PSA Chapter 06

DRAFT and INCOMPLETE
Table of Contents
from
A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control
Chapter 6 _____________________________________________________________ 2
Steady State Power Network Analysis Techniques_____________________________ 2
6.1 Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 2
6.2 System Modeling for Power Flow Analysis ___________________________________ 4
6.3 Basic Characteristic of the Power Flow Problem _____________________________ 11
6.4 Power Flow Problem Formulation for Large Systems _________________________ 16
6.5 Solution Techniques_____________________________________________________ 21
6.5.1 Coordinate Methods _________________________________________________________ 22
6.5.2 Gradient Methods ___________________________________________________________ 25
6.5.3 Discussion on Power Flow Solution Methods _____________________________________ 46
6.6 The DC Power Flow Model _______________________________________________ 47

6.7 External System Equivalents _____________________________________________ 50
6.7.1 Equivalents Based on DC Network Model Formulation _____________________________ 53
6.7.2 Equivalents Based on AC Network Model Formulation _____________________________ 56
6.7.3 Discussion on Equivalents ____________________________________________________ 60
6.8 Quadratized Power Flow Model ___________________________________________ 61

6.9 Summary and Discussion ________________________________________________ 70
6.10 Problems _____________________________________________________________ 71
Fall 2001, EE 4320 ____________________________________________________ 98

Solution for Homework Assignment #5 ____________________________________ 98
Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos
Chapter 6
Steady State Power Network Analysis
Techniques
6.1 Introduction
The need for power network analysis techniques under steady state conditions appears in
many applications of power engineering. As an example, consider the real time control
functions as performed in a modern energy management system. Some of the most
important functions are: (a) monitoring, (b) generation control and (c) security
assessment and control. All of these functions utilize network analysis methods under
steady state conditions. At any instant of time, it is desirable to know the operating
state of the system from a combination of measurements and analysis procedures. A
simple example will be the case where we measure in real time the power output of the
generating units, the electric loads, etc. and then by computation we determine other
quantities of interest such as power flows in the circuits of the system, reactive power
output of generating units, voltage magnitude levels at switching substations, etc. The
analysis procedures are similar to those used in the planning stage of power system
design or operations planning. There are several analysis problems which can be defined
in the above context. Conceptually, we classify these analysis problems into three
categories: (a) power flow, (b) state estimation, and (c) optimal power flow. These
analysis problems can be qualitatively defined with the aid of Figure 6.1. The illustrated
system is interconnected to other systems via tie lines. The system itself has a number of
controls. The type and quantity of controls is a function of the existing power equipment
in the system. For example, generating unit real power outputs, generating unit terminal
voltages, transformer tap settings, capacitor bank status, etc. Assume that at a given
instant of time, the control settings are known. In addition, the generating unit real power
outputs, the electric loads and the tie line flows are also known. Then the power flow
problem is defined as the procedure by which, given the above information, the circuit
flows and voltage levels everywhere in the system are computed.
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Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006
G1
G2
3
T2
T1
2
L1
Interconnection
Interconnection
L3
L2
5
T3
6
SD6
Real Power Flow Measurement

