SHM 2015 12 02

STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING
NAGYGYRGYTams
Assoc.Prof,PhD
STRUCTURAL
HEALTH
MONITORING
(SHM)
Email:
tamas.nagygyorgy@upt.ro
Tel:
+40256403935
Web:
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/TamasNagyGyorgy/index.htm
Office:
A219
Dr.ing. NagyGyrgy T.
2015
FacultateadeConstrucii
REFERENCES
SHM
http://www.shmlive.com/
SAMCO
http://www.samco.org/network/index.htm
ISIS and SAMCO Educational Module 5: An Introduction to Structural Health
Monitoring
INTRODUCTION
Why we need SHM?
Populationdependsonanextensiveinfrastructuresystem
roads
highways
buildings
etc
Theinfrastructuresystemhassuffered
neglect
deterioration
lackoffunding
GlobalInfrastructureCrisis
ISIS Canada Educational Module 5
INTRODUCTION
Why we need SHM?
ExamplefromUSA
(3600 mil. USD)
GlobalInfrastructureCrisis
WhyweneedSHM?
INTRODUCTION
Factorsleadingtotheextensivedegradation
Factor1
Unsatisfactoryinspectionandmonitoringof
existinginfrastructure
Consequences:
Problemsbecomeapparentonlywhen
structuresareindireneedofrepair
Result
Repaircostsbecomecomparableto
replacementcosts
WhyweneedSHM?
INTRODUCTION
Factor2
Corrosion ofconventionalsteel
reinforcementwithinconcrete
Consequences:
Expansionofsteelleadstocrackingand
spalling,furtherdeterioration
Result
Reductionsinstrengthandserviceability,
resultinginneedforrepairand/orreplacement
WhyweneedSHM?
INTRODUCTION
Factor3
Increasedloadsordesignrequirementsover
time(e.g.heaviertrucks)
Consequences:
Increaseddeteriorationduetooverloadsor
tostructuralinadequaciesresultingfromdesign
Result
Structuresdeemedunsafeorunserviceable
andstrengtheningorreplacementisrequired
WhyweneedSHM?
INTRODUCTION
Factor4
Overalldeteriorationand/oraging
Consequences:
Variousdetrimentaleffectsonstructural
performance,bothsafetyandserviceability
Result
Needforrepair,rehabilitation,
strengtheningorreplacement
WhyweneedSHM?
INTRODUCTION
SHM
FRP
Newandinnovativematerials andmonitoringtoolsthatprolong
theservicelivesofstructureswhiledecreasingcosts
WhyweneedSHM?
INTRODUCTION
Assessing theinserviceperformance ofstructuresusingavariety

ofmeasurementtechniques
Leadingtosmartstructures
EXTERNAL
DISTURBANCES
STRUCTURE
ACTUATORS
RESPONSE
SENSORS
CONTROLLER
WhyweneedSHM?
INTRODUCTION
Assessing theinserviceperformance ofstructuresusingavariety

