Foundation Study Material

for Class 9th and 10th

A must have package designed by

National Olympiad Toppers

Contents of the Package at a Glance

Book - 1| IX STD

Physics

Chemistry

Heat
Light
Sound
Sources of Energy

(Pages - 241)

(Pages - 412)

Matter in Our Surrounding

Atomic Structure
The Language of Chemistry
Elements, Compounds and Mixture
Gaseous States
Study of The First Element - Hydrogen
Water

Book - 3 | X STD

(Pages - 284)

Electricity
Magnetism
Force, Work Energy and Power
Modern Physics

Book - 1 | IX STD

Book - 2 | X STD

Motion
Force and Law of Motion
Gravitation and Flotation
Work Energy and Power

Book - 3 | X STD

(Pages - 285)

Electrolysis
Metallurgy
Analytical Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
Ammonia
Hydrogen Chloride

(Pages - 412)

Book - 2 | X STD

(Pages - 345)

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Periodic Table
Chemical Bonding
Chemical Reactions and Equations
Acids, Bases and Salts

Mathematics

Book - 1 | IX STD

Polynomials
Triangles and Quadrilaterals
Area of Triangles and Quadrilaterals
Construction of Triangles
Mensuration - Cube, Cuboid and Cylinder

Book - 3 | IX & X STD

Biology

(Pages - 212)

Book - 2 | IX & X STD

(Pages - 272)

Fundamental Unit of Life

Tissues
Diversity in Living Organisms
Why do we Fall Ill
Improvement in Food Resources
Natural Resources
Origin of Life

(Pages - 345)

Real Numbers
Linear Equations in Two Variables
Quadratic Equations
Circles
Circumference and Area of a Circle
Compound Interest

Book - 4 | X STD

Similarity
Co-Ordinate Geometry
Trigonometry
Statistics
Surds and Logarithms

Book - 1 | IX STD

(Pages - 412)

(Pages - 210)

Progression and Series

Construction
Mensuration Cone and Sphere
Heights and Distance
Probability
Matrics
Commercial Mathematics

Book - 2 | X STD

(Pages - 272)

Life Processes
Control and Coordination
Reproduction in Organisms
Heredity and Evolution
Our Environment
Management of Natural Resources
Biomolecules
Biotechnology and its Applications

Features of the Product

The Foundation Study Material is designed to provide students with comprehensive understanding of
fundamental concepts. It will ensure that the student is able to look beyond the constraints of the regular
school syllabus through innovative curriculum design and effective presentation.
The Foundation Study Material comprises 14 books: Physics a set of 3 books, Chemistry a set of 3
books, Biology a set of 2 books, Mathematics a set of 4 books, Science Project, and Mental Ability.

Key Features of Each Chapter

The books are designed with an engaging and preparation-focused pedagogy and offers a perfect balance
of conceptual learning and problem-solving skills.

Theory
Each chapter consist of exhaustive theory which gives conceptual clarity
and command over topics. Appropriate explanation of theory with the
help of images, diagrams, flowcharts, mind maps, info graphics, and
tables.

Plancess Concepts
Introduced by top NTSE and Olympiad Rankers to learn and remember the most
important, basic yet very useful concepts. Every Plancess Concept is categorized
into tips and tricks, facts, notes, misconceptions, key points, and problem solving
tactics.

Illustration
Highlights the application of the concept for better understanding of the basic
core concept.

Points to Remember
Provides important key points for a quick revision.

Solved examples
Consist of questions with detailed methodology for solving. Helps in increasing
speed and accuracy instead of mugging formulae.

Exercises
Includes two sets of exercises covering all the topics. Helps the students to assess
their strengths and weaknesses and work on them accordingly. Separate exercises for
subjective as well as objective questions.

Solutions
Provides answer key for all the practice exercises given in the chapter.

Note: This promotional material contains four representative sample chapters of Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, and Mathematics. Please refer to the main book for complete content
coverage.

Representative Sample Physics:

Sound

SOUND
1. Periodic Motion of Particles
Before we move on to study the nature and transmission of sound, we need to understand the different
types of vibratory or oscillatory motions.
A motion, such as that of the earth around the sun, the movement of the hands of the clock etc., is
referred to as periodic motion, since the motion of the object repeats itself at regular intervals of time.
Periodic motions are simply motions which repeats itself after a fixed period of time.
A to-and-fro motion, such as the swinging of a pendulum, vertical oscillations of a mass suspended from
a spring etc., is referred to as harmonic motion.
A harmonic motion in which the amplitude and time period of oscillation remains constant is particularly
referred to as simple harmonic motion (SHM). In a SHM the acceleration of the body or particle
executing the motion is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position and is directed
towards the mean position. The total mechanical energy(the sum of kinetic and potential energy) of the
particle is conserved.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
When an object moves back and forth repeatedly over the same path, it is said to be oscillating
or vibrating. An oscillatory motion is always periodic but a periodic motion may not be
oscillatory.
For example : particle moving in a circle is a periodic motion but not oscillatory.

Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NSTSE 2009

Sound

1.1 Graphical representation of simple harmonic motion,

its characteristics and relations
Consider a simple pendulum suspended by means of a thread from
a rigid support and allowed to vibrate in a vertical plane as shown in
Fig. 3.1. O is the rest position or the mean position of the bob of the
pendulum and A and B are its extreme position. If the direction of
motion of the bob towards A is taken as positive, then the direction
towards B is negative.
The pendulum oscillates to and fro and the time taken for one complete
oscillation is known as time period (T).
Fig. 3.1
The magnitudes of the displacements from mean position is
maximum when the bob is at either A or B and this maximum
displacement of the vibrating particle from its mean position is known as amplitude (A).

A graph plotted between the displacement of the bob from its mean position and the time, is as shown
in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2

As the time increases, displacement increases to the maximum of A at t = T/4 and then the bob comes
to mean position at t = T/2 and so displacement is zero. It continues to move towards negative side, and
when the time is t = 3T/4 its displacement is equal to amplitude. When t = T, it comes back to mean
position completing one full vibration.
The number of vibrations the pendulum bob makes in unit time is known as frequency (n) and is
measured in hertz (Hz).
1
T

The time period and the frequency are related as n =

Here, we find that the graph is in the form of a wave that we see on the surface of water.

www.plancess.com

Sound

1.1.1 Wave Motion:

When a pebble is thrown into still water circular ripples are formed which spread out in all directions on
the surface of water from the point where the stone hit the water surface. Thus, the kinetic energy of the
stone is transferred to the water and that energy is distributed to the entire water in the pond in the form
of ripples or waves. To check whether water moves along with ripples produced or not, we can observe
a floating object like a cork or a leaf placed on the surface of water. As the ripples move in all possible
directions on the surface of water from the point where the disturbance is produced, the leaf which is
floating on the surface of water vibrates up and down, but does not have lateral translational motion
along the surface of water. We even observe that the leaf does not start vibrating till the first ripples
reaches it from the point of disturbance. This is the characteristic of the propagation of waves.

Fig. 3.3

The energy is transmitted from one point to another without actual translational motion or transport of
the particles across the medium. Thus a wave is a disturbance produced at a point in a medium or a field
and is transmitted to other parts of the medium or the field without the actual translational motion of
the particles. The transfer of energy in the form of waves is known as wave motion.
A pulse is a disturbance lasting for a short duration.
A wave on the other hand is a sustained disturbance lasting for a longer duration, like waves on the
surface of water.Before we proceed to study wave motion in greater detail let us first review the terms and
physical quantities associated with wave motion.

Fig. 3.4

Crest is the point of maximum displacement of a particle in upward direction.

Trough is the point of maximum displacement of a particle in downward direction.
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particle either upwards or downwards.
Wavelength () is the distance between any two successive crests or troughs.
Time period (T) is the time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation or vibration.

Sound

Frequency (n) is the number of oscillations or vibrations made by a particle in one second. n = . The
T
S.I. unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). 1 hertz = 1 s1
Velocity of a wave is the speed with which the wave propagates in the medium. A wave takes time equal
to its time period (T) to travel a distance equal to its wavelength (). So,
Wave velocity
=

Wavelengthofthewave

v=
Timeperiodofthewave
T

orv = n

Phase: The motion of the vibrating particles and their direction is described in terms of its phase. Thus
particles in the same phase would be exactly at the same distance from their mean positions and have the
same instantaneous velocity at any given moment.
If the motion of two particles is such that their displacement, motion and velocity are dissimilar to each
other, then they are said to have phase difference. If two particles have same magnitude of displacement
from mean position and velocity but the direction of these vector quantities are opposite to each other,
then they are said to be out of phase.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Suppose a mechanical wave is moving in a fixed direction say from left to right. Each particle
copies the motion of another particle at its left with a time delay of x/v, where x is the
separation between the two particles and v is the wave speed.

Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NCO
Transmission of energy:It is found that certain type of waves require a medium for propagation, e.g.,
water waves, sound waves etc., whereas there exist waves which do not require a medium for their
propagation, e.g., light waves.
The direction of vibration of particles differ from the direction of wave motion from one type of wave
to another. Similarly some waves move endlessly in a medium whereas some are confined between two
points.
Based on these factors, waves can be classified into different types as follows:

(i) Classification based on the necessity of medium - Mechanical waves and Electromagnetic
waves.

Mechanical waves are the waves which require a material medium for their propagation. They are
also called elastic waves as the main cause for their propagation in the medium is a property of
the medium called elasticity.

www.plancess.com

Sound

If an applied force on a body changes its shape or size or both, and when the force is taken away,
if the body regains its original shape and size, the body is said to be elastic and its property to
regain its original shape and size after the applied force is removed is known as elasticity.

the important point here is that how much a body can can stretch is not elasticity but to regain
its shape is elasticity.

Electromagnetic waves are the waves which do not require an elastic medium for their
propagation. They can propagate through media as well as vacuum. Light waves are an example
of electromagnetic waves.

Fig. 3.5

(ii) Classification based on the direction of vibration of particles with respect to the direction of wave
motion - Transverse and Longitudinal waves.

When a mechanical wave propagates from one place to another in a medium, the direction of
vibration of particle of the medium can be either parallel or perpendicular to the direction of
wave motion.

If the direction of vibration of the particles of the medium is parallel to the direction of wave
motion, such a wave is called a longitudinal wave and if it is perpendicular to the direction of
wave motion such a wave is called a transverse wave.

(a) Longitudinal wave:Consider a long spring clamped at one of the ends, placed on a horizontal
surface of a table in straight position, as shown in Fig. 3.5(a). The distance between any two
adjacent rings along the length of the spring is constant. If the spring is slightly pulled and then
released, the spring begins to vibrate. It can be observed that any two adjacent rings in some parts
of the spring come very close to each other, while in other parts they move apart as shown in Fig.
3.5 (b).

The regions where the rings are very close to each other are called compressions and the
regions where they are far apart are called rarefactions. The wave set in the spring is a

Sound

longitudinal wave as the direction of vibration of particles (here rings) is parallel to the direction
of wave motion.

So a longitudinal wave moves in a medium in the form of compressions and rarefactions.

Whenever compressions and rarefactions are transmitted through a medium, a change in the
volume of the medium takes place in those locations. Due to elasticity of the medium, it regains
its original volume. Thus longitudinal waves can be set in a medium that opposes change in
volume. Since, all the states of matter, solids, liquids and gases have the property to oppose
change in volume, longitudinal waves can propagate in solids, liquids and gases.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
When two or more waves simultaneously pass through a point, the disturbance at the point
is given by the sum of the disturbances each wave would produce in absence of the other
wave(s). This is known as the principle of superposition.

Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NCO
(a) Transverse wave:When we take a long string along the horizontal position and vibrate it at one
end in a direction perpendicular to the length of the string, a wave form is set in the string. In
the Fig. 3.6 the string is shown by a dotted line. It is also called as mean or rest position. Here
the wave moves in the horizontal direction whereas the particles of the string vibrate in the
perpendicular direction (vertical).

Fig. 3.6

The displacement of the vibrating particle is measured from the mean position. The particles at positions
A and B have maximum displacement in the upward direction and these points are known as crest.
Similarly the particles at positions C and D have maximum downward displacement and these points
are known as troughs. As the direction of particle vibration is perpendicular to the direction of wave
motion, the wave set in the string is a transverse wave.
Thus when a transverse wave is set in a medium, a series of crests and troughs propagate through the
medium. These crests and troughs change the shape of the medium and due to elasticity, the medium

www.plancess.com

Sound

regains its original shape. Hence, transverse waves can be set in a medium which opposes change in
shape. For this reason, transverse waves can propagate only in solids and at the surface of the liquids but
not through liquids and gases. Consider the cross section of water surface when waves are propagating
through its surface as shown in the Fig. 3.7. The dotted line indicates the rest position of the water surface.
As the wave propagates from the left to the right, the water particles vibrate up and down forming crests
and troughs. The displacement of the particles at A and C from the mean position is equal and their
direction of motion is the same. Thus their status of vibration with respect to the direction of motion
and the displacement from the mean position, which is known as phase is equal.When the particles at
A and B are considered, their magnitudes of displacement from their mean position are equal but their
direction of motion is opposite. So they are said to be out of phase.

Fig. 3.7

The minimum distance between the particles of the medium which are in the same phase is called
wavelength of the wave, and is denoted by the Greek letter (lambda). So the distance between A
and C or that between C and E is the wavelength (). By the time the particle at A completes one
vibration i.e., after one time period (T), the wave advances by one wavelength (). So the velocity of
propagation of the wave is given by v =

so v = n

1
. As = n (the frequency of the wave),
T
T

The velocity of the vibrating particles is not constant throughout their vibration. It is minimum at the
extreme positions and maximum at the mean position. But the velocity of the wave propagating through
the medium is constant.
The wave considered in Fig.3.8is a transverse wave, and it produces crests and troughs. Similarly when a
longitudinal wave such as a sound wave propagates through a medium like gas, it causes compressions and
rarefactions while propagating through the medium, causing change in density and pressure throughout
the medium.
The graph of pressure (p) or density (d), of a gas, taken
along the Y-axis versus the distance of the element of
vibrating gas from the source of sound taken along the
X-axis is as shown in Fig.3.8.
At positions A and E which correspond to compressions,
the density and pressure of a gas are maximum and are
more than the normal values. Similarly at positions C

Fig. 3.8

Sound

and G which correspond to rarefactions, the density and pressure of a gas are minimum and are less
than the normal values. The positions, B, D, F and H show normal pressure and density of the gas.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The velocity of the particle executing S.H.M. decreases, as it moves from the mean to extreme
position. The acceleration of a particle executing S.H.M. increases as it moves from the mean
position to extreme position.

Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NCO
Comparative study of transvers:

Transverse waves

Longitudinal waves

1. The direction of vibration of particles is

perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of a wave.

1. The direction of vibration of particles is

parallel to the direction of propagation of a
wave.

2. The wave propagates in the form of crests and

troughs.

2. The wave propagates in the form of

compressions and rarefactions.

3. These waves can travel through solids and on

surface of liquids only, as the propagation of
these waves causes change in the shape of the
medium.

3. These waves can pass through solids, liquids

and gases also, as the propagation of these
waves causes change in the volume of the
medium.

4. As there is no variation of volume, there is no

variation in the density of the medium while
the wave propagates through it.

4. When the wave propagates through a

medium, there is a change in the volume and
this causes a variation in the density.

5. There is no difference in pressure created in

the medium while the wave propagates.

5. Propagation of longitudinal waves causes

pressure difference in the medium.

(iii) Classification based on the limitations of motion- Progressive and stationary waves.

Some waves start at the point of origin of the waves and progress endlessly into other parts of the
medium. Such waves are known as Progressive waves.

such as transverse waves and electromagnetic waves.

Consider a progressive transverse water wave moving from left (point P) to right and striking a
hard surface at Q as shown in Fig. 3.9(a). It then gets reflected at Q, and travels towards P.
Thus the two waves, one going from P to Q and the other going from Q to P overlap resulting

www.plancess.com

Sound
in the formation of nodes and antinodes. Points, where the displacement of a vibrating particle
of the medium is zero or minimum are called nodes (shown as N in Fig. 3.9 (b)) and points,
where the displacement of the vibrating particles is maximum are called antinodes (shown as A
in Fig. 3.9 (b)) ).

On the whole, the wave appears to be standing or stationary, contained between two positions
P and Q and so called as standing or stationary waves.

Fig. 3.9

Thus a progressive wave is a wave which is generated at a point in a medium and travels to all
parts of the medium infinitely carrying the energy and a stationary wave is a wave which is
formed by a combination of two similar progressive waves traveling in opposite directions.

Comparative study of progressive and stationary waves:

Progressive waves

Stationary waves

1. These waves start at a point and move

indefinitely and infinitely to all parts of the
medium or space.

1. These waves appear to be standing at a place

and are confined between two points in a
medium or space.

2. These waves transmit energy from one place

to another.

2. These waves store energy in them.

3. The energy possessed by these waves is kinetic

in nature.

3. The energy associated with these waves is

potential in nature.

4. These waves contain crests and troughs or

compressions and rarefactions.

4. These waves contain nodes and antinodes.

5. All the particles in the wave have equal

amplitudes.

5. Different particles in the wave have different

amplitudes.

6. There is a continuous phase difference

between the particles in the waves.

6. The phase difference between the particles in

a given loop in the wave is zero.

Sound

10

2. Sound
Sound is a form of energy which effects our sensation of hearing through the ear. The sensation is
produced by longitudinal waves in an elastic medium, where the vibrations (oscillations) of the particles
are in the same direction in which the wave propagates .the waves strikes our eardrum and makes it
vibrates as a result of which we are able to hear.
Sound waves need a medium to travel.

2.1 Production of Sound Waves

In laboratory sound is produced by a tuning fork by striking its one prong on a soft rubber pad. Sound
can also be produced by plucking a stretched string (violin), by blowing flute, by striking table and many
other ways.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The speed of sound in a medium depends on the elasticity and density of the medium. The
speed of sound is high in solids as compared to liquids and gases. Both elasticity and density
of the solids are very large as compared to that of the liquids and gases. The effect of high
value of elasticity of solids is to increase the speed of sound, whereas the effect of high density
is to decrease it. However, the effect of elasticity weighs heavier upon the effect of density and
hence the speed of sound is greater in solids than in liquids and gases.

Neeraj Toshniwal
AIR 23 , NSO

2.2 Propagation of Sound

Take a tuning fork (a source of standard frequency). It is set into vibrations and its prongs A and B are
kept vertical. The prongs move in and out from their mean positions and have a transverse vibratory
motion. When the prongs are in mean positions, the air in their surrounding has normal density. (It is
shown in Fig. 3.10(a) with equidistant lines).
As the right prong moves out towards right, it pushes the air layers to the right. This produces a
compression (It is shown in Fig. 3.10(b) with closer lines).
The prong returns inward to mean position. The compression moves to the right. The air near the prong
again has normal density as shown in Fig. 3.10(c).
As the prong continues moving towards extreme left, vacating the space, density of air falls in the region
and a rarefaction is produced (It is shown in Fig. 3.10(d) with spread lines).

www.plancess.com

11

Sound

As the prong moves back to right extreme, it competes one vibration. Also the motion of the prong
produces a new compression. This completes one wave.

Fig. 3.10

Since one vibration of the prong has generated one wave in the medium (air), in one second and many
waves will be generated equal to the number of vibrations that the tuning fork will make in one second.
This number is called frequency of the tuning fork (This number is engraved on the tuning fork near the
bend). Hence we conclude that the wave frequency (the number of waves being generated per second) is
equal to the frequency of the tuning fork.

2.3 Sound Needs a Material Medium for Its Propagation

An electric bell is enclosed inside an inverted bell jar by hanging from the rubber cork. The jar is closed at
the bottom by an airtight base with a hole in the Centre. A pipe through the hole leads out to a vacuum
pump (pump which draws the air out a vessel).
The bell is connected to a battery through a key.
The bell is started by closing the key. Initially when jar has normal air inside it, sound waves produced by
the ringing bell are heard outside the jar.
The vacuum pump is started and the air from inside the jar is gradually drawn out. With air decreasing
inside the jar, sound heard becomes weaker and weaker. After sometime no sound is heard, though the
bell hammer is seen in vibration.

Sound

12

Conclusion:In the absence of medium (air) around the source, sound is not being propagated.
A natural fact: Moon has no atmosphere. The space above the atmosphere is also vacuum. If some
explosion takes place on moon, sound of the explosion will not be propagated to the earth. So the sound
waves never reach the earth.

Fig. 3.11

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The energy transmitted by a wave depends upon the frequency as well as the amplitude. If
the frequency of a note is doubled, twice as many compressions and rarefactions strike the ear
each second and more energy is received. In fact the energy in a wave is proportional to both
(frequency)2 and (amplitude)2.

Shivam Agarwal
Gold Medalist, INPhO

2.4 Characteristics of Sound Wave

(i) Pitch: Pitch is the sensation (brain interpretation) of the frequency of an emitted sound.

Faster the vibration of the source, higher is the frequency and higher is the pitch. Similarly low
pitch sound corresponds to low frequency.

A high pitch sound is called a shrill sound

(Eg: a female voice, humming of a bee, sound of guitar etc.)

A low pitch sound is called a hoarse sound (Eg: a male voice, roar of a lion, car horn etc.)

www.plancess.com

13

Sound

Fig. 3.12

(ii) Loudness or softness: Loudness or softness of sound wave is the sensation that depends upon
its amplitude. When we strike a table top with more force, it vibrates and produces loud sound
waves which have more amplitude. When struck with smaller force, vibrating table top produces
soft sound waves which have less amplitude. A loud sound wave carries more energy and can be
heard at large distance. Reduction in amplitude at large distance, makes the sound soft.loudness
can be compared with the intensity of sound. higher the intensity ,louder the sound.

Fig. 3.13

(iii) Timbre or quality: We differentiate between the sound from a Tabla and Gitar by saying that
they have different qualities. Quality or timbre is characteristic of a sound which enables us to
distinguish between the sound of same loudness and pitch. This characteristic of sound helps us
to recognize our friend from his voice without seeing him. The quality of two sounds of same
loudness and pitch produced by two different sources are distinguishable because of different
waveforms produced by them. The waveforms produced by a vibrating tuning fork, violin and
flute (Bansuri) are shown in Fig. 3.14.

Fig. 3.14

Sound

14

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Frequency of the wave depends on the source from where the wave originates. In reflection
and transmission, since source does not change, frequency and hence time period does not
change. As sound is transmitted from one medium to another, the speed and wavelength of
the sound change, but not the frequency.

Anand K
AIR 1, NSO 2011
(iv) Intensity: Intensity of a sound is defined as the sound energy transferred per unit area placed
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of sound.

That is, intensity of sound =

Sound energy
Time Area

Intensity of a sound is an objective physical quantity. It does not depend on the response of our
ears.

The S.I. unit of intensity of sound is joule s-1 m-2 or watt m-2( 1 Js-1 = 1W)

Difference between loudness and intensity of sound:

S. No.

Loudness

Intensity of Sound

Loudness is a subjective quantity. If depends upon

the sensitivity of the human ear. A sound may be
loud for a person but the same sound may be feeble
for another who is hard of hearing.

Intensity of sound is an objective

physical quantity. It does not
depend on the sensitivity of a
human ear.

Loudness cannot be measured as a physical quantity

because it is just sensation which can be felt only.

Intensity of a sound can be

measured as a physical quantity.

2.5 Range of Hearing

The human ear is able to hear sound in a frequency range of about 20Hz to 20 kHz. We cannot hear
sounds of frequencies less than 20Hz of more than 20 kHz, these limits vary from persons to person and
with age. Children can her sounds of somewhat higher frequencies, say up to 30 kHz. With age, our
ability to hear high frequency sound diminishes. For the elder, the upper limit often falls to 10-12 kHz.
We take 20Hz-20 kHz as the audible range for an average person.
Even in the audible range the human ear is not equally sensitive for all frequency. It is most sensitive to
frequencies around 2000-3000 Hz.

www.plancess.com

15

Sound

Sound of frequencies less than 20 Hz is known as infrasonic sound or infrasound. Sound of frequency
greater than 20 kHz is known as ultrasonic or ultrasound.
Different animals have different ranges of audible frequencies. A dog can hear sound of frequencies up
to about 50 kHz and a bat up to about 100 kHz. Dolphins can hear sounds of even higher frequencies.
Animals such as elephants and whales can hear sounds of frequencies less than 20 Hz. Some fishes can
hear sounds of frequencies as low as 1-25 Hz.

Fig. 3.15

2.6 Sonic Boom

When a body moves with a speed which is greater than the speed of sound in air, it is said to be traveling
at supersonic speed. Jet fighters, bullets, etc, often travel at supersonic speed. And when they produce
sound, they produce a sharp, loud sound called a sonic boom.
The source moves at a speed greater than that of sound waves. The sound waves traveling at the speed of
sound, are left behind. The high-pressure layers due to sound waves originating at different points bunch
together as shown in Fig. 3.15. Actually, these layers fall on the surface of an imaginary cone of which
OA, OB is a part. The total pressure on the surface of this cone is very high.
The source is at the apex of this cone. As the source moves ahead, it drags the cone together with it.
When the surface of the cone reaches a person, the ears experience a sudden increase in pressure. After
the surface crosses him, the pressure is suddenly reduced. This causes the person to hear a sharp, loud
sound-the sonic boom.
A region consisting of a very-high-pressure layer followed by a lower-pressure layer travels through the
space together with the cone. This is called a shock wave. This shock wave give rise to the sonic boom
when it reaches a person.
The shock waves produced by supersonic aircraft have enough energy to shatter glass and even damage
weak buildings.

Sound

16

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
In a stationary wave, all particles of the medium have the same phase at a given instant but
have different amplitudes.

Anand K
AIR 1, NSO 2011
Illustration 1: A sound wave of frequency 600 Hz travels in air with speed 300 m/s. Now this sound

wave refracts in a medium where its speed becomes 900 m/s. Find
(a) wavelength in air,
(b) frequency in medium,
(c) wavelength in medium.
Sol:

(a) Case-I,when sound travels in air

300 1
speed (v)
= = =
m 50 =
cm 0.5 m
Wavelength a =
600 2
frequency (f)

(b) Case - II, when sound travel in medium; we know frequency of wave does not change when
it goes from one medium to another medium.

fm = fa = 600 Hz
Speed in medium (vm ) 900
= =
m 150
=
cm 1.5 m
600
Frequency (fm )

(c) Wavelength m =

Illustration 2: A sound wave has time period 103 sec and wavelength 102 m.

(a) Find the time taken by the wave to travel 50 m.

(b) If the wave pattern continues in this distance, find the number of rarefactions and compressions
formed.

Sol:

(a) Frequency of wave n = 1/T

T = 103 sec
=
n

1
= 1000 Hz
103

Wave speed v = n and = 102 m

Speed v = 102 103 = 10 m/s

www.plancess.com

Sound

17

The time taken by wave to travel 50 m is

=
t

x 50
=
= 5 sec
v 10

(b) Number of rarefactions (n) = number of compressions

x
50
= 50 102 = 5000
=
10 2

2.7 Reflection of Sound

When sound waves strike a surface, they return back into the same medium. This phenomenon is called
reflection.
The reflection of sound waves is similar to that of light rays. The only difference is that sound waves being
larger in length, require bigger surfaces for reflection
(a) Laws of Reflection

(i) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

(ii) The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal, all lie in the same plane.

(b) Verification of Law of Reflection

Take a smooth polished large wooden board and mount it vertically on the table. At right angle
to the board, fix a wooden screen. On each side of the screen, place a long, narrow and highly
polished tube (inside). Place a clock at the end of the tube A. Move the tube B slightly from left
to right, till a distinct tick of clock is heard. Measure the PCN and RCN between tubes and
wooden screen. It is found PCN = RCN . This experiment illustrates the law of reflection.

Fig. 3.16

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Transverse waves involve change in the shape of the medium, whereas longitudinal waves
involve change in the density of the medium. A transverse wave cannot be produced in a
liquid or a gas. It can only be produced in a solid. Longitudinal waves can be produced in all
types of media, i.e., in solids, liquids and gases.

Vaibhav Gupta
Gold Medalist, INPhO

Sound

18

(c) Applications of Reflection of Sound

(i) M
 ega phone or speaking tube: When we have to call someone at a far off distance (say 100m),
we cup our hands and call the person with maximum sound we can produce. The hands
prevent the sound energy from spreading in all directions. In the same way, the people use
horn shaped metal tubes, commonly called megaphones. The loud speakers have horn shaped
openings. In all these devices, the sound energy is prevented from spreading out by successive
reflections from the horn shaped tubes. Horns, musical instruments such as trumpets and
shehanais, loudhailers (megaphones), loudspeakers
etc. are all designed similarly to keep sound from
spreading in all directions. In these instruments a
tube followed by a conical opening reflects sound
successively to guide most of the sound waves
from the source in the forward direction, towards
Fig. 3.17
the audience. The sound wave add up and the
loudness of sound increases.

(ii) S
 tethoscope: It is an instrument used by the doctors
for listening sound produced within the body,
especially in the heart and lungs. In the stethoscope,
the sound produced within the body of a patient is
picked up by a sensitive diaphragm and then reaches
the doctors ears by multiple reflection .there is a little
loss in energy.

Fig. 3.19

(iii) Sound board: The sound waves obey the laws of reflection on the plane as well as curved
reflecting surfaces. In order to spread sound evenly in big halls or auditoriums, the speaker
(S) is fixed at the principle focus of the concave reflector. This concave reflector is commonly
called sounding board. The sound waves striking the sound board get reflected parallel to
the principal axis.

Fig. 3.19

(iv) Ceilings of Auditoriums: Generally the ceilings of concert halls, conference halls and
cinema halls are curved so that sound after reflection reaches all corners of the hall, as shown
in Fig. 3.20.

www.plancess.com

19

Sound

Fig. 3.20

2.8 Speed of Sound in Different Media

Sound travels with different speeds in different media like solid, liquid and gas. This is because, sound
travels in a medium due to the transfer of energy from one particle to another particle of the medium.
Solid: Since the particles of solid are close to each other, so transfer of energy from one particle to
another takes place in less time (i.e. faster). Hence speed of sound in solids is large.
Liquid: Speed of sound in liquids in less than in solids since the particles are away from each other as
compared to solids.

Fig. 3.21

Gas: Speed of sound in gases is less than the speed in liquids and solids as the particles are far away from
each other as compared to solids and liquids.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
For waves that spread out in three dimensions, the wave intensity I is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from the source. By cupping your hands around your mouth,
you direct the sound waves emerging from your mouth so that they dont propagate to the
sides. Hence the intensity decreases with distance more slowly than the inverse-square law
would predict, and you can be heard at greater distances.

Chen Reddy Sandeep Reddy

KVPY Fellow

Sound

20

2.9 Effect of Temperature on the Speed of Sound

Sound travels faster as the temperature of the medium increases and vice-versa. This happens because
as temperate increases, the particles of the medium collide more frequently and hence the disturbance
spreads faster.
Speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/s with every 1oC increases in temperature. For example if speed
of sound in air at 0oC is 330 m/s, then its speed at 25oC will be 345 m/s.
Speed of sound does not depend on the pressure of the medium if temperature of the medium remains
constant.

2.10 Echo
The sound heard after reflection from a rigid obstacle is called an echo.
It is of three types:
(a) Instantaneous echo(b) Syllabic echo(c) Successive echo
(a) Instantaneous Echo: The echo of sound of short duration (like clap, pistol shot) is called
instantaneous echo. It is found that sensation of any sound persists for

1
1
to
seconds in our
10
20

ear, after it, the existing sound dies off. This time is called persistence of sound or persistence
of hearing. It varies from persons to person and also with frequency of sound. We will use

1
15

second as a typical interval needed to distinguish two sounds.

(b) Syllabic Echo: The echo of syllables of spoken words is called syllabic echo.

This echo is clear when the sound of last syllable of speech is reflected from an obstacle at least
2

22 m away so that sound takes at least second during which the last syllable is compactly
15
spoken.
(c) Successive Echo: This echo is heard when sound is produced between two distant parallel rows
of tall buildings or hills. A number of echoes are heard successively due to the multiple reflection.
This echo is heard only in vast open field.
2.10.1 Relation between Speed of Sound, Time of Hearing Echo and
Distance of Reflecting Body

If t is the time at which an echo is heard, d is the distance between the source of sound and the reflecting
body and v is the speed of sound. The total distance traveled by the sound is 2d.

www.plancess.com

Sound

21

Speed of sound, v =

2d
vt
or d =
t
2

(a) Calculation of Minimum Distance of Hearing Echo: d is minimum distance required for
1

hearing an echo when persistence of hearing is

second. The velocity of sound (at room
15
temperature) is 340 m/s.
So, d =

vt 340 1 22.67
=

=
2
2 15
2

So 11 metres is the minimum distance of hearing echo.

(b) Conditions for Formation of an Echo:

(i) Th
 e minimum distance between the source of sound and the reflecting body should be 11
metres.

(ii) The wavelength of the sound should be less than the height of the reflecting body.

(iii) The intensity of sound should be sufficient so that it can be heard after reflection.

Illustration 3: A boy hears an echo of his own voice from a distant hill after one second. The speed of

sound in air is 340 m/s. What is the distance of hill from the boy?
Sol:

Let d be the distance of hill from the boy

Total distance travelled by the sound in going and coming

back = 2d

Speed of sound =

=
V

Total dis tance travelled

time taken

Vt
2d

or, d
=
t
2

=
d

340 1
= 170 m
2

Fig. 3.22

Illustration 4: A boy standing in front of a wall at a distance of 85 m produces 2 claps per second.

He notices that the sound of his clapping coincides with the echo. The echo is heard only once when
clapping is stopped. Calculate the speed of sound.
Sol: Let d be the distance of wall from the boy. To hear the echo, sound has to travel a total distance

= 2d = 2 85 = 170 m.

Since 2 claps are produced in one second, therefore each clap is produced after sec. which is
equal to the time taken for the echo to be heard (according to the question)

Sound

Now the speed of sound

V=

22

Total dis tance travelled 170

= 340 m / s
=
0.5s
time taken

2.10.2 Reverberation

In a hall, when sound is created, the listener hears the direct waves reaching him. But the waves have
spread all over the hall and after being reflected from various points in the hall, keep on returning to the
same listener. Thus the intensity of sound goes on building up till a saturation is reached when the energy
received is equal to the energy absorbed or strayed out of window etc. After the sound is stopped, it takes
some time to die down. Thus, due to the continued reflections of sound in the halls or auditoriums,
sound keeps on persisting for some time even after it is stopped. This persistence of sound is called the
reverberation (Goonj). As soon as the sound is created we start counting time and stop when the sound
has fallen to 106 of the original intensity and thus becomes inaudible. This time interval is known as the
time of reverberation. In large circular domes like the one at Taj Mahal at Agra, the reverberation time
may be as large as 25 second ; while in well cushioned rooms, where curtains etc. are being used and open
windows are kept, this reverberation time may be as low as 0.1 second.

