«planar IFA are compat with tbe above requirement [2 Radiation pal a aang sytem must be taken in thee dinensons, Poarizaions i i of ct taco composite; for instance, it may be not ony verti: nt al econ tvertical vmopove clement wed, asa esl of radii aor ofthc unit, Antenna gain must alo be evaluated in three diets Hooyer ortble uit shouldbe as high as posible so hatte tani emer eave mae lower and thease of smal ater becomes possi aoe aking he ie ofthe mobil unit smaller and Kiger 1 ei vane onger time between recharging the batery,thus extending the aoe crraton time, When a ransmater is operated very close to the Fat peer of tromagnetic energy on the human organs ch 38 Bai (neatly taken ao account nthe antenne desien (Chapter 4) Mental conditions must ls be seriously considered in he desi rack ne of porate terminals. In mob communication envronments yn urban areas, the diversity reception technique hss been applied ta Ca ae veyund mie station antennas in onde fo overcome multipath fad Paspte, Diversty antenna sysems are ried 10 have branches With Pronto rictors and must be coonomicaly constructed to be of compact {iTapunee mae tkpone sss, cnesity reception bas been adopted 1 ipo tions at ll em base stations [17]. Very compact versity ante aoe ae mposed of tro elements but have an appearance of # singel nea enoped for mobil stations [$8]. One of shem ste vertically sp rane eaten forthe vehile mount and another ithe antenna sysem Ars Ship and an inhouse planar TFA fora portable radio unit 1p aal modulation systems, problems to delay spresin incident nay We muagutcd by ange or dcetvty diversity schemes. Further study and a men of new antenna systems having «capability to coe with prob ere alpath propagation, interference, and 3 orth are urgently eau soy a ETgnmas ave been developed for mobile satelite systems, Wh requis cera conal beam or satelite racking fay onder 0 nk Tea satelite when mounted on a maving vehicle, Mechanical, elect aoa nation tracking stems have been developed [49], MSA phased at x psformance prediction by compu lo aes perms per pes satisfactory resus abs ponte a ee sd in ain lem than abut Sh (operating espace nave Ie) he metho of moments (MOM) can sueesaly be wed To eluate the Hhmetrsicof ancnos an the con and he conan oy At higher eqns pone thon of ttinton cones moran A121 Uncertain merfrence Berseen Close Antennas Pia en i htt fst cele ed fina £5 aye 82 1) atthe Leed point of antenna #2is the input impedance looking r Mynsmiticr or the receiver, Although this loading im ance is sual cme wh wintonna #2 at it is really a function of frequency be que Wien 2c © rece ae iy ik PSR Se gs a 2 a oe deed or ssn ee boasts on ais os ’ son pues sa fo at een om as or 2.32 Antenna Near Condon Hos Facer e “Anema ae usually insted ona body with pl conduit sch a por a hi Antennas omoti, and sometimes other antennas or conducting bodies ra om a tower [S0} Thus, it important to know the effec of rears nea conducting bodies onthe antenna performance [51-54]. Nf ican cogent: tl ston (peating tency fa Ze: nat Sea ig anme repe = ©antenna characterises at fof with vespect to Zs. The bound ae shown i [57,58 for traning antennas an in (99 for rceiing antennas ‘An example is shown in Figure 2.32, where a dipole antenna operating 230 Mile and Toop antenna operating a 40 Mi ate separated by d [ST Figure 2.3, the calelated bounds of the radiation field magaitude by the MO} ‘ae shown with tespet to 2, in all horizontal plane diections when dis fied ' haléavelength atthe operating frequency. The blocking effect by the oll ttenna is clearly shown, 2.42.2 An Antenna on @ Portable Radio ‘An antenna element and a conducting body ae treated in one unified system {the conducting ody fot taken 9 ground plane but ae part of the ant fae » system itself. The portable radio equipment is modeled as an idealized recta fetal box with an antenna operating in frequency anges of 800 MH which e289 Novo te: 0) f= 250 Me (6) f= $8 Me rm Wwlely wed for mobile communications at present. In this Feequency range, . oe oi (Prom ih 986 eEB) {ntenna andthe condting body ae not necessarily smal compare with 8 [An example is an IFA attached to a conducting rectangular box shown Figure 2.34, where Ly = XB, Ly = Al Ly = 3M, = O.14R, w = 002A, ‘= O.0578 at the operating frequency of $20 MH 62}. The length lis a to get the input impedance equal to SON. A conducting body i modcled by i (vite rads 1.00152), 38 shown in Figure 2.5, and the MOM is used 1 206m | © RAR enon Mi Tih & | Ri BS weet gee 2.2 pe) and ap) amon. Frm 5], © PIER) ewe 2.4 nmin Panam on srecanserindaing y(n 2}. YRSIECE) fa) ¢ =250.H to) =400MHene an automobile boys larger than Si, the GTD isan appropriate method to Spelt radiation pateras. A model of an automobile is shown in Figure 237 ' short point ‘iw GITD supplied toa thee: plate model as shown in Figure 2-38, The iffaction 7| (essed petal nts are A,B,C, D, E, and F for an.xz plane pattern, and G and H for yz Jf | Hane pater, The’ earth is considered as an imperfect conductor wth a relative ? Mojesric constant gy The eaeulated and measured radiation patterns ate shown W Figure 2.9. The fects of the automobile body are clearly shown, (oh Ete ece a 2124 A Conducting Body Near a VOR Antenna Caleulate antenna characterises. The caleulated vertical and horizontal radii fpticins ae shown in Figure 2.36 with the measured eesuls. The effects of enducting body can most clearly he seca in the yx plane patter, where there ‘Thu around #230 deg which could not appear without the conducting ‘he VHF omniizectional range (VOR) is an air navigution antenna system that fies vimathal information ton sircraf in the 108 to 118 Mle ear frequency Fungo. Beating errors of the altborne VOR receiver become satisfactory small “shout any obstacles the vsiy of the VOR [66]. The bearing errs ue to ‘sve veterers such as wie fences, power and telephone lines [67.8], and water pols (0 are signiicant in certain dretions compared with those introduced by he equipment sot ‘VOR antennas as shown in Figure 2.40 consist of four square-oop antennas Iyened , above ground. These loope are above a citeular eounterpote (radius ‘which is bs above ground. The reference phase signa, constant in phase and Hwkpendent ofthe aircraft azimuth, is radiated by driving all out loops simulta voy in phase with the RF carrier fequeney f. The RF cari i amplitude slated by a subcarrier of 9.96 KHz, which i frequency-modlated at 30 He ‘An Antenna on an Automobile In VIP bands, an automobile canbe modeled by wite gid simiar wo the posta Flo equipment explained before, and the MOM ean he used to get the cha levinics of an antenna on an automobile (63). A quarter-wavelength mong tnenna operuting in UH bands mounted on the roof of an automobile is fidoted to show the effets of conducting body on radiation paters [64on “any units ® i ge 2.9 Veta ation pater (= = Oe = 13 ~ Pa) (Bom 0 BS IEEE) ewe 297 Animism |]. © 986 IEEE) or plate 1 coptrmng 216000 pate 2 a » ‘ewe 2.8 Teel mo a kmail othe GD. Pom 6, © HG TEEE) iar 2.40 VOR asc cong: (3) pre: (mt ew: ee © me teee) ‘The variable phase signal, which varies in phase withthe bearing of the ai Jradlated bythe nortr-suth and east-west paso the oops. Each pair i fed the RF carer frequency modulated by 30 He. Each par makes horizontal ght pattern, rotating at 80 He. 4 Fi alcutations are done using the following parameters d = 006m, by 4.8m, Bo = 3.6m, R= 792m, f. = 109 MEH airborne receiver bandit f= 038 He, steal ange r = 46.3 km and 0 = 88.7 deg, aircraft speed 151.8 kavhour, and the radius and eight ofa wie seatterer are 0.00206 and 7 Nn espectvel [68 tis assumed tha the VOR antenna snd the wie seatterer ye located above a pertect ground plane. The MOM is used to obtain the seatered cid rom whic the Bearing eror As calculated, Figure 2.41 shows the envelopefora combining techniques. Maxima ratio combining (MRC) maxinizes the yul-tnnoise ratio ater the combining. Equatpain combining (EGC) brings the freived signals to common phase and comtines them ia vulags. Selective : 0 Byeinat foabining (SIC) selects the strongest of the wo received inal, Switch combining a ; {3M} sed a teesold evel ow which the ignal sites to he other # ye fens The MRC, EGC, and SEC require more eomplex equipment, perform é ashes Hater and oat moxe than SWC, which needs only one from end, Among the oe is NC EGC, and SEC: the performance of MIRC is he bes, bu the equipment ¢ a0 Js complvated. The perfomance of SEC lowe han that of MRC and EGE, bt 7 ‘he equipment is simple to build Alough combining techaiquas are not within Me scope ofthis book, the implications for antenna design are relevant. This scetin rates the performance ofa tworbranch SEC diversity inal arian. Assume thatthe average CIR T of tworbranch signals are the Sune Then the probability thatthe combined signal Cis and i ess than the Mesos i (7 é ao or * comment Ply = R) = IL — ema ew) 4 Dying err d= vit si we. Pr 6), © 12 