loads to the drag is
analysed. Finally, total elastic drag that is experienced by a TGV train is calculated and
compared to the rolling drag and the aerodynamic drag.
The results presented in sections 2.2 and 2.3 are original. They are published in
[119] and [165]. In section 2.1, the results of Dieterman and Metrikine [29], and
Kononov and Wolfert [80] have been used. The former authors were the first to
introduce the dynamic equivalent stiffness of the ground underlying the railway track
and to investigate it in the case of an Euler-Bernoulli beam resting on purely elastic
half-space. The latter authors have studied the dynamic response of the same beam on a
visco-elastic half-space to a uniformly moving load.
39
V
P
2a
x, u
y, v
z, w
The loads are vertical, line-like, uniformly distributed over the beam width, and
move at a fixed distance from each other. The beam performs the vertical motion only
and its vertical displacement wbeam ( x, t ) does not depend on the lateral co-ordinate y .
The contact between the beam and the half-space is described approximately by
assuming that the stresses at the interface are uniformly distributed over the beam
40
z=0
wbeam
u
z=0
Figure 2.2 shows that the contact takes place through the shear springs with
stiffness per unit length K , which are assumed to be uniformly and continuously
distributed beneath the beam. The end of the springs that is attached to the beam is
immovable in the x direction whereas the end, which contacts the half-space,
undergoes a displacement equal to the horizontal displacement of the half-space surface
along the centreline of the beam. The lateral stress yz at the interface is neglected, for
in the chosen approximation this stress does not influence the beam vertical response
[112].
With these assumptions, the governing equations of motion for the model can be
written as follows.
2u
u + + iu = 2 ,
t
) (
(2.1)
41
2a zz ( x, y, 0, t ) = ( S beam w,beam
+ Ebeam Iw,beam
tt
xxxx P ( x Vt ) P ( x Vt + d ) ) H ( a y )
2a xz ( x, y, 0, t ) = Ku ( x, 0, 0, t ) H ( a y )
(2.2)
yz ( x, y, 0, t ) = 0
where zz ( x, y, z , t ) is the normal stress, xz ( x, y, z , t ) yz ( x, y, z , t ) are the shear
stresses, wbeam ( x, t ) [ m ] is the vertical beam displacement, S beam [ kg m ] and
Ebeam I N m 2 are the mass per unit length and the bending stiffness of the beam,
d [ m ] is the distance between the loads, K N m 2 is the stiffness per unit length of
the shear springs at the beam - half-space interface, H (...) is the Heaviside step
function.
(2.3)
u = + ,
i = 0 .
(2.4)
In terms of the potentials and the equations of the half-space motion read [3]:
cL2 2 =
with cL2 = + 2
2
,
t 2
cT2 2 =
2
,
t 2
(2.5)
, cT2 = .
The components of the half-space displacement vector and the stresses in the
half-space may be written in terms of these potentials as [3]:
u=
z y
z x
y x
, v=
, w=
,
+
+
+
x
y
z
y
x
z
z
x
y
zz = 2 + 2
y x
z x
y
(2.6)
(2.7)
2 z y y x
+
z x x
y
xz z y
(2.8)
2 z x y x
+
z y x
y
yz z x
(2.9)
xz = 2
yz = 2
We will solve the problem (2.1)-(2.3) by employing integral Fourier transforms with
respect to time t and horizontal co-ordinates x and y . These transforms are defined as
42
f ( k1 , k2 , z , ) =
g ( k , k , z, ) =
wbeam
, k1 ( , k1 ) =
( x, y, z , t ) exp ( i ( t k1 x k2 y ) ) dxdydt
( x, y, z , t ) exp ( i ( t k1 x k2 y ) ) dxdydt
(2.10)
w ( x, t ) exp ( i t ik x ) dxdt.
beam
Application of theses transforms to equations (2.5), (2.2) and (2.3) leads to the
following statement of the problem in the Fourier domain:
Equations of motion for the inner element of the half-space (from (2.4) and (2.5)):
2 f 2
+ 2 k12 k22 f = 0
2
z
cL
2 g 2
+ 2 k12 k22 g = 0 ,
2
z cT
(2.11)
g x g y g z
+
+
=0
x
y
z
with
cL =
c~L2 = c L2 i * + 2 * / ,
b + 2 g /
and
c~T2 = cT2 i * /
being
complex
values,
Boundary conditions at the surface of the half-space z = 0 (from (2.2), using (2.6)(2.9)):
2ik1
f
sin k 2 a
+ ik 2 g z y + ik1 ( ik1 g y ik 2 g x ) = Ku , k1
z z
z
k2
f
ik1 g z y + ik 2 ( ik1 g y ik 2 g x ) = 0
2ik 2
z z
z
2
2
2 k12 k 22 f + 2 2 + ( ik1 g y ik 2 g x ) =
z
z
z
ik1d
= wbeam
)
, k1 D , k1 2 P ( k1V ) (1 + e
) sink ka a
2
(2.12)
where D ,k1 = S beam 2 + EIk14 is the dispersion relation for the vertical individual
vibration of the beam and
u ( x, 0, 0, t ) exp ( i ( t k x ) ) dxdt
= w ( x, 0, 0, t ) exp ( i ( t k x ) ) dxdt.
u ,k1 =
w , k1
43
(2.13)
beam
, k1
1
( , k1 ) =
2
( k1 , k2 , 0, ) dk2 = w ,k
, k1 , k2
(2.14)
The general solutions of the first two equations of the system (2.11), accounting
for the proper behaviour for the large positive values of z , are
f = A ( k1 , k2 , z ) exp ( zRL )
g = B ( k1 , k2 , z ) exp ( zRT )
(2.15)
2ik1 RL A
+
2ik2 RL A
+
2
2
2
2 k1 + k2 2 +
cT
(R
ik1 Bx
k1k2 Bx
(R
2
T
+ k22 Bx
2ik2 RT Bx
RT Bz
( ik2 RT ) Bz
( k1k2 ) By
ik1 RT Bz
( 2ik1RT ) By
ik2 By
2
T
k12
= Hx
=
(2.16)
= Hz
with
K u , k1 sin k2 a
H x =
k2 a
z k2 a ,k1 ,k
(2.17)
The system of algebraic equations (2.16) can be readily solved to give analytical
expressions for A and B . These expressions can be used to obtain the Fourier
displacements of the half-space surface in the x direction and in the z direction. In
accordance with the general representation (2.4) and solutions (2.16), these
displacements read
g y
.
(2.18)
f
44
(2.19)
with
a11 =
1
2k12 RT2 ( RT2 + k22 ) q + 4k22 RL RT
RT 0
ik1
2 RL
a13 =
( q 2 RL RT ) , a31 = a13 , a33 = 2
cT 0
0
(2.20)
0 = q 2 4 ( k12 + k22 ) RL RT
K
I13
ik1d
beam
u , k1 = 2 I11u , k1 + 2 D , k1 w , k 2 P ( k1V ) (1 + e )
w = K I u + I 33 D wbeam P ( k V ) (1 + e ik1d )
1
, k1 2 31 , k1 2 , k1 , k
with
I ij =
aij
sin k 2 a
dk 2 .
k2a
(2.21)
(2.22)
Using the compatibility condition (2.14), the system of equations (2.21) can be rewritten
in the following matrix form
K
2 I11 1
K
2 I 31
I13
D , k1
u , k
2
I
1 = P ( k1V ) (1 + e ik1d ) 13
I 33
w
I 33
D , k1 1 , k1
2
(2.23)
Introducing now the equivalent stiffness matrix that describes the dynamic stiffness
of the half space to a harmonic wave propagating in the beam, we finally obtain the
following matrix-equation:
( K + M + ) u ,k
=F
(2.24)
with K the stiffness matrix of the structure that overlies the half-space, M the mass
matrix of this structure, F the external force-vector, u ,k1 the displacement vector in
the Fourier domain. These quantities in the case at hand are given as
45
u ,k
u ,k1 = 1 ,
w , k1
K
K=
0
0
,
EIk14
,
F=
ik1d
2 P ( k1V ) (1 + e )
I11
2
0
0
1
M=
, =
2
m
0
I 31
I13
2
.
I 33
(2.25)
If the shear interaction between the beam and the half-space is disregarded, as it was
done by Dieterman and Metrikine [29], the stiffness matrix becomes a scalar and the
matrix equation (2.24) reduces to the following algebraic equation
( K 22 + M 22 + 22 ) w ,k
= F2 ,
(2.26)
2
ik1d
D , k1
w , k1 = 2 P ( k1V ) (1 + e ) .
I
33
(2.27)
sin ( ak2 )
RL
dk2
( , k1 , k2 ) ak2
-1
(2.28)
The reason for such a reference is as follows. The term in the parenthesis on the lefthand side of equation (2.27) can be rewritten as
D , k1
2
= S beam 2 + EIk14 + eq ( , k1 ) .
I 33
(2.29)
Being set to zero, this term defines the dispersion equation for bending waves in the
beam on the half-space:
S beam 2 + EIk14 + eq ( , k1 ) = 0
(2.30)
Comparing the dispersion equation (2.30) to that for the beam on Winklers foundation,
which would look as
S beam 2 + EIk14 + 0 = 0,
(2.31)
with 0 the Winklers constant, it is easy to see that eq ( , k1 ) is nothing but the
(vertical) stiffness of a foundation. The reaction of this foundation is equivalent to the
46
reaction of the visco-elastic half-space. Thus, the equivalent 1D model for vibrations of
the beam on the visco-elastic half-space can be depicted as shown in Figure 2.3.
eq ( , k1 )
wbeam ( x, t )
Fig. 2.3. Equivalent model for the beam lying on the visco-elastic half-space.
Ratio of V ph and complex velocities of longitudinal and shear waves in the half-
space L ,T = V ph cL ,T .
In terms of these variables, expression for the equivalent stiffness (2.28) can be
rewritten as
eq ( , k1 ) = eq ( k1V ph , k1 ) = 2 cT2
ak1
1
,
2
V ph I ( k1V ph , k1 )
R ( ) sin ( ak1 )
I ( k1V ph , k1 ) = L
d ,
( )
with
( ) = 2 (1 + 2 ) T2
Re ( RL ,T ( ) ) > 0 .
4 RL ( ) RT ( ) (1 + 2 ) ,
(2.32)
RL ,T ( ) = 1 + 2 L2,T ,
47
instead of the frequency is convenient in the light of the following analysis of the forced
response of the beam. Indeed, in the steady-state regime, a constant load that uniformly
moves on the beam perturbs in the latter waves, whose phase velocity is equal to the
load velocity. Therefore, analysing the dependence of the equivalent stiffness upon the
phase velocity of waves in the beam we can think in terms of dependence of the system
response on the load velocity.
Thanks to the viscosity in the half-space, the integrand in (2.32) has no
singularities and tends to zero at quite fast ( 1 4 ) . Therefore, integration of
(2.32) can be carried out numerically with the help of any standard integration routine.
Re ( eq *108 ) , N m 2
Im ( eq *108 ) , N m 2
V ph cT
k1
V ph cT
k1
a)
b)
Fig. 2.4. Equivalent stiffness of the half-space versus the phase velocity and wave number of waves in the
beam: a) real part, b) imaginary part.
1.5
eq ( k1V ph , k1 ) *10 8 , N m 2
1.0
Re ( eq )
0.5
V ph / cT
0.0
1
-0.5
cR / cT
-1.0
Im ( eq )
-1.5
Fig. 2.5. The equivalent stiffness of the half-space as a function of phase velocity at fixed value of k1 .
48
49
problem to a 1D problem. Hereafter we will profit from this reduction while calculating
the beam deflections under a uniformly moving load. Note again that the equivalent
stiffness is a complex-valued function that depends on both the frequency and
wavenumber of waves in the beam. This is in contrast to the idea of Timoshenko that
the ground can be replaced by a visco-elastic foundation with constant stiffness and
damping coefficient.
K
I11 = 1 + K 111 ,
2
K
b21 =
I13 =K 211 ,
2
b12 =
D , k1
I13 = 121 D , k1 ,
2
D ,k1
1
,
b22 = 1
I 33 = 1 + D ,k1 22
2
(2.34)
ik d
1
b21u , k1 + b22 w , k1 = 2 P 22 ( k1V ) (1 + e 1 )
(2.35)
50
wbeam ( x, t ) =
=
P
2
P
=
2
1
4 2
w ( k , ) exp ( i t + ik x ) d dk
, k1
1
b11 22
b21 121
exp ( ik1 ( x Vt ) ) (1 + exp ( ik1d ) ) dk1
b11b22 b21b12
=k V
1
Let us first consider the case that only one load moves along the beam.
Assuming that the load is positioned at x = Vt , we can formally neglect the term
exp ( ik1d ) in (2.36) to get the following expression that describes the beam response to
a single load:
beam
single load
P
( x, t ) =
2
1
b11 22
b21 121
exp ( ik1 ( x Vt ) ) dk1
b11b22 b21b12
=k V
(2.37)
beam
First, we will study the beam displacement at the loading point wsingle
load (Vt , t )
beam
as a function of the load velocity. In Figures 2.6 (a,b) and 2.7 (a,b), wsingle
load (Vt , t ) is
plotted versus the load velocity for four different values of the material damping in the
half-space. The solid lines in the graphs correspond to the case K = 0 (smooth shear
contact between the beam and the half-space), whilst the dashed curves correspond to
the case K = 108 N m . The following parameters of the beam and half-space were used
in calculations:
P = 2.1 105 N
(2.38)
The vertical dashed line in the figures points out the value of the Rayleigh wave
velocity in the half-space.
Analysing the figures, the following conclusions may be drawn:
1. There is only one critical velocity of the load. This velocity is close to the Rayleigh
wave speed as long as the material damping is small. The reason for this is that the
equivalent stiffness of the half-space has a pronounced minimum as V ph cR . The
elasticity and inertia of the beam do not influence the critical speed perceptibly. The
latter is only true for the chosen parameters of the beam, which are realistic for
railway tracks. If the beam parameters were chosen differently, in no relation to the
railway tracks, the beam could influence the critical velocity significantly.
2. The larger the material damping in the half-space, the smaller is the displacement at
the loading point. For high (not realistic) values of the material damping the critical
velocity disappears.
3. The effect of the shear stiffness K is negligible for the chosen parameters of the
system. Basically, the shear interaction leads to a slight decrease of the beam
deflection in the sub-critical case and to a slight increase of that in the super-critical
case.
51
0.006
beam
wsingle
load
x =Vt
0.006
K =0
,m
K = 10 N m
8
beam
wsingle
load
K =0
,m
x =Vt
K = 108 N m 2
0.005
0.005
0.004
0.004
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
V cT
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
V cT
a)
b)
Fig. 2.6. Beam deflection at the loading point versus the load velocity for (a) * = 103 N*s m 2 and
(b) * = 104 N*s m 2 .
0.006
beam
wsingle
load
x =Vt
0.006
K =0
,m
K = 10 N m
8
beam
wsingle
load
0.005
0.005
0.004
0.004
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
x =Vt
K =0
,m
K = 108 N m 2
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
V cT
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
V cT
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Fig. 2.7. Beam deflection at the loading point versus the load velocity for (a) * = 8 104 N*s m 2 and
(b) * = 106 N*s m 2 .
It should be mentioned that the displacement under the load is not always the
maximum displacement of the beam. It is clearly seen from Figures 2.8-2.10, where the
beam deflection is depicted versus the distance = x Vt from the loading point for
three different values of the load velocity. Figure 2.8 is plotted for
V = 50 km h (V = 0.15 cR ) and shows the beam pattern in the sub-critical case. Figure
2.9 shows the beam pattern in near-critical case in which the load velocity is
52
V = 340 km h (V = 1.008 cR ) . Figure 2.10 shows the beam pattern in the super-critical
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
1
2
-0.004
-0.004
-0.005
-0.005
-4
-3
-2
-1
-4
-3
-2
-1
a)
b)
Fig. 2.8. Steady-state deflection of the beam in the case V = 50 km h for (a) K = 0 and (b)
K = 108 N m 2 .
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
1
-0.004
-0.004
-0.005
-0.005
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
10
-10
a)
-8
-6
-4
-2
b)
Fig. 2.9. Steady-state deflection of the beam in the case V = 340 km h for (a) K = 0 and (b)
K = 108 N m 2 .
53
10
-0.0004
-0.0004
-0.0008
-0.0008
-0.0012
-0.0012
-0.0016
-0.0016
-0.002
-0.002
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
10
-10
a)
-8
-6
-4
-2
10
b)
Fig. 2.10. Steady-state deflection of the beam in the case V = 500 km h for (a) K = 0 and
(b) K = 108 N m 2 .
Figures 2.8 shows that if the load velocity is small, the beam deflection is
localised in the vicinity of the loading point and is almost symmetric with respect to the
loading point the load. The small asymmetry of the profile regards the presence of
material damping in the half-space. The variation of this damping and the account for
the shear stiffness of the interface influences the result very slightly.
If the load velocity is close to the critical velocity, see Figure 2.9, the beam
pattern becomes visible asymmetric with respect to the loading point. This is a
consequence of radiation of waves into the beam and the half-space. Because of the
Doppler effect, the wavelength of waves behind the load is larger that that in front of the
load. Accordingly, the attenuation of waves in the beam caused by the material damping
and radiation of waves into the half-space is different for waves propagating behind and
in front of the load.
In the super-critical case that is depicted in Figure 2.10, the beam pattern is
similar to that in the near-critical case. The difference between these two cases contains
in a much smaller beam deflection under the load in the super critical case and in a
slight change of the wavelength of the perturbed waves. The latter is a direct
consequence of the Doppler effect.
Finalising this section, we would like to emphasise its main result: the critical
velocity of the train conditioned by its dead weight (constant load) is approximately
equal to the Rayleigh wave speed in the ground surrounding the railway track. The
value of this velocity can be in the order of 200-500 km/h, if the ground is soft. Thus,
nowadays-operated high-speed trains can easily reach the critical speed and a careful
study is necessary on what would happen if such a regime of motion were to take place.
To accomplish such a study, a model should be employed that includes a threedimensional solid as a model for the ground.
54
+
x =Vt
wbeam
t
.
x =Vt d
(2.39)
The elastic drag De , by definition, is the ratio between the power input Q and
the load velocity V :
De =
Q P wbeam
=
V V t
+
x =Vt
wbeam
t
x =Vt d
(2.40)
Note that this definition is valid only if the load is constant, e.g. P is independent of
time.
Expression (2.40) shows that to find De one has to determine the beam
displacement, which is given by (2.36). Substituting this expression into Eq.(2.40), we
obtain the following representation for the drag:
iP 2
De =
2
k1
1
b11 22
b21 121
(1 + cos ( k1d ) ) dk1 .
b11b22 b21b12 = k V
1
55
(2.41)
Expression (2.41) shows that the drag De depends not only on the magnitude of
the loads P and on their velocity but on the distance d between the loads also. It is not
surprising since the individual elastic fields generated by each load are interfering and,
therefore, the energy of the total field must be influenced by the spatial shift between
the individual fields.
The further investigation will proceed as follows. First, we consider the viscoelastic drag due to a single load to clarify the effect of the damping coefficient * , of
the velocity V and of the shear stiffness K at the beam-half-space interface. Next, the
elastic drag experienced by two loads will be studied with emphasis on the effect of the
distance between the loads. Employing results of this study, finally, the elastic drag, the
rolling drag and the aerodynamic drag will be compared for a TGV train.
The expression for the elastic drag faced by a single load can be retrieved from
(2.41) by removing the term cos ( k1d ) . This yields
wheel
e
iP 2
= De =
2
k1
(2.42)
Evaluation of expression (2.42) can be carried out numerically. For this evaluation, the
following set of the system parameters was used:
E = 5.2*107 N/m 2 , = 0.3, = 1.96*103 kg/m3 , cR = 340 km h
Abeam = 760 kg/m, Ebeam I = 1.29*108 N/m 2 , 2a = 2.6 m P = 105 N
200
Dewheel ( N )
200
160
Dewheel ( N )
1
2
(2.43)
160
120
120
80
80
40
40
0
0
200
V ( km h )
400
600
a)
200
400
V ( km h )
b)
Fig. 2.11. Visco-elastic drag versus the load velocity for (a) K = 0 and (b) K = 108 N m 2 .
56
600
In this set, the half-space parameters describe a realistic, though arbitrary soft
ground, the beam parameters represent a system composed of two rails and sleepers,
and the load is taken to describe the axle loading (one quarter of the passenger car
weight).
Results of numerical integration of equation (2.42) are presented in Figure 2.11
(a,b) that shows the dependence of the elastic drag Dewheel on the load velocity V . Both
figures present four curves that are plotted for different values of the damping
coefficient * , namely for 1* = 103 Ns/m 2 , 2* = 104 Ns/m 2 , 3* = 0.8*105 Ns/m 2 ,
4* = 106 Ns/m 2 . The difference between figures (a) and (b) is that the first one is plotted
for K = 0 , i.e. in the absence of the shear contact springs, while the second presents
results calculated for K = 108 N m .
Analysing the figures, the following conclusions may be drawn:
1. For realistic values of the damping coefficient, the elastic drag grows significantly
as the train approaches the Rayleigh wave velocity.
2. Below the Rayleigh wave velocity, the only cause for the elastic drag is the material
damping in the subsoil. In this range of velocities, the smaller the damping
coefficient, the smaller is the elastic drag.
3. At velocities higher than the Rayleigh wave velocity, the elastic drag is caused both
by the damping and by the radiation damping that is related to the energy loss on
excitation of elastic waves in the beam and the half-space. When the material
damping is small, the radiation damping plays a dominant role in causing the drag.
4. Concerning the effect of the shear interaction between the beam and the half-space
that is taken into account by the shear springs K , one can see that this effect is
noticeable when the damping is relatively small and the load velocity is close to the
Rayleigh wave velocity. Otherwise, the shear springs have almost no influence on
the drag.
The final objective of this section is to calculate the total elastic drag that is
experienced by a high-speed train. To accomplish this, one may not just multiply elastic
drag obtained for a single wheel by the number of wheels in the train. Such approach
would give a wrong result, for every wheel is dragged not only by its own elastic field
but also by elastic fields perturbed by other wheels. Mathematically, the effect of a
neighbouring wheel on the visco-elastic drag is presented by cos ( k1d ) in the expression
(2.41) for the drag experienced by two loads.
To explore the effect of this cross-drag, we numerically integrate equation
(2.41) by employing the parameter set (2.43) and K = 108 N m 2 . The result is shown in
Figure 2.12(a) and Figure 2.12(b). Each figure presents two curves: the solid curve
corresponds to the supercritical motion with V = 400 km h whereas the dashed curve
corresponds to the subcritical motion with V = 200 km h . The figures differ due to the
damping coefficient used in the calculations Figure 2.12(a) is plotted for
* = 104 Ns/m 2 , while Figure 2.12(b) depicts results obtained with
* = 0.8*105 Ns/m 2 .
