att 10) Revised & Enlarged Edition S (e\@iura PRICE 2 195.00 J WHERE EXCELLENCE GUIDES THE SUCCESS Exam. Oriented Series-23 Optional Subject PUBLIE ADMINISTRABION7 Editorial) Unit Introduction 8 Meaning of Public Administration 8 History of Public Administration 40 Significance of Public Administration : An Ubiquitous Phenomenon 11. Nature and Scope of Public Administration 44 Contribution of Public Administration to So- cial Life 16 Comparative Public Administration 17 Purposes of Comparative Public Administra- tion 17 Factors Responsible for the Rise of Com- parative Public Administration 18 Ecological Model in Comparative Public Ad- ministration 18 Agraria-industria Model 18 Agraria-Transitia-Industria Modo! 19 Riggs Fused-Prismatic Ditfracted Mode! 19 Prismatic-Sala Model 21 Development Administration 21 Factors Responsible for the Emergence of Development Administration 23 Features of Poitical Development Relevant to Administrative Development 23 Major Characteristics of Development Admi- ristration 24 Ecological-Orientation/Perspective 24 Comparative View of Traditional Public Ad- ministration and Development Administration 25 Approaches to Development Administration 28 Public and Private Administration : Ditfer- ‘ences and Similarities 29 Emergence of Entrepreneurial Government with State as Faciitator 29 New Public Administration 30 Growth and Emergence of New Public Ad- ‘ministration A PD.Public Administration/3 Ptr) 30 The Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Service (1967) ‘31 The Philadelphia Conference on the Theory and Practice of Public Administration, 1967 32 The Minnowbrook Conference (1968) ‘82 The Minnowbrook Il (September, 1988) ‘32 Philosophical Context and Goals of New Public Administration 35 Public Choice Approach 36 Now Public Managament Perspective 38 New Model of Public Administration Unit-I Basic Concepts and Principles 441 Henry Fayol's Contribution to Classical Theory 4 Activites of an Industrial Actives 41 Fayol on Principles of Administration 49 Fayol's Gangplank 44 Classical Theory =A Critical Evaluation Unit—itl Theories of Administration 45 Scientiic Management AT Impact of Scientific Management 48 The Classical Theory 52 Criticism ofthe Clasial Theory 52 Bureaucratic Theory 54 Characteristics of Weberian Bureaucracy 55 Ideas of Mary P. Follet and C.|. Barnard 56 Contibution of Chester I. Barnard ‘58 Human Relations School: Elton Mayo and thors 59 Hawthome Studies Elton Mayo 661 Behavioural Approach to Organisational Analysis, {64 Systems Approach : Open and Closed Sys- toms 4 {66 Systoms Approach : Cities aw as; Unit-V Administrative Behaviour 67 Decision Making with Special Reference to Herbert Simon 68 Bases of Decision Making 70 Classification or Typology 72 Theotles of Leadership 76 Communication 78 The Importance of Communication in Ad- ministration 81 Essentials of Communication {82 Motivation (Maslow and Herzberg) 82 Meaning of Motivation £82 Significance of Motivation £82 Traditional Theories of Motivation 83 Modern Theories of Motivation ‘84 Recent Theory 85 Types of Team 89 Other Theories Unit-v Accountability and Control 91 Concepts of Accountability and Control 92 Legislative, Executive and Judicial Control 99 Citizen and Administration 101 Role of Civil Society 102 Theories of Civil Society 103 People's Patticipation 105 Right to Information Unit-vI Administrative System 106 Constitution of U.S.A 109 United Kingdom 110 British Civil Service 110 Northoote Trevelyan Report (1854) 111. Administrative System of France 112 French President 112 Administrative Courts and Tribunals in France 113 Administrative System of Japan Unit-Vit Personnel Administration 146 Objectives of Personnel Administration 116 Recruitment 117 Process of Recruitment 118 Methods of Recruitment 118 Special Qualifications 120 Recruitment Process for Higher Civil Servi- ces in India : Historical Background 122 Training and Career Development 123 Importance of Training 128 Training Methods and Techniques. 125 Types of Training 126 Training in Britain 126 Training for Public Services in India 127 Definitions and Uses of Classification 128 Steps in Classification 128 Advantages of Position Classification 129 Position Classification in India 130 Promotion 190 Advantages of a Promotion Policy 181 Meaning of the Terr ‘Promotion’ 132 Essentials of Promotion System 182 Principles of Promotion 133 The Principle of Mert 183 Methods of Testing Merit 187 Retirement Benefits Unit-VIIl Financial Administration 199 Concept and Types of Budget 139 Budget : The Heart of Management 140 Economic and Social Implications of Budget 140 Essentials of the Budget System 141 Budget Types 143 Preparation and Execution of the Budget 146 Accounting of the Budget 147 Auditing of the Budget 147 Financial Control : Role of the Finance Ministry 148 Deficit Financing 149 Meaning of Performance Budgeting 149 Zero-Base Budgeting 1154 Difference Between Auditing and Account- ing 187 Separation of Accounts and Audit and Powers of the CAG Unit-IX Union Government and Admin- istration in India : British Legacy 159 Constitutional Context of Indian Admi- nistration : British Legacy 160 Administration by the Company (1765- 1858) 165 Dyarchy : An Assessment 165 The Government of India Act, 1935 : An Assessment ri167 The Union Government and Administration in India 168 President 169 Impeachment of the President 170 Powers of the President 174 Discretionary Powers of the President 175 The Vice-President 176 The Prime Minister 176 Position of the Prime Minister 177 The Cabinet 177 Functions of the Council of Ministers and the Cabinet 178 Central Secretariat 181 Cabinet Secretariat 185 Prime Minister's Office 185 Principal Function of the PMO 185 Planning Commission 186 Planning in India 187 Impact of Planning 188 Finance Commission 188 13th Finance Commission 189 The Election Commission 189 Powers and Functions of the Election Com- mission 191 Comptroller and Auditor General of Inia 101 Audit in India 193 Public Enterprises 104 Patterns 195 The Departmental Undertakings 196 The Government Company 197 Statutory Corporations 108 Choice of a Suitable Form of Organisation 199 Other Forms of Organisation : A Brief Dis- ‘cussion 201 Management of Public Undertakings 209 Problems of Autonomy and Accountability 210 Accountability of Public Enterprises in India 212 The Ministerial Control 219 Impact of Liberalisation unit-x Civil Services in India 215 Selection 216 Designations 216 Colonial Civil Service 216 Contemporary Indian Civil Service 217 State Services 217 Recruitment to Various Services and Posts Unit-X1 State and District Administration 219 State and District Administration 219 Governor 219 Powers of a Governor 219 Discretionary Powers of the Governor 220 Controversial Role of the Governor 220 Chief Minister 220 Passing of Bill 228 Promotion of Interministerial Coordination 223 Functions of District Collector Otfice 226 Natural Resource Management and Envi- ronmental Concerns. 227 Changing Patterns of District Administra- tion with Particular Reference to the Role ‘of the Collector in Panchayati Raj Unit-XI Local Government 228 Panchayati Raj 228 Panchayati Raj After Independence 228 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee 229 Three Tire System of Panchayati Raj 230 Ashok Mehta Committee 231 Functions 231 Development of Panchayati Raj 231 Aims and Objectives of Panchayati Ral 231. Composition of Gram Panchayats 282 Zonal Councils 282 Inter-State Wator Disputes Act Inter-State Council 233 Decentralisation and Devolution 235 Powers, Authority and Responsibility of Panchayats 236 Audit of Accounts 298 Municipalities 237 Significance of 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 238 Municipal Government 238 Significance of 74th Constitutional Amend- ment, 1992 238 Role of Women in Panchayats 239 Model Papers The concurrence ofthe views ofthe Editor isnot necessary for any mater or figure published in Pratiyogita Darpan. P.D/Public Administration/S Editor ACa TOM Ts TILT) CTT TT (Questions And Ta Explanatory Answers) > UPKAR'S BOOK: < Read UP os Suevsaw These books may be of great utility for competitive exams and help increase your level of intelligence and logical ability urcars Burkars Jn Analytical Approach for Multi-Dimensional ae REASONING (VERBAL & NON-VERBAL) is es é % 130.00 Code 310 50,00 Code 373. £175.00 Code 1539 125.00 Code 341 is enema egies maa can ‘Email: care@upkarin «Website : www_upkar in Branch Offices : #New Del Ph. : 01-23251844/66 + Hyderabad Ph: 040-86753390Petree All great achievements in arts, science and culture, nay, in every field of human activity, take place only in an environment of peace. The environment of peace begins with one’s own self. The peace within tends to flow outside generating positive vibrations affecting the world outside, making the way for peace, tranquility and happiness. The reverse is also true, if we are disturbed mentally and spiritually, the world outside will also take on these negative vibrations, creating conditions for wars, conflicts and sttifes. So to gamer success in life it is imperative for us to be at peace with ourselves. Peace inside will pave the way for peace outside, triggering constructive thoughts and creating climate for lofty achievements. ‘Be at peace with yourself is, therefore, a very sound advice given to us by the wisemen of the world. “How do wars start 2° The live under the pangs of destruction child asked his parents. "The reason and suffering which the world had to “No. political differences ‘cause Mars within a span of 25 years wars," he father retorted. Mother omy. felt slighted, and said more emphat- cally. “No, you are wrong. the rea~ Our young men and women Sons behind war have ative been would do well fo take a lesson from economic." The difference of opine. Jacts of life and avoid quarréliing ‘ons did not stop here. It acquired the With themselves. When you prepare Pon gf etioe ewuansel the, bes Jor an examination, a series of con- Intervened and said, “please stop flcts arise within you, such as, how 1 lore now Lunderstan how ware shall fare at the examination, what 7 ome wine ae ese Da man came home with some whether I am selected or not, but Mr purchases which he had made in the ¥ should not be one of the successful ‘marker, On opening the bundle, he candidates. ete. $0, the thoughts of {found that some of the articles were candldanes. etc, So, the thoughts of ‘not up-to the mark. He fell enraged, Continue fo heat vo. mond, With dnd went back fully determined 10 ye" result that jour, studies are teach lesson tthe shpheoper.On TRE, st tiat your, studies, are the way, he continued finding pun- evore as much time to your chosen ent aniwers 10 ail the arguments Gcwate 2 much tine to your chasen Which the shopkeeper might put Can, Do sou think this inner conflict forward not to take back or change Goes any good to you and helps you ‘he article under reference. But, he achteving wour aun? If nee on Noung customer was surprised 10 see Stop this war within you dnd take 10 the shopkeeper jeelin sorry forthe Sotr'qsienment serious, Once an inconvenience eaused 19 the. pure JON” astianment serious. Once and chaeer, and opologetically made the $270 be at pence wi your ownself necessary amends {o your preparatons for he aim you So, the quarrels and wars begin Iuve deved to achieve. Ty his, you in the minds of men, and turn tito will be surprised to see that your ‘outside wars. The founders of the grasping power and capacity of United Nations Organisation, Mr. understanding have tremendously Winston Churchill, the Prime Minis- improved, and enhanced. You will ter of England and Mr. Roosevelt,the become much more efficient in other then President of the United States of walks of life as well. The cease-fire America, had uttered these words of state in your mind will save much of wisdom ‘at the inauguration cere- your tine from going waste, and you ‘mony, that UNO. will end wars in will feel like a different man when the minds of men and hence the you see huge credit balance in the future generations will not have to Tedger of your time, P.DJPublic Administration/7 sesaid the mother, 80 through during the last two world ELE To feel at peace with yourself, sive no place to doubts and criticism of what others are doing. To be fully ‘one's ownself. the advice given by Celebrated thinker of the century, Sir 1. Krishnamurti is worth taking to heart—t0 mind your own business ‘and learn the viriue of silence. History tells us, all the works of cart and inventions of science were ‘made during the days of peace. Had there been no times of peace, huma- nity could not have made any pro- gress in the realms of civilization and culture. We know that war brings ‘about miseries and destruction, while peace brings out opportunities jor ‘construction and invention. The great English poet John Milton has rightly remarked that peace hath its victories no less renowned than war. Who does not want to be at peace with himself and his neigh- hour ? The peace loving person must know thai to be at peace with the neighbour, it is essential to be at ppecice with one's ownself. Al of us agree that war comes inspite of us, and peace does not come because of us. The anomaly is that everybody wants outside peace dnd wages war to establish peace. Young men and women will do well to have peace within and give their best to themselves and the society at large as the sages of all ages have repeatedly told us that if you have inner peace, outside disturbance will not affect you, because it won find admission into your mind and go back after knocking the door like an tninvited or unwanted guest, As a first step towards inner peace, oné must learn to be satisfied With whatever one gets. Accept what providence gives you and try for Imore™that isthe nile to enjoy happt- ness, the fruit of peace. Whosoever follows this rule is bound to have before him new hovicons unfolding before him and see the roads to success. Ina peaceful mind, the voice of the silence is heard. One who follows it, is a lucky person, as the Toad he takes 10 will always be the ‘one that leads him or her in the right direction.MEANING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Public administration can be broadly described as the study and implementation of government policy. Public administration is linked to pursuing the public good through the creation of civil society and social Justice. Though public administration hhas historically been referred to as ‘government management, it increa- singly encompasses non-govemmmen- tal organizations that are not acting ‘out of self-interest. Public adminis- ‘ration, asa field of systematic study, is almost a product of the 20th century. Since its birth in 1887, the subject of public administration has been constantly evolving and at present is coming into its own. Its, importance, both as a governmental activity and as academic study is increasing day-by-day owing to the emergence of the welfare state, start- ling developments in science and technology, rapid industrialization ‘and urbanisation and the consequent ‘growth of governmental functions. HISTORY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ‘The evolution of the science of Public Administration can be classi- fied into four generations : one pre- generation and three succeeding ‘generations. THE PRE-GENERATION © The pre-generation includes thinkers such as. Plato, Aristotle and Machiavelli. © The operation of this adminis- tration was a less urgent problem, Machiavelli wrote the book The Prince, which offered a guideline for European rulers. From the 16th century, the nat- ional state was the reigning model of the administrative organization in Western Europe, P.DJPublic Admi ation © These states needed an organi- zation for the implementation of Jaw and order and for setting up a defensive structure. “The need for expert civil servants with knowledge about taxes, statistics, administration and the military organization grew. In the 18th century the need for administrative expertise grew for the future results of the adminis- tration. © The most well known professor of Cameralism was John Heinrich Gottlob Justi (1717-1771), who linked Cameralism and the idea of natural law with each other, but the leading Public Administration scholar at that time was Christian Wolff, who was not a Cameralist Cameralism is a predecessor of the modern science of public administration THE FIRST GENERATION @ Lorenz Von Stein, since 1855 professor in Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of public administration © In the time of Von Stein the science of public administration was considered to be a form of administrative law, but Von Stein thought that opinion was too res: trictive. His opinions were inno- vative in several respects * He considered the science of public administration a melting pot of several disciplines, like sociology, political science, administrative law and public finance. In the opinion of Von Stein the science of public administration was an inte- grating science, * According t© Von Stein the science of public administrat- jon was an interaction between theory and practice. He consi- dered the public administration as leading practically, but the theory had to form the base, * Von Stein thought that the science of public administra- tion should strive to adopt a scientific method © In the United States Woodrow Wilson was the first to consider the science of public adminis tration: © In an article 1887 entitled “The Study of Administration”, Wilson wrote “it is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what goverment ean pro- perly and successfully do, and secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy.” © Wilson was more influential to the science of public adminis- tration than Von Stein, primarily due to an article Wilson wrote in 1887 in which he argued in favour of four concepts © Separation between polities and the public administration, © Consideration of the government from a commercial perspective © Comparative analysis between political and private organizations ‘nd political Schemes. © Reaching effective management by training civil servants and assess their quality, © The separation between politics and the public administration, which Wilson argued, has been the subject of fierce debate for a long time, and the different points of view on this subject differen- tiate periods in the science of Public administration, THE SECOND GENERATION © The discussion about the separa- tion between polities and the public administration as argued by Wilson continued to play an important role up to 1948.© Luther Guliek and Lyndall Urwiek were the founders of the Science of Administration. © They integrated the ideas of eatlier theorists like Henri Fayol into a comprehensive theory of administration. Gulick and Urwiek believed that the thoughts of Fayol offered a systematic treatment of management, whieh ‘was unique at that time. © They believed that this could be applied as well for the manage- ment of companies as for admi- nistrative sciences, © They did not want to separate the two disciplines, but believed a single Science of Administration, which exceeds the borders between the private and the public sector, could exist. © Later on the Science of Adminis- tration would focus primarily on governmental organizations. ‘© The reasoning of the Science of Administration was largely borro- wed from the fourteen principles of organization of Fayol. THE THIRD GENERATION © After 1945 the third generation arose which questioned the ideas lof Wilson and the second genera- tion. © Initially the distinction between politics and the public adminis tration was strongly relativized by the third generation, but the discussion would continue, © Because of the unsuccessful American intervention in Vietnam. and the Watergate scandal polities got discredited and in the eighties there was again a plea in favour of bureaucracy, especially in the United States. ‘The public administration had to detach itself from polities PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE © Public Administrator can fill ‘many voids. © The academic field evolved in the United States from both academic P.D/Public Administration political science and law as a separate study in the 1910s, In Europe, notably England and Germany (Max Weber), it started, sa separate scholarly field in the 1890s, but it was first tanght in Continental Universities in the 1720s. ‘The Federalist Papers. several times referted to the importance ‘of good administration, and scholars such as John A. Ror see a long history behind the consti- tutional legitimacy of government bureaucracy. ‘A few public administration theorists advocate a bright Tine differentiation of the professional field from related academic disci plines like Political science and Sociology. ‘The interdisciplinary nature of Public Administration is acknow- ledged and it is viewed as a field of study rather than a discipline. As a field, public administration canbe compared to business administration, and the MPA vviewed as similar to an MBA for those wishing to pursue govern- mental or non-profit careers. ‘MPA can entail substantial ethical ‘and sociological aspects in Public ‘Administration, There are derivative and related degrees that address public affairs, public policy etc It emphasizes on policy analysis, techniques or other topical focuses such as the study of intemational affairs as opposed to focuses on constitutional issues such as separation of powers, admi trative law, problems of gover- nance power and participatory democracy, Public administration theory is the domain where discussions of the ‘meaning and purpose of govern- ment, bureaucracy, budgets governance, and public affairs take place in the field In recent years, public admin: tration theory has occasionally connoted a heavy orientation towards critical theory and post- modern philosophical notions of government, governance, and power but many public adm nistration scholars. support a lassie definition of the term which gives weight to consti- tutionality, service, bureaucratic forms of organization and hierar- chical government. © There is minor tradition that holds that the more specific term publi management refers to ordinary, routine or typical management concerns, but in the context of achieving public good. © Others see public management as a new, economically driven pers: pective on the operation of government. © This latter view is often termed “new public management” by its advocates and can be seen as a reform attempt aimed at reemphat sizing the professional nature of the field versus its academic, moral or disciplinary characte- risties. tration is policy execution and policy formulation, public adminis- ration is bureaucracy and public ‘administration is publi. © The word administration is speci- fically derived from the synthesis of two Latin words ‘ad? and ‘sministrare’ which reflect two conditions relating tothe academic study of Administration. The first fone is ad” which has a historical ‘mporiance for developing Public ‘Administration into a distinct field of study. Another term is. mini~ strate which has leadership impor- tance in the study of adminis tation, From the management perspective both the terms fe. ad and ministrare signify “to serve" or tomanage the public affairs, © The term administration is expl- ined as. the ‘management of affairs’ ‘As a discipline, Public Adminis- tration is a system of organization and action concerned with perfor- ‘mance of these activities. It can best bbe looked at as an instrument that is used for the realization of the goals of government. Just as societies have their political systems and economi systems, they also have their public administrative systems. As an acade~ ‘mic discipline, Public administration has also been coexisting with every Political System as the action part ofgovernment for the fulfilment of the objectives set by the political decision makers. As an aspect of this more generic concept, Public Administration is that species of administration which operates within ‘a specific Political setting. Quotable Quotes K, Handorson views “adminis tration as the arrangement of men and materials inthe rational carying out of purposes.” (©, Tead sees it as the inclusive process of human efforts. Aecording 10 him “Administration is a variety of ‘component clements, which together inaction, produce the result of detailed task done. Administration, primarily is the direction of people in association to achieve some goal temporarily shared. Itis the inclusive process of integrating human efforts so that a desired results obtained. “Administration is the central power house of the motivational Impulsion and spirit which makes the institution drive to fulfil its purpose.” 0.Tead © Waldo : Waldo puts emphasis on rational cooperative aspect of \dministration. In his own Words ‘Administration is a type of co- operative human effort that has a high degree of rationality © “Administration is the capaci remarks B. Adams of coor nating many and often conflicting social energies in a single orga- nism, so adroitly that they shall operate as a unity.” © L. Gullick : “Administration is “doing work’ (in the context of integral view) or getting work done. (in the context of man: serial view) © J. Me Canny “Administration is the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose. It is the specialized voca- tion of managers who have skills of organizing and directing men and materials just as definitely as an engineer has the skill of building structures or a doctor has the skill of understanding human ailments.” P.D/Public Administration/10 Scholars Brooks Adams E.M. Marx K, Aanderson D.Waldo J.M, Canny Gullick G.E. Barkley E.N. Gladden L.D. White Pfitiner TA.Veig Simon F.A.Nigto P.Me Queen Merson, Carson and Harris J. Hodgson Rosenbloom Eugene Me Greger Defined Administration AS Capacity of Co-ordination Determined Action taken in pursuit of common purpose. Arrangement of men and matrls fr a purpose in rational manner, Highly rational cooperative human effort Organization and use of men and materials Daing work or getting work done. Joint Engagement of human beings for common purpose. Looking after people/Caring for a management of alls. Direction, coordination and control of a group of persons fora purpose. Organization and direction of human and material resources for an objective Determined action for a purpose with systematic ordering of affairs and ealeulated use of resources, Cooperative Activities of group of persons fora purpose Organization and use of men and materials for a goul/purpose Related tothe operations of Government ‘An enguity as to how policies may best be carried into ‘operations Action Part ofthe Government Ail activities of persons of govemmenviagencies to fulfil their purposes. Use of managerial, legal and political theories and processes to fulfill legislative/executive and judicial governmental mandates, ‘The generation of purposive public action whose success depends on the competing demands of administrative operations, © G.E. Berkly “Administration is a process involving human beings - SIGNIFICANCE OF jointly engaged in working Se towards common goals.” ADMINISTRATION : AN a UBIQUITOUS © Pfiftner, “Administration is the PHENOMENON organization and direction of hhuman and material resources to. ‘The significance of Public Admi- achieve desired ends.” nistration is now scope of Public © H. Simon, “In its broadest sense, istration can be defined as the activities of groups coopera. adm engaging the attention of Policy makers in the world, The subject matter and its functioning has been diverted towards Administrative ting to accomplish a common State, In other words, from cradle to goals” grave, the life of individual is © E.N. Gladden, “Administration Tegulated and facilitated by Adminis- is a long and slightly pompous word, but it has a humble mean- ing, for it means, to care for or trative apparatus of the state © cis worth noting that the work of L.D. White on significance of Public administration is reflective. look after people 10 manage fUbySuadiministration i eflective, skins detrmlned ston len, 1:0. Whi ohtcrens "Tea, in pursuit of common purpose.” Administration make it the heart ‘¢ F. A. Nigro, “Administration is of the problem of modem gover- the organisation and use of men ment.” and materials to accomplish a @ Paul Pigerse laid more emphasis moar ‘on the purpose of Public Administration. To him “the main purpose of administration is to preserve the status quo in society. It ensures the continuance of the existing order with a minimum effort and risk for its better ‘management. Its fundamental aim is to carry on rather than to venture new and untried paths. © According to J. A. Veig, “Admi- nistration signifies the organi- zation, personnel, practices and procedures essential to effective performance of civilian functions of the executive. in the words of Brook Adams, ‘Administration is an important human faculty because its Chief function is to facilitate social Factors Behind the Manifold Increase in Public Administration (© Emergence of Welfare state/service state replacing Police state based ‘on the negative concept of laissez faire. © Rise of big governmental set up ‘owing to scientific and technologi- cal developments (© Heralding the LPG (liberalisation Privatization and Globalization) © Recurrence of natural calamities (suchas floods, quake ete.) brought disaster management in