2.11 Audible, Infrasonic and Ultrasonic Waves

(a) Audible Range: The human ear is sensitive to sound waves of frequency between 20Hz to 20
kHz. This range is known as audible range. Eg: By vibrating sitar, guitar, organ pipes, flutes,
shehnai etc.
(b) Infrasonic Wave: A longitudinal elastic wave whose frequency is below the audible range i.e. 20
Hz, is called an infrasonic wave. It is generally generated by a large source. Eg: Earthquake.
(c) Ultrasonic Wave: A longitudinal wave whose frequency is above the upper limit of audible range
i.e. 20 kHz, is called ultrasonic wave. It is generated by very small sources. Eg : Quartz crystal.
2.11.1 Ultrasound:

Sound of very high frequency (greater than 20 kHz) is called ultrasound.

(b) Properties :Sound wave of all frequencies carry energy with them, with increase in frequency,
vibration becomes faster and also energy content and force increase. When ultrasound travels in
solid, liquid and gas it subjects the particles of matter to face large force and energy.

Good directionality: Ultrasonic waves are able to travel along well defined straight paths, even
in the presence of obstacles. Therefore, they are used for imaging objects.

(c) Applications of ultrasound:

www.plancess.com

23

Sound
(i) W
 elding metal: They are used for welding metals like tungsten which cannot be welded by
conventional methods. (ii) Medical purposes :The ultrasonic vibrations can be reflected
from the boundaries between the materials of nearly same density. The technique is used in
scanning the internal organs of human body. It is superior to the X-ray scanning, as it does
not cause any harm to human cells, unlike X-rays.

The instrument which uses ultrasonic waves for getting the images of internal organs of human body
is called ultrasound scanner. In this technique, the ultrasound waves travel through the tissues of the
body and get reflected from the region where there is change in density. These reflected waves are then
converted into electrical signals. These signals are then displayed on T.V. monitor or can be printed
on a film. This technique is called ultrasonography and help doctors to detect abnormalities, such as
stone in gall bladder and kidney or tumors in different organs.These applications are based on the high
directionality of ultrasound waves and their capability to reflect from the boundaries between different
kinds of materials. Ultrasonic waves of low intensity are sent to the desired area of the body. The waves
travel along straight lines till they hit an internal structure. A part of the wave is reflected from here, and
the rest is transmitted to the next structure. It is again reflected at the next boundary and so on. Waves
are sent from different angles and all the reflected waves are gathered by a receiver. These waves are then
converted into electrical signals that are used to generate images of an organ. These images are then
displayed on a monitor, and if required printed on film.
Ultrasound waves of high intensity are employed to break small stones in the kidney into fine grains. The
fine grains then get flushed out with urine.
Echocardiography is a technique in which ultrasonic waves, reflected from various parts of heart form an
image of the heart.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Two properties of ultrasound make it useful to us its high power and the fact that it does
not bend appreciably around obstacles.

T P Varun
KVPY Fellow
(iii) Drilling holes or making cuts of desired
shape: We can use a hammer and a steel punch
to make holes in metal plates, plastic sheets or
other solid materials. Such holes can also be
made using ultrasonic vibrations produced in
a metallic rod, called a horn.
Fig. 3.23

Sound

24

(iv) Ultrasonic cleaning: We normally clean dirty clothes, places or other large objects by applying
detergent or organic solutions, rubbing and washing. But for small parts such as those used in
watches, electronic components, odd-shaped parts such as a spiral tube and parts located in hardto reach places, this method is inconvenient and sometimes impossible. Such objects are placed
in a cleaning solution and ultrasonic waves are sent into the solution.
(v) Ultrasonic detection of defects in metals: Metallic components are used in buildings, bridges,
machines, scientific equipment and so on. If there are cracks or holes inside the metal used, the
strength of the structure or component is reduced and it can fail. Such defects are not visible
from the outside. Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect such defects.

Ultrasonic waves are sent through the metallic object under study. If there is no crack or cavity
in its path, it goes through the object. A detector placed on the other side detects the transmitted
wave. A defect present in the path of the wave reflects the wave. Thus, the intensity of the
emerging waves falls in the region that is in line with the defect. When this happens, we know
that the object has defect inside. Ordinary sound is not used for this application because ordinary
sound will bend considerably round the corners of cracks or cavities and will average out on the
other side at almost full intensity.

Fig. 3.24

(vi) Bats fly in the darkness of night without colliding with other objects by the method of
echolocation. Bats emit high frequency ultrasonic squeaks while flying and listen to the echoes
produced by the reflection of their squeaks from the objects in their path. From the time taken
by the echo to be heard, bats can judge the distance of the object in their path and hence avoid
it by changing the direction. Bats search their prey at night by the method of echolocation.

Fig. 3.25

www.plancess.com

25

Sound

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
When a duck swims, it necessarily produces waves on the surface of the water. The faster the
duck swims, the larger the wave amplitude and the more power the duck must supply to
produce these waves. The greater the distance from a wave source, the greater the area over
which the wave power is distributed and the smaller the wave intensity.

T P Varun
KVPY Fellow

2.12 Sonar
The word SONAR stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging
(a) Principle of Sonar: Sonar is an apparatus which is used to find the depth of a sea or to locate the
underwater things like shoals of fish, enemy submarines etc. Sonar works by sending short bursts
of ultrasonic sound from a ship down into sea-water and then picking up the echo produced
by the reflection of ultrasonic sound from under-water objects like bottom of sea, shoal of fish,
and a submarine. The SONAR employs ultrasonic waves for working. Due to its very high
frequency, ultrasonic sound has a greater penetrating power than ordinary sound. These waves
have frequency more than 20,000 Hz.
(b) Working of Sonar:

A sonar apparatus consists of two parts: (i) A

transmitter (for emitting ultrasonic waves) and (ii)
a receiver (for detecting ultrasonic waves). Now
suppose a sonar device is attached to the underside of a ship and we want to measure the depth of
sea (blow the ship). To do this, the transmitter of
sonar is made to emit a pulse of ultrasonic sound
with a very high frequency of about 50,000 hertz.
This pulse of ultrasonic sound travels down in the
sea-water towards the bottom of the sea. When
the ultrasonic sound pulse strikes the bottom of
the sea, it is reflected back to the ship in the form
of an echo. This echo produces an electrical signal
in the receiver part of the sonar device. The sonar
device measures the time taken by the ultrasonic
Fig. 3.26
sound pulse to travel from the ship to the bottom
of the sea and back to the ship. Half of this time gives the time taken by the ultrasonic sound to
travel from the ship to the bottom of the sea.

26

Sound

Depth of sea =

Velocity of sound in sea water time recorded by the recorder

;
2

d=

vt
2

Illustration 5: The ultrasonic waves take 4 seconds to travel from the ship to the bottom of the sea and

back to the ship. What is the depth of the sea? (Speed of sound in water = 1500 m/s.)
Sol: According to the given data; the sound wave makes it complete journey in 4 second. It means it

takes only 2 seconds for sound wave to reach to the bottom to the sea bed.

From the formula, Speed =

1500 =

Distance
we can find the depth of the sea bed from ship as follow.
Time

Depth
and ,Depth = 1500 2 m = 3000 m
2

Reason for Using Ultrasonic Waves in Sonar

(i) U
 ltrasonic waves have a very high frequency due to which they can penetrate deep in sea
water without being absorbed.

(ii) Ultrasonic waves cannot be confused with the noises, such as the voice of engines of ship. It
is because the ultrasonic waves are not perceived by human ear.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Transverse waves along a string are one dimensional, ripples on water surface are two
dimensional and sound waves proceeding radially from a point source are three dimensional.

T P Varun
KVPY Fellow

2.13 The Human Ear

The ears are the sense organs which help us in hearing sound.
(a) Construction of Human Ear: The ear consists of three compartments: outer ear, middle ear and
inner ear .The part of ear which we see outside the head is called outer ear. The outer ear consists
of broad part called pinna and about 2 to 3 centimeters long passage called ear canal. At the end
of ear canal there is a thin, elastic and circular membrane called ear-drum. The outer ear contains
air. The middle ear contains three small and delicate bones called hammer, anvil and stirrup.
These ear-bones are linked to one another. One end of the bone called hammer is touching
the ear-drum and its other end is connected to the second bone called anvil. The other end of

www.plancess.com

27

Sound
anvil is connected to the third bone called stirrup and the free and of stirrup is held against the
membrane over the oval window of inner ear. The middle ear also contains air. The lower part
of middle ear has a narrow tube called Eustachian tube going to the throat. Eustachian tube
connects the middle ear to throat and ensures that the air pressure inside the middle ear is the
same as that on the outside.

The inner ear has a coiled tube cochlea. One side of cochlea is connected to the middle ear
through the elastic membrane over the oval window. The cochlea is filled with a liquid. The
liquid present in cochlea contains nerve cells which are sensitive to sound. The other side of
cochlea is connected to auditory nerve which goes into the brain.

(b) Working of Human Ear: The sound waves (coming from a sound producing body) are collected
by the pinna of outer ear. These sound waves pass through the ear canal and fall on the ear-drum.
Sound waves consist of compressions (high pressure regions) and rarefactions (low pressure
regions).

When the compression of sound wave strikes the ear-drum, the pressure on the outside of eardrum increases and pushes the ear-drum inwards and when the rarefaction of sound wave falls
on the ear-drum, the pressure on the outside of ear-drum decreases and it moves outward. Thus,
when the sound waves fall on the ear-drum, the ear-drum starts vibrating back and forth rapidly.

Fig. 3.27

The vibrating ear-drum causes a small bone hammer to vibrate. From hammer, vibrations are
passed on to the second bone anvil and finally to the third bone stirrup. The vibrating stirrup
strikes on the membrane of the oval window and passes its vibrations to the liquid in the cochlea.
Due to this, the liquid in the cochlea beings to vibrate. The vibrating liquid of cochlea sets
up electrical impulses in the nerve cells present in it. These electrical impulses are carried by
auditory nerve to the brain. The brain interprets these electrical impulses as sound and we get
the sensation of hearing.

Sound

28

Illustration 6: A sonar system attached to ship, picks up a reflected signal after 2.5 sec. Find the depth of

sea at that location? Speed of sonar signal in water is 1500 m/s.

Sol:

Let depth of sea level = h , Distance traveled by signal = 2h

Now distance travelled 2h = t v = 2.5 1500 h = 1875 m.

Illustration 7: A sonar system is attached to submarine which is moving inside the sea. It sends signal,

which is reflected by a bird flying at height of 165 m from sea level. If sonar system receives the reflected
signal from bird after 1.5 sec. Find the depth of submarine from sea level. (Speed of ultrasonic sound in
air 330 m/s and in water is 1200 m/s)
Sol:

Let the depth of submarine is h from sea level.

Time taken by sound to reach the bird from sea level and returning to sea level

=
ta

2h
2h
=
v w 1200

..................(ii)

Now total time t = ta + tw = 1.5 sec

From (i) and (ii) 1.5 = 1 +

.......................(i)

Time taken by sound in water

=
tw

2 165 2 165
= = 1 sec
va
330

2h
h = 300 m
1200

The depth of submarine is 300 meter, below the sea level.

www.plancess.com

29

Sound

SUMMARY
A motion, such as that of the earth around the sun, the movement of the hands of the clock etc.,
is referred to as periodic motion, since the motion of the object repeats itself at regular intervals
of time.
A to-and-fro motion, such as the swinging of a pendulum, vertical oscillations of a mass suspended
from a spring etc., is referred to as harmonic motion.
A harmonic motion in which the amplitude and time period of oscillation remain constant is
particularly referred to as simple harmonic motion (SHM). In a SHM the acceleration of the
body or particle executing the motion is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean
position and is directed towards the mean position. The total mechanical energy of the particle
is conserved.
A wave is a disturbance produced at a point in a medium or a field and is transmitted to other
parts of the medium or the field without the actual translational motion or transport of the
particles across the medium.
The transfer of energy in the form of waves is known as wave motion.
In a wave on a string the Crest is the point of maximum displacement of a particle in upward
direction.
Trough is the point of maximum displacement of a particle in downward direction.
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particle either upwards or downwards.
The S.I. unit of Amplitude is metre.(m)
Wavelength () is the distance between any two successive crests or troughs.
The S.I. unit of Wavelenght is metre.(m)
Time period (T) is the time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation or vibration.
The S.I. unit of Time period is seconds(s)
Frequency (n) is the number of oscillations or vibrations made by a particle in one second.
n= 1/T. The S.I. unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). 1 hertz = 1 s1
Velocity of a wave is the speed with which the wave propagates in the medium. A wave takes time
equal to its time period (T) to travel a distance equal to its wavelength (). So,

Wave velocity
=

Wavelengthofthewave

v=
Timeperiodofthewave
T

or v = n .

Mechanical waves are the waves which require a material medium for their propagation. They
are also called elastic waves as the main cause for their propagation in the medium is a property
of the medium called elasticity.

Sound

30

Electromagnetic waves are the waves which do not require an elastic medium for their
propagation. They can propagate through media as well as vacuum. Light waves are an example
of electromagnetic waves.
When a mechanical wave propagates from one place to another in a medium, the direction of
vibration of particle of the medium can be either parallel or perpendicular to the direction of wave
motion. If the direction of vibration of the particles of the medium is parallel to the direction of
wave motion, such a wave is called a longitudinal wave and if it is perpendicular to the direction
of wave motion such a wave is called a transverse wave.
The velocity of the vibrating particles is not constant throughout their vibration. It is minimum
at the extreme positions and maximum at the mean position. But the velocity of the wave
propagating through the medium is constant.
A progressive wave is a wave which is generated at a point in a medium and travels to all parts of
the medium infinitely carrying the energy

A stationary wave is a wave which is formed by a combination of two similar progressive waves
traveling in opposite directions.

Sound is a form of energy which effects our sensation of hearing through the ear. The sensation is
produced by longitudinal waves in an elastic medium, where the vibrations (oscillations) of the particles
are in the same direction in which the wave propagates.
Sound needs a material medium for its propagation. In the absence of medium (say air) around the
source, sound is not being propagated.
The human ear is able to hear sound in a frequency range of about 20Hz to 20 kHz. We cannot hear
sounds of frequencies less than 20Hz of more than 20 kHz, these limits vary from persons to person and
with age. Children can her sounds of somewhat higher frequencies, say up to 30 kHz. With age, our
ability to hear high frequency sound diminishes. For the elderly person, the upper limit often falls to 1012 kHz. We take 20Hz-20 kHz as the audible range for an average person.
The reflection of sound waves is similar to that of light rays. The only difference is that sound waves being
larger in length, require bigger surfaces for reflection
Sound travels with different speeds in different media like solid, liquid and gas. This is because, sound
travels in a medium due to the transfer of energy from one particle to another particle of the medium.
Solid: Since the particles of solid are close to each other, so transfer of energy from one particle to
another takes place in less time (i.e. faster). Hence speed of sound in solids is large.
Liquid: Speed of sound in liquids in less than in solids since the particles are away from each other as
compared to solids.
Gas: Speed of sound in gases is less than the speed in liquids and solids as the particles are far away from
each other as compared to solids and liquids.
Audible Range: The human ear is sensitive to sound waves of frequency between 20Hz to 20 kHz.
This range is known as audible range. Eg.by vibrating sitar, guitar, organ pipes, flutes, shehnai etc.

www.plancess.com

31

Sound

Infrasonic Wave: A longitudinal elastic wave whose frequency is below the audible range i.e. 20 Hz, is
called an infrasonic wave. It is generally generated by a large source. Eg.: Earthquake. Ultrasonic Wave:
A longitudinal wave whose frequency is above the upper limit of audible range i.e. 20 kHz, is called
ultrasonic wave. It is generated by very small sources. Eg.: Quartz crystal.
Sonar is an apparatus which is used to find the depth of a sea or to locate the underwater things like
shoals of fish, enemy submarines etc. Sonar works by sending short bursts of ultrasonic sound from a
ship down into sea-water and then picking up the echo produced by the reflection of ultrasonic sound
from under-water objects like bottom of sea, shoal of fish, and a submarine.

Sound

32

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1.A source of wave produces 40 crests and 40 troughs in 0.4 second. Find the frequency of the
wave.
Sol.

According to given data:

(i) Number of crests and troughs produced by the wave = 40

(ii) Time taken by wave to propagate up to 40 wave forms t = 0.4 s

And we want to find the frequency n =?

The solution is as follow:

Number of waves produced in one second

40
= 100 s1;
0.4 s

Frequency of the wave = 100 Hz ( frequency is the measure of repetition of wave forms i.e.
single crest & trough in a wave)

Example 2. A person has a hearing range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. What are the typical wavelengths of
sound waves in air corresponding to these two frequencies? Take the speed of sound in air as 344 ms1 .
Sol.

According to given data:

(i) Hearing range = 20Hz to20 kHz (= 20000 Hz)

(ii) Speed of sound in the air = 344 m s1

For a wave, Wavelength =
=

344 ms1
20 s1

Wave velocity
v
or = . So, for frequency n = 20Hz = 20 /s
Frequency
n

=17.2m

and forfrequencyn= 20000 Hz = 20000 s1, =

344 ms1
20000 s1

= 0.0172m = 1.72 cm

Example 3. A person is listening to sound of 50 Hz sitting at a distance of 400 m from the source
of sound. What is the time interval between successive compressions of sound waves from the source
reaching him?

www.plancess.com

Sound

33
Sol.

According to given data:

(i) Frequency of the sound = 50 Hz

(ii) Distance of person from the source = 400 m

Time between the successive compressions is equal to time taken by the sound to travel a distance
equal to its wavelength. Thus, we have to find out the time period.

Time period is found out as,

1
1
1
=
= 0.02 s
=
Frequency(n) 50 Hz 50 s1

T=

The successive compressions will reach the person after every 0.02 s.

Example 4.A child hears an echo from a cliff 6 seconds after the sound from a powerful cracker is
produced. How far away is the cliff from the child? (Given: Velocity of sound in air is 344 m/s.)
Sol.

Let the distance between the child and the cliff be d. Then,

Total distance travelled by the sound = 2d

Total time taken by the sound = 6 s

Then, Velocity of sound =

344 m/s =

2d d
=
6s 3s

d
.This gives, d = 344 m/s 3s = 1032 m ~ 1 km
3s

Thus, the cliff is at a distance of 1032 m from the child.

Example 5.Using the SONAR, sound pulses are emitted at the surface of water. These pulses after being
reflected from the bottom are detected. If the time interval from the emission to the detection of the
sound pulses is 1.5 seconds, find the depth of the water. Velocity of sound in water = 1500 m/s.
Sol.

Let, depth of the water from the earths surface be d.

Then, total distance travelled by the pulse = 2d

&Total time taken by the pulse in this journey = 1.5 s

From the formula of velocity,

Dis tance travelled
Time taken

Velocity =

We get Velocity of the sound =

2d
4d
=
1.5 s 3s

Sound

1500 m/s =

34

4d
3s

This gives, d = 1500 m/s 3/4s = 1125 m

Thus, the depth of water is 1125 m.

Example 6.Two children are at opposite ends of an iron pipe. One strikes his end of the iron pipe with
a stone. Find the ratio of times taken by the sound waves in air and in iron to reach the other child.
(Given:Velocity of sound in air is 340 ms1 and that in iron is 5120 ms1.)
Sol.

For air va =

x
...(1)
Ta

where vais velocity of sound in air.

and Ta is the time taken for the sound to travel in air through the length of pipe x.
For pipe vp =

x
...(2)
Ta

where vp is the velocity of sound in iron pipe.

Tp is the time taken by the sound to travel in iron pipe through the length of the pipe x. On
dividing (1) and (2),
v a x / Ta Tp Ta 5120
=
=
;
= 15
=
vp x / Tp Ta Tp
340

In other words, according to the example, sound travels 15 times faster through iron than through
air.

Example 7.A stone is dropped into a well 45m deep. The splash is heard 3.13 seconds after the stone is
dropped. Find the velocity of sound in air.
Sol.

Stone falling from A to B

u = 0, s = 45 m,
g = 10 ms2, t =?

s = ut +

45 =

1 2
gt
2

1
10 t2
2

t=3s
Fig. 3.28

www.plancess.com

Sound

35

Sound produced at B, due to the stone falling on the surface of water, travels from B to A. The
sound moves with constant velocity.
Speed =

45
45
dis tance
v= t =
t'
v
time

It is given that the total time is 3.13 second.

i.e.t + t = 3

3+

45
45
45
= 3.13
= 0.13 v =
= 346.15 ms1
v
v
0.13

Example 8.A sonar device on a submarine sends out a signal and receives an echo 6 s later. Calculate the
speed of sound in water if the distance of the object from submarine is 3600 m.
Sol.

Speed of sound

2 distance 2 3600
= = 1200 ms1
time
6

Example 9.Why sound waves are called mechanical waves?

Sol. Sound energy cannot be produced on its own. Some mechanical energy is required to make
an object vibrate so that it can generate sound. The mechanical energy of vibrating object
travels through a medium and finally reaches the listener. Therefore, the sound waves are called
mechanical waves.
Example 10.Which wave property determines

(a) Loudness, (b) pitch?

Sol. 
(a) The amplitude of the wave determines the loudness; more the amplitude of a wave, more isthe loudness produced.

(b) The pitch is determined by the frequency of the wave (the repetition of the formation of
disturbance in medium). Higher the frequency of a wave, more is the pitch and shriller is the
sound.

Example 11.Distinguish between loudness and intensity of sound.

Sol . The loudness depends on energy per unit area of the wave received by ear and on the response of
the ear to it, but intensity depends only on the energy per unit area of the wave received by ear
and is independent of the response of the ear.
Example 12. Why are the ceiling of concert halls curved?

Sound

36

Sol. The ceilings of concert halls are curved because sound after reflection from it reaches up to the
end of the hall uniformly, and is audible to each person in the hall.
Example 13. Describe an experiment to show that sound needs a material medium for its Propagation.
Sol. Take an electric circuit which consists of a cell, a switch and an electric bell arranged inside a bell
jar, which stands on the platform of an evacuating pump.

The switch of the bell is pressed to close the electric circuit. When there is air within the bell
jar, sound is heard. Air is now pumped out of the bell jar. When the air is completely removed
from the bell jar, no sound is heard as it is obvious because the medium of air which has to carry
energy from the bell to the bell jar, is removed. It shows that sound needs material medium for
its propagation.

Example 14. Which characteristic of the sound helps you to identify your friend by his voice while
sitting in a dark room?
Sol. While sitting in a dark room hearing a voice of a friend & identifying him is due to uniqueness
of pitch of his voice.
Example 15. Does sound follow the same laws of reflection as light does? Explain.
Sol.

Yes, sound and light follow the same laws of reflection given below:

(a) Angle of incidence at the point of incidence = Angle of reflection.

(b) At the point of incidence the incident sound ray, the normal and the reflected sound ray lie
in the same plane.

Example 16. When a sound is reflected from a distant object, an echo is produced. Let the distance
between the reflecting surface and the source of sound remain the same. Do you hear echo sound on a
hotter day?
Sol. 
If the temperature rises, the speed of sound will increase. This in turn will increase the minimum
distance required for hearing an echo. No echo is heard because, the distance between the source
of sound and reflecting body does not increase.
Example 17. What is reverberation? How can it be reduced?
Sol. Reverberation is the repeated multiple reflections of sound in any big enclosed space. It can be
reduced by covering the ceiling and walls of the enclosed space with some absorbing materials
like fibre board, loose woollens etc.

www.plancess.com

37

Sound

EXERCISE 1 (For School Examinations)

Fill in the blanks
Direction: Complete the following statements with an appropriate word/term to be filled in the blank
space(s)
Q.1

Sound waves having the frequency in range

are audible to human being.

Q.2 The wavelength of a sound from a tuning fork of frequency 330 Hz is nearly
cm
Q.3 Velocity of sound in vacuum is

Q.4) The total energy E of sound is related to their frequency as

Q.5 Longitudinal waves cannot pass through

Q.6 The frequency of the particles oscillating in a medium is

waves in the medium.
Q.7 A transverse wave is made up of

Q.8 A longitudinal wave is made up of

Q.9) Wave motion involves the transport of

Q.10 Velocity = frequency

the frequency of

.
.

True / False
Direction: Read the following statements and write your answer as true or false.
Q.11 Longitudinal waves are produced in all the three states.

True

False

Q.12 Bells are made of metal and not of wood because the sound is not conducted by metals but is
radiated.

True

False

Q.13 The rate of transfer of energy in a wave depends directly on the square of the wave amplitude and
square of the wave frequency.

True

False

Q.14 Velocity of sound in air at the given temperature decreases with increase in pressure.

True

False

Q.15 The pitch of the sound as detected by the observer is independent of original frequency.

True

False

Sound

38

Q.16 A pure sine wave of sound is called melody.

True

False

Q.17 The total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is constant.

True

False

Q.18 Potential energy of simple harmonic oscillator at the mean position always zero.

True

False

Match the columns

Direction: Each question contains statements given in two columns which have to be matched.
Statements (A, B, C, D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r, s) in column II.
Q.19 Match the column
Column I

Column II

(A) high pitch

(p) Faint sound

(B) low pitch

(q) Loud sound

(C) small amplitude

(r) High frequency

(D) large amplitude

(s) Low frequency

Q.20 Match the column

Column I

Column II

(A) A car moving along a circular track

with increasing speed.

(p) S.H.M

(B) Motion of a planet around the sun.

(q) Oscillatory but not S.H.M

(C) 
The motion of a piston on an
automobile engine.

(r) Periodic but not oscillatory

(D) The motion of a simple pendulum

with small amplitude.

(s) Non-Periodic

Very Short Answer Questions

Direction: Give answer in one word or one sentence.
Q.21. Which of the following conditions is not sufficient for S.H.M. and why?
(a) Acceleration displacement
(b) Restoring force displacement

www.plancess.com

39

Sound

Q.22. A particle executing S.H.M. identify the positions of the particle where,
(i) K.E. of the particle is zero
(ii) P.E. is zero/minimum
(iii) P.E. is 1 th of total energy
4

(iv) P.E. and K.E. are equal

Q.23. How will the time period of a simple pendulum change when its length is doubled?
Q.24. Will a pendulum gain or lose time when taken to the top of a mountain?

Short Answer Questions

Direction: Give answer in 2-3 sentences.
Q.25. Why soldiers are asked to break their steps while crossing a temporary bridge of rope?
Q.26. A girl swinging suddenly stands up on the swing. What is the influence on the time period and
frequency?
Q.27. The length of a seconds pendulum on the surface of earth is 100 cm. What will be the length of
a seconds pendulum on the surface of moon?
Q.28. The maximum acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator is a0 and maximum velocity is v 0 .
What is its amplitude?
Q.29. The bob of a vibrating simple pendulum is made of ice. How will the period of swing change,
when the ice starts melting?
Q.30. Two exactly identical pendulums are oscillating with amplitudes 2 cm and 6 cm. Calculate the
ratio of their energies of oscillation.
Q.31. The periodic time of a mass suspended by a spring of force constant K is T. If the spring is cut
into three equal parts, what will be the force constant of each part? If the same mass be suspended
from one piece, what will be its periodic time?

Long Answer Questions

Directions: Give answer in four to five sentences,
Q.32 Prove that the sum of K.E. and P.E. of a particle during SHM is constant.
Q.33. What are waves? Describe their types in details and chief characteristics.

Sound

40

EXERCISE 2 (For Competitive Examinations)

Multiple choice questions
Direction: This section contains multiple choice questions. Each questions has 4 choice (a), (b), (c) and
(d), out of which only one is correct.
Q.1. A thunder clap is heard 5.5 second after the lightening flash. The distance of the flash is

(Given: velocity of sound in air = 330 m/s)

(a) 1780 m

(b) 1815 m

(c) 300 m

(d) 3560 m

Q.2. A wave frequency 1000 Hz travels between X and Y, a distance of 600 m in 2 sec. How many
wavelengths are there in distance XY.
(a) 3.3

(b) 300

(c) 180

(d) 2000

Q.3. Ultrasonic waves have frequency

(a) below 20 Hz

(b) between 20 and 20,000 Hz

(c) only above 20,000 Hz

(d) Only above 20,000 MHz

Q.4. A person has the audible range from 20 Hz to 20KHz. Find the wavelength range corresponding
to these frequencies. Take velocity of sound as 340 m/s.
3
3
(a) 15m to 15 10 m (b) 11 m to 11 10 m
3
8
(c) 17 m to 17 10 m (d) 15 m to 15 10 m

Q.5. If you are at open-air concert and someones head gest between you and the orchestra, you can
still hear the orchestra because
(a) sound waves pass easily through a head
(b) a head is not very large compared with the wavelength of the sound
(c) the sound is reflected from the head
(d) the wavelength of the sound is much smaller than the head.
Q.6. In a long spring which of the following type of waves can generated
(a) Longitudinal only

(b) Transverse only

(c) Both longitudinal and transverse

(d) Electromagnetic only

www.plancess.com

41

Sound

Q.7. Human ears can sense sound as low if sound waves travelling in air having wavelength of
3
2
(a) 10 m (b) 10 m
2
(c) 1 m (d) 10 m

Q.8. Voice of a friend is recognized by its

Q.9

(a) pitch

(b) quality

(c) intensity

(d) velocity

The unit of quantity on which loudness of sound depends is

(a) meter

(b) Hz

(c) meter/second

(d) second

Q.10. A periodic wave is produced on a stretched string. Note the following quantities associated with
the wave and the string.
I. frequency

II. Tension in the string

III. Wavelength

IV. Linear density of the string

Which of the quantities influences the speed of the waves?

(a) I only

(b) III and IV only

(c) I and II only

(d) I, II, III and IV

Q.11. A 440 Hz sound wave travels with a speed of 340 m/s. What is the wavelength of the wave?
(a) 1.5105 m

(b) 0.77 m

(c) 1.3 m

(d) 1.1 m

Q.12. The velocity of sound in any gas depends upon

(a) wavelength of sound only

(b) density and elasticity of gas

(c) intensity of sound waves only

(d) Amplitude and frequency of sound

Q.13. A wave of frequency 100 Hz is sent along a string towards a fixed end. When this wave travels
back after reflection, a node is formed at a distance of 10 cm from the fixed end of the string. The
speeds of incident (and reflected) waves are
(a) 5 m/s

(b) 1 m/s

(c) 20 m/s

(d) 40 m/s

Q.14. What is the effect of humidity on sound waves when humidity increases?
(a) speed of sound waves is more

(b) speed of sound waves is less

(c) speed of sound waves remains same

(d) speed of sound waves becomes zero

Sound

42

Q.15. Two identical stringed instruments have frequency 100 Hz. If tension in one of them is increased
by 4% and they are sounded together then the number of beats in one second is
(a) 1

(b) 8

(c) 4

(d) 2

More than one correct

Directions: This sections contains multiple choice questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c)
and (d), out of which One or More may be correct.
Q.16. Which of the following are transmitted by a wave?
(a) Momentum

(b) Energy

(c) Amplitude

(d) Velocity

Q.17. The velocity of sound is affected by change in

(a) Pressure

(b) wavelength

(c) Medium

(d) temperature

Q.18. When a wave is refracted into another medium, which of the following will change?
(a) Frequency

(b) Phase

(c) Amplitude

(d) Velocity

Q.19. Which of the following statements are correct?

(a) Pitch of sound depends on its frequency.
(b) Loudness of sound depends on its intensity.
(c) Sound travels faster in air than in solids.
(d)Speed of sound in air varies with temperature.
Q.20. Which of the following motions are oscillatory?
(a) Vibrations of a loaded spring.
(b) Motion of the earth around the sun
(c) Motion of the ball bouncing from the ground without loss of energy
(d) Motion of minutes hand of the clock.
Q.21. Which of the following statements are correct?
(a) Every oscillatory motion is simple harmonic.
(b) Every oscillatory motion is periodic.
(c) Every simple harmonic motion is oscillatory.
(d) Every simple harmonic motion is periodic.

www.plancess.com

Sound

43

Q.22. Which of the following represent periodic motion?

(a) Oscillations of a simple pendulum
(b) Motion of the moon around the earth
(c) Motion of seconds hand of the clock
(d) Vibration of a loaded spring.

Passage based questions

Directions: Study the given paragraph(s) and answer the following questions.
Passage 1

Waves can be categorized into three types, viz. electromagnetic waves, mechanical waves and
matter waves. Electromagnetic waves do not require any material medium for their propagation,
i.e, they can travel through vacuum while mechanical waves require a material medium for their
propagation i.e., they cannot propagate through vacuum, on the other hand matter waves are the
waves associated with fast moving particles such as electrons in accordance with the de-Broglie
hypothesis of dual nature of matter.

Q.23. Sound waves in air are

(a) Electromagnetic waves

(b) Mechanical waves

(c) Matter waves

(d) either (a) or (b)

Q.24. Light travels are the form of

(a) Electromagnetic waves

(b) Mechanical waves

(c) Matter waves

(d) tiny particles

Q.25. Which of the following is an electromagnetic wave?

(a) A wave set up on a stretched string.

(b) A wave set up on the surface water.

(c) An X-ray

(d) All of the above

Passage 2

On the basis of wave motion, a wave can be categorized as transverse or longitudinal waves. In a
transverse wave particles of the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave, while in a longitudinal, particles of the medium vibrate in the direction
of propagation of the wave. Electromagnetic waves are always transverse while mechanical waves
may be transverse as well as longitudinal. Again, transverse mechanical waves can propagate
through solids and on the surface of liquids but not in the bulk of liquids or gases. On the other
hand, longitudinal waves can travel through any material medium.

Sound

44

Q.26. Which of the following waves can never be transverse?

(a) Sound waves through air
(b) Light waves through air
(c) Waves set up on a stretched string
(d) Waves set up on the surface of water when a stone is hit on the surface of water
Q.27. A mechanical wave is propagating through a solid rod. The wave may be
(a) transverse

(b) longitudinal

(c) both (a) and (b)

(d) none of these

Q.28. A transverse mechanical wave can propagate through a medium which has elasticity of shape.
Which property of liquid makes propagation of transverse wave on the surface of the liquid?
(a) Bulk modulus

(b) surface tension

(c) Viscosity

(d) pressure

Assertion & Reason

Directions: Each of these questions contains an Assertion followed by Reason. Read them carefully and
answer question on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that best describes the two
statements.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not the correct explanation of
Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
Q.29. Assertion: Ultrasonic waves are longitudinal waves of frequency greater than 20,000 Hz.
Reason: The maximum frequency of audible sound waves is 20,000 Hz
Q.30. Assertion: On a rainy day sound travel slower than on a dry day
Reason: When moisture is present in air the density of air increases.
Q.31. Assertion: Two persons on the surface of moon cannot talk to each other.
Reason: There is no atmosphere
Q.32. Assertion: Waves produced in a cylinder containing a liquid by moving its piston back and forth
are longitudinal waves.
Reason: In longitudinal waves, the particle of the medium oscillate parallel to the direction of
propagation of the wave.

www.plancess.com

45

Sound

Q.33. Assertion: The longitudinal waves are called pressure waves

Reason: Propagation of longitudinal waves through a medium involves changes in pressure and
volume of air, when compression and rarefaction are formed.
Q.34. Assertion: In simple harmonic motion, the velocity is maximum when acceleration is minimum
Reason: Displacement and velocity of SHM differ in phase by /2
Q.35. Assertion: A particle performing SHM while crossing mean position is having minimum
potential energy, this minimum PE could be non-zero
Reason: In equilibrium position, the net force experienced by the particle is zero, hence PE
would be zero at the mean position

HOTS Subjective Questions

Directions: Answer the following questions.
Q.36. A body mass 5 gram is executing S.H.M about a fixed point O. With an amplitude of 10 cm, its
maximum velocity is 100 cm/s. At what distance its velocity will be 50 cm s1 ?
Q.37. When a light or sound source moves toward you, is there an increase or a decrease in the wave
speed?
Q.38. Two waves are approaching each other at velocity of 20 m/s and frequency n. What is the distance
between two consecutive nodes?
Q.39. What is required to make an object resonate?