IEEE) Oe 5 si Fyation (2.46) is valid for two ancorrelated-ranch signs, Sometimes the two- Winch signals received ate conolated because the requied separation of fo base Bnions cannot be physially wide enough to achieve the uncorrelated condition Isiven two signate [71]. Then the combined signal of two correlated signals can Is expressed as (70) of the ated dame bearng ror de ta horzntl tight wire seater auth the mewured amie tang er [9], bah errors co Tespon sory wel Piy=R) = ep(-RINU - 0,9) + Oa} a7) 23 Diversity Techniques 4 2.40 Diversity Performance apt cing mnt nati ere lime Stelter ce Io tego ont es epee csr : Iti, dvertytechnigoes are used to reduce fading effects. Usually the eves seat nme divert nsx aon he cao etic ewe Vege toners ances Each dey chem in each th same efomante Ah ban corcaton content he sume Tw very alate ee im rst sus, piretn, id dictity werent do Usama tegen at ld very ate se. We alo hae 10 cn wee iectmtin eosin ich ecto from the era ace, a Mfoneprite combining technique ean yield better performance. There are Shen the corselationp approaches zer0, Q(a,) = Q(b, a), and shen (2.47 reduees Wi (246). Equation (2-47) i pleted in Figure 2.42 with diferent valce of cor- fulton coetfcentp. At level of 10-dB below the metn CIR level, 10% of the ‘pls below the Tevet for p = 1 (a0 diversity), 2% of the signal ie below theo Pee mma re (9) gre 24 Scie coring oo sate in 0 level for p = 017, and 19% ofthe signal is below the level for p = 0. The etformance ofa diversity eeciver trying to make the correlation coeffi ff two signals approach az. 2.4.3.2 Space Diversity ‘Many celllardesign engincershave asked: Why doeshoriontlantennasepaal Fea to better diversity performance than verteal separation ata cel sits? ' an important reason why. ‘The greater the antenna horizontal separation, less ely the fades of the two received signals will occur simultaneously. Th {he divest gun for reducing the effect. ofthe fades increases ts the separ Ineresey andrei om the concep tha the signal strength of two signals should Iw early equal the ovo received signal strengths are not equ. a is generally| the ease fr vera separation. chen the diversity pain eanno be achieved, regard Jes of the requirements of antenna separation Designing diversity antenna scheme ie bas on the parameter which Akpends [71] on the real untenna height (t) and the antenna teparation (D); a= ND es) Horizon Seperation 4 tos been determined experimentally thatthe optimum value of 9 i 11 for Fvionta antenna separation [71]. For example, ifthe antenna Mi 10 f, the lptnnun Dis 9. Theretore, the higher the antenna the more separation wil be Ise for optimum diversity enn, Incidentally, the the antenna bight tthe Fels when the system i designed Ina tcl: world environment, vehicles an portable units rea various ground evaions inal rections from the cell ste. Because of this, the elective amen Nit Ch) measured atthe cell site varies hosed on the real-time lostions of Ahivies and portables. The same actual antenna height may have two diferent HMlestve antenna heights according to two different vehicle or portable unis, For A specific basetommobile/portable transmission, when his less than the fy the fags by he ee wt Be weaker [Tis expres as aio Ws a0 ths 3G = 2 ogithih) a8 esa) During system operation, the value of m. obtained from my = AD, will vary ‘kjening onthe present location ofthe vehicle or portable units. When hi les {josie than the, the value of esomes les greater) than 1 andthe diversity fh speally varies as in Figure 2.43, Viral Separation Voolly the vertical antenna separation & greater than the horizontal antenna fepraton for achieving a given diversity gain [71]. Lette antenna height ofthe Foyer antenna be hy and the antenna beight of the higher antenna be fy. The ylcal separation iD, = fs ~ fn. The diference in reception gain dg beiween {he Go effective antenta eights of the two antennas ean be found y'esing the following equation [72Fike 10 mobile), = transmit horizontal, receive Horizoatl, The two diferent olsized waves (vertical £, and horizontal, received by the two polarization nas atthe mobile unt can be expresed as =F Eola Pa es oe Figure 2.45. Since the principle of reciprocity is applied to the polarization onponents, the wo eferenty polarized waves, E” and Ey, arcving atthe bane Ntion can be expresed a ee 248 Dirty in vers 97} Ag = 20 lop) = 20 ogull + (Dy) were fc and hy = effective antenna heighs of wo verily separated (ure 