Focus. (© Need of Crisis management at the time of riots, wars and conflicts, © The growing socio-economic prob- lems owing to population explo- ‘Crucial Roles Played By Public ‘Administration in ‘Contemporary Society © As Basis of govemment, (© As instrument of social change and inthe readjusiment of society. © As a powerful stabilizing social ‘construction. ‘© Asan instrument of national inte- ‘ration working a a cohesive force thereby containing centrifugal Working out thingvtasks to be accomplished, © = Organising — Establishment cof Formal Structure of Authority S = Staffing + Arrangement of Working Personnel D = Directing > Continuous Task ‘of Making decisions. (Co = Coordinating — Interelating the various parts of work. R = Reporting —* Keeping the Executive informed B = Budgeting — Fiscal Planning, ‘Thus the POSDCORB View is technique oriented. I only represents the tools of Administration and not the substance. I considers the problems of ‘administration a the substance, I con- Siders the problems of administration as same in all administrative agencies. ‘The Subject Matter View : The subject Matter View keeps in focus services rendered and functions per: formed by an administrative agency ‘Thus it lays stress upon the substantive problems of an ageney which speci- fically depends upon the services and functions (ce. the subject matter) with ‘hich it concerns itsel. Both Views : Complementary To Each other : Both views (POSCORB tnd Subject Matter) regarding the scope of Public Administration are ‘mutually complementary to each other. fone (POSDCORB) enunciates tech- niquestools ofthe discipline, the other (Subject Matter) focusses on its subs- tance (say substantive concern), To ‘conclude with the words of Lewis Meriem “Public Administration is an instrument with wo blades like a pair ‘of scissors one blade may be a know= ledge of the fields covered by POSDCORE the other blade is know Tedge of the subject matter in which these techniques are applied. Both blades must be good enoligh to make an effective tool” P.DJPublic Administration/12 Approaches to the Study of Public Administration Approaches Object/Focus/Key Concern Philosophical Appro-| Enunciating the ach (Most comprehen-| principles underlying sive and based on| trative activities; bi Value analysis) normative approach; concen-| Shantiparva of Maha-| trates on what ought to be. | bharat LLegal/JuridicalJurstic| Originated in Europe during |F. 1. Goodnow. Approach (Oldest | Laissez Faire era when states system and based on | functions’ were limited/simple; legal orientation), | treats Public Administration as. part of law; focusses on the ‘constitutional legal st organisation powers and functions of public aulriies, (closely | Studies Public Administration | Four remarkable studies related to Biological | through a segment of history,| the federalists (1948), the Historic Approach to Adminis- | making on the prese tration). rises, interpret theif related to administra lopment in 4 chronological | Federal Adm oder, Thus concent Public Administration through | Kautilya’s Art Shastra historical development ‘Case Method App-| To reconstruct administrative | Public Administration and roach became popular | relies undo narrate detailed | Policy Administration in US. in 1930 accounts of specific events | containing 20 case studies which help the adminis make good decision; the account of wl happened, makes a specific ease of admin Behavioural Approach | Focuses on the 405). in organisation and trative setup. It can ge data to reach the cone can also study administrative behaviour of man administrative context ‘ual Beha-| Simon, Dabl and Bernard. (became popular in| viour of individuals and groups ‘Books reflecting the approach Proponents ideals/ Plato's Republic, Locke's. adminis-| Treatise on Civil Govern- sed on| ment, Hobbe’s Leviathan, | sructure, nt, orgs” Jaffersonians (1951) the formation | Jacksonians and the Repu ive deve-| blican explorer, American station in tates on| its formative years, istrator | Dwight Waldo (main narrates proponent) at has study of istration. adminis seneralise usin, I in the the discipline today is more con- © cerned about explaining diversity ‘complexity and interactivity. Global sation and opening up of the economy is a reality now. The earlier role of the exclusivity is no longer being accorded to the state and Govt, In a complex. state-society relational situation, the focus has been shifting, more and more towards society Networking with other organisations. rather than exclusivity of govt. is what is happening in the practising world of governance. These are new phrases being coined to characterise the new Public administration. The New Public Administration is now New Public management, Re inven- ting govt, entrepreneurial government are some of the new concepts being, introduced in the subject to the @ present and evolving scenario of Public Administration Regarding the nature of Public Administration owo divergent views have been marked. These are the Integral view and Mana- gerial view. ‘The Integral view which is advocated by thinkers like White, Dimock calls for the inclusion of all the activities from managerial to technical and from clerical 10 manual—into the periphery of Public Administration. Contrary to Integral view, Managerial view, upheld by such scholars as ‘Thompson, Gullick, Ordway Tead encompasses only the mana~ gerial activities and not the non- ‘managerial activities (like techni cal, clerical and manual activ lies). Reflecting the managerial view Tead says, “Administration is conceived as the necessary acti-vities of individuals (executives) in an organization who are charged with ordering, forwarding and facilitating the associated elforts of a group of individuals brought together to realize certain defined purposes. © Simon, Smithburg and Thompson dobserve “the administration is also used in a narrow sense to refer to those patterns of behaviours that Aare common fo many kinds of co- operative groups and that do not depend upon either the specific goals towards which they are Cooperating or the specific tech- nological methods used to attain these goals.” © The other important approaches to the study of Public Administration are : Human Relations approach, Structural Approach, Systems Approach, Comparative Approach, Ecological approach, Develop- ‘ment Approach and Public Choice (discussed elsewhere in details) © From the fact-value standpoint, the approaches to the study of Public Administrative are divided into wo~Empirical Approach and normative approach, Empi- rical approach elucidates actual administrative situation and focu- sses on what public administration ‘is’ while normative approach considers the ideal administrative situations and focusses on “What public administration ought to be olution and Status of Public Administration . In the Evolution of Public Administration : The evolution of Public Administration as ‘a specialised field of study falls into a number of critical stages. STAGE I : POLITICS- ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY (1887-1926) © The basic theme during this stage was the advocacy for keeping politics separate from Adminis- tration which came to be called politics administration dicho- tomy ‘© The first stage in the evolution of Public Administration began with the publication of W. Wilson's essay. It is traced to the wilsonian call for a science of admi tion. P.D/Public Administration/13 ‘© Arguing for the politics-adminis- tration dichotomy. F. J. Goodnow, considered as the father of ‘American public administration said-“Politics has to do with policies whereas administration has to do with the execution of these policies.” ‘Wilson's Philosophy and Vision : Wilson was the father ofthe discipline, laid bare his vision of Administration in “The Study of Administration’ (1887) According to him — (© The limited and simple functions fof the state in the past over shadowed the importance of Public Administration (© Public Administration isthe front face of government and most Visible part of it. (© Administration (Administrative set up) must be deeply rooted in constitutional norms and values © Public Administration and polities should be separated from each other. © Comparative analysis of adminis- trative set up of other countries should be undertaken in adminis- srative studies (© Administration isa science and its ‘techniques and processes are uni- versal applicable to all organiza tions and goveraments, © This principle of dichotomy pr- sents a sharp conceptual distine- tion between administration and polities. ‘© Because of Wilson's advocacy to study the experiences of other countries’ (besides the U.S.A.) administration he was also acclaimed as the first intellectual father of public administration, STAGE I: PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION (1927-1937) ‘© Known as the golden period in the evolution of public adminis- tration, the second stage (1927- 1937) began with the publication of W. F. Willoughby's book Principles of Public Adminis- tration in 1927." © The basic theme of this stage was the emphasis on certain principles of universal application and relevance. These principles should be applied to enhance the effi- ciency and economy in public administration. © The Prime objective of this stage is to evolve a value free science of ‘management. © This stage can be called the stage of orthodoxy. The public aspect of Public administration was vir-~ tually dropped at this stage and the focus was on efficiency Efficiency and economy are the core values ofthis stage. Universal application and relevance are the ‘main attributes of this stage. © The “principles” stage reached its prominence with the publication of Gullick and Urwick’s papers fon the Science of Aministration (1937) Important Books Reflecting the theme of Stage IT 1. Industrial and General Manage rent (1916) By Henry. IL Creative Experience (1924) by MP. Follet and Fayol 11, Onward Industry (1931) by Mooney and Reily IV. Papers on Science of Adminis: ‘ration (1987) by Gullick and Unwick V. Principles of Organization 2939) by Mooney and Reiley © “Administration is administration whatever be context, Content and nature of work and the principle can be applied anywhere to any organization. Analysing the second phase/stage (1927-1937) MM. Bhattacharya observes (during this stage) the public aspect of public adminis- tration was virtually dropped and the focus was almost on effi ciency. This stage can be called the stage of orthodexy as efforts were underway to delineate firmly the boundaries of new discipline ‘management. Public Administra- tion can be defined as an adminis- trative effort at this stage. STAGE III-ERA OF CHALLENGE (1938-1947) © Stage HII from 1938 to 1947 in the ‘evolution of public administration is known as era of challenge © During this period, the polities administration dichotomy was also rejected.© Treatment of Public Adminis- tration as a science was vehe- mently opposed. © Hawthrone experiments _pio- neered a movement which came to be known as Human relations approach to management, © The rejection of politics adminis- tration and opposition principles of administration gave human relations behavourial theme in the field of Public administration. © Making a scathing attack on so called principles of administration Herbent Simon called them ‘pro- verbs" and ‘naturalistic fallacies’ © According to Simon—“If any theory is involved, it is that decision making is the heart of administration and that the vocabulary of administration theory must be derived from the logic and psychology of human choice.” Thus he presented an empirical approach to the study of public administration © The prime mission of this stage ‘was Human Books Reflecting the Perspective of Human Relations and Behavioural theme 1. The Functions of the Executive (1938) by CL. Bernard Tl, The Administrative State (1948) by D. Waldo. IL The Science of Administration: ‘Three Problems (1947) by Robert Dal IV. Administrative Behaviour (1947) by HA. Simon, V. Elements of Public Adminis: tration FM, Marx Vi. The Problems of Adminis: tration (1946) by H.A. Simon, © The Hawthorne Studies (1924- 1932) conducted by Elton Mayo gave rise to Human Relations ‘Theory of Organisation © Robert Dahl argued against Public ‘Administration as science, Robert Dahl wrote—“We are long way from a science of public adminis tration. No science of public administration is possible unless the place of normative value is, made clear; the nature of man in the area of public administration is better understood and his P.DJPublic Administration/14 conduct is more predictable; and @ This stage was heralded by two there is a body of comparative significant publications in the studies from which it may be 1940s-Herbert Simon's Adminis- possible to discover principles and tration and Dahl’s essay on the Zeneralitiesthattranscendnational _Seience of Administration. boundaries and peculiar historical experiences. CONTRIBUTION OF STAGE IV : PHASE OF ee CRISIS OF IDENTITY aie (1948-1970) ‘The significance of Public Admi '@ The period from 1948 to 1970 in pistration lies in its five pronged con- the evolution of Pubic Adminis. Ragen vor tia ate rans tration is regarded as the stage of 1. Epistemolo; Contribu- Cisisof ident forthe dicipine. gay, Epistemological Contrib Public Administration, during this juon js meant that Public Adminis- phase, was facing a grave threat tration has enormous potential to its existence as a subject of study. construct systematic and scientific R. T. Golembiewskis’ Four body of knowledge about the struc- RAEN] tre tad operation of government DercopmectotPabme | can stody he government in a very ppsarproti hotiemanner Pua Ts AmiyiealPotticeAini-| U1. Technieal Role : Public sian Admiistration i the fist and fre- hme I: Concrete PoltewAdmi-| most source for applying technical aes Know-how to actual problem solving Phage 1A Sense of Misage-| I n'a ecgulatr and advisor to the rae ‘government. See Ss II, Ombudsmanic Position : The crssof dentiy srorehecaume Public Administration in govera- Of tbe elon of policy atau menial aysem, occupies an gnbods- fist Gichotomy and pring” man ike positon whenadminsatve ples of administration researchers conduct investigative ‘@ [twas specifically stressed during studies in critical sectors of govern- th age that he ane electn® pent and bureaucrat yp vith af Fable Adminisvaton ig. Text, burcaratic ct up with 2 Hetulied understanding of the Gute, happenings inside, the executive. Thus the ebjeetive of Sovermment and bureaucracy 80th Preparing specials or g0Ver™- Toning conceded om mia and 1914 report of American Political Public gaze, it comes to assume the Satotorasomnd Felco an ocbudsnan, Crisis of Identity : Emergence of Two Conflicting Perspectives ‘The criss of identity with administration got crystallized into (wo conflicting perspectives 1, Return of the Political Science : Thinkers lke John Gaus and Rosco Martin firmly asserted that Public Administration can only exist under the subordination of | Political Science and not as a distinct discipline. John Gaus in his atiele Trends in the Theory of Public Administration (1950) wrote—"a theory of Public Adminis- tration means in our time a theory of polities also.” Reinforcing the same view, Rosco Martin remarked in his 1052 artcle—"There is need for continued dominion of political seience over public administration.” 2. Merger with Management : The second view doing round in administrative circle was that Administrative science (Ze. Management) is the only alterative Public Administration, Apart from above mentioned stages, there are other stages whieh are concerned with Simon's Public Policy perspectives. At this stage, Public ‘Administration coincides witha general concern in the social sciences for Public Policy analysis, With the abandonment of Polities Administration dichotomy, the Public Policy approach became intellectually easier. Evidences from the practical World of administration have also been revealing the close nexus between Politics and Administration,CREATOR OF AN ENLIGHTENED CITIZENRY ‘Theories/Approaches Developed During Crisis of Identity Stage (1948-1970) “Approaches/Theories T New Human Relations Approseh Of all the social sciences, only Public Administration educates the | 11, Administrative Development citizens by disseminating knowledge | 11, Comparative Public Administra about the functioning of government tion ‘and bureaucratic organisation. By performing responsibility of that of a universal educator it fulfills a huge | 1V. Beological Approach liberal-educational responsibility role | V. Development Administration towards the citizens. ‘Vocational/Professional : Mil- Tions of students get equipped with intellectual capacity, training and | V1. New Public Administration skill for administrative jobs and other profesional assignments only through | VII. Publi choice Approach the single source of Public Admini- stration, Day-by-day this role of Public Administration is multiply- §'TAGE-V PUBLIC POLICY ing, PERSPECTIVE (1971 © ‘Critical ‘Theory’ in public ONWARD) administration was expounded by. Jurgen Habermas. His book @ “The thrust, during stage V that is “The Essential Frankfurt continuing is on making Public School” edited by Andrew Arato Administration interdisciplinary. and Bike Gebhardt presents the @ Wilsonia theory of politics admin- critical perspective of public istration dichomy was completely ‘administration abandoned. Proponents Chris Argyris, Douglas Me Gregor, Rensis. Liker, Warren Bennis Riggs F.W. Riggs, Alffed Diaman, Ferrl Heady, Dwight Waldo, Wallaca Sayre, Martin Landau, William. Saffin, John’ Monto- ‘gomery Ralph Braibanti, Bestram Gross Riggs award Weidner, F.W. Riggs, Polombra, Montogomery, Head, Esman Waterson, Fainsod, Han been Lee, Deam F.W. Riggs, Swerdlow, Saffin Lian Pye, MI Esman, George Gant, UL. Goswami Dwight Waldo, Frank Masni, Golem- biewski, Fredrickson Vincent Osbom, Oppentieime. Buchanan, Downs, Olson, Tullock Michel ‘Two Basie Themes of Public Policy Perspective According to R. T. Golembiewski, publie policy perspective is premised ‘on wo basic themes () The interpenetration/nterrela- tion of Politics and administration at all or many levels, that is, from micro to macro levels, (i) The programonatic character of all administration, Differences In Various Approaches to the Study of Public Administration Structural Approach 1.Politics and | Attaches signi- Administrative | ficance 1 value- are distinctively | free Science of separate Management 2.Politicsis | Economy and about policy | efficiency are formulation and | always in focus administration is about policy implementation 3.Lepislaure | “Public aspect of fand cabinet | Public Adm locate Politics | tration is virtually While the execu-| dropped tive locates ‘administration ‘Advocates a stress on the vale free structure of Science of | organisation of Management | any adminis- Human Relations Behavioural Development Public Policy Political Approach ‘Approach Approach Approach ‘Economy Lays emphasis on | Brings out inside | Concentrates on | Putsstress on | Studies the human side ofan_ | (intemal) putting | the development | Public Policy | application enterprise infocushis | aspect of of economic rationality and | administration ‘methods value and models of political problems Brings out flaws | Considers Deci- | Studies historical | Emphasises | Establishes and limitations of | sion Making As | socio-economic, | formulation | relationship ‘mechanical the heart of | politieal and and interac- concept of tulministration | nsideration implementation tion bet- Organisation having impact on | of Welfare | ween Public Development | programmes | Administra- snd thus tion and attaches politico significance to | economic SSuesses Socio- | Relates Public psychological | Administration to factors of work | Sociology and ations Psychology thereby broaden- ing is scope Most concerned ‘withthe relation- ship among the people in the policy policies© The way Public Administration has borrowed from various disci- plines and attracted the scholars of different fields of study into its fold has made it most inter- disciplinary of all social sciences, © Day-to-day Public Administration is keeping into focus the issues related to Policy science, Organi- sation theory and management science. © In today’s fast changing world the locus of public administration is public interest and public affairs that is public welfare. Development of Public Administration In India : Key ‘Memorable Points © Lucknow University included a ‘paper on public administration in MLA. Political Seience forthe first time in 1930. (© Madras University started first separate diploma course in public administration in 1937, (© Nagpur University established fest separate fullledged department of Public. Administration and local self govt in 1949-1950. {© With he establishment ofa separate full-fledged department of public administration in Nagpur Univer- sity in 1949-1950, the discipline received full academic legitimacy, © M.P. Sharma became the first professor to have headed the first department. of Public Adminis tration in Nagpur University” in 10949-1950, © After the recommencition of Paul HL. Appelby report on Public Administration in India in 1953, the Indian Institute of Public ‘Administration was established in 1954 in New Delhi © UPSC introduced Public Adminis: tration in the Civil Services as on independent subject in 1887, “Two-pronged Motivational Concern of Comparative Public Administration i) Theory building’To build ‘Theory ii) Focussing On the adminis- trative problems of the developing countries lke India et © The objective behind building theory in Comparative Public ‘Administration is to make Public administration more scient © In the words of Lynton Cald well—"The objective of Com- parative Public Administration has boon to hasten the emergence of a universally valid body of know- ledge concerning administrative behaviour in brief to contribute to ‘a genuine and discipline of public administration © The traditional Public Adminis- tration is American in nature. It bears the stamp of American calture, values and ethos. So it does not fulfil the needs of other countries, so it must be discarded. (CPA As Defined By Scholars Robert H, Jackson—“Comparative Public Administration is that facet of the study of public administration Which is concerned with making rigorous cross-cultural comparisons of the structures and processes involved in the activity of administering public airs. In the words of Jong $. Jun— “Comparative public administration has been predominently eross-cultural or cross-national in orientation.” Nimrod Repheel aptly sums. up— “Comparative public administration is a study of public adm inistration on a comparative basis.” CAG (Compara- live Administrative Group. defines Pablie Adm mas a theory of Public administration applied” to diverse cultures and national settings tnd body of factual deta by which it ‘cam be examined and tested. COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Comparative Public Adminis- tration is the first most important development in the evolution of Public Administration after the ‘Second World War. In its approach, Comparative Public Administration is. cross cultural and eross-ni © Highlighting the significance. Fred Riggs succinctly remarked —“The new paradigm for public adminis- tration must be comparative ic. global since the solution of the problem to which it addresses itself will require increasing com- ‘munication between scholars and practitioners in all countries. The ‘American dimension will be Viewed as a sub field or practical aspect of the broader subject.” HOW CPA DIFFERS FROM TRADITIONAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION © According t© Nicholas Henry, Comparative Public Administra tion differ from Traditional Public Administration which is grounded in American culture and value system, in two ways, 1, According to Nicholas Henry (traditional Public Administra- tion is eulture bound or ethno- centric Where as comparative public administration is. cross- cultural. It shows concerns which transcends specific cultural settings. 2. The study and research con- ducted in (traditional) Public ‘Administration put on actual situation and involves real ‘world. Thus it is a practice based or practitioner-oriented. Comparative Public Adminis ‘ration, on the contrary, work for construction of theory. It seeks knowledge for the sake of knowledge. If (Traditional) Public Administration is prac- tice-oriented and professional in its approach and thrust. CPA. stands for pure scholarly thrust and theoretical-orientation, CAG AS VEHICLE FOR COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION © In 1960 Comparative Public Administration Group was foun- ded. Fred Riggs who is acclaimed as the father of Comparative Public Administration was the first chairman of CAG and remained so from 1960 to 1970. Richard Gable succeeded him, © Apart from Fred Riggs the admi- nistrative thinkers who cham- pioned the cause of Comparative Public Administration and ener mously contributed in making CAG an effective Vehicle of Comparative Movement in admi- nistration _included—“Bertram. Gross, John Montogomery, Ralph Braibanti, William Saffin Martin Landau, Wallaca Sayre, Dwight Waldo. Ferrel Heady, Alfred Diamoat ete.‘© Highlighting the basic objective of CAG and its composition, Riges commented—"The CAG consisted largely of scholars who had served ‘on technical cooperation missions in many parts of the third world, under conditions which showed the accepted administrative doc- trines of American practice to be severely limited in their appli- cability to different cultural situa- tions. It was natural consequently, that the members of CAG should be keenly interested in the revision of these doctrines on the basis of improved understanding of the forces affecting administrative behaviour in these countries, ‘© Ford Foundation of UA. granted financial aid to CAG in 1962. With receiving such aid from Ford Foundation the Comparative Public Administration movement gathered momentum, ‘Three Objectives of CAG Encouraging research programme in CPA. Promoting teachings of CPA at academic level. Laying emphasis on formulating eifective public policy in develop ‘ment administration, © Comparative Public Administra- tion aims at, as pointed out by Robert T. Golembiewski, embed- ding organisations in specific cul- tural and political setting. Since the principles of public adminis- tration are utterly inadequate it can’t formulate a proper theory. Values pervade both the study and ‘Comparative Public ‘Administration As An Intellectual Enterprise ‘As an_ intellectual enterprise, according to Ferral Heady. Compara- tive Public Administration focusses on five motivating concerns (i) Frantic search for theory- building. (Gi) Passionate urge for practical pplication. (Gi) Incidental contribution and nvolvement of Comparative poites in ‘administration. (Gy) The concerns and interest of researchers of administrative law, (9) Analysisof problems of public administration on comparative basis. P.D Public Administration/17 practice of administration, so to make public administration a proper discipline, complimentary pure and applied aspects must be incomporated into it. PURPOSES OF COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION W. Fred Riggs, the father of Comparative Public Administration has marked four purpose which CPA. sirives to achieve. (It tries to know about the distinctive features of a particular system or group of systems. (ii) It explains the factors responsible for cross cultural and ‘eros national differences in the behaviour of different bureaueratic systems, (iii) 1 thoroughly examines the ‘causes leading to suecess or failure of administrative system with particular features in particular ecological setting. {iv) It consistently remains enga- ged in working out strategies for administrative reforms. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE RISE OF COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION The following points can be summed up as the major factors Teading to the rise and growth of the paradigm of CPA (i) Rejection of culture bound (ethnocentric) approach of Tradi- tional Public Administration, (ii) Revisionist Movement in Comparative after disillusionment with the traditional approaches. (iii) Urge for developing relevant intellectually oriented theoretical models/approaches in the field of Public Administration © Public Administration essentially deals with machinery and proce- ures of government activities, © Comparative Public Adminis- tration, thus, as explained by Riggs is empirical (that is factual and scientific dealing with actual situation nomothetic (that is generalisable and can be applied universally) and ecological (that is systematic and is deeply con- cermed with environment existing, around it) Taking a holistic view, Public “Administration includes : Decision Making, Gi) Planning the work to be accomplished. ii) Formulation of Objectives and goals, Gs) Working in tendem with the legislature and citizen organisations (like NGOs) to muster public support ‘and funds for governmental progea- rmmes and activities. () Establishing and revising ‘organisational setup. (i) Directing. and supervising ‘employees and sta, (vi) Providing leadership, effective leadership, (vii) Passing communication and Receiving Communication. (Gx) Determining work, methods and procedures, (3). Appraising performance, (xi) Exercising effective contro. Riggsian Trends In Public Administration Three Trends, according to Riges ‘can be noticed in Comparative Public ‘Administation (A. shift from Normative studies (which deals with ideal situs- tion, that is, what ought to be) to ‘empirical studies (which deals with actual situation, that is, what is) Gi) A shift from Ideographie ‘studies (that specific ease or individu- alistic study) 10 nomothetic. studies (that is generalised and universal approach) (ii) A shift from non-ecological ‘studies (when there is separation of any particular administrative phenomenon from its exteral environment) to eco- logical (when administrative phe- nomenon is studied in relation 10 its extemal environment having impect on io. © Max Weber's Bureaucratic Model the words of R.K. Arora, “has been the single mast dominant conceptual framework in the study of Comparative Public Adminis ration, © In the words of Dwight Waldo— “Weber's model of bureaucracy is set in a large framework that spans history and culture and relates bureaucracy to important societalModels/Approaches In the Study of Comparative Public © While analysing adminstrative ‘Administration system and their functioning, F. W. Rigas employed structural Model/Approach | Proponents | __ Chief Concern/Emphasis functional model. Bureaucratic System © 191955, itwas Dwight Waldo who Siructural Functional | Talcott Parson | Regards organisation as the society in] first took initiative in introducing a ee Structural-functional approach in Anthony Downs | Anthony Downs Classifies bureaucrats as climbers,] the study of Public Administra- consensus zealots, advocates and state-| tion © Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton Marion Levy, Gabriel Almond, David Apters are the prominent Decision Making | Martin Landau Increasing the decision making capacity of developing countries Poe ee aaa | | |e ie advotrof Stal ional General System sie (i) Fused-Prismatic | Riges Rigg’s five fold Classification of Diffracted Mode! functions Performed in Each etal Ee Energy Model | 117Doney 1, Pte! Funetons variables, yet it focusses atention The other prominent exponents of | Tl, Economic Fancions Upon. the chief strctural and ecological approach in Compars- | TI Soial Fantions functional characteristics of tive Public Administration are— |TV, Symi Functions bureaucracy. His model is para- Robert Dahi(1947),Rosco Martin | communicaonal functions digm of Public Administration. (1952) and F. W. Riggs. (1961) @ Feral Heady expounded four @ Robert Dahl's “The Science of @ According to Structural-functional conceptvil models in CPA~ Public Administration = Three approach in every society there are Modified. Traditional, Develop- Problems (1947), J. M. Gaus” various structures which perform ment Oriented, General System Reflections on Public Adminis- specific functions. Model Building md MiddleRange tration (1947) and Riggs “The @ Basing his explanation of admi- Theory Formulation Ecology of Public Administration ° istrative systems in comparative f© Handerson advocated three con- (0961) contained the theme and fashion Riggs presented two Ideal Ceptal approaches in CPA ~The analysis on Ecological approach (Theoretical) Modis, Burcauraie System Approach, it Comparative Public Adminis- "agra tadgntre Mol thelnput Outpt Sytem Approach tation z ‘and the Component Approach. @ Dahl was a passionate Champion _ it) Fused-Prismatie-Diffracted Model of Comparative studies in admin- ECOLOGICAL MODEL IN istration. According to him—No 7 COMPARATIVE PUBLIC science of public administration is. AGRARIA-INDUSTRIA’ ‘ADMINISTRATIO! a er MODEL normative value is made clear (i) the nature of man in the arca of @ Riggs constructed his agraria- parative Public Administration public administration is better industria model in 1956. twas WE. Riggs. His epoch- understood and his conduct is @ He described postulated two types making book Adminstration tn mare predictable: andi) theres of its Developing Countries: The a body of comparative studies Theory of Prismatic Society from which it may be possible to) _ Agraria that is society where (1964) was a milestone and discover principles and gene- evcullural_ institutions play a dominant role as China, “single most notable contribution’ ralities that transcend national inthe words of F. Heady inCPA, boundaries Gi) Industria that isa society © W.F. Riggs explained his admin- @ He further elaborates—"as long as Where industrial institutions domi- istrative theories through three the study of public administration ate as US.A. important analytical tools—viz. is not comparative claims for a @ According to Riggs, societies in 6 (i) Ecological Approach (ii) _science of public administration day's world can be categorised Structural functional Approach sound rather hollow either as agraria or as industria, (iii) Kdeal models (that is, model @ Riggs’s book The Ecology of @ Societies, said Riggs, which are in building). Public Administration (1961) agraria stage move to industria © First, it was J. M. Gaus who seeks to explore the dynamics of and this movement of agraria ‘employed in 1947 the ecological interaction of public adminis- (societies) to achieve the states of approach in the study of Com- tration from its surrounding industria (Societies) is. unidirec~ Administration. external environment. tional,refracted society a structure per- forms small number of functions so itis required to create separate structures to carry out specific functions. Between fused and diffracted societies exist a trans- AGRARI-TRANSITIA- INDUSTRIA MODEL © In 1957. Riggs expounded another model (an intermediate model) called transitia which came to represent a. transitional society forming or transitional society in existing between agraria (stage) which characteristics of both and industria (stage) and bears the fused and diffracted (refracted) characteristics of both societies. societies are found together. Agraria and Industria : A Comparison Agraria | Industria 1. Ascriptive Values/Norms ‘Achievement Norms/Values U, Particularistie Norms Universal Norms IIL Diffuse Patterns ‘Specific Patten (3) IV. Limited Social and Spatial Mobility | Greater Social And Spatial Mobility ‘with Stable Local Groups V.. Simple and Stable and Differentisted | Highly developed Occupational patterns Occupational system Vi. Differential Stratification System Egalitarian Class System found ound © To put it more precisely, A fused RIGGS FUSED- society represents undifferentiated PRISMATIC-DIFFRACTED ——stage-that is typical of under (REFRACTED) MODEL developed countries (societies), a prismatic society refers to undif- ‘© Explaining his fused-Prismatic- __ferentiated stage-typified by deve- Diffracted (Refracted Model) W.F. loping. countries/societies: while Riggs observed—“Traditional by diffracted society is meant a agricultural and folk societies _highly differentiated stage that is (agraria) focussed the fused model___Fepresented by developed coun- and modern industrial societies _tries/societies. (industria) approach the refracted ‘model. The former is functionally PRISMATIC-SALA diffuse the latter is functionally MODEL. specific, Intermediate between these polar extremes is prismatic model, so called because of the prism through which fused light © In Rigg’s Prismatic-Sala Model Prismatic stands for prismatic society, that is, transforming or passe to become refracted developing society and sala refers © According to Riggs in a fused to the administrative sub system society a structure carries varicty (that is, bureaucratic organization) of functions. In diffracted or of prismatic society \ctive Attributes/Features of Fused, Prismatic and Diffracted Societies : At A Glance Fused Society Prismatic Society Dittracted Society 1, Aseriptive Value | Attainment ‘Achievement TL Fanetional Diffusion | Poly-functionalism Functional Specificity IML, Particulars Selectivism Universalism ‘Representation of Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Sala Model Society Stage Represented by Fused Society Undifferentiated Siage | Underdeveloped Sovieties Somidifferenated Stage | Developing Socities Diflracted Society | Differemited Staze Developed Societies P.D/Public Administration/19/2 Features of Prismatic Model Heterogeneity : Heterogeneity is ‘one of the main characteristics of prismatic society, Hereterogeneity refers to the simultaneous presence of quite different kinds of systems, practices and view points side by side. Formalism : Formalism, in pris- matic society refers to the degree to which a discrepancy between what is formally prescribed and what is ‘actually practised or followed exist. It means incongruenee between pres- cribed norms and actual realities on the ‘ground, To put it simple it denotes the {gap erupting between theory and practice. Overlapping : Acconding to F. W. Riggs—“Overlapping refers to the extent to which formally differentiated Structures of a diffracted society co: exists with undifferentiated structures ‘of a fused society. To pat it differently ‘administrative behaviour in adminis- trative system is actually determined bby non-administrative criteria Le, by political, social. religious or other Factors. Overlapping manifests itself in five dimensions (1) Nepotism (that is favouritism, i Polynormativism (that is lack of consensus on norms of behaviour), (iit) Polycommunalism (Simultaneous existence of a diverse religious and ethnis sections in hostile and unfriendly environment). (iv) Bazaar canteen Model (it refers to the ‘economy of prismatic society bearing the characteristics of the market economy of diffracted society and traditional economy of fused society, (¥) Authority Vs. Control (that Sepration of authority, which is highly concentrated from control. system, which is highly localized), © According to Riggs, prismatic society has three integral cha- ructeristics—(i) Heterogeneity. Gi) Formalism, (ii) Overlapping. © In & nutshell, a prismatic society represents a highly unbalanced polity in which bureaucrats hold sway over politico-administrative system, © In prismatic, society, the change is exogenous (external) as well as ‘endogenous (internal), But there is also third type of change called equigenetic change which is brought about by external as well internal pressures!forces, © Riggs also enunciated the con- cepls of exoprismatie society and endoprismatic society. Exo-prismatic society is the society in which pressure for change is mainly external an while endo- prismatic society is the one in which pressure for change occurs ‘mainly at internal level © When the change is endo-genetic establishment of formalised insti- tutional system follows effective behaviour but if the change is exo-genetic the sequence is the reverse, © Intheir bid to absorb externally indued pressure, prismatic. societies face the problems of higher formalism, heterogeneity overlapping and severity of revolutionary tensions. Riggs Concept of Administration ‘Scope of Study for Comparative ‘Technical ‘Administrative Groups (CAG) itferentistion) Formed in 1960 —— () Macro (Broad) Stdy + Under Non-Technical Macro study, comparative studies of (Differentiation) Development Diffraction Integration Factors Responsible for the Rise of CPA (1) The emergence of revisionist movement in comparative politics owing 10 Aisillsionment with traditional approaches, {I} Asa reaction to classical structural approach the behavioural approach emerged on the surface, which in tum, gave rise to Comparative Public Adminis- (iM) During the World War I American administration thinkers had an ‘opportunity to get introduced to new features of administrative systems of develop- ing countries and this contributed to the rise of CPA. (AV) Policy Oriented Catalysts forced to seck and develop practical knowledge ‘o bring effectiveness in policy formulation and policy implementation, [V) Intellecwally Oriented Catalyst compelled administrative scholars to cons- truct universally applicable and relevant theoretical models leading to the emergence oF CPA [VP Rapid scientific, technological and theoretical developments had a deep impact on existing forms of administrative (bureaueratic) structures. (VI) Administrative difficulties of newly emerged thinl world counties, willingness To Padticipate pars (bureaucratic organisation) of an Participation: ‘administrative system are compars- tative organisations are Gi) Middle Range Order Study + Under middle range order study a large tively analysed Ability to (ii) Miero-Study + Under micro- Structural-Functional Approach Structural-sfunetional approach cenviniges that in every society there fe some imporant fanctlons which ae Aischarged by a numberof siuctures by the application of some specified rmothods, Siuture, iw be noted in this context may refer to any adminis- trative mechanism or other mechanism by which funetions ae carid to their logical conclusion. Thus, iis wort tmentioning that structural functional approach stands for :— (@ methods of analysing the functions tobe performed in a society (©) srucure-esponsble to carry ‘out these functions (©) methods employed in under- ‘aking the functions P.DJPublic Administration/20 Pantie — study, Comparative stdies of specific processes of same nature (as police Administrative} management, delivery of civic ameni- Structure ties) are conducted. Penetration —— (Administrative © Robert Dabi!’s book : The Science Development) of Public Administration : Three Administrative Problems, as the epoch-making, Behaviour development in CPA, Riggs’s Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model : At A Glance Model Society Group Beonomy ‘Administrative | | System Fused | Non-Differentiated | Sectus | Redistributive ‘Chamber Prismatic | Semi-Diffrcted | Clects | Bazaar Canteen Model | Sala Diffracted | Differentisted | Culb_ | Marketized (Market Bureau Economy) © Wilson is regarded as the first. @ Dwight Waldo conducted studies intellectual father and the founder ofl CPA in 1948 but the confer ‘of Comparative Public Adminis- ence on CPA was organised in al Princeton in 1952, © Simon Edward Weidner Fei Heady, Merton, Stokes, Katlin ‘enumerated Behavioural approach © Ferral Heady has described the period of the 1960's in the evolu- tion of Public Administration as jn CPA whereas David Easter the heyday (or Golden period) of postulated -——_post-behavioural the Comparative Public Adminis- approach brought about by post tration. behavioural revolution.Models 1, Modified Traditional 2, Development Model 3. General System Model 4. Middle Range Formulation Model Heady’s Four Models in CPA Chief Concern Comparative study of Important Administrative | Institutions. CPA Deals with Problems caused by: Socio-| economic Change. ‘The general environment of any administrative setup. Certain Processes of Administrative system. © The post behavioural appr which took roots in 1970 in is essentially behavioural in administrative research, chal- character. langed behaviouralism, through recognizing that behaviouralism Importance of CPA played a vital role in the inter- | (It developed a generalised pretation of administration and | body of knowledge. secking knowledge from it but the | (i) Its rooted in practice and is interpretation and knowledge | applied in nature gained from it was not complete | ji) It facilitates reforms, cross and enough, cultural learning by learning from the © The emphasis Iaid on ecological} ¢*Perience of self and from others perspective in structural func- Age ee emai ener tional analysis ereated the base of cross cultural comparisons. roach @ Comparative Public Aministration the actions of administrations, (v) In understanding the overall system it has prepared the ground for ‘Six Types of Comparative ‘Studies Conducted By CPA edge, (i) Internationav/Inte tional that is Comparison of admis trative system of two countries. Gi) Intra-National : That ‘comparison of administrative machi- nery/systems of two states of same Situ: developing organised body of knovl- (vi). CPA is most effective in com- preliending Public Administration in Theory and practice with multi-disci- plinary perspective (vii) Because of CPA interactive approach, it enhances the process of democratic learsing. ‘county. (Gil) Inter-Cultural that is, com- parative studies of Recruitment proce- DEVELOPMENT. ‘dure of England and US. (jy) Intra-Cultural : Studying ADMINISTRATION ‘comparatively administrative cultures | @ For the first ime, Goswami in his ‘of vo states in same country, ‘cultures in comparative manner of article the Structure of Develop: (s) Cross-Cultural : Studying | pent Administration in India two] (1955) used the term “Develop- ‘countries such as between Nepal Russia ‘ment Administration’ : © George Gant, an American admi- i) Cross-Periodie : That is compurson of amis pens | istrative thinker, who wrote the ff two different periods as between | book Development Administra- “Mughal period and Maurya, tion : Concepts, Goals and Met hods published in 1979, is consi © Structural-functional approach dered as the father of Develop- envisages that functions of all ment Administration because of structures in the organisation are enormouls contribution he made in different but they had thet i influ- this field. ence on one another. Thus the @ Apart from George Gant, the nature of functions of these stru tures is complementry. other scholars who did their bit in making Development Admini © Max Weber's bureaucratic Model tration tremendously popular by is regared as the most cre base for Comparisons. P.DJPublic Administration/21 sdible postulating new concepts includes —E. W. Weidner, F. W. Riggs, Joseph La Polombra. Irving Swerdlow, William Saffin J Esman. John D. Montogomery, Hanbeen Lee, Ferrel Heady, Albert Wabison, Lucian Pye and Alfred Dlaman, George Gant : Father of, Development Administration Defining D.A. and Its Purposes George Gant defined Development ‘Administration as that aspect of public ‘administration in whieh the focus of attention is on organizing and admi- nistering public agencies i such a way 4 to stimulate-and facililate defined programmes of social and econo- mic progress. It has the purposes of making change atractive and possible. Ie denotes the complex web of agen- cies, management system and pro- keesses, a government establishes (0 achieve the development goals. It is the administration of policies, pro ‘grammes and projects to serve deve- Topmeat purposes Characteristics of Development ‘Administration G@_Socio-economie Progress (is Purposes) Gi). Accountability to the People {dts Loyalties) (ii) Positive, Innovative and Per- suasve Style/Approach (is Atitudes) FACTORS RESPONSIBLE, FOR THE EMERGENCE OF DEVELOPMENT. ADMINISTRATION () Undermining of goals of administration with over-stress over ‘means of administration, i) Comparative Administrative Group formation in 1960. (ili) Urge for indigenously cons- tucted administrative model to cater to developmental needs of newly emerged independent countries after denunciation of imperialistic and colonial rule (iv) UN sponsored develop- mental scheme and extension of ULS.A. economic and technical assis- tance plans to third world and newly ‘emerged independent nations. © The concept of Development ‘Administration, in faet, took birth in the aftermath of decolonisation © “Though the term’ in the words of Prabhu Dutta, “development‘administration is claimed to have been coined by the Indian scholar UL. Goswami, development administration is essentially a westem concept.” The idea of development administration was elaborated and conceptualized by American scholars with third world development occupying "uppermost part of their minds © In 1950s", the development of third world countries was power- ful intellectual category in Ameri ccan social sciences thinking, © The overarching philosophy and keynote of Development Admi- nistration lies in two. develop- mental goals vic—(j) Nation building (ii) Socio-economic development. © The Comparative Public Adminis- tration Group (CAG) viewed Modem Administration asa mechanism for achieving deve~ opment goals. DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF DEVELOPMENT. ADMINISTRATION : TWO. SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT © With regard to the definition of Development Administration and its scope, there appears two schools of thought. (The school of thought repre- sented by Fainsod and Fainsod taking a narrow view of Develop- ‘ment Administration. ‘© The school of thought represented by Lucian Pye, Riggs and Edward Weidner defining the term Development Administration in broader sense. The first approach, (narrow view) is programme oriented while the other approach (broader view) is action oriented. 1, Programme-Oriented Approach (i) According to Merle Fainsod “Development Administration isa carrier of innovating values. It embraces the array of new functions assumed by developing countries embar- king upon the path of moderniza- tion and industrialization. It ordi- narily involves the establishment of machinery of planning, eco- nomic growth and mobilizing and allocating resources to expand national income.” P.D/Public Administration/22 ) In the words of John D. Men- togomery—"Development Admi- nistraton cannotes carrying out planned change in the economy or capital infrastructure and to a lesser extent, in the social services Of the state especially health and education, ‘These two definitions of Deve- lopment Administration are programme oriented and hence narrow in view. Programme oriented approach as enunciated by Fainsod and Montogomery in Development Administration mainly concerns itself with the mobilisation of new and existing resources and cultivation of skills for the achievement of develop- ‘mental goals of administration. Action-Oriented Approach : ‘The scholars who stood for action oriented approach in Develop- ment Administration are Lucian Pye, Riggs and Weidner. Accor ding to Riggs—“Development Administration is an organized effort to carry out programmes or projects thought by those involved toserve developmental Objectives. In the words of Edward ‘Weidner—"Development Admi- nistration is concerned with maxi- mizing innovation for develop- ‘ment. In government, it is the process of guiding an organization towards the achievement of pro- ‘gress, political, economic and social objectives that are authori- tatively determined in one manner for another. Hence, development administration is an action orien- ted, goal otiented administration system.” Pai Panandikar’s Vision of Development Administration According to Pai Panandikar “Development Administration is mainly the administration of planned change. The essence of development is holistic change undertaken through integrated organized and _ properly directed action.” Pai Panandikar (and Kshirsagar) have deseribed four pre= Fequisities for development admin- (i) Change Orientation (ii) Result Orientation (ili) Citizen Participation (iv) Commitment to Work. If understood in broader sense as defined and analysed by Riges, Weidner and Pye Development Administration Covers the entire process of nation building and calls for integrated concept for Public Administration specially in the developing nations of the world, In essence Development Administration is action oriented rather than programme or structure oriented. © The differene between traditional Public Administration and Deve- lopment Administration lies in the fact that the former lays more emphasis on the means of admi- istration whereas the latter puts ‘emphasis on the goals (or endsof administration). © To quote Edward Weidner— Public Administration has glori- fied the means and forgotton the ends. Good administration and good human relations have become ends in themselves quite apart from the achievement of other values that they may or may not facilitate.” Concern of Development of ‘Administration Edward Weidner, the foremost exponent of Development Adminis- tration has put forth the concem of DAA. as such, “Development adminis tration is concerned with maximizing innovation for development.” Accor- ding to him innovation for develop- ment is the process of planned or intended change in the direction of modemity of nation building and socio- ‘economic Change.” He elaborated that the problem of how to maximize the effectiveness of bureaucracy so that it ‘ean contribute to growth in the diree- tion of modemity or nation building land socio-economic progress is a problem of how to strengthen innova tional forces inthe bureaucracy.” TWIN CONCEPTS OF ADMINISTRATION OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF ADMINISTRATION © F. W. Riggs has postulated that there are two integral aspects of Development Administration viz; ‘administration of development and. development of administrationey an the two aides OF thy Major Books on Comparative Public Administration pie eS [ Books © InRiggs words—“Administration | 1, Feral Heady Public Administration : A Comparative of development refers. to. the Perspective. process of administering of deve} 2, Robert Dahl ‘The Science of Public Adminstration : Three opment programmes to. the Problems (1947) methods used by large scale | 3, 1.M.Gaus Reflections on Public Administration (1947) organizations, notably govern | §. Dwight Waldo Comparative Public Administration : Prologue, ‘ment, to implement policies and Probes an Promise plans designed to meet their deve- | 5, P, W, Riges i) The Ecology of Public Administration (1961) opmental objectives. “Develop- Gi) Administration in Developing Countries ment of administration" Heelabo- “Theory of Prismatic Society (1968) rates, “refers to the strengthening administrative capabilities (admi- nistrative machinery). © Highlighting the establi relation between Development of Administration and Adminis- momentum of the mass to be administered. Otherwise the cen- trifugal will overcome the cen- {ripetal and the mass will disin- tegrate, In other words, civiliza- tion would dissolve.” lished tration of Development, Riggs observed—"The reciporcal edness of these two involves a chicken and egg of causation. Administration can not normally be improved © Bureaucracy and Development fe Administration isan. epoch- ‘ype Mlaking book written by Pai Panandikar and Kshirsagar very much without changes in the FEATURES OF environmental constraints (the POLITICAL infrastructure) that hamper its DEVELOPMENT. effectiveness; and the environment RELEVANT TO itself cannot be changed unless ADMINISTRATIVE the administration of develop- DEVELOPMENT ‘mental programmes are strength- ened © In any developing country, © In the context of developing Development Administration con” requisite administrative capabi- erm itself mainly with two lites (machinery) its very apt to __a8Peets of development that. is quote Books Adams who wrote in olitical and_economic.. The 1913—"Social Consolidation is economic development, toa great not a simple problem, for social tent, depends on_ political consolidation implies an equi- development and is driven by it valent capacity for administration-@ There are some certain important perfection in administration must features or characteristics of poli- becommensurate to the bulk and tical development taking place in ‘Major Books/Papers on Development Administration Authors 1. Lucian Pye Il vin Swerdlow ML, F.W.Riggs IV. J.D. Montogomery and M. I Joe Salfin V._ B.W. Weidner Vi. Dwight Waldo. VIL. George A Gant VIIL.D.A. Roudinelli Books/Papers ‘The Political Context of National Development. Development Administration : Concepts and Problems. Frontiers of Development Administration, Approaches to Development Polities, Admini tration and Change Development Administration : A New Focus For| Research, Temporal Dimensions of Development Adminis- Development Administration : Concepts, Goals and Methods Development Projects As A Poliey Experiment ‘An Approach To Development Administration P.D/Public Administration/23 any nation which are highly relevant to administrative deve- opment. S. P. Huntington has identified four recurring features, of Political development bearing upon administrative development (i). Rationalisation Gi) National Integration, (ii) Democratisation (iy) Participation MAJOR CHARAC- TERISTICS OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION © Here is an account of important clementsicharacteristics signifying Development Administration 1. Change-Orientation : Develop- ‘ment Administration is anti-status- quo. It calls for formulation of strategy for developing capacity of an administrative system viz-a- viz. its external environment as well as building a mechanism for activating its internal structures so that socio-economic change may speedily be brought about Goal Orientation : Deve- lopment Administration is result: oriented, that is, it has certain social, economic, political and cultural goals (including technolo- gical) to meet. These goals, accor- ding to Weidner, are progressive in nature. Motivation : In a develop- ‘ment administrative system, high saree of motivation is the back- bone of the organisation, Personal vested interests must not come in the way of personnel in the achievement of progressive goals Thus, commitment should be the hallmark of these personnel, Theyneed to show extra-zeal, dedica- tion and perseverance to bring about change: Client-Orientation + Deve- opment Administration is people- centred. It always aims at provi- ding maximum numberof services and products to its clients. Hence it solely client-oriented/benifi- ciary oriented and is driven by extension-motivation (which refers to a desire in every person to be of use to others. Greater Participation of Citizens : Development Adminis- tation involves. greater partici- pation of eitizens in the Formu. lation and implementation of development goals, It is. worth mentioning here that citizen's participation in developmental programmes rests on three fac- {ors—() Ability to participate, Gi) Willingness to Participate, (ii) Opportunity to Participate. In India, block level and. district planning is the pat of government Initiatives to promote people's participation in the formulation nd developmental goals at the grass root level Effective Integration : Etfec- tive integration among groups and authorities involved in the task of achieving development goals is a ‘must in development administra- tive organisation. This integration 6 coordination should exist at both macro and micro levels Innovativeness : Develop- ment Administration, in approach, is problem-solving. It wins at applying new methods, structures, procedure, plans, projects and programmes in the achievements Of its objectives. In. India, the bodies like DRDA (District Rural Development Authority, CADA (Command. Area Development Area Development Programme are the steps in the direction of innovativeness in administration Responsiveness: Develop: ment Administration is quick in responsiveness. Fulilling the needs of the people and respond- ing to the demands of society are top priorities of Development ‘Administration. The demands are, sometimes, modest and meclerate but, on oceassions, serious and tough forcing the administration tobe on the alert. P.DJPublic Administration/24 © According to Ghildyal, Delegation ECOLOGICAL- ORIENTATIONPERSPEC. 