ofmeasurementtechniques
Leadingtosmartstructures
EXTERNAL
DISTURBANCES
STRUCTURE
ACTUATORS
RESPONSE
SENSORS
CONTROLLER
INTRODUCTION
WhyweneedSHM?
www.economist.com
WhyweneedSHM?
INTRODUCTION
Inspection Onsitenondestructiveexaminationtoestablish
thepresentconditionofthestructure
Loadtesting Testofthestructureorpartthereofbyloadingto
evaluateitsbehaviororproperties,ortopredictits
loadbearingcapacity
Monitoring Frequentorcontinuous,normallylongterm,
observationormeasurementofstructuralconditionsor
actions
Bjrn Tljsten
INTRODUCTION
WhyweneedSHM?
followupphysicalphenomenon
checkoutthecalculationmodels
assessmentofstructures
verificationofthestrengtheningeffects
Bjrn Tljsten
WhyweneedSHM?
INTRODUCTION
EmerginguseofSHM isaresultof:
1.Theincreasingneedfor
Monitoringofinnovativedesignsandmaterials
Bettermanagementofexistingstructures
2.Theongoingdevelopmentof
Newsensors(e.g.FiberOpticSensors(FOS),smart
materialsetc.)
Dataacquisitionsystems(DAS)
Wirelessandinternettechnologies
Datatransmission,collection,archivingandretrievalsystems
Dataprocessingandeventidentification
BodyAnalogy
INTRODUCTION
MedicalDoctor
SHM Engineer
Monitorpatientshealth
Usesmedicalequipment
tocheckoverallhealth
Prescribescorrective
medicineifrequired
Monitorconditionofstructures
Usessensorstocheckoverall
structuralhealth
Ifexcessivestressor
deformation,correctsituation
SystemComponents
WHATISSHM?
AcquisitionofData
CommunicationofData
IntelligentProcessing
http://www.smartstructuresinc.com
StorageofProcessedData
RetrievalofData
Diagnostics
WHATISSHM?
StaticFieldTesting:
Behaviour tests
Diagnostictests
Prooftests
PeriodicMonitoring:
Fieldtesting
Teststodetermine
changesinstructure
SHM Categories
DynamicFieldTesting:
Stresshistorytests
Ambientvibrationtests
Dyn.LoadAllowance(DLA)tests
Pullback(anchoredcables)tests
ContinuousMonitoring:
Activemonitoring
Passivemonitoring
ClassificationofSHM Systems
WHATISSHM?
LevelIV
Detectpresence,location,severityandconsequencesofdamage
LevelIII
Detectpresence,locationandseverityofdamage
LevelII
Detectpresenceandlocationofdamage
LevelI
Detectpresenceofdamage
WHATISSHM?
ClassificationofSHM Systems
WHATISSHM?
AdvantagesofSHM
AdvantagesofSHM
Increasedunderstandingofinsitustructuralbehaviour
Earlydamagedetection
Assurancesofstructuralstrengthandserviceability
Decreaseddowntimeforinspectionandrepair
Developmentofrationalmaintenance/managementstrategies
Increasedeffectivenessinallocationofscarceresources
Enablesandencouragesuseofnewandinnovativematerials
METHODOLOGY
IdealSHM system:
1.Informationondemandaboutastructureshealth
2.Warningsregardinganydamagedetected
DevelopmentofaSHM systeminvolvesutilizing
informationfrommanydifferentengineeringdisciplines
Computers
Materials
Communication
Structures
Sensors
DamageDetection
IntelligentProcessing
DataCollection
METHODOLOGY
SystemComponents
Monitoringprinciples
METHODOLOGY
BasicMonitoringMethodology
Monitoring
objectives
Competenceofthe
bridgeengineer
Constraints
Bridgemodel
Designmodel
monitoringsystem
Designofphysical
monitoringsystem
What?
Where?
When?
How?
Installationofphysicalmonitoring
system
Validationofmodelandphysical
monitoringsystem
Competenceofthe
monitoringengineer
Maintenanceofmodelandphysical
monitoringsystem
After Glauco Feltrin, EMPA, 2007
METHODOLOGY
MonitoringPrinciples
d [mm]
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
0
Displacement D1
3
time [s]
d [mm]
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
0
Improved
correlation
Interactionbridge
model/monitoring
Displacement D2
Domodelresultsmatch
withmonitoringresults?
Modificationofmodel
Bjrn Tljsten
METHODOLOGY
Monitoring
Verificationbymonitoring notnew
TestingofasteeltrussinEnglandforarailwaybridgeinIndiainthe19thcentury
METHODOLOGY
1 AcquisitionofData
Thecollectionofrawdata:strains,deformations,
accelerations,temperatures,moisture levels,acoustic
emissionsandloads
(a)SelectionofSensors
Appropriateandrobustsensors
Longtermversusshorttermmonitoring
Whataspectsofthestructurewillbemonitored?
Sensorsmustserveintendedfunctionforrequiredduration
METHODOLOGY
1 AcquisitionofData
(b)SensorInstallationandPlacement
Mustbeabletoinstallsensorswithoutalteringthebehaviour of
thestructure
Featuressuchassensorwiring,conduit,junctionboxesandother
accessoriesmustbeaccountedforintheinitialstructuraldesign
METHODOLOGY
1 AcquisitionofData
(c)TransfertoDataAcquisitionSystem(DAS)
Method1 Leadwire
directphysicallinkbetweensensorandDAS
leastexpensiveandmostcommon
notpracticalforsomelargestructures
longleadwiresincreasesignalnoise
Method Wirelesstransmission
Moreexpensive
Signalsaretransferredmoreslowlyandarelesssecure
Useisexpectedtoincreaseinthefuture
METHODOLOGY
1 AcquisitionofData
(d)DataSamplingandCollection
GeneralRule:
Theamountofdatashouldnotbesoscantyastojeopardize
itsusefulness,norshoulditbesovoluminousasto
overwhelminterpretation
Issues:
Numberofsensorsanddatasamplingrates
Datasortingforonsitestorage
Insomecases,largevolumesofdata
Result:
Efficientstrategiesneededfordatasamplingandstoring
METHODOLOGY
1 AcquisitionofData
METHODOLOGY
1 AcquisitionofData
Whatismonitored,howandwhy?
Load
Magnitudeandconfigurationofforcesappliedtoa
structure
Aretheyasexpected?
Howaretheydistributed?
Measuredusingloadcellsorinferredusingstraindata
Deformation
Excessiveorunexpecteddeformation,mayresultinaneed
forrehabilitationorupgrade
Aretheyasexpected?
Measuredusingvarioustransducers
METHODOLOGY
1 AcquisitionofData
Strain
Intensityofdeformation
Magnitudeandvariationofstrainscanbeexaminedto
evaluatesafetyandintegrity
Measuredusingstraingauges
FOS,electrical,vibratingwire,etc.
Temperature
Changesintemperature causedeformation
ThermalExpansion
Repeatedcyclescancausedamage
Temperatureaffectsstrainreadings
Tempmustberemovedfromstraindata
MeasuredusingThermocouples(TC),Temperature
IndicatorControllers(TIC),thermistors
METHODOLOGY
1 AcquisitionofData