Sound

46

Solutions
EXERCISE 1
Fill in the blanks
1. 20 to 20 KHz

1
2. = v= 330 ms1 = 1m 3. 0 ms-1

4. E an 5. vacuum

6. the same as

8. compressions and rarefactions

9. energy 10. wavelength

330 s

7. crests and troughs

True / False
11.

True. In all the three states of matter mechanical energy can be transferred & hence sound can
travel in all the three states of matter.

12.

False, metal are good conductor of sounds & sound travels faster in metal.

13.

True

14.

False, with increase in pressure the velocity of sound increases because the energy of sound wave
travels faster in compressed air

15.False, 16.False 17. True

18. False

Match the columns

19.

A r; B s; C p; D q.

20.

A s; B r; C q; D p.

Very Short Answer Questions

21.

Condition (a) is not sufficient as the direction of acceleration is opposite to displacement and
that needs to be mentioned.

22.

(i) At both the extreme positions K.E. is zero.

(ii) At mean position, the P.E. is zero.

1
1
= m2a2
(iii) Potential energy of simple pendulum P.E. = m2 a2 x2 T.E.
2
4

Given, P.E. =

1
T.E.
4

www.plancess.com

Sound

47

1
m 2 a2 x2 =
2

(iv)

1
m 2 a2 =
x
2

1
K.E. =
m2 x2 ,& P.E. =
K.E.
2

1
1
m2 x2 = m2 a2 x2
2
2

3
a
2

Solving the above equation we get the distance x =

T = 2
23. 

a
2

When is doubled, Tnewwill increase 2 times the previous time period Told of the
g

pendulum.
24.

On the top of a mountain, acceleration due to gravity g decreases.

Time period increases. So it will lose the time period of oscillation.

Short Answer Questions

25.

Phenomenon of resonance occurs when the frequency of vibration of the stepping of soldiers
becomes equal to that of the rope bridge, so the bridge will vibrate with larger amplitude and
may collapse. To avoid this accidental collapse, soldiers are asked to break their steps so they can
safely pass the bridge.

26.

The girl can be considered as an extended body when she stands on the swing. As the girl stands
up on the swing the separation `d between the point of suspension and the centre of gravity
decreases since the time period is inversely proportional to d , hence time period increases and
frequency decreases.

27.

T = 2

=' / 6= (1 / 6)m [= 100 cm= 1 m]

On moons surface g = g/6

g

2
28 . v 0 = A, a0 = A = v 0 = a0 / v 0

=
A v0 =
/ v 0 / ( a0 / v=
v 0 2 / a0
0)

Sound

48

29.

Time period remains unchanged till the centre of gravity of the bob remains fixed from the point
of suspension. If centre of gravity goes up after melting of ice, length of pendulum decreases and
the time period also decreases. If center of gravity goes down, time period increases.

30.

E
Total energy ==

E r2 2 1
E r 1 = 12 = =
E2 r2 6 9

1 22
m r
2
2

31.

When it is cut into 3 parts it can be considered as a combination of 3 springs in series, each of
spring constant k.

Effective

=
K
T=
2

k
3

1 1 1 1
= + +
K k k k

spring constant,

=
k 3K

m
m
3m
=
2
=
2
K
k /3
k

Time period of each individual spring,

T1 = 2

m T1
=
T
k

1
3

T1 =

T
3

Long Answer Questions

32.

Kinetic energy: A particle executing SHM possesses kinetic energy by virtue of its motion.

1
1
K.E. =
mv 2 =
m2 a2 x2
2
2

At mean position, x=0

(K.E)max =12 m2a2 =12 k a2 (k =m2 )

At extreme, x=a, K.E. =0

v =
a2 x2

Potential energy: A particle executing SHM possesses potential energy due to its displacement
from its mean position.

www.plancess.com

Sound

49

1
1
P.E = kx2 P.E. = m2 x2
2
2

At mean position, x=0

(k =m )
2

P.E. =0

At extreme position, x=a

(P.E. )

max

1
1
m2a2 = ka2
2
2

Total Mechanical Energy: An oscillating particle has both kinetic and potential energy. At any
instant the total sum of kinetic and potential energy remains constant. Thus the total mechanical
energy of oscillating particle is conserved.
T.E. = K.E. + P.E. T.E. =

=
T.E

1
1
1
1
m2 a2 x2 + m2 x2 T.E. = m2a2 = ka2 = constant
2
2
2
2

K.E. )
(=
(P.E. )max
max

EXERCISE 2
Multiple Choice questions
1.

b Distance = velocity time = 330=1815 m

2.

D as the frequency is measure of formation of a wavelength in 1 second.

in time t = 2 s the wavelengths formed are 21000= 2000

3.

4.

C, as wavelength =

5. b
13.

6. c

v
so the range of wavelength found to be from 16.5 m to 0.165 m.
n

7. a

8. a 9. b

(c) As fixed end is a node, therefore, distance between two consecutive nodes =

= 20 cm = 0.2 m. As v= n
v=100 x 0.2 = 20 m/s
14.

10. c 11.b 12. (b)

(a) Velocity of sound =

RT
M

=10 cm
2

Sound

50

When water vapor are present in air average molecular weight of air-vapor mixtureincreases and
hence velocity increases.
15.

(d) Frequency of vibration in tight string

p T
2l m

=
n

n T

n T 1
= = ( 4% ) =2%
n 2T 2

2
Number of beats =n =
n
100

2
100 = 2
100

More than one correct

16.

(a,b) A wave transports momentum and energy of the source.

17.

(a,b,c)

20.

(a,c) Oscillatory motions are displacement of particle about a mean position. Which is the case
discussed in a & c.

21.

(b,c,d)

18. (c,d)

19. (a,b,d)

22. (a,b,c,d)

Passage based questions

Passage 1
23.

(b) Sound waves need some medium for their propagation &cannot travel through vacuum and
hence are mechanical waves.

24.

(a) Because light waves do not depend on presence of any medium for their propagation

25.

(c) because x-rays can travel through vacuum also

Passage 2
26.

(a) Sound wave in air is a mechanical wave which has direction of oscillation in propagation of
wave & hence can never be transverse.

27.

(c) In solids, mechanical waves can be transverse as well as longitudinal.

28.

(b) Due to surface tension, free surface of liquids tends to have minimum surface area.

www.plancess.com

Sound

51

Assertion & Reason

29. (b)
35.

30. (d)

31. (a)

32. (b)

33. (a)

34. (b)

(c) At mean position, net force acting on the particle is zero but P.E. can be non-zero but is
minimum.

HOTS Subjective Questions

36.

According to the given data,

(i) the maximum velocity of body performing S.H.M is vmax= 100 cm/s = 1m/s,
(ii) amplitude of the particle performing S.H.M is a = 10 cm =0.1 m.

We want to find the distance at which the particle will have the velocity v = ms-1.

v max = 100 = a ;

100 100
=
= 10 rad / s . v 2 =
2 ( a2 y 2 ) or 502 =
102 (102 y 2 )
a
10

or =
25 100 y 2
or=
y

=
75 5 3 cm

37.

Neither! It is the frequency of a wave that undergoes a change when the source is moving, not
the wave speed. This is called as Doppler effect.

38.

Distance between two successive nodes

=

39.

v 20 10
v
=
=
=
where =

2 2n 2n n
n

To make an object resonate, object need to impulse in rhythm with its natural frequency. Thus,
in order to resonate an object, find out its natural frequency and then force this object into
vibration by an external force of the frequency equal to the natural frequency of the object.

Representative Sample Chemistry:

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY

1. Introduction
As we have learned about the units and various conversions, its time that we start using them. Before
starting with the core calculations, we need to know the laws which have been formulated with the help
of the facts known from experimental evidences. So now, get ready to play.

2. Daltons Atomic Theory

Postulates of Daltons theory:

www.plancess.com

53

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Many unexplained chemical phenomena were quickly explained by Dalton with his theory.
Daltons theory quickly became the theoretical foundation in chemistry.
Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NSTSE 2009

2.1 Law of Conservation of Mass

A. Lavoisier in 1789 introduced the concept of mass conservation. He stated that In all physical changes
and chemical reactions, the total mass of the products is the same as the total mass of the reactants. He
is considered as Father of Modern Chemistry.
Modification to the Law of Conservation of mass
The total sum of mass and energy of the system remains constant.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The above law will remain constant over time, provided the system is isolated.
A similar statement is that mass cannot be created/destroyed, although it may be rearranged
in space, and changed into different types of particles.
Sir Lavoisier was the one who coined the word oxygen meaning acid former and came up
with the combustion process through his experiment.
Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NCO

2.2 Law of Definite Proportions or Constant Composition

Law of Constant Composition was given by Sir Joseph Proust in 1799, The law states that A pure
chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together in a fixed (definite)
proportion by weight.
Illustration 1: The mass of copper oxide obtained by heating 2.16 g of metallic copper with nitric acid

and subsequent ignition was found to be 2.7 g. In another experiment, 1.15 g of copper oxide on
reduction yielded 0.92 g of copper. Show that the data illustrates the law of constant composition.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

54

Sol:
In the first experiment

In the second experiment

Weight of copper = 2.16 g

Weight of copper oxide = 1.15 g

Weight of copper oxide= 2.70 g

Weight of oxygen = 0.23 g

Weight of oxygen = 2.70 2.16 = 0.54 =

g
% copper
% copper =
=

Weight of copper
100
Weight of copper oxide

(2.16g)
100
= 80%
(2.70g)

% oxygen =

Weight of oxygen
100
Weight of copper oxide

(0.54 g)
100
= 20%
(2.70g)

Weight of copper
100
Weight of copper oxide

(0.92g)
100
= 80%
(1.15g)

% oxygen =

Weight of oxygen
100
Weight of copper oxide

(0.23g)
100
= 20%
(1.15g)

Since the ratio by weights of copper and oxygen in the two compounds remains the same, the law of
definite composition is illustrated.

2.3 Law of Multiple Proportions

In 1803 Sir John Dalton discovered the Law of Multiple Proportions. According to this law, When one
element combines with the other element to form two or more different compounds, the mass of one
element, which combines with a constant mass of the other, bears a simple ratio to one another.
Simple ratio means the ratio between small natural numbers, such as 1:1, 1:2, 1:3.
It is one of the basic law of stoichiometry and it is used by Dalton to establish the atomic theory.

www.plancess.com

55

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Illustration 2: Carbon is found to form two oxides, which contain 42.8% and 27.27% of carbon
respectively. Show that these figures illustrate the law of multiple proportions.
Sol:
For the first oxide:

For the second oxide:

% of carbon in first oxide = 42.8

% of carbon in second oxide = 27.27

% of oxygen in first oxide = 100 42.8 = 57.2

Mass of oxygen in grams that

% of oxygen in second oxide =100 27.27=

72.73

combines with 42.8 g of carbon = 57.2

Mass of oxygen in grams that

Mass of oxygen that combines with 1 g of

combines with 27.27g of carbon =72.73

carbon =

57.2
= 1.34 g
42.8

Mass of oxygen that combines with 1 g of

carbon =

72.73
= 2.68 g
27.27

Ratio between the masses of oxygen that combine with a fixed mass (1 g) of carbon to the two oxides =
1.34:2.68 or 1:2 which is a simple ratio. Hence, this illustrates the law of multiple proportion.
Illustration 3: Carbon and hydrogen combine to form three compounds A, B and C. The percentage of
hydrogen in these compounds are: 25, 14.3 and 7.7 respectively. Show that the data illustrates the Law
of Multiple Proportions.
Sol. Let us fix 1g of hydrogen as the fixed weight in the three compounds.
In the first compound

In the second compound

In the third compound

Weight of hydrogen=25.0 g

Weight of hydrogen = 14.3 g

Weight of hydrogen = 7.7g

Weight of carbon

Weight of carbon

Weight of carbon

=100 25 = 75.0g

= 100 14.3 = 85.7g

= 100 7.7 = 92.3g

25.0 g of hydrogen have

14.3g of hydrogen have

7.7g of hydrogen have

combined with carbon=75.0 g

combined with carbon

combined with carbon = 92.3g

1.0 g of hydrogen has with

= 85.7 g

1.0 g of hydrogen has

1.0g of hydrogen has

combined with carbon

combined with carbon

= 92.3/7.7 =12 g

carbon =

75.0
g = 3g
25.0

= 85.7/14.3 = 6 g
Ratio of weight of carbon which combine with 1g of hydrogen in the three compounds is 3 : 6 : 12 or 1
: 2 : 4. As the ratio is simple whole number in nature, the Law of Multiple Proportions is proved.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

56

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Dalton became the first scientist to explain the behavior of atoms in terms of the measurement
of weight.
Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NSO

2.4 Law of Reciprocal Proportions

Jeremiasa Richter German scientist in 1972 proposed a law known as Law of Reciprocal Proportions
The Law States that , The ratio of the weights of two elements, A and B which combine separately with a
fixed weight of the third element C is either the same or some simple multiple of the ratio of the weights
in which A and B combine directly with each other.
He introduced the term Stoichiometry
The elements C and O combine separately with the third element H to form CH4 and H2O and they
combine directly with each other to form CO2.
In CH4, 12 parts by weight of carbon combine with 4 parts by weight of hydrogen. In H2O, 2 parts by
weight of hydrogen combine with 16 parts by weight of oxygen. Thus, the weight of C and O which
combine with fixed weight of hydrogen (say 4 parts by weight) and 12 and 32 i.e., they are in the ratio
12:32 or 3:8. Now in CO2, 12 parts by weight of carbon combine directly with 32 parts by weight of
oxygen i.e., they combine directly in the ratio 12:32 or 3: 8 which is the same as the first ratio.
Illustration 4: Ammonia contains 82.35% of nitrogen and 17.65% of hydrogen. Water contain 88.90%
of oxygen and 11.10% of hydrogen. Nitrogen trioxide contains 63.15% of oxygen and 36.85% of
nitrogen. Show that this data illustrates the law of reciprocal proportions.
Sol:
In NH3, 17.65 g of H combine with 82.35 g N

In N2O3, ratio of weights of N and O

1 g of H combine with N =

which combine with each other =36.85: 63.15

82.35
g = 4.67 g
17.65

In H2O, 11.10 g of H combine with 88.90 g O

1 g H combine with O =

= 1: 1.71

88.90
g = 8.01 g
11.10

Ratio of the weights of N and O which

combine with fixed weight (1g) of H
= 4.67: 8.01 = 1: 1.72
Thus, the two ratios are the same. Hence, it illustrates the law of reciprocal proportions.

www.plancess.com

57

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Illustration 5: Phosphorus trichloride (PCl3) contains 22.57% of phosphorus, phosphine (PH3) contains
91.18% of phosphorus and Hydrochloric acid (HCl) contains 97.23% of chlorine. Show that the data is

according to the Law of Reciprocal Proportions.

Sol.

Let us fix 1g of phosphorus (P) as the fixed weight.

In phosphorus trichloride (PCl3)

In phosphine (PH3)

Weight of phosphorus = 22.57g

Weight of phosphorus = 91.18g

Weight of chlorine = 100 22.57 = 77.43g

Weight of hydrogen = 100 91.18

22.57g of phosphorus have combined

= 8.82g

with chlorine = 77.43g

91.18g of phosphorus have combined

1.0g of phosphorus has combined

with hydrogen = 8.82g

with chlorine =

77.43
g = 3.43g
22.57

1.0g of phosphorus has combined

with hydrogen =

8.82
g = 0.097g
91.18

Thus, the ratios by weights of chlorine and hydrogen combining with a fixed weight of phosphorus in
the two compounds is 3.43:0.097 (This ratio is not the same) 
....(i)
In hydrochloric acid gas (HCl), Weight of chlorine = 97.23g
Weight of hydrogen = 100 97.23 = 2.77g
Thus, chlorine and hydrogen have combined in the ratio 97.23:2.77
Let us compare the two ratios.
These are related to each other as

....(ii)

3.43 97.23
:
= 35.37:35.10 or 1:1 (approximately)
0.097 2.77

2.5 Gay Lussacs Law of combining Volumes

Sir Gay Lussac found the relationship existing between the volumes of the gaseous reactants and their
products. In 1808, he put forward a generalization known as the Gay Lussacs Law of combining volumes.
According to this Law When gases react together, they always do so in volumes which bear a simple
ratio to one another and to the volumes of the product. If these are also gases, provided all measurements
of volumes are done under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.
It implies that one molecule of hydrogen chloride gas is made up of 1 atom of hydrogen and 1atom of
chlorine.

2.6 Avogadros Hypothesis

According to this hypothesis Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and
pressure contain equal number of molecules.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

58

This hypothesis explains elegantly all the gaseous reactions and is now widely recognized as a law or a
principle known as Avogadros Law or Avogadros principle.
The reaction between hydrogen and chlorine can be explained on the basis of Avogadros Law as follows:
Applying Avogadros hypothesis:

Hydrogen

2n

No. of molecules -

Oxygen

Water Vapour

2n

Thus, 1 molecule of water contains molecule of oxygen. But, 1 molecule of water contains 1 atom of
2
oxygen. Hence, 1 molecule of oxygen = 2 atoms of oxygen i.e., atomicity of oxygen = 2
2.6.1 Applications of Avogadros hypothesis

(A) In the calculation of atomicity of elementary gases

E.g. 2 volumes of hydrogen combine with 1 volume of oxygen to form two volumes of water
vapour.

Word equation for this reaction can be written as

Hydrogen

Oxygen

1 vol.

2 vol.

Water Vapour
2 vol.

Example: Combination between hydrogen and chlorine to form hydrogen chloride gas. One
volume of hydrogen and one volume of chlorine always combine to form two volumes of
hydrochloric acid gas.

Word equation for this reaction can be written as

H2 (g)

1 vol.

Cl2(g)

1 vol.

2HCl (g)
2 vol.

Thus proved, the ratio between the volume of the reactants and the product in this reaction is
simple, i.e., 1: 1: 2. Hence it illustrates the law of combining volumes.

(B) To find the relationship between molecular mass and vapour density of a gas
Density of gas
Massof acertainvolumeof thegas
=
Density of hydrogen
Massof thesame volumeof hydrogenat
thesametemp,andpressure

Vapour density (VD) =

If n molecules are present in the given volume of a gas and hydrogen under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure.

VD =

Mass of n molecules of the gas

Mass of 1 molecule of the gas
=
Mass of n molecules of hydrogen Mass of 1 molecule of hydrogen

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

59

Mass of 1 molecule of the gas

Molecular mass
=
Mass of 1 molecule of hydrogen
2

(Since molecular mass of hydrogen is 2). Hence, Molecular mass = 2 vapour density

In a single reactant reaction, the calculations are arrived out with only that amount of the reactant
which has converted into the product.

In the reactions, where more than one reactant is involved, one has to first identify the limiting
reactant, i.e., the reactant which is completely consumed. All calculations are to be carried out
with the amount of the limiting reactant only. For this, limiting reactant should be identified.
The following example would help us.

2B

4C

Initially 5 moles

12 moles

0 moles

If A is the limiting reactant, moles of C produced = 20

If B is the limiting reactant, moles of C produced = 24

The reactant producing the least number of moles of the product is the limiting reactant and
hence A is the limiting reactant.

Thus,

2B

4C

Initially 5 moles

12 moles

0 moles

Finally 0 moles

2 moles

20 moles

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
In a chemical reaction, not all reactants are necessarily consumed. One of the reactants may
be in excess and the other may be limited. The reactant that is completely consumed is called
limiting reactant, whereas unreacted reactants are called excess reactants.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

60

Amounts of substances produced are called yields. The amounts calculated according to
stoichiometry are called theoretical yields whereas the actual amounts are called actual yields.
The actual yields are often expressed in percentage, and they are often called percent yields.
Neeraj Toshniwal
Gold Medalist, INChO

3. Main Drawbacks Of Daltons Atomic Theory

www.plancess.com

61

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Many unexplained chemical phenomena were quickly explained by Dalton with his theory.
Daltons theory quickly became the theoretical foundation in chemistry.
Neeraj Toshniwal
AIR 23 , NSO

4. Modern Atomic Theory

(i) Atom is no longer indivisible: It is composed of sub-atomic particles which are electrons, protons
and neutrons.
(ii) All atoms of an element may not be similar: The atoms of the same element may have different
atomic masses. For example, the atoms of chlorine element have been found to possess atomic
masses of 35 and 37. These are called isotopes.
(iii) Atoms of the different element may have same atomic masses:

It is interesting to note that atomic mass of calcium (Ca) and argon (Ar) which represent different
elements, is 40. These are called isobars.

(iv) Atoms may not always combine in simple whole number ratios: Contrary to Daltons atomic
theory, in many cases, atoms do not combine in simple whole number ratios. For example,
in sucrose (C12H22O11), the element carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are present in the ratio of
12:22:11 and the ratio is not a simple whole number ratio.
(v) Atom is no longer indestructible: In many nuclear reactions, a certain mass of the nucleus is
converted into energy in the form of , and rays. Thus, atom is no longer indestructible as
suggested by Dalton.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

62

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Modern atomic theory is, of course, a little more involved than Daltons theory but the
essence of Daltons theory remains valid. Today, we know that atoms can be destroyed via
nuclear reactions but not by chemical reactions.
Shivam Agarwal
Gold Medalist, INChO

5. Important Formulae Of Mole Concept

(i) 1 mole of atoms = 6.023 1023 atoms
Gram Atomic mass = mass of 6.023 1023 atoms
(ii) 1 mole of molecules = 6.023 1023 molecules

Gram molecular mass = mass of 6.023 1023 molecules

(iii) Number of moles of atoms

(iv) Number of moles

Mass of element in grams

Gram atomic mass of element

No.of atom of element

N
=
Avogadro's no.of atoms NA

(v) Number of moles in molecules =

Mass of substance in grams

Gram molecular mass of substance

(vi) Number of moles of molecules =

No.of molecules of element N

=
Avogadro's no.of atoms
NA

www.plancess.com

63

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

(vii) 1 gram formula mass = mass of 1 mole of an ionic compound.

(viii) Molarity (M) =

Number of moles of solute

Volume of the solution in litres
Mass of solute in gram / Gram moleular mass of solute
Volume of solution in lites

(ix) Normality (N) =

Number of grams equivalent of solute

Volume of solution in litres

(x) N

Weight of solute in gram / equivalent weight of solute

Volume of the solution in liters

Where N = normality of solution

V = volume of solution in ml.

(xi) If weight of substance is given,

W 1000
E

milliequivalent (NV) =

Where, W = weight of substance in grams, E = equivalent weight of substance

The ratio between the moles of solute or solvent to the total moles of solution is called mole fraction.

=
Mole fraction of solute

olesof solute
n
w /m
= =
Molesof solution n + M w /m + W /M

=
Moles fraction of solvent

Molesof solvent
N
W/ M
= =
Molesof solution n + N w /m + W /M

where, n = number of moles of solute , N = number of moles of solvent

m = molecular weight of solute, M = molecular weight of solvent , w = weight of solute

W = weight of solvent

Sum of mole fraction of solute and solvent is always equal to one.

6. Chemical Formulae
Smallest particle of elements or compound which can exist independently is known as molecule. Formula
of a substance is a group of symbols of the elements which represents one molecule of the substance.
e.g. - Water molecule (H2O), Chlorine molecule (Cl2), Hydrogen molecule (H2) etc.
Chemical Formula of water molecule is H2O.This indicates that one water molecule contains two atoms
of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Thus in simple words it is a way of expressing proportions of atoms
that are present in one single Molecule.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

64

6.1 Types of Formulae

(A) Empirical Formula: Formula which represents the simplest
relative whole number ratio of atoms of each element present
in one molecule of that substance is known as empirical
formula.
(B) Molecular Formula: Formula which represents the actual
number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of
the substance is called molecular formula.
(C) Structural formula: From the molecular formula of element
or compound, we get no information regarding the bonds
between the atoms. Formula of element or compound
that shows bonds between its atoms is known as structural
formula.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Many compounds may have the same empirical formula but their molecular and structural
formula may be different.
e.g.: CH2O is the empirical formula of formaldehyde (HCHO), acetic acid (CH3COOH)
and glucose (C6H12O6).
Anand K
AIR 1, NSO 2011
6.1.1 Determination of Empirical and Molecular Formulae

The following steps are involved in determining the empirical formula of a compound.
1. The percentage composition of each element is divided by its atomic mass. It gives atomic ratio
of the element present in the compound.
2. The atomic ratio of each element is divided by the minimum value of atomic ratio so as to get
the simplest ratio of the atoms of elements present in the compound.
3. If the simplest ratio is fractional, then values of simplest ratio of each element is multiplied by
smallest integer to get the simplest whole number for each of the element.
4. To get the empirical formula, symbols of various elements present are written side by side with
their respective whole number ratio as a subscript to the lower right hand corner of the symbol.
5. The molecular formula of a substance may be determined from the empirical formula if the
molecular mass of the substance is known. The molecular formula is always a simple multiple of

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

65

empirical formula and the value of simple multiple (n) is obtained by dividing molecular mass with
empirical formula mass.

n=

MolecularMass
EmpiricalFormulaMass

Illustration 6: Calculate the percentage composition of following

(a) Potassium chloride KClO

(b) Sodium carbonate Na CO

2

Sol. (a) Gram molecular weight of the compound = K + Cl + 3(O) = 39 + 35 + 48 = 122 g

Weight of potassium = 39

% composition of potassium = (39/122) 100 = 31.96%

% composition of oxygen =(16/122) 100 = 39.34%

% composition of chlorine = 100 (31.96 + 39.34) = 28.7%

(b) Gram molecular weight of compound Na2CO3 = 2(Na) + C + 3(O) = 2(23) + 12 + 3(16)

= 46 + 12 + 48 = 106g

Weight of Na in compound = 2 23 = 46; % composition of Na in compound =(46/106) 100

= 43.4%

Weight of C in compound =12; % composition of C in compound =(12/106)x100= 11.32

Weight of O in compound =48; % composition of Oxygen in compound =(48/106)x100 =

45.3%

Illustration 7: Find the empirical formula of a compound whose molecular weight is 90, has the percentage

composition of C = 26.59%, H = 2.22%, O = 71.19%. Also calculate its molecular formula.

Sol.

Element

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Symbol

Relative atomic mass

12

16

% composition

26.59

2.22

71.19

Relative no. of atoms

26.59
= 2.21
12

2.22
= 2.22
1

71.19
= 4.44
16

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Element

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Simple ratio

2.21
=1
2.21

2.22
=1
2.21

4.44
=2
2.21

Simple whole no. of ratio

66

(i) The empirical formula = CHO2

(ii) Empirical formula weight = 12 + 1 + 2 16 = 12 + 1 + 32 = 45
90
=2
45

Ratio of molecular weight to empirical formula weight =

Hence, molecular formula = Empirical formula 2 = (CHO2) 2 = C2H2O4.

n(wholenumberpositive integer ) = .

Molecular Weight
.
Empiricalformulaweight

Illustration 8: How many litres of CO2 is produced from 10 g of decomposition of calcium carbonate
at S.T.P?
Sol.

From the equation:

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

100g

111g

(i) 100g of CaCO3 produces 111g of CaCl2

10g of CaCO3 will produce

111
10g =
11.1gof CaCl 2
100

(ii) 100g of CaCO3 produces 22.4 l of CO2

22.4 10
= 2.24l
100

10g of CaCO3 will produce CO2

7. Stoichiometry The term Stoichiometry was introduced by a German scientist Jeremias Richter.

Definition: Calculations based on chemical equation are known stoichiometry. A chemical

equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical change. .

It gives following information used in solving problems based on a chemical equation:

1. It indicates the number of moles of the reactants involved and number of moles of the products
formed.
2. It gives the relative weight of the reactants and products.
3. It gives the volume of the gaseous reactants and products.

www.plancess.com

67

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

For example, the equation CaCO3

CaO + CO2 indicates that

(a) 1 mole of CaCO3 gives 1 mole of CaO and 1 mole of CO2

(b) 100g (mol.wt. of CaCO3) of CaCO3 gives 56g of CaO and 44g (or 22.4 litres) of carbon
dioxide.
Problems based on chemical equations are dealt under three headings for easy understanding.
(a) Problems involving mass-mass relationship.
(b) Problems involving mass-volume relationship.
(c) Problems involving volume-volume relationship.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The word stoichiometry is just a fancy way of saying the method you use to figure out how
much of a chemical you can make, or how much you need, during a reaction.
For example, if you are doing a reaction and want to make 88.5 grams of the product, you
would do a bunch of calculations to figure out how much of each reagent you would need.
Those calculations are stoichiometry.
Vaibhav Gupta
AIR 2, NSO
Illustration 9: Calculate the percentage by weight of each element in calcium carbonate.

Sol.

[At. wt. Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16]

Mol. wt. (wt. of 1 mole) of CaCO3= 40 + 12 + 48 = 100

From formula, it is obvious that 100g CaCO3 has 40g Ca

40
12
100 =
40% Similarly, % of C in CaCO3 =
100 = 12%
100
100

100g CaCO3 has

% of O in CaCO3 =

48
100 = 48%
100

Illustration 10: 1g of Mg is burnt in a closed vessel which contains 0.5g of O2

(i) Which reactant is left in excess?
(ii) Find the weight of the excess reactant.
(iii) How many millilitres of 0.5N H2SO4 will dissolve the residue in the vessel?

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Sol.

68

The relevant chemical equation is

2Mg + O2 2MgO

2 24 216

= 48g = 32g = 80g

From the equation, it is clear that 48g of Mg require = 32g of O2

1g of Mg requires =

But only 0.5g of oxygen is available, hence, whole of Mg will not burn and a part of it will
remain as such.

Magnesium will be left in excess. Weight of excess reactant=

From the equation, 32g of O2 reacts with 48g of Mg

0.5g of O2 reacts with =

Wt. of Mg present = 1g

Wt. of Mg left unreacted = 1 0.75 = 0.25g

Hence, the wt. of excess Mg = 0.25g

Calculation of 0.5N H2SO4 required to dissolve residue, which consists of MgO and unreacted
Mg.

Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4

MgO + H2SO4

2(24+16)

32
g = 0.66g of O2
48

48
0.5g = 0.75g of Mg
32

MgSO4 + H2O
Since, in present case, it is only the magnesium atom that reacts with H2SO4 hence, total
amount of Mg, i.e., 1g (whether as Mg or MgO) will react with H2SO4.

Now, we know that 1000ml of 1N H2SO4 (i.e., 1eq. wt.) = 1eq. of Mg

or

1g of Mg =

= 166.6 mL of 0.5 N H2SO4

Hence, the amount of 0.5N H2SO4 required to dissolve the residue (Mg and MgO) = 166.6

Weight of solid substance can be compared with the volume of gases with the help of the fact
that 1 mole or 1gm molecule of a gas occupies 22.4 litres or 22400 cc. at NTP. Thus in short, the
weight-volume relationship can be represented as below

1 eq. wt. (12g) of mg = 1000mL of 1N H2SO4

2 165 2 165
1000
ta mL
=
=
1 sec
1 mL of N H2SO4 = 83.3 mL of N H2SO=
=
N H2SO
4
4
v a of 0.5 330
12

Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

By mole
1
2
1
1

www.plancess.com

...............

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

69

By a.m.u.

24

73

95

By gm. wt.

24g

73g

95g

2g

By wt. or vol.

24g

73g

95g

22.4 litres at N.T.P.

It is important to note that if other conditions are not mentioned, the chemical reaction is
assumed to take place at NTP i.e., at 0C and 760 mm (1 atmospheric) pressure.

For solving problems involving mass-volume relationship, proceed according to the following
instructions
(a) Write down the relevant balanced chemical equation (s).
(b) Write the weights of various solid reactants and products.

In case of gases

Gases are usually expressed in terms of volumes. In case the volume of the gas is measured at
room temperature and pressure (or any condition other than NTP), convert it into NTP by
applying gas laws. Volume of a gas at any temperature and pressure can be converted into its
weight and vice-versa with the help of the relation,

PV =

Calculate the unknown factor by unitary method.

g
RT where g is weight of gas, M is mol. wt. of gas, R is gas constant.
M

Illustration 11: Two grams of sulphur is completely burnt in oxygen to form SO2. What is the volume
(in L) of oxygen consumed at STP?
Sol.

O2 SO2
22.4 L at NTP

32g

32g of S react with 22.4 L of O2 at NTP

2g of S react with =

22.4
2 = 1.4 L at NTP
32

Illustration 12: What volume of hydrogen gas, at 273 K and 1 atm pressure will be consumed in obtaining

21.6 of elemental boron (atomic mass = 10.8) from the reduction of boron trichloride by hydrogen?
Sol. 2BCl3 + 3H2

2B +HCl

3 22.4 L at NTP

2 10.8g = 21.6g

From the above balanced equation it is clear that 21.6g of boron is obtained by 67.2 L of
hydrogen at NTP.

Such problems can be solved balanced to the following steps

Write down the relevant balanced chemical equation.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

70

Write down the volume of reactants and products below the formula to each reactant and product
with the help of the fact that 1gm molecule of every gaseous substance occupies 22.4 litres at
NTP.

In case, volume of the gas is measured under particular (or room) temperature, convert it to NTP
by using ideal gas equation.

Take the help of Avogadros hypothesis Gases under similar conditions of temperature and
pressure contain the same number of molecules. Thus, under similar conditions of temperature
and pressure, the volume of reacting gases are proportional to the number of moles of the gases
in the balanced equation. For example,

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

1 mole
3 moles
2 moles

22.4 litres 3 22.4 litres

2 22.4 litres

1 volume 3 volumes

2 volumes

1x volume 3x volumes

2x volumes

From the above relation, it is obvious that 22.4 litres of N2 will react with 3 22.4 litres of H2
to form 2 22.4 litres of NH3.

Illustration 13: Calculate the volumetric composition of heavy water, D2O [At. wt. D = 2, O = 16]
Sol.

The relevant balanced chemical equation is

2D2O 2D2 +

2 moles
2 moles

O2
1 mole

2 vol

1 vol

Thus, according to equation, 3 vol. of gaseous products of D2O have 2 vol. of D2

100 vol. of gaseous products of D2O have

Similarly, 3 vol. of gaseous products of D2O have 1 vol. of O2

100 vol. of gaseous products of D2O =

Thus, the volumetric composition of D2O = Volume % of D2 : volume % of O2 = 66.66% :

33.33% = 2:1

2 vol

2
100 = 66.66 vol. of D2
3

1
100 = 33.33 vol. of O2
3

www.plancess.com

71

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

SUMMARY
Terminologies
Law of Conservation of
mass

In all physical changes and chemical reactions, the total mass of the
products is the same as the total mass of the reactants.

Law of Definite
Proportions or
Constant Composition

A pure chemical compound always consists of the same elements

combined together in a fixed (definite) proportion by weight.

Law of Multiple
Proportions

When one element combines with the other element to form two or
more different compounds, the mass of one element, which combines
with a constant mass of the other, bears a simple ratio to one another.