6 hllowk of dvelonment TIVE ‘The teamwork and coordination - are its essence in implementation. It The orientation and perspective yeplaces rationality with flexibility of Development Administration is (een expeckeney) and tefeete fcological, thats, it lays stress onthe Sense of commitment. instead’ of permanent well established. inter- impersonality and neutrality. ‘Tt action between bureaucratic (Admi- attaches importance to social equality histrative) ofganization and social, rather than position and places pre- fconomic and politcal environment ™ivm on professionalism and Sorvounding i futhority of competence instead of futhonty and legitimacy of position inthe research Planning : Development Admi- nistration in the words of Pai Panandikar, is a “planned change”. “COMPARATIVE VIEW OF But according to Weidner, planning may be or may not an essential TRADITIONAL PUBLIC feature of Development Admit ADMINISTRATION tration. However, there can be no (T.P.A.) AND ‘denying the fact that planning facili- DEVELOPMENT tates optimum utilization of human ADMINISTRATION (D.A.) ‘material resources if applied a {© Riggs's ecological model is one ___ 1. Development Administration of the most creative models in the i8 change-oriented while Traditional analysis of the Administration of Public Administration stands for developing countries. Status-quo and resists change. Important Views About Development Administration © B. B, Schafer observes—"Development Administration is about development programmes, policies, and projects in those conditions in which there are usually wide and new demands and in which tere ate peculiar low capacities and severe obstacles in meeting them, {© According to Inayatuallh—"Development Administration is the complex of an ‘organization arrangements for the achievement of an action through public Authority in persuance of (a) socio-evonomic goals, (b) nation-building (© Martin Landua says—"Development Administration isthe engineering of social change.” (© Inthe words of Pai Panandikar—“Development Administration is mainly the administration of planned change. According to him, “the essence of Develop- ment Administration is holistic change undertaken through integrated, organized nd properly dected governmental ation. B. S. Khana remarks —"Develop- ment Administration is administration geared to the tasks of economic, social nd politcal development which has been induced by an increasing, momentum, and diversity from the elite group of people. © Donald C. Stone says —“Broadly development administration is concemed with achieving national evelopment. The goals, values and strategies of change may Vary but there are always generic processes through which agreement on the goals is reached and_ plans, policies, programmes and projects (4 Ps) are Formulated and implemented. Development Administration is concerned prima- rily with the tasks and processes of formulating and implementing the four Ps in respect to whatever mixture of goals and objectives may be politically deter- mined.” ‘© Development Administration is concerned with problems involved in managing 4 government or an agency theroof so that it acquires an inereasing capability 10 adopt to and upon new and continuing social changes with a view to achieving & Sustained growth in politcal economic and social fields." —Han Been Lee © HJ, Freedman views Development Administration as the means forthe imple~ mentation of programmes designed to bring about modemity (i. socio- ‘economic progress and nation building) and the changes within the adeinis- trative system which increase its capacity to implement the programmes. © In the words of Jose Abueva~"Development Administration is the adminis- tration of development programmes in the economic, social and political spheres, including the programmes for improving the organization and my agement of the bureaucracy as & major instrument for national development.2, Development Administration is dynamic, flexible and expedient whereas Traditional Public Adminis- tation lays stress upon stability and is rigid and hierarchical, 3. Development Administration is characterised by planned change while Traditional Public Adminis- tration does not rely as much on planning. 4, Development Administration is comparatively larger in size than Traditional Public Administration. 5. Traditional Public Adminis tration is authority-oriented and bureacratie while participatory is the hallmark of Development Adminis- tration, 6. IF the objectives of Develop- ment Administration are-multiple complex, the objectives in Tradi- tional Public Administration are simple. 7. Economy and Efficiency are the watchwords of Traditional Public Administration while the goal- achievement and effectiveness. are focal points of attention in Develop- ment Administration, 8, Traditional Public Adminis- tration stresses upon centralization, Development Administration empha~ tically calls for decentralization 9. The scope of operations of Development Administration is much vaster than the scope of functioning in Traditional Public Administration, 10, Development Administration is known for its time-orientation (Cemporal dimension) but there is no such dimension existing with Tradi- tional Public Administration. 11. Development Administration is specifically developmental, orien- tation, innovative, creative and flexi- ble, on the contrary, rule-orientation is Valued in Traditional Public Administration, hence itis rigid and resistant to change. Instruments of Development Administration ‘There are four important instru: ments of Development Administration 1, Administrative System 2. Political Organization 3. Voluntary Association 4. People’s Organizations P.D/Public Administration/25 © In modern contemporary Deve- lopment Administration and Tra- ditional Public Administration ‘complement. The existence of one cannot be imagined in the absence Of the other, so the distinction is rendered meaningless, unrealisti oversimplistic and untenable. © Development Administration, though most suitable to emerging needs and demands of developing nations, cannot be confined 10 these countries only. According to R. K. Arora—"The impression that development administration is concerned solely with the administration of developing countries can only reduce the utility of development admi tration in its application to the ‘comparative analysis of developed and developing counties.” APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION The various approaches to Development Administration can be categorised into two groups = (i) Elitist (ethnocentric) —App- roaches (theories) (ii) Context-Based Approaches (cheories) 1, Blitist (ethnocentric) Appro- aches The early approaches to develop- ment administration were elitist and ethnocentric in orientation. These approaches, prevalent during the 50s and 60°s regarded growth asthe only yardstick 0 measure a nation’s gress and well-being. The emphasis was always nid on GNP. These approaches included four types: (a) Eeonomie Approach : “Save ‘more and invest it as a Capital” is the sole motto of economic approach Strongly reflective of the writings of JS. Mill, Karl Marx, Keynes, Restow and Adam Smith’ this approach stressed upon economic growth through industralisation (b) Diffusion Approach : This approach views development in terms of diffusion and. strongly suggests that a third world country ‘must emulate capital technology and social structure from developed industrialised nations of the west Everett Rogers and R. S. Edari are the major advocates of this theory approach), (c) Psychological Approach Psychological approach to develop- ‘ment administration studies and inter- prets development in terms of the Specific existing personality traits such as less authoritarianism, achieve- ‘ment-motivation and change orien- tation. David Melelland, Everett Hagen Kunkel Inkeles and Smith strongly expounded this approach (d) Dependency Theory Andre Gunder Frank is the foremost proponent of dependency theory in Development Administration. Accor- ing to this theory, perpetual poverty Of third world developing countries is the result of their dependency on industrialized nations ofthe west. The reason cited for this dependency is, colonialism and neo-colonialism. 2. Contemporary Context-based ‘Approaches During 1970s and 1980s the focus shifted from universal appro- aches to context-based approaches in Development Administration. Arvind Singhal identified two types of con- temporary theoretical context-based approaches to Development Adminis- tration, They are (a) Pluralistic Approach = Pluralistic approach recognises many pathways to development. Key Elements in Contemporary Context-based Approaches According to Arvind Singhal the key elementsin contemporary develop ment approaches as reflected in the thinking of White, Rogers, Kerten and Klaus and Bryant are ;— (2) Bringing greater, equality in listibution of developmental benefits, iy Encouraging popular partic pation, knowledge sharing and empo- ‘werment to facilitate self-development efforts by individuals, communities ‘and groups, i) Containing population growth, (Cy) Integrating appropriate tech- nologies with big modern technologies inorder to facilitate development (9). Striving to seek self-reliance in development, thereby laying emp- hnasis on the potential of local resou~(b) Less Western Approach = ‘The second type of contemporary context based approach is less western and more indigenous in its orientation and cultural assumptions, Hence it downplays ethnocentric and elitist concerns which were the hallmarks of and occupied prominent place in the approach to development prevalent during 1950s and 1960s, SHIFTS (TRENDS) IN CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT-BASED DEVE- LOPMENT APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION ‘Arvind Singhal has noticed two important trends (shifts) in context based contemporary approaches to Development Administration I SHIFT FROM A BLUE- PRINT DEVELOPMENT APPROACH TO LEARN- ING PROCESS DEVELOP- MENT APPROACH ‘A blue print approach to Deve- lopment Administration is closed- ‘ended and inflexible and not adaptive to changing environment. Under this approach, a specific plan of action is, designed in advance for the adminis- ‘ration of developmental programmes. It aims at having advanced planning for the people. ‘On the other hand, the learning process approaches is flexible and relatively open-ended. It takes into consideration the existing local condi- tions according towhich development, administration can adapt itself 10 changing environment and incorpo- rate mid-course corrective measures, through a eybernetic process. Hence learning process approach lays emphasis on the planning with the people. In the words of Arvind Singhal—"The blue print approach, ‘emphasises advanced planning for the people. The earning process approach emphasises planning with the people and doing so during the process of administering a develop- ‘ment programme.” In learning process approach, diagnosis and solution of problems is done by administrators and the people jointly through a process of mutual learning, Il SHIFT FROM PRO- DUCTION CENTERED DEVELOPMENT APPROACH TO PEOPLE- CENTERED DEVELOP- MENT APPROACH Another trend witnessed in contemporary context based develop- ment approach is the shift from Prodluction-centered to people cen- tered approach to development, This approach also known as participatory approach concentrates on the people rather than the production system. According to this approach, the individual is not the subject but an actor himself who determines the goals, holds control over resources and directs the processes having. Impact on his/her life. ‘Central Themes of People Centered Development Approach (i) Empowerment ofthe People. (ii) Development of responsive administrative system, Key Elements in People- ‘Centered Development Approach, (@ Growth and Welfare of the people (ii) Equality (ili) Self Reliance (iv) People’s Participation ()_Sustainabiity ‘On the contrary, the production- centered approach of Development stresses upon production of goods and services to maximise returns on. investment. The areas of concern in production-centered approach are (industrial growth, Gi) urban deve~ lopment, (iii) utilisation of capital resources, and (iv) exploitation of environment for short-term gains ‘This approach neglects even the basic needs of the vast majority of people living in rural areas of third world developing countries and thus promotes socio-economic inequality by attaching less importance to rural, agriculture, human resources and sustainable development. © According to D. A. Roudineli, during the 1950s” and 1960s" development administration ref- lected two different but mutually complementary approaches. Acc- ording to one approach the policy implementation in third world developing countries can be improved by the transfer of ‘administrative procedures and techniques from westem deve- loped nations. The second approach propounded by political ‘modernisers believed that before developing countries try toachieve economic and social progress, they must thoroughly transform their administrative structures and poli- tical processes. The first approach was based on Webrian model of bureaucracy which called for the establishment of rational and politically neutral administrative structure within developing nations to attain deve- lopmental goals. The other approach (second one) regarded development as an act of social engineering and the government as the harbinger of change. Thus Development Administration was interpreted as the instrument for transforming traditional societies into modem societies. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION Based on its environmental and institutional setting administration is, categorised into two types—Public Administration and Private Admi- nisteation, the former refers to governmental administration while the latter refers to non-governmental or business administration, DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES © Scholars like Paul H. Appleby Josia Stamp, Herbert Simon, Peter Drucker seek to differentiate Pub- lic Administration from Private Administration, (© Administrative thinkers like Henry Fayol, M. P, Follett” Lyndall Urwick do not make any differen- tiation between Public Adminis- tration and Private Administra:Points of Difference As Described By Appleby (Political Character (Gi). Breadth of Scope, impact and Consideration il) Public Accountability © Acconding to Josia Stamp, there are four specific aspects of dif- ference between Public Adminis- tration and Private Administration. These are Principle of Uniformity (ii) Principle of External Fin- ancial Control Gii) Principle of Public Responsi- bility Gv) Principle of Service Motive ‘Simon’s Three Criteria of Distinetion Horbert Simon believes that it is basicaly popular imagination based on the following three main eriteria which Uistinguishe Public Administration from Private Administration. These three criteria are -— (i) Public (government) Adminis- tration is bureaucratic while Private Administration i businesslike (Gi) Public Administration is poli- tical whereas Private Administration has non-political character. (iil) Public Administration is tinged with red-tape white no such thing is found in Private Adminis- tration, © Peter Drucker firmly holds the view that service institution bedrocks of Public Administra- tion-distinctly differ from business institution—(falling in the cate gory of private administration. In his own words—“Public Admi- nistration is different in its pur- pose. It has different values. It needs different objectives. And it makes a different contribution to society. Performance and results wre quite different in service institution from what they are in business institution. Managing for performance is one area in which the service institution differs significantly from business insti- tution.” © Joseph Bower expresses the view that public management is not the same as business administration, POINTS OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PUBLIC ADMINIS- TRATION AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION © The following points, claborately deseribed and it can be noticed as the areas of difference between between Public Administration and Private Administration 1. Political Directions : Public Administration is differentiated from Private Administration on the count Of its political character, that is, itis subjected to political control and direction in all policy matters, In others words, the minister who heads a department is directly accountable to Parliament for all the acts of ‘omission and commission of the officials working under his sub- ation. To quote Paul H. Apple- by—"Administration is polities since it must be responsive to the public interest. It is necessary to emphasize the fact that political processes which are the essence of democracy can ‘only work through governmental organization, and that all govern- ‘mental organizations are not merely administrative entities, they are and ‘must be political organisms, Public Accountability : In a democratic set up, public accounta- bility is the touchstone on which the sanctity, integrity and efficiency of an administrative organisation (bu- reaucracy) can be tested. The type of environment that surrounds a public administrative set up in a modern, ‘democracy consist of watchful media, political parties, pressure groups and numerous other groups constantly keep public administration on track. On the other hand private adminis- tration is relioved of this burden countability). In Appleby’s ‘Government Administra- tion differs from all other adminis- trative work to a degree not even faintly realized outside, by virtue of its public outcry. BREADTH OF SCOPE, IMPACT AND CONSIDERATION To quote Paul H. Appleby in this regard—"The organized government impinges upon and is affected by practically everything that exist or moves in our society. It involves policies and actions of immense com- plexities. Its fullest possible under- standing requires the wisdom of the anthropologist, the historian, the economist, the sociologist, the poli- tical scientist, the farmer, the labourer, the merchant, the industria- list, the banker, the politician and Principles of Uniformity of ‘Treatment : Principles of Uni formity (consistency in treatment) is, the cornerstone on which the foundation of Public Administration rests. In a democracy, public .dministration works on the motto— ‘Consistent/equal treatment to all and preferential treatment to none. The decisions taken and acts done by the administrator must be guided by rules and regulations. administration is open to the practice of preferential treatment, ‘Legal Framework : The struc- ture of public administration has to operate within rigid legal frame~ ‘work, that is, under established laws, free rules and regulations. If any of the acts done is not in conformity with to the laws, rules or regulations, it may be declared ultra vires by the Court. Private administration is relatively from such responsibility in carrying out its operations. External Financial Control : Public Administration is subjected t0 legislative control regarding its finances. The Legislature (Parlia- ment) is solely responsible for authorising expenditure or income executive (administrative) branch of government through the passage of budget, grants-in-aid or other means, Hence, the principle of external financial control strictly applies to public administration whereas, in private administration, there is Internal mechanism to control the finances, so it is free from external control in the management of its finances, Service Motive : Josia Stamp hhas described service motive as one Of the key areas which distinguishes Public Administration from private administration, The sole motto of Public Administration is the pro- motion of community welfare andgeneral well-being while that of Private Administration is the maxi- mizing of profit. The driving force behind the objectives and purposes of Public Administration is the motive of social or public service which is not the case with Private adminis tration. The social role public ad- ministration plays and the concern it hhas for the general well-being brings it huge social prestige.” Doctrine of Anonymity : The doctrine of anonymity Which is the counter part of ministerial respon sibility is one of the most remarkable features of Public Administration ie., fa public servant is not accountable to the legislature for his acts of omis~ sion or commission. He is accoun- table to the minister who heads the department. In turn, the minister is accountable to the legislature (parlia- ment). Thus under the norm of anonymity which goes hand in hand ‘with ministerial responsibility a public administrator remains anony- ‘mous in carrying out his functions The norm of anonymity does not apply to private administration in which the actual functionary/official is responsible to his immediate boss for his acts of omission or commis- Criterion of Efficiency : The sole criterion of measuring efficiency in any private administration (or organisation) is profit earning based ‘on input-output relationship. But the criteria to measure efficiency. are different in public administration. ‘There are three kinds of efficiency. as Peter Self has pointed out which play dominant role in the functioning of public administration, they are— (Administrative (or Manage- ment) efficiency (which is attached as much importance in Public admi- nistration a «private administration Gi) Policy Efficiency that is selection of the best policy or programme by a judicious evaluation of goals, values alternatives and cost and benifits (iil) Service Eificiency that is capability of administration system to provide most satisfactory service to its clientl (citizens) and to cater to their diverse needs in best possible way. P.DJPublic Administration/28 POINTS OF SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION © Fayol who views administration as an indivisible entity observes— “The meaning which Ihave given to the word administration and ‘which has been generally adopted, broadens considerably the field of ‘administrative science. Itembraces not only the public service, but centerprises of every size and des- cription of every form and every purpose. All undertakings require planning, organisation, command, coordination and control and in order to function properly, all ‘must observe the same general principles. We are no longer confronted with several adminis trative sciences, but with one which can be applied equally well to public and private affairs. ‘© Opposing the distinction between Public Administration and Private ‘Administration Urwick has remar- ked—"It is difficult to contem- plate seriously a Dicchemistry of bankers, a physiology of profes- sors, of a psychopathology of politicians. The attempts to sub- divide the study of management or ‘administration in accordance with the purpose of particular forms of undertakings seems to many authorities equally misdirected. Wallance Sayre of Columbia University warns against about differentiation between Private and Public Administration Comment ing—“Business and government administration are alike in all but ‘unimportant respects. SIMILARITIES SPECIFIED © The similarities between two entities of Public and Private administration can be specified on the basis of — (1) Managerial Techniques : The ‘managerial techniques referring to the functions of the executive vi planning, organising, comman- ding coordinating, controlling, budgeting, staffing and reporting are essentially same in both public and private administration. (ID) The Principle of Hierarchy : Hierarchy or scalar chain as referred toby Fayol constitutes the universal process of coordi-nation in all types of administration. Every administration whether public or private is organised on the principle of hierarchy. Same Types of Problems : The two types of administration fac the same kind of situation in deal ing with the problems of organisa tion finance and_personnel. Moreover, maintaining harmo- rious relations between head- quarters and field is a key area of concern with both types of administration. They have to constantly remain engaged in striking a balance between opera- tional autonomy and overall control EXCHANGING EFFECTS OF STANDARD AND PRACTICES Scholars calling for _non- differentiation between Public and Private Administration believe public (governmental) administration can be compared to the corporate form of private (business) administration, it should not be compared to nén- corporate form of individual or private organization. By making such comparison the scholars argue, the exchanging mutual effect of standards and practices which of the types of ‘administration have on each other can bbe described. Pfiffner and Presthus view the emergence of public corpo- ration as half way house between its commercial prototype and the wadi- tional governmental department Besides, there is mutual exchange of personnel on rotation between two Administrations. ‘Two Species of the Same Genus In today’s globaising world, the gap between Public and Private ‘Administration in terms of technique, maintenance, deliverance of services is shrinking. Dwight sums up this reality in these words—“The gene ralisation which distinguishes public administration from private adminis- tration by special care of equality oftreatment legal, authorisation of and responsibility of action, public justi- fication or justifiability of decisions, financial property and meticulous- ness and so forth are of very limited applicability. In fact, public and private administrations are the two species of the same genus, but they hhave speical values and techniques of their own which give to each its distinctive character.” STATE VERSUS MARKET DEBATE : THEORETICAL BASE : PUBLIC CHOICE APPROACH © The theoretical base of State Versus Market Debate is public Choice Approach which came into being in 1960s. The passio- nate champion of Public Choice Approach is Vincent Ostrom. © The cornerstone on whieh the foundation of Public Choice Approach is laid on institutional pluralism (that is plurality/multi- plicity of agencies). The approach, as expounded by Vincent Ostrom in his “The Intellectual Crisis in ‘American Public Administration” calls for the replacement of the principle of bureaucratic adminis- tration by the new people friendly concept of democratic adminis tration emphasizing consumers’ preferences in the provisions of public goods and services, © Thus public Choice approach recommends the transferring of a wide range of functions perfor- ‘med by the state to the market keeping in focus the larger public interest rather than self-interest of few politicians, administrators or elite class, The approach firmly opposes single centred adminis- tative power hierarchical admini tration and separation between politics and administration, EMERGENCE OF INTREPRENEURIAL GOVERNMENT WITH STATE AS FACILITATOR ‘© Public Choice Approach in which is rested the base of State Versus Market debate played a pivotal role in giving rise to New Public Management Perspective. With the era of Liberalisation, Privati- zation and Globalisation (LPG) heralded in 1990 the new public ‘management persepective gathered ‘momentum, David Osborne and Ted Gaebler's epoch making book “Reinventing Government” published in 1992, gave conceptual meaning and provided a fresh impetus to the ‘management perspective in the evolution of public adminis- ation, The book called for radical change in the role of state {rom that rowing to steering, from