Reactive Power Flow Measurement
Voltage Magntude Measurement
Transformer Tap Measurement
Figure 6.1 A Simplified Power System with Interconnections
Depending on the objectives of the analysis and the available data, a number of distinct
analysis problems can be defined for the system of Figure 6.1. Three specific analysis
problems are of great importance in the control and operation of the system:
The Power Flow Problem: Assume that the system electric loads, the network
configuration, the generating unit power outputs, and the tie line flows are known (from
measurements). The objective is to determine the circuit flows and bus voltages. This
problem is frequently referred to as the on-line power flow.
The State Estimation Problem: Assume that measurements are taken of easily
measurable quantities such as circuit flows, generating unit power outputs, bus voltage
magnitudes, breaker status, etc. Assume that the number of these measurements is much
larger than what is required to determine the operating state of the system (redundant
measurements). It is possible to use all the redundant measurements to estimate the
operating conditions of the system in a statistical sense. We shall refer to this procedure
as the state estimation. The objective of state estimation is the same as of the on-line load
flow, i.e. to determine bus voltages and circuit flows. However, the state estimation
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provides the capability to check the measurements for errors (because of redundancy)
while on-line load flows will directly transmit a measurement error to the computed
operating system state. The state estimation problem is examined in Chapter 7.
The Optimal Power Flow Problem: Assume that the same information as for the online power flow or the state estimation problem is known. In addition, a number of
options are available for controlling the circuit flows and bus voltages such as
transformer taps, status of capacitor banks, generating unit reactive, or real power output,
etc. The objective is to select the options (controls) in such a way that the resulting
operating conditions meet certain performance criteria, for example, minimum operating
cost, minimum losses, etc. This problem is known as the optimal power flow. This
problem will be studied in Chapter 9.
The power flow problem will be studied in this chapter. The problem is formulated for
large power systems and then solution techniques are examined. Since power
transmission systems comprise a large number of transmission lines, transformers, etc.,
emphasis is placed on solution techniques applicable to large scale systems. These
techniques are presented in Appendix A. The related topic of modeling external
equivalents will be also addressed. Specifically, an equivalent representation of the
external system is required to model the power systems beyond the tie lines. Since power
systems are interconnected, the network of the entire interconnected system is very large.
Modeling of the entire interconnected power system (for example the eastern
interconnection encompasses all systems between Key West, FL and Montreal, CN and
between the Atlantic Ocean and Nebraska) for power flow analysis purposes is not
practical. For this reason, the external system most of the times is modeled with an
equivalent representation. It is however important to note that the deregulation of the
electric power industry has initiated discussions of operating larger and larger portions of
the system as one power market controlled by an independed entity (Independent System
Operator (ISO), Regional Transmission Systems (RTO)). The size of these systems keeps
increasing and there is talk of Mega RTOs. This trend will result in ever increasing sizes
of the power system model and the need to develop more efficient solution methods for
the problems to be discussed in this chapter.
This chapter is organized as follows: First the formulation of the power flow problem is
presented. Next solution techniques are examined. The Gauss/Seidel, the NewtonRaphson, and the Fast Decoupled Power Flow methods are presented. Equivalent
representation of the external systems is presented last.
6.2 System Modeling for Power Flow Analysis

The normal operation of a three phase electric power system is characterized by
approximately balanced conditions. The generators of the system generate positive
sequence voltages and all elements are approximately three phase symmetric elements.
Thus, as a first approximation, it can be assumed that all the voltages and currents
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everywhere in the system are balanced three phase quantities. Consequently, the system
can be analyzed as a balanced one. In this case, only the positive sequence network of the
system needs to be considered. Traditionally, the positive sequence network is
perunitized. Therefore, in power flow studies, the per unit positive sequence equivalent
network is considered.
The modeling procedure is illustrated with the simplified power system of Figure 6.2.
The system consists of a generating unit, a three phase delta-wye connected transformer,
a transmission line and an electric load. Nodes 1, 2, and 3 represent phase A of the three
phase bus at the indicated locations of the power system, namely generating unit
terminals, electric load terminals, and wye-connected side of the transformer
respectively. It is important to note that, under the assumptions of (a) balanced operation
and (b) symmetric system, knowledge of the voltages at the nodes 1, 2, and 3, is
sufficient to determine any quantity of interest in the system (for example total (three
phase) electric load, total real and reactive power flow through the line, etc.). Can you
justify this statement? Lets examine the operation of this system. In general, the power
absorbed by the electric load will be measured and therefore, it can be assumed known.
The generator will generate enough real power to supply the electric load and the losses
in the transformer and transmission line. The voltage magnitude of the system must be
controlled. The generating unit will control the voltage magnitude to a desirable level.
For simplicity assume that the generator controls the voltage magnitude at node 1 to a
specified value. For this scenario, the known quantities for the system of Figure 6.2 are
(a) the power absorbed by the electric load, Sd = Pd + jQd , and (b) the voltage magnitude
at node 1. It will be shown that this information is sufficient to determine all other
quantities of interest. Many times we simplify and show the known information on a
single line diagram. As an example, the single line diagram of the system of Figure 6.2
with the known information is shown in Figure 6.3.
1
Three
Phase
Generator
Electric
Load
Figure 6.2 A Simplified Three Phase Power System