57
1000
Debogie ( N )
1000
V = 400 km h
Debogie ( N )
V = 400 km h
V = 200 km h
V = 200 km h
100
100
10
10
1
0
d (m)
10
12
a)
d (m)
10
12
b)
Fig. 2.12. Visco-elastic drag versus distance between two loads for (a) * = 104 * 2 and
(b) * = 8 104 * 2 .
58
Detotal = 4 Debogie
= 4 4 Debogie
= 32 Debogie
d = 3m, P = 200kN
d = 3m, P =100kN
d = 3m, P =100kN
+ 16 Debogie
+ 16 Debogie
d = 3m, P =100kN
d = 3m, P =100kN
(2.44)
32 120 N=3.84 kN
Evaluating equation (2.44), we have taken into account that the elastic drag is
P2
(see,
for
example
(2.41))
so
that
proportional
to
bogie
bogie
De
= 4 De
. Additionally we have used Figure 2.12(a),
d =3m, P = 200kN
d =3m, P =100kN
bogie
e
d =3m, P =100 kN
In the same manner the total drag may be calculated for any value of * and V .
The result of this calculation is depicted in Figure 2.13 that shows the velocity
dependence of the total elastic drag for * = 104 Ns/m 2 (bold dashed line) and for
* = 0.8*105 Ns/m 2 (bold solid line). For comparison, the aerodynamic drag, and the
rolling drag are plotted in accordance with results presented in [61].
D ( kN )
100
10
Da
Dr
De(1)
De(2)
0.1
0.01
0
200
400
600
V ( km h )
Fig. 2.13. Visco-elastic drag for * = 104 */ 2
* = 0.8 105 */ 2 ( De(2) ) , rolling drag ( Dr ) and aerodynamic drag ( Da ) versus the load velocity.
Figure 2.13 shows that the largest drag that the train experiences while moving
with a relatively high velocity ( > 200 km h ) is the aerodynamic drag. The rolling drag
and the elastic drag are much smaller. For example, if the train moved with
V = 400 km h , then the aerodynamic would be about 80 kN , the rolling drag would be
59
in the order of 16 kN and the elastic drag would be 3.84 kN . Thus, as one can see, the
elastic drag at this velocity is about 24% of the rolling drag and about 5% of the
aerodynamic drag. In the case of subcritical motion with V = 200 km h , these values
would respectively turn into 1.5% and 0.5% for * = 104 Ns/m 2 and into 10% and 3.8
% for * = 0.8 *105 Ns/m 2 .
Thus, the elastic drag is very small with respect to the aerodynamic drag. With
respect to the rolling drag, the elastic drag is not that small and the higher the velocity
of the train, the larger is the relative contribution of the elastic drag.
We should keep in mind, however, that in reality the contact force between the
train wheels and the rails is not given by the dead weight alone but also depends on the
aerodynamic resistance to the train motion. Thanks to the special form of high-speed
trains, this resistance presses the train, especially the first wagon (locomotive) against
the rails. In a rough way, this pressure can be accounted for by the following
modification of formula (2.41):
De =
iP 2 (1 + V 2 )
2
k1
1
b11 22
b21 121
(1 + cos ( k1d ) ) dk1 ,
b11b22 b21b12 = k V
(2.45)
where is a coefficient, which accounts for the fact that the aerodynamic drag
influences the contact force between the train wheels and the rails. This coefficient
depends on the shape of high-speed train. Unfortunately, we are not armed with
information about what the coefficients could be for the nowadays-operated highspeed trains. Thus, we will estimate the elastic drag for some sensible values of .
D ( kN )
1000
100
10
Da
Dr
0.1
De(1)
De(2)
0.01
0.001
0
200
V ( km/h )
400
600
Fig. 2.14. Effect of the aerodynamic pressure on the elastic drag (to be compared with Figure 2.13).
60
Figure 2.14 represents the velocity dependence of the elastic drag for two
different values of the material damping in the half-space, according to expression
(2.45). The aerodynamic and rolling drag are plotted as well for comparison. Since it is
evident that the highest aerodynamic drag falls on the locomotive, the wagons of the
train were disregarded in calculation of the elastic drag. The coefficient has been
taken as = 0.001 .
Figure 2.14 shows that the effect of the aerodynamic pressure on the elastic drag
is truly crucial. The elastic drag becomes comparable and, starting from the velocities
slightly smaller than the Rayleigh wave velocity, even exceeds the aerodynamic drag.
Besides, the larger is the material damping, the earlier the elastic drag exceeds the
aerodynamic drag.
Thus, in our opinion, one of the design criteria for high-speed trains, should be
the energy loss of the train because of all possible types of resistance to the train
motion. The elastic drag, assessed in this section, should be also included in this
criterion as a source of perceptible energy loss.
61
CHAPTER 3
Beam on a Visco-elastic Stratified Half-space as a
Continual Model for a Railway Track
In this chapter, the model for a railway track that was considered in the previous
chapter is improved by accounting for
a)
b)
Having these improvements implemented, the model becomes capable of describing the low-frequency dynamics of a conventional railway track. A higher frequency dynamics cannot be handled accurately, since the model does not take into account the discrete character of the sleeper-ballast interaction. The model under consideration can be also employed to study dynamics of modern embedded tracks that are
truly continuous, being built without the sleepers.
The main objective of this chapter is to study the effect of ground stratification
on the dynamic response of a railway track.
The chapter consists of three sections. In section 3.1, a model is formulated that
accounts for a three-dimensional layered ground and a continualized rail-sleeper-ballast
structure. In section 3.2, the method of dynamic flexibility matrix for layered ground is
presented. Examples of this matrix for various layered grounds are adduced. Then, the
equivalent stiffness of a layered ground is analysed. First, a visco-elastic layer, fixed at
its bottom, is considered. Second, a layer that overlies a half-space is investigated paying particular attention to the effect of the relative stiffness of the layer and the halfspace.
In section 3.3, the steady-state response of a beam overlying a layered ground to
a uniformly moving load is studied. Attention is focused on the study of: a) the critical
velocities of the load; b) the effect of damping in the ground on the structural response;
c) the influence of the upper ground layer depth on the structural response.
In this chapter, results of works by X. Sheng et al. [136]-[137] have been used.
Original results of the chapter are the analysis of the equivalent stiffness of different
layered grounds and the study of critical velocities of the load that are introduced by the
ground stratification.
62
the ground realistically, a variation of the ground properties over the depth has to be accounted for. Second, the rail-sleeper-ballast structure is to undergo a more detail description.
In this section, we introduce a model that consists of a layered half-space and a
beam that is mounted to its surface trough a distributed visco-elastic, inertial elements,
see Figure 3.1.
2a
x, u
y, v
z, w
Fig. 3.1. Beam on a layered half-space as a continual model for the embedded track.
P
Rails
kB
Ballast
Ground surface
wbeam
Pads
kP
Sleepers mS
B
mB
z=0 x
Ground layers
Elastic half-space
In Figure 3.2, the visco-elastic element with the stiffness per unit length
k P N m 2 and the viscosity per unit length P N s m 2 is a continualized representation of the pads. The distributed mass-element mS [ kg m ] represents the inertial prop-
63
erty of the sleepers. The visco-elastic, inertial element with the stiffness per unit length
k B N m 2 , viscosity per unit length B N s m 2 and mass per unit length
mB [ kg m ] represents the ballast.
The interaction between the beam, the distributed elements and the surface of
the layered half-space is assumed to take place in the vertical direction only. This simplification is accepted on the basis of the previous chapter, in which it was shown that
the shear interaction between the beam and the half-space has no significant influence
on the track response.
As for the layered half-space, we assume that it consists of n layers. The n -th
layer overlies a homogeneous half-space, which is termed the layer number ( n + 1) . The
material constants of layer j are the shear modulus, j , Poissons ratio, j , the density, j , the damping coefficient, *j , and the thickness, h j . For example, for ( n + 1) -th
layer, which is the half-space, its material constants are n +1 , n +1 , n +1 and n*+1
( hn+1 = ) .
Employing the aforementioned assumptions and notations, the governing equations for the model can be written as
2u j
j
j
j u + j + j iu = j 2 ,
t
) (
(3.1)
where u j ( x, y , z , t ) = u j ( x, y , z , t ) , v j ( x, y , z , t ) , w j ( x, y , z , t ) [ m ] is the displacement vector for the layer number j , j kg m3 is its density, j = j + *j / t and
j = j + *j / t are operators, which are used instead of the Lams constants
j N m 2 and j N m 2 to describe the visco-elastic properties of the layer according to Voigts phenomenological model.
4 wbeam
2 wbeam
+
+ k P + P ( wbeam wS ) = P0 ( x Vt )
S
beam
4
2
x
t
t
(3.2)
2 wS
1
k P + P ( wbeam wS ) + F ( ) = 0
2
t
t
(3.3)
for the mass-spring-dashpot element (ballast) by using the consistent mass approximation, see [136]:
64
(1)
1 1 wS F
mB 2 1 2 wS t 2
k
+
+
B B
=0
6 1 2 2 wB t 2
t 1 1 wB F ( 2)
(3.4)
2)
( x, t ) H ( a y )
xz ( x, y, 0, t ) = yz ( x, y, 0, t ) = 0
2a zz ( x, y, 0, t ) = F (
2)
(3.5)
(3.6)
Equations (3.1)-(3.6) govern the steady-state dynamic response of the system depicted
in Figure 3.1. Since the ground is modelled by a multi-layered half-space, to solve the
problem, it is customary to employ the method of the dynamic stiffness matrix. This
method, in application to the problem in question, is described in the next section.
(3.7)
which is called the dynamic flexibility matrix of the ground surface. In this matrix, 11 ,
12 , and 13 are the amplitudes of displacements that are caused by the x component
of the loading vector, 21 , 22 , and 23 are that caused by the y component and 31 ,
65
32 , and 33 are the amplitudes caused by the z component. In general, the dynamic
flexibility matrix is complex-valued.
Assume now that, on the surface of the ground, the harmonic load distributions
p x ( x, y ) e i t , p y ( x, y ) e i t , p z ( x, y ) e i t ,
(3.8)
are applied in x , y and z directions, respectively. The total steady-state vibration amplitudes of the surface point ( x, y, 0 ) in x , y and z directions can be then expressed as
u1 ( x, y, 0, )
p x ( r, s )
1
v ( x, y, 0, ) = ( x r , y s ) p ( r , s ) drds
w1 ( x, y, 0, )
p z ( r, s )
(3.9)
Equation (3.9) is a convolution integral. Applying to (3.9) the integral Fourier transform
with respect to the horizontal co-ordinates x and y (throughout this thesis, the sign contention for the Fourier transforms is the defined by Eq. (2.32)), one obtains the following relation:
u1 ,k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 , 0, )
px ,k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 )
1
pz
, k1 , k2 ( k1 , k2 , 0, )
,k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 )
(3.10)
The matrix ,k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 ) is the Fourier image of the flexibility matrix.
Denote the displacements for j -th layer in the frequency domain at point
( x, y, z ) ( z 0, h ) as u ( x, y, z ) e , v ( x, y, z ) e and w ( x, y, z ) e ,
where u ( x, y, z ) , v ( x, y, z ) and w ( x, y, z ) are complex functions. Their Fourier
images in the domain of wave numbers k and k we denote as u
(k , k , z ) ,
v
( k , k , z ) and w ( k , k , z ) , respectively. Introduce
i t
i t
i t
, k1 , k2
, k1 , k2
, k1 , k2
{u
} = {u
} = {u
t
, k1 , k2
{u
, k1 , k2
, k1 , k2
j
, k1 , k2
(k , k , z ), v
(k , k , z ),v
t
j
b
j
, k1 , k2
, k1 , k2
(k , k , z ), w
(k , k , z ), w
t
j
b
j
, k1 , k2
, k1 , k2
( k , k , z )}
1
t
j
( k , k , z )}
1
b
j
(3.11)
,
where {u , k1 ,k2 } stands for the Fourier displacement vector of the top interface of the
t
j -th layer, and {u , k1 ,k2 } for the displacement vector of the bottom interface of this
b
j
layer, z z = h j .
b
j
t
j
t
denote as xzj
( x, y, z tj ) eit , yzjt ( x, y, z tj ) eit , zzjt ( x, y, z tj ) eit , and at the bottom as
66
b
xzj
( x, y, z bj ) eit , yzjb ( x, y, z bj ) eit , zzjb ( x, y, z bj ) eit . The Fourier images of the stress
vectors at the top and the bottom of the j th layer are then defined as
(3.12)
Finally, we introduce the following vectors that combine the Fourier images of displacements and stresses:
{s} j
t
t
b
{u
{u
b
, k1 ,k2 } j
, k1 ,k2 } j
=
, {s} j =
.
t
b
{ } j
{ } j
(3.13)
of the layered ground, through the vector { s }1 corresponding to the ground surface. For
t
i j = 0
(3.14)
In terms of the potentials j and j , the equations of motion for the layers
(3.1) in the frequency domain read
j =
cLj2 = j + 2 j
where
cLj =
2
c
2
Lj
j , j =
j , cTj2 = j j ,
2
2
Tj
j , i j = 0
j = i *j ,
(3.15)
j = i *j ,
with
j
j
j j z y
j j j
j y j x
+
, vj = z + x , wj = +
(3.16)
x
y
z
y
x
z
z
x
y
xzj
yzj
2j j z j y j y j x
= j 2
+
+
xz z y
z
x
x
y
2j j z j x j y j x
= j 2
+
yz z x
z
y
x
67
(3.17)
(3.18)
2j j y j x
+
z 2 z x
y
zzj = j j + 2 j
(3.19)
Application of the integral Fourier transforms with respect to the horizontal co-ordinates
x and y to (3.15) yields:
2 f j 2
2
2
2 + 2 k1 k2 f j = 0
z
cLj
2
2
g j
2
2
2 + 2 k1 k2 g j = 0
z
cTj
g
g
g
xj + yj + zj = 0
x
y
z
(3.20)
(3.21)
with RLj ,Tj = k12 + k22 2 / cLj2 ,Tj and Bij ( i = 1,8 ) unknown constants.
Expressing now the displacements and the stresses in terms of the potentials by
employing Equations (3.16)-(3.19) and excluding constants B7 j and B8 j by means of
the last equation in (3.20), vectors { s } j and { s } j may be written as
t
{ s } j = [ A ] j {b} j ,
t
{s} j = eR
b
L, jhj
[ A ] j {b} j ,
b
(3.22)
(3.23)
where integration constants Bij ( i = 1, 6 ) are composed in the vector {b} j C 6 , and
[ A] j
matrix [ A ] j :
b
68
ik1
ik
2
RLj
2ik1 RLj j
2ik2 RLj j
j j
k1k2
RTj
ik1
R k
2
Tj
ik2
k1k2
RTj
2
1
RTj
R k
2
Tj
2
1
ik2
ik2
2ik1 RLj j
2 j k1k2
2 j k1k2
2ik2 RLj j
j j
2i j RTj k2
k1k2
RTj
ik1
j ( R + k12 k22 )
2
Tj
2 j k1k2
2i j RTj k2
RTj
k1k2
RTj
ik1
2
2
2
j ( RTj + k1 k2 )
2 j k1k2
2i j RTj k1
RTj2 k22
RTj
RTj
RLj
RTj2 k22
2i j RTj k1
(3.24)
with j = 2 RTj2 + 2 cTj2 .
matrix [ A ] j :
t
[ A ] j = [ A ] j [ D] j ,
b
(3.25)
2 RLj h j
, d33 = d55 = e
( RTj RLj ) h j
, d 44 = d 66 = e
RTj + RLj h j
(3.26)
Equations (3.22) and (3.23) couple the displacements and stresses at the top of the layer
with those at the bottom:
t 1
{ s} j = eR h [ A] j [ A] j { s} j
b
Lj j
(3.27)
The requirement for continuity of displacements and equilibrium of stresses at the layer
interfaces are expressed by equations
{ s }1 = { s }2 , { s }2 = { s }3 , , { s }n1 = { s }n
b
(3.28)
Using (3.27) and (3.28), one can couple displacements and stresses at the surface of the
ground with those at the bottom of the n th layer, which adjoins to the half-space:
t 1
t 1
t 1
Ln n
t
[ A ]n1 [ A ]n1 { s }n1 =
b
.................................................................................................
n
b
t 1
b
t 1
b
t 1
t
= exp RLj h j [ A ]n [ A ]n [ A ]n 1 [ A ]n 1 [ A ]1 [ A ]1 { s }1
j =1
The multiplication of matrices in the last line in Eq. (3.29) can be rewritten as
69
(3.29)
[ T ]
[ T]
b
t 1
b
t 1
b
t 1
[T] = T 11 T 12 = [ A ]n [ A ]n [ A ]n1 [ A ]n1 [ A ]1 [ A ]1 ,
[ ]21 [ ]22
(3.30)
where [ T]ij are ( 3 3) matrices. Thus, we can now express the displacements and the
stresses at the lowest interface in terms of those at the surface of the layered structure:
b
{u
RLj h j
[ T]11
,k1 , k2 }n
j =1
e
=
b
[ T]21
{ }n
[T]12 {u ,k ,k }1
[T]22 { }t
t
(3.31)
Now we are only to consider the foundation for the layered ground. Three cases
are possible.
1) Half-space. The equivalent of equations (3.22), for the half-space are
{u
, k1 , k2 n +1
= [ R ]{b}n +1
{ }n+1 = [S ]{b}n+1
t
(3.32)
where {b}n +1 is a vector composed of three constants, [ R ] and [S ] are the following
( 3 3)
matrices:
ik1c1
[ R ] = ik2c1
R
c
L( n +1) 1
c2
RT ( n +1)
k1k2
c2
RT ( n +1)
ik1c2
kk
1 2 c2
RT ( n +1)
c2
ik2 c2
2ik1 n +1 R
c
L ( n +1) 1
n +1 n +1c1
2k1k2 n +1c2
ik2 RT ( n +1) c2
(3.33)
2
2
n +1 k2 + RT ( n +1)
(3.34)
RT ( n +1)
ik1 RT ( n +1) c2
{u
, k1 , k2 n +1
= [ R ][S ]
70
{ }n+1
t
(3.35)
The condition of continuity of the displacements and the stresses at the interface of the
n th layer and the half-space requires
{u
, k1 , k2 n +1
(3.36)
Consequently,
{u
} = [ R ][S] { } .
b
, k1 , k2 n
(3.37)
{u
, k1 , k2 1
= [ R ][S ]
(3.38)
Denote
Q11 Q12
[Q ] = Q21 Q22
Q31 Q32
Q13
1
Q23 = [ R ][S ] [ T]21 [ T]11
Q33
) ([ T]
1
12
[ R ][S ]
[ T]22 ) .
(3.39)
,k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 , ) = [Q ]
(3.40)
The minus sign reflects the fact that the positive direction of normal stress on the surface of the ground is defined as opposite to the direction of the axis OZ.
Thus, by definition [Q ] is the dynamic flexibility matrix for the layered halfspace.
It should be mentioned here, that the method of the dynamic flexibility matrix
does not always help to avoid difficulties in numerical calculations as it was claimed in
the paper of Sheng et al. [136]. The problems could be caused by matrix [ D] j . Indeed,
it is clearly seen from expressions (3.26) that the even members of main diagonal of
matrix [ D] j tend to zero very fast as the argument of the exponent increases. This implies that corresponding matrices [ T]ij could be ill conditioned and difficulties in numerical calculations would then appear necessarily. Because of this, it is sensible to use
this method only for relatively small depths up to 10 meters.
2) Stiff foundation. In this case
{u
, k1 , k2 n +1
= {u ,k1 ,k2 } = 0 ,
b
(3.41)
{u
} = [ T ] [ T ] { } = [ Q ] { } .
t
, k1 , k2 1
11
12
(3.42)
3) Ground presented by only half-space. When the ground is modelled by just a halfspace, i.e. n = 0 , one may use equation (3.35)
{u
} = [ R ][S] { } = [Q]{ } .
t
, k1 , k2 1
(3.43)
( kP iP )
0
R
P
P
beam 1
w,k1 2 P0 ( k1V )
2
2
S
kP iP + kB iB ( mS + mB 3) ( kB iB + mB 6) w,k1 =
0
kP
( 2)
0
( kB iB + mB2 6)
( kB iB mB2 3) w,k1 F,k1
(3.44)
The term F( ,k)1 on the right-hand side of Eq.(3.44) is the Fourier image of the contact
2
force between the ballast and the ground. It is this force that has to be replaced by the
equivalent stiffness of the ground. To accomplish this replacement, the boundary conditions (3.5) and (3.6) that describe interaction between the beam and the layered halfspace should be employed. Application of the Fourier transform with respect to time
and the horizontal co-ordinates to (3.5) and (3.6) yields
zz ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) = F( ,2k)
sin k2 a
k2 a
xz ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) = yz ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) = 0
B
w , k1
1
=
2
w
1
, k1 , k2
( k1 , k2 , 0 ) dk2
(3.45)
(3.46)
with zz ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) = zzt 1 , xz ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) = xzt 1 , yz ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) = yzt 1 the Fourier images of the stresses on the surface of the layered half-space. Since
px , k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 ) = xz ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) ,
py , k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 ) = yz ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) ,
pz , k1 ,k2 ( k1 , k2 ) = zz ( k1 , k2 , 0, ) ,
72
(3.47)
sin k2 a
k2 a
(3.48)
w , k1
1
=
2
sin k a
Q ( , k , k ) k a dk
33
( 2)
F , k1
(3.49)
or
( 2)
F , k1
1
=
2
sin k a
B
layer
B
Q33 ( , k1 , k2 ) k2 a2 dk2 w ,k1 = eq ( , k1 ) w ,k1
(3.50)
The multiplier of wB, k1 on the right-hand side of Eq.(3.50) is, by definition, the
equivalent vertical stiffness of the layered half-space. Substituting Eq.(3.50) into
Eq.(3.44), one obtains
E Jk4 m 2 + k i
( kP iP )
R
P
P
beam 1
( kP iP )
kP iP + kB iB ( mS + mB 3) 2
0
( kB iB + mB2 6)
beam
w,k1 2 P0 ( k1V )
2
( kB iB + mB 6) wS,k1 =
0
(3.51)
in which
layer
eq
1
( , k1 ) =
2
sin k a
Q33 ( , k1 , k2 ) k2 a2 dk2
(3.52)
73
To find an expression for the equivalent stiffness eqlayer ( , k1 ) , we have to calculate Q33 ( , k1 , k2 ) , see Eq. (3.52). A simple way to do so is to employ Eq. (3.42) and
calculate the product [ T]12 . This yields
Q33 ( , k1 , k2 ) =
2 RL Num ( , k1 , k2 )
,
cT2 Den ( , k1 , k2 )
(3.53)
with
Num ( , k1 , k2 ) = ( k12 + k22 ) sinh ( RT H ) cosh ( RL H ) RL RT sinh ( RL H ) cosh ( RT H ) ,
Den ( , k1 , k2 ) = 4 ( k12 + k22 ) RL RT + ( k12 + k22 )( 4 RL2 RT2 + 2 ) sinh ( RL H ) sinh ( RT H )
(3.54)
To study eq ( , k1 ) , it is again customary (see Chapter 3) to introduce the following new variables:
Variable of integration = k2 k1 which represents the ratio between the wave numbers of waves propagating in the lateral and longitudinal directions;
Phase velocity of waves propagating along the beam, V ph = k1 ;
Ratio of V ph and complex velocities of longitudinal and shear waves in the layer,
L ,T = V ph cL ,T .