that of controller to facilitator, stimulator or regulator. ‘State Versus Market Debate is not new, it dates back to the era of ‘Adam Smith, father of Economies and specifically pertains to the respective roles of the State and ‘market in the day-to-day life of the society and economy. It is based (on the popular dichotomy of state convention Versus laissez faire, quote Osborne and Gebler— fe don’t need more govern- ment; we need better government To be more precise we need better governance. Governance is the act, Of collectively solving our pro- lems. Government is the instru- iment we use. The instrument is ‘outdated and itis time to remake ‘Commenting on the specific roles of the State and Market in the Society and Economy, the world Bank Report 1991 states—"A. Central issue in development is the interaction between govern- ments and markets. This is not a question of intervention versus laissez. faire—a popular dicho- tomy but false one. Competitive markets are the best way yet found for efficiently organzing the production and distribution of goods and services. Domestic and external competition provide the incentives that unleash the entrepreneurship and technolo- gical progress. But markets can hot operate in vacuum, they require a legal and regulatory that, only governments can provide. ‘And at many other tasks, markets sometimes provide inadequate or fail together. That is why govern- ‘ments must, for example, invest in infrastructure and provide essen- tial services to the poor. It is not a question of state or market, each hhas a large and irreplaceable role NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION few Public Administration” (NPA) idiom has broken fresh ground and imparted new subs- tance to the discipline of Public Administration, © Tris no more ‘new’ © Yet in the absence of any ‘newer" Public Administration, it con- tinues to be one of the latest landmarks in Public Adminis- tration © The movement has all but disappeared, though some of its scholars continue to subscribe 10 its basic premises of relevance, value and equity © Having its source in the intel- Tectual ferment and socio-political turbulence that marked the American life in the middle and the late 1960s, it has erept into the 1970s and after. © Old Public Administration gave significance to ‘administration’ rather than ‘Public’; emphasised ‘principles’ and ‘procedures’ rather than “values" and. ‘philo- sophy’, ‘efficiency’ and ‘eco- omy” rather than ‘effectiveness’ and “service efficiency” © The concept of the ‘New Public Administration’ has shaken the traditional concept and views of the discipline. It has imparted a wider perspec: tive to the subject and has linked it closely to society. CAUSES OF GENESIS © By the end of 1960s the American society appeared t0 be ina state of disruption, dissolution and break- down. © The traditional Public Adminis- tration had shown its weaknesses in understanding the agony of the present social crisis. Its “acknowledged glacial pace and apparent remoteness”, could rnot meet the demands that have arisen in the contexts of social and© It failed to touch the fear of the nuclear bomb, mounting internal cleavages in the United States, the war in Vietnam that violated the moral conscience of the world, devastating population explosion, dangerous pollution of environ- ment, dissension of racial and economic origin, increasing social conflict and deepening fears and anxieties about the future. © In the face of a human situation such as this, the younger genera- tion of intellectuals had become restless, since neither the estab- lished centres of government nor the traditional citadels of know- ledge were responding adequately to the grave challenges confron- ting the American Society. © Like many other disciplines in social seiences-Public Adminis- tration was also shaken and influ- enced by the social turbulence and crisis ridden period of the sixties. © Answers to these challenges had to be found through new ideas and initiatives, since the dissatis- faction emerging from the turbulent environment could not be resolved through traditional or old measures, © This recognition led to the genesis of a new move that culminated in a movement known as ‘New Public Administration’ © While the values and ethics of Public officials were dealt with to some extent in the post-world War Il literature, they were not particularly emphasized, whereas in the 1970s they were made the “critical issue’ by “New Public Ad- ministration’,a movement mostly of the younger scholars in the field. © This movement started in the late 1960s and was part of the social ferment of the period. © It continues to endure, as wit- nnessed by the book published in 1980 by one of its leaders, H. George Frederickson with the ttle “New Public Administration.” MEANING © The term ‘New Public Adminis- tration’ was used to describe new philosophical outlook for Public ‘Administration, P.DJPublic Administration/30 ‘© The traditional dogmas of Public Administration-‘efficiency” and “economy” were found inadequate and incomplete goals of adminis- © It began to be said that ‘effi ciency’ is not the soul of Publ ‘Administration. Man is the focal point ofall administrative activi ‘who cannot be subjected to the mechanical test of efficiency. © So the administration must be human being oriented and its approach should be value-based, © It pleads for more relevance research: to prescribe and to act so 45 t0 improve life according to human crite (© ‘New Public Administration” is a movement inspited by younger scholars who challenged several tenets of administration, primarily the emphasis upon value neutra- lity in researeh, {© The practice appeated to scholars to take more proactive role guided not only by the search for elficiency but by a sensitivity «0 the force of change, the needs of the client and the problems of social equity in service delivery Nigro and Nigro observe, “while there is no doctrine to which all persons associated with the New Public Administration subscribe, most emphasise the principle of social equity-the realization of which they feel should be the purpose of Public Administration, They believe that in the past Public Administration had neg- lected the question of values in relation to the sovial purposes of government and that Public offi- cials have empahsized efficieney and econony of execution, often atthe expense of social equity These oificals, they say. profess neutrality but in fact have been far from neutral, even catering 10 special interest. EVOLUTION Periods of turbulence, instability and confusion are often seen in history to produce new thought waves which seek to challenge the tradi- tional contents of academic discip- lines and thus impart to them new direetion, sense and purpose, These new sets of ideas are sometimes so significant and they are comme- morated by imparting the adjective "New", We have thus come to have “New Left’, "New Federalism’ ete Since 1968 the vocabulary of Public ‘Administration has been enriched by the emergence of what has come t0 be known as ‘New Public Adminis- tration’. The term has come to stay with the Publication, in 1971, of Towards a New Public Adminis- tration; Minnowbrook Perspective, edited by Frank Marini, This work was largely based on the Minnowbrook Conference held in 1968, and New Public Administration cannot be fully understood except in terms of that academic get-together. But the seeds had been sown much earlier, and the following may be considered as the landmarks in the ‘growth and emergence of New Publi ‘Administration. GROWTH AND EMERGENCE OF NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION © The Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Service, 1967, © The conference on the Theory and Practice of Public Administration 1967. © The Minnowbrook Conference, 1968. © Publication of “Towards a New Public Administration : The Min- nowbrook Perspective”, edited by Frank Marini, 1971 © Publication of “Public Admini tration in a Time of Turbulence ‘edited by Dwight Waldo, 1971 © It is proposed to discuss each of them in the following pages. THE HONEY REPORT ON HIGHER EDUCATION FOR PUBLIC SERVICE (1967) In 1966, an affiliate of the American Society for Public Admi- nistration asked John C. Honey of the Syracuse Univesity to undertake an evaluative study of Public Adminis- tration as a field of study in the US.Universities. The Honey Report, submitted in 1967 is significant in the sense that it disclosed the true state of health of the discipline of Public Administration, It sought to broaden the subject's scope by making it conterminous with the total govern- mental process (executive, legis- lative, and judicial). It identified four problems confronting it and sugee- sted immediate action on them : Insufficient resources at disposals of the discipline (students, faculty and research funds). Intellectual arguments over the status of the discipline: Is ita dis- pln, a science, or profession ? Institutional weakness. (inade~ quaney of Public Administration depariments). Gap between scholars of Public Administration and the practising administrators The Honey Report made the following eleven recommenda- tions ‘The establishment of a National Commission Public Service Edu- cation to exert broad leadership in ‘meeting the needs of governments for educated manpower. A. substantial fellowship_pro- gramme (perhaps initially 2,500 a year) for postgraduate students who are preparing for Public service at the master's and doc- tora levels and also including pre paration for professional degrees. Internship programmes to operate at federal, state, and local levels for postgraduate students and advanced undergraduates. pre~ paring for Public service careers. A special fellowship programme for those planning to become teachers in schools and program- mes of Public Administration and Public affairs. A programme to provide oppor- tunities for practical governmental experience to university faculty engaged in Public affairs teaching and research, A programme of assistance to universities for Public affairs, curricular experimentation and development Support for university personnel engaged in research on govern- ‘mental and Public affairs issues, P.DJPublic Administration/31 © Support from federal, state, and local governments, as well as from private industry, for the provision of facilities to schools and programmes of Public Admi- nistration and Public affairs © The establishment of an advisory service for new Public affairs programmes and the development of personnel rosters to provide current information on experi- enced graduates of schools of Public administration and public affairs. © It recommended that a study of the universities and education for Public service be undertaken, the purposes to show how various {ypes of institutions now approach their Public service, educational and other tasks and to identify stimulative and innovative deve- opment as well as deficiencies and problems © The second major and closely associated research proposals was for a study of the professions, professional education and the Public service. ‘The Honey Report aroused interest as well as controversy in the United States, What is said was. important but what it did not say carried even greater meaning. It, for instance, said nothing about Public Administration's role in a strife-torn tumultuous society of the period. The Report induced many scholars to think deeply about its place and role in the society and thus it, in a way, acted as a catalyst in encouraging dliscussion on its adequacy in solving Societal problems, 2. THE PHILADELPHIA CONFERENCE ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, 1967 In 1967 the American Academy ‘of Political and Social Science orga~ nized a conference in Philadelphi under the chairmanship of James C. Charlesworth, It aimed at discussing the scope, objectives and methods of Public Administration and widely is known as ‘Conference on the Theory and Practice of Public Adminis- tration’ Major view points expressed in the deliberations of the conference are: (1) The scope of the subject should remain flexible to facilitate its growth, The growth in the dimen- jons and functions of the adminis- tration is a continuous process, it would be erroneous (© demarcate rigidly the boundaries ofthe study of Public Administration. (2) Again, it being obvious that administrators are involved in policy making process as advisers and facilitators besides bein primarily concerned with policy implementation, the dichotomy bet- ‘ween policy and administration and therefore between the study. of government and study of Public Administration is. meaningless. (3) ‘Too much emphasis on perfection of hierarchy and internal processes in administrative organizations results in rigidities in administrative per- formance wiiich detract from. its relevance and efficacy in rapidly changing environments; organiza tional innovations and management flexibility are therefore appropriate (4) The discipline and practice of Public Administration should pay increased attention to the social problems of urban squalor, unemp- loyment, poverty, environmental pollution and degradation. (5) There are great socio-economic disparities, hence social equity should be given ddueattention. Forpromotion of equity as an administrative value along with administrative responsiveness, peo- ple’s participation in administrative decision making and activities should be institutionally provided. (6) Admi- nistrators of the future should be trained in professional schools. (7) Public Administration and Business ‘Administration training should not be combined. Training programmes in Public Administration should not only provide management abilities and technical skills but should also deepen the social sensitiveness of scholars and trainee as well as of the civil servants at work in. various governmental agencies. There was, however, no agreed definition of Public Administration, yet Philadelphia Conference high- lighted the importance of Public Administration ina broad philosophic context. The conference rightly observed, “Public Administrationcurricula should emphasize not only administrative organization and pro- cedures but also the psychological, sociological and anthropological insights of the subject.” 3. THE MINNOWBROOK CONFERENCE (1968) ‘The genesis of the Minnowbrook Conference lay in two factors. First, the 1960s was a turbulent period besieged by numerous societal pro- blems, but Public Administration showed no signs of being aware of them, much less being serious to solve them. This was well high: lighted by Waldo's article on ‘Public Administration in a Time of “Turbu- lence’, published in Public Adminis- tration Review in 1968. Secondly, there was a need to hear young scholars and practitioners of the dis- cipline as Public Administration was facing a kind of generation gap. The Philadelphia Conference, it may be noted, was attended by participants who were above the age of 35 years and, the majority of whom being even in their fifties and sixties. ‘Where were the scholars and practi- tioners who were in their thirties ? ‘The Minnowbrook Conference was the young conference on Public Administration and it was this acade- mic get-together which gave rise to what has come to be known as “New Public Administration’ ‘The Minnowbrook deliberations were summarized by Mathew Cren- son in the following words Vell, it might be useful to try to sum this up, and under two general headings. First, are there any common themes under all this smoke of dis- cussions reported to us : and second are they new ?” “First, I think there are common themes : Almost every group arrived at the conclusion that there ought to be greater emphasis upon normative concerns in Public Administration, whether it should be value neutral oF somehow committed to policies or to value neutrality. That leads to the next question : What sorts of organi- zations must there be in order for change to be facilitated ? Which Teads to : What things should organi- zations respond to in changing, namely, the environment ? Others P.D JPublic Administration/32 seem to put greater empahsis upon environmental factors, consequences for the environment of things in the organization of administration. The ‘question is, of course, whether there is agreement on all these things, and if there is, whether that’s new”, ‘The keynote of New Publi Administration is an intense sensiti- vity to and concem for the societal problems of the day. Its parameters are relevance, post-positivism, morals, ethies,and values,innovation, concern for clients, social equality, te, The proponents of New Public Administration express their dissati faction with the state of the discipline ‘of Public Administration and want it to be alive to problems presented by the “turbulent times’, The advocacy for a post-positive approach empha- sized the need to abandon value-free and value-neutral research and instead to cultivate an approach emphasizing social equity. Social ‘equity means that Public adminis trators should become champions of the underprivileged sections of the society. This implies that they must become active agents of change and non-believers in status quo. New forms of organization need to be carved out to suit the fast-changing environment. THE MINNOWBROOK II (SEPTEMBER, 1988) Exactly twenty years later—that is, in September 1988-the Second Minnowbrook Conference was held. I was funded by three universities ‘The Syracuse Univesity, The Univer- sity of Kansas and The University of Akron, The conference met at Syracuse University on September 4, 1988. It was attended by as many as sixty scholars and practitioners, all belonging to policy sciences as much as history, economics, sociology, political science and Public Adminis tration, According to H. George Frede~ rickson, Minnowbrook I was conten- tious, confrontational and revolu- tionary while the event of 20 years later was more civil, more practical Both conferences were theoretical but the 1968 Conference dialogue was decidedly anti-behavioural, while the 1988 Conference was more perceptive to the contributions ofthe social and behavioural sciences to Public Administration In brief, the concems and urges of the 1980°s were both common and different from those of 1960°s. The scholars who attended the 1988 Conference came from a background and context far different from those of their older colleagues. The themes developed at 1988 Minnowbrook Conference (20 years after the frst conference) largely focus on the current and future visions in the field of Public Administration 4 and § Publication of “Toward ‘a New Public Administration’ : “The Minnowbrook Perspective’ (Frank Marini) and “Public Administration in a Time of Turbulence” (Dwight Waldo). The ideas and contents of the ‘Minnowbrook Conference received wider recognition and two works ‘were produced and based on what hhad been discussed there; one was edited by Frank Marini and other that of Dwight Waldo. These books represented the ideas, views and philosophy of the New Public Admi- nistration. There has been no pioneer Publication on New Public Adminis tration since 1971 The Minnowbrook Perspective (1971) edited by Frank Marini makes ‘fresh beginning in the field. Its common themes are participation, consensus, decentralization, trust and even love of mankind. PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT AND GOALS OF NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION © The literature on new Public Administration lays emphasis on four major themes : relevance, values, equity and change. © The theme of relevance is more a reinterpretation than an original quest. Public Administration has traditionally been interested in efficiency and economy. © What the new Public Adminis- tration movement discovered was that the discipline had little © sayabout contemporary problems and issues. © Management-oriented Public Administration curriculum was found ‘irrelevant’, and the demand was to deal explicitly with the political and adminis trative implications of adminis trative action ‘© Another aspect of the ‘relevance’ issue relates to the character of the knowledge itself. © The question that asked was Public Administration knowledge for what ? Is it the purpose of Public Administration to facilitate use of administrative knowledge for the perpetuation of political power 7 Some of the important questions raised at Minnowbrook (a) What standards of decision do We use to select which questions ought to be studied and how to study them ? (b) Who defines our questions and priorities for us ? (©) To what extent are we aware of the social and moral implications ‘of knowledge in Public Adminis- tration ? (@) What are the uses of Public Administration as a social and political science ? (e) Does Public Administration pre- sently yield knowledge useful t0 tain institutions in society (usually the dominant ones) and not to others ? These are obviously. very disturbing questions challenging the status quo in Public Administration ‘The new movement demanded radical ‘curriculum change to facilitate mean- ingful studies oriented the realities of Public life © Toserve the cause of social equity is to actively work for social change. © This is the motto of New Public Administration, © The attack is on the status quo and against the powerful interests entrenched in permanent institu tions. © The New Public Administration is unwilling ‘to allow enslavement to permanent institutions’ that P.DJPublic Administration/33 steadily grow into self-perpetua- ting power centres of dominant interests. © The Minnowbrook participants explored ways of institutiona- lization change and remedying the bureaucratic tendencies of big organizations. © The movement that started at ‘Minnowbrook has been criticised as antitheoreic, anti-positivist and anti-management (in the manipu- lative sense) © lis positive value lies in bringing Public Administration closer to political science. © In fact, the movement has been successful in integrating Public Administration with the bas concerns of political theory © The client oriented, normative and socially conscious Public Admi- nistration, as advocated by the new ‘movement, is of direct relevance for the ‘third world” countries as swell, where Public Administration is in dire need of debureauera- tization and basic, qualitative transformation, VALUES © The New Public Administration movement made clear its basic normative concer in admis trative studies. © It rejects value-concealing beha- viouralism as well as procedural neutrality of traditional Public ‘Administration © Irdisagrees with the approach of behaviouralists and positivists and condemns the notion of a value- free social science. (© The participants at the conference were concerned with the values, issues of justice, freedom, equality and human discipline and espoused the cause of the weaker sections of the society. © Ramesh K. Arora writes, “New Public Administration not only rejects the notion of a value- neutral scholar, but also that of a neutral bureaucrat. Conversely, it advocates personal commitment of administrators to the goals that the administrative system is desi- zgned to achieve. © Nicholas Henry observes, “the focus was disinclined to examine such traditional phenomena as efficiency, effectiveness, bud- geting and administrative tech- hhiques, conversely. the NPA was very much aware of normative theory, philosophy and activism, © The question it raised dealt with values, ethies... if there was an overriding tone in the NPA, it was a moral tone: SOCIAL EQUITY © The proponents of New Public Administration found “social equity’ as the most common vehicle for guiding human deve- lopment. So the realization of ‘social equity” should be the purpose of Public Administration, Social equity means that Public Administrators should become champions of the underprivileged sections of the society. Frank Marini said : "The purpose of Public organization is the reduction of economic, social and psychic suffering and the enfian- cement of life opportunities for those inside and outside the organization.” Fredrickson has gonea step further and adopted a bold social-equity attitude : “A Public Administration which fails to work for changes which try to redress the depriva- tion of minorities will likely be eventually used to repress those minorities." CRITICAL EVALUATION © Robert T. Golembiewski consi dered New Public Administration as a temporary and transitional phenomenon and thought ‘wisdom might be to simply allow its memory to further fade away © According to Alan Campbell many of the issues brought tothe surface vigorously by advocates of New Public Administration were not © They have been raised by other scholars from time to time. Carder and Duffey have expressed doubt whether the objective of socialequity is actually getting recog- nised as a well established admi- nistrative objective or value in addition to the existing ones of efficiency, effectiveness and Public accountability © Critics even argue that the New Public Administration possesses only a kind of difference by definition. © It differs from the Old Public Administration only in that it is responsive (0 a different set of societal problems from those of others periods. © However, New Public Adminis- tration has contributed a great deal to the discipline and profes- sion of Public Administration, Nigro and Nigro are of the view that it has seriously jolted the traditional concepts and outlook of the discipline and enriched the subject by imparting a wider perspective and by linking it closely to the society © Dwight, Waldo, in his volume titled “Enterprise of Public Admi- nistration (1980)" has pointed out that New Public Administration projects three perspectives clearly- client oriented bureaucracy, repre sentative bureaucracyand people’ participation © These Public perspectives if ‘woven into Public Administration ‘would tend to democratize it even ‘more than before. © Thus, it appears that the prota- gonists of New Public Adminis tration were not revolutionary in approach, but only reformists in orientation © Without rejecting the traditional superstructure of administration, they wanted change in its func= tioning and outlook. © What they wanted was to highlight the foci and the philosophy of a Public Administration that should be based on the premises, other related ideals and ideas, © Since the emergence of the idiom of New Public Administration, questions of values and ethics hhave remained major items in the agenda of Public Administration. © Clearly, advocates of the New Public Administration have stimu- lated constructive debate, and P.DJPublic Administration/34 {heiremphasis uponthe purposive, moral goal of administration should have a lasting impact, Since the New Public Admini tration emerged, questions of values and ethies have remained ‘major items in Public Admini tration. New Public Administration, has certainly broken fresh ground and imparted new substance to the discipline In the processes, it has prepared an agenda for action, a part of which al least isa popularist nature One also suspects that its advo- cates are tying 10 arrogate 0 themselves what realy falls within the legitimate domain of politcal institutions, processes and leader- ship. New Public Administration hi some radical contents but these can be successfully implemented only by legislative and political will Even otherwise, there is lack of skills and technologies to imple- rent what New Public Adminis- tration visualizes. Notwithstanding its limitations and weaknesses, New Public ‘Administration has seriously jolted the traditional concepts and views Of the discipline and has enriched the traditional concepts and views of the discipline and has enriched the subject by imparting a larger perspective and by linking it closely to the society. This is no small gain, At the same me, itis oo unrealistic t portray New Public Administration in very heroic terms. India does not yet have New Public Administration, ‘The latter is a uniquely American phenomenon founded in circums- tances not present in Indi Besides. the discipline of Publ Administration is still relatively ‘weak in the country not having adequate funds, faculty and followers, It, moreover, is still largely deri- vative in its nature, not suffi- ciently rooted in the indigenous soil The challenge before the diseip- line is that it should come to terms with the country’s historical, insti- tutional and social setting. Public Administration should derive life and strength from the country’s environment and besides, develop suitable response system to the latte. Surprisingly, in most universities, the syllabus would include ‘Indian Administration System’ in some form or the other, but ‘Indian Government and Politics’ as a core paper is generally missing. Nor does the core anywhere include papers on Indian consti- tutional development and the administrative history of India, In other words, there is hardly any emphasis on constitutional and administrative history as core papers. A critical study of the Indian Constitution is also ruled out, as it does not geta berth in most syllabi either as a core paper ot as an optional one, Broadly speaking, the PA syllabus underrates the importance of Indian adminis- trative problems. In tying to reinforce the core with a variety’ of ‘general’ and theoretical” courses. the complex profile of Indian administration seems to have gone by default. Another uniform tendency is toward including courses on ‘management techniques’ organi- zation and-management’ and special management. Rajasthan University has even included an optional course on business administration. In the chequed history of the evolution of PA. “general mana- gement orientation’ belonged to the earliest period Especially at a time when PA is struggling to establish its identity as a separate discipline. distinct from Political Science, a new- alliance was sought with the so- called management science. Besides solving (apparently) the identity crisis, this alliance for a time bolstered up the image of PA as a practical and problem-solving discipline.