In earlier chapters, positive sequence models for transformers, transmission lines, and
generators were developed. Since for the system of Figure 6.2 we assume balanced and
symmetric operation, we can use the positive sequence equivalent circuit. Figure 6.4a
shows the positive sequence equivalent model for the system of Figure 6.2. Note that in
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the Figure, the generator has been removed, since at this location the voltage is known,
and that the electric load at the load bus is simply represented with the quantity Sd/3. The
indicated impedances are of known values. Also the transformer transformation ratio t is
known. The positive sequence equivalent model can be perunitized with the methods
described in Chapter 4. Note that in this case, the perunitized equivalent circuit will be
topologically the same as that of Figure 6.4a. The impedance values, the ratio t, the
voltage V1 and the electric load Sd/3 will be replaced with the per unit values. Observe
also that the system is normal (see Chapter 4) and thus the phase shift of 300 for the deltawye transformer can be neglected. The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Figure
6.4b.
:Y
Sd
Figure 6.3 Single Line Diagram of the System of Figure 6.3
V1
Sd /3
1 : te j30
(a)
1
V1 u
Sdu
(b)
Figure 6.4 Equivalent Model of the System of Figure 6.2
(a) Positive Sequence Equivalent Model
(b) Per-Unitized Positive Sequence Equivalent Model
Now observe the following: In the system of Figure 6.4b, node 3 can be eliminated, for
example with a star-delta transformation. The resulting system will have nodes 1 and 2
only and a pi-equivalent circuit connecting the new nodes. The power flow from node 2
to node 1 can be computed as a function of the voltages at nodes 2 and 1, i.e.
S 21 = f 21 (V1e j1 , V2 e j 2 )
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(6.1)
Conservation of electric power at node 2 requires that
S 21 + S d 2 = 0
(6.2)
Note that above equation is in terms of complex variables V1e j1 and V2 e j 2 . Since the
first one is known, then this equation is sufficient to solve for the unknown complex
variable V2 e j 2 of the problem. Note that the complex equation can be transformed into
two equations in real variables (real and imaginary part) in terms of two unknown real
variables. The procedure will be illustrated with two examples.
Example E6.1:
parameters:
Consider the power system of Figure 6.2. Assume the following
Transformer:
Transmission Line:
Generator Voltage:
Electric Load:
Ratio:
18kV:115kV
Power Rating:
100 MVA
Impedance:
j0.08 pu
Series Impedance:
j15.87 ohms
Shunt Admittance: 0
V1 = 10.5 kV (Line to Ground)
Sd2 = 85MW + j36 MVARS (total three phase)
Compute the positive sequence, perunitized circuit for this system. Then write the power
flow equations for this system.
Solution: Computation of the perunitized positive sequence equivalent circuit (using as
bases: generator terminals VB1=18kV line to line, SB=100MVA, transmission line
VB2=115kV line to line, SB=100MVA.) leads to the circuit of Figure E6.1a. Note that we
elected to neglect the 300 phase shift of the transformer because the system is normal.
The usual symbolic representation of this circuit is given in Figure E6.1b, where the
impedances have been lumped and converted to admittance values. Now the power flow
on the circuit is computed to be
S 21 = 5.05V2 sin( 2 ) + j (5.0V22 5.05V2 cos( 2 ))

The power balance at node 2 yields (by separating the complex equation into real and
imaginary parts):
5.05V2sin2 + 0.85 = 0
5 V22 - 5.05V2cos 2 + 0.36 = 0
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j0.08
j0.12
V3e
j0
V1= 1.01e
S
d = 0.85+j0.36
(a)
j0
V1= 1.01e
1
-j5
V3e
Sd = 0.85+j0.36
(b)
Figure E6.1 Simplified Example System

(a) Positive Sequence Equivalent Circuit - in Per Unit
(b) Single Line Diagram
Above set of equations are the power flow equations for this problem. There are two
equations and two unknowns. Solution of these equations yields the values for V2 and 2.
Once the values of V2, 2 are known, other quantities of interest can be computed, for
example the power output (real and reactive) of the generating unit will be given by the
equations
Pg1 = 5.05V2 sin 2
Qg1 = 5.1005 5.05V2 cos 2