In terms of these variables, the equivalent stiffness reads
* 2
layer
d , (3.55)
eq (V ph , k1 ) = 2 1 ik1V ph T RL ( )
Den (V ph , k1 , ) k1a
with
(
) (
, ( ) = 2 (1 + )
RL RT 4 (1 + 2 ) + 2 ( ) cosh RL k1 H cosh RT k1 H ,
RL ,T = 1 + 2 L2,T
2
T
(3.56)
Expression (3.55) coincides with that obtained by Metrikine and Popp [117].
74
Im ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
Re ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
V ph cT
k1
V ph cT
k1
a)
b)
Fig. 3.3. Equivalent stiffness of the layer versus the phase velocity and wave
number of waves in the beam: a) real part b) imaginary part.
eqlayer *108 , N m
k1 = 0.6 / a
Re ( eqlayer )
V ph cT
0
1
-1
-2
V ph*
Im ( eqlayer )
-3
Fig. 3.4. Equivalent stiffness of the layer versus the phase velocity of waves in the beam.
75
Vph* cT
3 .0 0
2 .5 0
2 .0 0
1 .5 0
1 .0 0
Vph* = cR
0 .5 0
0 .0 0
0 .4 0
k
0 .8 0
1 .2 0
1 .6 0
2 .0 0
Fig. 3.5. Relative phase velocity V ph* cT versus wave number k = k1a
for the lowest dispersion branch of the layer.
Thus, the main difference between the equivalent stiffness of the layer and halfspace is caused by the multimode character of the layer vibration, which results in additional maxima and minima of the equivalent stiffness of the layer with respect to the
stiffness of the half-space. Such a difference implies that dynamic response of the railway track that lies on a layered ground could differ qualitatively from that of a track on
a homogeneous ground. This difference will be especially appreciable for small values
of material damping in the ground.
76
Im ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
Re ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
k1
V ph cT
k1
V ph cT
a)
2
b)
Re ( eqlayer )
eqlayer *108 , N m
k1 = 0.6 / a
V ph cT
0
1
-1
V ph*
-2
Im ( eqlayer )
-3
c)
Fig. 3.6. Equivalent stiffness of the shallow ( H = 2 m ) layer on the soft half-space versus the phase
velocity and wave number of waves in the beam: a) real part b) imaginary part
c) cross-section by the plane k1 = 0.6 a .
77
Im ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
Re ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
k1
k1
V ph cT
V ph cT
a)
b)
2
Re ( eqlayer )
eqlayer *108 , N m
k1 = 0.6 / a
V ph cT
0
1
-1
V ph*
-2
Im ( eqlayer )
-3
c)
Fig. 3.7. Equivalent stiffness of the deep ( H = 10 m ) layer on the soft half-space versus the phase veloc-
ity and wave number of waves in the beam: a) real part b) imaginary part
c) cross-section by the plane k1 = 0.6 a .
Layer:
78
(3.58)
Im ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
Re ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
k1
k1
V ph cT
V ph cT
a)
b)
Re ( eqlayer )
eqlayer *108 , N m
k1 = 0.6 / a
V ph cT
0
1
-1
-2
V ph*
Im ( eqlayer )
-3
c)
Fig. 3.8. Equivalent stiffness of the shallow ( H = 2 m ) layer on the stiff half-space versus the phase
velocity and wave number of waves in the beam: a) real part b) imaginary part. c) cross-section by the
plane k1 = 0.6 a .
(3.59)
Variation of H in (3.58) is performed to study the effect of the layer depth. Two
magnitudes of Youngs modulus Eh of the half-space in (3.59) are chosen so that the
half-space is either softer or stiffer than the layer.
79
Im ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
Re ( eqlayer *108 ) , N m
k1
V ph cT
k1
V ph cT
a)
b)
Re ( eqlayer )
eqlayer *108 , N m
k1 = 0.6 / a
V ph cT
0
1
-1
-2
V ph*
Im ( eqlayer )
-3
c)
Fig. 3.9. Equivalent stiffness of the deep ( H = 10 m ) layer on the stiff half-space versus the phase veloc-
ity and wave number of waves in the beam: a) real part b) imaginary part. c) cross-section by the plane
k1 = 0.6 a .
The real and imaginary parts of the equivalent stiffness are plotted in Figures
3.6-3.9. Figures 3.6-3.7 correspond to a soft half-space whereas Figures 3.8-3.9 correspond to a stiff half-space. Figures 3.6 and 3.8 are drawn for H = 2m , whilst Figures
3.7 and 3.9 are plotted for H = 10m .
Figures 3.6-3.9 demonstrate the following:
The minimum (with respect to k1 ) value of the critical velocity V ph* strongly depends upon the layers depth and the relative stiffness of the layer and the halfspace. The softer is the half-space, the smaller is the critical velocity. For the
soft half-space, the deeper is the layer, the larger is V ph* . For the stiff half-space,
on the contrary, the deeper is the layer, the smaller is the critical velocity.
Concluding this section we would like to underline its main result: the equivalent stiffness of a layered ground strongly depends on the physical parameters of the
ground and the depth of the layer(s). Thus, it might be expected that the dynamic response of a railway track is also strongly influenced by the properties of the ground.
1 ( , k1 )
0 ( , k1 )
(3.60)
with
1 ( , k1 ) = 210 ( k1V ) ,
P0
12 ( k B i B ) ( k P i P ( mB + mS ) 2 ) +
12
+ mB 2 ( mB 2 4 ( k P i P ) + 4mS 2 ) +
10 ( , k1 ) =
+4 eqlayer ( 3 ( k P i P ) + 3 ( k B i B ) 3mS 2 mB 2 )
and
81
(3.61)
(E
beam
Jk14 mR 2 )
12
(12 ( k
i B ) ( mB 2 eqlayer ) +
( kP i P )
12
(12k (
( 4m m
R
layer
eq
(3.62)
mR 2 ) + 4 Ebeam Jk14 ( 3 ( k B i B ) mB 2 ) +
))
Applying to (3.60) the inverse Fourier transforms over and k1 we obtain the following expression for the beam response to a uniformly moving load:
wbeam ( x, t ) =
=
1
2
1
=
2
1
4
1 ( , k1 )
( , k ) exp ( i t + ik x ) d dk
1
10 ( , k1 )
( k1V ) exp ( i t + ik1 x ) d dk1 =
0 ( , k1 )
(3.63)
10 ( k1V , k1 )
0 ( k1V , k1 ) exp ( ik1 ( x Vt ) ) dk1
The integral in Eq.(3.63) can be evaluated numerically. Results of this evaluation that
were obtained by employing the ground parameters (3.57), (3.58), (3.59) and the
following parameters of the superstructure:
mR = 60.34 kg m , Ebeam I = 1.22*107 N*m 2 ,
mS = 100 kg m , k P = 108 N m 2 , P = 1000 N*s m 2 ,
(3.64)
82
0.0040
0.0040
H = 10 m
H = 10 m
0.0036
beam displacement, m
beam displacement, m
0.0036
0.0032
0.0028
0.0032
0.0028
0.0024
0.0024
H =2m
H =2m
0.0020
0
0.4
0.0020
0.8
1.2
1.6
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
V cT
V cT
a)
b)
Fig. 3.14. Beam displacement at the loading point versus the load velocity for (a) * = 103 N*s m 2
beam displacement, m
0.0036
H = 10 m
0.0032
0.0028
0.0024
H =2m
0.0020
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
V cT
Fig. 3.15. Beam displacement at the loading point versus the load velocity for * = 105 N*s m 2 .
83
layer tends to that of the beam on a visco-elastic half-space (with the same material
properties) as the layer depth increases.
3. The depth of the layer influences the magnitude of the beam response. The thinner is
the layer, the smaller is the response.
4. The main effect of the material damping is that with increasing damping, the beam
response decreases.
Let us note that the beam displacement in the loading point is not the maximum
displacement of the beam. This can be seen from Figures 3.16-3.18, which show the
beam patterns that move along the beam together with the load. The vertical axis in
these figures is the beam deflection, whereas the horizontal axis shows the distance
= x Vt from the moving load. Figures 3.16-3.18 show that the maximum displacement of the beam takes place somewhat behind the load. Only in the sub-critical case,
this maximum would shift to the loading point under the condition that the material
damping vanished. The position at which the beam displacement is maximal depends on
the load velocity. Thus, to plot the dependence of the maximum beam displacement on
the load velocity, it is not enough to consider just the loading point. However, in the
sub-critical regime, which is the one that is practically relevant, the dependencies plotted in Figures 3.14 and 3.15 differ only slightly from those that are obtained by considering the maximum beam deflection instead of that of the loading point. Thus, for practical needs, Figures 3.14 and 3.15 are sufficient.
Let us return to Figures 3.16-3.18 that are plotted for H = 2 m , H = 5 m , and
H = 10 m , respectively. The material damping in these figures is * = 104 N*s m 2 .
Each figure presents the beam pattern for three velocities of the load: a) V = 250 km h ,
b) V = 470 km h and c) V = 600 km h . The Rayleigh-wave velocity for the parameters
under consideration is cR = 463km h . The critical velocity of the load, in accordance
with Figures 3.14 and 3.15, depends on the depth of the layer but is always larger than
the Rayleigh-wave velocity.
Figures 3.16-3.18 show that the moving load can cause two qualitatively different types of the beam response. First type of response can be seen in Figures 3.16(a),
3.17(a), 3.18(a) and 3.16(b). It corresponds to the sub-critical motion of the load and
occurs if the load velocity is smaller that the minimum phase velocity V ph* of waves in
the beam on the layer. This type of response is characterised by being localised in the
vicinity of the load and being almost symmetric with respect to the loading point. A
slight asymmetry is introduced by the material damping. Second type of response corresponds to the super-critical motion of the load and can be seen in Figures 3.16(b,c),
3.17(b,c), 3.18(c). This response is wavy and is not localised anymore around the
load. The higher is the load velocity, the wider is the region that this response occupies.
If the material damping were absent, the beam in this case would be disturbed everywhere, from minus to plus infinity. The super-critical response of the beam is fully
asymmetric with respect to the load. This is in accordance with the Doppler effect,
which causes the waves propagating in front of the load be shorter then those propagating behind the load. The larger is the load velocity, the higher is the degree of asymmetry.
84
0.001
0.001
0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-20
-10
10
20
-0.003
-20
-10
a)
10
20
-20
-10
b)
10
20
10
20
10
20
c)
0.001
0.001
0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-0.003
-0.004
-0.004
-20
-10
10
20
-0.004
-20
-10
a)
10
20
-20
-10
b)
c)
0.001
0.001
0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-0.003
-0.004
-0.004
-20
-10
a)
10
20
-0.004
-20
-10
b)
10
20
-20
-10
c)
85
Let us study in more detail the influence of the layer depth on the beam deflection in the loading point. In Figure 3.19 this deflection is plotted versus velocity of the
load for five different values of the layer depth. In calculations, parameters (3.57) and
(3.64) were used.
0.0050
cR cT
H = 20 m
beam displacement, m
0.0045
H = 10 m
0.0040
H =3m
H =5 m
0.0035
0.0030
H =2m
0.0025
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
V cT
Fig. 3.19. Beam deflection in the loading point versus the load velocity
for different values of the layer depth.
Figure 3.19 shows that the critical velocity of the load steadily increases with
decreasing layer depth. At the same time, the beam deflection that corresponds to the
critical velocity decreases. This brings the following idea, which can be interesting for
practical applications. To make the dynamical amplification of the track vibrations at
the critical train velocities smaller, one can put a stiff strip under the track, providing an
artificial boundary. This boundary will slightly increase the critical velocity of the train
decrease the dynamic amplification associated with this velocity. Such a stiff strip could
be especially useful for soft subsoil, in which the critical velocities are quite small (in
the range of 200 250 km h ).
Layer on half-space.
Consider the beam on a layer that overlies a half-space. Let us start with the
situation that the half-space is softer than the layer. Results of calculations that were
performed by employing parameters (3.58), (3.59) and (3.64) are presented in Figures
3.20, 3.21, 3.22 and 3.23.
Figures 3.20 and 3.21 show the dependency of the beam displacement at the
loading point on the load velocity. The horizontal axis in these figures is normalised by
the shear wave velocity in the layer, cTlayer = 500 km h . Figures 3.20(a), 3.20(b) and 3.21
86
0.010
beam displacement, m
H = 10 m
H =2m
0.008
0.006
H =2m
0.008
H = 10 m
0.006
0.004
0.004
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
0.4
0.8
1.2
V cTlayer
V cTlayer
a)
b)
1.6
Fig. 3.20. Beam displacement at the loading point versus the load velocity
for (a) * = 103 N*s m 2 and (b) * = 104 N*s m 2 . Layer on soft half-space.
0.010
beam displacement, m
beam displacement, m
0.010
H =2m
0.008
H = 10 m
0.006
0.004
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
V cTlayer
Fig. 3.21. Beam displacement at the loading point versus the load velocity for * = 105 N*s m 2 .
Layer on soft half-space.
87
0.002
0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.004
-0.004
-0.006
-0.006
-20
-10
10
-20
20
-10
a)
0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.004
-0.004
-0.006
-0.006
-10
10
20
10
20
b)
0.002
-20
10
-20
20
-10
c)
d)
Fig. 3.22. Steady-state beam deflections for a shallow layer, H = 2 m , on soft half-space:
(a) V = 150 km h (b) V = 250 km h , (c) V = 470 km h and (d) V = 600 km h
(c
layer
R
88
The beam patterns that are formed in the beam as it overlies the layer on stiff
half-space are depicted in Figures 3.22 and 3.23. The former and the latter figure correspond to the shallow layer, H = 2m , and the deep layer, H = 10m , respectively. Both
figures show the beam patterns for four velocities of the load: a) V = 150 km h , b)
V = 250 km h , c) V = 470 km h and d) V = 600 km h . Additional value of the load
velocity V = 150 km h has been considered to present the sub-critical motion since velocity V = 250 km h is larger than the Rayleigh wave velocity in the half-space.
Figures 3.22 and 3.23 show that the effect of the load velocity on the beam pattern remains the same as in the case of a fixed along the bottom layer: the sub-critical
response is localised and almost symmetric with respect to the load, whereas the supercritical response is wave, not localised and highly asymmetric.
0.002
0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.004
-0.004
-0.006
-0.006
-20
-10
10
-20
20
-10
a)
0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.004
-0.004
-0.006
-0.006
-10
10
20
b)
0.002
-20
10
-20
20
-10
c)
10
20
d)
Fig. 3.23. Steady-state beam deflections for a deep layer, H = 10 m , on soft half-space:
(a) V = 150 km h (b) V = 250 km h , (c) V = 470 km h and (d) V = 600 km h
(c
layer
R
Consider the situation that the half-space is stiffer than the layer. The velocitydependence of the beam deflection at the loading point, which is obtained by employing
parameters (3.58), (3.59) and (3.64), is presented in Figures 3.24-3.25. The horizontal
axis in these figures is normalised by the shear wave velocity in the layer,
cTlayer = 500 km h . Figures 3.24(a), 3.24(b) and 3.25 correspond to the material damping
89
* = 103 N*s m 2 , * = 104 N*s m 2 and * = 105 N*s m 2 , respectively. Bold dashed
and solid lines correspond to the shallow, H = 2m , and deep, H = 10m , layer, respectively. The vertical dashed line corresponds to the Rayleigh wave speed in the layer.
Figures 3.24 and 3.25 show that there is only one critical velocity of the load.
This is in correspondence with the fixed over the bottom layer (Figures 3.14 and 3.15)
and in contrast to the layer on soft half-space (Figures 3.20 and 3.21). This result is to
be expected, since a layer on a stiff half-space is similar to a layer that is just fixed over
its bottom. The fixation corresponds to an infinitely stiff half-space.
0.010
H = 10 m
beam displacement, m
beam displacement, m
0.010
0.008
H =2m
0.006
0.004
0.008
H = 10 m
H =2m
0.006
0.004
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
V cTlayer
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
V cTlayer
a)
b)
Fig. 3.24. Beam displacement at the loading point versus the load velocity for (a) * = 103 N*s m 2
beam displacement, m
0.010
0.008
H = 10 m
H =2m
0.006
0.004
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
V cTlayer
Fig. 3.25. Beam displacement at the loading point versus the load velocity for * = 105 N*s m 2 .
Layer on stiff half-space.
90
The critical velocity in Figures 3.24 and 3.25 is close to the shear wave velocity
in the layer and, in contrast to the case of the layer on soft half-space, depends upon the
layers depth noticeably. The thinner is the layer, the larger is the critical velocity and
the smaller is the beam deflection that is associated with this critical velocity. This result is again similar to that we have obtained on the hand of a fixed over bottom layer.
The only difference between the fixed layer and the layer on stiff half-space is that the
beam displacement of the beam overlying the former is twice smaller, which has to do
with a much higher compliance of the half-space in comparison to the rigid foundation.
The beam patterns are depicted in Figures 3.26-3.27, which are similar to Figures 3.22- 3.23. The only difference between the former and the latter figures contains
in the magnitude of the beam deflection. As it is to be expected, the stiffer half-space
decreases this magnitude.
0.002
0.002
0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.004
-0.004
-0.004
-0.006
-0.006
-20
-10
10
-0.006
-20
20
-10
a)
10
20
-20
-10
b)
10
20
c)
Fig. 3.26. Steady-state beam deflections for a shallow layer, H = 2 m , on stiff half-space:
(a) V = 250 km h , (b) V = 470 km h and (c) V = 600 km h ( cRlayer = 463km h , cRHS = 926 km h ) .
0.002
0.002
0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.004
-0.004
-0.004
-0.006
-0.006
-0.006
-20
-10
a)
10
20
-20
-10
10
20
b)
-20
-10
10
20
c)
Fig. 3.27. Steady-state beam deflections for a deep layer, H = 10 m , on stiff half-space:
(c
layer
R
Finalising the chapter, it is worth recalling its main result: the soil stratification
influences the dynamic response of the railway track strongly. Both the depth of the soil
layers and their physical properties are of importance. Their influence contains in
91
92
CHAPTER 4
Periodically Supported Beam on a Visco-elastic Layer
As a Model for Conventional Railway Track
In Chapters 1-3, the railway track was modelled as a structure whose properties
do not vary in the longitudinal direction. This kind of modelling is well verified if an
embedded track is considered, which is indeed homogeneous along its length. For a
conventional track, however, the assumption that the track is homogeneous is approximate because of the sleepers, which contact both the rails and the ballast in discrete positions. Thus, to model a conventional track accurately, discretely positioned sleepers
have to be taken into account. This is done in the present chapter by considering a
model for a railway track that consists of two beams on periodically spaced supports
that are mounted to a visco-elastic 3D layer. The beams, supports and layer model the
rails, sleepers and subsoil, respectively. The train axial loading is modelled with the
help of two moving loads of the same magnitude that are applied to the beams.
There are two main objectives of this chapter. First, a method will be developed
that allows for an accurate calculation of the steady-state response of a threedimensional, periodically inhomogeneous structure to a moving load. Second, employing this method, it will be clarified whether the effect of a three-dimensional ground in
modelling of a conventional track is as crucial as that in modelling of an embedded
track.
The chapter is structured as follows. In section 4.1, the equivalent dynamic stiffness of a visco-elastic layer at the interface with the sleepers is considered. It is shown
that the original three-dimensional (3D) model can be reduced to a one-dimensional
(1D) model by replacing the layer by a set of equivalent springs. The stiffness of these
springs is a function of the angular frequency and phase shift between vibrations of
neighbouring sleepers.
In section 4.2, the steady-state response of the beam to a set of vertical loads that
move uniformly on the beam is analysed. The main attention is paid to the vertical deflection of the rails and its dependence on the load velocity. Critical velocities of the
loads are determined and the effect of physical parameters of the model on the track response at these critical velocities is studied.
In section 4.3, the elastic drag experienced by a high-speed train due to excitation of track vibrations is analysed. First, the drag experienced by a single axle is calculated and compared to that obtained in Chapter 2 on the hand of the homogeneous
model. Second, to study the effect of the bogie wheelbase, the drag is studied for two
axles. Finally, the total elastic drag that is experienced by a TGV train is calculated and
compared to that obtained in Chapter 2 and to the rolling and aerodynamic drag.
Section 4.4 is devoted to a comparison of the steady-state response of 1D and
3D models for a conventional railway track. Advantages and disadvantages of both
models and restrictions on their application are discussed.
In the chapter, the idea of the equivalent stiffness of the ground, which was developed
in the paper of A.V. Metrikine and K. Popp [116], was used and extended. Results presented in sections 4.2-4.4 are original.
93
2a
2b
x, u
y, v
z, w
Fig. 4.1. Euler-Bernoulli beams mounted to a visco-elastic layer by periodically spaced sleepers as a
model for a conventional railway track.
94
d1
d1
d2
KP
z=0
z=0
w be am ( x , t )
u sn ( t )
w sn ( t )
u
w
With these assumptions the equations that govern the steady-state response of
the structure can be written as follows:
u + ( + ) ( iu ) =
2u
,
t 2
(4.1)
zz ( x, y, 0, t ) =
H (a y )
4ab
2 wsn
M
+ p ( wsn ( t ) wbeam ( nd , t ) ) + K p ( wsn ( t ) wbeam ( nd , t ) ) H ( b x nd )
2
t
t
n =
H (a y )
xz ( x, y, 0, t ) =
Ku ( nd , 0, 0, t ) H ( b x nd )
4ab
n =
(4.2)
95
yz ( x, y, 0, t ) = 0
(4.3)
u ( x, y , H , t ) = 0
Compatibility condition for the vertical motion of the sleepers and the layer:
wsn ( t ) = w ( nd , 0, 0, t )
(4.4)
beam S
n =
(4.5)
ness of the beam, respectively, K p [ N m ] and p [ N s m ] are the stiffness and damp-
u = + ,
i = 0 .