Law of Reciprocal
Proportions

The ratio of the weights of two elements, A and B which combine

separately with a fixed weight of the third element C is either the same
or some simple multiple of the ratio of the weights in which A and B
combine directly with each other.

Gay Lussacs Law of

combining Volumes

When gases react together, they always do so in volumes which bear a

simple ratio to one another and to the volumes of the product. If these
are also gases, provided all measurements of volumes are done under
similar conditions of temperature and pressure.

Avogadros Hypothesis

Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature

and pressure contain equal number of molecules.

Molarity (M)

Number of moles of solute

Volume of the solution in litres

Normality(N)

Weight of solute in gram / equivalent weight of solute

Volume of the solution in litres

Milliequivalent (NV)

Mole fraction of solute

W 1000
(E is the equivalent weight)
E

olesof solute
n
w /m
= =
Molesof solution n + M w /m + W /M

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Moles fraction of
solvent

olesof solvent
N
W/ M
= =
Molesof solution n + N w /m + W /M

n=

PV =

g
RT
M

PV = nRT

72

MolecularMass
EmpiricalFormulaMass

where g is weight of gas, M is mol. wt. of gas, R is gas constant.

n = no. of moles.

To find the relationship between molecular mass and vapour density of a gas.

Vapour density (VD) =

Density of gas
Mass of a certain volume of the gas
=
Density of hydrogen Mass of the same volume of hydrogen at
the same temp,and pressure

Molecular mass = 2 vapour density

1 mole of atoms = NA = 6.023 1023 atoms.

GAM = mass of NA atoms.

1 mole of molecules = NA molecules.

GMM = mass of NA molecules.

Number of moles in molecules =

Mass of substance in grams

Gram molecular mass of substance

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

73

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1: Find the percentage of water of CRYSTALLISATION in the following

(a) Copper sulphate crystals CuSO4.5H2O (b) Washing soda crystals Na2CO3.10H2O
Sol.

Copper sulphate crystals CuSO4.5H2O

Washing soda crystals Na2CO3.10H2O

Gram molecular weight of compound

Gram-molecular weight of compound

= Cu + S + 4(O) + 5 (H2O)

= 63 + 32 + 4(16) + 5(18) = 249 g

Na2CO3.10H2O
= 2(Na) +C +3(O)+10(H2O)

Weight of water in the compound

= 2 23 + 12+3 16 +10 18 =286 g

Wt. of water in the compound

= 5 18 = 90g

% of water of crystallisation in
CuSO4.5H2O

90
100 =
36.14%
249

=1018= 180g
% of water of crystallisation in the
compound Na2CO3.10H2O
=

180
100 =
62.94%
286

Example 2: Calculate the volume of oxygen at S.T.P. required for the complete combustion of 100 l of

Carbon monoxide at the same temperature and pressure.

Sol.

2CO (l) + O2 (g) 2CO2 (g)

2 (22.4l) 22.4l

44.8 l of CO requires 22.4 l of O2 for combustion.

100 l of CO will require O2 =

22.4
100 l =
50 l
44.8

Example 3: How many litres of ammonia are present in 3.4 kg of it?

Sol.

At S.T.P., Molar mass has volume equal to 22.4

Molar mass of ammonia (NH3) = 17g

17g of NH3 has volume = 22.4L 3.4 kg or 3400 g will have volume =

22.4
3400 =
4480 l
17

Example 4: Find out the mole fraction of solute in 10% (by weight) urea solution, urea (NH2(CO)NH2).

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Sol.

74

Weight of solute (urea) = 10g

Weight of solution = 100 g

Weight of solvent (water) = 100 10 = 90g
=
Mole fraction
of solute

olesof solute
w /m
10 / 60
=
=
= 0.032
Molesof solution w /m + W /M
10 / 60 + 90 / 18

Example 5: A compound of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen contains these elements in the ratio of

9:1:3.5. Calculate the empirical formula. If its molecular mass is 108, what is the molecular formula?
Sol.

Element

Element Ratio

Atomic Mass Relative Number of

atoms

Carbon

12

Hydrogen

Nitrogen

3.5

14

Empirical formula = C3H4N

Empirical formula mass = (312) + (41) + 14 = 54

9
= 0.75
12

0.75
=3
0.25

1
=1
1

1
=4
0.25
0.25
=1
0.25

n
=

Simplest Ratio

MolecularMass
108
= = 2
EmpiricalFormulaMass 54

Thus, molecular formula of the compound = (empirical formula)n = (C3H4N)2 = C6H8N2

Example 6: A compound on analysis, was found to have the following composition:

(i) Sodium = 14.31%, (ii) Sulphur = 9.97%, (iii) Oxygen = 69.50%, (iv)Hydrogen = 6.22%.
Calculate the molecular formula of the compound assuming that whole of hydrogen in the
compound is present as water of crystallisation. Molecular mass of the compound is 322.
Sol.

Element
3.5
= 0.25 .Sodium
14

Atomic Mass

Relative Number
of atoms

14.31

23

0.622

Simplest Ratio
0.622
= 2.
0.311

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

75

Element

Atomic Mass

Relative Number
of atoms

Sulphur

9.97

32

0.311

Hydrogen

6.22

6.22

6.22
= 20
0.311

Oxygen

69.50

16

4.34

4.34
= 14
0.311

Empirical formula = Na2SH20O14

Empirical formula mass = 23 2 + 32 + 20 + 14 16 = 322

n=

Simplest Ratio

v0

molecular mass
=1
empirical mass

As all H-atoms are as water of crystallisation.

Na2SO4.10H2O

This is the molecular formula.

Example 7: How many oxygen can be obtained from 90 kg of water?

Sol.

The concerned chemical equation is

2H2O 2H2 + O2
2[2+16]

216

=36

= 32

Thus, 36kg of water give oxygen = 32kg

90kg of water give oxygen =

32
90 =
80kg
36

Example 8: Calculate the weight of 90% pure sulphuric acid that would be required for neutralising 60g
of sodium hydroxide.
Sol.

The concerned chemical equation is

2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O

2[23+16+1]= 80

Thus, 80g of NaOH require H2SO4 = 98g

2 + 32 + 64= 98

60g of NaOH require H2SO4 =

98
60 =
73.5g
80

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

76

This is the weight of 100% H2SO4.

Hence, wt. of H2SO4 required 73.5

100
=
81.67g of H2SO4
90

Example 9: A metal oxide has the formula Z2O3. It can be reduced by hydrogen to give free metal and

water. 0.1596g of the metal oxide requires 6 mg of hydrogen for complete reduction. What is the atomic
weight of the metal?
Sol.

Writing the concerned equation

Z2O3 + 3H2 2Z + 3H2O

0.1596g
6mg = 0.006 g

Thus, 0.006g of H2 reduces = 0.1596g of Z2O3

To calculate weight of 1 mole of Z2O3 we take 3 mole H2 (6 gram of H2)

6g of H2 will reduce =

Molecular weight of Z2O3 = 159.6, in other words, 2Z + 48 = 159.6

2Z =159.6 48 = 111.6; Z = 111.6/2 = 55.8

0.1596
6gof Z 2O3 = 159.6g of Z2O3
0.006

Example 10: How many moles of impure potassium chlorate of 75% purity are required to produce 24g

of oxygen?
heat
Sol. 2KClO3
2KCl + 3O2
2moles

3[216]
= 96g

Thus, 96g of oxygen are produced from KClO3 = 2 moles

24g of oxygen are produced from

2
24 =
0.5mole
96

Now, 75 moles of pure KClO3 are present in 100 moles of KClO3

0.5 moles of pure KClO3 =

100
0.5 = 0.667 moles
75

Example 11: 5.82g of a silver coin was dissolved in strong nitric acid, and excess of sodium chloride

solution was added. The silver chloride precipitate was dried and weighed 7.2g. Calculate the percentage
of silver in the coin. The reaction is

Ag + 2HNO3 AgNO3 + NO2 + H2O; AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

77

Sol. The relevant chemical reactions are as below

Ag + 2HNO3 AgNO3 + NO2 + H2O; AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3

On adding,

Ag + 2HNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3 + NO2 + H2O

108

Thus, 143.5g of AgCl is formed by 108g of Ag

7.2g of AgCl is formed by

Thus, 5.82g of silver coin contains = 5.418g of Ag

100g of silver contains

Percentage of silver in coins = 93.1%

108 + 35.5
= 143.5
108
7.2g = 5.418g of Ag;
143.5

5.418 100
= 93.1g of Ag
5.82

Example 12: Determine the composition of the residual mixture when 30g of magnesium is reacted with

30g of O2
Sol.

O2
2 24 = 48g 216 = 32g

2Mg +

2MgO
2[24+16] = 80g
32
30 =
20g of O2
48

Thus, 48g of Mg require = 32g of O2 ; 30g of Mg requires =

Amount of O2 left unreacted = 30 20 = 10g

32g of O2 require 48g of Mg; 30g of O2 require

However, only 30g of Mg is present, therefore whole of Mg would react.

32g of O2 give = 80g of MgO; 20g of O2 give =

48
30 = 45g
32

80 20
=50g
32

Example 13: A sample of hard water contains 20 mg of Ca2+ ions per litre. How many milliequivalents

of Na2CO3 would be required to remove the Ca+2 ions from 1 litre of sample? The given reaction is
Ca2+ + Na2CO3
CaCO3 + 2Na+
Sol.

The relevant chemical equation is

Ca2+ + Na2CO3
CaCO3 + 2Na+

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

78

40g 106g

Thus, 40 g Ca2+ = 106g Na2CO3

Converting these into required unit; 40g Ca2+ = 2 equivalents of Na2CO3

Mol. wt. 106

=
Eq. =
No.of

Eq. wt.
53

40 1000 mg of Ca2+ = 2 eq. of Na2CO3 = 2 1000 milliequivalents of Na2CO3

20 mg of Ca2+ =

Hence, No. of meq. required to soften 1 litre of sample of water = 1

2 1000
20 meq. of Na2CO3 = 1 milliequivalent of Na2CO3
40000

Example 14: Determine the volume occupied by 11.2gm of a gas at NTP whose vapour density is 11.2.
Sol.

Mol. wt. of the gas = 2 V.D. = 2 11.2 = 22.4

Now we know that,

22.4 litres of every gas at NTP weigh equal to its 1 gm mole (Mol. wt.in gm). Thus here

22.4 gm of the gas = 22.4 litres ; 11.2 gm of the gas = 11.2 litres

Example 15: Calculate the weight of bromine in grams absorbed by 0.1 mole of ethylene, atomic weight

of bromine is 80.
Sol.

The concerned chemical reaction isCH2Br

CH2 CH2 + Br2 |
=

CH2Br

1 mole

1 mole of ethylene absorbs 160g of bromine; 0.1 mole of ethylene will absorb 16g of bromine

160 g

Example 16: 25.4 g of iodine and 14.2g of chlorine are made to react completely to yield a mixture of

ICl and ICl3. Calculate the number of moles of ICl and ICl3 formed.
Sol.

The relevant balanced equation is

I2
+
1 mole

2Cl2 ICl
+
2 moles 1 mole

ICl3
1 mole

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

79

ICl

ICl3

According to equation,

According to equation

254 g of I2 form = 1 mole of ICl

254g of I2 form 1 mole of ICl3

1
25.4 mole of ICl
254

25.4g I2 form

= 0.1 mole of ICl

25.4g of I2 form

1
25.4 mole of
254

ICl3= 0.1 moles of ICl3

Note: In this example there is no limiting reagent but we should always check for limiting
reagent in chemical reaction.

Example 17: What volume of hydrogen would be obtained by treating 0.65g of pure zinc with sufficient

amount of dilute hydrochloric acid (At. wt. of Zn is 65).

Sol.

The relevant equation is

Cl2 + H2

22400 ml at NTP

Zn + 2HCl

65g

Thus, 65g of Zn evolve = 22400 ml of H2 at NTP

0.65g of Zn evolve

22400
0.65ml = 224 ml at NTP
65

Example 18: What volume of air containing 21% of oxygen (by volume) is required to completely burn

900gm of sulphur?
Sol.

Writing the relevant chemical equation,

S + O2

32g

Thus, 32g of sulphur require 22.4 litres of O2

900g of sulphur requires

But, percentage of oxygen in air by volume = 21%

In other words, 21 litres of O2 are present in 100 litres of air

630 litres of O2 is present in

Volume of air required = 3000 litres

SO2
22.4 litres
22.4
900 litres = 630 lit. of pure O2
32

100
630 litres = 3000 litres air
21

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

80

Example 19: What volume of oxygen gas is necessary for the complete combustion of 20.0 litres of

propane (CH3CH2CH3)?
Sol.

The relevant chemical equation is

C3H8 + 5O2

1 mole

5 moles

1 vol.

5 vol.

1 litre

5 litres

3CO2 + 4H2O

m
= 2litres = 100
Thus, 1 litre of propane require 5 litres of O2. 20 litres of propane require T120
k
litres of O2

Example 20: In Haber process, 20 litres of dihydrogen and 30 litres of dinitrogen were taken for reaction

which yielded only 50% of the expected to form Ammonia. What will be the composition of gaseous
mixture under the above mentioned conditions at the end?
Sol. N2 (g)

3H2 (g)

3 vol

2NH3 (g)
2 vol

30 L

20 L

1 vol

or 10 L

The actual yield of the product = 10 L (50% of the expected yield)

Vol. of N2 used for formation of 10 L NH3 = 5 L

Vol. of H2 used for formation of 10 L NH3 = 15 L

Vol. of N2 left unreacted = 10 5 = 5 L

and Vol. of H2 left unreacted = 30 15 = 15 L

Vol. of NH3 formed = 10 L

Example 21: What volume of oxygen gas at NTP is necessary for complete combustion of 20.0 litres of

propane (CH3CH2CH3) measured at 27C and 760 mm pressure?

Sol.

Conversion of 20 litres of propane at 27C and 760 mm pressure to NTP conditions.

Given conditions

P1 = 760 mm

V1 = 20.0 litres

NTP conditions
P2 = 760 mm
V2 =?

T1 = 27 + 273=300 K T2 = 273K

Applying ideal gas equation,

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

81

P1 V1
T1

P2 V2

T2

1
2

1
2

760 20 2732
2
a =x18.2
v =
litres
760

300

; K.E. =mv 2 =m2 ; aV22=x2

The relevant chemical equation is

C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
1 mole
5 moles
1 vol.

5 vol.

1 litre

5 litres

Thus, 1 litre of propane requires = 5 litres of O2

1
2

1
2

2
2 2
= kx=91.0
P.E.litres
=m
x2 k =
m2
18.2 litres of propane requires P.E18.2
ofO

Example 22: 15cc of a gaseous sample believed to contain ethylene (C2H4) and acetylene (C2H2),

required 45cc of oxygen for complete combustion. Determine the percentage of the mixture.
Sol.

Total vol. of the sample = 15 cc

Let the vol. of ethylene in the sample = cc.

Vol. of acetylene in the sample = (15x)cc

Writing the relevant balanced chemical equations.

(i) C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
1 vol. 3 vol.

1 cc.

(ii) 2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O

2 cc
5 cc

3 cc.

From equation,

From equation,

1cc. of C2H4 requires = 3 cc. of O2

2 cc. of C2H2 requires 5 cc. of O2

cc. of C2H4 requires =

3
cc.
1

= 3 cc. of O2

(15) cc. of C2 H2 requires

5
(15) cc.
2

Total vol. of O2 consumed = 3 + (15) cc.

Vol. of O2 given in question = 45 cc

3+ (15) = 45; 6 + 75 5 = 90; = 90 75 = 15
Vol. of C2H4 in the sample = 15 m

Vol. of C2H2 in the sample = 1515= 0 mL

Example 23: A gas mixture of 3.0 litres of propane and butane on complete combustion at 25C produced

10 litres of CO2. Find out the composition of the gas mixture.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

82

Sol.

Let the volume of propane = V litres

Let the volume of butane = (3 V) litres

C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

(V) L (5V) L (3V) L (4V) L

C4H10 + O2 4CO2 + 5H2O

(3 V) L (3V) L 4(3 V) L 5(3 V) L

Given Volume of CO2 produced = 10 L

3V + 4 (3 V) = 10; 3V 4V = 10 12 or V = 2L
Volume of propane = 2L

2
Composition of propane = 100 = 66.66%
3

Volume of butane = 1 L
Composition of butane =

1
100 = 33.33%
3

Example 24: 1 litre of a mixture of CO and CO2 is taken. This is passed through a tube containing red

hot charcoal. The volume now becomes 1.6 litre. The volumes are measured under the same conditions.
Find the composition of the mixture by volume. When the mixture of CO and CO2 is passed through a
tube containing charcoal, CO2 present in the mixture is reduced by charcoal (C) to CO.
Sol.

Total volume of the mixture = 1 litre = 1000mL

Let the vol. of CO in the mixture = x mL

Vol. of CO2 in the mixture = (1000 x) mL

When the mixture of CO and CO2 is passed through a tube containing charcoal, CO2 present
in the mixture is reduced by charcoal (C) to CO with the result, the product (1.6 litres) will
consist of only CO. The relevant chemical equation is

CO2 + C 2CO

1 mole

2 moles

1 vol.

2 vol.

1 ml

2 ml

Thus,1 ml of CO2 gives = 2 mL of CO

(1000x) ml of CO2 gives

Total vol. of CO = Vol. of CO in mix + Vol. of formed from CO2 = x + 2 (1000x)

But, total volume of the product = 1.6 litres = 1600 mL (given)

x + 2 (1000x) = 1600 ; x + 2000 2x = 1600 ; x = 400

Vol. of CO in the mixture = 400 mL

Vol. of CO2 in the mixture = 1000 400 =600 mL

2
(1000x)mL of CO = 2 (1000x) mL of CO
1

www.plancess.com

83

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Example 25: Nine volumes of a mixture of a gaseous organic compound A and just sufficient amount

of oxygen required for complete combustion yielded on burning four volumes of CO2, six volumes
of H2O vapour and two volumes of N2, all being measured at the same temperature and pressure. If
compound A contained C, H and N only, what is the molecular formula of A?
Sol.

According to the given statement, the relevant chemical equation is

A + O2 CO2 + H2O + N2

9 vol.

4 vol.

6 vol.

2 vol.

9 moles

4 moles

6 moles

2 moles

A + O2 4CO2 + 6H2O + 2N2

The total oxygen atoms present in product are 14, therefore, 7 moles of oxygen must have been
present in the reactant. Hence, A + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O + 2N2

The total no. of moles of the reactants = 9(given) No. of moles of A = 9 7 = 2

Hence, the fully balanced equation will be as below 2A + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O + 2N2
Since, all oxygen atoms of the products are balanced by O2 of reactant. A must have other atoms
of products, i.e., 2C, 6H and 2N (atoms are calculated in one mole of A).

Hence, the molecular formula of A is C2H6N2

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

84

Exercise 1 For school Examinations

Fill in the Blanks
Q.1

During a chemical reaction, the sum of

remains unchanged.

the of the reactants and products

Q.2 In a pure chemical compound, elements are always present in a

by mass.
Q.3 Clusters of atoms that act as an ion are called

proportion
ions.

Q.4 In ionic compounds, the charge on each ion is used to determine the
the compound.
Q.5

The Avogadro constant

carbon-12.

of

is defined as the number of atoms in exactly of

Q.6 Mass of 1 mole of a substance is called its

Q.7 The abbreviation used for lengthy names of elements are termed as their
Q.8 A chemical formula is also known as a
Q.9 Those ions which are formed from single atoms are called
Q.10 Ionic compounds are formed by the combination between
Q.11 The valency of an ion is
Q.12 Mole is a link between the

and

to the charge on the ion.

and

Q.13 The SI unit of amount of a substance is

True / False
Q.14 Formula mass of Na2O is 62 amu.

True

False

Q.15 Those particles which have more or less electrons than the normal atoms are called ions
True
False
Q.16 Formula for sulphur dioxide is SO3.

True

False

Q.17 Molar mass of ethyne (C2H2) is 26 g/mol.

True

False

www.plancess.com

85

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Q.18 22gm of CO2 consists of 1 mole.

True

False

Q.19 Number of molecules in 32 gram of oxygen is 6.02 x 1023.

True

False

Q.20 Water is an atom.

True

False

Q.21 Formula for sulphur dioxide is SO2.

True

False

Q.22 Clusters of atoms that act as an ion is called polyatomic ion.

True

False

Q.23 Mass of 1 mole of a substance is called its formula mass.

True

False

Q.24 In a pure chemical compound. elements are always present in a definite proportion by Mass.

True

False

Match the Column

Q.25 Column II gives molecular mass in amu for substance in column 1 Match them correctly.
Column I

Column II

(A) H2O

(p) 58.5

(B ) H NO 3

(q) 111

(C) NaC1

(r) 18

(D ) CaCl 2

( s) 6 3

Q.26 Column II gives no. of moles for description given in column I Match them correctly.
Column I

Column II

(A) 52 g of He

(p) 2

(B) 12.044 x 1023 He atoms

(q) 13

(C) 8 of gm O2

(r)

(D) 28 of gm N2

(s) 1

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

86

Very Short Answer Questions

Q.27 Define term mole.
Q.28 What is Avogadros number?
Q.29 What is gram atomic weight?
Q.30 What is the difference between CO2, and 2CO2?
Q.31 Name the following compounds PCl3 and SO2.
Q.32 In what smallest whole-number ratio must N and O atoms combine to make dinitrogen to tetroxide
N2O4? What is the mole ratio of the elements in this compound?
Q.33 How many moles of sodium atoms correspond to 1.56 x 1021 atoms of sodium?
Q.34 What is the relationship between the formula weight of a substance and its molar mass?
Q.35 How many grams of silver are in 0.263 mol of Ag?
Q.36 How many atoms are 1.00 x 10 -9 g of lead?
Q.37 How many grams of iron are needed to combine with 25.6g of 0 to make Fe2O3?
Q.38 What is the mass of 4 moles of aluminium atoms? (Atomic mass of Al = 27u)
Q.39 Calculate the mass of 6.022 x 1022 atoms of He.
Q.40 Calculate the number of moles in 3.011 1022 molecules of carbon dioxide.
Q.41 A sample of 45.8g of H2SO4 contains how many moles of H2SO4?
Q.42 What is the mass in grams of 5 moles of Fe?
Q.43 How many moles of NaCl are present in 20 gm of the substance?
Q.44 How many grams of O is present in 50 gm of CaCO3?
Q.45 How many grams of CO2 are present in 0.1 mole CO2?
Q.46 Describe the difference between the mass of a mole of oxygen atoms (0) and the mass of a mole
of oxygen molecules (O2).
Q.47 What do you understand by the term Formula unit?

Short Answer Questions

Q.48 Convert into moles:
(a) 12 g of oxygen gas

(b) 22 g of carbon dioxide

Q.49 What is molecular weight? Explain with example.

Q.50 Write formulas for ionic compounds formed from
(a) Na and F,

(b) Na and 0

(c) Mg and F

(d) Al and C.

www.plancess.com

87

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Q.51 Write formulas for

(a) aluminium sulfide

(b) strontium fluoride

(c) titanium (IV) oxide

(d) calcium bromide.

Q.52 How many moles of Al atoms are needed to combine with 1.58 mole of 0 atoms to make
aluminium oxide, Al2O3?
Q.53 What is the volume of 32g of sulphur dioxide measured at STP?
Q.54 How many grams of sodium will have the same number of atoms as 6 grams of magnesium?

(Na = 23, Mg = 24).

Q.55 How many grams of Chromium (molar mass Cr = 52 g/mol) are there in 85 g of Cr2S3?
Q.56 Which has more number of atoms: 100 grams of sodium or 100 grams of iron? (Given atomic
mass of Na = 23 u and Fe = 56 u)
Q.57 A compound of nitrogen and oxygen has the formula NO. In this compound, there are 1.143g
of oxygen for each 1.000g of nitrogen. A different compound of nitrogen and oxygen has the
formula NO 2.How many grams of oxygen would be combined with each 1.000g of
nitrogen in NO2?
Q.58 How many moles of nitrogen atoms are combined with 8.60 mol of oxygen atoms in
dinitrogen pentoxide, N2O5?
Q.59 Calculate the volume occupied by 2.8 g of N2 at STP.
Q.60 How much weight of carbon dioxide is present in same volume which is occupied by 4.0
grams of oxygen? Volumes are measured at normal temperature and pressure. (NTP)
Q.61 What is the mass of 0.5 mole of water (H20). (Atomic masses : H = lu, 0 = 16u)
Q.62

How many moles of sulphur atoms and Oxygen atoms are present in one mole each of H2SO4,
H2S03 and SO2?

Q.63 What is the percentage composition of the elements in ammonia, NH3 ? (at. mass: H = 1, N =
14)
Q.64 Calculate the theoretical percentage composition of N2O3.
Q.65 10 grams of CaCO3 on heating gave 4.4g of CO2 and 5.6 of CaO. Show that these observations are in
agreement with the law of conservation.
Q.66 In which of the following, the number of hydrogen atoms is more (a) 3 moles of H2O or (b) 10
moles of HCl?
Q.67 If we decompose 50g of water by passing electricity through it, how many grams of oxygen and
hydrogen we obtain?
Q.68 Hydrogen and oxygen combine in the ratio of 1 : 8 by mass to form water. What mass of oxygen gas
would be required to react completely with 3g of hydrogen gas?

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

88

Q.69 Calculate the number of molecules in 32 grams of oxygen gas and 14 grams of nitrogen.
Q.70 Calculate the mass of a sample of iron-metal that would contain 0.250 moles of iron atoms.
Q.71 Calculate the number of atoms in a 0.123 gram sample of aluminium foil.

Long Answer Questions

Q.72 Calculate the formula mass of each of the following and round your answer to the nearest 0.1u.
(a) NaHCO3

(b) K2Cr2O7

(c) (NH4)2CO3 (d) Al2(SO4)3

(e) CuSO4.5H2O
Q.73 Calculate the molar mass of the following substances.
(i) Ethyne, C2H2

(ii) Sulphur molecule, S8

(iii) Phosphorus molecule, P4 (atomic mass of phosphorous = 31)

(iv) Hydrochloric acid, HCl

(v) Nitric acid, HNO3

Q.74 Calculate the number of aluminium ions present in 0.051g of aluminium oxide (Al2O3). (Atomic
mass : Al = 27 u, 0 = 16u)
Q.75 (I) Write the chemical formulas for the following compounds:
(a) copper (1) oxide,

(b) potassium peroxide

(c) mercury (I) bromide,

(d) iron (III) carbonate,

(e) sodium hypobromite.

(II) Give the name for each of the following acids

(a) HBrO 3,

(b) HBr,

(c) H3PO4,

(d) HClO

(e) HIO3
Q.76 (I) Calculate both the average mass of a single molecule of carbon dioxide and glucose and the
molecular weight of these compounds.

(II) Determine the number of carbon atoms in 0.500 grams of carbon dioxide, CO2.

Q.77 (I) 1.375g of cupric oxide was reduced by heating in a current of hydrogen and the weight of
copper that remained was 1.098g. In another experiment, 1.179g of copper was dissolved in nitric
acid and resulting copper nitrate converted into cupric oxide by ignition. The weight of cupric oxide
formed was 1.476g. Show that these results illustrate the law of constant proportion.

(II) In an experiment, 1.288 g of copper oxide was obtained from 1.03g of copper. In
another experiment, 3.672g of copper oxide gave, on reduction, 2.938 g of copper. Show that
these figures verify the law of constant proportions.

www.plancess.com

89

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Q.78 Calculate the following quantities :

(a) mass, in grams, of 1.73 mol CaH2
(b) moles of Mg (NO3)2 in 3.25g of this substance
(c) number of molecules in 0.245 mol CH3OH
(d) number of H atoms in 0.585 mol C4H1o.
(e) number of moles of Al are in 2.16 mol of Al2O3
Q.79 (i) Distinguish between an atom and a molecule.

(ii) Differentiate between atom and ion.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

90

Exercise 2 For Competitive examinations

Multiple choice Questions
Q.1

Q.2

Q.3

Q.4

Which of the following has largest number of particles?

(a) 8g of CH4

(b) 4.4g of CO2

(c) 34.2g of C12H22O11

(d) 2g of H2

The number of molecules in 16.0g of oxygen is

(a) 6.02 x 1023

(b) 6.02 x 10-23

(c) 3.01 x 10-23

(d) 3.01 x 1023

The percentage of hydrogen in H2O is (a) 8.88

(b) 11.12

(c) 20.60

(d) 80.0

Find the mass of oxygen contained in 1 kg of potassium nitrate (KNO3)

(a) 475.5 g

(b) 485.5 g

(c) 475.24 g

(d) 485.2 g

Q.5 How many moles of electron weight one kilogram?

(a) 6.023 x 1023 (b)
(c)

6.023
1054
9.108

(d)

1
1031
9.108

or=
y

=
75 5 3 cm

Q.6 25.4g of iodine and 14.2g of chlorine are made to react completely to yield a mixture of ICl and ICl3.
Calculate the ratio of moles of ICI and ICl3

Q.7

Q.8

(a) 1 : 1

(b) 2 : 1

(c) 3 : 1

(d) 1 : 2

The mass of sodium in 11.7 g of sodium chloride is

(a) 2.3 g

(b) 4.32 g

(c) 6.9 g

(d) 7.1 g

The formula of a chloride of a metal M is MCl3, the formula of the phosphate of metal M will be
(a) MPO4

(b) M2PO4

(c) M3PO4

(d) M2(PO4)3

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

91
Q.9

Which of the following contains the largest number of molecules ?

(a) 0.2 mol H2

(b) 8.0 g H2

(c) 17 g of H2O

(d) 6.0 g of CO2

Q.10 One gram of which of the following contains largest number of oxygen atoms?
(a) O

(b) O2

(c) O3

(d) All contains same

Q.11 The percentage by weight of O2 in CaSO4 (O= 16, S = 32, Ca = 40) is

(a) 64

(b) 28.2

(c) 47.2

(d) 16.2

Q.12 The percentage by weight of Zn in white vitriol, ZnSO4.7H2O (Zn = 65, S = 32, O = 16, H =
1), is approximately
(a) 23

(b) 33

(c) 43

(d) 13

Q.13 The formation of SO2 and SO3 explain

(a) the law of conservation of mass
(b) the law of multiple proportions
(c) the law of definite properties
(d) Boyles law
Q.14 The law of definite proportions was given by (a) John Dalton

(b) Humphry Davy

(c) Proust

(d) Michael Faraday

Q.15 Molecular mass is defined as the

(a) mass of one atom compared with the mass of one molecule
(b) mass of one atom compared with the mass of one atom of hydrogen
(c) mass of one molecule of any substance compared with the mass of one atom of C-12
(d) None of the above
Q.16 0.001 g of C is required to write a letter with a graphite pencil. The total number of C atoms
used in writing the letter is
(a) 5.00 x 1012

(b) 5 x 1019

(c) 5.0 x 1024

(d) 6.023 x 1023

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

92

Q.17 One mole of a gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L This is derived from
(a) Berzelius hypothesis

(b) Gay-Lussacs law

(c) Avogadros law

(d) Daltons law

Q.18 The mass of one C atom is (a) 6.023 x 1023 g

(b) 1.99 x 10-23 g

(c) 2.00 g

(d) 12g

Q19 The chemical symbol for barium is

(a) B

(b) Ba

(c) Be

(d) Bi

Q.20 The chemical symbol P stands for

(a) phosphorus

(b) potassium

(c) polonium

(d) promethium

Q.21 A group of atoms chemically bonded together is a (an)

(a) molecule

(b) ion

(c) salt

(d) element

Q.22 Adding electrons to an atom will result in a (a

(a) molecule

(b) anion

(c) cation

(d) salt

Q.23 When an atom loses electrons, it is called a (an)

charge.
(a) anion, positive

(b) cation, positive

(c) anion, negative

(d) cation, positive

and has a

Q.24 The molecular formula P2O5 means that

(a) a molecule contains 2 atoms of P and 5 atoms of 0
(b) the ratio of the mass of P to the mass of O in the molecule is 2:5
(c) there are twice as many P atoms in the molecule as there are O atoms
(d) the ratio of the mass of P to the mass of O in the molecule is 5 : 2
Q.25 The correct symbol for silver is
(a) Ag

(b) Si

(c) Ar -

(d) Al

www.plancess.com

93

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Q.26 Aspartame, an artificial sweetener, has the molecular formula C 14H18N2O5. What is the mass in
grams of one molecule? (Atomic weights: C = 12.01, H = 1.008, N = 14.01, O = 16.00).
(a) 4.89 x 10-21

(b) 2.24 x 10-21

(C) 3.85 x 10-22

(d) 4.74 x 10-22

Q.27 Morphine, an addictive drug, has the molecular formula C17H19NO3. What is the mass in grams of
one molecule? (Atomic weights; C = 12.01, H = 1.008, N = 14.01, O=16.00)
(a) 4.89 x 10-21

(b) 2.24 x10-21

(c) 3.85 x10-22

(d) 4.89 x10-22

Q.28 The controversial artificial sweetener saccharin has the molecular formula C3H5O3NS. What is the
mass in grams of one molecule? Atomic weights: C = 12.01, H =. 1.008. O= 16.00, N = 14.01, S
=32.06).
(a) 5.55 x 10-21

(b) 3.85 x 10-22

(c) 2.24 x 10-22

(d) 2.24 x 10-21

Q.29 The Statue of Liberty is made of 2.0x 105 lbs of copper sheets bolted to a framework. ( 1 lb = 454 g)
How many atoms of copper are on the statue? (Atomic weight: Cu =63.5).
(a) 2.1 x 1027

(b) 8.6 x 1029

(c) 4.3 x 1026

(d) 8.6 x 1026

Q.30 Selenium ingested in the amount of 90 micrograms per day causes loss of hair. How many selenium
atoms are in this size sample? (Atomic weight: Se =78.96).
(a) 6.9 x 1023

(b) 8.8 x 1017

(c) 8.8 x1022

(d) 6.9 x1017

Q.31 Novocain is C13H16N2O2. What is the total number of moles of atoms in 0.020 moles of novocain?
(Atomic weights: C = 12.01, 0 = 16.00, N = 14.01, H = 1.008).
(a) 0.033

(b) 3.3

(c) 0.66

(d) 0.33

Q.32 Methoxychlor, a garden insecticide, has the molecular formula C16H15C13O2. What is the total
number of moles of atoms in a 3.0 mg sample? (Atomic weights: C = 12.01, H= 1.008, Cl=35.45,
O =16.00).
(a) 8.7x 10-6

(b) 3.0 x 10-5

(c) 3.1 x 10-1

(d) 3.5 x 10-4

Q.33 What are the total number of moles of atoms in 4.32 g of Sc(NO3)3 ? (Atomic weights: Sc =
45.0.0 = 16.00. N = 14.01).
(a) 0.0132

(b) 0.324

(c) 0.0187

(d) 0.243

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

94

Q.34 Two samples of lead oxide were separately reduced to metallic lead by heating in a current of
hydrogen. The weight of lead from one oxide was half the weight of lead obtained from the other
oxide. The data illustrates
(a) law of reciprocal proportions

(b) law of constant proportions

(c) law of multiple proportions

(d) law of equivalent proportions

Q.35 The percentage of copper and oxygen in samples of CuO obtained by different methods were
found to be the same. The illustrate the law of
(a) constant proportion

(b) conservation of mass

(c) multiple proportion

(d) reciprocal proportion

Q.36 The total number of atoms represented by the CuSO4.5H2O is

(a) 27

(b) 271

(c) 5

(d) 8

Q.37 In compound A, 1.00g of nitrogen unites with 0.57g of oxygen. In compound B, 2.00g of
nitrogen combines with 2.24g of oxygen. In compound C, 3.00g of nitrogen combines with
5.11g of oxygen. These results obey the following law
(a) law of constant proportion

(b) law of multiple proportion

(c) law of reciprocal proportion

(d) Daltons law of partial pressure

Q.38 The weight of a molecule of the compound C60H122 is

(a) 1.4 x 10-21 g

(b) 1.09x 10-21 g

(c) 5.025 x 1023 g

(d) 16.023 x 1023 g

Q.39 The mass of a molecule of water is

(a) 3 x10-26 kg

(b) 3 x10-25 kg

(c) 1.5 x10-26kg

(d) 2.5 x10-26kg

Q.40 The number of atoms in 4.25g of NH3 is approximately

(a) 1 x 1023

(b) 2 x 1023

(c) 4 x 1023

(d) 6 x 1023

Q.41 Volume of a gas at STP is 1.12 x 10-7 cc. Calculate the number of molecules in it (a) 3.01 x 1020

(b) 3.01 x 1012

(c) 3.01 x 1023

(d) 3.01 x 1024

Q.42 The number of molecules of CO2 present in 44g of CO2 is

(a) 6.02 x 1 023

(b) 3 x 1023

(c) 12 x 1023

(d) 3x 1010

www.plancess.com

95

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Q.43 The volume occupied by 4.4g of CO2 at STP is

(a) 22.4 L

(b) 2.24 L

(c) 0.224 L

(d) 0.1 L

Q.44 How many molecules are present in one gram of hydrogen?