Example E6.2: Consider the four bus system of Figure E6.2. The electric load at bus 4 is
2.2+j0.5 pu. The generating unit 2 generates 1.8 pu real power. The transformer is an off
nominal tap transformer, its reactance is j0.08 pu. and the transformer tap is set to 1.05 pu
(bus 4 is the high side). The line data are given in Table E6.2
Table E6.2 System Data
Circuit
L1
L2
L3
From Bus
1
2
1
To Bus
2
3
4
Series Admittance
-j10
-j9.0
-j12.5
Shunt Admittance
J0.03
J0.02
J0.05
1. Derive the positive sequence equivalent circuit of the system in per unit.
2. Write the power flow equations for the system.
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Slack bus
1
G2
2
L1
C1
L2
3
L3
T1
4
SD4
Figure E6.2 A Four Bus Test System
Solution: (a) The pi-equivalent parameters of the off-nominal tap transformer are
computed (see chapter 4):
y s 34 = (t 2 t ) y = j0.65625
ys 43 = (1.0 t ) y = j 0.625
y34 = ty = j13.125
The positive sequence circuit is illustrated in Figure E6.2a.
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G2
Slack bus
-j10
j0.2
j.03
j.03
-j9 j.02
j.05
j.02
3
-j12.5
j.05
-j13.125
-j0.65625
j0.625
Sd4
Figure E6.2a Positive Sequence Equivalent Circuit (in per unit) of the
System of Figure E6.2
b) Observe that the bus voltages are
~
V1 = 1.0e j 0
~
V2 = 1.02e j 2
~
V3 = V3 e j 3
~
V4 = V4 e j 4
The power balance equations for each bus of the system are written in terms of the above
voltages, yielding:
Bus 1:
Pg1 + jQ g1 = j 22.42 j10.2e j 2 j12.5V4 e j 4
Bus 2:
1.8 + jQg 2 = j19.5075 j10.2e j 2 j 9.18V3e j ( 2 3 )
Bus 3:
0 + j 0 = j 22.76125V32 j9.18V3 e j ( 3 2 ) j13.125V3V4 e j ( 3 4 )
Bus 4:
2.2 j 0.5 = j 24.95V42 j12.5V4 e j 4 j13.125V3V4 e j ( 4 3 )
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Note that we have four algebraic complex equations in eight unknowns (real variables),
namely, 2 , 3 , 4 ,V3 ,V4 , Pg1 , Qg1 , and Qg 2 . Separation of above equations into real and
imaginary parts, yields eight equations:
10.2 sin( 2 ) + 12.5V4 sin( 4 ) Pg1 = 0

22.42 10.2 cos( 2 ) 12.5V4 cos( 4 ) Q g1 = 0
10.2 sin( 2 ) + 9.18V3 sin( 2 3 ) 1.8 = 0

19.5075 10.2 cos( 2 ) 9.18V3 cos( 2 3 ) Qg 2 = 0
9.18V3 sin( 3 2 ) + 13.125V3V4 sin( 3 4 ) = 0

22.76125V32 9.18V3 cos( 3 2 ) 13.125V3V4 cos( 3 4 ) = 0
12.5V 4 sin( 4 ) + 13.125V3V 4 sin( 4 3 ) + 2.2 = 0

24.95V42 12.5V4 cos( 4 ) 13.125V3V4 cos( 4 3 ) + 0.5 = 0
In above equations, one can observe that the variables Pg1 , Q g1 , and Q g 2 appear only in
one equation each (first, second and forth equations). The remaining equations form a set
of five equations in terms of five variables, i.e. 2 , 3 , 4 , V3 , and V4 . Therefore, one can
conclude that these five equations form a minimum number of equations in terms of a
minimum number of unknowns.
In summary, modeling for power flow analysis requires the development of the positive
sequence equivalent network, preferably in per unit, of the system. Given the positive
sequence equivalent circuit, the power flow equations can be written expressing power
conservation at every bus. Power flow analysis refers to the solution of above equations
for the purpose of determining the power flow through individual circuits. The next
section is devoted to this task.
6.3 Basic Characteristic of the Power Flow Problem

Considerable insight into the load flow problem and its salient properties and
characteristics can be obtained by considering a very simple electric power system
illustrated in Figure 6.5. For simplicity, all transformers are neglected. The three
transmission lines are represented with their positive sequence pi-equivalent circuit.
Capacitor banks or reactor banks are assumed to exist at buses 2 and 3 represented with
admittances y2 and y3, respectively. Generators exist at buses 1 and 2, while at bus 3
there is an electric load which absorbs a total complex power of Sd3. The generated
complex powers at buses 1 and 2 are Sg1 and Sg2, respectively. It is important to observe
that knowledge of the voltages at the three buses 1, 2, and 3 as phasors, suffices to define
all other quantities in the system, i.e. power flow on each transmission line, power
absorbed by the element y2, etc. For this reason, it is expedient to try to express the
equations of the system in terms of the bus voltages. Specifically, the power balance
equations for each bus can be expressed in terms of the bus voltages as follows:
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~ 2 ~ ~
~ ~
Y11* V1 + V1Y12* V2* + V1Y13*V3* S g1 + S d 1 = 0
(6.3a)
~
~
~
V2Y21* V1* + Y22* V2
(6.3b)
~
~
+ V2Y23* V3* S g 2 + S d 2 = 0
~ ~
~ ~
~ 2
V3Y31* V1* + V3Y32* V2* + Y33* V3 + S d 3 = 0
(6.3c)
where:
Y11 = y12 + yS12 + y13 + yS13
Y12 = Y21 = -y12
Y13 = Y31 = -y13
Y22 = y2 + y12 + yS12 +y23 + yS23
Y23 = Y32 = y23
Y33 = y3 + y13 + yS31 + y23 + yS32
G1
Sg1
Sg2
G2
2
y12
ys21
ys12
y2
Sd2
d1
y13
ys13
y23
ys31
ys32
Sd3
ys23
y3
Figure 6.5 A Simple Three Bus Electric Power System