(4.6)
In terms of the potentials and , the equations of motion for the layer read [3]:
cL2 2 =
with cL2 = + 2
2
,
t 2
cT2 2 =
2
,
t 2
i = 0
(4.7)
placement vector and essential for our study stresses in the layer take the following
from [3]:
96
u=
z y
z x
y x
, v=
, w=
,
+
+
+
x
y
z
y
x
z
z
x
y
2 y x
2
zz = + 2 2 +
z x
y
z
2 z y y x
+
xz = 2
+
z x x
y
xz z y
(4.8)
(4.9)
(4.10)
2 z x y x
yz = 2
+
z y x
y
yz z x
(4.11)
We will solve the problem at hand by using the following integral Fourier transforms over time and the horizontal co-ordinates:
{u
, k1 , k2 , v , k1 , k2 , w , k1 , k2 } ( k1 , k 2 , z , ) =
beam
( x, ) = wbeam ( x, t ) exp ( i t ) dt ,
wbeam
, k1 ( k1 , ) =
w ( x, t ) exp ( i t ) dxdt
beam
Wn ( ) =
w ( t ) exp ( i t ) dt
n
s
Application of these transforms to equations (4.7), (4.2)-(4.5), with the use of Eqs.(4.8)(4.11), yields:
For the equations of motion for an inner element of the layer (from (4.7)):
2 f 2
2
2
+
k
k
f =0
1
2
z 2 cL2
2
2
g
+ 2 k12 k22 g = 0
2
z cT
ik1 g x + ik2 g y +
(4.13)
g z
=0
z
b + 2 g /
97
For the boundary conditions at the surface of the layer z = 0 (from(4.2), using (4.9)(4.11)):
g y
1 sin k1b sin k2 a
f
+ ik2 g z
Ku ( nd , 0, 0, ) exp ( ik1nd )
+ ik1 ( ik1 g y ik2 g x ) =
z z
z
k1b
k2 a n =
f
g
ik1 g z x + ik2 ( ik1 g y ik2 g x ) = 0
2ik2
z z
z
2ik1
2 f
sin k1b sin k2 a
k12 k22 f + 2 2 + ( ik1 g y ik2 g x ) =
2
z
k2 a
k1b
z
(4.14)
with = i * , = i * complex numbers.
For the boundary conditions at the bottom of the layer z = H (from (4.3), using
(4.8)):
ik1 f + ik2 g z
g y
=0
z
g
ik2 f ik1 g z + x = 0
z
f
+ ik1 g y ik2 g x = 0
z
(4.15)
(4.16)
For the vertical motion for the beam (from (4.5), using (4.16))
beam
S 2 + Ebeam I k 4 ) wbeam
, k1 =
(4.17)
Let us consider the system of equations (4.13)-(4.17). The general solution to the
first two equations of Eqs. (4.13) reads
98
f = A1e RL z + A2 e RL z
g x = A3e RT z + A4 e RT z
(4.18)
g y = A5e RT z + A6 e RT z
g z = A7 e RT z + A8e RT z
with RL ,T = k12 + k22 2 cL2,T . Substituting solution (4.18) into the boundary conditions (4.14) and(4.15), one obtains the following system of linear algebraic equations
with respect to Ai :
0
0
ik1a1
ik2 a1
RL a1
2ik1 RL
2ik2 RL
ik1
ik2
RT
ik1
ik2
ik1 / a1
RT b1
RT / b1
ik2b1
ik2 / a1
RT b1
RT / b1
ik1b1
RL / a1
ik2b1
ik2 / b1
ik1b1
ik1 / b1
2ik1 RL
k1k2
k1k2
2ik2 RL
R +k
2ik2 RT
2
T
2
2
R +k
2
T
2
2
2ik2 RT
ik2 RT
k1k2
k1k2
ik1 RT
2ik1 RT
2ik1 RT
A1 0
RT A2 0
ik2 / b1 A3 0
ik1 / b1 A4 0
=
0 A5 0
ik2 RT A6 F1
ik1 RT A7 0
0 A8 F3
0
(4.19)
with
= 2 RT2 + 2 cT2 ,
F1 =
F3 =
k1b
k2 a
(4.20)
99
(4.21)
a11 =
1
k22 RL RT sinh RT H
(( 4 ( k
2
1
( ( 2k
2
1
)
( 2 ( k
+ k22 ) cosh 2 RT H +
2
1
a13 = k1a130 ,
a130 =
iRT
cosh RT H ( k12 + k22 ) sinh RL H sinh RT H +
)}
RL RT 2
RL RT sinh RL H cosh RT H ( k12 + k22 ) cosh RL H sinh RT H ,
cT2
a31 = a13 ,
{ (
)} = R
0
(4.22)
cosh RT H
Application of the inverse Fourier transforms over the wave numbers k1 and k2 to
equations(4.21), followed by substitution x = md and y = 0 yields
u ( md , 0, 0, ) =
w ( md , 0, 0, ) =
1
4
1
4 2
(a
11 1
(a
F + a33 F3 ) e
31 1
ik1md
(4.23)
dk1dk2
wbeam ( md , ) =
1
+
2
( K
n =
1
2
id1
i ( d1 + d 2 )
i ( 2 d1 + d 2 )
P ( k1V ) eik1md dk1
V
V
V
1
+
e
+
e
+
e
+
Ebeam Ik14 beam S 2
i p ) ( w ( nd , 0, 0, ) w
beam
100
(4.24)
beam
w
+
1
2
i md
V
id1
i ( d1 + d 2 )
i ( 2 d1 + d 2 )
1
PV e
V
V
V
+e
( md , ) =
1 + e + e
+
2 Ebeam I 4 beam S 2V 4
( K
n =
i p ) ( w ( nd , 0, 0, ) wbeam ( nd , ) )
e
dk1
2
beam Ik beam S
(4.25)
ik1md ik1nd
4
1
The first term on the right-hand side of Eq.(4.25) is the loading term, which
determines the spatial variation of the steady-state response in the frequency domain.
This variation must be the same as that of the loading term, e.g. the response must be
proportional to exp ( i md V ) .
Thus, to find the steady-state response of the structure, we have to search for the
solution of equations (4.23) and (4.25) in the form:
wbeam ( md , ) = C0 ( ) exp ( i md V )
w ( md , 0, 0, ) = C ( ) exp ( i md V ) ,
(4.26)
u ( md , 0, 0, ) = A ( ) exp ( i md V )
where C0 ( ) , C ( ) and A ( ) are unknown functions of the radial frequency.
Substituting Eqs.(4.26) into Eqs. (4.23) and (4.25), the latter can be rewritten as
(
(C ( K
),
)C)
A = KJ11 A + J13 C0 ( K p i p ) + ( M 2 + K p i p ) C
C = KJ 31 A + J 33
2
p i p ) + ( M + K p i p
(4.27)
with
J ij =
4 2
aij
(4.28)
In expression (4.28),
q=
(4.29)
= C0 ( K p i p ) 13
KJ 31
J 33 ( M 2 + K p i p ) 1 C
J 33
101
(4.30)
Now, employing the idea of the equivalent dynamic stiffness, used in Chapters 2 and 3,
we introduce a complex stiffness matrix l s that describes the dynamic stiffness of the
layer in the contact point with a sleeper. The inverse to this matrix is defined as
J11
J 31
l1s =
J13
J 33
(4.31)
and depends on the angular frequency of vibrations of the sleepers and the phase
shift q between vibrations of the neighbouring sleepers. With the help of the equivalent
stiffness l s , Eq.(4.30) can be rewritten in the following, more comprehensible form
(K + K
ps
0
A
+ M ps + C ps + l s ) = ( K ps + C ps )
C
C0
(4.32)
with K the stiffness matrix of the interface between the sleepers and the layer surface,
K ps , M ps and C ps the stiffness, the mass and the damping matrices of the sleeper-pad
system. It is visible now that Eq.(4.32) relates the vertical vibrations of the beam in the
supported points to the vibrations of the layer surface beneath the supports.
To proceed with the analysis, we have to evaluate the compliance matrix l1s ,
that is the coefficients J ij . To do so, it is convenient to introduce a new index of summation l = m n in Eq.(4.28) and rewrite it as
J ij =
1
4 2
aij
(4.33)
1
sin k2 a 0
J ij = 2
Sij ( k2 , ) dk2 ,
4 2iab k2
(4.34)
where
Sij0 ( k2 , ) =
n =
ik1 ( dn + b )
e
k1
ik1 ( dn b )
dk1
(4.35)
Let us first deal with the integral that enters Eq.(4.35). The integrand of this integral consists of two terms, one proportional to exp ( ik1 ( dn + b ) ) and the other one
proportional to exp ( ik1 ( dn b ) ) . Thus, considering the following integral, we can
evaluate both these integrals at ones:
Z ij ( r ) =
aij ( k1 , k2 , )
eik1r
dk1 ,
k1
102
r = nd b .
(4.36)
for Z 33
0 = 0, k1 = 0
(4.37)
0 = 0
(4.38)
0 = 0 , cosh RT H = 0 and k1 = 0
(4.39)
for Z13
for Z11
( k1 )
Thus, in principle, we know positions of all the poles in the complex k1 plane.
Now, in accordance with the contour integration method, we have to choose a curve to
close the original integration path that runs from minus to plus infinity along the real
axis. This is normally done with the help of a semicircle that is positioned either in the
upper or the lower half-plane of the complex k1 plane. Which half-place is to be chosen is dictated by the Jordans lemma [1], which ensures that the integration along the
semi-circle vanishes. In application to the integral (4.36), the path has to be closed over
the upper half-plane if r > 0 (see Figure 4.3) and over the lover half-plane if r < 0 .
Now we can apply the residue theorem, according to which an integral along a
closed contour can be expressed through the sum of residues of the integrand. In our
case this theorem yields
103
for r > 0 :
a11 ( k1 , k2 , )
eik1r
eik1r
dk1 = Z11 ( r ) ia11 ( 0, k 2 , ) = 2 i res a11 ( k1 , k 2 , )
k1
k1 k = k m
m
ik1r
e
a ( k , k , ) k
33
ik1r
e
a ( k , k , ) k
13
e
,(4.40)
dk1 = Z 33 ( r ) ia33 ( 0, k 2 , ) = 2 i res a33 ( k1 , k 2 , )
k
m
m
1 k1 = k1
dk1 = Z13 ( r ) = 2 i res {a130 ( k1 , k 2 , ) eik1r }
m
ik1r
k1 = k1m
for r < 0 :
a11 ( k1 , k2 , )
eik1r
eik1r
dk1 = Z11 ( r ) + ia11 ( 0, k 2 , ) = 2 i res a11 ( k1 , k 2 , )
k1
k1 k = k l
l
ik1r
e
a ( k , k , ) k
33
ik1r
e
a ( k , k , ) k
13
e
.(4.41)
dk1 = Z 33 ( r ) + ia11 ( 0, k 2 , ) = 2 i res a33 ( k1 , k 2 , )
k
l
1 k1 = k1l
ik1r
k1 = k1l
with k1m and k1l the poles located in the upper half-plane and the lower half-plane, re-
for r > 0 :
eik1r
Z11 ( r ) = ia11 ( 0, k 2 , ) + 2 i res a11 ( k1 , k 2 , )
k1 k = k m
m
1
1
eik1r
,
Z 33 ( r ) = ia33 ( 0, k 2 , ) + 2 i res a33 ( k1 , k 2 , )
k1 k = k m
m
1
1
Z13 ( r ) = 2 i res {a130 ( k1 , k 2 , ) eik1r }
m
(4.42)
k1 = k1m
for r < 0 :
eik1r
Z11 ( r ) = ia11 ( 0, k 2 , ) 2 i res a11 ( k1 , k 2 , )
k1 k = k l
l
1
1
eik1r
Z 33 ( r ) = ia11 ( 0, k 2 , ) 2 i res a33 ( k1 , k 2 , )
k1 k = k l
l
1
1
Z13 ( r ) = 2 i res {a130 ( k1 , k 2 , ) eik1r }
l
104
k1 = k1l
(4.43)
Now that expressions for Z ij ( r ) have been found, we can return to Eq.(4.35) for
Sij0 ( k2 , ) , which can be expressed through Z ij ( r ) in the following manner
Sij0 ( k2 , ) =
exp ( iqn ) ( Z ( nd + b ) Z ( nd b ) ) =
ij
n =
ij
n =1
n =1
Z ij ( b ) Z ij ( b ) + e iqn ( Z ij ( nd + b ) Z ij ( nd b ) ) + eiqn ( Z ij ( nd + b ) Z ij ( nd b ) )
(4.44)
Since the distance between the neighbouring sleepers d is always larger than
the longitudinal size of the sleepers b , it is obvious that for n 1 , nd b > 0 and
nd b < 0 . This implies that calculating Z ij ( nd b ) we have to use expressions
(4.42), while evaluating Z ij ( nd b ) expressions (4.43) have to be used.
Equation (4.44) can be simplified by using a symmetry property of the functions
Z ij ( r ) . This property reads
Z11 ( r ) = Z11 ( r )
Z 33 ( r ) = Z 33 ( r )
(4.45)
Z13 ( r ) = Z13 ( r )
and follows from the following symmetry properties of the functions a11 , a33 and a13 :
a11 ( k1 , k2 , ) = a11 ( k1 , k2 , ) ,
a33 ( k1 , k2 , ) = a33 ( k1 , k2 , ) ,
(4.46)
a130 ( k1 , k2 , ) = a130 ( k1 , k2 , ) ,
which implies that
eik1r
eik1r
i
res
a
k
k
2 i res aii ( k1 , k2 , )
=
2
,
,
l ii ( 1 2 ) k l ,
k
m
m
1 k1 = k1
1 k1 = k1
2 i res {a130 ( k1 , k2 , ) e
ik1r
k1 = k1m
= 2 i res {a130 ( k1 , k2 , ) e
l
ik1r
k1 = k1l
i = 1,3
(4.47)
0
13
( k2 , ) = ( e
n =1
inq
inq
) ( Z ( nd + b ) Z ( nd b ) ) .
13
13
with
105
(4.48)
eik1r
Z ii ( r ) = 2 i res aij ( k1 , k2 , )
,
k1 k = k m
m
1
1
i = 1,3
(4.49)
eik1r
+ iaii ( 0, k2 , )
Z ii ( nd + b ) Z ii ( nd b ) = 2 i res aii ( k1 , k2 , )
k1 k1 = k1m ,
m
r = nd + b
eik1r
2 i res aii ( k1 , k2 , )
+ iaii ( 0, k2 , ) =
m
k1 k1 = k1 ,
m
r = nd b
(4.50)
eik1r
eik1r
= 2 i res aii ( k1 , k2 , )
2 i res aii ( k1 , k2 , )
=
k1 k1 = k1m ,
k1 k1 = k1m ,
m
m
r = nd + b
r = nd b
= Z ii ( nd + b ) Z ii ( nd b )
Q = einq Z ii ( nd + b )
(4.51)
n =1
eik1r
Q = 2 i einq res aii ( k1 , k2 , )
k1 k = k m
n =1
m
1
1
(4.52)
Introducing the notation k1m = km + ikm with km and km real values and km > 0 (by definition, see (4.40)), and changing the order of summation, Eq.(4.52) can be rewritten as
ik nd + b
e 1 ( )
Q = 2 i einq res aij ( k1 , k2 , )
=
k1 k = k m
n =1
m
1
1
2 i e
m
ib ( km + ikm )
a ( k , k , )
res ij 1 2
k1
k1 = k1m
(4.53)
ind ( q + km ) ndk
n =1
The series over n in Eq.(4.53) is a sum of geometric progression with infinite number
ik nd k nd
of terms and the ratio of successive terms p = e inq e m e m , p < 1 .
Using the following formula [1] for the sum of the geometric progression:
106
n =1
p
,
1 p
(4.54)
ib ( km + ikm )
2 i e
ib ( km + ikm )
2 i e
ibk1m
aij ( k1 , k2 , )
res
k1
k1 = k1m
ind ( q + km ) ndkm
n =1
exp ( id ( q + km ) dkm )
aij ( k1 , k2 , )
res
=
k1
(4.55)
exp ( ik1m d iq )
aij ( k1 , k2 , )
res
m
k1
Carrying out the summation over n in the other terms in Eqs.(4.48), these equations can be reduced to the following form:
Sii0 ( k2 , ) = 2 iaii ( 0, k2 , ) +
a ( k , k , )
2 i res ii 1 2
k1
m =1
k1 = k1m
m
m
m
2eik1 b + eik1 b e ik1 b
k1 = k1m
(e
ik1m b
)
m
exp ( ik1m d + iq )
exp ( ik1m d iq )
+
m
m
1 exp ( ik1 d + iq ) 1 exp ( ik1 d iq )
e ik1 b
exp ( ik1m d iq )
exp ( ik1m d + iq )
m
m
1 exp ( ik1 d iq ) 1 exp ( ik1 d + iq )
(4.56)
Substituting Eqs.(4.56) into Eq.(4.34), and carrying out regular algebraic manipulations,
we finally obtain the following expressions for the coefficients J ij :
Jii =
m
aii ( k1, k2 , )
sin k2a
cos q eik1 d
ik1 b
m
+
+
a
k
res
e
i
k
b
0,
,
2
sin
k2 ii ( 2 )
k1
4ab
m
m=1
(1 )
k1 =k1
i = 1,3
(4.57)
In order to analyse Eqs.(4.57) numerically, we should find the roots of the equations
cosh RT H = 0 and 0 = 0 (see (4.37)-(4.39)). The roots of the first equation
1
2
2
k =i
m
k
,
+
+
2
H2
cT2
m
1
107
(4.58)
whereas the roots of the second equation ( 0 = 0 ) can be found only numerically (using
a program for finding complex roots of a transcendental equation). Having found all
these roots, the residues in Eqs.(4.57) can be calculated and summarised straightforwardly. Naturally, the summation should be carried out over a finite number of poles,
which do not have very large imaginary and real parts (the contribution of the other
terms into the sum in (4.57) is negligible). After the summation has been accomplished,
only a well convergent integration over k2 remains to be carried out to evaluate J ij .
This integration can be accomplished using a standard program for calculation of a single integral. Thus, we can consider J ij as known complex functions of the angular frequency and the phase shift q .
Now that J ij are known, Eq.(4.32) can be analysed further. Before doing so, let
us first study the equivalent stiffness of the layer in the contact points with the sleepers,
l s . The study will be limited by considering the vertical equivalent stiffness of the
ground, which is most influential in the vertical dynamics of the railway track. To find
an expression for this component of the equivalent stiffness, the stiffness of the shear
contact between the layer surface and the sleepers should be disregarded. In this case,
the matrix equation (4.32) can be reduced to the following algebraic equation that describes the vertical vibrations of the sleepers:
2
C ( lvert
s M + K p i p ) = C0 ( K p i p ) ,
(4.59)
with
lvert
s = 1 J 33 .
(4.60)
It is easy to see that Eq.(4.60) describes the vertical vibrations of a sleeper as it is shown
in Figure 4.4 (the sleeper is presented by a black rectangular).
KP
wbeam ( nd , t )
lvert
s
wsn ( t )
108
As follows from Eqs.(4.60) and (4.57), the equivalent vertical stiffness lvert
s is
given as
1
vert
l s
m
1 sin k a
=
+
+
a
0,
k
,
2
res
e
i
sin
k
b
( 1 ) cos kmd cos q dk2
k2 33 ( 2 )
4ab
k1
m
m=1
(1 )
k1 =k1
(4.61)
and, therefore, is a complex-valued function of the angular frequency of the beam
vibrations and the phase shift q between vibrations of the neighbouring supports.
The results of the numerical evaluation of Eq.(4.61) are presented in Figure 4.5.
The equivalent stiffness is shown in this figure as a function of the angular frequency
for the fixed value of the phase shift q = d V equal to 0.5 . The solid and the dashed
lines in Figure 4.5 correspond to the real and imaginary parts of lvert
s , respectively. The
calculations were carried out using the following physical parameters of the layer and
geometrical parameters of the sleepers:
layer:
(4.62)
sleepers:
2a = 2.7 m, d = 0.6 m, 2b = 0.27 m.
(4.63)
The parameters of the layer are almost analogous to those used in Chapter 2, thus they
describe a realistic, quite stiff ground with the Rayleigh wave speed of cR = 384 km h ,
shear wave speed of cT = 414 km h , and dilatational wave speed of cL = 775 km h .
Geometric parameters of the sleepers are common for Western European railways.
Figure 4.5 shows that the equivalent stiffness is a complicated function of the
frequency. For frequencies smaller than = qcR d , the real part of the equivalent stiffness is positive and the imaginary part, although not zero, is very small. This implies
that at this band of frequencies, for the chosen q , vibrations of the supports generate no
waves in the layer. For frequencies close to = qcR d the equivalent stiffness becomes
very small. This happens because of the Rayleigh waves, which are generated in such a
way that they arrive to every sleeper in phase (resonance), providing a large displacement of the layer under the sleepers (see [116]). Figure 4.5 shows also that the equivalent stiffness can be quite large at some frequencies. This effect can be considered as
anti-resonance, which occurs when waves, as well as exponentially decaying displacement fields, generated by the sleepers, are almost in anti-phase under any support,
resulting in small displacements of the layer under the sleepers. The frequencies that
correspond to these large values of lvert
s can not be found analytically since all three
waves in the layer as well as the decaying displacement fields take part in the phenomenon of anti-resonance.
109
12
l s 108 ( N m )
Re ( l s )
0
100
-4
200
300
400
= qcR d
Im ( l s )
-8
Fig. 4.5. Equivalent stiffness of the layer as a function of the angular frequency for q = d / V = 0.5 .
stant load is given by expression (4.29). Correspondingly, the condition for the equivalent stiffness to be small takes the form
d
cR
d
V
(4.64)
Thus, if the load velocity becomes equal to the Rayleigh wave speed, that is
V = cR , the layer reaction becomes very small at all frequencies. As a result, vibrations
of the beam that are perturbed by such a load should have large amplitude. Thus, the
Rayleigh wave velocity is critical for both continuous and discrete models of the railway track.
Existence of the maxima of the equivalent stiffness should not be forgotten as
well. They also distinguish clearly the equivalent stiffness lvert
s from a constant stiffness, which is frequently used to replace the ground reaction.
110
l s should be used to analyse the beam response to a set of uniformly moving constant
loads. The demonstration will be carried out on the example of four loads, moving at the
fixed distances d1 and d 2 from each other, as shown in Fig. 4.2.