Acceleration
Loadscauseaccelerationsofstructuralcomponentsand
viceversa
Howisthestructureresistingaccelerationsandthe
resultingloads?
Widespreaduseinhighlyseismicregions
Measuredusingaccelerometers
WindSpeedandPressure
Windloadscangovernthedesignoflongspan bridgesand
tallbuildings
Recordspeedandpressureatvariouslocations
Measuredusinganemometers
METHODOLOGY
1 AcquisitionofData
AcousticEmissions
Whencertainstructuralelementsbreak,theyemitnoise
AElistensforthenoises,andpinpointslocations
usingtriangulation
Usedinposttensionedconcreteandcablestayed
structures
Measuredusingmicrophones
VideoMonitoring
Timestampedvideosandpicturescanbeusedtowitness
extremeloadsorevents
Datacanbecorrelatedwithimages
Permitsfindingofoverloadedtrucks
Emerginginternetcameratechnologyisused
2 CommunicationofData
METHODOLOGY
ReferstodatatransferfromtheDAStoanoffsitelocation
Allowsforremotemonitoring,eliminationofsitevisits
Telephone
lines
DAS
Internet
Offsite
Location
Wireless
technologies
METHODOLOGY
3 IntelligentProcessingofData
Requiredbeforedatacanbestoredforlaterinterpretation
andanalysis
Thegoalistoremovemundanedata,noise,thermal,or
otherunwantedeffectsandtomakedatainterpretation:
Easier
Faster
Moreaccurate
METHODOLOGY
4 StorageofProcessedData
Datamaybestoredforverylongperiodsoftime
Retrieveddatamustbeunderstandable
Datamustnotbecorrupted
Sufficientmemorymustbeavailable
Datafilesmustbewelldocumentedforfuture
interpretation
Itiscommontodisregardrawdataandstoreonly
processedoranalyzeddata
Thisdoesnotallowforreinterpretation
METHODOLOGY
5 Diagnostics
Extremelyimportantcomponent
Convertsabstractdatasignalsintouseful
informationaboutstructuralresponseandcondition
Nostandardrulesexistfordiagnostics
Methodologyuseddependson
Typeofstructure
Typeandlocationofsensorsused
Motivationformonitoring
Structuralresponsesunderconsideration
METHODOLOGY
6 DataRetrieval
Whenstoringdataforretrieval,consider
1.Significanceofdata
2.Confidenceinanalysis
Remember:
ThegoalofSHM istoprovidedetailedphysicaldatawhich
canbeusedtoenablerational,knowledgebased
engineeringdecisions.
SENSORTECHNOLOGY
Manysensortypesarecurrentlyavailable
ChoiceforSHM dependsonvariousfactors
Fibre opticsensors(FOSs)
Newerclassofsensors
Emergingforinfrastructureapplications
FOS
SENSORTECHNOLOGY
FOSAdvantages:
Stability Increasedlongtermstabilityanddecreased
noise
Nonconductive Immunetoelectromagneticandradio
frequencyinterference
Flexibility MultiplexingandDistributedsensing
Convenience Light,smalldiameters,noncorrosive,
embeddable,easilybondable
SENSORTECHNOLOGY
HowdoFOSs work?
Sensingusingopticalfibres andtechniques
Lightbeam(laser)issentdownanopticalfibre towardagauged
length
Lightwavesmeasurechangesinstate(i.e.elongationorcontraction)
Changeinreflectedlightwavesiscorrelatedtostrainreading
Demodulationunitcalculatesstrainfromlightsignalsandgives
voltage
DASconvertsvoltagetostraindataforprocessing
SENSORTECHNOLOGY
SensorTechnology
SensorTechnology
SENSORTECHNOLOGY
Characteristics:
Useforstaticanddynamicmonitoring
Embeddable,bondableandweldable
Gaugelengthcanvaryfromcmtomorethan1km
Thermalandmechanicalstrainscanbeseparated
Usefultomeasure:
Widthofcracks
Straintransferinbondedjoints
Stressconcentrations
SHM SYSTEMDESIGN
1.DesignIssues
DefinitionofSHM objectives
Typesofmonitoring
Sensorplacement
DurabilityandlifespanofSHM
SHM SYSTEMDESIGN
2.InstallationIssues
Contractoreducation
Sensoridentification
Sensordamageduring
construction
Structuralchangesinducedby
presenceofSHM system
Protectionagainst
deteriorationandvandalism
SHM SYSTEMDESIGN
3.UseIssues
Disseminationof
performanceresults
Continuityofknowledge
Datacollectionand
management
Publicawareness
Methodology
SHM SYSTEMDESIGN
1. Identifythedamageordeteriorationmechanisms
2.Categorizeinfluenceofdeteriorationonthemechanical
response
Theoreticalandnumericalmodelsofstructure
3.Establishcharacteristicresponseofkeyparameters
Establishsensitivityofeachtoanappropriatelevelof
deterioration
4.Selecttheparametersanddefineperformanceindex
Relateschangesinresponsetolevelofdeterioration
SHM SYSTEMDESIGN
Methodology
5.Designsystem
Selectionofsensors,dataacquisitionandmanagement
Datainterpretation
6.InstallandcalibrateSHM system(baselinereadings)
7.Assessfielddataandadaptsystemasnecessary
THEFUTUREOFSHM
SHM isincreasinglyseenasanimportanttoolinthe
maintenance ofsustainableinfrastructuresystems
Ongoingadvancementsareexpected,emerging
technologiesinclude:
SmartComposites
LiveStructures
THEFUTUREOFSHM
SmartComposites
SmartComposites
Composites(e.g.FRP)withsensorsembeddedinsidethat
provideinformationabouttheconditionofthestructural
component
Muscle/MemberAnalogy:
Muscleshavenervecells
embeddedinthemthatprovide
informationtothebrainabout
theconditionsofthemuscles
Smartcompositeshavesensors
insidethatprovideinformation
aboutthestructuralmembers
condition
SmartComposites
THEFUTUREOFSHM
LiveStructures
Representthecuttingedgeofcivilengineeringdesignand
analysis
Livestructuresarecapableof:
Sensingloads,deformations,anddamage
Correctingandcounteringtheloadeffects
Presentlystructuresarelargelytheoretical
Accomplishedusingemergingselfactuatingmaterials
SUMMARYANDCONCLUSION
StructuralHealthMonitoring
Providesthecivilengineeringcommunitywithasuiteof
optionsformonitoring,analysing andunderstanding the
healthofourinfrastructuresystems
Provideessentialtoolstoengineerswhomusttakesteps
toimprovethesustainabilityofinfrastructuresystems
CaseStudy Thernskldsviksbridge 2006
Assessmentprocedureforthebridge
Step1
Enhancedassessment
Initialassessment
Step3
Sitevisits several
Studyofdocuments
Studyandcarriedout
simplecalculations
Laboratoryinvestigations
InvestigationsofLoadModels
Reliabilitybasedinvestigations
Strengtheningcalculations
Monitoring
Refinedcalculations,FEmodels
Decisionanalysis
Intermediateassessment
Step2
Furtherinspections
Materialtesting,coresetc
Detailedcalculations