© In India, full-fledged manage- Olson, Tullock, Mitchell, ment-oriented Public Administra- __Niksanen, and Openhiemer, tion has not really grown up @ A basic argument of public choice anywhere for a variety of reasons. is that an individual actor, be ita Important Books On New Public Administration Book | Author/Editor |, Towards A New Public Administration : The Minnow- | Frank Marini brook Perspective (1971) Public Administration in Time of Turbulence (1971) | Dwight Waldo IIL_New Public Administration (1980) George Frederickson © Yes the dscpitine’s identity crisis manager of a client, is a utility has'beea sought to be solved by maximizer who is. always in invoking the management tech-_ search of inereasing net benefits niques and the tools and methods —@ In this view. the individual citizen of the ‘management science. is depicted as one who will act in © In this respect the Public Admi- accordance with his self interest nistration syllabus of the Depart- in order to maximise his decision ‘ment in Panjab University is a classic example of an aggressive NATURE OF PUBLIC orientation towards “manage CHOICE APPROACH, © It has been explicity announced eign: eecatoag @ Institutional Pluralism, i... plu- ” an rality of agencies to fulfil consu- © Losically. therefore, the Public ers preference Administation programme in Antibureaucratic approach, Chanda conte Seay doves © tes democrat deison-mat- of ‘techniques’, ‘financial accoun- e lysis’, and project mana- the problems of public service foment etd distebuton ‘© The Department has been offering @ Decentralisation (Disposed admi- specialized courses in public nistrative authority) sector and co-operatives manage-@ Popular Participation in adminis- ment, labour welfare admi tion tration and applied development administration © Public Choice Approach; Opposes PUBLIC CHOIC! % Single centered administrative APPROACH power (monocentric) © Vincent Ostrom propounded“ Separation of polities from admi- Public Choice approach in 1960s. __nistration ‘his approach coincided with * Hierarchical administaton New Plc Adminstaion. S Ranatureaucracy @ Punic Choe. Approach adso- “The peragonin of Puli Choice Gated demecras aiminisation, "SP " rosch forma "the theory Se ee eee an of administration egoism” which Intellectual Criss in Public Syggws that the elie buea- administration” writes—"Bureau- cratic structures avenues but not ¢faey is usually antithetical to sufficient structures for produc- public interest and favour. tions and responsive public service Resource manipulation and self economy. aggrandizement © Apart from Vincent Ostrom, other * It is their belief that bureaucrats protagonists of public choice prefer self interest to. public approach are Buchanan, Downs, interest. P.DJPublic Administration/35/3 Ostrom tries to stress a (a) Dislodgement of the classical paradigm’s basis proposition regarding politics-administration dichotomy, which in his view has been instrumental in installation of the concept of monasti organisation, * (b) Shifting the loads of admin trative responsibility from the single centre in fragmented and multiheaded authority structure and over to citizen directly DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION HAS. FOUR BASIC CLIMATES (i) Authority should be divided to limit and control the exercise of politi: ion should be made that administration is separate and distinct from polities, Gii) To stimulate healthy and democratic competition and a government agencies. multi organi- zation arrangements, (iv) The purpose of democratic administration is to ‘maximise effi ency as measured by low cost ex- pended in time, offer and resources. © Vincent Ostrom's consumer oriented organisational design concept is clearly observed in this statement “if public again are organised in a way that does not allow for the expression of diversity of preferences among different communities of people, the producers of public goods and services will be taking action without information as to the changing preferences of the person they serve, Public Choice Approach In broad terms, the recommen- dations are 1 (1) Minimise the rote of state 2). Limit the discretionary power ‘of politicians 3). Reduce public monopolies to (4) Curb the functions of govern- ment agencies.© Expenditure will be made with little references to customer utility. Procedure efficiency in the absence of consumer utility is ‘without economic managing, © The public choive perspective is typically American as it seeks to idolize the values of individual freedom, self interest and effi ney’ (© Maximization of individual utility is the only measuring rod with which to assess efficiency © By — necessary constitutional changes politicians should be curbed by—restraining them from running budget or imposing taxes beyond a certain level © Since government departments hhave vested interest in the sur- vival, they should not both advise political masters and implement policies, © The advisory, regulatory and delivery functions should be separated and handed over to different agencies, © Also wherever feasible the services provided by government agencies (health care, education) should be privatized or contracted ‘out to private suppliers. © All services, provided by the state, including ministerial policy advice, should be made as contestable as possible. © Public choice theorists take the tools and methods of economic theory and apply them to the government sector as ‘the eco- nomic theory of politics.” © Public choice theory favours the democratic administration, ‘© The idea of popular choice implies that the actions of government should be consistent with the values and interests of citizens. ‘The emphasis is thus on the ele- ‘ment of choice with the citizen in the role of consumer. ‘© The public choice theory emphases a consumer perspective in deci~ jion making on the supply of public services © This theory is not only an econo- mies-based but also a consumer oriented approach, P.DJPublic Administration/36 OVERVIEW OF PUBLIC CHOICE APPROACH : CRITICAL ESTIMATE While the ills of bureaucracy are well recognised and documented, the public choice approach does ‘not squarely confront the problem of how alternative organizational structures would effect the manner in which the general interest is identified and realized through administrative action. © The public choice perspective is typically American Concept, as it seeks 10 idolize the values of individual freedom, self interest and efficiency. (© Maximization of individual utili is the only measuring rod with which to assess efficiency. © The real limitations of public choice approach can be attributed to their narrow adherence to restrictive set of assumptions. '® Mostly because Individuals have self-interests and politicians lure for votes seeking, public pro- ‘grammes should be handed over to the private sector. © It scems public choice theory's very simplicity has been ‘its undoing, ‘© The proponents of the school have ‘muddled together two very diffe: rent things : What governments should do and how governments should do and what they do, © ‘The mutual friendly arguments of the public choice school are most fundamentally directed toward how the governments do things, rather than what they should be doing. © On the value front Ostrom's democratic administration is vvalue-loaded in critical senses. © On the positive side the public choice perspective has sensitized tus to the hard fact that publi agencies live and function in highly politicized environments. @ The public choice exponents ‘knowledge administration as an inherent part of Politics. © Such view comes as a timely challenges to the conventional bureaucratic structure immersed in internal efficiency and control © To qualify for public adminis- tration theory, the public choice approach must construct a full blown political theory of state © As it is, the approach is more prescriptive than truly theoretical and conceptual © Beyond theory when it comes to application, the third world’s development scenario is _new tunder the influence of the World Bank—IMF sponsored structural adjustment programme. © State minsteralism, market friend- liness are being prescribed for third world development, and if what applies to the first world should also be applicable to the third world. © It can be said that any standard prescription of development strongly is likely to fail, it does not take into account the socio- historical specificity of a parti- cular court in this respect, the public choice theory is crudely a historical. NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE © The New Public Management Perspective is the latest paradigm in the evolution of public admi tration. © It come into existence in the 1990s. Thinkers of public adminis- tration have been fascinated by “management” since Wilsonions search for a science of adminis- tration at the fag end of the century © Leonard D. White in his influen- tial book, “Introduction to the Study of Public Administration (1929) said that “the study of administration should start from the base of management rather than the foundation of law.” © Willoughby's Principles of Public Administration (1927) empha- sized the managerial role of public administrator. © Business administration as. the appropriate guiding model for government administration was Waldo’s advocacy in his “The Administrative State’ (1984),© The book entitled ‘Reinventing Government’ by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler Published in 1992, heralded the birth of the new public management @ The new public management represents the second reinvention in public administration, the first. being the new public adminis tration of the late 1960s, © The basis of the New Public Management is 3Es-efficiency, economy and effectiveness. © It emphasizes performance-app- raisal, managerial autonomy, cost cutting, financial incentives. ‘© Output targets, innovation, respon- iveness. competence accounta- bility and marketorientation © 11 lays emphasis on the vital role of the ‘market’ as against the ‘state’ as the key regulation of society and economy, © NPM on indirect methods as policy making, facilitating, con- tracting, providing information and coordinating other actors Government's role changes from a doer of public activities to a distributor’ of public benefits and ‘facilitators’ and ‘promotion’ of change and economy. © Hence NPM was organised and managed to meet the ‘new chal- Tenges of liberalisation, globalisa- tion and privatisation,” ‘© According to Osborne and Gaebler ‘we do not need more government ‘we need better government, to be precise we need better governance. © Governance is the act of collectively solving our problems, Government is the instrument we © The instrument is outdated and it is time to remake it © ‘Public Management’ has become attractive since the mid 1970s Prof. S. R. Maheshwari opines that the erm “Public Management” is a new human culture for the discipline of public adminis- tration, © The dominant thinking in the public management school seems to be that “Administration is a ‘word which must give way to the more appealing ‘management’ P.DJPublic Administration/37 © The term ‘public management” suggests a firmness and efficieney ofthe short attribute in stereotype to business management. ‘© The public management arose in response to the growing skept: cism over the efficiency and effec- tiveness of large public agencies and public programmes © The term “Public Management’ includes all administrative acti vities in the various units and levels of government. © I implies that governmental ‘management is important and that government can and should be well run © The advocates of this schoo! siress the need to improve the efficiency, effectivenss and responsiveness of public adminis trators, discharging managerial functions in a political environ- ment. New Public Management rejects the various concepts an Principles of | traditional Public Administration — (i) Polites—administration dic hotamy (ii) Hierarchy-ridden organisa (ii) Over-centralisation of powers (iv) Supremacy of rules in adm istration (©) Rationaltyin decision-making (vA) Impersonal nature of admi- nistration (vii) Rigidity in administrative process (vii) Inward-looking orientation GOALS/FEATURES Osborne and Gaebler have identified the ten goals (features or principles) of new public manage- ‘ment (entrepreneurial government). ‘They are as follows (i) Catalystic Government : ‘The government should concentrate ‘on catslizing the public sector, private sector and voluntary/non- governmental sector into action to solve the societal problems and not just on providing services. Thus, the government should engage itself in steering than rowing. (ii) Community owned Gov- ‘ernment : The government should strengthen and empower the citizens, families, and communities to solve their own problems, Hence the government should take out various services from the control of bureau racy. (iii) Competitive Government : ‘The Government should inject com- petition among different providers of goods and services by rewarding efficiency and economy. This increases performance and reduces cost 1v) Mission-Driven Govern- ment : The government should be driven by its goals and not by its rules and regulations i.e. it involves transforming rule-oriented govern- ‘ment in to goal-oriented government. (9) Results Oriented Govern- ment : The government should find outcomes by encouraging target achievement and mission directive efor (vi) Customer-Driven Govern- ‘meat : The govemment should regard the clients as customers. It should lay ‘meet and work towards customer and not bureaucracy. It involves offering them choices, surveying their atti- tudes, making services convenient ‘and allowing them to make sugges tions. (vii) Enterprising Govern. ‘ment : The government should lay emphasis on eaming money rather than spending. It should put its energy into resource mobilisation by using fees, savings, enterprise funds and so (viii) Anticipatory Govern ‘ment : The goverment should iden- tify and prevent problems rather than cure them after they occur. (ix) Decentralised Govern. ment : The government should decentralise authority, that is, dis- pense authority from higher to lower levels. This encourages participatory ‘management and teamwork, (x)_Market Oriented Govern- ment : The government should opt for market mechanism rather than bureaucratic mechanism. It should achieve goals not only by control and command but also by restructuring markets. Thus, it should leverage change through market forces.Public management has deve- loped at a remarkable pace and by the 1990s has emerged as a world wide movement. Its foundations lie in redefining the role of government for example asa steerer rather than “rower” and approaching macro- economic policy via control of public spending. NPM is essentially a market based ideology characterised by the importation of ideas generated in private sector settings within, public sector organisations. The ideas (of NPM have been influenced by the emergence of bodies of theory such as “new institutional economics’ associated with the authors. like Downs, Niksanen and others. Salient Features of NPM NPM is ‘process-oriented adminis tration” with emphasis on perfor- ‘mance indicators, evaluations and performance-related pay and quality improvement. Flexible provision of individua- lised products. The customer replaces the citizen und. the ‘production line’ of public admi- nistration is broken down into individual pieces for contracting ‘out or privatisation ‘Major emphasis on cost cutting ruber than spending, The adminis- trative motto being ‘value for many’ that ist do more and beter ‘with less ofthe same. Structurally cluster rather than Pyramids as the preferred model for the desiga of the administrative system, autonomousagencies being linked to the parent department on the bass of contracts A dichotomy between core policy activities and adaptive operational services, replacing. traditional planning and hierarchical execu- tion of decisions ‘The purpose of ownership seen as efficient management rather than possession (On the financial side, budgeting in terms of simple inputloutput quantities replaced by ‘acerual” ‘accounting and all public services are considered for privatisation, if their commercial viability may be sustained at less cost i the pivate sector. Alin all, the basic recommen dation for shift of general empahsis, from policy to management with full cost consciousness before ‘making any decision P.DJPublic Administration/38 NEW MODEL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ‘The ‘New Public Management” as evolved in the recent years has also nearly the same parameters. © The classical public adminis- tration based on Taylor's scien tific management and Weberian model have emphasised on divi- sion of work, specialisation rule orientation, impersonality, rationality, neutrality and anony- rity in public services. © The system was responsive to politicians only. © Clearly, these models aimed at internality of administrative system and ignored the externality of different organisations. ‘© Some of the well-known principles did not fulfil the desired expecta- tions of the society. © The rigidity of models could not suit the dynamic nature of the society. Many studies have questioned the responsiveness and. efficiency of these models and its applicability tothe real word. © All this resulted in significant changes in managing public ‘organisations, © Broadly, these changes aimed at entrepreneurial role of public organisations with a market based Public administration resulting in effectiveness and economy in the functioning of public organisa- tions. © This new model of administrative system is being termed as ‘new public management’ FOCUS ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ITS UNIVERSAL APPLICATION Public Administration isa subject of growing importance in modern times. The various activities carried on by it affect the lives of people at every turn from birth 10 ‘death, It occupies a central place in ‘our complex fast changing modern society. Hence its study both as an aspect of governmental activity and as an academic discipline is worth while. ‘The motto of Public Aministra- tion, which is itself a creative factor in the life of society is the ‘welfare ofman.” Emergence of Administrative State : The term administrative state refers to that state in which executive wing of the government holds dominant position by playing a key role in affairs of state though it (the State) also has other wings ic. the legislature and the Judiciary © The primary and basic function of Public Administration is the main= tenance of law and order in the society discipline, Public Administration reflects wo implications. First itis a practice, a process, an activity of ‘administering the affats ofthe gover: rnment, The other implication is—itis discipline, a subject of study and an ‘area of intellectual enquiry. As a practi or activity it exists from time immemorial but as a study itis just hundred years old WHY THE HORIZONS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ARE EXPANDING The horizons of Public Adminis- tration are very active in recent times and with changes in the role of ‘government globally. Public Admi nistration is currently engaged in some sort of soul searching. Today some theoretical paradigms have been developed to make the study of Public Administration effective. © Decentralisation and Democracy enhancing participation at the work place and grass root level empowerment of the people Application of Public choice theory to Public Administration, posing Market Vs. State debate as contending providers of Public government. © Through scrutiny of the Webrerian theory of bureaucracy, rational bureaucracy being assailed as self-aggrandizing, Priority distort- ing and budget maximizing, © Organisational Pluralism is being offered for load shedding of government, privatization, decen-alization, people empowerment, encouragement of NGOs in the voluntary sector, © Government through the Agency of Public Administration is being treated as just one form of Gover- nance. The concept of Govemance ‘opens up possibilities of govern- ment through non-bureaucratie agencies © Performance partnership in the form of different levels coming together like Public-private joint effort. Net working of Government NGO, Private Agencies is being pursued and suggested © Small government in terms of down sizing and grass roots people's efforts is yet-another idea being broached now. In this context, decentralisation of government and people's own efforts are being more and more advocated © Neo: insttutionalism in the form of institutional capacity building is being advocated, and institu: tional studies are having field day © Transpratency of Governance and open citizen friendly administra- tion via citizen's charter are now being advocated. Public Administration today is reflecting in large part the changing nature of practice of governments especially in the developed world. ‘The practice of traditional Public Administration has come under increasing altack from neo-liberal economisis, interest groups, theorists ‘and rational choice scholats who have rovided the intellectual ammunition or respective politicians determined to reduce the size and scope of Public Sector. This is scarcely surprising Since the theoretical changes have tended to emphasize the significant extent to which Public administration is political and is part of the overall process of determining “Who gets ‘wha Approaches 10 the Public ‘Administration are also embedded in wider conceptions of the staie, the relationship betwen state and market and of citizenship. Changes in the ideological climate are, therefore likely. to impact upon Public Administration and this is: what is evident now. Waves of reforms have swept through the public sector over the past several decades under societal P.D/Public Administration/39 pressures and demands both national and international. Globalisation is the latest shift in emphasis connoting virtua linkages among states in the imemational arena. These changes have been piecemeal and fragmented without being integrated into ‘clear Visions” regarding planned change in Government. The market model of Governance has been holding centre stage since the eighties, but there have been other models slongside it which have been equally powerful and deserve careful consideration For instance, the participatory model that concentrates on the participation ofthe lower echelons of workers and even the clients and the citizenry has been a direct rebuttal ofthe traditional hierarchic bureaucratic model in Public administration. “What is relevant in the context of the third ‘world is that Public Administration is being crippled in the name of *Struc- tural adjustment” invoking more and more the market model of Gover- nance in utter disregard of the crucial social developmental role of the state in the developing nations. The imerests of Public Administration are no longer people-oriented. These are instead eaptal-related In terms of administrative theory building the current emphasis on “Public Management’, via the market model of Governance needs to be ‘iewed in proper historical perspee= tive, Two Vvistons have gutded the pursuit of administration analysis ‘The managerial vision. and. the democratic vision, Both. Public bureaucracy and democratic poli are. needed in a liberal-democrat society. But administration analysis since the day’ of, Wilson and the authors of POSDCORB have often been tempted ¢o overemphasixe man- agerilism with its predilection for efficiency, economy and effective- ness, The other more central pursuits of Public administration like achicy~ ing a democratic policy, improving the instruments of elective action and creating conditions. for. good Citizenship and increasing. societal Tearing are of no concem for the public management advocates. Public ‘Administration ts management mis- ses altogether the over arching pres= pective of a democratic policy Sustained capacity of the Political System for collective action, effective citizenship and developing and nurturing the civic infrastructure for protecting citizens rights and promoting collective life are of vital Significance for any administration system ina democracy. Traditionally public administra- tion has been concerned with the policies and actions of a country's formal governmental machineries including their organizational struc tures, decisional processes” and ‘behavioural dimensions. Globalisa- tion as it is being currenty perceived has considerable implications for the ‘management of country's public affairs contextually as well as sub Stantively. The pressures of global sation have focussed more attention into the Public sector while global sation could serve to integrate people, it has demonstrated a capacity to marginalize many. ‘To combat this requires governance approaches that embrace, transparency, accountability and statesholder paiticipation in policy debates, as well as govern- ment that uses its resources efficiently to allow its citizens to compete in a global market and to reduce the gap between the poorest and the richest inhabitants ofthe world. Globalisation not only increases the need for strong international and regional venues for dialogue, global Policy-making and enforcement of international agreements and regula- tions but also enhances the pressures for strong national government competent to integrate and negotiate in a global environment and capable to stand up to global forces that neglect the particular claims and challenges of developing countries, in particular the least developed ones. ‘The scope of globalisation in Public Administration is outlined below © meaning of globalisation and the present status of globalisation discourse implications of globalisation for traditional public administration as an operative system. © need for repositioning of the discipline of Public Adminis- tration inthe face of globalisation discourse. © exploring special kind of relation: ship, if any, between globalisation and development adiministration in view of the fact thatthe deve- loping countries have been pur- suing their development prog rmme’ forthe last five decades or© implications of globalisation for administrative ethics in general and for ‘development ethies” in particular In conclusion, Public Adminis- tation since its formative years, has always been receptive to new ideas and explanations in order to delve ‘deep into the structures and processes of institutional governing systems. In the process, it has drawn electrically, ‘on many disciplines and modes of thinking. Post-modernism emerged as a massive thought-shaking, over arching vision that influenced almost all branches of human knowledge. Public Administration reacted to the new ‘paradigm’ rather late and that + half-hearted. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION : A RETROSPECTIVE, EFFECT ‘The horizons of Public Adminis- tration are expanding. Administration of the state in the ancient and ‘medieval periods in both the East and the West was authoritarian, patriar- cchal and elitist in character. Mainte- nance of law and order, collection of revenue etc, were its compulsory functions whereas welfare activities were purely incidental or optionally undertaken. It was only with the rise of modem welfare states and the multi- plication of State Functions in the 19th Century that the old patriarchal, hereditary ‘state officialdom was replaced by a Public bureaucracy, recruited on the basis of Public laws, performing largely within a legal framework, tasks which were becom- ing more and more public oriented. ‘The present era is that of the adminis- trative state, All mass movements since the 18ih century have contri- buted to the increasing volume, variety and scope of Public Adminis: tation. The industrial and commercial revolutions brought government into industry and commerce. Nationalism, imperialism and internationalism widened the scope of state functions, increasing population, urbani- Public Communication and mobility diversified governmental activities. The evolution of demo- cratic, totalitarian and socialist ideas transformed the concept of govern- ‘ment. People not only expect uniform national services today, but also expect Public Administration to P.DJPublic Administration/40 reconcile competing class demands ‘and conflicting interests in society. Public Administration is indi pensably present in all states, be th capitalist, socialist or developing in nature. Modern Public Administra- tion has usurped more and more functions within its scope. The scope and retrospective effect of Publi Administration inereases with incre- asing societal complexity, specialisa- tion and differentiation. In the present age facing a revolution of rising expectations of the people, Public Administration is being increasingly loaded with addi tional work and responsibilities either in the name of promoting efficienc equalitarianism or rapid soci economic development. The relative ‘decline of other societal institutions like the extended family religion ete in the present age which took care of the individual's material and spiritual needs earlier, has largely led to this, ‘over-dependence on the state ‘The retrospective effect of Public Administration could be analysed in the following parameters © institutionalisation of socio-eco- nomic change. protection of the weaker-section of the society. formation of Publie opinion, application of rule-making. riaintenance of stability and order. ensuring growth and economic development. ‘management of large scale com- mercial services. Uniformity of teatment external financial control, ‘ministerial responsibility. marginal return, CITIZEN'S CHARTER : AN INNOVATIVE STEP. FOR ADMINISTRATION CHANGE ‘A Citizen’s Charter is a micro- ‘concept in the sense that it is invoked by an organization and symbolizes the sincerity of government endea- vours all over the world to initiate ‘changes in the administration systems to make them more citizen-friendly In Reinventing Government : How the entrepreneurial spirit is transforming the Public Sector, David ‘Osborne and Ted Gacbler emphasized that the government should Improve their operational-efficiency towards citizens. Citizen charters a document that represents an effort by public agencies to focus on citizens’ needs. ‘The idea behind citizen's charters is transparency. The Commitment is in respect of ‘Standards and quality’ of services to be provided to citizens. Such efforts were the result of the changing political, social and economic conditions witnessed in the form of liberalization, privatization, and globalization (LP4). The Onset of LP4 and the entry of private entre preneurs in those activities hitherto reserved for the government agencies necessitated changes in the structures and processes. of government agencies, particularly those which come into contact with the citizens. ‘The charters are nothing but a code of ‘conduct on the part of public officials imposed by themselves to provide services on a better note to citizens. ‘They are voluntary in nature and do not impose any legal obligations on public officials. Through these charters, public officials make a commitment to citizens for providing better services. The sanction behind the citizens’ charter is moral and nothing else Undoubtedly, Citizen’s Charters are expected to play a positive rote in the interaction between citizens and public organisation, as they are not Simply entities in the process of administrative reform in India. Ci zens’ Charters have raised high ex- pectations among the right minded civil servants and they are optimistic that they would improve the efficiency of delivery system of public goods and services. Essentials of a Citizen’s Charter © Standards of Service Delivery © Information © Choice for Citizens © Courtesy towards citizens Grievance Redressal Citizen’s Charters Abroad ‘The Countries chosen to describe the status of citizen's charters are as follows © UK © Australia © Malaysia © South Attica India ‘The Government of Britain took initial steps in providing such mecha nism, popularly calledcitizen'scharters.Unit-ll Basic Concepts and Principles HENRY FAYOL’S CONTRIBUTION TO CLASSICAL THEORY Henry Fayol was a French Engineer. He wrote a landmark book General And Industrial Management, which was published in 1916 in French, The English version of the book saw the light ofthe day in 1929. By way of his tremendous contribu- tion to Classical Theory of Public Administration he came to be re- ‘garded as father of Classical Theory in Public Administration. Though he covered a wide range of topics in administrative analysis yet more particularly he focussed on three arcas—That is— 1, Activities of Industrial Under- takings. 2. Elements of Administration 3. Principles of Administration, ACTIVITIES OF AN INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES Henry Fayol described that activities of an industrial undertaking can be categorized into six main _2r0ups— (D) Technical Activities : Tech- nical Activities include production, ‘manufacture and exchange. (11) Commercial Activities Commercial involve buying, selling and exchange on the one hand and through knowledge of the market, strength of the competitors, long-term, foresight and use of contracts and price regulation on the other hand. (IL} Finaneial Activities: Under financial activities, comes search for capital and how to utilize that capital in an optimum manner for the suecess of the undertaking. (IV) Security Activities : Pro- tection of property as well as of person against theft, fire and flood and other social disturbances inclu- ding strike are the parts of social activities, (V) Accounting Activities = Stock-taking preparation of balance sheets costs working out costs and charting of statistics ean be mentio- ned under the head of Accounting Activities, (V1) Managerial Activities = For Fayol, management is function. It is a kind of activity. He divides key managerial functions into main five managerial activities (a) Planning : According to Henry Fayol, planning concems itself with the examination of future demands and then charting out sirategy to meet these demands. The broad features of unity, continuity, flexibility and precision should reflect in the process of planning, Organisation : According to Fayol, the activities pertaining (0 “organisation are of two types— (i) the material organisation (organisation of material resources), (ii) the human ‘organisation (organisation of human resources). ‘Attributes of Managers in Fayol’s View Fayol suggested that there should be six essential attributes which should be the hallmarks of a manage (a) Physical attributes ineluding health, vigour and appearance (b) Mental qualities that is the ability 10 grasp a particular situation and learn with overarching attributes of judgement, mental vigour and adaptability, () Moral Qualities : The moral qualities a managers include firmness and willingness to shoulder responsi- bilities. (d) General Education : Manager should have the knowledge about matters exclusively related to the Function to be performed. (c) Special Knowledge + Under special knowledge is mentioned that knowledge which pertains to technical, commercial, financial or managerial aspects of the function to be perior- med. (0 Experience : That is, the know- ledge gained during the work. Command : The entize concept of command is built on the personal qualities and knowledge of general principles of management. It focusses fon the maintaining and sustaining activities among the personnel Coordination : Harmonization of all activities and efforts so that the working of the organization can be facilitated. In other words, it is all about ensuring that the activities and efforts of one department should coincide with another department keeping in perspective the broader and overall objectives of the organi- zation, Control : Henry Fayol has mentioned the term control. In wider French sense, that is, watch, monitor ccheck, audit and obtain feedback FAYOL ON PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION Fayol specifically stated fourteen principles of management‘adminis- tration. They are— 1. Division of Work (Speciali- sation) : According to Fayol, the jon of work (specialisation), natural order, help in producing better work with the same efor. Authority and Responsibility In Fayol’s words—“authority is the right to give orders to exact ‘obedience. Authority is not to be con- ceived of apart from responsibility that is apart from sanetion-reward or penalty which goes with the exercise Distinction Between Manager's Official Authority and Personal Authority Henry Fayol distinguished between manager's official authority and per- sonal authority though he also pointed the complementarity between the two, Official authority of manager is speci- fically and exclusively derived from office and official work; on the con- ‘wary, personal authority arises out of ineligence, experience, moral worth, ability to lead and past services etc.of power . Responsibility is a corol- lary of authority, it is natural con- Sequence and essential counterpart land wheresoever authority is exer- cised, responsibility arises, Discipline : Discipline is nothing but the observance of agreements, between the organisation and its ‘employees. In order to bring about discipline in the organisation three means have to be adopted— (i) Placing Good Superiors at all levels, (ii) Fair and Clear Agreements (iii) Judicious applications of Penalities or Sanctions. Unity of Command : Fayol believed —that for any action what- soever an employee should receive ‘orders from one superior only.” He continues—“should it (unity of command) be violated, authority is undermined, discipline is in jeopardy. order disturbed and stability threa” tened.” Unity of Direction : In Fayol's words, “Unity of direction is provided for by sound organisation of the body corporate, unity of command turns on the functioning of the personnel.” Unity of Command can not exist without unity of direction but does not flow from it. Subordination of Individual Interest To General Interest By subordination of individual interest to general interest is meant the interest of an employee/worker or 4 particular group of workers should not prevail over the overall interest of that organisation. That ean be made possible when the supervisors show firmness, by resorting to constant supervision, Remuneration of Personnel = ‘The remuneration fixed should not only be fair to employee but should also afford satisfaction to employer. ‘The factors which play pivotal role in determining the remuncration of per- sonnel are—general business condi- tions, (economic status of the busi ness) value of employee and the mode ‘of payment adopted by the employer. He also suggested many modes of payments such as—job rates, time rates, piece rates, bonuses, profit sharing and non-financial rewards P.D JPublic Administration/42 Centralisation : About centrali- sation Fayolwrote—"in every ‘organism animal or social, sensations coverge towards the brain or directive part and from the brain or directive part orders are sent out Which set all parts ofthe organism in movement.” More or less, according to Fayol, centralisation exists in every ‘organisation. He further elaborates “The question of centralisation or decentralisation is simple question ‘of proportion. Everything which goes to increase the importance of the subordinates role is decentralisation, everything which goes to reduce it centralisation Scalar Chain : Scalar Chain or hierarchical order is the line of authority from top down the bottom ranging from ultimate superior authority to the lowest ranks. He asserts (though) it is an error to depart needlessly from the line of authority, yet its even greater one to keep to it when detriment to the business ensures.” The concept of scalar chain (hicrarchy) is dictated by and runs parallel to the principle of unity of command, Order : Henry Fayol classified ‘order, in any organisation, into two types—(i) Material Order (i) Human Gocial) Order. In his own word—"a place for everything and everything in its place” is the formula for material things or order. As for hhuman order, he suggested, “A place for everyone and everyone in his place” To put it simply —“right man in right place.” Equity : The relationship, Fayol says, between employee and emp- Joyer should be based on a combina- tion of kindness and justice. The employees must be encouraged to cearry out their duties towards the organisation as fully devoted and loyal people. Therefore itis incum- bent on the employer or head to inspire confidence and trust by putting in place a mechanisnvsystem ‘of equity at all levels of organisation, Stability of Tenure of Person- nel : It takes time for an employee 10 get acquainted with the work and be efficient in the work he is assigned to accomplish so the first thing to be ‘done in this regard is to establish an clement of stability as to the tenure of personnel/employees. It will tum out to be a harbinger of ef organisation, Initiative : Initiative means the ability to decide and act on a plan in such @ manner as to ensure its suc~ cess. When initiative is taken on the part of the management it infuses zeal and energy into employees at all levels of the organisation. Thus func tioning of the organisation is radi cally augmented. Esprit de Corps : Esprit de Corps represents harmony among personnel. It is union among the personnel of the organisation, Accor- ding to Henry Fayol in order to realize and promote esprit de corps among personnel of the organisation, the principle of unity of command should strictly be adhered to, the absence of which may prove to be antithetical to esprit de corps. Fayol Compared with Taylor : A Brief Anal Both Henry and F. W. Taylor pioneered the cause of scientific ‘management. But there is a demar- cating difference between the approaches adopted by the two vis-a- Vis scientific management. What Fayol was inspired by was stable European patter of life and therefore hhe made the field of his study relati- vely stable industrial organization. On the other hand, Taylor was responding to a rapidly fast changing capitalist organization of the U.S.A. Thus, Fayol developed a general theory of administration applicable at the top level of management whereas Taylor expounded specifi principles of man- agement to be applied in the field of production, In other words, if Fayol ‘was coneerned with manager's active ties at the top level Taylor dealt with worker's activities at the lower level which he called shop floor. Fayol Viewed management from the pers- peetive of workshop management But in Taylor’s case, management is universal set of principles t0 be applied to any kind of organisation Taylor has focussed on micro aspects of management, while Fayol has focussed on the macro-aspects of ‘management. Taylor is for functional foremanship (multiple command), but Fayol is a strictest adherent to unity of command, The ideas and tech- niques in respect of Seientifie Man-agement hold relevance mainly in production activities but in case of Fayol, the technique as conceived of by him vis-a-vis scientific manage- ment have wider appeal and can be used in all functional areas. Taylor's ideas/concepts can be studied under the head of science of industrial management. Fayol's (ideas) tech- niques and concepts must be seen as a systematic theory of management as the approach of the former is relati- vely tigid compared to the later whose approach is essentially flexi- ble. Taylor has based his theory of scientific management on scientific cexperi-mentation; Fayol’s ideas have resulted out of personal. That is why Taylor observed with technical side of work. It is Fayol who embraced the cause of broader administrative side of work. Finally summing up the contribution of both, if Taylor talks ‘of management of task, Fayol concer himself with management of total FAYOL AND TAYLOR ESSENTIALLY COMPLEMENTARY NOT CONTRADICTORY ‘Though differing in their ‘approach, the essential spirit of ideas and techniques as advocated by ‘Taylor and Fayol is identically same. Both management thinkers agreed that the industrial oF organisational success can be brought about by putting in place a mechanism for efficiently managing problems of personnel. Thus they were viewed efficient management (solution) of personnel problems as the key to organisational (industrial) success. They favoured the application of scientific methods in tackling the problems of management, They Imagined a structure of management ‘on rational and systematic basis for both thinkers, the best way of acquiring managerial qualities is training and the best way of attaining ‘organizational goal is through mutual cooperation between management and employees. Both Taylor and Fayol gained experience of industry and accordingly conceived of manage- ment theory by zeroeing in on the ‘universality of management’. The Universality of managementon which the both scholars unanimously agreed is the key common areas which binds them together throughout their research work and analysis. Fayol’s Views on Administrative Training Henry Fayol is pioneering Cham- pion of Administrative taining. In his ‘wn word, “Everyone needs some concepts of administration, in the hone. in affairs of the State the need for ‘administrative ability is in proportion to the importance of the undertaking and for individual people the need is everywhere in accordance with posi- tion occupied. Hence, there should be some generalized teaching of adminis- tration = elementary in the primary schools and quite advanced in high Social educational institutions. FAYOL’! GANGPLANK Fayol's Gangplank has been discussed in detailed manner under the head of ‘Hierarch’ (Second Unit) FAYOL’S CONTRIBUTION : ACRITIQUE : HONEST ‘ASSESSMENT Between Max Weber who calls for social science generalisation and Frederick Taylor who stands for empiricism, Henry Fayol takes a middle path and generates theory of management by combining the elements of both. His theory of ‘management is so overarching that it ‘can be applied to commerce, industry, politics, religion, war or philan- thropy. The only man to whom the credit of developing a universal science of management goes is only Henry Fayol. Fayol contended the simple methods presented and applied in logically coherent manner can bring success to any enterprise. Fayol conceived of a rational system of ‘organisation and a management com- posed of functions. It was Fayol who, by dint of his hard research work proved that the basic objective of the organisation based on rational system is the attainment of primary goal set by it. Fayol's approach, though mechanis. tic, is very useful one in analysing ‘organisations and their day-to-day ‘operations, Henry Fayol has been criticised ‘on many counts. The major point is as observed by Peter Drucker, that Fayol imposed a mechanistic model Of an ideal or universal organisation on living business by devoting too much attention to functional classifi- cation. Though empirically expedient funetionalism (functional in logic as well as in design. Fayol’s view is narrow as he theorises on functional- ism on the basis of the functions ‘undertaken in mining firm which can never be equally applicable to the needs of other organisations which are more complex, more dynamic or ‘mote entrepreneurial than a typical mining firm because they demand performance capacities which the functional principles propounded do not possess, Bernard and Simon discard Fayol’s Theory on the ground that a ‘managerial organisation cannot be explained purely in terms of set of principles about formal organisation structure. ‘The thinkers belonging toHuman Relations School criticise Fayol for ignoring socio-psychological or ‘emotional factors involved in organi- sational functioning J.D. MOONEY AND A.C. REILEY James D. Mooney and A. C Reiley first popularized and propa- gated Classical Theory in the U.S.A. in 1931. In the same year they publis hed their milestone “Onward Indus- try.” Inorder to further strengthen and disseminate their theory they brought out “The Principles of Organisa- tion."” The number of principles enunciated by him through charts and manuals are four. They are as follows (1) Coordination : In Money's words Coordination is the orderly arrangement of group effort to pro- vide unity of action in the pursuit of ‘common purpose.” He further elabo- rates. “Coordination is the first prin- ciple of organisation the form which contains all other principles, which are subordinate to it and which it ‘operates.” In his studies Money made coordination a focal point of his attention. According to him “Coordi- nation is no less than the determining, principle of organisation the form which contains all other principles, the beginning and the end of all organized efforts.”(II) Scalar Process (Hierar- chy): Mooney and Reiley belong to Classical School of Public Adminis- tration. Like other Classical thinkers they also lay stress on Hierarchy as an important principle of adminis- tration, Mooney called hierarchy as the scalar chain whereas Reiley referred to it as the Scalar process. For the duo it is the principle of hierarchy (Scalar —process/scalar chain) in their own words that cons- titutes the process of coordination and that is Universal. As pointed out, it is through hierarchical set up that the boss/manager or highest coordi- nating authority executes his ‘operation throughout the organisation. ‘The principle of hierarchy which they viewed as scalar process has its own, process and effect. Scalar Process, (hierarchy) according to them. has its ‘own principle, process and effect referred to in their work as leadership, delegation, and functional definition Functional Differentiation J.D. Mooney and A.C. Reiley believed that while organising tasks into departments the principle of functional differentiation has to be adhered to. They simplified the con- cept of functional differentiation According to them functional diffe- ‘entiation or funetionalismis all about making distinction between kinds of duties which in administrative termi- nology is acclaimed as division of labour or specialization. In his own, words they commented on specializa- tion as sich—“The difference bet ween generals and colonels is one of the gradation in authority and is, therefore scalar. The difference bet ween an officer of infantry and an officer of artillery, however, is func tional because there is distinct diffe- rence in the nature of their duties,” Line and Staff : Mooney remar- ked—"the staff is an expansion of the personality of the executive. It means, more eyes. more ears and more hands to aid him in forming and carrying ‘out his plans.” On the one hand, both Mooney and Reiley agreed Line ‘management should be entrusted with the requisite authority and power to {get the things accomplished. On the other hand, they expounded that the staff be allowed a distinctive and pivotal role in the provision of information and advice to the Line agency. P.DJPublic Administration/44 CLASSICAL THEORY : A CRITICAL EVALUATION The following points can be noted as the grounds for criticising Classical Theory of Organisation— (1) An Unscientific Theory ‘The Classical Theory of Organisation is, as pointed out by critics, is full of Inconsistencies, tautologies and lacks in sophistication, The methodology is devoid of scientific experimentation and has not been verified under the given scientific conditions. lis empi- Fical base is inadequate to back its ‘elements. Dwight Wald and Herbert Simon contended that theory, in simple terms, is not scientific in the application of methods. (11) Warren Bennis said, “the ‘emphasis laid in Classical Theory is ‘on “ihe organisation without people ignoring human dimension of organi- zation and thus undermined the socio- psychological aspects of management administration. It has been dubbed as machine model theory of organisa tion by March and Simon because of its lack of emphasis on human aspects. It is also dubbed as as atomistic theory and voluntaristic theory of organization as it immu- nizes human beings from social control e.,control by groups. Herbert Simon’s Criticism of Classical Theory Herbert Simon criticized the princi- ples of organization deseribing them as proverbs, myths, slogans and pompous inanitis lacking in sientific relevance tnd Universal appeal. In his own words—"It is a fatal defect of the current prneiples of administration that like proverbs, they occur in pairs. For almost every principle one can find an equally possible and acceptable contra- dictory principle. Although the 1Wwo principles of the pair will lead to exactly opposite organisational reco- ‘mendations, there is nothing in the theory to indicate which is the proper ine to apply.” He added “The princi- ples of administration are at best, a triterion for deseribing and diagnosing administrative situations. Alle stated principles ae to be considered in the design of an efficient administrative organisation (IID Mechanistic in approach the theory fails to bring out the dynamics of organisational behavi- four. The human being or worker is Jjust a cog in the machine. It has been treated as just an inert instrument used by the management to realise the goals laid down by the organisa- tion ‘The Classical theory more con- cers itself with what ought to be and what is overlooking the actual pre- vailing in the organisation, It is static model of organisation treating it as a closed system totally immune from the effects of external environment, It is @ theory dealing only with formal organisation rationally structured Thus it grossly neglects informal ‘organisation processes composed of the relations among the members Where human factors occupy promi- nent position Chris Argyris finds a fundamen- tal incongruence between a mature personality and requirement of an organisation Classical theory princi- ples, [ZJUPKAR’s Intelligence Bureau ASSISTANT CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE OFFICER CodeNo.485 © 235/- 4 General Knowledge/General Awareness ¢ English Language Reasoning Mathematical Aptitude Letter Writing ‘ Comprehension Precis UPKAR PRAKASHAN, AGRA-2Unit-ill Theories of Administration }CIENTIFIC MANAGE- MENT : (FREDRICK W. TAYLOR AND THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGE- MENT MOVEMENT) ‘Taylor's Scientific Management was heavily based on incentive s mes, which had their serious weak- nesses. Taylor extolled economic incentives at the expense of other factors which matter in human happi- ness such as personal liberty. The uniformity of movement or monotony of continually handling the material ean never be compensated for by economic incentives, which must 20 side by side with social and welfare incentives, Father of Scientific Manage- ‘ment : Taylor ‘Scientific Management isthe fest ‘coherent theory of organization, formu lated in the early yeats ofthe present century by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1015). However, Taylor was not the originator ofthe scientific manage- iment buthe was the first to give an ‘adequate, complete explanation of Scientific management. Similarly, many predecessors of Taylor like Charles Babbage, Henry R. Towne, Fredrick Halsey agement tech niques but it was Taylor who gave them a general framework so that they ‘could become widely available and accepted. He Is, thetefore, acknow- Jedged as the "Father of Scientific ‘management’. Scientific Management is also known as Taylorism because ‘Taylor was the first to advocate the systematic adoption of scientific rmetheads inthe field of indusrial work processes and management, to promote industrial efficiency and economy. MAIN THESIS Taylors main thesis is that ‘management rests upon clearly for- ‘mulated laws and principles with uni- versal applicability in all organiza tions which entitles it to the status of a true science. To put in his own words, "management is atrue science. resting upon clearly fixed lav, rules and principles, as a foundation". He argued that management comprised a ‘number of principles which comman= ded applicability in all types of ‘organizations. "The same principles ‘can be applied with equal force to all social activities: to the management ‘of our homes; the management of our farms: the management of the busi- ness of our tradesmen, large and small; of our churches; our Philan- thropic institutions; our universities and our governmental departments.” Taylor's principles of manage- ‘ment were "scientific" to the extent that they were based on first hand ‘experimentation and observation of work procedures and conditions in industrial enterprises, MEANING AND FOCUS: © Scientific management refers to application of science to mana: ‘gement practices. It involves use of scientific methods in decision- making for solving management problems rather than depending fon rule of thumb or trial and ‘error methods for the purpose Essentially, scientific manage- ment consists of observation and analysis of each task, determi- nation of the standard of work, selecting and training of men to Hathaway. Contribution of Taylor to Scientific Management ‘Taylor's contribution to the development of scientific management was, recorded in his papers. They ate: A Piece Rate System (1895); Shop Management (1903); The Art, of Cutting Metals (1906) and the Principles of Scientific “Management (1911)". The term "Seienttic Management" was coined for the rst {ime by Louis Brandes in 1910 and subsequently used by Taylor and others. The other contributors to the growth of scientific management movement were Henry Lawrence Grantt, Harrington Emerson, Frank Bunker Gilbreth, Lillian Moller Gilbreth, Carl G. Barth, Sanford E. Thompson, Moms L. Cooke and Horace K. perform their jobs, and ensuring that work is done in the most efficient manner. © The Scientific Management stressed rationality, predictabi lity, specialization and technical competence. It focuses on the design and operation of produc tion processes at the ‘shop’ level of the organization. In other words, scientific management addressed itself