Transforming Eq.(4.5) into the frequency domain and employing Eqs.(4.26) and
(4.30) the governing equations for the steady-state response of the beam can be written
as
id
i( d + d )
i( 2 d + d )
4 beam
2 P ixV
2 beam
V
V
V
+e
Ebeam I 4 w ( x, ) beam S w ( x, ) =
e 1 + e + e
+
x
V
(4.65)
1
+ ( K p i p ) ( w ( nd ,0,0, ) wbeam ( nd , ) ) ( x nd )
n =
wbeam ( nd , ) = C0 ( ) exp ( i nd V )
w ( nd , 0, 0, ) = C ( ) exp ( i nd V )
(4.66)
u ( nd , 0, 0, ) = A ( ) exp ( i nd V ) ,
(
( C ( ) ( K
)
) C ( ) )
A ( ) = KJ11 A ( ) + J13 C0 ( ) ( K p i p ) + ( M 2 + K p i p ) C ( )
C ( ) = KJ 31 A ( ) + J 33
i p ) + ( M 2 + K p i p
(4.67)
The system of governing equations (4.65)-(4.67) can be simplified by eliminating A ( ) from Eqs.(4.67) and substituting w ( nd , 0, 0, ) and wbeam ( nd , ) into
Eq.(4.65). This yields
Ebeam I
id
i( d + d )
i( 2 d + d )
4 beam
2 P ixV
2 beam
V
V
V
+
+
+
w
x
,
w
x
,
e
1
e
e
e
(
)
(
)
beam
4
x
V
C0 ( ) ( K p i p ) B0 ( ) exp ( i nd V ) ( x nd ),
(4.68)
n =
wbeam ( nd , ) = C0 ( ) exp ( i nd V )
with
B0 = M 2 1/ J 33 + K p i p +
KJ13 J 31
J 33 ( J 33 (1 KJ11 ) + KJ13 J 31 )
(4.69)
111
Ebeam I
id
i( d + d )
i( 2 d + d )
4 beam
2 P ixV
2 beam
V
V
V (4.70)
w
x
,
w
x
,
e
1
e
e
e
+
+
+
( ) beam
( )
x4
V
2 beam
beam
wbeam
= w
= 2 w
=0
x = nd
x
x = nd x
x = nd
3
= C0 ( ) B0 ( ) exp ( i nd V )
Ebeam I 3 wbeam
x
x = nd
wbeam ( nd , ) = C0 ( ) exp ( i nd V )
where
the
square
brackets
denote
f ( x ) x = a = f ( x = a + 0 ) f ( x = a 0 ) .
the
following
(4.71)
(4.72)
difference:
Equation (4.70) describes vertical vibrations of the beam under the moving loads
in all points, which are not supported. In the supported points, the boundary conditions
given by Eqs.(4.71), (4.72) are to be employed.
To find the steady-state solution to the system of equations (4.70)-(4.72) we will
utilise the method presented in [158], [10]. This method is based on the fact that the
beam displacement in the frequency domain satisfies the following condition:
wbeam ( x + d , ) = wbeam ( x, ) exp id
V
(4.73)
112
with
= ( beam Ebeam J ) ,
14
F0 =
id1
i ( d1 + d 2 )
i ( 2 d1 + d 2 )
2 PV 3
V
V
V
1
+
e
+
e
+
e
,
Ebeam I 4 2
(4.75)
(4.76)
Substitution of (4.74) and (4.76) into the boundary conditions (4.71), (4.72)
gives the following system of linear algebraic equations:
C1 exp ( d ) + C2 exp ( d ) + C3 exp ( i d ) + C4 exp ( i d ) = q0 ( C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 )
C1 exp ( d ) C2 exp ( d ) + iC3 exp ( i d ) iC4 exp ( i d ) = q0 ( C1 C2 + iC3 iC4 )
C1 exp ( d ) + C2 exp ( d ) C3 exp ( i d ) C4 exp ( i d ) = q0 ( C1 + C2 C3 C4 )
(4.77)
with q0 = exp ( i d V ) .
When solved for C j ( j = 1..4 ) this system gives:
113
C j = j ,
d
d
+ cos
( sinh d sin d ) + cosh d sin d sinh d cos d
V
{
}
= F {q q ( exp ( i d ) + 2 cosh ( d ) ) + q (1 + 2 exp ( i d ) cosh ( d ) ) exp ( i d )} ,
= F {q q ( exp ( i d ) + 2 cosh ( d ) ) + q (1 + 2 exp ( i d ) cosh ( d ) ) exp ( i d )}
3
0
3
0
2
0
2
0
(4.78)
with T0 = K p i p .
Thus, the solution to system (4.70)-(4.72) is obtained in the frequency domain.
The Fourier-displacement of the beam in the interval x [ 0, d ] is determined by expressions (4.74) and (4.78). To get the solution for other values of the co-ordinate x , one
has to apply the periodicity condition (4.73). The beam displacement in time domain
can be found numerically as the inverse Fourier integral transform:
wbeam ( x, t ) =
1
2
ix
x
x
i x
i x
i t
V
+
+
+
C
e
C
e
C
e
C
e
F
e
e d
2
3
4
0
1
(4.79)
The further analysis will be carried out in the following way. First, the beam
displacement at the loading point will be analysed as a function of the load velocity.
Second, the influence of the damping in the supports (pads) on the amplitude of the
beam vibrations will be investigated. To comprehend the importance of the discrete
sleepers, this displacement will be compared to that of a correspondent homogeneous
model. Then, the beam profiles correspondent to a single load, two loads (bogie) and
four loads (wagon) will be considered.
The velocity dependence of the beam deflection of the loading point is calculated using the following parameters of the structure:
(4.81)
114
(4.82)
For comparison, the beam deflection is calculated on the basis of a correspondent homogeneous model, which can be retrieved from the model considered in Chapter
3. To have an exact correspondence between the models, the ballast should be removed
from the model of Chapter 3 and the remaining parameters should be taken as
M cont =
0.0045
M discrete
K discrete
discrete
, K Pcont = P
, Pcont = P
.
d
d
d
0.0035
wbeam ( m )
(4.83)
wbeam ( m )
0.0040
xload = 0
0.0035
xload = 0
0.0030
Homogeneous
model
Homogeneous
model
0.0030
0.0025
0.0025
0.0020
0.0015
0.0020
0.0010
0.0005
0.0015
0
100
200
300
V ( km h )
400
500
100
200
a)
0.0035
300
V ( km h )
400
500
b)
wbeam ( m )
xload = 0
0.0030
Homogeneous
model
0.0025
0.0020
0.0015
0
100
200
300
V ( km h )
400
500
c)
Fig. 4.6. Beam displacement versus load velocity for a) * = 2.6 104 N*s m 2 , b) * = 104 N*s m 2
and c) * = 103 N*s m 2 .
115
0.0040
0.0040
wbeam ( m )
wbeam ( m )
0.0035
0.0035
P = 105 N*s m
0.0030
0.0025
0.0025
0.0020
0.0020
0.0015
0.0015
0.0010
P = 106 N*s m
P = 105 N*s m
0.0030
0.0010
P = 5 106 N*s m
P = 106 N*s m
P = 5 106 N*s m
0.0005
0.0005
0
100
200
300
400
500
100
200
a)
0.0040
300
400
500
V ( km h )
V ( km h )
b)
wbeam ( m )
0.0035
P = 105 N*s m
0.0030
0.0025
0.0020
0.0015
0.0010
P = 106 N*s m
P = 5 106 N*s m
0.0005
0
100
200
300
400
500
V ( km h )
c)
Fig. 4.7. Beam displacement at the loading point versus load velocity for different values of viscosity in
the pads for a) * = 2.6 104 N*s m 2 , b) * = 104 N*s m 2 and c) * = 103 N*s m 2 .
Figure 4.6 (a,b,c) represents the beam displacement at the loading point as a
function of the load velocity for three values of the material damping in the layer. The
solid line corresponds to the periodically inhomogeneous model, whereas the dashed
line is related to the homogeneous one. For the inhomogeneous model, the displacement
is calculated at the time moment when the load passes the sleeper n = 0 ( xload = 0 ) 1.
1
Calculations show that the beam deflection at the loading point depends on the load position only
slightly.
116
Figure 4.6 shows that the velocity dependence of the beam deflection is almost
the same for both models. Slight difference takes place at small velocities and in the vicinity of the critical velocity (V = 390 km h ) . The latter is larger than the Rayleigh
(V = 384 km h )
wave velocity
(V = 414 km h ) .
Figure 4.7 (a,b,c) shows the effect of the damping in the pads on the beam displacement at the loading point. One can see from the figure that this effect is perceptible. The larger is the damping, the smaller is the amplitude of the beam vibrations. It
should be mentioned, however, that the smaller is the material damping in the layer, the
less sensitive is the beam response to the damping in the pads.
The characteristic beam profiles are presented in Figures 4.8-4.10 (a,b,c) for the
motion of a single load, two loads (bogie) and four loads (wagon), respectively. The
profiles are plotted for three values of the load velocity: 250 km h ( V < cR ), 400 km h
( cT < V < cL ) and 500 km h ( cT < V < cL ). These velocities are chosen to represent
three regimes of motion. The velocity of 250 km h corresponds to the subcritical regime and is a characteristic velocity of nowadays operating Western-European highspeed trains. The velocity 400 km h is representative for the near-critical response of
the beam. As for the last velocity, 500 km h , this is about the record for modern trains.
The displacements are calculated at the time moment when the front load
( x = Vt ) is in the point x = 0 , i.e. exactly above the sleeper n = 0 . For the distances between the loads, the dimensions of German ICE are adopted:
d1 = 3 m, d 2 = 8 m,
(4.84)
Here d1 is the bogie wheelbase, d 2 is the distance between two car bogies (see Figure
4.2).
0.003
0.003
wbeam ( m )
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
0.002
wbeam ( m )
wbeam ( m )
0.001
0.000
-0.001
-0.002
-0.004
-0.004
-30
-20
-10
x ( m)
a)
10
20
30
-0.003
-30
-20
-10
x ( m)
b)
10
20
30
-30
-20
-10
x ( m)
10
20
30
c)
Fig. 4.8. Characteristic beam deflections for single load, (a) 250 km h , (b) 400 km h and (c) 500 km h .
117
0.003
0.003
wbeam ( m )
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
0.002
wbeam ( m )
wbeam ( m )
0.001
0.000
-0.001
-0.002
-0.004
-0.004
-30
-20
-10
x ( m)
10
20
30
-0.003
-30
-20
-10
a)
x ( m)
10
20
30
-30
-20
-10
b)
x ( m)
10
20
30
c)
Fig. 4.9. Characteristic beam deflections for two loads (car bogie), (a) 250 km h , (b) 400 km h
and (c) 500 km h .
0.003
0.003
wbeam ( m )
0.003
wbeam ( m )
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-0.003
-0.004
-0.004
-30
-20
-10
x ( m)
a)
10
20
30
wbeam ( m )
-0.004
-30
-20
-10
x ( m)
b)
10
20
30
-30
-20
-10
x (m)
10
20
30
c)
Fig. 4.10. Characteristic beam deflection for four loads (wagon), (a) 250 km h , (b) 400 km h
and (c) 500 km h .
Figures 4.8-4.10(a) show that in the subcritical motion the loads generate no
waves in the system. The response is almost symmetric with respect the loads. A small
asymmetry is related to the presence of the damping in the pads and the layer.
In the supercritical regime, the loads perturb waves in the beam. The length of
these waves can be in the order of the bogie wheelbase d1 and the car distance d 2 . Interfering between each other, these waves can result in a decrease (see Fig. 4.9(b) and
Fig. 4.10(b)) or increase (see Fig. 4.9(c) and Fig. 4.10(c)) of the maximum displacement
of the beam as compared to the case of a single load. This implies that for different velocities and for different values of d1 and d 2 the interference can lead to either decrease
or increase of the maximum beam displacement.
Before finishing this section, one should mention that the plotted curves are not
stationary in time. They are repeated with the period T = d V , but constantly changing,
breathing in time.
118
4.3. Elastic drag experienced by a high-speed train due to excitation of ground vibrations.
In this section, we proceed with investigation of the elastic drag experienced by
a train due to generation of waves in the railway track. First, we will analyse the elastic
drag for a single load. Then, the influence of the bogie wheelbase on the visco-elastic
drag will be studied for two loads. And, at last, on the basis of the obtained results, the
elastic drag experienced by a high-speed train (French TGV) will be calculated and
compared to that obtained in Chapter 2 on the hand of the homogeneous model.
The formula (3.38) given in Chapter 2 for elastic drag De experienced by constant loads moving over a beam remains valid for periodically inhomogeneous system.
For the case of a single load (wheel) this formula takes the form:
Dewheel =
P wbeam
V t
(4.85)
x =Vt
0.7
Dewheel ( kN )
0.6
*1
*2
0.5
*3
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
V ( km h )
Fig. 4.11. Elastic drag for a single load versus the load velocity.
Figure 4.11 shows that the elastic drag grow rapidly as the load velocity approaches the critical one. This result is in perfect correspondence with that obtained in
Chapter 2 for homogeneous model. The specific feature of the drag in the periodically
119
Dewheel =
P wbeam
Vd 0 t
dx
(4.86)
t=x V
For a single load, however, Dewheel and Dewheel appear to be almost the same.
Therefore, Figure 4.11 is representative for Dewheel as well.
Consider now the elastic drag experienced by two loads moving at a fixed distance d1 from each other (bogie). This drag is given as
P wbeam
V t
Debogie =
+
x =Vt
wbeam
t
x =Vt d1
(4.87)
To study the effect of the bogie wheelbase d1 , Debogie is shown in Figure 4.12 as
a function of d1 for two velocities of the loads. Figure 4.12(a) presents the drag at the
time moment t = 0 , whereas Figure 4.12(b) shows the drag at t = d 2V .
1.000
1.000
Debogie ( kN )
Debogie ( kN )
V = 250 km h
V = 250 km h
V = 400 km h
V = 400 km h
0.100
0.100
0.010
0.010
0.001
0.001
0
d1 ( m )
12
16
20
a)
d1 ( m )
12
16
b)
Fig. 4.12. Elastic drag experienced by car bogie versus the wheelbase for (a) x = 0 and (b) x = d 2 .
120
20
d
P wbeam
Vd 0 t
+
x =Vt
wbeam
t
dx
x =Vt d1
(4.88)
1.00
Debogie ( kN )
V = 250 km h
V = 400 km h
0.10
0.01
0
12
16
20
d1 ( m )
Fig. 4.14. Elastic drag averaged over the structure period versus the wheelbase for V = 250 km h and
V = 400 km h .
The figure shows that the averaging removes the oscillatory dependence of the
drag on the wheelbase d1 . Additionally, as the distance d1 exceeds 10m , the drag becomes almost independent of this distance. This implies that the drag experienced by
two bogies of one wagon can be found by simple doubling of the drag acting on one bogie.
121
(4.89)
where d1 is the wheelbase, d 2 is the distance between the mid points of the bogies, and
d3 is the distance between the last wheelset of the first wagon and the first wheelset of
the second wagon.
The calculation result obtained by employing parameters (4.80)-(4.82) is shown
in Figure 4.15, which presents the drag as a function of the train speed. The drag is
evaluated in accordance with assumption that there is an aerodynamic resistance to the
train motion, which presses the train against the rails (see Chapter 2). This pressure is
accounted for by replacing the weight of the locomotive P by P (1 + V 2 ) , where is
a coefficient, which reflects the fact that the aerodynamic drag influences the contact
force between the train wheels and the rails. The coefficient was taken as = 0.001 ,
likewise in Chapter 2.
1000
Da
Dr
D ( kN )
Deperiod
Decont
100
10
1
0.1
Rayleigh wave
speed
0.01
0.001
0
100
200
300
V ( km h )
400
500
Fig. 4.15. Elastic drag for inhomogeneous model ( Deperiod ) , elastic drag for homogeneous model ( Decont ) ,
rolling drag ( Dr ) and aerodynamic drag ( Da ) versus the load velocity.
122
To compare the periodically inhomogeneous model to the correspondent homogeneous model, the velocity dependence of the elastic drag for the latter model is also
shown in Figure 4.15. The aerodynamic drag and the rolling drag are plotted in accordance with the results of paper [61] and are the same as in Figure 2.14.
Figure 4.15 demonstrates that the aerodynamic drag prevails among the other
drags as the train moves subcritically. However, as soon as the train velocity approaches
the Rayleigh wave speed, the elastic drag becomes comparable with the aerodynamic
drag and then exceeds it.
Comparing the homogeneous and inhomogeneous models, one can conclude that
the difference between them becomes apparent in the supercritical regime only. Figure
4.15 shows that in the supercritical regime the elastic drag for the homogeneous model
is larger. This implies that for the embedded track the energy consumption at high velocities should be expected to be higher that for the corresponding conventional track.
Thus, we have shown that the elastic drag for the conventional track, as well as
for the embedded track, is an important design criterion for high-speed trains, which
should be accounted for as a source of considerable energy loss.
0.002
wbeam ( m )
3D model
1D model
0.001
0.002
3D model
1D model
0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-0.004
wbeam ( m )
-0.004
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
x d
-30
-20
-10
0
x d
a)
b)
10
20
30
Fig. 4.16. Beam deflection profiles for 3D and 1D models for (a) V = 50 km h and (b) V = 100 km h .
123
0.002
wbeam ( m )
3D model
1D model
0.001
0.002
-0.001
-0.001
-0.002
-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
-0.004
-0.004
-20
-10
10
20
3D model
1D model
0.001
-30
wbeam ( m )
30
-30
-20
-10
x d
x d
a)
b)
10
20
30
Fig. 4.17. Beam deflection profiles for 3D and 1D models for (a) V = 200 km h and (b) V = 400 km h .
On the other hand, one could guess that if a train moves slowly in comparison
to the ground waves, a 1D model might be used instead of the 3D model described in
this chapter. To check, whether this is possible indeed, in this section, the dynamic response of the 3D model is compared to that of a related 1D model, in which the equivalent stiffness of the layer l s is replaced by a constant W . In other words, the sleepers
are assumed to be supported by classical (vertical) springs with the stiffness W . The
magnitude of this stiffness is taken as W = 0.75 108 N m , which is closed to the statically measured one and also corresponds to the magnitude of l s at low frequencies.
The beam deflections for both models are presented in Figures 4.16-4.17(a,b).
Four load velocities are considered, namely V = 50 km h , V = 100 km h ,
V = 200 km h , and V = 400 km h . The calculations were performed by using parameters (4.80)-(4.81).
Figures 4.16 and 4.17 show that if the load velocity is smaller than the Rayleigh
wave speed in the ground, the 1D model is in a good agreement with the 3D. With increasing velocity, this agreement becomes worse.
Thus, modelling the dynamic response of a railway track, it is possible to use a
1D model as long as the train speed is small in comparison to the wave speeds in the
ground.
Let us note, however, that this statement holds under the condition that the magnitude of the train axle loading is considered as constant. If the oscillatory part of this
loading were accounted for, then the range of applicability of the 1D model would be
reduced.
124
CHAPTER 5
Locomotive Detection of Derailment of a Wagon of a
Freight Train: Theory and Experiment
The previous chapters of this development dealt with three-dimensional models
of a railway track, promoting the idea that modelling the track response to high-speed
trains, it is ultimately necessary to employ three-dimensional models of the track subsoil. It should be realized, however, that the part of train traffic that falls on high-speed
trains is relatively small since vast majority of trains does not operate at high speeds.
Especially, the freight trains move slowly and, most likely, will always do so. These
slow trains, although operated for more than a century, still bring problems to engineers.
This chapter is devoted to one of these problems, namely to possible detection of derailment of a freight trains wagon by a set up mounted on the trains locomotive.
Wagons of a long freight train can derail when the train moves downhill and
slightly decelerates. Such a derailment can cause other wagons to derail and, as a consequence, the train to crash. This is the worse scenario. More often, the derailed wagon
returns back to the track or the trains driver manages to stop the train before the catastrophe happens. In both these cases, however, the derailed wagon leaves behind a considerably demolished piece of track.
To minimize the destructive effect that a derailed wagon can produce, the moment of derailment must become known to the trains driver as soon as possible. The
easiest way to do so is to mount to each bogie of the train an accelerometer that would
register a high acceleration that inevitably occurs due to the impact of a wheel against a
sleeper. This solution is, however, quite expensive, especially for companies that exploit
a large number of wagons and only several locomotives. For this kind of companies it
would be advantageous to develop a technique that would allow for detection of the derailment with the help of accelerometers that are mounted to the locomotives bogies
only. In principle, this seems to be possible, since the derailed wagon should perturb
anomalous vibrations of the rails, which could be then detected under the locomotive.
To explore whether such detection is indeed possible and to find criteria that suit this
detection the best, a theoretical as well as an experimental investigation is needed.
In this chapter, vibrations of the rails that are perturbed by a derailed wheelset
and then measured under the locomotive are studied both theoretically and experimentally. In the theoretical analysis, a Timoshenko beam on discrete, periodically spaced
supports is employed as a model for the railway track. The supports are identical and are
composed of a mass that is connected to the beam via a visco elastic element and is
supported by a spring. The mass, visco-elastic element and the spring are employed to
model the sleepers, pads and ground reaction, respectively. A slow train motion justifies
modelling the ground reaction by a spring with a constant stiffness.
To model the axle loading of the train a constant load is used that uniformly
moves along the track. If there is no derailment, e.g. the normal motion of the train
takes place, the load is applied to the beam (rails). In the case of derailment, which is
referred to as an emergency motion, the load is applied to the supports (sleepers).
125
The chapter is structured as follows. In section 5.1, the normal motion of the
train is studied assuming that the load is applied to the beam. The steady-state response
of the beam is analysed at a point that moves at a fixed distance from the load. This
point is associated with a peace of the rail under the locomotive and is hereinafter referred to as an observation point. The main attention is paid to calculation of the spectrum of vibrations in this point.
In section 5.2, the emergency motion is studied assuming that the load
jumps from one sleeper to another one with a constant speed. The goal of the study is
to find the spectrum of the rail vibrations at the observation point and then compare the
spectra in the normal and emergency regimes.
In section 5.3, effect of the loads (wagon wheels) that are located between the
observation point and the loading point on the spectra of the rail vibrations in the observation point is studied. A frequency band, at which the derailment of a wagon can be
detected, is determined.
In section 5.4, theoretical results obtained in sections 5.1-5.3 are compared to
experimental data, collected during measurements carried out by Administration of
Gorky Railway (Russia) next to the station Ingenernaya in August and December of
the year 2000 [91]-[92]. A method of spectral analysis of the data that allows to increase
sensitivity of the derailment detection is proposed. Perspectives of using the locomotive
detection for the wagon derailment are discussed.