Investigationsofloadingetc
Planningfortestingetc
SimpleFEModels.
Destructivetesting
DesignModels
UltimateLimitState
Verification
Detailedanalysis
NonlinearFEModels
Step4
Bjrn Tljsten
CaseStudy Thernskldsviksbridge 2006
StructuralAssessment
S1:Survey
Bridgeowner/Consultant
S2:Conditionassessment
VisualInspections
S1:Questionnaire
Bridgeowner/consultant
S2:SimpleFE
Consultant
S2:Nondestructivetests
Radar,ultrasonictestsetc.
S2:Materialsamples
Drillingofcores,pulloffetc.
S3:Laboratorytesting
Concrete,Steeletc.
Bjrn Tljsten
CaseStudy Thernskldsviks bridge 2006
StructuralAssessment
S3:Sensorinstallation
Specialistconsultant
S4:Loadtest1
Testinginstitutes
S4:Strengthening
Specialistcontractors
S4:Loadtest2
S4:Detailedevaluation
Testinginstitutes
Bjrn Tljsten
PredictedLoadCarryingCapacity
Bjrn Tljsten
PredictedLoadCarryingCapacity
2, =30o
Eurocode 2, =22o
MCFT,Response, 30o
2DNonlinear,Atena, 30o
Test, 30o
Eurocode
P =6,1MN
P =8,8MN
P =8,7MN
P =10,8MN
P =11,7MN
Bjrn Tljsten
CaseStudy Kallkllan 1998
Periodiclongtimemonitoring
80.00
Strains
Strain [e-6]
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
Before strengthening
After strengthening
"Long-term" behavior
Time
Measurementofstrains
Bjrn Tljsten
END
Ofthe
st
1 version
SensorNetworksforSHM
CurrentSHM
Biannualvisualinspections(mostcommon)
Limitationsofhumanaccessibilityanderror
Catastrophicfailurebetweeninspections
Expensivewireddataacquisitionsystems
Extremelyhighinstallation,cabling,andmaintenancecost
WirelessSensorNetworkbasedSHMsystem
Flexible,fastandlowcostdeployments
Nocablingcost!!
Jeongyeup Paek, 2010
ExistingSHMTechniques
Damage Detection
Time
Series
Changes in
ARMA
coefficients
Modal
Frequency
Mode
Shape
Changes in Changes
modal
in mode
frequencies shape
Damage Localization
Neural
Networks
Train
neural
networks
with data
Time
Domain
Frequency
Domain
Reconstruct
a structural
model from
data
Reconstruct
structural
model using
mode
shapes
BasicRequirementsfor
SHMApplications
ReliableDelivery
SHMapplicationsarelossintolerant,sensorsneedtotransmitdatareliably
TimeSynchronization
Datafromvarioussensorsshouldbetimesynchronizedtowithin100microsec
fordamagelocalization.
HighDataRates
Ahundredtriaxialsensorssamplingat500Hzcangenerateadatarateof5Mbps.
DenseSensing
Thelargerthenumberofsensorsthebettertheperformance
ImportanceofInNetworkProcessing
Sensornetworksareexpectedtolastforseveralmonths orevenayearwithout
humanintervention
Withhighdatarateradiocommunicationandsensing,nodeswilltypicallynotlast
morethanfewdays.
InnetworkprocessingcanleadtolonglivedSHMsystemsbyreducing
communicationoverhead
MostSHMtechniquescanleveragelocalcomputation atnodetominimizeradio
communication
ARMAcoefficientfortimeseriesbaseddamagedetection
FFTformodalfrequencyshiftbaseddamagedetection
LimitationsofWirelessSensorNetwork
basedSHMtoday
Hundredsofnodesperstructure
Limitedlifetime
Coupleofdayswithcontinuoussampling
Uptocoupleofmonthswithscheduledmonitoring
Limitedinnetworkprocessing
Platformlimitations(eg.mica2,micaz)
Memory(FFT,ARMA,etc)
Processing(floatingpoint,etc)
Whatnext?
Visionofmillionsofembeddedsensorsinconcreteseemsabittoo
farfetched
Energy,formfactor,communication,etc
Withinthenextfewyears,NetSHM likesystemswillencourageSHM
engineerstomigratetosensornetworksystems
Mostofthedataprocessingwillmigrateintothesensorswithinthenext
fiveyearswiththeadventofimprovedsensorplatforms
Webelievethatthewiredsensingwillbealmostentirelyreplacedby
wirelessnetworks withinthenexttenyears
Aruna Ravinagarajan, 2009
WirelessSensorNetworks
Awirelesssensornetwork(WSN)
Monitorsaphysicalspaceorobject
Environment
Humansandanimals
Structures
Haslimitedresources
Power
Memory
Processingcapability
WSNchallengesinclude
Energyconsumption
Taskassignment
Datacollection
Security
Reliability
Mainwaring,A.,Culler,D.,Polastre,J.,Szewczyk,R.,andAnderson,J.2002.Wirelesssensornetworks
forhabitatmonitoring.InProceedingsofthe1stACMinternationalWorkshoponWirelessSensor
NetworksandApplications.ACM,NewYork,NY,8897.
Aruna Ravinagarajan, 2009
EnergyHarvesting
TheBenefits
Longer(seeminglyperpetual)lifetime
Reducedneedforhumanintervention
Power
TheLimitations
Morning
Evening
Energy
Morning
Unpredictable
Needforenergymanagementtechniques
Limitedpowerdensity
Evening
TheSHM
includesfoursubprocesses.
1.OperationalEvaluation
Whatandwheretomeasure?
Whatinstrumentsareneeded?
2.Dataacquisition
Conventionalsensorsor,
Wirelesssensors+MEMS
3.Featureextraction
e.g,ModalParameters
4.DamageIdentification(RitterHierarchy)
DamageDetection
DamageLocation
DamageAssessment
DamagePrediction
RafaelAguilar&al.,2009
EquipmentsusedforStructuralMonitoring.
LVDTs
GPS
HumiditySensors
TemperatureSensors
Tiltmeters
CorrosionSensors
CrackMeters
StaticMonitoring
Accelerometers
DynamicMonitoring
Fordynamicstructuralmonitoring,wiredbasedsensorsaretraditionallyused.
Remoteconnection
DataAcquisition
System
Measurement
Sensors
Thefactthatconventionalsensorsusewires,representstothe
monitoringsystemshighcosts,difficultiesinthemaintenanceand,
sometimes,impossibilityofthelocationinthefield.
ThebigdevelopmentofthewirelesssystemsandtheMicroElectro
MechanicalSystems(MEMS)makesthesetechnologiesveryattractive
forbeingappliedinstructuralmonitoring.
Remoteconnection
BaseStation
Measurement
Units
StructureMonitoring
DataAcquisition
DataCollection
Processing&Feedback
Sukun Kim&al.,2004
Civil Infrastructure
Aviation
Bridges
Dams
DrinkingWater
HazardousWastes
Roads
Energy
Schools
NavigationWaterways
PublicParksandRecreation
Security
SolidWaste
Transit
WasteWater
Nemy Banthia & al.,2009
Infrastructure Deficit
Infrastructure Deficit Hypothesis: A
decline in the public capital formation
(i.e. infrastructure) lowers private sector
productivity and, therefore, lowers a
nations real income and weaken its
competitiveness.
ASCE Report
Energy
Bridges
Dams
Roads
Wastewater
D
C:Mediocre
D:Poor
ASCE Report: Bridges