to the problems Of the ‘shop floor’ = that is, the bottom part of an organization ‘where the work performed is of repetitive and routine nature. ‘Assumptions of Scientific Management ‘There are three assumptions of scientific management © That improved practice will come from the application of the scent fic method of analysis to organi- zational problems. In other words, the application of the methods af science to organizational problems eads to higher industrial efficiency; observation, measure ‘ment, and experimental comparison ate these methods. {© The second assumption concerns the relation of worker to his work "There is primary focus on work itself and not on the particular person doing the work, The good ‘worker is viewed as one who accepts orders, bu does not initiate actions. The worker is told how to do his job based upon scientific analysis ofthe job. The focus is at his basic. work-workers level typically in production shop" Scientific management does not emphasise the integration and «coordination of higher levels ofthe organization © Scientific management assumes rationality in the classical sense Each worker is assumed to be classical economic ma nterested in_maximizing his “monetary income. The organization is seen 3s rational instrument of production. ‘The complicated motivational, emotional and social actions and reactions of persons in organiza- tions are not emphasised P.DJPublic Administration/45© The focus of scientific manage- ment was rather narrow, as it essentially concentrated on the work done at the lowest level in the organizations. The purpose \was to analyze the relationships between the physical nature of work and the physiological nature of workers to determine Jjob definitions. PRINCIPLES ‘As a guide to the practice of management, Taylor developed a number of principles of scientific management, which may be outlined below:- © Development of Science for Each Element of Man's Work This principle suggests that the work assigned to any employee should be observed and analysed with respect to cach element or ppart and the time involved in it, $0 as to decide the best way of performing the work and to determine the standard output. This basie principle of scientific management requires that appli- cation of scientific methods should replace rule of thumb methods. © Scientific Selection, Training and Development of Work- ‘men : Itisessential for efficiency in production that workers should be selected with due care, Their skill and experience must be ‘matched withthe requirements of the respective jabs onthe basis of tests and interview. The werkmen so selected must be given training for the specific tasks assigned. ‘Training must also be arranged to develop their abilities to improve performance. © The Bringing Together of the Science of Work and the Scientifically Selected and ‘Trained Men : To enable the worker to do his job and to censure that he may not slip back to the earlier methods of doing work, there must be some body’ t0 inspire the workers. This Taylor felt isthe exclusive responsibility of the management. He believed that workersare always willing to ‘co-operate with the management, but there is more opposition from P.DJPublic Administration/46 the side of management. Taylor maintained that this process of bringing together causes "the mental revolution”. © The Division of Work and Responsibility Between Management and Workers : In the traditional management theory, the worker bore the centre responsibility for work and ‘management had lesser responsi bilities. But Taylor's scientific management assumes equal responsibility between manage- ment and worker. The manager unlike in the past is equally busy as the worker. This division of work creates between them an understanding and mutual depen- dence. There will also be cons- tant and intimate cooperation between them. All this results in elimination of conflicts and strikes, ‘Parameters of Principles of SM © Replacing rule of thumb with science (organized knowledge); © Obtaining harmony in group action rather than discord; © Achieving cooperation of human ‘beings rather than chaotic indivi- dualism; © Working for maximum output ther than restricted output and © Developing all workers to the fullest extent possible for their own, and thei company’s highest pros- perity TECHNIQUES ‘The techniques of scientific management may be regarded as the ‘mechanisms which facilitate applica- tion of the principles of scientific management. The techniques and methods developed by Taylor are as follows @ Functional Foremanship Taylor doubted the efficacy of the ‘linear’ system or the military type of organization in which each worker is subordinate to only one boss. He replaced this system with what is. called functional foremanship in which the worker receives orders from eight narrowly specialized supervisors, Thus, he divided work not only among workers, but also at the supervisory level OF the eight functional bosses, four will be responsible tor planning and the remaining four for execution. The gang-boss the repair-boss, speed-boss and the inspecior are the four execution functional bosses. Motion Study : Motion Study, which is the observation of all the motions that comprise a particular job and the deter- mination of the best set of motions is @ technique of stan- dardization of work methods, In other words. Motion Study is to determine a preferable work ‘method with consideration to raw ‘materials, tools and equipments hand and body motion ete ‘Time Study : Time Study is the technique to be employed for the planning of a large daily task. This technique determines the time-content of a job; in other words, how much time does @ job take to get completed’? Thus ime Study is the fixing of appropriate time to complete tasks after the preferred way is determined. Differential Piece Rate Plan : Taylor advocated pay by piece rates on the basis of standards set by motion-and-time studies, He indicated that piece rates were advantageous. in motivating workers because they were direct and quick, For these reasons, Taylor thought they were prefer~ able fo profit-sharing plans that required several months. to reward high performance. His pay plan was called the differen- tial-piece rate system. Under this system, workers were paid a low piece rate up to the standard, which was the level at which first class man performed under 200d conditions, More than the standard a large bonus was pai. ‘This system put a high premium on first-class performance. Indeed, that was the only perfor- ‘mance Taylor tolerated because hie requited that worker who after training was unable or unwilling to produce at standard be dis- charged,© Exception Principle : Taylor deserves much of the credit for the development ofthe "principle of exception’, He suggested that the manager should be most interested in exceptional items~ those that vary from standard. ‘Thus he is free of concem with items that are at standard perfor- mance, Taylor lays down that ‘management reports should be condensed into comparative summaries recording only the ‘Other Mechanisms of Taylor © Standardization of all tools and implements used inthe trades; © The desirability of a planning room or department: (© The use of slide-rules and similar time-saving implements; ‘© Instruction cards forthe workman; (© The task idea ie., management ‘accompanied by a large bonus for the successful performance of the task, {© Mnemonic systems for classifying ‘manufactured. products. as well as implements used in manufacturing (© A routing system: and © Modern cost system. Mental Revolution of Taylor © Scientific management, in its essences, according 10 Taylor, primarily involves @ complete ‘mental revolution on the part of ‘workers and management towards their duties, towards their work, towanls their fellow workers, and towards all of theie daily prob: lems, © demands the realization of the fact that their mutual interests are ‘not antagonistic and! mutual pros- perity is possible only through ‘mutual cooperation, (© Without this great mental revolu- tion on both sides, Taylor said, scientific management does not (© Taylor was of the view that the seat revolution that fakes place in the mental attitude of the wo sides under scientific management is that both partes take their eyes off the divisions of the surplus as the all important matter and together ‘tur their attention towards increas- ing the size ofthe surplus unl the Surplus becomes so large that it ecomes unnecessary to quatrel ‘over how it should be divided. P.DJPublic Administration/47 ‘Taylor's Followers: © Henry L.Gantt : His work was heavily influenced by Taylor, but Gant also made original contribu~ tions. For example his Task-and- Bonus system of incentive pay (where the worker was given a bonus when he reached standard) was more widely accepted than Taylor's differential piece-rate system, Gantt emphasized ‘habits of indus- ny", that is, organizations develop habitual ways of doing things. © Frank and Lillian Gibreth : Frank Gilbreth also was a con- temporary of Taylor. Lillian Gilbreth, made many contributions in the development ofall sorts of managerial systems, The Gilbreths system became known as ‘speed Work’ as it involved reduction in the amount of work through the climination of unnecessary steps They refined motion-and-time study to a high stage of develop: ment in their pursuit of the ‘one best way’. They invented 'therbigs' (Gilbreths spelled backwards) as the elemental units of work. The ‘other contribution of Gllbreths was, the Tlow process chart, (© Harrington Emerson : Emerson also was a contemporary of Taylor, ‘but his work took a somewhat different direction. He worked largely without contact with other pioneers of scientific management ‘and emphasized the ‘great produc tivity of comect organizations’ His hooks ‘Efficiency’ and The Twelve Principles of Eificiency" are well ‘known. Thus, he preferred to call his system efficiency system’ rather than scientific management © Morris L.Cooke : Moris L.Cooke deserves special recognition because of his application of the Principles and techniques of scien fic management to the fields of government and edvcation. Thus he demonstrated that scientific man- agement has application in all types ‘of organizations, He also urged Participation of every employee in finding the one best way In this he was quite different from Taylor, ‘who implied that only an expen in job analysis could perform this Function. exceptions (both good and bad) to past standards or averages. This could help the manager in looking at the progress of his shop. IMPACT OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT In the early years of the 20th century, scientific management had a snowballing impact on administrative thought and practice in the United State, It permeated not only industrial enterprises and business establish- ments, but also government organiza tions. In 1910, the scientific manage- ment movement manifested itself in the establishment of the Commission of Economy and Efficiency under President Traft, The recommen- dations of this commission further popularized the scientific manage- ment movement. Later, President Woodrow Wilson, who was an advocate of administrative efficiency through the democratic credo and civil service reform, tried to harmo: nize efficiency with democratic prin- ciples of government. Taylor's advocacy of the one best way to do each work-productive or managerial \was equally implemented in industrial and governmental business and man- agement. Thus the scientific techno- logy of Taylorism, besides the demo- cratic principle, comprised the twin elements of | American Public Administration, ‘The popularity and impact of the scientific management movement can be further gauged from the fact that it gained considerable significance in industrial management in the Soviet Union, Lenin had exhorted Russian, industrial managers, as early as 1920, to apply the principles of scientific management for increasing produc tion. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s ‘great efforts were made toinerease the productivity and efficiency in Soviet industries through the application of the principles of scientific manage- meat CRITICISM AND OPPOSITION The scientific management did not put forward & fully developed theory of organization of admi- nistration, The scientific mana- gers restricted their work to level Of shop floor activity. They did not pay much attention 10 the overall administrative structures of organizations. They also didnot explore organization, deei- sion-making processes beyond the level of the shop. © Taylor's Scientific Management was supremely concerned with organizational efficiency inter- preted in only mechanistic terms. Scientific Management viewed man as but an adjunct of the machine: it, therefore sought to make him like a machine, and as efficient as a machine itsel. Workers were opposed to time study procedures and standar~ dizations of all aspects of their performance, as they did not like lobe treated as machines. © Scientific Management over- simplified the worker motivation. To argue, as Taylorism did, that anemployee is motivated by high wages is grossly to underestimate the meaning of human motiva- tion. Likewise, the assumption that an individual existed in isolation from his social envi- ronment is erroneous. Oliver Sheldon. M.P. Follet, Elton Mayo and Peter Drucker charged that Taylor's scientific manage- ‘ment was impersonal and uncder~ ‘emphasized industrial sociology and — social psychology. The classic Hawthom Experiments of Elton Mayo and other research studies on human relations and group dynamics in industry helped in establishing to a great extent that psychological and emotional factors were no less important than economic in a planning worker's behaviour and determine organizational output and efficiency. © Behaviouralists charged that Taylors methods of scientific management sacrifice the initia- tive of the worker, his individual freedom and the use of his intelligence and responsibility Herbert A. Simon and March have described the scientific management asthe Phycological organization theory’. It is eon- cerned with only that range of hhuman behaviour which reates to production. Here, too, it empha- sizes only a limited number of physiological variables; it com- pletely neglects, for instance, the psychological aspects P.DJPublic Administration/48 © The trade unions were against the mode methods of increasing ‘output by the introduction ofthe premium bonus system. The lubour leaders considered Taylor- ism as not only. destroying trade unionism but also destroying the principle of collective bargaining They thought that the system was @ menace to the community at large as it causes continuous imerease in unemployment. Trade unions felt that Taylor was more interested inthe mechanic aspects of work and not much concerned about the total work situation ‘Trade union's opposition to ‘Taylorism led an investigation con- ducted by professor Robert Hoxie for the United States Commission for Industrial Relations. Professor Hoxie in his report criticized scientific management and Taylor's approaches as they were concerned only with mechanical aspects and not with hhuman aspects of production, the report all stated that the basic ideals ‘of scientific management and labour unionism were incompatible. Thus the greatest resistance to Taylorists ‘came from the labour leaders and Four Major Principles of Scientific Management by Waldo Dwight Waldo identified the following four major principles of scientific management © The development of ate science; © The scientific selection of workmen: © The scientific education and deve~ lopment of workmen; and © Intimate, friendly cooperation bet- ween the management and the men, THE CLASSICAL THEORY : H.FAYOL, URWICK, GULLICK AND OTHERS THE FORMAL ORGANIZATION APPROACH (ADMINISTRATIVE OR GENERIC MANAGE- MENT) During the first half of the 20th century, a broader approach to ‘organization was initiated by a group ‘of writers whose interest was mainly in formal organization structure and the basie management process. March and Simon have characterized this body of knowledge as "administrative management theory”. ‘The main con- tention of the theory is that a science of administration can be developed ‘based on some principles and based ‘on the experience of administrators, ‘The most important concern of the formal organization theory is the formulation of certain universal principles of organization. It deals primarily with formal organization Structure. The theory assumes that there are certain fundamental prin- ciples on the basis of which an organization can be established to achieve a specific objective. The central propositions are probably best represented in the works of Henry Fayol, Luther Gullick and Lyndall Urwick, Luther Gullick and Lyndall Urwick's "Papers fon the Science of Administration” is an outstanding example of adminis- trative management in Public Administration, although James D. ‘Mooney and Alan C. Reiley's Prin- ciples of Organization are more fte- ‘quently cited as exemplary, CONTRIBUTION OF HENRY FAYOL. Henry Fayol, the French engi- heer, based on his experience as an executive introduced a set of central principles of administration. Fayol is considered the founderifather of the ‘management process school’; (ce., classical theory), Henry Fayol's vation industrielfe et Gene- eneral and Industrial Manage- ment) was first published in France in 1916, but did not come to light in the English-speaking countries. Its English translations was published in 1929. Knowledge of administration rather than technical knowledge according to Fayol, is what is needed at higher levels of an organization ‘Thus he wrote, "Teaching ability pre- dominates lower down the ladder and managerial ability higher up." © Activities of an Industrial Undertaking : Fayo! divided the toial activities of an industrial undertaking into the following six groups:% Technical : including pro- duction, manufacturing and aalapation; * Commercial : buying. sell: ing and exchange. * Financial : provision of capital and optimum use of capital; Security : protection of pro- perty and persons; * Accounting : stock-taking, balancesheets, costs and statistics; and * Managerial: planning, organizing, commanding coordinating and controlling that the first five were well known, and consequently he devoted most of his book to analyse the sixth one, that is managerial activity. Fayol has divided his approach of studying management into three parts (i) managerial qualities and training, (ii) general principles of man- agement, and (ii) elements of management. © Elements of Administration : In Faylo's view administration con- sists of five essential elements oF functions. They are © Planning : Its chief manife tation and most effective insteu- ment is the plan of action Planning enables the separation of the short-run events from the long-range considerations, It endowed forethought to the operations of an organization. Fayol considers that experience is an asset in drawing a realistic plan, He also states that, unity, continuity, flexibility and preci- sion are the broad features of @ ‘200d plan of action. © Organization : To organize an industrial fiem or a Government agency is (0 provide it with everything required for its functioning; raw materials, tools, capitals personnel te. Fayol classifies these activities into two categories; (I) the material organization, and (2) the human organization. The latter includes, both personnel leadership and organization. structure. Every ‘organization has to perform the following managerial functions P.DJPublic Administration/49 Managerial Functions of Fayol (© Ensure tha the plan is judiciously prepared and strictly carried out © To see thatthe human and material ‘organization is consistent with the objective, © Set up a single. competent, ener- etic guiding authority. (© Harmonize activities and coordi nate effort ‘© Formulate clear, distinct, precise decisions © Arrange for efficient selection and appropriate placement of the employees. © Define duties clearly © Motivate employces to show initiative and demonstrate respon- sibility © Reward employees in fair manner for services rendered, (© Make use of sanctions against inregulae and unethical conduct. © Provide for the maintenance of | discipline. © Pay special attention to unity of command © Supervise for appropriate controls (© Provide for appropriste controls, © Prevent excess of regulations, red- tape and paper controls © The third clement in Fayol’s theory of management is command whose purpose is to set the human organization in motion to achieve the objective of the broader organization, For exercising effective command ‘over his subordinates, a manager should be competent and expe- rienced and, above all, he should know his subordinates well, For this purpose the manager should review periodically the funct ing pattern of his organization and hold regular conferences With his subordinates. © After command, the element receiving place in Fayol's scheme is coordination, According (0 Fayol, a manager must coordinate the activities of the organization by harmonizing all integral subsystems and Keeping a proper balance between material, social and funetional parts by watching the effects of one function over the performance of the other as also by maintaining a balance between expenditure and © The last elementin Fayol's model of general management is eon trol through which the weak- nesses and failures of an organi- zation are pointed out with an objective of preventing them from recurring, Control, as Fayol believed, was a preciousauxiliary to management, Attributes of Managers by Fayol Fayol suggests that managers should have the following attributes © Physical health, vigour and appearance (© Mental ability to understand and learn, judgement, mental vigour and adaptability © Moral firmness and willingness to accept responsibility © General Education general acquaintance with matters not ‘belonging exclusively to the func tion performed © Special knowledge of the function being handled, be it technical, com- ‘mercial, financial or managerial ‘© Experience knowledge arising from the work performed, FLEXIBLE PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION Fayol has also specified the following fourteen principles of administration: ‘The principles he 1 follows: 1. Division of Work : The major task of an organization, according to Fayol is to develop the personnel capable of carrying out the six activites already noted (technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and managerial). For this the use of specialized task skills becomes essential. Fayol thus advocated division of work to take the advantage of specialization, as, this would allow an individual to altain greater dexterity in his parti- cular branch of activity, thereby facilitating increased production. Fayol highlighted the point that every organization, big or small, should place its employee according to the talents and experience of each, 2. Authority and Respon- sibility : Fayol defined authority as the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience.” He ted are asdistinguished between two types of authority: official authority, which is legally given to a person, and personal authority, which a person acquires through his ability, know- ledge, experience and intellect. Since authority must be com- mensurate with responsibility, special steps must be taken to induce people to accept responsibility. This can be made feasible by pining down speci- fic responsibilities on all the people who exercise authority at various, levels in an organization. In order to discharge responsibility properly, there should be parity between autho- rity and responsibility. 3. Discipline : Fayol observed that for proper exercise of authority, discipline in an organization is a prerequisite. Discipline, in fact, is a two-faced phenomenon : employees would obey orders only when the management plays its role well by providing good leadership. In some situations, it could turn out to be just, ‘one-sided, for instance, when disci- pline is imposed upon the subordi- nates by the management from above. 4. Unity of Command : Fayols principle of unity of command was in contrast to Taylor's principle of functional authority. Fayol opined that each employee in an organization should have only one direct superior from whom he would receive direc- tives. This arrangement would help avoid conflicting line of authority. Fayol did not favour a system of dual, command which, in his view, was likely to result into confusion in authority channels and ambiguity in responsibility pattern, 5. Unity of Direction : Along with unity of command, unity of direction was also among. Fayol's most vigorously stated. principles. Fayol stressed that there should be a single head and uniform plan for a ‘group of activities having the same objectives. He observed that a body with two heads in a social organiza tion as also in the animal world is like a monster who has difficulty in surviving, 6, Subordination of Indivi- dual Interest to General interes According to Fayol, management must ensure that the goals of the ‘organization dominate the individual's P.DJPublic Administration/S0 interest. The individual, whether a worker or a manager, should sub- merge his own interest into the organizational goal interest. Since ‘organization is above everything, its interest or in other words, the general interest, should come first. The aims. and interests of groups, departments ‘and sections should be subordinated to the larger organizational needs and goals. This approach is likely to result into greatest common good. 7. Remuneration of Per- sonnel : Remuneration of personnel is the price of services rendered. It should be fair and, as far as possible afford satisfaction both to personnel and firm (employee and employer) ‘The rate of remuneration depends, firstly, on circumstances independent of the employer's will and employee's worth, viz. cost of living, abundance or shortage of personnel, general business conditions, the economic position of the business, and after that, it depends on the value of employee and mode of payment adopted. A variety of models of payment such as (@) time rates (b) job rates, (c) piece rates (d) bonuses, (¢) profit-sharing, and (f) non-financial rewards should be used. 8. Centralization : Like divi- sion of work, centralization belongs to the natural order. This turns on the fact that in every organism, animal or social, sensations coverage towards the brain or directive part, and from the brain or directive part orders are sent out which set all parts of the ‘organism in movement, centralization is not a system of management good ‘or bad of itself, capable of being adopted or discarded at the whim of ‘managers or of circumstances; it is, always present to greater or less extent, The question of centralization ‘or decentralization, is a simple ques- tion of proportion, it is a matter of finding the optimum degree for the particular concern, Everything which goes to increase the importance of the subordinate's role is decentrali- zation, everything which goes to reduce itis centralization, 9. Scalar Chain (Hierarchy) ‘The scalar chain is the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate (opmost) authority in the route followed - via every link in the chain - by all communications which start from or go to the ultimate authority However in large organizations following this path often is too lengthy. An altemative "Gang Plank” route is suggested. Fayol gave the following example. Suppose person F needs to work with P to accomplish a project. Fayol's Scalar Chain of Orga- nization : Following the scalar chain F would need to go through E, D.C, B.A, L.M,N, and O in turn to reach P. Fayol suggested that F, being on the same level with P, could contact hhim directly on a ‘gang plank’, if the procedure be agreeable with higher officials ‘Thus Fayol asserts, "Itis an error to depart needlessly from the line of authority, but it is an even greater fone to Keep to it when detriment to the business ensues.” 10. Order : Fayol talks of two types of order: Material order and human or social order. The formula is known in the case of material things "A place for everything and every- thing in its place’, The formula is the same for human order ‘A place for everyone and everyone in his place’ (The right man in the right place), 11. Equity : For the personnel to be encouraged to carry out its duties with all the devotion and loyalty of which it is capable it must be treated with kindness, and equity results from the combination of Kindness and justice. It is the duty of the manage- ment to ensure that justice and kind~ ness are meted out to the workers in ‘an organization 12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel : Stability of tenure is essential because time is required for fan employees to get used to new work and succeed in doing it well Fayol maintains that ‘instability of tenure of perssonnel is both the cause & effect of inefficiency’ 13, Initiative : Thinking out @ plan and ensuring its suecess is one of the keenest satisfactions for an intelligent man to experience, it is also one of the most powerful stimu- Tants of human endeavour. This power of thinking out and executing is what is called initiative, Atal levels ofthe organizational ladder eal and energy