Results presented in this chapter are original and served as a basis for paper
[166] that has been submitted recently.
w beam ( x , t )
V
x0
pad
0
n
Observation
point
(t )
sleeper
rail
ground
d
126
The governing equations that define the steady-state dynamic response of the
track can be written as a system of equations that consists of
2 wbeam
2 wbeam
wbeam
GS
+
= P0 ( x Vt )
1
2
t 2
t
x
x
2
wbeam
beam S 2 + 2
Ebeam I 2 + GS
=0
t
t
x
x
beam S
(5.1)
boundary conditions at the contact points of the beam and the sleepers ( x = nd ) :
= wbeam
=0
x = nd
x x = nd
[ ]x =nd =
wbeam
= K + ( wbeam ( nd , t ) wn0 ( t ) )
GS
t
x x = nd
(5.2)
d 2 wn0
d
(5.3)
In equations (5.1)-(5.3), wbeam ( x, t ) is the displacement of the neutral axis of the beam,
( x, t ) is the angular rotation of the cross section, wn0 ( t ) is the vertical deflection of
the sleeper number n , beam is the beam mass density, S is the beam cross-sectional
area, I is the moment of inertia of the beam cross-section, Ebeam and G are the
Youngs modulus and shear modulus of the beam material, respectively, is the shear
correction factor (Timoshenko coefficient), K and are the stiffness and damping coefficient of a pad, respectively, is the stiffness of the ground, M is the mass of a
sleeper, (...) is the Dirac delta function, and the square brackets denote the following
difference: f ( x ) x = a = f ( x = a + 0 ) f ( x = a 0 ) .
Let us note that equations (5.1) that describe the vertical motion of the beam,
contain terms 1 w t and 2 t representing a distributed damping in the beam.
These terms are introduced to model the internal friction in the beam material. Normally, this friction is modelled with the help of operators of the form 3 t x 2 . In this
paper the simpler operator t is chosen, for in slightly damped systems both operators ( t and 3 t x 2 ) have almost the same effect on the solution.
The central role in the solution procedure that is presented below plays a socalled periodicity condition [10,158]. This condition is based on the fact that the system
of governing equations (5.1)-(5.3) remains unchanged if the following transformation of
the co-ordinate system and time is performed: { x, t} { x + nd , t + nd V } . In other
127
words, the system of governing equations is invariant with respect to the following replacement:
wbeam ( x, t ) = wbeam ( x + nd , t + nd V )
(5.4)
( x, t ) = ( x + nd , t + nd V ) .
{w
beam
, ( x, ) =
{w
beam
} ( x, t ) exp ( i t ) dt
W ( ) =
0
n
(5.5)
w ( t ) exp ( i t ) dt
0
n
2 wbeam
P i V x
+ ( beam S 2 + i 1 ) wbeam GS
= e
2
x
x V
wbeam
2
2
Ebeam I 2 + ( beam I + i 2 ) GS + GS
=0
x
x
GS
wbeam
= ( K i ) ( wbeam ( nd , ) Wn0 ( ) )
GS
x x = nd
(5.6)
(5.7)
(5.8)
To solve the system of equations (5.6)-(5.8), we will make use of the periodicity
condition, which, after application of the Fourier transforms (5.5) to Eq.(5.4), takes the
form
( x + nd , ) = ( x, ) exp ind
V
(5.9)
Equations (5.9) relate the Fourier-displacements of the beam in the interval x [0, d ] to
those in any other interval x [nd , ( n + 1) d ] . As already described in Chapter 4, the pe-
128
riodicity condition allows to obtain the solution to system (5.6)-(5.8) performing the
following three steps.
1. First, the general solution to the system of equations (5.6) is to be written in the interval x [ 0, d ] . This solution will contain four unknown constants Ai , i = 1..4 .
2. Second, using the periodicity condition, the solution in the interval x [d , 2d ] can
be obtained from that in the interval x [ 0, d ] by multiplying it by exp ( id V ) .
Obviously, the result of this multiplication will contain the same four constants
Ai , i = 1..4 .
3. Third, four unknown constants Ai , i = 1..4 and one extra constant that is related to
the Fourier-displacement of the sleeper number n = 1 are to be found by employing
four boundary conditions (5.7) at the point x = d and the equation of motion for the
sleepers (5.8).
Let us accomplish this way of solution. The general solution to equations (5.6)
in the interval x [ 0, d ] can be written as:
beam
( x, ) = A1e
i1 x
( x, ) = 1 A1e
+ A2 e
i1 x
i1 x
A2 e
i1 x
+ A3e
i2 x
+ A4 e
)+ (A e
2
i2 x
i2 x
F1e
+ A4 e
i2 x
) F e
2
(5.10)
2
D = beam
S 2 I 2 ( Ebeam G ) 4 + 4 2G 2 S 3 Ebeam I beam 2
2
i =
i GS i
,
Ebeam I beam I 2 + GS i 2
2
i
,
F1 =
F
iPV 2 GS
F2 =
.
F
F = IS G beamV 2 Ebeam beamV 2 3
( (
)(
))
(5.11)
Multiplying (5.10) by exp ( id V ) , the following expressions for wbeam ( x, )
and ( x, ) are obtained that are valid in the interval x [ d , 2d ] :
129
(
( x, ) = ( ( A e
wbeam ( x, ) = A1e
1
i1 ( x d )
i1 ( x d )
+ A2 e
i1 ( x d )
A2 e
i1 ( x d )
+ A3e
i2 ( x d )
)+ (A e
2
+ A4 e
i2 ( x d )
i2 ( x d )
A4 e
i d
e V F1e V
i2 ( x d )
)) e
i d
V
F2 e V
(5.12)
x
From expressions (5.12) it follows that the Fourier-displacement of the beam in the
point x = d is given as
wbeam ( d , ) = A5 exp i d , where A5 = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 F1 .
V
(5.13)
(5.14)
Substitution of (5.10), (5.12)-(5.14) in the boundary conditions gives the following system of linear algebraic equations:
1
1
( q a1 ) A1 + q A2 + ( q b1 ) A3 + q A4 = 0
a1
b1
1 ( q a1 ) A1 1 q 1 A2 + i 2 ( q b1 ) A3 i 2 q 1 A4 = 0
a1
b1
1
1
1 1 ( q a1 ) A1 + 1 1 q A2 + 2 2 ( q b1 ) A3 + 2 2 q A4 = 0
a1
b1
i ( q a ) A i q 1 A + i ( q b ) A i q 1 A + T qA T qA = 0
1
1
1
2
2
1
3
2
4
0
5
0
6
1
a1
b1
A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 A5 = F1
T A BA = 0
6
0 5
with
q = exp i d ,
V
a1 = exp ( 1d ) ,
b1 = exp ( i2 d ) ,
(5.15)
T0 = k i ,
B = M 2 + k + i .
Solving system (5.15) with respect to Aj ( j = 1..6 ) , the following expressions
are found (only first four coefficients that are necessary to describe the motion of the
beam are presented):
130
Ai =
i
, i = 1..4,
1 = i 2 F1 q 3 q 2 ( 2 cos 2 d + e i d ) + q (1 + 2e i d cos 2 d ) e i d
{
= i F {q q ( 2 cos d + e ) + q (1 + 2e
= i F {q q ( 2 cos d + e
) + q (1 + 2e
= i F {q q ( 2 cos d + e ) + q (1 + 2e
1
2
3
4
i1d
2 1
1 1
i1d
i2 d
1 1
cos 2 d ei1d
i2 d
i2 d
i2 d
)
}
cos d ) e
}
cos 1d e i2 d
1
i2 d
(5.16)
2 B GS
d
d
= 4q
( 1 2 2 1 ) cos 1d cos
cos 2 d cos
V
V
T0 ( B T0 )
d
d
V
V
Thus, the problem has been solved in the frequency domain. Inverting solution
(5.10), the deflection of the beam can be found in the interval x [0, d ] :
wbeam ( x, t ) =
1
2
1
( x, t ) =
2
(Ae
1
i1 x
( ( Ae
1
i1 x
(5.17)
The deflection in the other spans can be easily obtained by employing the periodicity
condition (5.9).
w ( ) = wbeam ( x0 + Vt , t ) exp ( it ) dt
0
131
(5.18)
Assume that the time interval t * , over which the measurements are carried out, is divisible by the sleeper-passing period T = d V , e.g. t * = ( N + 1) T = ( N + 1) d / V , where
N is an integer. With this assumption, expression (5.18) can be simplified as
N
( n +1)T
n =0
nT
w ( ) =
wbeam ( x0 + Vt , t ) exp ( it ) dt
(5.19)
(5.20)
Thus, introducing in expression (5.19) a new variable of integration = t nT , this expression can be reduced to
N
( n+1)T
n=0
nT
w ( ) =
( n+1)T
n=0
nT
n=0
1 exp ( iNT ) T
w( x +V , ) exp ( i ) d
1 exp ( iT )
(5.21)
Expression (5.21) gives the amplitude spectrum of the vertical vibrations of the
beam at the point x = Vt + d 0 + md . These vibrations are generated in the steady-state
regime by the moving load that is applied to the structure at the point x = Vt .
The integral in expression (5.21) can be evaluated analytically by making use of
solution (5.17) and the periodicity condition (5.9). If the distance x0 is represented as
d 0 + md , where 0 d 0 d and m is an integer, then expression (5.21) takes the form:
w ( ) =
d
i( + 1V ) dV0
i
1 exp ( iNT )
A1
V
e
1
e
i ( + 1V )
1 exp ( iT )
d
i ( + 1V ) 0
i( + 1V )Vd
V
e
e
d
i( 1V ) dV0
i
A2
1+ e V
e
i ( 1V )
d
d
d
i( + 2V ) dV0
i ( + 2V ) 0
i i ( + 2V )
A3
V
V
e
1+ e V e
e
i ( + 2V )
d
d
d
i( 2V ) dV0
i ( 2V ) 0
i i ( 2V )
A4
V
V
1+ e V e
e
e
i ( 2V )
d
d
d
d
i 0
i i
F1 i V0
1 + e V e V e V
e
i
d
i ( 1V ) 0
i( 1V )Vd
V
e
e
i d ( m +1)
d
e V
(5.22)
132
w beam ( x , t )
x0
V
0
n
(t )
Observation
point
x
d
Assuming that the train moves uniformly despite of derailment of a wagon, we assume
that the load jumps over sleepers with a constant speed. With this assumption, the
governing equations for the vertical vibrations of the beam and the sleepers take the following form:
2 wbeam
2 wbeam
wbeam
GS
+
=0
1
2
t 2
t
x
x
2
wbeam
beam S 2 + 2
Ebeam I 2 + GS
=0
x
t
t
x
beam S
(5.23)
= K + ( wbeam ( nd , t ) wn0 ( t ) )
GS w,beam
x
x = nd
t
M
(5.24)
d 2 wn0 ( t )
d
Vt
Applying to Eqs.(5.23) and (5.24) the integral Fourier transforms defined by Eq.(5.5),
one obtains:
133
2 wbeam
+ ( beam S 2 + i 1 ) wbeam GS
=0
2
x
x
2
wbeam
Ebeam I 2 + ( beam I 2 + i 2 ) GS + GS = 0
x
x
GS
wbeam
= ( K i ) ( wbeam ( nd , ) Wn0 ( ) )
GS
x = nd
Pd i V nd
M 2Wn0 ( ) + ( K i ) (Wn0 ( ) wbeam ( nd , ) ) + Wn0 ( ) =
e
V
(5.25)
(5.26)
(5.27)
The general solution to the system of equations (5.25) has the form
wbeam ( x, ) = A1ei1x + A2 e i1 x + A3ei2 x + A4 e i2 x
( x, ) = 1 A1ei1 x A2 e i1 x + 2 A3ei2 x A4 e i2 x
(5.28)
where expressions for i are the same as in (5.11), and constants Aj should be found by
using the boundary conditions (5.26) and (5.27). Since Eqs.(5.25)-(5.27) satisfy the periodicity condition (5.9), the procedure of finding the system of algebraic equations with
respect to the constants Aj is exactly the same as described in the previous section. This
procedure results in
1
1
( q a1 ) A1 + q A2 + ( q b1 ) A3 + q A4 = 0
a1
b1
1 ( q a1 ) A1 1 q 1 A2 + i 2 ( q b1 ) A3 i 2 q 1 A4 = 0
a1
b1
1
1
1 1 ( q a1 ) A1 + 1 1 q A2 + 2 2 ( q b1 ) A3 + 2 2 q A4 = 0
a1
b1
1
1
i1 ( q a1 ) A1 i1 q a A2 + i2 ( q b1 ) A3 i2 q b A4 + T0 qA5 T0 qA6 = 0
1
1
A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 A5 = 0
T A BA = Pd
6
0 5
V
134
(5.29)
Ai =
i
, i = 1..4,
}
}
Pd 3
q q 2 2 cos 2 d + e i1d + q 1 + 2e i1d cos 2 d e i1d
V
Pd 3
2 = 2
q q 2 2 cos 2 d + ei1d + q 1 + 2ei1d cos 2 d ei1d
V
Pd 3
3 = 1
q q 2 2 cos 1d + e i2 d + q 1 + 2e i2 d cos 1d e i2 d
V
(5.30)
Pd 3
i2 d
i2 d
i2 d
2
4 = 1
+ q 1 + 2e
cos 1d e
q q 2 cos 1d + e
V
2 B GS
d
d
= 4q ( B T0 )
( 1 2 2 1 ) cos 1d cos cos 2 d cos
V
V
T0 ( B T0 )
d
d
V
V
1 = 2
{
{
) (
) (
) (
) (
Thus, we have found the beam response in the frequency domain. Applying now
the inverse Fourier transform to Eq.(5.28), we can obtain the following expression for
the steady-state response of the beam in the space-time domain:
beam
1
( x, t ) =
2
1
( x, t ) =
2
(Ae
1
i1 x
( ( Ae
1
i1 x
A2 e
i1 x
)+ (A e
2
i2 x
+ A4 e
i2 x
) ) exp ( i t ) d
(5.31)
with Aj defined by Eq.(5.30). Expressions (5.31) describe the beam response in the interval x [0, d ] and can be extended to the other intervals with the help of the periodicity condition (5.4).
The amplitude spectrum of vibrations at the observation point can be obtained
employing expression (5.21), since it was obtained without specifying whether the load
moves over the beam or jumps over the sleepers (only uniformity of motion was required). Thus, substituting Eq.(5.28) into Eq. (5.21), after simple evaluations, we obtain
the following expression for the spectrum of vibrations in the observation point that is
valid in the emergency case:
d
d
d
i( + 1V ) dV0
i ( + 1V ) 0
i i ( + 1V )
1 exp ( iNT )
A1
V
V
V
1+ e
e
w ( ) =
e
i ( + 1V ) e
1 exp ( iT )
d
d
d
i( 1V ) dV0
i i ( 1V )
i ( 1V ) 0
A2
V
V
V
+
1 + e
e
e
e
i ( 1V )
d
i( + 2V ) dV0
i
A3
V
e
1
e
i ( + 2V )
i( + 2V )Vd
e
d
i( 2V ) dV0
i
A4
V
1
e
+
e
i ( 2V )
i( 2V )Vd
e
d
i ( + 2V ) 0
V
e
+
i ( 2V ) 0 i d ( m +1)
V
e
e
d
V
(5.32)
135
(5.33)
136
1E-005
normal case
emergency case
0.0001
x0 = 10d
1E-006
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
1E-012
1E-013
0
20
40
60
0.0001
normal case
emergency case
1E-005
1E-006
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
1E-012
1E-013
1E-014
0
20
40
Frequency f (Hz)
60
b)
normal case
emergency case
1E-005
x0 = 100d
1E-006
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
1E-012
1E-013
1E-014
0
20
40
60
Frequency f (Hz)
a)
0.0001
x0 = 50d
0.0001
normal case
emergency case
1E-005
x0 = 200d
1E-006
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
1E-012
1E-013
1E-014
Frequency f (Hz)
c)
20
40
60
Frequency f (Hz)
d)
Fig. 5.3. Amplitude spectrum for the normal (solid line) and the emergency (dashed line) cases at the
point (a) x = 10d + Vt , (b) x = 50d + Vt , (c) x = 100d + Vt , (d) x = 200d + Vt .
On the contrary to the normal case, the spectrum in the emergency case is visibly amplified in the frequency band 100 150 Hz . This amplification takes place around
the natural frequency of the sleepers that is given as
fs =
1
2
K+
140 Hz .
M
(5.34)
The reason for the amplification is that the natural vibrations of the sleepers are
perturbed more effectively in the case of the direct loading of the sleepers, e.g. in the
emergency case.
Thus, the spectrum in the emergency case differs from that in the normal case in
the frequency band that surrounds the natural frequency of the sleepers. Unfortunately,
this difference decreases dramatically with the increase of the distance between the load
137
0.0001
and the observation point. Thus, this difference can be used as a criterion for detecting
the emergency situation only if the train is not long. To gain an idea of how long the
train should be to make this criterion working, an extra investigation is needed that
takes into account vibrations perturbed in the rails by the other (moving in the normal
regime) bogies of the train. This investigation is carried out in the following section.
x0 = 10d
1E-005
1E-006
1E-007
normal case
emergency case
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
1E-012
1E-013
0
20
40
60
0.0001
normal case
emergency case
1E-005
1E-006
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
1E-012
1E-013
0
20
40
Frequency f (Hz)
60
1E-005
b)
Modulus of amplitude spectrum w (m s)
normal case
emergency case
x0 = 100d
1E-006
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
1E-012
1E-013
0
20
40
60
Frequency f (Hz)
a)
0.0001
x0 = 50d
Frequency f (Hz)
c)
0.0001
normal case
emergency case
1E-005
x0 = 200d
1E-006
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
1E-012
1E-013
0
20
40
60
Frequency f (Hz)
d)
Fig. 5.4. Amplitude spectrum for the normal (solid line) and the emergency (dashed line) cases at the
point (a) x = 10d + Vt , (b) x = 50d + Vt , (c) x = 100d + Vt , (d) x = 200d + Vt .
Figure 5.4 represents results obtained for more realistic time window
t = 11T = 0.99s , which was employed in the experimental data processing. As follows
from the figure, the main change of the spectra with respect to the case of t * = T is related only to the positions and number of minima and maxima.
*
138
w beam ( x , t )
w
0
n
d2
d1
d1
Observation
point
D0
(t )
x
d
To obtain the spectrum generated by four loads depicted in Figure 5.5 (each load
represents one axis of the train that moves in the normal regime), it is necessary to calculate the integral (5.22) four times, using four different magnitudes of x0 = d 0 + md .
The result of this calculation is presented in Figure 5.6. For calculations, the set of parameters (5.33) was used. The distances d1 and d 2 (see Figure 5.5) were considered
equal to 1.85 m and 8.65 m , respectively. The distance D0 between the first wheelset
and the observation point was given four different values, e.g. 4 m , 4.05 m , 4.25 m
and 4.375 m , yielding the graphs (a), (b), (c) and (d), respectively.
Figure 5.6 demonstrates that the contribution of the second bogie to the spectrum is negligible in comparison with the contribution of the first bogie (compare the
spectrum for 2 and 4 loads). This result is independent of the distance D0 , despite a
high sensitivity of the spectrum to small variations of this distance. Thus, should no bogie of the train be derailed, vibrations of the rail under the locomotive could be well
modelled as the rail response to the first bogie.
139
1 load
2 loads
4 loads
1E-006
(a)
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
0
20
40
60
1E-006
1 load
2 loads
4 loads
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
0
Frequency f (Hz)
20
40
60
b)
1 load
2 loads
4 loads
(c)
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
0
20
40
60
Frequency f (Hz)
a)
1E-006
(b)
Frequency f (Hz)
c)
1E-006
1 load
2 loads
4 loads
(d)
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
0
20
40
60
Frequency f (Hz)
d)
Fig. 5.6. Amplitude spectrum of vibrations generated by the first wheel, the first bogie and the first wagon
of the train for (a) D0 = 4 m , (b) D0 = 4.05 m , (c) D0 = 4.25 m , (d) D0 = 4.375 m .
Consider a situation when one wheelset of the train is derailed. This situation is
depicted in Figure 5.7, which schematically shows the first wagon (moving in the normal regime) and one axle that is derailed.
The spectrum of the response to both the first wagon and the emergency load
is presented in Figure 5.8. Four distances between the observation point and the emergency load are considered, namely 25 m , 50 m (left figure), 75 m and 100 m (right
figure).
The
other
parameters
are
defined
by
(5.33)
and
d1 = 1.85 m, d 2 = 8.65 m, D0 = 4 m . The spectrum of vibrations perturbed by both the
first wagon and the emergency load is compared to the spectrum produced by the first
wagon only (see the bold line).
140
V
d1
w ( x, t )
d2
d1 P
0
n
(t )
D0
Observation
point
x0
1E-005
normal motion
1E-006
x0 = 50 d
x0 = 100 d
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
0
40
80
120
160
200
Frequency f (Hz)
1E-005
normal motion
1E-006
x0 = 150 d
x0 = 200 d
1E-007
1E-008
1E-009
1E-010
1E-011
0
40
80
120
160
Frequency f (Hz)
Fig. 5.8. Effect of the distance between the emergency load and the observation point on the amplitude
spectrum.
Figure 5.8 shows that the effect of the emergency load on the spectrum decreases dramatically as the distance x0 between this load and the observation point increases. Already for x0 = 150 m (less than 10 wagons) this effect becomes almost invisible. A slight difference remains at the frequency band 100 140 Hz . As it will be
shown in the next section, in experiment, this frequency band indeed shows the highest
sensitivity to the derailment.
141
200
First, results of measurements carried out by Gorky Railway in August and December
of the year 2000 are presented. Then, on the basis of the carried out comparative analysis of the theory and the experiment, a new spectral method of data processing that allows for increasing sensitivity of the derailment detection is proposed. Discussion of
perspectives of the locomotive detection method finalizes this section.
Experimental set-up.
In the experiment, the train was formed in the way that is schematically depicted
in Figure 5.9. The locomotive (L) moved the train consisting of ten wagons with the
constant velocity V of 20 km h .
10
d1
d2
d1
D0 = 4m
x0 = 152.5 m
Fig. 5.9. Schematics of the experiment with L the locomotive, R the position of the accelerometer, E the
emergency wheelset, 1, 2,...,10 the wagons.
receiver
receiver
Fig. 5.10. Position of the receiver.
142
CYLINDRICAL HEADER
260 mm
240 mm
Sleepers
2m
Obstacle
Header
rails
143
The construction of the last wheelbase (of the last tenth wagon) slightly differed
from that of the other ones. Figure 5.11 shows that the one of the wheels had a special
cylindrical header.
During the experiments the emergency wheelset (E) was extruded from the
track by the special obstacle mounted to sleepers in a certain place, as it is shown in
Figure 5.12. To make the derailment process gradual, the extruding obstacle had length
of 2 meters. At the moment of the derailment a radio signal was generated to give the
reference for the data processing. The distance between the receiver and the derailed
wheelset was 152.5 m .
a)
b)
To minimise the damage to the railway, after the derailment the train moved
with the constant velocity only 10 seconds (see Fig. 5.13). To repeat the experiment, an
additional train with crane was used after each testing to put the derailed wheelset on
the rails. Four measurements, two in August and two in December of the year 2000,
were carried out. Totally, 47 people took part in the experiments.