27 % of USs 590,750 bridges
are rated structurally deficient or
functionally obsolete.
It will cost $9.4 billion a year for

20 years to eliminate all bridge
deficiencies.
ASCE Report: Dams

Since 1998, the number of
unsafe dams has risen by
33% to more than 3,500.
The number of dams
identified as unsafe is
increasing at a faster rate than
those being repaired.
$10.1 billion is needed over
the next 12 years to repair
dams which pose a direct risk
to human life.
Hydro Power
There is a newborn
interest in hydro-power as
a renewable source of
energy.
1970: Failure of the
Buffalo Creek Dam
2003: Failure of the

Silver Lake Dam
Hydro-power accounts for 7% of

total energy produced in the US,
20% in China, 27% in India and
more than 60% in Canada!
Unsafe dams are a

serious concern from
power generation point of
view.
ASCE Report: Roads

Poor road conditions cost U.S.
motorists $54 billion per year in
repairs and operating costs: $275
per motorist.
Americans spend 3.5 billion
hours a year stuck in traffic, at a
cost of $63.2 billion a year to the
economy.
Total spending of $59.4 billion
annually is well below the $94
billion needed annually to improve
transportation infrastructure
conditions nationally.
Infrastructure in Canada
59% of Canadas
infrastructure is more
than 40 years old
As per Statistics
Canada, 37 years is
the expected average
life of a structure in
Canada.
There are approximately 10,000 deficient
bridges with a total repair /strengthening
cost of $44 billion.
There are 4000 parking garages needing
immediate attention.
Canadas current
infrastructure deficit is
$125 billion (and
growing annually by $2
billion), which is 6-10
times the level of all
annual government
infrastructure budget
combined.
Influence of Global Warming on

Concrete Structures
IncreaseinatmosphericCO2 levelsfrom370ppmto
1000ppm
IncreasedCorrosionRates
IncreasedCarbonation
Increaseintemperaturebyover50C
IncreasedShrinkage
PorousMicrostructureandHighPermeability
IncreasedCorrosionRates
IncreasedWaterLevels
IncreasedSaturation
GreaterScour
Why are we in such dire straits?

Deterioration and aging of structural
systems due to weather, fatigue,
pollution, structural settlement and
now global warming;
Construction mistakes;
Code changes (structural dynamics,
seismic design, etc.);
Loading changes; and
Functional Obsolesce.
InfrastructureConcerns
Develop Zero Carbon Footprint

Concrete
Fact: Cement industry accounts for 8% of total green house gases. Every ton of
cement production releases 1 ton of CO2 and consumes 4GJ of energy.
Bio-Inspired, Green Concretes with Zero Carbon Footprint
Dream: Concrete with up to 50 % cement replaced by industrial byproducts such as fly-ash, silica fume and blast furnace slag and virgin
aggregate replaced by recycled aggregate, recycled automobile tires,
and other post-consumer wastes.
Reinforced against cracking by recycled cellulose, polymeric and
natural fibers.
Canadian Network of Centers of Excellence: Intelligent

Sensing for Innovative Structures (ISIS)
Network of 18 Universities with over $100 million in funding

Objective: To make structures last 100 years+ instead of 50 years
How is this accomplished?