(a) 6.02 x 1023

(b) 3.01 x 1023

(c) 2.5 x 1023

(d) 1.5 x 1023

More than One Correct

Q.45 Which of the following has same mass?
(a) 4g of He

(b) 6.023 x 1023 atoms of He

(c) 1 atom of He

(d) 1 mole atoms of He

Q.46 Which of the following pairs of substances illustrate the law of multiple proportions?
(a) CO and CO2

(b) H2O and D2O

(c) SO2 and SO3

(d) MgO and Mg(OH)2

Q.47 Which of the following is/are the best example of law of conservation of mass?
(a) 12g of carbon combines with 32g of oxygen to form 44g of CO2
(b) When 12g of carbon is heated in a vacuum, there is no change in mass
(c) A sample of air increases in volume when heated at constant pressure but its mass remains
unaltered.
(d) 2 g of hydrogen combines with 16 g of oxygen to form 18 g of water.
Q.48 Which one of the following pairs of gases contains the same number of molecules?
(a) 16 g of O2 and 14 g of N2

(b) 8 g of O2 and 22 g of CO2

(c) 28 g of N2 and 22 g of CO2

(d) 8 g of O2 and 7 g of N2

Q.49 Which of the following represents a polyatomic ion?

(a) Sulphite

(b) Chloride

(c) Sulphate

(d) Phosphate

Q.50 Which of the following statements is /are correct?

(a) An atom is the smallest particle of matter according to Daltons theory
(b) An atom.is the smallest particle of an element
(c) An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element that can take part in a chemical
change
(d) An atom is the radioactive emission

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

96

Q.51 Which of the following symbols does not represent an element?

(a) CO

(b) Ar

(c) K

(d) NO

Q.52 Which of the following element(s) has a symbol having two letters?
(a) Tin

(b) Uranium

(c) Carbon

(d) Aluminium

Q.53 Which of the following is / are not a correct symbol for an element(s)?
(a) Ng

(b) Fi

(c) Bk

(d) Zc

Q.54 0.220 g of a gas occupies a volume of 112 ml at a pressure of 1 atm and temperature of 273 K.

The gas can be

(a) nitrogen dioxide

(b) nitrous oxide

(c) carbon dioxide

(d) propane

Q.55 Which of the following contains the same number of molecules?

(a) 1g of O2, 2 g of SO2,
(b) 1 g of CO2, 1g of N2O
(c) 112 ml of O2 at STP, 224 ml of He at 0.5 atm and 273K
(d) 1 g of oxygen, 1 g of ozone
Q.56 SO2 gas is slowly passed through an aqueous suspension containing 12 g CaSO3 till the milkiness just
disappears. What amount of SO2 would be required?

CaSO3(s) + H2O(l) + SO2( g) Ca (HSO3 )

( soluble)

(a) 12.8 g

(b) 6.4 g

(c) 0.1 mole

(d) 0.2 mole

Q.57 8g of O2 has the same number of molecules as

(a) 7g CO

(b) 14g N2

(c) 11g CO2

(d) 1 6g SO2

Q.58 A vessel contains 4.4 g of CO2. It means that it contains

(a) 0.1 mole of CO2

(b) 6.02 x 1022 molecules of CO2

(c) 8.8g atoms of oxygen

(d) 1120 m L of CO2 S.T.P.

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

97

Q.59 1g Mg was burnt in a closed vessel containing 2 g oxygen. Which of the following are not
correct?
(a) 0.25 g of Mg will be left unburnt

(b) 1.33 of O2 will be left unreacted

(c) 2.5 g of MgO will be formed

(d) The mixture at the end will weigh 3 g.

Fill in the passage

Q.60 Laws to explain the chemical behaviour of matter are called law of
1
. Law of conservation of mass is given by
2
Suppose xg and yg of oxygen combines with fix zg of sulphur then x/z and y/z
are in the ratio of small
3
numbers. This data illustrates
the law of
4
Gay lussacs law is applicable when reactant
and product are in
5
state.
Q.61 In one gram atomic weight of any element
1
of that element are present. This quantity of the element is known as
mole. One mole of any element is the value of
in grams. For any compound it is the value of
in gram.

atoms
2
3
4

Passage Based Questions

Ashok is conducting an experiment in laboratory involving compound x. One mole of compound x
weighs 35 g. If he consumed 15 g of x in his experiment Then
Q.62

The no. of moles of x consumed in above experiment is

(a) 1/7

(b) 2/7

(c) 3/7

(d) 4/7

Q.63 The name of compound x is

(a) NH4OH

(b) NaOH

(c) NaCl

(d) Na2O2

Q.64 If in another experiment, only 70g of those substances is required. Then what will be the number of
moles now?
(a) 3

(b) 2

(c) 4

(d) 1

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

98

Assertion & Reason

(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not the correct explanation of
Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
Q.65 Assertion: Molecular weight of oxygen is 16.
Reason: Atomic weight of oxygen is 16.
Q.66 Assertion: One mole of SO2 contains double the number of molecules present in one mole of O.
Reason: Molecular weight of SO2 is double to that of O2.
Q.67 Assertion: Pure water obtained from different sources such as, river, well, spring, sea etc. always
contains hydrogen and oxygen combined in the ratio : 8 by mass.
Reason: A chemical compound always contains elements combined together in same proportion
by mass, it was discovered by French chemist, Joseph Proust (1799).
Q.68

Assertion: 1 amu equals to 1.66 x 10-24 g

Reason: 1.66 x 10-24 g equal to

1
the of mass of a C12 atom.
12

Q.69 Assertion : 1 mol of H2 and O2 each occupy 22.4 L of volume at 0C and 1 bar pressure.

Reason : Molar volume for all gases at the same temperature and pressure has the same volume.

Q70. Multiple matching questions

Column I

Column II

(A) 1.5 mole of CO2(g

(p) 33600 ml at STP

(B) 3.0 g of H2

(q) Total number of atoms=4.5 x NA

(C) 1.5 mole of O3 (g)

(r) Weighs 72 g

(D) 1 mole of oxygen

(s) Weighs 32 g

Subjective Questions
Q.71 Write formulas for the chlorides and oxides formed by (a) chromium and (b) copper.
Q.72 The formula for arsenic acid is H3AsO4. What is the name of the salt Na3AsO4?
Q.73 Sucrose (table sugar) has the formula C12H22O11. In this compound, what is the
(a) atom ratio of C to H?

www.plancess.com

99

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

(b) atom ratio of H to O ?
(c) mole ratio of C to O?
(d) mole ratio of H to O?

Q.74 A sample of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is synthesized in the laboratory. It contains 1.50g of carbon and
2.00g of oxygen. Another sample of ascorbic acid isolated from citrus fruits contains 6.35g of carbon.
How many grams of oxygen does it contain ? Which law are you assuming in answering this question?
Q.75 Calculate the weight of (i) one atom of oxygen, and (ii)one molecule of oxygen.

G.A.W. of O2 = 16.0g

Q.76 Why cant we say, an atom of water?

Q.77 How does Daltons atomic theory account for the fact that when 1.000g of water is decomposed into its
elements, 0.111 g of hydrogen and 0.889g of oxygen are obtained regardless of the source of the water?
Q.78 A chemist finds that 30.82g of nitrogen will react with 17.60g, 35.20g, 70.40g or 88.00g of
oxygen to form four different compounds. (a) Calculate the mass of oxygen per gram of nitrogen
in each compound. (b) How do the numbers in part (a) support Daltons atomic theory?
Q.79 Calculate gram molecular weights of the following gases: N2 (if 360 cm3 at STP weighs 0.45g)
Q.80 A silicon chip used in an integrated circuit of a microcomputer has a mass of 5.68 mg. How
many silicon (Si) atoms are present in this chip?
Q.81 How many atoms of oxygen are present in 300g limestone?
Q.82 Elements X and Y form the compound XY4. When these elements react, it is found that 1.00g
of X combines with 5.07g of Y. When X combines with oxygen, it forms the compound XO2 in
which 1.00 g of X combines with 1.14g of 0. What is the atomic mass of Y ?
Q.83 Aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, is a compound used in sewage treatment plants.
(a) Construct a pair of conversion factors that relate moles of aluminium to moles of sulfur for
this compound.
(b) Construct a pair of conversion factors that relate moles of sulfur to moles of Al2(SO4)3.
(c) How many moles of Al are in a sample of this compound if the sample also contains 0.900
mol S ?
(d) Calculate the number of moles of sulphur if number of aluminium sulphate present is 1.16
mol.
Q.84 How many moles of UF6 would have to be decomposed to provide enough fluorine to prepare
1.25 mol of CF4 ? (Assume sufficient carbon is available.)
Q.85 One sample of CaC2 contains 0.150 mol of carbon. How many moles and how many grams of
calcium are also in the sample ?

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

100

Q.86 An atom is 200 times heavier than

of the mass of an atom of carbon (C-12), what is its mass
12
in amu (or U)?
Q.87 Calculate the number of moles, molecules and atoms in 11.2 L of H2 at NTP
Q.88 Find the percentage of nitrogen in urea (H2NCONH2)
Q.89 How many molecules of water of crystallisation are present in 24.95 mg of hydrated copper
sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O)?
Q.90 Sodium carbonate reacts with ethanoic acid to form sodium ethanoate, carbon dioxide and
water. In an experiment, 5.3 g of sodium carbonate reacted with 6 g of ethanoic acid to form 8.2
of sodium ethanoate, 2.2 g of carbon dioxide and 0.9g of water. Show that this data verifies the
Sodium Carbonate + Ethanoic acid

law of conservation of mass. The given reaction is

Reac tants

Sodium ethanoate + Carbon dioxide + Water

Pr oducts

Q.91 375 gm of pure cupric oxide was reduced by heating in a current of pure dry hydrogen and the
mass of copper that remained 1.0980 gms. In another experiment, 1.179 g of pure copper was
dissolved in pure HNO3 and the resulting copper nitrate converted into cupric oxide by ignition.
The mass of copper oxide formed was 1.476 g. Show that the results illustrate the law of constant
composition with in the limits of experimental error.
Q.92 What is the formula of carbon dioxide if 2.73 grams of carbon combine with 7.27 grams of
oxygen molecules (O2) when the carbon burns?
Q.93 Write the chemical formula for each substance mentioned in the following word descriptions
(a) Zinc carbonate can be heated to form zinc oxide and carbon dioxide. (b) On treatment
with hydrofluoric acid, silicon dioxide forms silicon tetrafluoride and water. (c) Sulfur dioxide
reacts with water to form sulfurous acid. (d) The substance hydrogen phosphide, commonly
called phosphine, is a toxic gas. (e) Perchloric acid reacts with cadmium to form cadmium (II)
perchlorate.

www.plancess.com

101

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

SOLUTIONS
Exercise 1 For School Examinations
Fill in the Blanks
Sol.1 masses

Sol.2 definite

Sol.3 polyatomic

Sol.4 chemical formula

Sol.5 6.022 x 1023, 12g

Sol.6 molar mass

Sol.7 symbol

Sol.8 molecular formula.

Sol.9 simple ions.

Sol.10 metal and non-metals. Sol.11 equal.

Sol.12 mass of atoms & number of atoms.

Sol.13 mole

True/False
Sol.14 True

Sol.15 True

Sol.16 False

Sol.17 True

Sol.18 False

Sol.20 False Sol.21 True

Sol.22 True

Sol.23 False

Sol.24 True

Sol.19 True

Match the Column

Sol.25 A ->(r), B -> (s), C -> (p), D->(q),

Sol.26 A->(q), B-> (p), C -> (r), D -> (s)

Very Short Answer Questions

Sol.27 In one gram atomic weight of any element 6.02 x 1023 atoms of that element are present. This quantity
of the element is known as one mole.
Sol. 28 One gram atomic mass of any element contains the same number of atom of that element as there are
carbon atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. This number is Avogadros number i.e., 6.023 x 1023.
Sol.29 The atomic mass of an element when expressed in grams is known as gram atomic mass or simply
as gram atom (g-atom). Thus one g-atom of carbon (C-12) weighs 12.0 g. The number of gramatoms of any element in its certain weight is given by:

Number of gram atom =

Mass of the element in grams
Atomic mass

Sol.30 CO2 represents one molecule of triatomic carbon dioxide while the notation 2CO2 represents
two molecules of carbon dioxide.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

102

Sol.31 Phosphorus trichloride and sulfur dioxide.

Sol.32 1:2
Sol.33 2.59 x 10-3. Mole of Na atoms.
Sol.34 Its the same.The formula weight of a substance in amu has the same numerical value as the
molar mass expressed in grams.
Sol 35. No. of grams of Ag=(0.263 mol of Ag)

107.9g of Ag
=28.4 g of Ag
1mol of Ag

Sol.36 No. of atoms of Pb= No. of moles of Pb NA

109
6.022 1023 = 2.906 1012 atoms
207.2

Sol.37 No. of g of Fe
1molof O 2mol of Fe 55.8g of Fe

(25.6 g of O) =59.5 g of Fe
16.0 g mol of O 3 mol of O 1mol of Fe

Sol.38 The atomic mass of aluminium is given to be 27u. This means that mole of aluminium atoms has a
mass of grams.

Now, 10 mole of aluminium atoms=27g

So, 4 moles of aluminium atoms=27 x 4g=108g

Sol.39 6.022 x 1023 atom of He weights 4 g

6.022 x 1022 atoms of He will weighs

4 6.022 1022
6.022 1023

= 0.4g

Sol.40 6.022 x 1023molecules of CO2 =1 mole of CO2

3.011 x 1022 molecules of CO2

=
=

3.011 1022
= 0.05 moles of CO2
6.022 1023

Sol.41 No. of mol H2SO4

=(45.8 g of H2SO4)

1mol of H2SO 4

98.1 g of H2SO 4

= 0.467 mol of H2SO 4

Sol. 42 The atomic mass of Fe=56 gm

1 mole of Fe=56 gm

5 moles of Fe=5 x 56 gm =280gm

www.plancess.com

103

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Sol.43 1 mole of NaCl=Molecular mass of NaCl in grams =23 + 35.5 = 58.5

60 gm of NaCl =1 mole

20 gm of NaCl will have 0.341 mole of NaCl.

Sol.44 Molecular mass of CaCO3 is 100 gm. This has 48 gm of O. Thus 50 gm of CaCO3 will have 24
gm of O.
Sol.45 Molecular weight of CO2=12+32=44

Quantity of CO2 present in 1 mole CO2 is 44 grams

Quantity present in 0.1 mole of CO2 would be

44 0.1
= 4.4gm
1

Sol.46 Because the atomic weight of oxygen is 15.999

amu, a mole of oxygen atoms has a mass of 15.999

grams. Each O2 molecule has two atoms, however, so the molecular weight of O2 molecules is
twice as large as the atomic weight of the atom.

1 mol O = 15.999 g,

1 mol O2 = 31.998g

Sol.47 It is the smallest repeating formula in the structure of ionic compound.

Short Answer Questions

Sol. 48 (a) 32 g O2 = 1 mole

12
= 0.375 mole
32

12 g O2 =

(b) 44 g CO2 = 1 mole

22 g CO2 = 0.5 mol

Sol.49 The molecular mass of a substance (element or compound) is the number of times, the molecule
of the substance is heavier than 1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope.

Molecular weight is calculated by adding the atomic weights of all the constituent atoms present
in a molecule.

For example: Molecular weight of a molecule of hydrogen

(H2) = 2 x atomic weight of hydrogen = 2 x 1 = 2 amu

Sol.50 (a) NaF

(b) Na2O

(d) Al4C3

(c) MgF2

Sol.51 (a) Al2S3

(b) SrF2

(d) CaBr2

(c) TiO2

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

104

Sol.52 According to formula of Al2O3, In one mole of aluminium oxide,

3 moles of oxygen combines with 2 moles of aluminium.

1 mole of oxygen combines with

2
moles of aluminium.
3
2
1.58 mole of oxygen combines with x 1.58 moles or
3

1.58 mole of oxygen combines with 1.053 moles of aluminium.

Sol.53 Molecular weight of SO2 = 32 + 2 x 16 = 64

64g of SO2 at STP occupies 22.4 litres

Hence, 32g of SO2 at STP will occupy

22.4
32 =
11.2litres
64

Sol.54 Number of moles of magnesium =

2.3 1
= mol
2.8 4

Number of moles of sodium should also be

1
and 1 mol of Na = 23 g
4

1
1
mole of Na will be 23x =5.57 g
4
4

Sol.55 Molar mass of Cr2S3 =52x2+32x3

=200 g

200 g of Cr2S3 contains 2 mol of

Cr or 2 x 52 = 104 g of Cr

85 g of Cr2S3 contain

2.3 104
=
x 85 = 44.2 g of Cr.
2.8 200

Sol. 56 Number of atoms of Na

=

Given mass of sodium

100
Avogadro number =
6.022 1023 = 2.618 1024
Molar mass of sodium
23
100
6.022 1023 =1.075 1024
56

Number of atoms of Fe =

We find that 100 g of Na contains more number of atoms than 100 g of Fe.

Sol.57 The amount of oxygen per gram of nitrogen in NO2 should be exactly twice as that of NO, as
required by the formulas of the two substances. Therefore, 2.285g oxygen would combine with
1.000g nitrogen.

www.plancess.com

105

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Sol.58 No. of moles of N

2 mol of N
= 3.44 mol of N
5 mol of O

=(8.60 mol of O)

Sol.59 Molecular weight of N2 = 2 x 14 = 28 g

28 g of N2 at STP occupies = 22.4L

2.8 g of N2 at STP =?

22.4 2.8g
= 2.24L
28g

g of N2 at STP occupies a volume of 2.24 L.

Sol.60 At NTP, weight of 22.4 litres of one mole of gas is equal to its molecular weight. So volume of 32
grams of Oxygen at NTP = 22.4 litre.
22.4
4.0 =
2.8litres
32

Volume of 4.0 gram of oxygen at NTP is =

Weight of 22.4 litres of CO2 at NTP = 44 grams.

Weight of 2.8 litres of CO2 at=

NTP = 5.5gram

44 2.8
22.4

Sol.61 In order to solve this problem, we should know the mass of 1 mole of water. This can be obtained by
using the given values of the atomic masses of hydrogen and oxygen as follows:

1 mole of water (H2O) = Molecular mass of H2O in grams

= Mass of 2H atoms + Mass of O atom = 2 x 1 + 16 = 2 + 16 = 18 grams

Thus, the mass of 1 mole of water is 18 grams.

So, Mass of 0.5 mole of water = 18 x 0.5g = 9g

Thus, the mass of 0.5 mole of water (H2O) is 9 grams

Sol.62 One moles of H2SO4 contains 1 mole of sulphur atoms and 4 mole of oxygen atoms.

One mole of H2SO3 has 1 mole of sulphur atoms and 3 moles of oxygen atoms.

One mole of SO2 has 1 mole of sulphur atoms and 2 moles of oxygen atoms.

Sol.63 Molar mass of NH3 = 14 x 1 + 1 x 3 = 17 g/mol

=
Percentage of nitrogen

14
= 100 =82.35%
17

Molar mass of N in NH3

100
Molar mass of NH3

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

106

3
100 =17.65%
17

Percentage of hydrogen = =

Sol.64 We first determine the number of grams of each element that are present in one mole of sample:

2 mol of N x 14.01 g/mol = 28.02 g of N

3 mol of O x 16.00 g/mol = 48.00 g of O

The percentages by mass are then obtained by using the formula mass of the compound (76.02 g) :
28.02
100= 36.86%of N
76.02
48.00
%O=
100= 63.14% of O
76.02

%N=

Sol.65 Mass of the reactants = 10g

Mass of the products = 4.6 + 5.4g = 10g

Since the mass of the reactants is equal to the mass of the products, the observations are in
agreement with the law of conservation of mass.

Sol.66 1 mole of H2O molecules has 2 moles of H atoms.

3 moles of H2O molecules will have 6 moles of H atoms.

1 mole of HCl molecules will have 1 mole of H atoms.

10 moles of HCl will have 10 moles of H-atoms.

Thus 10 moles of HCl will have more atoms than 3 moles of H2O.

Sol.67 Water (H2O) contains hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1 : 8 (by weight). It means if 9g of
water is decomposed it will produce 1 g of hydrogen and 8g of oxygen. Thus, on decomposing
50g of water.
1
50g =
5.56g
9

Weight of hydrogen obtained =

Weight of oxygen obtained = 50g = or 44.44g

8
9

400
9

Sol.68 Here we have been given that hydrogen and oxygen always combine in the fixed ratio of 1 : 8 by
mass. This means that

1 g of hydrogen gas requires = 8g of oxygen gas

So, 3g of hydrogen gas requires

= 8 x 3g of oxygen gas = 24 g of oxygen gas

Thus, 24 grams of oxygen gas would be required to react completely with 3 grams of hydrogen
gas.

www.plancess.com

107

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Sol.69 As number of molecules of a substance present in one gram molecular is 6.02 X 1023.

So, number of molecules present in 32 grams of oxygen is 6.02 X 1023.

Number of molecules present in 28 grams of nitrogen is 6.02 x 1023.

So number of molecules present in 14 grams of nitrogen=

is

6.02 1023 14
= 3.01 1023
28

Sol.70 The molar mass of iron is 55.85 g/mol. This can be represented in terms of either of the following
unit factors.

1 molFe
55.85Fe
or
55.85 g Fe
1 mol Fe

In order to convert from moles to grams, we need the unit factor that tells us how many grams
of iron can be found in one mole of this metal.
0.250mol Fe

55.85Fe
=
14.0g
1 mol Fe

Sol.71 Before we can do anything else, we need to know the number of moles of aluminium metal in the
sample. This can be calculated from the mass of the sample and the molar mass of aluminium,
which is 26.982 g/mol.
0.123g Al

1 mol Al
=
4.56 103 mol Al
26.982g Al

Now, we can use Avogadros number to calculate the number of atoms in the sample.
4.56 x 10-3 mol Al x

6.02 1023 Al atoms

=2.75 x 1021 Al atoms
26.982g Al

Long Answer Questions

Sol.72 (a) NaHCO3 = 1 Na + 1H+ 1C + 3 O
= (22.99) + (1.01) + (12.01) + (3 x 16.00) = 84.0 g/mole
(b) K2Cr2O7 = 2K + 2Cr + 7O
= (2 x 39.10) + (2 x 52.00) + (7 x 16.00) = 294.2 g/mole
(c) (NH4)2CO3 = 2N + 8H + C + 3O
= (2x14.01) (8x1.01)+ (12.01)+ (3x16.00) = 96.1 g/mole
(d) Al2(SO4)3=2Al+3S+12O
= (2 x26.98)+(3 x32.07) (12 x16.00) = 342.2 g/mole
(e) CuSO4.5H2O=1Cu+1S+90+10H
= 63.55+32.07+(9 x16.00)+(10 x1.01) = 249.7 g/mole

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

108

Sol.73 (a) (i) Molar mass of Ethylene

= 2 x Molar mass of C atom + 2 x Molar mass of H atom
= 2 x 12.011 + 2 x 1 g = 26.022 g
(ii) Molar mass of S 8 molecule
= 8 x Molar mass of S atom
= 8 x 32.066 = 256.53 g
(iii) Molar mass of P 4 molecule
= 4 x molar mass of P atom = 4 x 31 g = 124 g
(iv) Molar mass of HCl
= Molar mass of H atom + Molar mass of Cl atom
= 1 + 35.453 g = 36.453 g
(v ) Mo lar ma ss o f H NO 3
= Molar mass of H atom + Molar mass of N atom + 3 x Molar mass of 0 atom
= 1 + 14.007 + 3 x 15.999g
= 1 + 14.007 + 47.997 2
= 63.004 g
Sol.74 This problem involves aluminium ions. Please note that the mass of an aluminium ion is the
same as that of an aluminium atom. In order to solve this problem, first of all we have to find
out the mass of aluminium atoms in 0.051 g of aluminium oxide (which will give us the mass
of aluminium ions) This can be done as follows:
1 mole of Al2O3 = Formula mass of Al2O3 in grams = Mass of Al x 2 + Mass of O x 3
27 x 2 + 16 x 3 = 54 + 48 = 102 grams
Now, 1 mole of Al2O3 contains 2 moles of Al.
So, Mass of Al in 1 mole of
Al2O3 = Mass of Al x 2 = 27 x 2 = 54 grams
Now. 102 g of aluminium oxide contains = 54 g ofAl
Now, 0.051 g aluminium oxide contains

54
= 0.051gAl =
0.027gof Al
102

The atomic mass of aluminium is given to be 27u. This means that 1 mole of aluminium
atoms (or aluminium ions) has a mass of 27 grams, and it contains 6.022 x 1023 aluminium ions.
Now, 27g of aluminium has ions = 6.022 x
1023

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

109

So, 0.027g of aluminium has ions

6.022 1023
0.027 = 6.022 1020
27

Thus, the number of aluminium ions (A13+) in 0.051 gram of aluminium oxide is 6.022 1023
Sol.75 (I) (a) Cu2O

(b) K2O2

(c) Hg2Br2

(d) Fe2(CO3)3

(e) NaBrO

(II) (a) Bromic acid

(b) Hydrobromic acid

Phosphoric acid

(d) Hypochlorous acid

(e) Iodic acid

Sol.76 (I) The average mass of a molecule of carbon dioxide would be equal to the sum of the atomic
weights of the three atoms in a CO2 molecule.

Mass of a single CO2 molecule :

=
1 C atom 1
=
(12.011 amu) 12.011 amu

=
2 O atom 2
=
(15.999 amu) 31.998 amu
______________
44.009 amu

The mass of a mole of carbon dioxide would be 44.009 grams.

The average mass of a molecule of glucose is equal to the sum of the atomic weights of the 24
atoms in a C6H12O6 molecule.

Mass of a single C6H12O6 molecule :

=
=
6 C atom 6
(12.011 amu) 72.066 amu

=
=
12 H atoms 12
(1.0079 amu) 12.095 amu

=
=
6O atoms 6
(15.999 amu) 95.994 amu

________________
180.155amu

The molecular weight of the compound is therefore 180.155 grams/mol.

(II) The first in this calculation involves converting the mass of the sample into the number
of moles of CO2.

0.500gof CO2

1mol of CO2
44.009g of CO2

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

110

=1.14 10-2 moles of CO2

Once we know the number of moles, we can use Avogadros number to calculate the number of
CO2 molecules in the sample.

1 mole of CO2 = 6.023 x 1023 molecules

1.14 x 10-2 mol of CO2

= 6.023 x 1023 x1.14 x 10-2 CO2 molecules

= 6.86 x 1021 CO2 molecules

We can know use the chemical formula for carbon dioxide to determine the number of carbon
atoms in the sample. The formula suggests that there is a single carbon atom for each CO2
molecule.

6.86 x 1021 CO2 molecules = 6.86 x 1021C atoms

Sol.77 (I) First experiment:

Copper oxide = 1.375g

Copper left = 1.098g

Oxygen present = 1.375 - 1.098 = 0.277g

Percentage of oxygen in

=
CuO

0.277 100
= 20.14%
1.375

Second experiment:

Copper taken =1.179g

Copper oxide formed = I .476g

Oxygen present = 1.476 - 1.179 g = 0.297g

Percentage of oxygen =

Percentage of oxygen is same in both the above cases so the law of constant composition
is illustrated.

(II) In order to solve this problem, we have to calculate the ratio (or (proportion) of copper
and oxygen in the two samples of copper oxide compound. Now:

In the first experiment:

Mass of copper = 1.03 g 

And. Mass of copper oxide = 1.288 g

So, Mass of oxygen

0.297
100 =
20.14%
1.476

.(1)

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

111

= Mass of copper oxide - Mass of copper

= 1.288 - 1.03 = 0.258 g 

Now, in the first sample of copper oxide,

compound : Mass of copper : Mass of oxygen

= 1.03 : 0.258= 3.99 : 1

= 4 : 1

In the second experiment:

Mass of copper = 2.938 g 

And, Mass of copper oxide = 3.672 g

So, Mass of oxygen

= Mass of copper oxide - Mass of copper

= 3.672 - 2.938 = 0.734 g 

Now, in the second sample of copper compound:

Mass of copper : Mass of oxygen 2.938 : 0.734

= 4: 1 

From the above calculations we can see that the ratio (or proportion) of copper and oxygen elements
in the two samples of copper oxide compound is the same 4: 1. So, the law of constant proportions
is illustrated.

.... (2)

..(3)
...(4)

(5)

.. (6)

Sol.78 (a) 72.8 g of CaH2

(b) 0.0219 mol of Mg(NO3)2

(c) 1.48 x 1023 CH3OH molecules

(d) 3.52 x 1024 H atoms

(e) No. of mol Al = (2.16 mol of Al2O3)

4.32 mol of Al

Sol.79

(i)
Atom

Molecule

It is the smallest unit of an element

It is the smallest unit of an element or a

compound.

It may or may not be capable of free

existence but it is the smallest unit that
takes part in a chemical reaction.

It is capable of free existence.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

112

(ii)
Atom

Ion

It is neutral and carries no

charge.

It is a charged particle and carries a positive or negative charge.

The number of electrons

in an atom is equal to its
atomic number.

In a cation, (ion with positive charge) the number of

electrons are less than that present in corresponding atom. In
an anion, (ion with negative charge) the number of electrons
are more than that present in corresponding atom.

Exercise 2 For Competitive Examinations

Multiple Choice Questions
Sol.1 (d)

Sol.2 (d)

Sol.3 =
(b) Percentage of hydrogen
Sol.4 (c)

Sol.5 (d)

Mass of hydrogen in water

2
100 = 100 =11.12%
Molar mass of water
18

Sol.6 (a)

Sol.7 (b)

Sol.8 (a) MCl3 M3+ + 3Cl ; M3+ + PO 43 MPO 4

Sol.9 (b)

Sol.10 (d)

Sol.11 (c)

Sol.12 (a)

Sol.13 (b)

Sol.14 (c)

Sol.15 (c)

Sol.16 (b)

Sol.17 (c)

Sol.18 (b)

Sol.19 (b)

Sol.20 (a)

Sol.21 (a)

Sol.22 (b)

Sol.23 (b)

Sol.24 (a)

Sol.25 (a)

Sol.26 (d)

Sol.27 (d)

Sol.28 (c)

Sol.29 (b)

Sol.30 (d)

Sol.31 (c)

Sol.32 (d)

Sol.33 (d)

Sol.34 (c) Law of multiple proportions.

Sol.35 (a) Constant proportions according to which a pure chemical compound always contains
same elements combined together in the same definite proportion of weight.
Sol.36 (b) 1 atom of Cu + 1 atom of sulphur + 9 atoms of oxygen + 10 atoms of hydrogen. Total number
of atoms in compound is 21.
Sol.37 (b) Law of multiple proportion. As the ratio of oxygen which combine with fix weights of 1 g
of nitrogen bears a simple whole number ratio

0.57: 1 : 12 : 1.7031 : 2 : 3

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

113

Sol.38 (a) Molecular weight of C60H122

= 12 x 60 + 122 x 1 = 720 + 122 = 842

6 x 1023 molecule C60H122 has mass = 842 gm.

1 molecule C60H 122 has mass

842
= =
140.333 1023 gm =
1.4 1021 gm
23
6 10

Sol.39 (a) 69 1023 molecule has mass=18gm

18

1 molecule has mass =23 =

3 1023 gm =
3 1026 kg
6 10

Sol.40 (d) 17 gm NH3 contains 6 1023 molecules of NH3

6 1023
17

4.25 gm NH3 contains

= = 4.25 molecules of NH3

No. of atoms =

6 1023 4.25
4 = 6 1023
17

Sol.41 (b) 22400cc of gas at STP has 6 1023 molecules

6 1023 1.12 107

=
0.03 1014 =
3 1012
22400

1.12 10-7 of gas at STP has =

Sol.42 (a) wt. of CO2=44, mol wt. of CO2=44

No. of molecule=

44
6.02 1023 = 6.02 1023 =6.02 1023
mol wt. of CO2
44

Sol.43 (b) Mole of CO2 =

wt.of CO2

4.4
= 0.1
44

Volume = 0.1 22.4 = 2.24 L.

Sol.44 (b) 2 gm of hydrogen=6.02 1023 molecules

1 gm of hydrogen
=

6.02 1023
= 3.01 1023 molecule
2

More than One Correct

Sol.45 (b,d)
Sol.46 (a,c) Here the amount of oxygen which combines with fixed amount of C and S in their oxides
will be in a simple whole number ratio.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

114

Sol.47 (a,d)
Sol.48 (a,d) 16 g O2 has no. of moles =

16 1
=
32 2

14 1
=
28 2

14 g N2 has no. of moles =

No. of moles are same, so no. of molecules are same.

8 g of O2 has no. of moles =

8 1
=
32 4

7 g of 02 has no. of moles =

7 1
=
28 4

Sol.49 (a,c,d) Sulphite SO32 Sulphate SO24 and phosphate PO34 ions are polyatomic as they
contain more than one ion.
Sol.50 (a, b, c)
Sol.51 (a, d)
Sol.52 (a,d) Symbol of tin and aluminium are Sn and Al respectively.
Sol.53 (a, b, d)
Sol.54 (b,c,d) Molar mass of gas =
Sol.55 (a,b,c)

0.220
22400 = 44
112

Sol.56 (b,c) CaSO3(s) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) Ca (HSO3 )2

( soluble)

mol of SO2 required = mole of CaSO3

12
= 0.1; mass of SO2 = 0.1 x 64 = 6.4g
120

Sol.57 (a,c,d)
8
mole = 0.25 mole
32

8g O2 =

7g CO =

7
mole = 0.25 mole
28

14g N2 =

14
mole = 0.5 mole
28

www.plancess.com

115

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

16
= 0.25 mole
64

16g SO2 =

Equal moles contain equal number of molecules.