2:44) For example, when the diference in Ay is 4 UB, 1+ (Dah) To!" or D, » 115k, in which case the values of D, and h could be 15 and 26 fespectvely, for given vehicle location, Although m= A/D is 1.73, there Teno diversity ga, since gis 0 large [73] ‘Although the horizontalseparation antennas éan provide higher dive fan, there can sometimes be limitations when vehicles ae in certain areas Fespect fo the hase sation, when no diversity eins ate observed [71] Decals {he relative antenna heights ae 2.4 Vera steno separation 9, 288.3 Po don Diversity Schemes fe tS Ne te | thet wmemeee "wo polarizations, vertical and horizontal, from two antennas can cary oo Sigh ‘mone radio fregueney over stelite-round links ar microwave links, theres no coupling eect introduced by the medium, no mutual interference WO ‘our, However, inthe mobile radio envionment, strong metual coupling el ‘ecu that alter the signal propagates through the mobile ra medium, the signal energy inthe vertical polarization wave ean be crs (leaking) into the horizontal polarization wave and vice vers. Let us define symbols. 1, = transmit vera, receive vertical. Ty, = coupling vertical Horizontal (rom bate 40 mobile). Py = coupling horizontal into vertical ( fn cy SO re 248 Rapocy a Rorsonnly al erica poli wane (Lee, WC. Yr Pitre Rain" TEEE Tron on Com Teh No Sober 7,8)fet TB acid esp Winsome cases Fs Py then E, Band By B. However, the leaking chet {3 very salt compared to the main steam that iy fj, > Ty and Tip Dy Therefore, from the measurement we Foun that E, ~ Fi. Ab, scan be fh that B= Ey and B= Ey For antennas on an infinite ground plane, the array pattern inthe elevation tales cou be [74] 3 9s aia 4M Aveo sds raga ato of mabe aaa Wg Le. WC. olitn Dia lr Mote Rao," TEEE Taw Camo: esk Ne. Oe wipe) here isthe hoigt ofthe antenna from the ground plane and the angle #4 "evation ange fom the horizon. Notice tht for > 1h, the vertical pater fuaimur at 0 = O deg, but goes into nul t @ = 8 deg and picks up again Wee The horizontal pattern is mulling at # ~ 0 deg, peaks up 10 @ = 8 deg ‘smiled again at 0 ~ 19 deg. When they are in aline-f sight condition, thew ome foward the mobile atone particular elovation angle and the powers a polarization waves are not equal In an actual mobile environment, the mul ‘waves artve atthe mobile terminal from a spread in elevation angles, and round plane also works t the advantage of decorcating the received signal the sense that the two antennas are niming at diferent elevation angles. “Typical estimated mean sigal strengths as function of antenna height shown in Figure 2-4 forthe two polarizations. Iwas observed that for = two branches of power were about the same. However, ss the antenna hel ‘decreases, the power of the horizontal polarization wave decreases. The Rayleigh fangs recived by the two polarization antennas are uncorrelated, Focal mean the average signal strength seen asthe envelope ofthe Rayleigh fai ‘jpnal sometimes alle ong-ferm fading) teccive from two polarization ante hve the sme srength. The advantage of polarization diversity in mobile radia thatthe two polarization diversity antennas, unlike the two space-diversity aa ane placedas cose as We wish to achieve full diversity gain. The dian isthe SB power reduction at cach transiting antenna Gu tothe spi of transmier power into the two polatization antennas, Component Diversiy (75) Wipe scattering and fading effets can ereate cross polaizaton such that ti jbl forthe antenna to receive both -and Held components. This iclled Syergy divrsty antenna; an exarnple consisting of two exes semiloap the Wol many pager antennas. An advantage ofthis techniqe is tht only one i iv nceded and the transmit antenna need only have Ei onal Diversity Sytem {76} ng signals arriving fom diferent angles at the receiving antenna come via ont paths. In dzetity diversity, the arving angles of two fading signals Huh he veparated fa enough to avoid correlation among them. Also, it pre fis that the two antennas be iavlne withthe motion ofthe vshicle rather than Jacl to its motion [74]. Then the two antennas can be placed a O deg Win of the vehicle motion) and 180 dep. The effet of antenna directivity has {este in the mobile radko environment. nan out-oFsight contion, the feiviy of a received antenna doesnot inetease the average power, but signal Wy i Weduced for a narrower beam. This technique is feasible at microwaves, Isis the ditectional aperture antennas have «sll psc size (75).