1.
2.
Replace steel with Non-Corrosive Fiber Reinforced Polymers

(FRPs) for both New Construction and Strengthening of Old
Structures
Structural Health Monitoring using Advanced Sensors (e.g.
Fiber Optic Sensors and Piezoelectric/ Piezoresistive Sensors
with Nano-Tubes) and Continuous Interrogation over the
Internet.
Replace Steel Rebar
with
Fiber Reinforced Polymers for
New Construction and Repair
SensorsforStructures
Crossbow Tri-Axial
Accelerometer
Thermocouple
Wide Angle Web Camera
Fibre optic sensor
Tilt-Beam Sensor
Wind &Monitor
Nemy Banthia
al.,2009
BridgeSensors
Abutments and Bearings

Four High Precision Inclinometers
Pylon
2 High Precision Inclinometers
30 Electric Strain Gauges
18 Fibre Optic Sensors
6 Tri-Axial Accelerometers
Wide Angle Web Camera
Bridge Deck
13 Unidirectional Accelerometers
2 Tri-Axial Accelerometers
24 Thermocouples
Wind Monitor
Center Plaza
Tri-Axial Accelerometer
Cable Stays Nemy Banthia & al.,2009
Sensor
Installation
DataAcquisition/ControlRoom
Imperatives for a Sustainable

Infrastructure:
Green Concrete with a Minimal Carbon

Footprint.
Replacing Traditional Materials with Advanced,
High Performance, High Durability Materials
Development of Intelligent Infrastructure with
Integrated Sensors and Continuous Health
Monitoring
Cost Effective Repair/Strengthening Strategies
for Existing Structures
Life Cycle Engineering
Education and Codes
But Most of All: We Need Interdisciplinary Team