Sol.58 (a, b)

4.4g of CO2 =

4.4
mole = 0.1 mole = 0.1 x 6.02 x 1023 molecules = 6.02 x 1022 molecules.
44

Sol.59 (a, b, c)
2Mg +

O2 2MgO

2 24g 32g

2 40

= 48g
= 80g

48g Mg react with O2 = 32g

O2 =
g 0.67g
1g Mg will react with =

Thus, whole of Mg will react

O2 left unreacted =2-0.67 =1.33g

MgO formed=

32
48

80
g = 1.67g
48

Total=1.67+1.33=3.0g

Also, by law of conservation of mass, mixture at the end should weigh 1g+2g=3g

Fill In the Blanks

Sol.60 (1)chemical combination
(2) Antoine Lavoisier
(3) whole
(4)multiple proportion (5) gaseous
Sol.61 (1) 6.02 x 1023
(2) one
(3) atomic mass
(4) molecular mass

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

116

Passage Based Questions

Sol. 62(c)

Sol. 63(a)

Sol. 64(b)

Assertion & Reason

Sol.65 (d) Molecular weight of oxygen is 32
Sol.66 (d) Molecular weight of SO2 is 64 and of O2 is 32.
Sol.67 (a)
Sol.68 (a) 6.023 x 10 23 atom of C 12 = 12g
12

1 atom of C 12 =

1
1
of one atom of C 12=
g
12
6.023 1023

[1 amu =

= 0.166 x 10-23 g = 1.66 x 10-24 g

1
th

12

6.023 1023

of one atom of C12]

Sol.69 (a)

Multiple Matching Questions

Sol.70 A - (p, q); B - (p); C - (p, q, r); D (s)
1. 5 mole of CO2 (g) = 1.5 x 22400 mL at NTP = 33600 ml at NTP
Total number of atoms in one molecule of CO2 = 1 + 2 = 3
Total number of atoms in 1.5 mole of CO2 =1.5 x 3 x NA = 4.5 x NA
3
x 22400 mL of H2 at NTP = 33600 ml at NTP
2
3
Number of mole of H2 in 3.0 g H2 or 1.5 moles
2

3.0 g of H2 =

Number of atoms in 1 molecule of H2 = 2

Number of atoms in 1.5 mole H2 = 2 x 1.5 x NA = 3.0 x NA
Volume of 1.5 moles of ozone at NTP = 22400 x 1.5 ml = 33600 ml
Number of atoms in one molecule of O3 = 3
Total number of atoms in 1.5 mole of O3 = 3x 1.5 x NA = 4.5 x NA

www.plancess.com

117

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Weight oil mole of O3 = 48g

Weight of 1.5 mole of O3 = 48 x 1.5 g = 72g

Weight of 1 mole of oxygen (O2) = 32g

Subjective Questions
Sol.71 (a) CrCl3 and CrCl2, Cr2O3 and CrO

(b) CuCl, CuCl2, Cu2O and CuO

Sol.72 Sodium arsenate

Sol.73 (a) 6 : 11

(b) 2 : 1

(d) 2 : 1

(c) 12 : 11

Sol.74 In first sample of ascorbic acid,

1.50 g of carbon combines with 2.00 g of oxygen
1 g of carbon combines with

2
g of oxygen.
1.5

In second sample, 6.35 g of carbon combines with

2 6.35
g of oxygen
1.5

6.35 g of carbon combine with 8.47 g of oxygen.

Sample ISample II
2 : 1.58.47: 6.35
2 : 1.5
Thus, the above calculations supports the law of constant composition.
Sol.75 (i) Number of oxygen atoms in 16.0g of oxygen
= 6.023 x 1023 atoms
Weight of one atom of oxygen
=

16.0
= 2.657 1023 g
6.023 1023

(ii) G.M.W. of oxygen = 32.0g

Number of O2 molecules in 32.0 g of O2
= 6.023 x 1023 molecules
Weight of one molecule of oxygen
=

32.0
= 5.314 1023 g
6.023 1023

Sol.76 Water molecule consists of three interconnected particles or atoms. Each water molecule divides
into two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Molecules of a substance can be destroyed by a
chemical reaction, whereas atoms remain unchanged. For this reason, we cannot say an atom of water
but we say a molecule of water.

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

118

Sol.77 The atomic theory states that the relative number and kinds of atoms in a compound are constant,
regardless of the source. Therefore, 1.0g of pure water should always contain the same relative
amounts of hydrogen and oxygen, no matter where or how the sample is obtained.
Sol.78 (a) 0.5711g of O/1g of N, 1.142g of O/1g of N, 2.284 g of O/1g of N, 2.855g of 0/1g of N

(b) The numbers in part (a) obey the law of multiple proportions. Multiple proportions arise
because atoms are the indivisible entities combining, as stated in Daltons atomic theory.

Sol.79 22.4L of gas = 1 gram molecular weight

22.4L = 22.400 cm3. (1 L = 1000 cm3)

360 cm3 of N2 = 0.45g

22,400 cm3 of N2 = ?

0.45g 22400L
= 28g
360L

Gram molecular weight of N2 is 28 g.

Sol.80 The strategy for doing this problem is to convert from milligrams of silicon to grams of silicon, then
to moles of silicon, and finally to atoms of silicon:

5.68 mg of Si

1g of Si
=
5.68 103 g of Si
1000mg of Si

=
No.of moles

Given wt. of element

5.68 103 g
=
= 0.202 103 mol
Molar mass of element
28.08g

1mole of Si =
6.023 1023 atom
2.02 104 mol of Si = 6.023 1023 2.02 104 atom
=
12.16 1019 atoms =
1.22 1020 atoms

Sol.81 The molecular formula of limestone is CaCO3

Its molar mass is 100 g/mol
100 g CaCO3 = 1 mol.
300 g CaCO3 = 3 mol.
1 mol CaCO3 contains 3 mol of 0 or 3 x 6.022 x 1023 O atom.
3 mol CaCO3 would contain
x 3 x 6.022 x 1023 = 5.42 x 1024 of O atom.
Sol.82 First calculate the number of moles of oxygen that are combined with X:
1mole of O
=0.0713 moles of oxygen
16.00g of O

(1.14 g of oxygen)

www.plancess.com

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

119

Then calculate the moles of X in the oxygen compound:

1mole of X
=0.0356 moles of X
2moles of O

(0.0713 moles of O)

Finally, calculate the molar mass of

X:

1.00g of X
= 28.1 g / mole Note that X is Si, atomic number 14 and that its oxygen
0.0356 moles of X

compound is SiO2
The same number of moles of X are also combined with Y:
4 moles of Y

( 0.0356 moles of X ) 1 moles of X = 0.142 moles of Y The atomic mass of Y is thus:

5.07g of Y
= 35.6g / mole
0.142 moles of Y

Note that Y is Cl, atomic number 17, and that its compounds with X is SiCl4.
Sol.83
2
mole of S
3
(b) mole of S= 3 mole of Al 2O3
(a) mole of Al=

2 mol of Al
(c)No.of mol Al (0.900
mol of S)
=
=

0.600 mol of Al
3 mol of S

3 mol of S
(d) No.of mol S (1.16
=
mol of Al2 (SO 4 )3 )
3.48 mol of S
1mol of Al (SO )
2
4 3

4 mol of F
1 mol of CF4

Sol.84 No. of moles of UF6=(1.25 mol of CF4)

1 mol of UF6

= 0.833moles of UF6
6 mol of F

Sol.85 The formula CaC2 indicates that there us 1 mole of Ca for every 2 moles of C. Therefore, if there
are 0.150 moles of C there must be 0.0750 moles of Ca.
No. of moles of calcium x molar mass of Ca=grams of calcium in the sample
=0.0750 x 40.078 of Ca=3.01 g of Ca.
Sol.86 Its mass is 200 amu (or U).
Sol.87 We know, 22.4 L of H2 at NTP=1 mole of H2

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

120

11.2
11.2L of H2 at NTP =
mole of H2 =
0.5 mole ofH2
22.4

Number of molecules present in one mole of H2

Number of molecules present in 0.5 mole of H2 (or 11.2L of Hydrogen at NTP) =0.5 x 6.023
x 1023

=3.011 x1023molecules

Number of hydrogen atoms in one molecules of H2 = 2

Number of hydrogen atoms in 3.011 x 1023 molecules of H, = 2 x 3.011 x 1023 = 6.022 x 1023
atoms

Sol.88 Molecular mass of urea (H2NCONH2)

=2 x 1+1 x 14+1 x 12 +1 x16 + 1 x 14 + 2 x 1 =2+ 14 +12 +16 +14 +2 =60 U
Mass of nitrogen in 1 molecule of urea
= 1 x 14 + 1 x 14 = 14 + 14 = 28U
28
100 =46.6%
60

% age of nitrogen in urea =

Sol.89 Molecular mass of CuSO 4.5H 2O

=63.5+32+64+5x18 =63.5+96+90=249.5
24.95 103
249.5

Number of moles of CuSO 4.5H 2O in =

24.95 mg = 104 moles
Molecules of water of crystallization present in 1 mole of CuSO 4.5H 2O=5x6.023x10 23
10 -4moles of CuSO 4.5H 2O contains molecules of water of crystallization
=5 x6.023 x10 23 x 10 -4 =30.115 x1019 molecules =3.01 x 1020molecules.
Sol.90 All that we have to do in this problem
is to calculate the mass of reactants and products
separately, and then compare the two. If the two
masses are equal, then the law of conservation of
mass gets verified. The given reaction can be
written as :
Sodium Carbonate + Ethanoic acid

Re ac tants

Sodium ethanoate + Carbon dioxide + Water

Pr oducts

www.plancess.com

121

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

(i) Sodium carbonate and ethanoic acid are reactants. So, mass of reactants
= Mass of sodium carbonate + Mass of ethanoic acid = 5.3 + 6 = 11.3 g
(ii) Sodium ethanoate, carbon dioxide and water are products
So, mass of products
= Mass of sodium ethanoate + Mass of carbon dioxide+ Mass of water =8.2 + 2.2 + 0.9 = 11.3g
We find that the mass of reactants is 11.3 g and the mass of products is also 11.3 g. Since the mass
of products is equal to the mass of reactants, the given data verifies the law of conservation of mass.
Sol.91 1.375 gm of pure cupric oxide gave 1.098 om ofCu and hence.
percentage of Cu in the oxide =

1.098
100 =
79.85%
1.375

in another experiment, 1.179 gm of pure copper gave 1.476 gm of the oxide and hence
percentage of Cu is the oxide =

1.179
100 =
79.87%
1.476

Since, both the oxides have almost the same percentage of. Cu and hence, of oxygen, the result is
obeying the law of constant composition.
Sol.92 The atomic weight of carbon is 12.011 amu, which means that a mole of carbon has a mass of
12.011 grams. We can use this information to construct two unit factors.
1 mol C
12.011g C
and
12.011 g C
1 mol C

Converting grams of carbon into moles requires a unit factor that has units of moles in the numerator
and grams in the denominator.
2.73gC

1 mol C
=
0.227 mol C
12.011 g C

The same format can be used to convert grams of oxygen into moles of oxygen atoms.
7.27g O2

1mol O2
31.998 g O2

0.227 mol O2molecules

=

0.227 mol O2molecules

2 O atom
=
0.454 mol O atoms
1 O2 molecules

Ratio between the number of moles of carbon atoms and moles of oxygen atoms in our sample is
0.454mol O
= 2.00
0.227 mol C

Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

122

There are twice as many moles of oxygen atoms as there are moles of carbon atoms in this sample.
Because a mole of atoms always contains the same number of atoms, the only possible conclusion
is that there are twice as many oxygen atoms as carbon atoms in the compound. In other words, the
formula for carbon dioxide must be CO2.
Sol.93 (a) ZnCO3. ZnO,
(b) HF, SiO2, SiF4., H20
(c) SO2, H2O. H2SO3
(d) H3P (or PH 3)
(e) HClO4. Cd. Cd (ClO4)2

www.plancess.com

Representative Sample Mathematics:

Linear Equations in Two Variables

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

1. RECAP
Equation - A statement of equality which contain one or more unknown quantity or variable(s) (literals)
is called an equation.

Ex.: 2x 5 = 23,

5
x
x
x9 =
1, x2 + 1 = 5, + 5 = 3
2
3
2

An equation has two parts. The part which is on the left side to the equality sign is known as left hand
side (L.H.S) and the part which is on the right side to the equality sign is known as right hand side
(R.H.S).
Consider an equation

Variable: The unknown quantities used in any equation are known as variables. Generally, they are
denoted by the last English alphabets x, y, z etc.
Linear Equation: An equation in which the maximum power of the variables is one is called a linear
equation.

Ex: - 4x + 5 = 3x + 1, 2x + 3y = 4 are linear equations.

1.1 Linear Equation in one variable:

In general the equation of the form ax + b = c where, a, b and c are real numbers and a
equations in one variable.
Ex.: 3x 2=7,

0 is called linear

y y 2
3
1
x+9= , +
=
5
4
2
2 3

1.1.1 Solution of Linear Equations in One Variable:

The value of the variable which when substituted in an equation, makes L.H.S. = R.H.S. is said to satisfy
the equation is called a solution or a root of the equation.
Ex.: 2x + 5 = 0 2x = 5 x =

5
is a solution of the equation
2

www.plancessjee.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

124

The standard form of the linear equation in one variable is ax + b = 0, where a and b are real numbers
and a 0.

ax + b = 0 gives us as ax = b or x =

b
a

b
is called root or solution of the equation ax + b = 0.
a

Remarks :
(i) Linear equation in one variable has a unique (one and only one) solution.
(ii) We can add or subtract same number from each side of an equation.
(iii) We can multiply or divide both the sides of an equation by same non-zero number.
x + 1 3
(x 3)
=
x3
8

Illustration 1: Solve:
Sol:

8 x +1

=
1
3 x3

(multiplying both side by 8/3)

8x + 8
= 1
3x 9

8x + 8 = 9 3x

11x = 1 x =

1
(by transposition)
11

Hence, x =

1
is a solution of the given equation.
11

Illustration 2: Solve (4 + x)(5 x) = 1 ( x 2 and 7 )

(2 + x)(7 x)

Sol:

We have, (4 + x)(5 x) = 1
(2 + x)(7 x)

(4+x)(5-x)=(2+x)(7-x)

20 + x x2 = 14 + 5x x2

x x2 5x + x2 = 14 20 [By transposition method]

4x = 6

x=

Hence, x =

20 4x + 5x x2 = 14 2x + 7x x2

3

2

[Dividing both sides by 4]

3
is the solution of the given equation.
2

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

125

1
Illustration 3: Solve the equation: 7x 1 1 2x + x 1 =
6
3

Sol:

The given equation can be written as

7x 1 2x x 1 19

=
4
3
6
3

3(7x 1) 4(2x) 2(x 1) = 4 19

21x 3 8x 2x + 2 = 76

11x = 76 + 3 2

Hence, x = 7 is the required solution.

11x = 77

(Multiplying by 12)
x=7

1.1.2. Graph of a Linear Equation in One Variables

In order to draw the graph of a linear equation in one variable we may follow the following steps.
Step-I: Obtain the linear equation.
Step-II: I f the equation is of the form ax = b, a 0 then plot the point and one more point such that
the value of x is b/a and y has any value, (where a is any real number on the graph paper). If
the equation is of the form ay = b, a 0, then plot the point and one more point such that the
value of y is b/a and x has any value, (where a is any real number on the graph paper).
Step-III: Join the points plotted in step-II to obtain the required line.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Remark I: O
 n a graph paper, the linear equation ax = b represents a line parallel to y-axis and
if we have b = 0, then its graph is y-axis.
Remark II: On a graph paper, the linear equation ay = b represents a line parallel to x-axis
and if we have b = 0, then its graph is x-axis.
Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NSTSE 2009
Illustration 4: Draw the graph of the following linear equation:

x + 1 = 4x + 4
Sol:

The given equation is x + 1 = 4x + 4

x-4x = 4-1 3x = 3 x = 1.

For each value of y, x = 1.

Thus, we have the following table:

X

-1

-1

-1

-1

(x, y)

(-1, 1)

(-1, 2)

(-1, -1)

126

Linear Equations in two Variables

Plot the points (1, 1), (1, 2) and (1, 1) on the graph and draw a line AB passing through
these points.

Line AB is the required graph of the equation x = 1.

Illustration 5: Draw the graph of the following linear equation: 2y + 4 = y+6

Sol:

The given equation is 2y + 4 = y+6 2y - y = 6 - 4.

y = 2.

For each value of x, y = 2.

Thus, we have the following table:

X

-2

-1

(x, y)

(1, 2)

(-2, 2)

(-1, 2)

Plot the points (1, 2), (2, 2) and (1, 2) on the graph
and draw a line AB passing through these points.

Line AB is the required graph of the equation y 2 = 0.

2. Linear Equations in Two Variables

An equation of the form ax + by + c = 0 or ax + by = c. where a, b, c are real numbers a
& y are variables, is called a linear equation in two variables.

0, b

0 and x

E.g.: x + y = 176, p + 4q = 7 are examples of linear equation in two variables.

2.1. Solution of Linear Equation in Two Variables

Any values of x and y which satisfies the equation ax + by + c = 0, is called a solution of the linear
equation in two variables.
E.g. Consider the equation 3x + 2y = 14

... (1)

(i) On putting x = 2 and y = 4 in (1), we get

L.H.S. = 3 2 + 2 4 = 14. i.e., L.H.S. = R.H.S. Therefore, (2, 4) is a solution of equation (1).

(ii) On putting x = 2 and y = 4 in (1), we get

L.H.S. = 3 (2) + 2 4
equation (1).

14 i.e., L.H.S.

R.H.S. Therefore, (2, 4) is not a solution of

2.2. Graph of a Linear Equation in Two Variables

In order to draw the graph of a linear equation ax + by + c = 0, a
steps.

0, b

0, we may follow the following

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

127

Step-I: Obtain the linear equation let the equation be ax + by + c = 0.

ax + c
Step-II: Express y in terms of x to obtain y =
.
b
Step-III: Put any two or three values of x and calculate the corresponding values of y from the expression
in step-II to obtain two solutions, say (1, 1) and (2, 2). If possible take values of x as
integers in such a manner that the corresponding values of y are also integers.
Step-IV: Plot points (1, 1) and (2, 2).
Step-V: J oin the points marked in step IV to obtain a line. The line obtained is the graph of the linear
equation ax + by + c = 0.
Illustration 6: Draw the graph of the equation

Sol.

3x 2y = 7.
We have, 3x 2y = 7
3x 7
2

y=

When x = 3, y =

97
=1
2
15 7
When x = 5, y =
=4
2
21 7
When x = 7, y =
=7
2

Thus, we have the following table exhibiting the abscissa and ordinates of the points on the line
represented by the equation 3x 2y = 7.
X

Plotting the points A(3, 1), B(5, 4) and C(7, 7) on the graph paper and on joining them we get
a straight line.

Illustration 7: The work done by a body on application of a constant force is directly proportional to

the distance travelled by the body. Express this in the form of an equation in two variables and draw the
graph of the same by taking the constant force as 2 units. Read from the graph the work done when the
distance travelled by the body is (i) 2 units and (ii) 0 units.
Sol:

Let the work done by constant force be W units and the distance travelled by the body be d units.
By the given condition W d, i.e. W = fd, where f is constant force.

As the constant force is given to be 2 units

W = 2d

Linear Equations in two Variables

Now when

when d = 1, W = 2

when d = 2, W = 4

128

d = 0, W = 0

Table of points is:

D

Plot the points (0, 0), (1, 2) and (2, 4)

By joining these points, we get the required graph.

(i) From the graph, we see that when the distance travelled is 2, i.e., when d = 2 units, then W = 4
units, i.e., the work done is 4 units.
(ii) When d = 0, W = 0. Thus when the distance travelled is 0 units, the work done is also 0 units.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Note:
(i) S olution of a linear equation in two variables is written in the form of an ordered pair
(a,b).
(ii) A linear equation in two variable has infinitely many solution, i.e. each of the ordered pair
satisfying the equation. Geometrically, each point on the line is a solution of the linear
equation.
Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NSTSE 2009

3. Algebraic Method of Solving a Pair of Linear

Equations in two Variables
Sometimes, graphical method does not give an accurate answer. It is also not so convenient to solve by
graphical method. Along with that while reading the co-ordinate of a point on a graph paper we are likely
to make an error. So we require some precise method to obtain an accurate result. The algebraic methods
for solving a pair of linear equations are:
(i) Method of substitution.
(ii) Method of equating the coefficients.
(iii) Method of cross multiplication.

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

129

3.1 By Substitution Method

To solve a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y by substitution method, we follow the
following steps:
Step-I: Write the given equations

a1x + b1y + c1 = 0

and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0

...(i)
...(ii)

Step-II: C
 hoose one of the two equations and express y in terms of x (or x in terms of y), i.e., express,
one variable in terms of the other.
Step-III: Substitute this value of y obtained in step-II, in the other equation to get a linear equation in x.
Step-IV: Solve the linear equation obtained in step-III and get the value of x.
Step-V: Substitute this value of x in the relation obtained in step-II and find the value of y.
Illustration 8: Solve for x and y: 4x + 3y = 24, 3y 2x = 6.
Sol: 4x + 3y = 24

...(i)

3y 2x = 6

...(ii)

From equation (i), we get

Substituting in equation (ii), we get

6y 24 + 3y = 12 9y = 12 + 24

9y = 36

Substituting y = 4 in (iii), we get

x=

Hence, x = 3, y = 4.

24 3y
x=
...(iii)
4
24 3y
3y 2
=6

y=4

24 12

4

x=

12
=3
4

3.2. By Elimination Method

To solve a pair of linear equations in two variables by elimination method, we follow the following steps:
Step-I: Write the given equations
a x + b y + c = 0 

...(i)

and a x + b y + c = 0 

...(ii)

Step-II: M
 ultiply the given equations by suitable numbers so that the coefficient of one of the variables
are numerically equal.
Step-III: I f the numerically equal coefficients are opposite in sign, then add the new equations otherwise
subtract.
Step-IV: Solve the linear equations in one variable obtained in step-III and get the value of one variable.

Linear Equations in two Variables

130

Step-V: S ubstitute this value of the variable obtained in step-IV in any of the two equations and find
the value of the other variable.
Illustration 9: Solve the following pair of linear equations by elimination method: 3x + 4y = 10 and
2x 2y = 2.
Sol:

We have,

3x + 4y = 10 

...(i)

and

Multiplying (ii) by 2, we get

4x 4y = 4 

Adding (i) and (iii), we get

7x = 14 x = 2

Putting x = 2 in equation (ii), we get 2 2 2y = 2 2y = 4 2 y = 1

Hence, the solution is x = 2 and y = 1.

2x 2y = 2 

...(ii)
...(iii)

3.3. By Cross-Multiplication Method

Consider the system of linear equations

a x + b y + c = 0 

...(i)

a x + b y + c = 0 

...(ii)

To solve it by cross multiplication method, we follow the following steps:

Step-I Write the coefficients as follows:

The arrows between the two numbers indicate that they are to be multiplied. The products with upward
arrows are to be subtracted from the products with downward arrows.
To apply above formula, all the terms must be in left to the equal sign in the system of equations
Now, by above mentioned rule, equation (i) reduces to

x=

b1c 2 b2c1
a1b2 a2b1

and y =

c1a 2 c2a1

y
x
1
=
=
b1c2 b2c1 c1a2 c2a1
a1b2 a2b1

a1b2 a2b1

Case-I: If a b a b 0 x and y have some finite values, with unique solution for the system of
1 2
2 1
equations.
Case-II: If a b a b = 0
1 2

2 1

Here two cases arise:

(a) If

a1
a2

b1
b2

c1
c2

a1
a2

b1
b2

= ( 0)

Then a = a , b = b , c = c
1
2
1
2
1
2

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

131

Put these values in equation a x + b y + c = 0

a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0

a x + b y + c =0

So (i) and (ii) are dependent, so there are infinite number of solutions.

...(i)

(a x + b y + c ) = 0 but 0
2

...(ii)

b1

a2

b2

c1

ab ba =0

1
(b) If =

But x =

x=

So system of equations is inconsistent.

c2

b1c 2 b2c1
a1b2 a2b1

1 2

and y =

1 2

c1a 2 c2a1
a1b2 a2b1

Finite value
= does not exist
0

and

y=

Finite value
= does not exist
0

Illustration 10: Solve by cross-multiplication method: x + 2y + 1 = 0 and 2x 3y 12 = 0

Sol: We have, x + 2y + 1 = 0 and 2x 3y 12 = 0

By cross-multiplication method, we have

y
x
=
2 (12) (3) 1 1 2 (12) 1
y
x
1
x
= =
=
24 + 3 2 + 12 3 4
21
21
14
x=
= 3 and y =
= 2
7
7

1
1 (3) 2 2
y
1
=
14 7

Hence the solution is x = 3 and y = 2.

4. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
There are three types of solutions:
1. Unique solution

2. Infinitely many solutions 3. No solution.

Consistent: If a system of simultaneous linear equations has at least one solution, then the system is said

to be consistent.
Inconsistent equation: If a system of simultaneous linear equations has no solution, then the system is

said to be inconsistent.
(i) Consistent equations with unique solution:

The graphs of two equations intersect at a unique point

For example: Consider

x + 2y = 4;

The graphs (lines) of these equations intersect each other at the

point

7x + 4y = 18

Linear Equations in two Variables

(2, 1) i.e., x = 2, y = 1.

Hence, the equations are consistent with unique solution.

132

(ii) Consistent equations with infinitely many solutions:

The graphs (lines) of the two equations will be coincident.

For example: Consider

2x + 4y = 9;

The graphs of the above equations coincide. Coordinates of

every point on the lines are the solutions of the equations.

Hence, the given equations are consistent with infinitely

many solutions.

3x + 6y =

27
2

(iii) Inconsistent equations: The graph (lines) of the two equations are parallel.

For example: Consider

4x + 2y = 10

6x + 3y = 6

The graphs (lines) of the given equations are parallel. They will never
meet at a point.

So, there is no solution. Hence, the equations are inconsistent.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
S. No.

Graph of two equations

Types of equations

Intersecting lines

Consistent

Coincident

Consistent, with infinite solutions

Parallel lines

Inconsistent (No solution)

Nitish Jhawar
AIR 1, IOM 2009

5. Equations reducible to Linear Equations in Two Variables

Equations which contain the variables, only in the denominators, are called reciprocal equations. These
equations can be of the following types and can be solved by the method explained below:
a
u

Type-I: +

b
a' b'
= c and + = c a, b, c, a, b, c R
v
u v

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

133

Put

1
1
= x and = v and find the value of x and y by any method described earlier.
y
u

Then u =

1
1
and v =
y
x

Type-II: au + bv = cuv and au + bv = cuv a, b, c, a, b, c R

Divide both equations by uv and equations can be converted in the form explained in (I).

a
b
a'
b'
+
=
k and
+
=
k ' , a, b, k, a, b, k R
lx + my cx + dy
lx + my cx + dy
1
1
Put
= u and
=v
lx + my
cx + dy

Type-III:

Then equations are au + bv = k and au + bv = k

Find the values of u and v and put in lx + my =

Again solve for x and y, by any method explained earlier.

1
1
and cx + dy =
u
v

3a 2b
a 3b
+ 5 = 0 and + 2 = 0 (x 0, y 0)

x
y
x y
3a 2b
a 3b
+ 5 = 0 and +
2=0

x
y
x y

Illustration 11: Solve for x and y :

Sol:

We have,

Let

1
1
= u and = v. Then, the given equations can be written as
y
x

3au 2bv = 5 ...(i) and au + 3bv = 2 ...(ii)

Multiplying (i) by 3 and (ii) by 2, we get

and 2au + 6bv = 4 

Adding (iii) and (iv), we get

Put u =

But

9au 6bv = 15

... (iii)
... (iv)

11au = 11

u=

1
a

1
1
in equation (ii), we get -1 + 3bv = 2 3bv = 3 v =
a
b

1
1
1
1
=u=
and = v =
y
a
x
b

Hence the solution is x = a and y = b.

Applications of Linear Equations in Two Variables

In this section, we will study about some applications of simultaneous linear equations in solving
variety of word problems related to our day-to-day life situations. Let us have a look at some of
such situations.

Illustration 12: 7 audio cassettes and 3 video cassettes cost Rs.1110, while 5 audio cassettes and 4 video

cassettes cost Rs. 1350. Find the cost of an audio cassette and a video cassette.

Linear Equations in two Variables

Sol:

134

Let the cost of an audio cassette and a video cassette be Rs. x and Rs. y respectively.

The cost of 7 audio cassettes and 3 video cassettes = Rs. 1110

7x + 3y = 1110

y=

... (i)

1110 7x

3

The cost of 5 audio cassettes and 4 video cassettes = Rs. 1350

5x + 4y = 1350

... (ii)

Substituting (i) in (ii), we get

5x + 4

15x + 4440 28x = 4050

-13x = 4050 4440 = -390

13x = 390 x = 30

Putting x = 30 in (i), we get y =

Hence, the cost of an audio cassette is Rs. 30 and that of a video cassette is Rs. 300.

1110 7x
=1350
3

... (iii)

1110 7 30
900
=
y = 300
3
3

Illustration 13: The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 12. The number obtained by interchanging

its digits exceeds the given number by 18. Find the number.
Sol:

Let the digit at units place be x. Then,

Digit at 10th place is : 12 - x

(given)

And, the two digits number = 10(12 x) + x 120 9x

Now, according to the question,

(10x + 12 - x) = (120 9x) + 18 9x + 12 = 138 9x 18x = 126 x = 7

Substituting (ii) in (i), we get

The two digit number = 120 63 = 57

(i)
... (ii)

Illustration 14: If we add 1 to the numerator and subtract 1 from the denominator, then the fraction
1
if we only add 1 to the denominator. What is the fraction?
2
x
Let the required fraction be . Then,
y

reduces to 1. It becomes
Sol:

And

x +1
= 1 x + 1 = y 1 x y = 2
y 1

...(i)

x
1
= 2x = y + 1 2x y = 1
y +1 2

...(ii)

Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get x = 3, Put x = 3 in (i), we get 3 y = 2 y = 5

www.plancess.com

135

Linear Equations in two Variables

Hence, the fraction is

3
.
5

Illustration 15: Two years ago, a father was five times as old as his son. After two years, his age will be 8

more than three times the age of the son. Find the present ages of father and son.
Sol:

Let the present ages of the father and the son be x years and y years respectively.

Two years ago, Fathers age = (x 2) years and sons age = (y 2) years

(x 2) = 5 (y 2) x 5y = 8

Two years later, Fathers age = (x + 2) years and sons age = (y + 2) years

(x + 2) = 3 (y + 2) + 8 x + 2 = 3y + 6 + 8 x 3y = 12 ...(ii)

Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get 2y = 20 y = 10

Putting y = 10 in (ii), we get x 3 10 = 12 x 30 = 12 x = 42

Hence, the present ages of father and son are 42 years and 10 years respectively.

...(i)

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Speed of a boat upstream and downstream
Let speed of a boat in still water = u km/h and speed of the current = v km/h. Then,
(a) Speed of a boat downstream (along the flow of the current) = (u + v)km/h
(b) Speed of a boat upstream (against the flow of the current) = (u v)km/h.
Neeraj Toshniwal
AIR 37, INMO
Illustration 16: A man travels 370 km partly by train and partly by car. If he covers 250 km by train and

the rest by car it takes him 4 hours. But, if he travels 130 km by train and the rest by car, he takes 18
minutes, longer. Find the speed of the train and car.
Sol:

Let the speeds of the train and that of the car be x km/h and y km/h respectively.
If he covers 250 km by train and 120 km by car it takes 4 hours. Therefore,

Distance
250 120
+
=
4 Time =

Speed
x
y

...(i)

And if he covers 130 km by train and 240 km by car it takes 4 hours and 18 minutes.

Therefore,

130 240
18

+
=+
4
x
y
60

18
hours ...(ii)
18 minutes =
60

Multiplying 2 in eq. (i), we get

Linear Equations in two Variables

500 240
+
=
8
x
y

(iii)

Subtracting (ii) from (iii), we get

Putting x = 100 in (i), we get

136

370 37
x = 100
=
x
10

250 120
120
250
12000
y=
= 80
+
=
4
= 4
100
y
y
100
150

Hence the speeds of the train and that of the car are 100 km/h and 80 km/h respectively.

Illustration 17: 8 men and 12 boys can finish a piece of work in 10 days while 6 men and 8 boys can

finish it in 14 days. Find the time taken by one men alone and that by one boy alone to finish the work.
Sol: Let one man alone can finish the work in x days and one boy alone can finish the work in y
1

days. Then, the work done by one man in one day =

and the work done by one boy in one
x
1
day = .
y

8
x

According to the question, 10 +

6
x

8
y

Also, 14 + = 1

12
2 3
1
= 1 + = 
y
x y 40

3 4 1
+ = ...(ii)
x y 28

Multiplying (i) by 4 and (ii) by 3, we get :

and

...(i)

9 12 3
+
=
x y 28 

8 12 1
+
=
x y 10 

...(iii)
...(iv)

1
3
1
1
2
=
x = 140
=

x 28 10
x 280

Subtracting (iii) from (iv), we get

Putting x = 140 in (ii), we get =

Hence, one man alone can finish the work in 140 days and one boy alone can finish the work in
280 days.

4
y

1
3
4 53
4
2
=
=
y = 280

28 140
y 140
y 140

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

137

SUMMARY
1. Two linear equations in the same two variables are called a pair of linear equations in two
variables, or briefly, a linear pair. The most general form of a linear pair is:
a x + b y + c = 0
1

a x + b y + c = 0
2

where a , a , b , b , c , c are real numbers, such that a12 + b12 0,a22 + b22 0.
1

2. A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented, and solved, by

(a) Graphical method (b) Algebraic method

(a) Graphical Method: The graph of the pair of linear equations in two variables is represented by
a pair of lines.
(i) If the pair intersects at a point, then that point is the unique common solution of the two
equations. In this case, the pair is consistent.
(ii) If the pair coincide, then it has infinitely many solutions each point on the line being a
solution. In this case, the pair is consistent (dependent).
(iii) If two lines are parallel, then the pair has no solution, and is called inconsistent.
(b) Algebraic Method: We have discussed the following methods for finding the solution(s) of a pair
of linear equations.
(i) Substitution method. (ii) Elimination method. (iii) Cross-multiplication method.
3. If a x + b y + c = 0 and a x + b y + c = 0, then the following situations can arise:
1

(i)

a1
a2

b1
b2

: In this case the pair of linear equations is consistent.

b1

a2

b2

c1

a2

b2

c2

1
(ii) =

1
1
=
(iii) =

c1
c2

: In this case the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.

: In this case the pair of linear equations is dependent and consistent.

4. There are several situations which can be mathematically represented by two equations that are
not linear to start with. But we alter them so that they are reduced to a linear pair.