Measurement set-up.
The block-scheme of the measurement set-up is shown in Fig. 5.14.
Notebook
Charge amplifier -2
Signal
16-bit DAQCard
Transducer
-57
LPF
Memory
HPF
144
Axial sensitivity
Relative transversal sensitivity
Maximum impact
Working temperature range
Frequency band
Amplitude range
Eigen frequency
Capacity
Isolation resistance
Material of hull
Mass without cable
European analog
mark.
80 pC g 1;
< 5% ;
4000 g ;
60 +150 C0 ;
0.5 8000 Hz ;
2000 g ;
> 20 kHz ;
700 pF ;
> 100 G ;
Stainless steel;
0.04 kg .
transducer 4366 of company Bruel & Kjaer, Den-
The amplifier includes a low-pass (LP) and a high-pass (HP) Butterworth filter,
where the cut-off frequencies may be chosen as:
1) for LPF: 0.3; 1; 3; 10; 30 kHz;
2) for HPF: 1; 3; 10; 30; 100 Hz.
The work frequency band of the amplifier is 0.4 20000 Hz . The amplitudes
drop with a slope of 40 dB decade away from the passband. The amplification factor
may be discretely varied from 0.1 to 1000. Working temperature range is 10 +50 C0 .
The European analog of 3-2 is charge amplifier 2635 of company Bruel & Kjaer,
Denmark.
1
145
Data processing.
All measurements were carried out in the frequency band from 5 to 1000 Hz at
a sampling frequency of 2000 Hz . The sensitivity of the transducer was set at the level
0.002 g . The voltage range of DAQCard-AI-16XE-50 analog input circuitry was chosen as Vref = 0.8 V . To process the data the time window of 1 s was used.
The characteristic shapes of the time dependency prior to the derailment and after the derailment are shown in Figure 5.17.
The digital spectral analysis method, or method of digital spectral estimation,
used during the data processing is based on a finite sampling { xk ,k = 0 ,...,N S } taken
from time series (see, for instance, [51], [107] or [109])
xk = x ( k S ) =
x ( t ) h ( t k S ) dt =
X () e
S
i 2 k S
d , k ( , + ) ,2
(5.35)
which originates from analog signal x ( t ) , t ( , + ) digitised with the sampling frequency f S = 1 S (index S denotes the sampling):
2
146
0,8
0,8
0,6
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
-0,2
-0,2
-0,4
-0,4
-0,6
-0,6
-0,8
-0,8
-1
-1
a)
b)
Fig. 5.17. Characteristic shape of the time dependency (a) prior to the derailment, (b) after the derailment.
xS ( t ) = S
x ( k ) (t k ) = X ( ) e
S
k =
i 2 t
d .
(5.36)
Here
XS ( f ) =
xS ( t ) ei 2 t d =
= S
x [k ] e
k =
i 2 f S k
x ( k ) ( t k )e
S
k =
i 2 t
d =
(5.37)
X ( f + kf )
S
k =
NS = fS t*
(5.38)
The characteristic shapes of the spectrum prior to the derailment and after the
derailment are shown in Figure 5.18. It is seen that although the spectrum before the
derailment slightly differs from that after the derailment, this difference is not apparent
in any regular sense. There are few reasons for this to be so. First, the receiver was
tuned on the maximal sensibility. That is why there are a lot of parasitic noises in the
spectrum, such as knocks of wheels over rails joints or natural noises of the locomotive. Second, as it was found out in the previous section, the vibrations of the rail under
the locomotive could be well modelled as the rail response to the first bogie. Because of
that, the larger is the distance between the receiver and emergency wheelset, the smaller
is the contribution of the emergency load into the spectrum.
147
(a)
1E-007
1E-009
1E-011
0
100
200
300
before derailment
1E-005
400
after derailment
1E-005
(b)
1E-007
1E-009
1E-011
0
100
Frequency f (Hz)
200
300
400
Frequency f (Hz)
a)
b)
Fig. 5.18. Characteristic shape of the spectrum (a) prior to the derailment, (b) after the derailment.
Thus, to detect the derailment, the data should be processed further. The following method was proposed. The obtained spectrum was first subdivided into frequency
bands of the width of f = 50 Hz , e.g. 0 50 Hz , 50 100 Hz , 100 150 Hz . Then,
a summation of the spectral components was calculated at each frequency band:
j 1
S k = w 2 k f + f
, k = 0,1, 2...
N f
j =1
Nf
(5.39)
In expression (5.39), f = 50 Hz is the bandwidth, N f is the number of measured frequencies in the band (for the sampling frequency of 2000 Hz , N f = 50 ).
Processed in this way, experimental data showed the following. There exist only
two frequency bands, namely the band 100 150 Hz and the band 300 350 Hz , in
which the sum Sk significantly changes at the moment of derailment. In Figure 5.19,
this sum is plotted versus time for the frequency band 100 150 Hz . The moment of the
derailment is depicted with the help of the vertical dashed line.
Figure 5.19 shows that after the derailment, a significant amplification takes
place of the sum S 2 . This is in good agreement with the theoretical prediction of the
previous sections, in accordance with which the emergency load should amplify the
spectrum around the natural frequency of the sleepers ( 140 Hz ). This fact is reflected
in Figure 5.19 by two dashed horizontal lines. These lines correspond to Figure 5.8 and
show the result of summation of the spectral components (with the sampling frequency
of 2000 Hz ) in the frequency band 100 150 Hz . In the time interval before the derailment, the response to the normal motion of the train is used, i.e. the solid line in Figure 5.8. The line after the derailment is obtained by using the response that takes into
account the emergency load that moves at the distance 150 m (the dashed line in the
right part of Figure 5.8).
148
1E-005
moment of derailment
measurements
theory
1E-006
1E-007
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time t (s)
Fig. 5.19. Summation of the spectral components versus time for the frequency band 100-150 Hz.
Thus, both the experiment and the theoretical investigation show that at the moment of derailment, vibrations of the rails under the locomotive are amplified in the frequency band that surrounds the natural frequency of vibrations of the sleepers. For the
railway track at hand this frequency is about 140 Hz . It is important to note that the
amplification measured in the experiment is much higher than that predicted by the
theoretical modelling. This gives a hope that the locomotive detection of the derailment
is possible at much larger distances than that predicted by the theory (not more than
150 m ). To prove it an extra experimental study is needed. The theoretical model should
be also improved by taking into account the transient character of the derailment and a
more accurate modelling of the impact of the derailed bogie against the sleepers.
The spectral method is also to be improved for increasing the distance at which
the locomotive detection of derailment is possible. One of possibilities to do this is to
calculate not the sum (5.39) but the following ratio
Nf
j =1
Nf
Sk =
f j w(2) ( f j ) w(1) ( f j )
fj f
( w ( f ) w ( f ))
f w (f )
f f
j =1
(2)
Nf
j =1
Nf
(1)
(1)
f j = k f + f
j 1
,
Nf
k = 0,1, 2... ,
(5.40)
w ( f )
j =1
(1)
*
where f is a frequency that is close to the natural frequency of vibrations of the sleepfj
is, actually, a spectral window that allows deers f s . In this method, factor
fj f *
149
quency f * . Below, the table of values of S k is presented for different values of distance D between the emergency load and the receiver. Five values of the frequency f *
are used.
f * [ Hz ]
D [m]
110
25
50
100
150
25
50
100
150
25
50
100
150
25
50
100
150
25
50
100
150
122
122.5
123
130
Sk
0.9380
0.9212
0.9639
1.0358
3.1503
3.8007
4.7180
1.9903
5.6097
6.8605
8.5468
2.9933
2.4715
2.9664
3.5690
1.5396
0.9016
0.9568
0.6041
0.9146
The table shows that using the sum (5.40), the detection distance can be increased by factor two, i.e. the derailment can be identified at distances much larger than
/
150 m . As it is also seen from the table, S k is larger than 1 only in the case that the
frequency f * is located in a quite narrow frequency band: from 120 to 125 Hz . Other/
wise, S k is about 0.9 1 . In practice, properties of the ground can vary considerably.
Consequently, f * can be found only from the experimental data. Different measures
show that the stiffnesses K and , used in our model, change in the range from 2 107
to 5 108 N/m [33]. Because of that, the frequency f * can vary for the concrete sleepers with mass of 250 kg in the frequency range 50 350 Hz .
150
Finalizing the chapter, it has to be underlined that the model employed for theoretical predictions of the railway track vibrations should undergo a significant improvement. This improvement is concerned with modelling the train bogies. They
should be modelled as mass-spring-dashpot systems, performing its own vibrations and
reflecting waves that propagate in the track. The latter factor is especially important,
since, presumably, it will lead to a decrease of the distance at which the locomotive detection of derailment is possible. Thus, one can suppose that this distance cannot exceed
200 m .
151
CONCLUSIONS.
One of the most important requirements to a high-speed railway track is that it
has to be sufficiently straight. For peat and organic clay soil shear wave velocity can be
even lower than 150 km/h (for instance, in The Netherlands and in Sweden). Sites with
such low shear wave velocities are particularly susceptible to significant amplification
of train-track vibrations at high train speeds. This amplification, occurring when the
train speed is close to the Rayleigh wave velocity, is not only worrisome for its environmental impacts (discomfort to people and damage to buildings), deterioration of the
railway track and elevation of power supply to the trains but, being a threatening phenomenon that might cause derailment, raises concerns about the running safety of the
trains. To prevent this amplification from happening, a theoretical study of train-track
dynamics at high speeds is needed that would enable to design the high-speed railway
track properly. In order to accomplish this, dynamic three-dimensional models that account for the track-subsoil interaction are to be developed.
In this thesis, the steady-state response of various 3D models for a railway track
to a set of uniformly moving constant loads (train) have been investigated to reveal the
factors, which are of primary importance in dynamics of a high-speed railway track and
to compare different track models. Concerning the parametric analysis of the models,
the main attention has been paid to the configuration of the ground subsoil; damping in
the ground, in the pads and in the ballast; and to the effect of the spatially discontinuous
rail-ground interaction that is caused by the sleepers.
Main results.
It has been shown that the critical velocity of the train that is conditioned by its
dead weight (constant load) is approximately equal to the Rayleigh wave speed in the
ground surrounding the railway track. This result is valid as for a homogeneous (embedded) track as for an inhomogeneous (conventional) track. The magnitude of the
critical velocity depends mainly upon the physical properties and saturation of the subsoil. If the ground is soft, the value of the critical velocity, varying from 150 to 300
km/h, is attainable by nowadays operating high-speed trains. This implies that a careful
study is necessary on what would happen if such a regime of motion were to occur.
The investigation of influence of the ground stratification on the dynamic response of the railway track to a constant moving load has demonstrated that the soil
stratification strongly affects the dynamic response of the railway track. Variations in
depth of the soil layers and in their physical properties can result in 1) shifting and
(sometimes) introducing new critical velocities of the train; 2) reducing or increasing
the dynamic amplification of the track response; 3) scaling the spatial pattern of the rail
response.
Elastic drag experienced by a high-speed train due to excitation of ground vibrations has been analysed. It has been shown that the elastic drag can be comparable and,
starting from the velocities close to the Rayleigh wave velocity, can exceed the aerodynamic drag. Thus, the elastic drag is an important design criterion for high-speed trains
to be accounted for as a source of perceptible energy loss.
152
153
expensive one. However, from the environmental point of view, the idea of replacing
the trains from the earth surface is very attractive.
The problem of the elastic drag raises another important question: how to decrease this drag? From the authors point of view, there are four crucial points, which
should be accounted for while dealing with this problem. Firstly, as has been shown in
Chapters 2 and 4, the elastic drag is conditioned by generation of elastic waves in the
track and in the track subsoil by a moving train. These waves consume energy of the
locomotive engine. The energy consumption can become perceptible if the train velocity
is close to the critical velocity. To avoid extra energy losses at high speeds, one should
create conditions for reduction of the energy of these waves. This purpose can be
achieved by increasing the critical velocity, for instance, by means of employment of
the embedded track.
The second basic point is the effect of the inhomogeneity of the conventional
railway track. Although it has been shown in Chapter 4 that the elastic drag for the conventional track almost does not differ from that for the embedded track, we should bear
in mind that: 1) this is valid for a constant loading; 2) the conventional track, being inhomogeneous over its length, always holds a possibility to cause the transient radiation
of elastic waves that takes place at any train velocity. The latter circumstance leads to an
increase of the energy loss on wave radiation. Thus, in our opinion, replacement of the
conventional track by the homogeneous embedded track could also improve the situation in this respect.
The third factor that seems to be important is a distribution of the trains weight.
In Chapter 2, it has been demonstrated that the elastic drag is proportional to the trains
weight square. This implies that the contribution of heavy wagons will be considerably
larger than that of more lightweight wagons. Solution to this problem is a uniform distribution of the weight over trains length. This, although because of other reasons
(mounting of engines to each wagon to increase power), is being realized in modern
high-speed trains (for example, in last generation of German ICE).
The last criterion that should be accounted for in design of high-speed trains is
the bogie wheelbase, the proper choice of which can also reduce the elastic drag. As has
been shown in Chapters 2 and 4, the elastic drag has a minimum if the bogie wheelbase
is approximately equal to 2 m . The minimal value of the elastic drag in this case is almost twice smaller than that for distances exceeding 4 m .
Possible improvements of the dynamic models developed in this work are listed
below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
All these factors should be objectives of future investigations and the author believes
that the models developed in this monograph could be considered as a reference point
for the studies to come.
155
References.
[1] Abramowitz, M., Stegun, I.A., Handbook of mathematical functions; with formulas,
graphs, and mathematical tables, New York, Dover, 1970.
[2] Achenbach J.D., Sun C.T. Moving Load on a Flexible Supported Timoshenko
Beam, International Journal of Solid and Structures V.1: 353-370, 1965.
[3] Achenbach J.D., Wave propagation in elastic solids, Amsterdam-London, NorthHolland Publishing Company, 1973.
[4] Andersen L, Nielsen SRK, Kirkegaard PH, Finite element modelling of infinite
Euler beam on Kelvin foundations exposed to moving loads in convected co-ordinates,
Journal of Sound and Vibration V.241 (4): 587-604, April 5, 2001.
[5] Auersch L., Schmid G., A simple boundary element formulation and its application
to wavefield excited soil-structure interaction, Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Dynamics V.19: 931-947, 1990.
[6] Auersch L., Wave propagation in layered soils: theoretical solution in wavenumber
domain and experimental results of hammer and railway traffic excitation, Journal of
Sound and Vibration V.173 (2): 233-264, June 2, 1994.
[7] Auersch L., Vehicle-track-interaction and soil dynamics, Vehicle System Dynamics V.29: 553-558, Suppl. S, 1998.
[8] Bakker M.C.M., Verweij M.D., Kooij B.J., Dieterman H.A., The travelling point
load revisited, Wave Motion V.29: 119-135, 1999.
[9] Belotserkovskiy P.M. High-frequency vertical vibrations of a rail under the action
of a mobile harmonic force, Mechanics of Solids V.30(3): 177-185, 1995.
[10] Belotserkovskiy P.M., On the oscillations of infinite periodic beams subjected to a
moving concentrated force, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.193(3): 706-712, 1996.
[11] Belotserkovskiy P.M. Periodic spring response to an impact and a suddenly applied concentrated stationary force, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.228(1): 51-68,
November 18, 1999.
[12] Blohine E.P., Manaskine L.A., Dynamics of train (in Russian), Moscow, Transport, 1982.
[13] Bogacz R., On self-excitation of moving oscillator interacting at two points with a
continuous system, Nonlinear vibration system V.19: 239-250, 1979.
[14] Bogacz R., Krzyzynski T. and Popp K., Influence of Beam Models on the Solution of the Generalized Jobs Problem, Z. Angew. Math. Mech. V.69: 320-321, 1989.
156
[15] Bogacz R., Krzyzynski T. and Popp K., On the Generalization of Mathews Problem of the Vibrations of a Beam on Elastic Foundation, Z. Angew. Math. Mech. V.69:
243-252, 1989.
[16] Bogacz R., Krzyzynski T. and Popp K., On Dynamics of Systems Modelling Continuous and Periodic Guideways, Arch. Mech. V.45: 575-593, 1993.
[17] Bychenkov V.A., Krysov S.V., Resistance to motion of a wheel over 1D elastic
system (in Russian), Dynamics of systems, GSU, Gorky: 79-82, 1986.
[18] Bychenkov V.A., Krysov S.V., Wave resistance to rolling of a rigid wheel over
1D visco-elastic support (in Russian), Mashinovedenie 3: 60-66, 1988.
[19] Cheng Y.S., Au F.T.K., Cheung Y.K., Zheng D.Y. On the separation between
moving vehicle and bridge, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.222(5): 781-801 May
20, 1999.
[20] Choros H. and Adams G.G., A Steadily Moving Load on an elastic Beam Resting
on a Tensionless Winkler Foundation, J.of Appl. Mech. V.46: 175-180, 1979.
[21] Clouteau D, Elhabre ML, Aubry D, Periodic BEM and FEM-BEM coupling
Application to seismic behaviour of very long structures, Comput. Mech. V.25(6): 567577, June, 2000.
[22] Cole J. and Huth J., Stress produced in a half-plane by moving loads, Journal of
Applied Mechanics V.25: 433-436, 1958.
[23] Cornejo Crdova C.J., Elastodynamics with hysteretic damping. PhD thesis, Delft,
Delft University Press , 2002.
[24] Criner H.E. and Mc Cann G.D. Rails on Elastic Foundation Under the Influence
of High-Speed Traveling Loads, J. Appl. Mech. V.20: 13-22, 1953.
[25] Degrande G, Lombaert G, An efficient formulation of Krylovs prediction model
for train induced vibrations based on the dynamic reciprocity theorem, J. Acoust. Soc.
AM V.110(3): 1379-1390, Part 1, September, 2001.
[26] Degrande G, Schillemans L, Free field vibrations during the passage of a Thalys
high-speed train at variable speed, Journal if Sound and Vibration V.247 (1): 131-144,
October 11, 2001.
[27] Denisov G.G., Novikov V.V., Kugusheva E.K., To the problem of stability of 1D
infinite systems (in Russian), Applied Mathematics and Mechanics V.49: 691-696,
1985.
[28] Dieterman H.A. Critical velocities of moving loads on soft soil, Report of Delft
University N 03.21.0.22.23, April, 1995.
157
[29] Dieterman H.A., Metrikine A.V., The equivalent stiffness of a half-space interacting with a beam. Critical velocities of a moving load along the beam, European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids V.15(1): 67-90, 1996.
[30] Dieterman H.A., Metrikine A.V., Critical velocities of a harmonic load moving
uniformly along an elastic layer, Trans. ASME J. of Applied Mechanics V.64: 596-600,
1997.
[31] Dieterman H.A. and Metrikine A.V., Steady-state displacements of a beam on an
elastic half-space due to a uniformly moving constant load, European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids 16(2): 295-306, 1997.
[32] Dominguez J., Dynamic stiffness of rectangular foundations, Publ. No. R78-20,
Department of Civil Engineering M.I.T., August, 1978.
[33] Esveld C., Modern railway track, MRT-Productions, W. Germany, 1989.
[34] Esveld C. (Ed.), Kritische treinsnelhelheden. Technical Report 7-95-110-8, Technische Universiteit Delft, Faculteit der Civiele Techniek, Railbouwkunde (Dutch), 1995.
[35] Felszeghy S.F. The Timoshenko beam on an elastic foundation and subject to a
moving step load, Journal Vib. Acoust. V.118(3): 277-284, July, 1996.
[36] Filippov A.P., Steady-State Vibrations of a Infinite Beam on an elastic half-space
Under Moving Load (in Russian), Izvestia of AN USSR OTN Mechanica and Mashinostroenie V.6: 97-105, 1961.
[37] Filippov A.P., Vibrations of Distorted Systems (in Russian), Moscow,
Mashinostroenie, 1970.
[38] Frischgesell T, Krzyzynski T, Bogacz R, Popp K, On the dynamics and control of
a guideway under a moving mass, Heavy Vehicle Systems V.6 (1-4): 176-189, 1999.
[39] Frba L., Vibrations of Solids and Structures Under Moving Loads, Groningen,
Noordhoff International Publishing, 1972.
[40] Frba L., Vibrations of Solids and Structures Under Moving Loads (third edition),
Prague, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 1999.
[41] Frba L, Nakagiri S, Yoshikawa N, Stochastic finite-elements for a beam on a
random foundation with uncertain damping under a moving force, Journal of Sound
and Vibration V.163(1): 31-45, May 8, 1993.
[42] Frba L, History of Winkler foundation, Vehicle Syst. Dyn. V.24: 7-12, Suppl. S,
1995.
[43] Frba L, Yoshikawa N, Bounds analysis of a beam based on the convex model of
uncertain foundation, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.212 (3): 547-557, May 7,
1998.
158
[44] Frba L, Pirner M, Load tests and modal analysis of bridges, Eng. Struct.
V.23(1): 102-109, January, 2001.
[45] Frba L, A rough assessment of railway bridges for high-speed trains, Eng.
Struct. V.23(5): 548-556, May, 2001.
[46] Fuchs B.A., Shabat B.V., Berry J., Functions of complex variables and some of
their applications, Oxford, Pergamon, 1964.
[47] Gaitanaros A.P., Karabalis D.L., Dynamic analysis of 3D flexible embedded
foundations by a frequency domain BEM-FEM, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics V. 16: 653-674 1988.
[48] Gakenheimer D.C., Miklowitz J., Transient excitation of an elastic half-space by a
point load traveling on the surface, Journal of Applied Mechanics V.36: 505-515,
January, 1969.
[49] Gakenheimer D.C., Response of an elastic half space to expanding surface loads,
Transactions of the ASME. Journal of Applied Mechanics V.38(1): 99-110, March,
1971.
[50] Georgiadis H.G., Barber J.R., Steady-state transonic motion of a line load over an
elastic half-space the corrected Cole/Huth solution, Journal of Applied Mechanics
V.60(3): 772-774, September, 1993.
[51] Gonorovsky I.S., Radiotechnical circuits and signals (in Russian), Moscow, Radio i Svyaz, 1986.
[52] Gracheva L.O., Hamoev A.D., Martynuke A.V., Derailments of wagons: causes
and means of their prevention (in Russian), Zheleznodorozhniy transport V.1: 40-43,
1996.
[53] Gradstein I.S., Ryzhik I.M., Tables of integrals, sums, series and products (in Russian), Moscow, Nauka, 1971.