Work
SensorTechnologies
PhaseLinearity
Describehowwellasystempreservesthe
phaserelationshipbetweenfrequency
componentsoftheinput
Phaselinearity:=kf
Distortionofsignal
Amplitudelinearity
Phaselinearity
SensorTechnology Terminology
Transducer isadevice whichtransformsenergy from
onetypetoanother,evenifbothenergytypesarein
thesamedomain.
Typicalenergydomainsaremechanical,electrical,
chemical,magnetic,optical andthermal.
TransducercanbefurtherdividedintoSensors,
whichmonitorsasystemandActuators,which
imposeanactiononthesystem.
Sensorsaredeviceswhichmonitoraparameterofa
system,hopefullywithoutdisturbingthatparameter.
CategorizationofSensor
Classificationbasedonphysicalphenomena
Mechanical:straingage,displacement(LVDT),velocity(laser
vibrometer),accelerometer,tiltmeter,viscometer,pressure,etc.
Thermal:thermalcouple
Optical:camera,infraredsensor
Others
Classificationbasedonmeasuringmechanism
Resistancesensing,capacitancesensing,inductancesensing,
piezoelectricity,etc.
Materialscapableofconvertingofoneformofenergyto
anotherareattheheartofmanysensors.
Inventionofnewmaterials,e.g.,smartmaterials,wouldpermitthe
designofnewtypesofsensors.
ParadigmofSensingSystemDesign
Zhang&Aktan,2005
InstrumentationConsiderations
Sensortechnology;
Sensordatacollectiontopologies;
Datacommunication;
Powersupply;
Datasynchronization;
Environmentalparametersandinfluence;
Remotedataanalysis.
Measurement
Physical
phenomenon
Measurement
Output
Measurementoutput:
interactionbetweenasensorandtheenvironmentsurroundingthe
sensor
compoundresponseofmultipleinputs
Measurementerrors:
Systemerrors:imperfectdesignofthemeasurementsetupandthe
approximation,canbecorrectedbycalibration
Randomerrors:variationsduetouncontrolledvariables.Canbe
reducedbyaveraging.
Sensors
Definition:adeviceforsensingaphysicalvariableofaphysical
systemoranenvironment
ClassificationofSensors
Mechanicalquantities:displacement,Strain,rotationvelocity,
acceleration,pressure,force/torque,twisting,weight,flow
Thermalquantities:temperature,heat.
Electromagnetic/opticalquantities:voltage,current,frequency
phase;visual/images,light;magnetism.
Chemicalquantities:moisture,pHvalue
SpecificationsofSensor
Accuracy: errorbetweentheresultofa
measurementandthetruevaluebeingmeasured.
Resolution:thesmallestincrementofmeasurethata
devicecanmake.
Sensitivity:theratiobetweenthechangeinthe
outputsignaltoasmallchangeininputphysical
signal.Slopeoftheinputoutputfitline.
Repeatability/Precision:theabilityofthesensorto
outputthesamevalueforthesameinputovera
numberoftrials
Accuracyvs.Resolution
Truevalue
measurement
Accuracyvs.Precision
Precisionwithout
accuracy
Accuracywithout
precision
Precisionand
accuracy
SpecificationsofSensor
DynamicRange:theratioofmaximumrecordableinput
amplitudetominimuminputamplitude,i.e.D.R.=20log(Max.
InputAmpl./Min.InputAmpl.)dB
Linearity:thedeviationoftheoutputfromabestfitstraightline
foragivenrangeofthesensor
TransferFunction (FrequencyResponse):Therelationship
betweenphysicalinputsignalandelectricaloutputsignal,which
mayconstituteacompletedescriptionofthesensor
characteristics.
Bandwidth:thefrequencyrangebetweenthelowerandupper
cutofffrequencies,withinwhichthesensortransferfunctionis
constantgainorlinear.
Noise:randomfluctuationinthevalueofinputthatcauses
randomfluctuationintheoutputvalue
AttributesofSensors
OperatingPrinciple:Embeddedtechnologiesthatmakesensorsfunction,
suchaselectrooptics,electromagnetic,piezoelectricity,activeandpassive
ultraviolet.
DimensionofVariables:Thenumberofdimensionsofphysicalvariables.
Size:Thephysicalvolumeofsensors.
DataFormat:Themeasuringfeatureofdataintime;continuousor
discrete/analogordigital.
Intelligence:Capabilitiesofonboarddataprocessinganddecision
making.
ActiveversusPassiveSensors:Capabilityofgeneratingvs.justreceiving
signals.
PhysicalContact:Thewaysensorsobservethedisturbancein
environment.
Environmentaldurability:willthesensorrobustenoughforitsoperation
conditions
StrainGauges
Foilstraingauge
Leastexpensive
Widelyused
Notsuitableforlongdistance
ElectromagneticInterference
Sensitivetomoisture&humidity
Vibrationwirestraingauge
Determinestrainfromfreq.ofACsignal
Bulky
Fiberopticgauge
ImmunetoEMandelectrostaticnoise
Compactsize
Highcost
Fragile
StrainSensing
ResistiveFoilStrainGage
Technologywelldeveloped;Lowcost
Highresponsespeed&broadfrequency
bandwidth
Awideassortmentoffoilstraingages
commerciallyavailable
Subjecttoelectromagnetic(EM)noise,
interference,offsetdriftinsignal.
Longtermperformanceofadhesivesusedfor
bondingstraingagesisquestionable
VibratingwirestraingagescanNOTbeused
fordynamicapplicationbecauseoftheirlow
responsespeed.
Opticalfiberstrainsensor
StrainSensing
PiezoelectricStrainSensor
PiezoelectricceramicbasedorPiezoelectricpolymerbased(e.g.,PVDF)
Veryhighresolution(abletomeasurenanostrain)
Excellentperformanceinultrasonicfrequencyrange,veryhighfrequency
bandwidth;thereforeverypopularinultrasonicapplications,suchas
measuringsignalsduetosurfacewavepropagation
Whenusedformeasuringplanestrain,cannotdistinguishthestraininX,Y
direction
Piezoelectricceramicisabrittlematerial(cannotmeasurelargedeformation)
CourtesyofPCBPiezotronics
AccelerationSensing
Piezoelectricaccelerometer
Nonzerolowercutofffrequency(0.1 1Hzfor5%)
Light,compactsize(miniatureaccelerometerweighing0.7g
isavailable)
Measurementrangeupto+/ 500g
Lessexpensivethancapacitiveaccelerometer
Sensitivitytypicallyfrom5 100mv/g
Broadfrequencybandwidth(typically0.2 5kHz)
Operatingtemperature:70 150C
PhotocourtesyofPCBPiezotronics
AccelerationSensing
Capacitiveaccelerometer
Goodperformanceoverlowfrequencyrange,canmeasuregravity!
Heavier(~100g)andbiggersizethanpiezoelectricaccelerometer
Measurementrangeupto+/ 200g
Moreexpensivethanpiezoelectricaccelerometer
Sensitivitytypicallyfrom10 1000mV/g
Frequencybandwidthtypicallyfrom0to800Hz
Accelerometer
ForceSensing
Metalfoilstraingagebased(loadcell)
Goodinlowfrequencyresponse
Highloadrating
Resolutionlowerthanpiezoelectricitybased
Rugged,typicallybigsize,heavyweight
CourtesyofDavidsonMeasurement
ForceSensing
Piezoelectricitybased(forcesensor)
lowercutofffrequencyat0.01Hz
canNOTbeusedforstaticloadmeasurement
Goodinhighfrequency
Highresolution
Limitedoperatingtemperature(cannotbeusedforhigh
temperatureapplications)
Compactsize,light
CourtesyofPCBPiezotronics
DisplacementSensing
LVDT(LinearVariableDifferential
Transformer):
Inductancebasedctromechanicalsensor
Infiniteresolution
limitedbyexternalelectronics
Limitedfrequencybandwidth(250Hztypical
forDCLVDT,500HzforACLVDT)
Nocontactbetweenthemovingcoreandcoil
structure
nofriction,nowear,verylongoperating
lifetime
Accuracylimitedmostlybylinearity
0.1%1%typical
Modelswithstrokesfrommmsto1m
available
PhotocourtesyofMSI
DisplacementSensing
LinearPotentiometer
Resolution(infinite),dependson?
Highfrequencybandwidth(>10kHz)
Fastresponsespeed
PhotocourtesyofDuncanElectronics
Velocity(upto2.5m/s)
Lowcost
Finiteoperatinglife(2millioncycles)duetocontactwear
Accuracy:+/ 0.01% 3%FSO
Operatingtemperature:55~125C
DisplacementTransducer
MagnetostrictiveLinearDisplacementTransducer
Exceptionalperformanceforlongstrokepositionmeasurementupto
3m
Operationisbasedonaccuratelymeasuringthedistancefroma
predeterminedpointtoamagneticfieldproducedbyamovable
permanentmagnet.
Repeatabilityupto0.002%ofthemeasurementrange.
Resolutionupto0.002%offullscalerange(FSR)
Relativelylowfrequencybandwidth(3dBat100Hz)
Veryexpensive
PhotocourtesyofSchaevitz
DisplacementSensing
DifferentialVariableReluctanceTransducers
Relativelyshortstroke
Highresolution
Noncontactbetweenthemeasuredobjectandsensor
Type of Construction
Standard
tubular
Fixing Mode
by 8mm
diameter
Total Measuring Range 2(+/-1)mm