Linear Equations in two Variables

138

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1: Solve for x and y:

Sol:

3 4
+ =
1
x y

3 4
4 2 11
, ( x 0 and y 0 )
+ = 1; + =
x y
x y 12

...(1)

4 2 11
+ =
x y 12

....(2)

Multiplying (2) by 2

8 4 22
+ =
x y 12

Subtracting (1) and (3)

=
x

....(3)

5 10
=
x 12

5 12
= 6
10

Substituting x = 6 in (1)

3 4
4
1 1
+ =1 =1 =
6 y
y
2 2

y = 8 Hence, x=6 and y =8

Example 2: Solve the following system of equations for x and y:

2a2b2
Sol:

b2 x a2 y

= ab(a + b) and b2x a2y =

a
b

The given system of equation is

b2 x a2 y

= ab(a + b) ..(1)
a
b

And b2x a2y = 2a2b2

b2x = 2a2b2 + a2y .(2)

Substituting (2) in (1), we get

2a2b2 + a2 y a2 y

= a2b + ab2
a
b

y(ab a2 ) 2
a2b2 ab3
= a b ab2 y =
b
ab a2
a2 y
b2 (ab a2 )
2ab2 + ay
= a2b + ab2 y =
=
b2
b
ab a2

Substituting this values of y in (2), we get

b2 x= 2a2b2 a2b2 b2 x= a2b2

x=
a2

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

139

Hence, the solution is x = a2, y= b2

2x + 1 3y + 2
2(2x + 1) 3(3y + 2)
+
=
2 and

=
1
3
5
3
5
2x + 1 3y + 2
Given equations are :
+
=
2
....(1)
3
5

Example 3: Solve the equations:

Sol:

And

2(2x + 1) 3(3y + 2)

=
1
3
5

...(2)

Multiplying by 3 in (1), we get

3(2x + 1) 3(3y + 2)
+
=
6
3
5

....(3)

Adding (3) and (2), we get

10x + 5
=5
3
10x + 5 =
15
x =
1

Substituting this value of x in (1)

2 + 1 3y + 2
2
+
=
3
5
3y + 2
1 +
= 2 3y + 2 = 5
5
1
y =

x = 1 and y =1

Example 4: Solve the following system of equation graphically: 2x +y =3; 2x -3y =7

Identify which of these lines are coincident or parallel to 4x+2y=6. Also, find the co-ordinates of the
point where any of the lines cut Y-axis.
Sol:

From equation (1):

2x + y = 3y =3 -2x
X

-1

-1

From equation (2): 2x -3y =73y =2x -7

2x 7
y =
3

3.5

-1

Linear Equations in two Variables

140

6 4x
3

From equation (3): 4x + 2y = 6 y =

X

-1

-1

[Note: We choose such values for x that give integral values of y]

The graphs of the 3 lines are plotted as shown below:

Equation 1 and 3 represent coincident lines.

Equation 1 and 2, or 2 and 3 represent intersecting line with a unique solution (2, -1)
There are no parallel lines. Line 2x+y=3 or 4x +2y =6 cuts Y-axis at (0, 3)

Example 5: Solve 3x +2y +25 =0, x + y +15 =0

Sol:

3x +2y +25 =0

x+y +15 =0
y = -15 x
Substituting (2) in (1), we get
3x + 2(-15 - x) +25= 0
3x -30 2x +25 =0
x=5
Therefore y = -15-5 = -20

(1)
(2)

Example 6: Find the value of k for which the system of liner equation:

Kx + 4y = k 4, 16 x + ky =k, has many solutions.

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

141
Sol:

kx +4y = k -4
16x +ky = k
Here, a1 = k, b1=4, c1=-(k -4); a2 =16, b2=k, c2=-k
a

c1

a2

b2

c2

1
1
=
Here condition is =

= =

k
16

4
k

(1)
(2)

k4
k

k
4
= k2 =
64 k =8
16 k

Also,

4 k4
=
4k = k 2 4k
k
k

k 2 8k =0 k(k 8) =0

k =0 or k = 8 but k =0 is not possible otherwise equation will be one variable.

k =8 is correct value of many solution.

Example 7: Draw the graph of the following pair of linear equations: x + 3y =6 and 2x -3y =12

Hence, find the area of the region bounded by x =0, y =0 and 2x -3y =12

Sol:

Consider both the equations, separately.

6x
And
3
2x 12
2x 3y = 12 y =
3
x + 3y = 6 y =

We make the table by giving the values to x for the both equations

x = 6 3y

x=

3y + 12
2

-4

-2

By plotting the points on the graph and joining them we get that the lines intersect at (6, 0)
By joining the lines and points we get a ABC with vertices

Linear Equations in two Variables

A(6, 0), B(0, -4), C(0,2). But x=0, y=0 and 2x - 3y =12 gives us OAB.

Area of OAB = OA OB [ Area of = basecorresponding altitude]

1
2

142

1
2

1
6 4 = 12 sq. units
2

Example 8: Find the values of a and b for which the following system of linear equations has infinite

solutions:

Sol:

2x+3y =7 , (a+b+1)x + (a+2b+2)y = 4(a+b)+1

2x+3y= 7(a+b+1)x +(a+2b+2)y=(4a+4b +1)
2
3
7

=
=
a + b + 1 a + 2b + 2 4a + 4b + 1

(A)

(B)

c1

a2

b2

c2

(C)

Equating (A) and (C); we get 2 (4a +4b +1) = 7 (a + b +1)
8a +8b +2 =7a +7b +7

a +b =5 

Equating (B) and (C), we get 3(4a+4b+1) = 7(a +2b+2)

12a +12b +3 = 7a +14b +14

5a -2b =11

Multiplying (1) by 2 and adding to (2),

1
1
=
In order that the two equations have infinite number of solutions, =

7a = 10 + 11 a =

(1)

(2)

21
= 3
7

Now, b =5-a = 5 3 =2
Hence for infinite solutions a = 3, b =2

Example 9: A boat goes 12 km upstream and 40 km downstream in 8 hours. It can go 16 km, upstream

and 32 km downstream in the same time. Find the speed of the boat in still water and the speed of the
stream.

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

143
Sol:

Let the speed of boat in downstream is

x km/hr. and the speed of boat upstream is y km/hr.
12
y

In 1st case: Distance covered in upstream = 12km Time =

hr.

Distance covered in downstream = 40 km Time =

hr.

Total time is 8 hrs.

40
y

12 40
+
=
8
y
x
16
y

In 2nd case: Distance covered in upstream = 16km time =

hr.,

Downstream = 32 km time =
hr.

Total time taken =8 hrs.

32
x

16 32
+
=
8
y
x

On solving we get, x =8 and y=4

Speed of boat = = = 6 km/hr,

Speed of stream = = = 2 km/hr.

x+y
2

xy
2

8+4
2

84
2

Example 10: A train covered a certain distance at a uniform speed. If the train would have been 10 km/h

faster, it would have taken 2 hours less than the scheduled time, and, if the train were slower by 10 km/h;
it would have taken 3 hours more than the scheduled time. Find the distance covered by the train.
d

Sol: Let the initial speed be v and the distance is d; then time, t = or d = vt 
v

According to problem: d= (v + 10)(t - 2)
[increasing speed by 10 results in decrease in time by 2].

Or vt = vt -2v +10t -20

10t -2v =20

Also d = (v -10) (t +3) [decreasing speed by 10 results in increase in time by 3].

vt = vt +3v -10t -30

3v -10t=30 

Adding equation (2) and (3)

2v + 10t =
20
3v 10t =
30
v = 50km / hr

(1)

.(2)

. (3)

Linear Equations in two Variables

144

3 50 10t = 30 t = 12hrs

From equation (1), the distance covered by the train, d = vt = 50 12=600 km.

Example 11: A and B are friends and their ages differ by 2 years. As father D is twice as old as A and B is

twice as old as his sister C. The ages of D and C differ by 40 years. Find the ages of A and B.
Sol:

Let the ages of A and B be p years and q years respectively.

Since, their ages differ by 2
p q =2

Since, D is twice as old as A

Ds age =2p
And B is twice as old as his sister C.
Cs age = q /2 years
From (1) and (2) it is clear that D is older than C
Since, ages of D and C differ by 40 years
2p

(2)

q
= 40 4p q = 80
2

Now, we have p q = 2 and 4p q =80 or

p q = -2 and 4p q =80
On solving p q =2 and 4p-q =80, we get p = 26 and q =24

on solving p q=-2 and 4p-q =80, we get p=27

(1)

1
1
and q =29 .
3
3
1
1
Hence, As age = 26 years and Bs age = 24 years or As age = 27 years and Bs age = 29 years.
3
3

Example 12: Solve the following system of linear equations for x and y.

a( x +y ) + b ( x - y) (a2 ab + b2) = 0, and

a ( x + y) b ( x y) ( a2 + ab + b2) =0

Sol: The given system of equations is

a( x +y ) + b ( x - y) (a2 ab + b2) = 0
and

a( x + y) b ( x y) (a2 + ab + b2) =0

Adding equation (1) and (2), we get

.(1)
(2)

2a(x + y) 2(a2 + b2 ) =
0

a2 + b2
x + y =
a

Substituting this to (1), we get

...(3)

a2 + b2 + b(x y) (a2 ab+ b2 ) =

0
b(x y) =
ab
x y =a
...(4)

www.plancess.com

145

Linear Equations in two Variables

By adding (3) and (4), we get

b2
a
b2
x=
2a
2
b
y =a
2a
2a2 + b2
y=
2a

Hence, the solution of the system is x =

2x =

b2
2a2 + b2
and y =
2a
2a

Example 13: The numerator of a fraction is 4 less than the denominator if the numerator is decreased by

2 and the denominator is increased by 1, then the denominator is eight times the numerator. Find the
fraction.
Sol:

Let the numerator of the fraction be x .

Then denominator will be = x+4 (Given)
x
x+4

Then required fraction =

if the numerator is decreased by 2 and the denominator is increased by 1, then the denominator

is eight times the numerator.

x+4+1 = 8(x-2)
x + 5 = 8x 16
7x =
21
x =
3

numerator = 3, hence denominator =x+4=7

required fraction =

3
7

Example 14: A vessel contains mixture of 24 milk and 6 water and a second vessel contains a mixture
of 15 milk and 10 water. How much mixture of milk and water should be taken from the first and

the second vessel separately and kept in a third vessel so that the third vessel may contain a mixture of
25 milk and 10 water?
Sol: Let x of mixture be taken from 1st vessel and y of the mixture be taken from 2nd vessel and
kept in 3rd vessel so that (x +y) of the mixture in third vessel may contain 25 of milk and 10
of water.

25
4
x
x or x of mile and of water. And a mixture
5
30
5
3y
2y
of y from 2nd vessel contains
of milk and
of water.
5
5
4
3
x 2
=
x + y 25
.....(1);
=
+ y 10
....(2) Solve it to get x and y, i.e., x = 20 , y = 15
5
5
5 5

A mixture of x from 1st vessel contains

Linear Equations in two Variables

146

Example 15: Solve the system of equations:

Sol:

ax + by =1 ; bx + ay =

2ab

a + b2

ax + by = 1

1 ax

y =
b
2ab

(1)

bx + ay =

Substituting (1) in (2), we get

1 ax
2ab
bx + a
=
2
2
b a +b
b2 x + a a2 x
2ab

=
2
b
a + b2

a2 + b2

(2)

a x(a2 b2 )
2ab
=
2
b
a + b2

a(a2 b2 )
x(a2 b2 ) =
a2 + b2
a
x=
2
a + b2

...(3)

Substituting in (1), we get

a
a
+ by =
1
2
2
a +b
a2
by =1

a2 + b2

2
b
by =
2
a + b2
b
y =
2
a + b2

Therefore the solution

is x =
=
,y
2
2

a +b

b
2

a + b2

Example 16: A part of the monthly expenses of a family is constant and the remaining varies with the

price of wheat. When the price of wheat is Rs. 250 per quintal, the total expenses are Rs. 1000 and when
it is Rs. 240 per quintal, the total monthly expenses Rs. 980 per quintal. Find the total monthly expenses
of the family when the cost of wheat is Rs. 350 per quintal.
Sol:

Let the constant part of the expenditure = Rs. x and the variable part = Rs. y price of wheat.

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

147

Given that when the price of wheat is Rs. 250 per quintal, the total expenses are Rs. 1000.
x + 250 y = 1000
(1)
Given also that when the price of wheat is Rs. 240 per quintal, the total expenses are Rs. 980
x + 240 y = 980
(2)
Subtracting (2) from (1)
10y = 20 y =2
Substituting this values of y in (1)
x +250 (2) = 1000
x =1000-500=500
Therefore, when the price of wheat is Rs. 350 per quintal,
Total expensed = x +350 y = 500 +350 (2) = Rs. 1200
Total expenses = Rs. 1200

Example 17: Vikas tells son Seven years ago, I was seven times as old as you were then. Also, three years

from now, I shall be three times as old as you will be. Represent this situation both algebraically and
graphically.
Sol: Let the present age of Vikas = x years and
present age of his son = y years

Seven years ago fathers age ( x -7) years and
sons age = ( y -7) years

(x 7) = 7 ( y 7)

x 7y = -42 or x = 7y -42

According to given condition, we get

Points to be plotted ( 0, 6) and (7, 7)

After three years
Fathers age = ( x + 3) years, Sons age = ( y +3 ) years
( x + 3) = 3 ( y + 3) x -3y =6 or x=3y +6
According to the second condition:
X

-2

Points to be plotted ( 6, 0) and ( 0, -2)

148

Linear Equations in two Variables

Exercise 1 For School Examinations

Fill in the Blanks
Directions: C
 omplete the following statements with an appropriate word/term to be filled in the blank
space (s).
Q. 1. Five years ago, Nuri was thrice as old as Sonu. Ten years later, Nuri will be twice as old as Sonu.
Nuri age is
.
Q. 2.

If p +q = k, p q = n and k>n, then q is

(Positive / negative).

Q. 3. The number of common solutions for the system of linear equations 5x +4y +6=0 and 10x +8y
=12 is
.
Q. 4.

If 2x +3y =5 and 3x +2y =10, then x y =

True / False
Directions: Read the following statements and write your answer as true or false.

Q. 5. If a pair of linear equations is given by a1x + b1y + c1=0 and a2x + b2y + c2=0 and 1 1 . In this
a2 b2
case, the pair of linear equations is consistent.

True

False

1
1
1
=
Q. 6. If a pair of linear equations is given by a1x + b1y + c1=0 and a2x + b2y + c2=0 and =
.
a2 b2 c2
In this case, the pair of linear equations is consistent.

True

False

Q. 7. Every solution of the equation is a point on the line representing it.

True

False

Match the following

Directions: Each question contains statements given in two columns which have to be matched.
Statements (A, B, C, and D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r, and s) in
Column II
Q. 8. Column II give pair of two number for solution to in column I, match them correctly.
Column I

Column II

(A) Half the perimeter of a rectangular garden, whose

length is 4 m more than its width, is 36 m

(p) (39 , 13)

(B) The difference between two numbers is 26 and one

number is three times the other.

(q) (40, 10)

www.plancess.com

149

Linear Equations in two Variables

Column I

Column II

(C) Five years hence, the age of Jacob will be three times
that of his daughter. Five years ago, Jacobs age was
seven times that of his daughter.

(r) ( 35, 71)

(D) If 1 is added to each of the given two numbers, then

their ration is 1: 2. If 5 is subtracted from each of the
numbers, then their ration is 5 : 11

(s) (20, 16)

Q. 9. Match the column

Column I

Column II

(A) 5y 4x =14 , y 2x =1

(p) Infinite solutions

(B) 6x -3y +10 =0, 2x y +9 =0

(q) Consistent

(C) 3x -2y =4, 9x -6y=12

(r) No solution

(D) 2x -3y =8, 4x -6y=9

(s) Inconsistent

Very Short Answer Questions

Directions: Give answer in one word or one sentence.
Q. 10. A can do a piece of work in 24 days. If B is 60% more efficient than A, then find the number of
days required by B to do twice as large as the earlier work.
Q. 11. A group of soldiers can completely destroy an enemy bunker in 7 days. However 12 soldiers fell
ill. The remaining now can do the job in 10 days. Find the original group strength.
Q. 12. A laboratory technician has acid solution in two concentrations, 50% and 100%. He wants to
mix the right amount of each to make 400 mL of 60% acid solution by volume. How many
milliliters of each solution is needed?

Short Answer Questions

Directions: Give answer in two to three sentences.
Q. 13. Determine the values of a and b for which the following system of linear equations has infinitely
many solutions:

3x (a +1) y = 2b -1, 5x + (1 2a) y =3b

Q. 14. If (x -4) is a factor of x3+ax2 +2bx -24 and a b =8, find the values of a and b.
Q. 15. One hundred men in 10 days do one third of a piece of work. The work is then required to be
completed in another 13 days. On the next day (the eleventh day) 50 more men are employed,
and on the day after that, another 50. How many men must be relieved at the end of the 18th day
so that the rest of the men, working for the remaining time, will just complete the work?

Linear Equations in two Variables

150

Q. 16. The set up cost of a machine that produces brass plates is Rs. 750. After set up, it cots Rs. 0.25
to produce each plate. Management is considering the purchase of a larger machine that can
produce the same plate at a cost of Rs. 0.20 per plate. If the set up cost of the larger machine is
Rs. 1200, how many plates would the company have to produce so that total cost is same for
both the machines?
Q. 17. Formulate the following problem as a pair of equations, and hence find their solutions:

Roohi travels 300 km to her home partly by train and partly by bus. She takes 4 hours if she
travels 60 km by train and the remaining by bus. If she travels 100 km by train and the remaining
by bus, she takes 10 minutes longer. Find the speed of the train and the bus separately.

Q. 18. Solving graphically the system of linear equations:

4x -3y +4 =0; 4x +3y -20=0

Find the area of the region bounded by these lines and X-axis.

Q. 19. Point A and B are 90 km. apart from each other on a highway. A car starts from A and another
from B at the same times. If they go in the same direction, they meet in 9 hrs. and if they go in
opposite directions, they meet in 9/7 hrs. Find their speeds.
Q. 20. The monthly incomes of A and B are in the ratio of 9 : 7 and their monthly expenditures are in
the ration of 4 :3. If each saves Rs. 1600 per month, find the monthly income of each.

Long Answer Questions

Directions: Give answer in four to five sentences.
Q. 21. For what values of k will the system of linear equations have infinite number of solutions:

Kx + 4 y = k -4 , 16 x + ky =k?

Q. 22. After covering a distance of 30 km with a uniform speed there is some defect in a train engine
and therefore, its speed is reduced to 4/5 of its original speed. Consequently, the train reaches
its destination late by 45 minutes. Had it happened after covering 18 kilometers more, the train
would have reached 9 minutes earlier. Find the speed of the train and the distance of journey.
Q. 23. A man travels 600 km partly by train and partly by car. If he covers 400 km by train and the rest
by car, it takes him 6 hours and 30 minutes. But if he travels 200 km by train and 30 minutes.
Not if he travels 200 km by train and rest by car, he takes half an hour longer. Find the speed of
the train and that of the car.

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

151

Exercise 2 - For Competitive Examinations

Multiple Choice Questions
Directions: This section contains multiple choice questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and
(d) out of which ONLY ONE is correct.
Q. 1. Xs salary is half that of Ys. If X got 50% rise in his salary and Y got 25% rise in his salary, then
the percentage increase in combined salaries of both is(a) 30
1
2

(c) 37

1
5

(b) 33
(d) 75

Q. 2. At present ages of a father and his son are in the ration 7: 3, and they will be in the ration 2:1
after 10 years. Then the present age of father (in years) is(a) 42

(b) 56

(c) 70

(d) 77

Q. 3. A fraction becomes 4 when 1 is added to both the numerator and denominator and it becomes
7 when 1 is subtracted from both the numerator and denominator. The numerator of the given
fraction is(a) 2

(b) 3

(c) 5

(d) 7

Q. 4. A motor boat takes 2 hours to travel a distance 9 km down the current and it takes 6 hours to
travel the same distance against the current. The speed of the boat in still water and that of the
current (in km/hour) respectively are(a) 3, 1.5

(b) 3, 2

(c) 3.5, 2.5

(d) 3, 1

Q. 5. If (3x +4y) : (x +2y) =9 : 4, then (3x +5y) : (3x y) is equal to(a) 4 :1

(b) 1 : 4

(c) 7 : 1

(d) 1 : 7

Q. 6. A boat travels with a speed of 15 km /h in still water. In a river flowing at 5 km/hr, the boat
travels some distance downstream and then returns. The ration of average speed to the speed in
still water is
(a) 8 : 3

(b) 3 : 8

(c) 8 : 9

(d) 9 :8

Linear Equations in two Variables

152

More than One Correct

Directions: This section contains multiple choice questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and
(d) out of which ONLY OR MORE may be correct.
Q. 7. I. If x y = xy = 1 x y, then x + y is

5
6

II. The system of equations 3x +2y =a and 5x + by = 4 has infinitely many solutions for x and y,
then a = 4, b = 3
III. If

x y
+ =
2 and ax by = a2 b2, then x = a, y =b
a b

Which is true?
(a) I only

(b) II only

(c) III only

(d) none of these

Q. 8. Let x = -y where y> 0. Which of the following statements is/are correct?

Q. 9.

(a) x2y > 0

(b) x + y =0

(c) xy < 0

(d)

1 1
=
0
x y

If a pair of linear equations is consistent, then the lines will be

(a) Parallel

(b) always coincident

(c) Inter secting

(d) coincident

Passage Based Questions

Directions: Study the given passage (s) and answer the following questions.
Q. 10. Passage I

If we have two simultaneous equations

ax + by = c

And bx + ay = d , then in order to solve 

we find ( 1) + ( 2) and then ( 1) (2), we shall get

( a + b) x + ( a + b) y = c + d

(1)
.(2)

c+d
and ( a b) x ( a b) y = c d
a+b
cd
i.e. x y =
ab
c+d cd
To find x, (3) + (4) gives, 2x =
+
a+b ab

i.e. x + y =

=
x

1c+d cd
+

2 a+b ab

=
y
To find y, (3) - (4) gives,

1c+d cd

2 a+b ab

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

153

Read the above passage carefully and mark the correct choice.
1. The solution of 217 x + 131 y = 913 ; 131 x + 217y =817 is
(a) x = 2, y =3

(b) x = 3, y =2

(c) x = 2, y =2

(d) x = 3, y =3

2. The solution of 37 x + 41 y = 70 ; 41 x + 37y =86 is

(a) x = 3, y =1

(b) x = 3, y =-1

(c) x = -3, y =1

(d) x = 1, y =3

3. The solution of x + 2 y =

3
3
; 2 x + y = is
2
2

(a) x = 3, y =1
(c) x =

1
, y =0
2

1
1
,y=
2
2
1
(d) x = 0, y =
2

(b) x =

Assertion & Reason

Directions: Each of these questions contains an Assertion followed by Reason. Read them carefully and
answer the questions on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that best describes the
two statements.
Q. 11. Assertion: 3x +4 y +5 =0 and 6x +ky +9 =0 represent parallel lines if k =8
a

b1

a2

b2

1
Reason: a1x + b1 y +c1=0 and a2x + b2y + c2 =0 represent parallel lines if =

Which is the correct answer.

c1
c2

Q. 12. Assertion: If the system of equations 2x +3y =7 and 2ax + (a +b) y =28 has infinitely many
solutions, then 2a b =0

Reason: The system of equations 3x -5y =9 and 6x -10y =8 has a unique solution.

Multiple Matching Question

Directions: Following question has four statements (A, B, C and D) given in Column I and four
statements (p, q, r and s) in Column II. Any given statement in Column I can have correct matching
with one or more statement(s) given in Column II. Match the entries in Column I with entries in
Column II.
Q. 13.
Column I

Column II

(A) No solution

(p) 5x -15y =8, 3x -9y=

(B) Infinitely many solutions

(q) 2x +4y =10, 3x +6y =12

24
5

Linear Equations in two Variables

Column I

Column II

(C) Unique solutions

(r) 3x -2y =4 , 6x -4y =8

(D) System is consistent

(s) 2x +y =6, 4x -2y -4 =0

154

y
3

(t) 3x y =8, x- =3

Subjective Questions
Directions: Answer the following questions.
Q. 14. Solve the system of equations: ax + by =1 and bx +ay =

2ab
2

a + b2

Q. 15. Find the values of a and b for which the following system of linear equations has infinite number
of solutions:

2x +3y =7

(a + b + 1) x + (a + 2b +2) y = 4 (a + b) +1
Q. 16. Solve the following system of linear equations for x and y.

a( x + y) + b( x y) ( a2 ab + b2 ) =0 and

a( x + y) - b( x y) ( a2 + ab + b2 ) =0

www.plancess.com

155

Linear Equations in two Variables

SOLUTIONS
Exercise -1
Fill in the Blanks
1. 50

2. Positive

3. Zero

4. 5

True / False
5. True

6. True

7. True

Match the following

8.

(A) s

(B) p

(c) q

(D) r

9.

(A) q

(B) r,s

(c) p

(D) r,s

Very Short Answer Questions

10.

1
th of work in 1 days. Since, B is 60% more efficient,
24
1
1.6
he will do
(1.60) work in 1day. So, B can do
th of work in 1 day.
24
24

A, can do a work in 24 days. So, A does

Let B take x days to do 2 unit of work then

1.6
24 2
x = 2,
=
x
= 30
24
1.6

Hence, B will do twice as much as A in 30 days.

11.

Here, first of all. Let us see how WORK can be defined. It is obvious that work can be measured
as destruction of the enemy bunkers.
In the first case, let us say that there were S number of soldiers in the group. So they had to work
for 7 days for the work which we call W.
S7 =
W

. (1)

Now 12 fell ill and the remaining did the work in 10 days.
Hence the new equation is
(S 12) 10 =
W

Just compare the two equations to get the answer.

S 7 = (S 12) 10 7S = 10S 120 120 = 3S S = 40 Soldiers.

Hence, there were 40 soldiers in the group initially.

. (2)

Linear Equations in two Variables

156

12.
Percentage of
concentration

Volume of Acid
(mL)

Concentration

Volume of
solution (mL)

50% solution

0.50 x

0.50

100% solution

1.00y

1.00

60% solution

(0.60)(400)

0.60

400

The second and forth columns give the equations:

0.5 x + y = 240
x + y = 400
Subtract: (1) (2) -0.5 x = -160; x = 320
Substitute 320 for x in (2): y = 80
The technician needs 320 mL of 50% solution and 80 mL of 100% solution.

(1)
(2)

Short Answer Questions

13.

The equation 3x (a + 1) y = 2b -1; 5x + (1-2a) y = 3b

The system will have infinite number of solutions

a

c1

a2

b2

c2

1
1
=
If =

Here, a1 = 3, b1= - (a +1), c1 = 2b -1

a2 =5, b2 = 1-2a, c2 = 3b
3 (a + 1) 2b 1
=

=
5
1 2a
3b

Taking I and II

3
5

Taking I and III

(a + 1)
3 2b 1
=
1 2a
5
3b

5a 5 = 3 6a

10b 5 = 9b

5a + 6a =3 + 5

10b 9b =5

8=
b 5

a= 8, b =5

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

157
14.

A (x- 4) is a factor of p (x) = x3 +ax2+2bx -24, therefore, p (4) =0

(4)3 + a (4)2 +2b (4) -24 =0
64 +16 a+8b -24 =0
16 a +8b +40 =0
2a +b +5 =0 
Also given, a b =8
Adding (1) and (2), we get
3a =3 a=1
Substituting a = 1 in eq. (2), we get
1 b = 8 b = -7

. (1)
. (2)

1
rd of work in 10 days. So, 100 men do complete work in 30 days.
3

15.

100 men do

So man-days for complete work = 100 30 . Same work is completed by 100 men for 10 days +
150 men for 1 day + 200 men for 7 days + x men for 5 days.
Where x is the number of men who work from 19th to 23rd. day.
So, 100 10 + 150 1 + 200 7 + x 5 = 100 30 5x = 2000 1400 150 5x = 450 x = 90
Hence, 200-90 =110 men should be relieved.

16.

Let C be the cost of producing P number of brass plates.

So, for old machine, C = 750 + 0.25P
For new machine, C = 1200 + 0.20P
Since, total cost of production is same for both the machines,
750+0.25P = 1200+0.20P0.05P = 1200-750=450
P=

450 450
=
100= 9000
0.05
5

So, the company has to produce 9000 plates.

17.

Let the speed of train be u and speed of bus = v. Roohi travels 60 km by train and 240 km by
bus, so,
60 240
+
=
4
u
v

...(1)

When Roohi travels 100 km by train and 200 km by bus

100 200
1 25
+
=4+ =
u
v
6 6

....(2)

Multiply Eq. (1) by 5 and Eq. (2) by 3, we get

300 1200
+
=
20
u
v
300 600
1 75
+
=4+ =
u
v
6 6

...(3)
....(4)

Linear Equations in two Variables

158

Subtracting (4) from (3)

600 45
=
v
6
3600
v
=
= 80
45

......(5)

Substituting this to Eq. (1), we get

60 240
+
= 4
u
80

60
60
+3 = 4
= 1
u
u

u = 60

Speed of train =60 km/hr and speed of bus = 80 km /hr

18.

Consider both the linear equations separately

4x -3y +4 = 0

4x+3y-20=0

3y = 4x + 4

3y = 20 4x

=
y

4x + 4
20 4x
=
y
3
3

We make the tables for both the equations by giving the different values to x.
x

-1

-4

-4

-1

By plotting the points on graph and joining

them we get that the two lines intersect at P
(2, 4)
x =2, y = 4 is the solution.
Now, Area of region bounded by lines and
x-axis
= ar (PQR) =
19.

1
1
1
. QR. PS = 6 4 =12 sq. units. area of = base altitude
2
2
2

Let the speeds of the cars starting than A and B be u km/hr and v km/hr. respectively
According to problem,

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

159

9u -90 =9v 

. (1)

9
9
u+ v =
90 
7
7

. (2)

Solving we get u = 40 km/hr. v = 30 km /hr.,

Speed of car A =40 km/hr and speed of car B = 30 km/hr.
20.

Let monthly incomes of A and B be Rs 9x and Rs 7x, and their expenditure be Rs 4y and Rs 3y
respectively.
According to the given condition.
9x -4y=1600

(1)

And 7x -3y =1600

(2)

Multiplying (1) by 3 and (2) by 4 and subtracting,

We get, 27x -12y -28x +12y =4800 -6400
-x =-1600x = 1600
Monthly income of
A= ( 9 1600 ) =Rs. 14,400
Monthly income of B = ( 7 1600 ) =Rs. 11,200.

Long Answer Questions

21.

kx + 4y = k -4

16 x + ky =k

For infinite number of solutions,

a1 b1 c1
= =
a2 b2 c2

a1
k b1 4 c1 k 4
=
, =
, =
a2 16 b2 k c2
k
a1
a2

b1
b2

k
4
=
16 k

64
k =
k =8

....(1)

Linear Equations in two Variables

b1
b2

c1
c2

4 k4
=
k
k

4k = k 2 4k

160

....(2)

8k = k k = 0 or k = 8

k = 0 is not possible as there will be

only one solution i.e. (x = 0, y = 1)

k=8 is the required answer.

22.

Let the original speed of the train be v km/hr. and the length of the journey be d km. Then, Time
taken = (d /v) hrs.

When defect in the engine occurs after covering a distance of 30 km.

We have,

Let speed for a distance of first 30 km = v km /hr

And speed for the remaining (d -30) km =

Time taken to cover 30 km =

4
v km/hr
5

30
hrs
v
d 30
5
Time taken to cover (d-30)=
km
=
hrs
(d 30)hrs
(4v / 5)
4v

According to the given condition, we have

30 5
d 45
(d 30) = +
+
v 4v
v 60
30 5d 150 d 3

+
= +
v
4v
v 4
120 + 5d 150 = 4d + 3v
0
....(1)
3v d + 30 =

When defect in the engine occurs after covering a distance of 48 km.

Speed for a distance of first 48 km = v km/hr.

And speed for the remaining ( d 48) km

4v
km/hr
5

Time taken to cover 48 km=

Time taken to cover (d 48)km

48
hrs .
v

d 48
5(d 48)

= =
hr
hr
4v / 5
4v

According to the given condition, the train now reaches 9 minutes earlier i.e., 36 minutes later.

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

161

48 5(d 48) d 36
48 5d 240 d 3
+
= +

+
= +
v
4v
v 60
v
4v
v 5
25d 240 = 20d + 12v
12v 5d + 240 =
0
....(2)

Solving the equations (1) and (2), we get (Using cross multiplication)

v
1
d
=
=
240 + 150 720 360 15 + 12
v
1
d

=
=
90 360 3
90
360
v=
= 30 and d=
= 120
3
3

Hence, the original speed of the train is 30 km/hr and the length of the journey is 120 km.

23.

Total distance =600 km

Let speed of train = x km/h and speed of car = y km/h

Case I: When 400 km covers by train and the rest by car.

400 200 13
.(1)
+
=
y
2
x
200 400

Case II :
+
=
7 .(2)
x
y

Multiplying (2) by 2, we get

400 800
+
=
14
x
y

...(3)

Subtracting (1) from (3), we get

600 15
=
y
2
y =
80

Putting this to (1)

400 200 13
+
=
x
80
2
400 13 20

=
x
2
8
400
4

=
x
100
x =

speed of train = 100 km/h and speed of car = 80 km/h

Linear Equations in two Variables

162

Exercise -2
Multiple Choice Questions
1.

(b) 96% of C. P. = Rs 240

110% of C. P. = Rs

2.

(c) Let the ages of father and son be 7x , 3x

(7x + 10) : ( 3x +10) = 2 : 1 or x = 10

Age of the father is 70 years.

3.

Let the fraction be

x +1
=4
y +1

240
1100 = Rs. 275
960

x
y

....(1) and

x 1
=7
y 1

....(2)

Solving (1) and (2), we have x = 15, y = 3 i.e. x = 15

4.

(a) Down rate = =4.5 km/hr

Up rate = =1.5 km/hr

9
2

9
6

Let speed of the boat be u and speed of the current be v.

v+u = down rate = 4.5 km/hr

(1)

v u = up rate = 1.5 km/hr

(2)

from (1) and (2) we get v = 3 km/hr and

u = 1.5 km/hr
3x + 4y 9
=
x + 2y
4

5.

(c)

Hence, 12x +16y =9x +18y

Or, 3x=2y

x= y. Substitute x= y in the required expression, we get

2
3 y + 5y
2y + 5y 7y
3
=
=
7 : 1
2
2y y
y
3 y y
3

6.

(c) Let distance =d,

Time taken upstream =

2
3

2
3

d
d
=
15 5 10

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

163

Time taken downstream =

Hence average=
speed

Ration =

d
d
=
15 + 5 20

2d
2d 20 40
= =
km / hr
d
d
3d
3
+
10 20

40
:15 = 40 :45 = 8: 9
3

More than One Correct

7.

(a, c)

8.

(a, b, c)
(a) x2y > 0 [ x2 > 0, y >0] is true
(b) x = -y x + y=0 (b) is true
(c) xy = (-y)(y) = -y2< 0 (c) is true
1
x

(d)
9.

(c, d)

1 1 1
1 1 2
= +
= + = 0 (d) is wrong.
y x y x x x

Passage Based Questions

10.