[54] Grassie S.L., Gregory R.W., Harrison D. and Jonhson K.L., The dynamic response of railway track to high frequency vertical/lateral/longitudinal excitation, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science V.24: 77-90/91-96/97-102, 1982.
[55] Grassie SL, Saxon MJ, Smith JD, Measurement of longitudinal rail irregularities
and criteria for acceptable grinding, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.227 (5): 949964, November 11, 1999.
[56] Grassie SL, Elkins JA, Rail corrugation on North American Transit systems, Vehicle System Dynamics V. 29: 5-17, Suppl. S, 1998.
[57] Grundmann H, Hartmann C, Waubke H, Structures subjected to stationary stochastic loadings. Preliminary assessment by statistical linearization combined with an
evolutionary algorithm, Computers and Structures V.67(1-3): 53-64, April-May, 1998.
159
[58] Grundmann, H., Lieb, M., Trommer, E., The response of a layered half-space to
traffic loads moving along its surface, Archive of Applied Mechanics V.69(1): 55-67,
February, 1999.
[59] Grundmann H, Trommer E, Transform methods what can they contribute to
(computational) dynamics? Computers and Structures V. 79 (22-25): 2091-2102, September, 2001.
[60] Haskel N.A., The dispersion of surface waves on multiplayer media, Bulletin of
the Seismological Society of America V.43: 17-34, 1953.
[61] Hopkins, T., Silva, J.P., Marder, B., Turban, B., Kelley, B., Maglift Monorail: A
high performance, low cost, and low risk solution for high-speed transportation, Proceedings of High Speed Ground Transportation Association Annual Conference. Seatle,
June 6-9, 1999.
[62] Hunaidi M.O., P.A. Chen, J.H. Rainer, Tremblay M. Shear moduli and damping
in frozen clay by resonant column tests, Canadian Geotech. Journal V.33: 510-514,
1996.
[63] Jezequel L., Analysis of critical speeds of a moving load on an infinite periodically supported beam, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.73(4): 606-610, 1980.
[64] Jezequel L., Response of periodic systems to a moving load, ASME Journal of
Applied Mechanics V.48(3): 603-618, 1981.
[65] Karabalis D.L. and Beskos D.E., Dynamic response of 3D rigid surface foundation by time domain boundary element method, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics V.12: 73-93, 1984.
[66] Karamanlidis D., Prakash V., Buckling and vibration analysis of flexible beams
resting on an elastic half-space, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics V.
16(8): 1103-1114, November, 1988.
[67] Kausel E. and Rosset J.M., Stiffness matrices for layered soils, Bulletin of the
Seismological Society of America V.71: 1743-1761, 1981.
[68] Kaynia A.M., Madhus C., Zackrisson P., Ground vibration from high-speed
trains: prediction and countermeasure, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. V.126(6): 531-537,
June, 2000.
[69] Kenney J.T., Steady-State Vibrations of Beam on Elastic Foundation for Moving
Load, Journal of Applied Mechanics V.21: 359-364, 1954.
[70] Kerr A.D., The Continuously Supported Rail Subjected to an axial Force and a
Moving Load, Int. J. Mech. Sci. V.14: 7178, 1972.
[71] Kerr A.D On the determination of the rail support modulus K, International
Journal of Solid and Structures V.37(32): 4335-4351, 2000.
160
[72] Kim, D.S., Lee J.S., Source and attenuation characteristics of various ground vibrations, Geotechnical Special Publication (2), ASCE, Reston, VA, USA: 1507-1517,
1998.
[73] Knothe K, Ripke B, The effect of the parameters of wheelset, track and running
conditions on the growth-rate of rail corrugations, Vehicle System Dynamics V.18:
345-356, Suppl. S, 1989.
[74] Knothe K. and Grassie S.L., Modelling of Railway and Vehicle/Track Interaction
at High Frequencies, Vehicle System Dynamics V.22: 209-262, 1993.
[75] Knothe K. and Wu Y., Receptance Behaviour of Railway Track and Subgrade,
Archive of Applied Mechanics V.68: 457-470, 1998.
[76] Knothe K, Bohm F, History of stability of railway and road vehicles, Vehicle
System Dynamics V.31(5-6): 283-323, June, 1999.
[77] Knothe K, Grassie SL, Workshop on Rail Corrugations and Out-of-Round
Wheels, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.227 (5): 895-897, November 11, 1999.
[78] Knothe K. Gleisdynamik und Wechselwirkung zwischen Fahrzeug and Fahrweg,
Z. Angew Math. Mech. V.79(11): 723-737, 1999.
[79] Kononov A.V., Dieterman H.A., The elastic field generated by two loads moving
along two springs on an elastically supported membrane, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.214(4): 725-746, 1998.
[80] Kononov A.V., Wolfert A.R.M, Load motion along a beam on a visco-elastic
half-space, European Journal of Mechanics and Solid V.19(2): 361-371, March, 2000.
[81] Kruse H., Metrikine A.V. and Popp K. Eigenfrequencies of a two-mass oscillator
uniformly moving along a spring on a visco-elastic foundation, Journal of Sound and
Vibration V.218(1): 103-116, 1998.
[82] Kruse H, Popp K. and Krzyzynski T., On Steady State Dynamics of Railway
Track Modelled as Continuous Periodic Structures, Machine Dynamics Problems
V.20: 149-166, 1998.
[83] Kruse H, Popp K, A modular algorithm for linear, periodic train-track models,
Archive of Applied Mechanics V.71(6-7): 473-486, July, 2001.
[84] Krzyzynski T. and Popp K., A Mathematical Treatise on Periodic Structures under
Traveling Loads with an Application to Railway Track, Proc. 9th Conf. Mathematics in
Industry. Teubner: 93-100, 1997.
[85] Krzyzynski T., On dynamics of a railway track modelled as a two-dimensional
periodic structure, Heavy Vehicle Systems V.6(1-4): 330-344, 1999.
[86] Krylov V.V., Generation of ground vibrations by superfast trains, Applied Acoustics V.44(2): 149-164, 1995.
161
162
163
[116] Metrikine A.V. and Popp K., "Vibration of a periodically supported beam on an
elastic half-space ", European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids V.18(4): 679-701, July,
1999.
[117] Metrikine AV, Popp K, Steady-state vibrations of an elastic beam on a viscoelastic layer under moving load, Archive of Applied Mechanics V.70 (6): 399-408,
July, 2000.
[118] Metrikine A.V., Vostrukhov A.V., How much energy does a high-speed train
loose to excite a ground vibration? Abstracts of EUROMECH Colloquium 409 Dynamics and Long-term Behaviour of Railway Vehicles, Track and Subgrade, Hannover, March 6-9: 10, 2000.
[119] Metrikine A.V., Vostroukhov A.V., Vrouwenvelder A.C.W.M., Drag experienced by a high-speed train due to excitation of ground vibrations, International Journal of Solid and Structures V.38: 8851-8868, 2001.
[120] Metrikine A.V., Wolfert A.R.M. and Dieterman H.A., "Transitional radiation in
an elastically supported spring. Abrupt and smooth variation of the support stiffness",
Wave motion V.27: 291-305, 1998.
[121] Metrikine A.V., Verichev S.N., Instability of a moving two-mass oscillator on a
flexibly supported Timoshenko beam, Archive of Applied Mechanics V.71: 613-624,
2001.
[122] Metrikine A.V., Wolfert A.R.M., Vrouwenvelder A.C.W.M., Steady-state response of periodically supported structures to a moving load, Heron V.4(2): 91-107,
1999.
[123] Metrikine A.V., Vrouwenvelder A.C.W.M., Surface ground vibration due to a
moving train in a tunnel: two-dimensional model, Journal of Sound and Vibration
V.234(1): 43-66, 2000.
[124] Miklowitz J., The Theory of Elastic Waves and Waveguides, Amsterdam, NHPC,
1978.
[125] Mohammadi M., Karabalis D.L., Dynamic 3D soil-railway track interaction by
BEM-FEM, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics V.24 (9): 1177-1193,
September, 1995.
[126] Muller S, Knothe K, Stability of wheel-track dynamics for high frequencies,
Archive of Applied Mechanics V.67(6): 353-363, August, 1997.
[127] Naprstek J, Frba L, Stochastic modeling of track and its substructure, Vehicle
System Dynamics V.24: 297-310, Suppl. S, 1995.
[128] Nordborg A., Rail/wheel parametric excitation: Laboratory and field measurements, Acustica V.85(3), 355-365, May-June, 1999.
164
[129] Norwood F.R., Exact transient response of an elastic half space loaded over a
rectangular region of its surface, Transactions of the ASME. Journal of Applied Mechanics V.36(3): 516-22, September, 1969.
[130] Popp, K., Kruse, H., Kaiser, I., Vehicle-track dynamics in the mid-frequency
range. Vehicle System Dynamics V.31(5-6): 423-464, 1999.
[131] Popp K., Muller P.C., Ein Beitrag zur Gleisdynamil, Z. Angew. Math und Mech.
V.62: 65-67, 1982.
[132] Rabotnov Y.N., Mechanics of Solid, Moscow, Nauka, 1988.
[133] Rasmussen KM, Nielsen SRK, Kirkegaard PH, Boundary element method solution in the time domain for a moving time-dependent force, Comput. Struct. V.79(7):
691-701, March, 2001.
[134] Ripke B, Knothe K, Simulation of high-frequency vehicle track interactions,
Vehicle System Dynamics V.24: 72-85, Suppl. S., 1995.
[135] Rosset J.M., Chang D.-W. and Stokoe K.H., Comparison of 2D and 3D models
for analysis of surface wave tests, Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Soil Dynamics
and Earthquake Engineering. University of Karlsruhe: 111-126, 1991.
[136] Sheng, X., Jones, C.J.C., Petyt, M., Ground vibration generated by a harmonic
load acting on a railway track, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.225(1): 2-28, 1999.
[137] Sheng, X., Jones, C.J.C., Petyt, M., Ground vibration generated by a load moving along a railway track. Journal of Sound and Vibration V.228(1): 129-156, 1999.
[138] Stichel S, Knothe K, Fatigue life prediction for an S-train bogie, Vehicle System
Dynamics V.29: 390-403, Suppl. S., 1998.
[139] Suiker ASJ, de Borst R, Esveld C, Critical behaviour of a Timoshenko beam half
plane system under a moving load, Archive of Applied Mechanics V.68 (3-4): 158-168,
April, 1998.
[140] Suiker ASJ, Chang CS, de Borst R, et al., Surface waves in a stratified half-space
with enhanced continuum properties. Part 1: Formulation of the boundary value problem, European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids V.18(5): 749-768, September-October,
1999.
[141] Suiker ASJ, Chang CS, de Borst R, et al., Surface waves in a stratified half-space
with enhanced continuum properties. Part 2: Analysis of the wave characteristics in regard to high-speed railway tracks, European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids V.18(5):
769-784, September-October, 1999.
[142] Suiker A.S.J., deBorst R., Esveld C., Critical behaviour of a Timoshenko beamhalf plane system under a moving load, Archive of Applied Mechanics V.68(3-4): 158168, April, 1998.
165
[143] Suiker ASJ, de Borst R, Chang CS, Micro-mechanical modelling of granular material. Part 1: Derivation of a second-gradient micro-polar constitutive theory, Acta
Mechanica V.149(1-4): 161-180, 2001.
[144] Suiker ASJ, de Borst R, Chang CS, Micro-mechanical modelling of granular material. Part 2: Plane wave propagation in infinite media, Acta Mechanica V.149(1-4):
181-200, 2001.
[145] Suiker ASJ, Metrikine AV, De Borst R, Dynamic behaviour of a layer of discrete
particles, part 1: Analysis of body waves and eigenmodes, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.240(1): 1-18 , February 8, 2001.
[146] Suiker ASJ, Metrikine AV, De Borst R, Dynamic behaviour of a layer of discrete
particles, part 2: Response to a uniformly moving harmonically vibrating load, Journal
of Sound and Vibration V.240(1): 19-39, February 8, 2001.
[147] Suiker ASJ, Metrikine AV, De Borst R, Comparison of wave propagation characteristics of the Cosserat continuum model and corresponding discrete lattice models,
International Journal of Solid and Structures V.38(9): 1563-1583, February, 2001.
[148] Sun L. A closed-form solution of beam on visco-elastic subgrade subjected to
moving load, Computers and Structures V.80(1): 1-8, 2002.
[149] Szolc T., Medium frequency dynamic investigation of the railway wheelset-track
system using a discrete-continuous model, Archive of Applied Mechanics V.68(1): 3045, 1998.
[150] Thompson W.T., Transmission of elastic waves through a stratified soil medium, Journal of Applied Physics V.21: 89-93, 1950.
[151] Timoshenko S., Stresses in rails (in Russian), Transactions of the Institute of
Ways of Communications, 1915.
[152] Timoshenko S., Strength of Materials, Part 2. New York, Van Nostrand, 1942.
[153] Triantafyllidis T., 3D time domain BEM using half-space Greens functions,
Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements V.8(3): 115-124, June, 1991.
[154] Vershinskiy S.V., Longitudinal dynamics of wagons in freight trains (in Russian),
Moscow, Transzheldorizdat, 1957.
[155] Vershinskiy S.V., Danikin V.N., Husidov V.D., Dynamics of wagon (in Russian),
Moscow, Transport, 1991.
[156] Vinogradova M.B., Roudenko O.V., Soukhoroukov A.P., Theory of waves (in
Russian), Moscow, Nauka, 1979.
[157] Verruijt A., Cornejo Crdova C.J., Moving loads on an elastic half-plane with
hysteretic damping, Journal of Apllied Mechanics, ASME V.68: 915-922, November,
2001.
166
[158] Vestnitskii A.I. and Metrikine A.V., Transient radiation in a periodically nonuniform guide, Mechanics of Solids V.28: 158-162, 1993.
[159] Vestnitskii A.I. and Metrikine A.V., Transition radiation in Mechanics, Physics
Uspehi V.39: 983-1007, 1996.
[160] Vestnitskii A.I., Kononov A.V., Metrikine A.V., Transition radiation in twodimensional elastic systmes, Journal of Applied Mechanics and Technical Physics
V.36(3), 1995.
[161] Volkov E.A., Numerical methods (in Russian), Moscow, Nauka, 1987.
[162] Vostrukhov A.V., Metrikine A.V., To a question about work of force providing
uniform motion of an object along a two-dimensional elastic system (in Russian),
Validations of materials and constructers: Scientific treatises of Nf IMAS RAN, Nizhniy
Novgorod, Russia: 241-247, 2000.
[163] Vostrukhov A.V., Metrikine A.V., Energy loss of a source maintaining uniform
motion of a load along elastically supported membrane, Acoustic Journal V.46(2):
177-181, 2000.
[164] Vostrukhov A.V., Work provided by a source maintaining a uniform motion of a
load over a surface of a half-space and an elastically supported membrane, Proceedings of Third Scientific Conference on Radiophysics, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, May 47: 273-274, 1999.
[165] Vostrukhov A.V., Metrikine A.V., Vrouwenvelder A.C.W.M., Energy Loss of a
High-speed Train Due to Elastic Wave Radiation, Proceedings of conference Actual
Problems in Mechanics, S. Petersburg, June 1-10: 1-14, 2000.
[166] A.V. Vostroukhov, A.V. Metrikine, A.C.W.M. Vrouwenvelder, Kulemin V.N.,
V.I. Merkulov, V.N. Misevich, G.A. Utkin, Locomotive detection of derailment of a
wagon of a fright train: theory and experiment, Archive of Applied Mechanics (accepted for publication).
[167] Vrettos Ch., In-plane vibrations of soil deposits with variable shear modulus: 1.
Surface waves, International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics V.14: 209-222, 1990.
[168] Winkler E., Die Lehre von der Elastizitt und Festigkeit, Prague, Verlag H. Dominikus, 1867.
[169] Wolfert A.R.M., Metrikine A.V. and Dieterman H.A., Wave radiation in a onedimensional system due to a non-uniformly moving constant load, Wave Motion
V.24(2): 185-196, 1996.
[170] Wolfert A.R.M., Metrikine A.V. and Dieterman H.A., Passing through the 'Elastic Wave Barrier' by a Load Moving along a Waveguide, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.203(4): 597-606, 1997.
167
[171] Wu TX, Thompson DJ, The effect of local preload on the foundation stiffness
and vertical vibration of railway track, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.219 (5): 881904, February 4, 1999.
[172] Wu TX, Thompson DJ, A double Timoshenko beam model for vertical vibration
analysis of railway track at high frequencies, Journal of Sound and Vibration
V.224(2): 329-348, July 8, 1999.
[173] Wu TX, Thompson DJ, Analysis of lateral vibration behaviour of railway track
at high frequencies using a continuously supported multiple beam model, J. Acoust.
Soc. AM V.106(3): 1369-1376, Part 1, September, 1999.
[174] Wu TX, Thompson DJ, The influence of random sleeper spacing and ballast
stiffness on the vibration behaviour of railway track, Acustica V.86(2): 313-321,
March-April, 2000.
[175] Wu TX, Thompson DJ, The vibration behavior of railway track at high frequencies under multiple preloads and wheel interactions, J. Acoust. Soc. AM V.108(3):
1046-1053, Part 1, September, 2000.
[176] Wu TX, Thompson DJ, Application of multiple-beam model for lateral vibration
analysis of a discretely supported rail at high frequencies, J. Acoust. Soc. AM V.108(3):
1341-1344, Part 1, September, 2000.
[177] Wu TX, Thompson DJ, Vibration analysis of railway track with multiple wheels
on the rail, Journal of Sound and Vibration V.239(1): 69-97, January 4, 2001.
[178] Wu YS, Yang YB, Yau JD, Three-dimensional analysis of train-rail-bridge interaction problems, Vehicle System Dynamics V.36(1): 1-35, July, 2001.
[179] Zhai WM, Cai CB, Wang QC, Wu TX, Dynamic effects of vehicles on track in
the case of raising train speeds, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part F-Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit V.215 (2): 125-135, 2001.
[180] Zhang JJ, Knothe K, Statistical linearization of wheel rail contact nonlinearities
for investigation of curving behaviour with random track irregularities, Vehicle System
Dynamics V.25: 731-745, Suppl. S., 1996.
[181] Zheng D.Y., Au F.T.K., Y.K. Cheung, Vibration of vehicle on compressed rail
on viscoelastic foundation, J. Eng. Mech. - ASCE V.126(11): 1141-1147, November
2000.
168
SUMMARY
Three-dimensional Dynamic Models of a Railway Track for
High-speed Trains
Study the effect of material damping in the ground, in the pads and in the ballast;
Analyse the influence of physical properties and stratification of the track subsoil;
Study elastic drag that is a measure of energy loss of a high-speed train on excitation of waves in the track;
Develop a 3D model for railway track, which would account for inhomogeneity
of the track along its length (due to sleepers), and study dynamic response of
such a model to a set of constant, uniformly moving loads;
Study possibility to detect derailment of a wagon of a long freight train by
means of measurement of the spectrum of rail vibration under locomotives
wheels.
The thesis is structured using the principle: to move from simple to more sophisticated. First, the dynamic response of an elastically supported membrane and a
visco-elastic half-space to a constant, uniformly moving load is considered to demonstrate specific features of the responses of basic two- and three-dimensional systems and
to study the effect of the material damping on the response and on the elastic drag. It is
shown that for both models, under a supercritically moving load, a so-called Mach an-
169
gle arises on the surface, at the edges of which the displacement field varies rapidly
likewise at the Mach cone that forms behind a supersonically moving plane. The elastic
drag increases rapidly as the load velocity approaches the critical velocity. The larger is
the material damping, the higher is the elastic drag in the subcritical case and the
smaller it is in the supercritical one.
As a second step, a simplest 3D model for the railway track, namely an EulerBernoulli beam overlying a visco-elastic half-space, is considered. This model, although
disregarding many properties of real railway tracks, allows a) to expose a crucial role of
the Rayleigh waves in the ground on the train-track dynamics; b) to study the effect of
shear stresses in the interface between the ground and the overlying track structure, and
to estimate the elastic drag experienced by a high-speed train. On the hand of this model
it is demonstrated that the critical velocity of the train conditioned by its dead weight
(constant load) is approximately equal to the Rayleigh wave speed in the ground surrounding the railway track. If the track subsoil is soft, the value of the critical velocity
can be attainable by nowadays-operating high-speed trains. Further, it is shown that the
elastic drag experienced by French TGV can be comparable and, starting from the velocities close to the critical velocity, can exceed the aerodynamic drag. This implies that
the elastic drag is an important source of the energy loss for high-speed trains.
The third step towards development of 3D models of a railway track is to account for stratification of the ground and for visco-elastic and inertial properties of the
rail-supporting structure that overlies the ground. Implementation of these improvements makes the model capable of describing the low-frequency dynamics of a conventional railway track and to be employed for studying dynamics of modern embedded
tracks. It is shown that the soil stratification influences the dynamic response of the
railway track strongly. Both the depth of the soil layers and their physical properties are
of importance. Their influence contains in 1) shifting and (sometimes) introducing new
critical velocities of the train; 2) reducing or increasing the dynamic amplification of the
track response; 3) scaling the spatial pattern of the rail response.
To model a conventional track accurately, one has to account for discretely positioned sleepers, i.e. the inhomogeneity of the railway track over its length is to be considered. This is the next step of this development. To accomplish it, a model consisting
of two beams on periodically spaced supports that are mounted to a visco-elastic 3D
layer is considered. The Euler-Bernoulli beams, supports and layer model the rails,
sleepers and subsoil, respectively. It is shown that for constant loading all results obtained for the homogeneous model of the railway track are valid for the inhomogeneous
one. There exists both qualitative and quantitative resemblance of the results. This allows to conclude that in engineering practice one can use the homogeneous model,
which can be studied much quicker than the inhomogeneous one.
The last aim of the thesis is concerned with theoretical and experimental investigation of locomotive detection of a derailment of a wagon of a long freight train. Although solution of this problem cannot be included in the general conception of development of 3D models (since quite slow motion of freight trains allows to consider 1D
model for the railway track), the locomotive detection of a derailment is a very important problem for companies that exploit a large number of wagons. For theoretical
modelling of the railway track, a 1D Timoshenko beam on discrete, equidistantly
spaced supports is used. The steady-state response of the beam to a load that either
uniformly moves along the beam (normal motion) or uniformly jumps over the
supports (the action of a derailed wheelset) is investigated in a point, which moves at a
fixed distance from the load. It is shown that the effect of the derailed wheelset contains
in amplification of the rails response in the frequency band that surrounds the natural
frequency of the sleepers vibrations. This theoretical prediction is confirmed
170
Alexei Vostroukhov
Delft, July 2002
171
SAMENVATTING
172
173
CURRICULUM VITAE
April 23, 1975
Junior Researcher of Road and Railway Engineering Group, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, The
Netherlands.
174