Pneumatic Retraction
No
Repeatability
0.1um
Operating
Temperature Limits
-10 to +65
degrees C
CourtesyofMicrostrain,Inc.
VelocitySensing
ScanningLaserVibrometry
Nophysicalcontactwiththetestobject;facilitateremote,mass
loadingfreevibrationmeasurementsontargets
measuringvelocity(translationalorangular)
automatedscanningmeasurementswithfastscanningspeed
However,veryexpensive(>$120K)
PhotocourtesyofBruel&Kjaer
PhotocourtesyofPolytec
LaserVibrometry
References
Structuralhealthmonitoringusingscanninglaservibrometry,
byL.Mallet,SmartMaterials&Structures,vol.13,2004,pg.
261
thetechnicalnoteentitledPrincipleofVibrometryfrom
Polytec
Shock(highG)Sensing
ShockPressureSensor
Measurementrangeupto69MPa(10ksi)
Highresponsespeed(risetime<2 sec.)
Highfrequencybandwidth(resonantfrequency
upto>500kHz)
Operatingtemperature:70to130C
Light(typicallyweighs~10g)
ShockAccelerometer
Measurementrangeupto+/ 70,000g
Frequencybandwidthtypicallyfrom0.5 30
kHzat3dB
Operatingtemperature:40to80C
Light(weighs~5g)
AngularMotionSensing(TiltMeter)
InertialGyroscope(e.g.,http://www.xbow.com)
usedtomeasureangularratesandX,Y,andZacceleration.
TiltSensor/Inclinometer(e.g.,http://www.microstrain.com)
Tiltsensorsandinclinometersgenerateanartificialhorizonandmeasure
angulartiltwithrespecttothishorizon.
RotaryPositionSensor(e.g.,http://www.msiusa.com)
includespotentiometersandavarietyofmagneticandcapacitive
technologies.Sensorsaredesignedforangulardisplacementlessthanone
turnorformultiturndisplacement.
Photo courtesy of MSI and Crossbow
MEMSTechnology
WhatisMEMS?
AcronymforMicroelectromechanicalSystems
MEMSisthenamegiventothepracticeofmakingandcombining
miniaturizedmechanicalandelectricalcomponents.
K.
Gabriel,SciAm,Sept1995.
Synonymto:
Micromachines(inJapan)
Microsystemstechnology(inEurope)
LeverageonexistingICbasedfabricationtechniques(butnowextendto
othernonICtechniques)
Potentialforlowcostthroughbatchfabrication
ThousandsofMEMSdevices(scalefrom~0.2mto1mm)couldbe
madesimultaneouslyonasinglesiliconwafer
MEMSTechnology
Colocationofsensing,computing,
actuating,control,communication
&poweronasmallchipsizedevice
Highspatialfunctionalityandfast
responsespeed
Veryhighprecisioninmanufacture
miniaturizedcomponentsimprove
responsespeedandreducepower
consumption
MEMSFabricationTechnique
CourtesyofA.P.Pisano,DARPA
DistinctiveFeaturesofMEMSDevices
Miniaturization
micromachines(sensorsandactuators)canhandle
microobjectsandmovefreelyinsmallspaces
Multiplicity
cooperativeworkfrommanysmallmicromachinesmaybe
bestwaytoperformalargetask
inexpensivetomakemanymachinesinparallel
Microelectronics
integratemicroelectroniccontroldeviceswithsensorsand
actuators
Fujita,Proc.IEEE,Vol.86,No8
MEMSAccelerometer
CapacitiveMEMS
accelerometer
Highprecisiondualaxis
accelerometerwithsignal
conditionedvoltageoutputs,all
onasinglemonolithicIC
Sensitivityfrom20to1000mV/g
Highaccuracy
Hightemperaturestability
Lowpower(lessthan700uA
typical)
5mmx5mmx2mmLCC
package
Lowcost($5~$14/pc.inYr.
2004)
CourtesyofAnalogDevices,Inc.
MEMSAccelerometer
PiezoresistiveMEMSaccelerometer
OperatingPrinciple:aproofmassattachedtoasiliconhousing
throughashortflexuralelement.Theimplantationofa
piezoresistivematerialontheuppersurfaceoftheflexural
element.Thestrainexperiencedbyapiezoresistivematerialcauses
apositionchangeofitsinternalatoms,resultinginthechangeofits
electricalresistance
lownoisepropertyathighfrequencies
CourtesyofJPLynch,UMich.
MEMSDust
MEMSdustherehasthesamescaleasasingle
dandelionseed somethingsosmallandlightthatit
literallyfloatsintheair.
Source:DistributedMEMS:NewChallengesforComputation,by
A.A.BERLINandK.J.GABRIEL,IEEEComp.Sci.Eng.,1997
SensingSystem
Reference
Zhang,R.andAktan,E.,Designconsiderationforsensing
systemstoensuredataquality,SensingissuesinCivilStructural
HealthMonitoring,EdedbyAnsari,F.,Springer,2005,P281290
ConsiderationsforSHM DataAcquisition
System
THEREISNOSENSORTHATMEASURES
DAMAGE!
(andthereneverwillbe!!)
However,cantdoSHM withoutsensing
Definedatatobeacquiredandthedatato
beusedinthefeatureextraction
process.
Typesofdatatobeacquired
Sensortypes,numberandloca ons
Bandwidth,sensi vity(dynamicrange)
Dataacquisi on/transmi al/storagesystem
Powerrequirements
Samplingintervals
Processor/memoryrequirements
Excita onsource(activesensing)
Sensordiagnos ccapability
CANNOTdevelopthesensing/processing
system
independentofthefeatureselectionand
statisticalmodel
developmentportionsoftheprocess
R.Farrar,2004
WhatisaSensorNetwork?
Manysimplenodeswithsensorsdeployed
throughoutanenvironment.
Determinationofsensorpositions(localization)
Cooperativetargetidentification&tracking
Indoororoutdoorenvironmentmonitoring
Civilstructuralhealthmonitoring(SHM)
Sameer Sundresh &al.,2004
CharacteristicsofSensorNetworks
Errorsarecommon.
Wirelesscommunication
Noisymeasurements
Nodefailuresaretobeexpected
Networkinteractsheavilywithenvironment.
Highlyconstrainednodes.
e.g.4kRAM,2AAbatteries,20msg/sradio
Mustoperateformonths,littlesupervision.
Experimentsaretime andspaceintensive.
Sameer Sundresh &al.,2004

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