Passage I

1. (b) we have

217 x+131 y=913

131 x+217 y=827
1 913 + 827 913 827 1 1740 86 1
(5 +=
1) 3
+
=
+ =

2 217 + 131 217 131 2 348 86 2

1 913 + 827 913 827 1
y=
(5 1)= 2

=
2 217 + 131 217 131 2

x =3 , y =2
2. (b) we have
37 x + 41 y = 70
41 x + 37 y= 86
1 70 + 86 70 86 1 156 16 1
(2 +=
4) 3
+
=
+ =

2 37 + 41 37 41 2 78
4 2
1 156 16 1
y =

1
=(2 4) =
2 78
4 2

Linear Equations in two Variables

164

Thus x =1 , y =-1
3. We have
3
3
x + 2y
and 2x +=
y
=
2
2

y=

3 3 3 3
+

1 2 2 2 2 1 3 1
x
=
=
=

2 1+ 2
1 2 2 3 2

1
1 3
1
1
0 = x = , y =
2 3
2
2
2

Assertion & Reason

11.

Reason is true.

In Assertion, given lines represent parallel lines if =

=
k

6 4
= 8 Reason is also true
3

3
6

4 5

k 9

Since reason is the correct explanation for assertion.

12.

(C) Assertion, given system of equation has infinitely many solutions id

2
3
7
= =
2a a + b 28

i.e.

1
1
3
1
=
= 3a = a + b 2a b = 0
4
a a+b 4

Also clearly a = 4, and a + b = 12b =8

2a b = 8 -8 =0 Assertion is true
5
[3(-10) =(-5) (6) =-30]
10
a
b
For unique solution of a1x + b2y + c2 = 0, 1 1
a2 b2
3
6

But reason is false =

Multiple Matching Question

13.

(A) q, t, u ; (B) p, r; (C) s; (D) p, r, s;

Subjective Questions
14.

ax + by = 1

1 ax
(1)
y =
b

bx + ay =

2ab
2

a + b2

(2)

www.plancess.com

Linear Equations in two Variables

165

Substituting (1) in (2), we get

1 ax
2ab
bx + a
=
2
2
b a +b
b2 x + a a2 x
2ab

=
2
b
a + b2

a x(a2 b2 )
2ab
=
2
b
a + b2

a(a2 b2 )
x(a2 b2 ) =
a2 + b2
a
x=
...(3)
2
a + b2

Substituting in (1), we get

a
a
+ by =
1
2
2
a +b
a2
by =1

a2 + b2

b2
by =
a2 + b2
b
y =
2
a + b2

Therefore the solution

is x =
=
,y
2
2

15.

Compare both the given equations with a1 x + b1 y = c1 and a2 x + b2 y = c2

Here a1 = 2, b1=3 , c1=7, a2= a + b + 1 , b2= a+ 2b+2, c2=4 ( a+ b) +1

a +b

b
2

a + b2

a1
b
c
2
3
7
=
=
; 1
=
; 1
a
a
+
b
+
1
b
a
+
2b
+
2
c
4(a
+
b) + 1

2
2
2

For [Infinite number of solutions]

a1 b1 c1
2
3
7
= =
;
=
=
a2 b2 c2 a + b + 1 a + 2b + 2 4(a + b) + 1

(I)
(II)
(III)
(I)(II)
Taking I and II

Taking II and III

Linear Equations in two Variables

2
3
=
a + b + 1 a + 2b + 2

3
7
=
a + 2b + 2 4(a + b) + 1

3a + 3b + 3=2 a + 4b +4

12a +12b +3 =7a +14b +14

a - b = 1 ..(i)

5a - 2b = 11

166

.(ii)

Multiplying (i) by 2 and subtracting (ii) from (i)

2a -2b=2

5a -2b=11
-3a=-9
a=3

Putting the value of a in (i), we get

a b = 1
3 b =1

-b = 1 -3=-2 b =2

a = 3 and b = 2.
16. The given system of equations is

a( x +y ) + b ( x - y) (a2 ab + b2) = 0
and

a( x + y) b ( x y) (a2 + ab + b2) =0

Adding equation (1) and (2), we get

(1)
(2)

2a(x + y) 2(a2 + b2 ) =
0

a2 + b2
x + y =
a

Substituting this to (1), we get

...(3)

a2 + b2 + b(x y) (a2 ab+ b2 ) =

0
b(x y) =
ab
x y =a
...(4)

By adding (3) and (4), we get

b2
a
b2
x=
2a
b2
y =a
2a
2a2 + b2
y=
2a
2x =

Hence, the solution of the system is x =

b2
2a2 + b2
and y =
2a
2a

www.plancess.com

Representative Sample Biology:

Tissues

TISSUES
1. Introduction
Organisms are either unicellular or multicellular. Accordingly the functions are performed either by
a single cell or by a group of cells. Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems split up the work in a way
that exhibits division of labor and contribute to the survival of the body as a whole. This work division
ensures proper specific defined function of the body.
In Unicellular organisms like bacteria, all the functions like digestion, respiration and reproduction
are performed by a single cell. In the complex body of multicellular animals, the same basic functions
are carried out by groups of cells in a well-organized manner. The body of a simple organism like Hydra
is composed of different types and the number of cells. The human body is composed of billions of cells
to perform various functions. In multicellular animals, a group of similar cells along with intercellular
substances perform a specific function. Such an organization is called as tissue.
Tissues vary according to their origin and function, and are different in plants and animals.

2. Types of Tissue in A Plant

Plant tissues can also be divided differently into two types on basis of their division ability:
1. Meristematic tissues
2. Permanent tissues.

2.1. Meristematic Tissue

Meristematic tissue consists of actively dividing cells, leading to increase in length and thickness of the
plant. The primary growth of a plant occurs only in certain, specific regions, such as in the tips of stems
or roots. It is in these regions that meristematic tissue is present. Meristematic tissues are classified on the
basis of their location. They are of the following types:
(a) Apical Meristem: Apical meristem is present on the stem apex, root apex, flower buds and leaf
buds. They are actively dividing cells that require proper nutrition and energy for the division
and

Tissues

168

hence are green in color to carry out photosynthesis. They are responsible for growth in length, i.e.
primary growth.
(b) Lateral Meristem: Lateral meristems are found along the side of the stem. It consists of cells
which mainly divide in one plane and cause the organ to increase in diameter and growth. Lateral
Meristem usually occurs beneath the bark of a tree in the form of Cork Cambium and in vascular
bundles of dicots in the form of vascular cambium. They are responsible for growth in girth or
width, i.e. secondary growth.
(c) Intercalary Meristem: Intercalary meristem is present at the base of a leaf or internodes. They
are present on the either sides of the node.

Fig: Position of meristem in a growing plant

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The cells of meristematic tissues are similar in structure and have thin and elastic primary cell
wall made up of cellulose. Each cell contains a dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus.
Normally the meristematic cells are oval, polygonal or rectangular in shape. Meristematic
tissue cells have a large nucleus with small or no vacuoles; they have no intercellular spaces.
Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NSTSE 2009

www.plancess.com

169

Tissues

Mind Map:

2.2. Permanent Tissue

When the cells of a meristematic tissue divide to a certain extent, they become specialized for a particular
function. This process is called as the differentiation. After differentiation, the cells lose their capability
to divide and is differentiated to their capability to perform various functions of the organism. The tissue
becomes permanent tissue after differentiation. Permanent tissues are of two types, the simple permanent
tissue and the complex permanent tissue.

(a) Simple permanent tissue:

These tissues are called simple because they are composed of similar types of cells which have common
origin and function. Simple permanent tissues are of three types, viz. parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma.
1) Parenchyma: The cells of parenchyma have thin cell
wall. They are loosely packed; with a lot of intercellular
spaces between them. Parenchyma consists of the
largest portion of a plant body. The main function of
parenchyma is to provide support and to store food.
In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in
parenchyma. Some parenchyma contain chlorophyll
and perform photosynthesis, in this case it is called
a chlorenchyma. Parenchyma with large air cavities
provide buoyancy to the plant, then the parenchyma is known as aerenchyma.
2) Collenchyma: Collenchymatous tissue acts as a supporting tissue
in the stems of young plants. It provides mechanical support,
elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in
manufacturing sugar and storing it as starch. It is present in
the margin of leaves and resists tearing effect of the wind. Cells
are elongated with thick primary walls thickened with cellulose
and no intercellular spaces. Cells that have chloroplasts perform
photosynthesis.

Tissues

170

3) Sclerenchyma: The cell wall is very thick with

lignin which is a water proof material. The cells
are dead and intercellular space is absent. The
nucleus is absent. It provides a structural rigidity
to the plant parts. Examples of sclerenchyma are
bark, coconut husk. They are fibers present in
a vascular tissue to transport water or sclereids
found in the cortex, pith, phloem for strength and
firmness. These cells are involved in a mechanical
support and protection for seeds.

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The cells of sclerenchymatous cells can be classified as:
Fibers- Fibers are long, elongated sclerenchymatous cells with pointed ends. They help in
water transportation.
Sclerides- These are sclerenchymatous cells which are short and possess extremely thick,
lamellated, lignified walls with long singular piths.
The main function of Sclerenchymatous tissues is to give support to the plant.

Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NSTSE 2009

Mind Map:

b) Complex permanent tissue: The complex tissue consists of more than one type of cells which
work together as a unit. Complex tissues help in the transportation of organic material, water
and mineral up and down the plants. That is why it is also known as conducting and vascular
tissue. Complex permanent tissues are of two types, viz. xylem and phloem. Xylem and phloem
together make the vascular bundle in plants.

www.plancess.com

171

Tissues

i) Xylem: Xylem consists of:

Tracheid
Vessel Members
Xylem fibers
Xylem parenchyma.
Xylem is a chief, conducting tissue of the vascular plants. It conducts water and mineral ions. The cells
of xylem are dead; except the cells of xylem parenchyma. Tracheid and vessels are tubular structures and
thus they provide a channel for conduction of the water and minerals. Xylem fiber provides structural
support to the tissue. Xylem parenchyma stores the food.

Fig: Position of Xylem in plant

Tissues

172

Fig: Structure of tracheid, sieve-tube, sieve-plate, vessel membranes of Xylem.

ii) Phloem: Phloem consists of:

Sieve tube
Sieve cell
Companion cell
Phloem fibre
Phloem parenchyma.
Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls. Sieve
tubes are the conducting elements of phloem. Phloem is
responsible for the translocation of food in the plants. The
transport of food in phloem is both upward and downward
movement.

www.plancess.com

173

Tissues

Mind Map:

PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Plant tissues are categorized broadly into three tissue systems: the epidermis, the ground
tissue, and the vascular tissue.
Epidermis - Cells forming the outer surface of the leaves and of the young plant body.
Vascular tissue - The primary components of a vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem.
These transport fluid and nutrients internally.
Ground tissue - Ground tissue is less differentiated than other tissues. Ground tissue
manufactures nutrients by photosynthesis and stores reserve nutrients.

Vipul Singh
AIR 1, NSTSE 2009

Tissues

174

3. Types of tissue in animal

Animal tissues are of four types, viz. epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue and nervous
tissue.

3.1. Epithelial Tissue

The epithelial tissue forms a covering or lining of most of the organs. The cells of epithelial tissue are
tightly packed and form a continuous sheet. There is a small amount of cementing materials between
the cells and there is no intercellular space. Due to the absence of blood vessel supply to the epithelium,
its permeability plays an important role in the exchange of materials among various organs. It also plays
an important role in osmoregulation. All epithelial tissues are separated by the underlying tissue by an
extracellular fibrous basement membrane.
Epithelial tissues are of the following types:
a) Simple Epithelium: The simple epithelium is
composed of a single layer of cells. This type of
epithelial tissue forms the lining of blood vessels and
alveoli facilitating exchange of gases and fluids.
b) Cuboidal Epithelium: These cells are cube-shaped,
provide a mechanical support. Linings of kidney
tubules and ducts of salivary glands are composed
of cuboidal epithelium. Cells of epithelium may
play the role of secretion and then they are called
glandular epithelium. It helps in secretion, excretion
and absorption of materials from the food or blood.
c) Columnar Epithelium: These cells are columnshaped that facilitates secretion and absorption.
Example: the lining of the intestine is composed
of columnar epithelium. In some organs, columnar
epithelium has cilia present on the outer surface
which facilitate movements of certain substances.

www.plancess.com

175

Tissues

The ciliated epithelium in the respiratory

tract pushes the mucus forward produced in
the goblet cells.
d) Stratified Epithelium: Cells of the stratified
epithelium are in many layers. Basal layer is
in contact with the basement membrane
and newer cells occupy the upper layers.
Skin is an example of stratified epithelium.
Stratification of layers prevents wear and
tear. This is highly water proof and resistant
to mechanical injury.

Mind Map:

3.2. Connective Tissue

The cells of a connective tissue are loosely scattered in a matrix secreted by its cells. The matrix can be a
fluid, jelly like, dense or rigid. The nature of the matrix depends on the function, which a connective tissue
serves. It helps in binding bones and cartilages, packing, supporting structures of the body. Following are
the various connective tissues:
i) Connective tissue proper: matrix jelly, less rigid.
ii) Skeletal Tissue: matrix is solid.
iii) Vascular tissue: matrix is fluid.

i) Connective tissue proper:

Loose Connective tissue proper: It has less fiber and more matrix.
Dense Connective tissue proper: It has more fiber and less matrix.

Tissues

176

Loose Connective tissue proper:

a) Areolar Connective Tissue: Areolar tissue is found between the skin and muscles, around the
blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow. Areolar tissue fills up the gap between the
tissues and provides support. It also helps in repairing the tissues, as packing material, produces
antibodies.
b) Adipose Tissue: Adipose tissue is composed of fat globules. This tissue is found below the skin
and beneath the organs. Adipose tissue provides an insulation and works as a cushion. Adipocytes
are large cells with soft jelly like matrix and less fibers.

Dense Connective tissue proper:

a) Tendon: It is a tough non fibrous dense tissue. It is white in colour with great strength and less
flexibility. It joins skeletal muscle to the bone for contraction.
b) Ligament: It is a dense yellow fibrous tissue with strength and elasticity that binds bones together
for bending.

ii) Skeletal Tissue:

a) Bone: The bone is mainly composed of osteoblasts. The bone makes the skeletal system. The
skeletal system is responsible for providing a structural framework to the body. It provides
protection to important organs and facilitates movements. It has a fluid in it that is called as the
bone marrow. The matrix is concentric rings made up of collagenous protein.
b) Cartilage: The cartilage is mainly composed of chondrioblasts. The cartilage is present at the
ends of the articulatory bones. Cartilage is also present in external ear, bronchii, etc. a nonporous tissue filled with a fluid called lacunae. The major function of the cartilage is support and
flexibility.

iii) Vascular tissue

a) Blood: The blood is composed of blood cells, platelets and plasma. The blood plays an important
role in the transportation of various substances in the body. It also helps in osmoregulation and
temperature control, transportation of oxygen and nutrients.
b) Lymph: It is a light yellow colored fluid made up of plasma and WBC. It helps in exchange of
materials between blood and tissue fluid.

www.plancess.com

177

Tissues

Fig: Types of connective tissue.

3.3. Muscular Tissue

Muscular tissue is composed of the muscle cells. The muscle cells are specialized cells that have the
capability to contract and expand. Due to the contraction and expansion, the muscles facilitate various
kinds of movements in the body. Muscular tissues are of three types:
a) Striated Muscles: The cells of striated muscles are in the form of a long, un-branched fibers.
The cells are multinucleate. Light and dark bands (striations) are present on the muscle fibers;
which gives the name striated
muscles. Striated muscles are
found in the organs where
a voluntary movement is
possible, e.g. hands, legs,
back, neck, etc.
b) Smooth Muscles: The cells
of the smooth muscles are spindle
shaped and each has one nucleus. The
smooth muscle is found in the organs
where an involuntary movement is
possible, e.g. alimentary canal.

Fig: Types of Muscular tissue

Tissues

178

c) Cardiac Muscles: The cells of cardiac muscles are in the form of branched fibers. In these muscles,
striations are present and cells are uninucleate. These are found in the heart. The cardiac muscles are
capable of continuous contraction and relaxation throughout the life.

Mind Map:

3.4. Nervous Tissue

The nervous system is made up of a nervous tissue. The nervous tissue is composed of specialized
cells called neuron. A neuron can be divided into two distinct parts, viz. head and tail. The head is
somewhat star-shaped and contains nucleus and some other cell organelles. This is called as cyton. There
are numerous hair-like outgrowths coming out of the cyton. These are called as dendrites. The tail ends
in axon terminals. The dendrites receive the nerve impulse, while axon relays the nerve signals.

Fig: Structure of a neuron individually and under microscope

www.plancess.com

179
Mind Map:

Tissues

Tissues

180

SUMMARY
The cells in the body together form a tissue. Tissues are specialized and together perform a typical
function.
There are different kinds of tissues in plants and animals.
In plants meristematic tissue is found in the growing parts like the internodes, roots and stem tips
of the young plants.
The meristematic tissue when lose the ability to differentiate, becomes a permanent tissue. A
permanent tissue is of a simple and complex type.
The parenchyma acts as a packing material and stores food material. Chlorenchyma and aerenchyma
are the types of a simple permanent tissue like parenchyma.
Collenchyma provides some degree of structural rigidity with flexibility.
Schlerenchyma cells support structural rigidity and are closely packed with no interspaces. The bark
is composed of schlerenchyma.
Xylem and phloem are types of a complex permanent tissue.
Xylem helps in conducting the water and the minerals in the plant and phloem distributes the food
to the different parts of the plant.
The animal tissues are classified as epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue.
Depending on the shape and function, an epithelial tissue is classified as squamous, cuboidal,
columnar, ciliated and glandular.
The different types of the connective tissues in our body include areolar tissue, adipose tissue, bone,
tendon, ligament, cartilage and the blood.
Striated, unstriated and cardiac are the three types of muscle tissues.
Nervous tissue is made up of neurons that receive and conduct impulses.

www.plancess.com

181

Tissues

Exercise 1
Fill in the Blanks
Q.1.

meristem occur at the apices of the roots and stem.

Q.2

type of parenchyma is seen in Petiole of banana.

Q.3 When Xylem and Phloem are arranged on alternate radius then the Vascular Bundle of
type.
Q.4 Radial Vascular Bundle is seen in
Q.5 Meristem producing the secondary xylem and phloem is called

Q.6 Hard lignified thick walled, long and pointed cells in a plant are

Q.7 Collenchymatous hypodermis is found in

Q.8 Transpiration and exchange of gases are the functions of

Q.9 Parenchyma: Simple::Phloem:
Q.10 Striated muscle is also called

.
.

True/False
Q.11 Most of the plant tissues are supportive type.

True

False

Q.12 Tissue ensures division of labor.

True

False

Q.13 Sedentary existence contributes to the organ system design in animals.

True

False

Q.14 Organ system is more complex in animals than in plants.

True

False

Q.15 Cartilage heals slower than the skin because cartilage is a deeper tissue.

True

False

Q.16 The inside lining of the intestine has a large surface area because of the presence of cilia.

True

False

Q.17 Adipose is a type of connective tissue because that is where fat is stored.

True

False

Tissues

182

Q.18 Hydathodes are known as water stomatas.

True

False

Q.19 Companion cells are found in phloem.

True

False

Q.20 Movement of the blood in the blood vessel is because of striated muscles.

True

False

Match the Following Columns

Q. 21
1.

neuron

a.

smooth muscles

2.

heart beat

b.

fluid connective tissue

3.

iris movement to control

the size of the pupil

c.

ear, tip of nose

4.

Cartilage

d,

cardiac muscles

5.

Lymph

e.

nervous tissue

1.

Parenchyma tissue

a.

complex tissue

2.

Areolar tissue

b.

epithelial tissue

3.

Cardiac tissue

c.

simple tissue

4.

Squamous tissue

d,

muscular tissue

5.

Phloem

e.

connective tissue

Q.22

Very Short Answer Questions

Q.23 Which connective tissue connects two bones?
Q.24 Which connective tissue connects the bones to the muscles?
Q.25 Which muscle tissue shows the characteristics of both striated and non-striated muscles?
Q.26 Name the basic unit of the nervous tissue.
Q.27 Where is the blood formed in our body?
Q.28 Name 2 fluid connective tissue.
Q.29 What does plasma contain?
Q.30 What is haematology?

www.plancess.com

183

Tissues

Q.31 What is histology?

Q.32 What is the main function of a cuboidal?
Q.33 Which tissues are responsible for axial growth of plant?
Q.34 Which tissue makes up the husk of a coconut?

Short Answer Questions:

Q.35 Which are the plant tissues responsible for the supporting of the plant?
Q.36 Which is the plant tissue responsible for the filling of the space between the other tissues?
Q.37 What is the vascular cambium? What is its function?
Q.38 What are the main plant tissues that form the rings observed on the stem sections of some trees?
Q.39 Where do we find epithelial tissue in the human body?
Q.40 What is a simple stratified tissue? Where is it found in the body?
Q.41 What are the common characteristics in the different connective tissues?
Q.42 List the function of the blood cells.
Q.43 Name the fat storing tissue? Where are they located and list its function.
Q.44 How are the muscle tissues related to the nerve cells?

Long Answer Questions

Q.45 Which are the growth tissues of plants? How do they classify? Where can they be found?
Q.46 How can the age of a tree be estimated from the analysis of the rings present on a cross section
of its stem?
Q.47 Write short notes on the muscular tissue.
Q.48 What is the importance of a connective tissue? What are the types of connective tissues?
Q.49 Which tissue covers most of the internal organs? Explain its types.

Tissues

184

Exercise 2
Multiple Choice Question:
Q.1 Histamine secreting cells are found in:

a) Connective tissue

b) lung

c) muscular tissue

d) nervous tissue

Q.2 The layer of skin that actively divides is:

a) Stratum compactum

b) Stratum corneum

c) Stratum lucidum

d) Stratum malphigi/stratum germinativum

Q.3 Characteristics of simple epithelium is that they:

a) Are arranged indiscriminately

b) Continue to divide and help in organ function

c) Make a definite layer

d) None of the above

Q.4 Collagen is
a) Lipid b) Fibrous protein
c) Globular protein d) Carbohydrate
Q.5 Areolar connective tissue joins
a) Haemoglobin b) Hirudin
c) Myoglobin d) Histamine
Q.6 Hair present on the skin are:

a) Epidermal in origin and are made of dead cells

b) Epidermal in origin and are made of living cells

c) dermal in origin and are made of living cells

d) dermal in origin and are made of dead cells

Q.7 The basement membrane is made up of:

a) no cell product of epithelium

b) epidermal cell only

c) endodermal cell

d) both a and c

www.plancess.com

185

Tissues

Q.8 Characteristics of smooth muscles fibers are:

a) spindle shaped, unbranched, nonstriated, uninucleate and involuntary

b) spindle shaped, unbranched, nonstriated, multinucleate and involuntary

c) cylindrical, unbranched, striated, multinucleate and voluntary

d) cylindrical, unbranched, striated, uninucleate and voluntary

Q.9 Which of the following can be found in a cartilage but not in a bone tissue:
a) lacunae b) protein fibers

c) blood vessels

d) chondroitin

Q.10 The most common type of an exocrine gland is this type:

a) apocrine

b) merocrine

c) endocrine d) holocrine
Q.11 Epithelia that consist of more than one layer of the cells is termed:
a) striated b) stratified
c) stipilated d) intercalated
Q.12 The matrix of connective tissue is composed of:

a) cells, fibers and ground substance

b) cells and fibers

c) fibers and ground substance

d) cells and ground substance

Q.13 Small hair-like structures on the surface of some epithelial cells are termed:
a) cilia b) glia
c) villi d) microvilli
Q.14 These cells are located in the bone tissue:
a) chondroblasts b) osteocytes
c) fibroblasts d) chondrocytes
Q.15 Which of the following heals the quickest after an injury:
a) bone b) epithelium
c) cartilage d) muscle
Q.16 The small holes in which some connective tissue cells reside are termed:
a) lumen b) lamellae
c) lacunae d) lamaze

Tissues

186

Q.17 Which of the following does not describe the skeletal muscle tissue fibers:
a) striated b) voluntary
c) multinucleate d) branched
Q.18 Which of the following suffixes implies growth or formation:
a) blast b) lemma
c) stasis d) cyst
Q.19 Based on basic tissue type, which of the following terms does not belong grouped with the
others:
a) muscle b) ligament
c) cartilage d) blood
Q.20 A tissue viewed under the microscope displays cells in little holes, densely packed fibers and no
blood vessels. This describes:

a) dense regular connective tissue

b) hyaline cartilage

c) fibrocartilage

d) adipose tissue

Q.21 Which of the following characteristics can be used to describe epithelial tissue:

a) it is derived from mesenchyme

b) sarcomas originate from it

c) it is well vascularized

d) it forms the glands of the body

Q.22 The serous membrane lining the surface of the lung is the:

a) parietal pleura

b) visceral peritoneum

c) visceral pleura

d) peritoneal pleura

Q.23 Tendon is a structure which connects

a) a bone with another bone

b) a muscle with a bone

c) a nerve with a muscle

d) a muscle with a muscle

Q.24 Sprain is caused by excessive pulling of

a) nerves b) tendons
c) muscles d) ligaments

www.plancess.com

187

Tissues

Assertion & reasoning:

These questions consist of two statements- assertion and reasoning. Choose any one of the four
options given below.

a) If both assertion and reasoning are true and reasoning is correct explanation of assertion.

b) If both assertion and reasoning are true and reasoning is not the correct explanation of
assertion.

c) If the assertion is true but reasoning is false.

d) If both assertion and reasoning is false.

Q.25 Assertion: we are able to move and rotate our neck, limbs and fingers comfortably.

Reasoning: The ligament connects the bones at the joints.

Q.26 Assertion: most sprains happen around the joints such as the ankles, knees and fingers.

Reasoning: Sprains when tendons are suddenly stretched or torn.

Q.27 Assertion: The blood is a liquid tissue.

Reasoning: the matrix of blood is non- stationary and non- flowing.

Q.28 Assertion: The cardiac muscles are capable of continuous contraction and relaxation throughout
the life.

Reasoning: The cardiac muscles are in the form of branched fibers.

Q.29 Assertion: Adipose tissue is composed of fat globules.

Reasoning: Adipose tissue provides insulation and works as a cushion.

Q.30 Assertion: The cells of a connective tissue are loosely scattered in a matrix.

Reasoning: The nature of matrix depends on the function a connective tissue serves.

Q.31 Assertion: The cells are cube-shaped, provide mechanical support.

Reasoning: Linings of the kidney tubules and ducts of the salivary glands are composed of
cuboidal epithelium.

Q.32 Assertion: All epithelial tissues are separated by the underlying tissue by an extracellular fibrous
basement membrane.

Reasoning: The basement membrane also plays an important role in osmoregulation.

Q.33 Assertion: Phloem is responsible for the translocation of food in plants.

Reasoning: The transport of food in phloem is both upward and downward movement.

Q.34 Assertion: The cells of parenchyma have a thin cell wall.

Reasoning: Parenchyma makes the largest portion of a plant body.

Tissues

188

Picture based
Q.35 Identify the type of epithelium.

(a) Stratified squamous

(b) Simple columnar

(c) Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

(d) Stratified columnar

(e) Transitional

Q.36 Identify the type of epithelium.

(a) Stratified squamous keratinised

(b) Transitional

(c) Stratified squamous non-keratinised

(d) Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

(e) None of the above

Q.37 The same type of epithelium lines in the parietal layer of Bowmans capsule, arteries and veins.
What type of tissue is it?

(a) Simple cuboidal

(b) Stratified columnar

(c) Simple columnar

(d) Transitional

(e) None of the above

Q.38 Identify tissue.

(a) Dense regular connective tissue

(b) Dense irregular connective tissue

(c) Loose connective tissue

(d) Adipose connective tissue

(e) None of the above

www.plancess.com

189

Tissues

SOLUTIONS
Exercise-1:
Fill in the Blanks:
1. apical meristem

2. Aerenchyma

3. radial

5. vascular cambium

6. Sclerenchyma

7. Dicot stems

9. Complex

10. Skeletal muscles

4. Roots
8. Stomata

True/False:
11. True

12. True

13. False

14. True

17. False

18. True

19. True

20. False

15. False

16. False

Match the Following:

21. 1 e ; 2 d ; 3 a ; 4 c ; 5 b
22. 1 c ; 2 e ; 3 d ; 4 b ; 5 a

Very Short Answer Questions:

23. Ligaments 24. Tendons
25. Cardiac muscle

26. Neuron

27. Bone marrow

28. Blood, lymph

29. Protein, salts, hormones

30. Study of blood.

31. Study of tissues.

32. Protection and mechanical support.

33. Apical meristem

34. Schlerenchymatous tissue

Short Answer Questions:

35.

The plant supporting tissues are the collenchyma and the sclerenchyma. The collenchyma is
made up of living and elongated cells that accumulate cellulose and pectin in some regions of the
cell wall making them unequally thick and thus providing flexibility.

Tissues

190

The sclerenchyma is made up mostly of dead cells killed by lignin deposition (lignin is an
impermeable biopolymer) forming elongated, rigid and impermeable fibers. The sclerenchyma is
a plant tissue widely used in the textile industry.

36.

The plant-filling tissue is generically called as parenchyma. The plant parenchyma can be divided
into photosynthetic parenchyma, a tissue that has cells with many chloroplasts and a high
photosynthesis rate found mainly in leaves, and storage parenchyma, specialized in the storage of
water (e.g., in cactus), starch or air (e.g., in aquatic plants).

37.

Vascular cambium is the secondary meristematic tissue that in roots and in the stem forms the
vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) of the plant. Usually the outer side of the vascular cambium
produces a layer of phloem and the inner (more central) side of the tissue produces a layer of
xylem.

38.

The rings observed on a stem cross section of dicot trees are made up of conductive tissues: xylem
and phloem.

39.

The skin, lining of the mouth, the lung alveoli, lining of the blood vessel, the kidney tubules.

40.

When the squamous cells are arranged in many layers and top layer consist of the dead cells
covered with keratin. These layers of tissue are called as stratified epithelium. e.g.: the skin, lining
of the buccal cavity, pharynx, the nasal chambers.

41.

The cells are loosely packed and embedded in a intracellular matrix. The matrix is jelly like, fluid
dense or rigid (differs in accordance with the type of tissue).

42.

Blood flows to different parts of the body and transport gases, digested food, hormones and
waste material and provides a defense against diseases.

43.

It is adipose tissue, found below the skin and between the internal organs. The cells of the tissue
are filled with fat globules. The storage of fat acts as an insulator.

44.

The muscles do not move on their own. The muscles move only on receiving a nerve impulse.
Motor neurons ( a typical nerve cell type) are connected to the muscle that carry stimulus for the
muscle movement.

Long Answer Questions:

45.

The growth tissues of the plants are the meristems. The meristems are the tissues that produce
the plant growth giving birth to all the other tissues; they are formed of undifferentiated cells
having an intense cell division rate. Meristems classify as primary meristems and as secondary
meristems.

The primary meristems are found in the apex of the stem, in the lateral buds of the stem, in the
basis and the tips of the shoots and within the root cap. Primary meristems are responsible for
the primary growth (lengthening) of the plant.

www.plancess.com

191

Tissues

The secondary meristems are those that make the plant grow in thickness (secondary growth) and
they are formed by the tissues that thicken the stem: cambium and phellogen (cork cambium).

46.

For the growth of the tree it is necessary to have the formation of new vessels within the stem,
a task performed by the vascular cambium. The vascular cambium is more active in hot seasons
(summer and spring) generating a lighter band made up of large calibrated vessels. During winter
and fall the vascular cambium produces the opposite, so small calibered vessels and a darker band
appears outside the previous lighter band. Therefore two ring bands are made yearly, one lighter
and the other darker. By a direct count of these band pairs one can estimate the age of the tree.

47.

Muscular Tissue:

Muscular tissue is composed of the muscle cells. Muscle cells are specialized cells which have
the capability to contract and expand. Due to the contraction and expansion, muscles facilitate
various kinds of movements in the body. The muscular tissues are of three types:

Striated Muscles: The cells of striated muscles are in the form of long, unbranched fibers. The
cells are multinucleate. Light and dark bands (striations) are present on muscle fibers; which
gives the name striated muscles. Striated muscles are found in those organs where a voluntary
movement is possible, e.g. hands, legs, back, neck, etc.

Smooth Muscles: The cells of the smooth muscles are spindle shaped and each has one nucleus.
The smooth muscle is found in those organs where an involuntary movement is possible, e.g.
alimentary canal.

Cardiac Muscles: The cells of the cardiac muscles are in the form of branched fibers. Striations
are present and cells are uninucleate. These are found in the heart. Cardiac muscles are capable
of continuous contraction and relaxation throughout the life.

48. Connective Tissue:

The cells of a connective tissue are loosely scattered in a matrix. The matrix can be a fluid, jelly
like, dense or rigid. The nature of the matrix depends on the function a connective tissue serves.
Following are the various connective tissues:

Areolar Connective Tissue: Areolar tissue is found between the skin and muscles, around the
blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow. Areolar tissue fills the gap between the tissues
and provides support. It also helps in repair of the tissues.

Adipose Tissue: Adipose tissue is composed of fat globules. This tissue is found below the skin
and beneath the organs. Adipose tissue provides an insulation and works as a cushion.

Bone: The bone is mainly composed of osteoblasts. The bone makes the skeletal system. The
skeletal system is responsible for providing structural framework to the body. It provides a
protection to the important organs and facilitates movements.

Cartilage: The cartilage is mainly composed of chondrioblasts. The cartilage is present at the ends
of the articulatory bones. The cartilage is also present in external ear, bronchii, etc.

Tissues

192

Blood: The blood is composed of blood cells, platelets and plasma. The blood plays an important
role in the transportation of various substances in the body. It also helps in osmoregulation and
temperature control.

49.

The tissue that covers most of the internal organs is an epithelial tissue.

Epithelial tissues are of following types:

a) S imple Epithelium: The simple epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells. This type of
epithelial tissue forms the lining of the blood vessels and alveoli facilitating exchange of gases
and fluids.

b) C
 uboidal Epithelium: The cells are cube-shaped, provide mechanical support. Linings of
the kidney tubules and ducts of the salivary glands are composed of cuboidal epithelium.
The cells of epithelium may play the role of secretion and then they are called as glandular
epithelium.

c) C
 olumnar Epithelium: The cells are column-shaped which facilitates secretion and absorption.
Example: the lining of an intestine is composed of columnar epithelium. In some organs,
columnar epithelium has cilia present on the outer surface which facilitate the movements of
certain substances. The ciliated epithelium in the respiratory tract pushes the mucus forward.

d) S tratified Epithelium: The cells of the stratified epithelium are in many layers. The skin is an
example of stratified epithelium. Stratification of layers prevents wear and tear.

Exercise-2:
Multiple Choice Question:
1. A

2. D

3. C

4. B

5. D

6. A

7. A

8. A

9. D

10. B

11. B

12. C

13. A

14. B

15. B

16. C

17. D

18. A

19. A

20. C

21. D

22. C

23. B

24. D

29. A

30. A

Assertion & reasoning:

25. A

26. C

27. A

28. C

31. B

32. C

33. A

34. B

36. B

37. E 38. C

Picture based:
35. C

www.plancess.com