A number of variables appear in these equations. Dommel and Tinney [???] has
suggested a classification of all variables in a way which is useful for formulating power
flow problems and other related problems. It is expedient to introduce this classification
and comment on the nature of these variables:
System Parameter Variables. These are the line and transformer admittances,
transformer taps, etc. In above equations they are included in the variables, Y11, Y12, etc.
It is assumed that they are known. The parameters will be denoted with the vector p.
Electric Power Demand Variables. These consist of all externally determined real and
reactive loads of the system. For the system under consideration, they are Sd1 = Pd1 +
jQd1, Sd2 = Pd2 + jQd2 and Sd3 = Pd3 + jQd3. These variables will be denoted with the
vector d.
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State Variables. The state variables are defined as the minimum set of variables, the
knowledge of which will enable the computation of all relevant quantities of interest. In
the case of the power flow problem, these variables are all the complex bus voltages. The
complex bus voltages can be expressed in polar or rectangular coordinates. The polar
representation of bus k voltage is utilized in this text given with
~
Vk = Vk e j k
The voltage magnitude at certain buses is maintained at a specified value through
generator excitation control or through regulating transformer action. At these buses only
the phase of the voltage is considered to be a state variable. In addition, the phase
variables, k, are normally defined with respect to a certain time reference (see Chapter
2). Without loss of generality, we can select the time reference in such a way that the
phase angle at an arbitrarily selected bus is zero. Later we will see that we normally
select this bus to be a generation bus and we call this bus the slack bus. Thus, the state
variables, which are denoted with the vector x, are the k variables for all buses except
the slack bus and a subset of the Vk variables.
Control Variables. These consist of all quantities that can be independently manipulated
or by existing control loops to satisfy system objectives. For the power flow problem,
these are:
Voltage magnitude at certain buses. For example, generation buses, buses

connected to regulating transformers, or buses with synchronous condensers, etc.
Real power generation at generation buses. (This controls are not totally
independent since at all times the total generation must equal the system load plus
losses)
Tap settings of transformers.
Phase shift of phase shifting transformers
Switch status of capacitor and/or reactor banks (open/close).
Etc.
The control variables are denoted with the vector u.

In summary, the variables appearing in the power flow equations have been classified
into parameters (p), demand variables (d), state variables (x), and control variables (u). It
is important to note that there is no unique way of separating the variables into the
defined groups. This classification is depended upon the application and formulation of
the problem. For example, a transformer tap variable may be a parameter, a state, or a
control variable depending on system operation options.
Now examine equations (6.3) with the objective of revealing the essence of the power
flow analysis. First of all, the objective is to compute the electric power flow in each
circuit of the system, the voltage level at every bus, etc. Observe that, in general, a
Page 13
number of variables in equations (6.3) will be specified. For example, the real power of
generator G2 output, the voltage magnitude at bus 1, etc. In general, the following
parameters are associated with each bus, k, in the system:
Sgk:
electric power generated at bus k consisting of real and reactive power:

Sgk = Pgk + jQgk
Sdk:
electric power consumed at bus k consisting of real and reactive power:

Sdk = Pdk + jQdk
~
Vk:
voltage at bus k. This is a phasor, with magnitude Vk and phase k.
Thus at each bus a total of six variables may be defined. On the other hand, at each bus
one complex equation must be satisfied (complex power balance equation) or two
equations in real variables (real power flow balance equation and reactive power balance
equation). In order to match the number of equations to the number of unknown
variables, only two out of six variables at a bus may be unknown. Note that a subset of
the six variables at a bus will be specified by operator action or power system control
actions, for example generation excitation control. It is expected that the unknown
variables and equations (6.3) represent a consistent system of equations, i.e., the number
of equations equals the number of unknowns. An examination of equation (6.3) reveals
quickly that the arbitrary selection of both generators complex power outputs is not
feasible. Since the sum of the generator real power output should always equal the real
power load plus losses and since the system losses are not a priori known, one of the
generators should be allowed to adjust its real power output. This generator takes the
slack due to the yet uncalculated system losses. According to the generally accepted
terminology, the bus to which this generator is connected to is called the slack bus. The
inherent assumption here is that the available generation at the slack bus is large enough
to take the slack. It is also assumed that the generators at the slack bus control the
voltage magnitude of this bus. Thus the magnitude of the voltage at the slack bus is
specified. In addition, without loss of generality, the phase of this voltage can be assumed
to be equal to zero (see previous discussion). Thus:
~
V1 = V1e j 0.0 , V1 specified
The specification of the voltage V1 results in decoupling equation (6.3a) from (6.3b) and
(6.3c). This means that equations (6.3b) and (6.3c) can be solved independently from
(6.3a). Then, the solution is utilized to compute the slack bus generation with equation
(6.3a). This property carries to large electric power systems as well.
The preceding discussion reveals that, mathematically, the power flow problem for the
system under consideration collapses to the simultaneous solution of equations (6.3b) and
(6.3c).
Page 14
Similarly, the buses of the system can be classified according to the type of known
variables associated with them. Recall that at each bus six variables can be defined.
These six variables appear in the power balance equations of a bus in terms of the
following four quantities:
l)
2)
3)
4)
Real power injection

Pk = Pgk - Pdk
Reactive power injection Qk = Qgk - Qdk
Voltage magnitude
Vk
Voltage phase angle
k.
The following definitions are useful in the formulation of the power flow problem.
Slack Bus. The bus of the system for which the real and reactive power are allowed to
swing (or take the slack) and for which the voltage phase angle is specified to be zero.
Most common, the voltage magnitude at this bus is also specified.
PQ Bus. Any bus for which the real power injection (Pk) and the reactive power injection
(Qk) are specified (or known).
PV Bus. Any bus for which the real power injection (Pk) and the voltage magnitude (Vk)
are specified.
With reference to Figure 6.5, bus 1 is the slack bus, bus 2 is a PV bus, and bus 3 is a PQ
bus. From above analysis, it is obvious that a PQ bus contributes two state variables (the
voltage magnitude and the phase, Vk and , respectively), while a PV bus contributes
one state variable only (the phase of the voltage ).
Now consider equations (6.3b) and (6.3c). Expressing the voltages in polar form and
separating real and imaginary parts, the following four equations are obtained
V 22 g 2 + ( g 2 m + g s 2 m ) V 2 2 mV m Pg 2 + Pd 2 = 0
m =1, 3
m =1, 3
V 22 b2 + (b2 m + bs 2 m ) V 2 2 mV m Q g 2 + Q d 2 = 0
m =1, 3
m =1, 3
V32 g 3 + ( g 3m + g s 3m ) V3 3mV m + Pd 3 = 0
m =1, 2
m =1, 2
V32 b3 + (b3m + bs 3m ) V3 3mVm + Qd 3 = 0

m =1, 2
m =1, 2
where
y km = g km + jbkm
(6.4a)
(6.4b)
(6.4c)
(6.4d)
y skm = g skm + jbskm

y k = g k + jbk
Page 15
km = g km cos( k m ) + bkm sin( k m )

km = g km sin( k m ) bkm cos( k m )
Careful inspection of the above four equations reveals that the following unknowns
appear in these equations:
First equation:
Second Equation:
Third equation:
Fourth equation:
2, V3, 3
(Qg2 - Qd2), 2, V3, 3
2, V3, 3
2, V3, 3
Obviously, the second equation is decoupled from the remaining equations in the sense
that it introduces a new unknown (Qg2 - Qd2) which does not appear in the other
equations. The first, third, and fourth equations form a set of three equations in three
unknowns only, namely 2, V3, 3. Note that according to the definitions, these three
variables form the state variables. The procedure has isolated three equations (first, third,
and fourth equation) and an equal number of state variables 2, V3, 3. These equations
provide the formulation of the power flow problem for this system and they are
summarized below.
V 22 g 2 + ( g 2 m + g s 2 m ) V 2 2 mV m Pg 2 + Pd 2 = 0
m =1, 3
m =1, 3
V32 g 3 + ( g 3m + g s 3m ) V3 3mV m + Pd 3 = 0
m =1, 2
m =1, 2
V32 b3 + (b3m + bs 3m ) V3 3mVm + Qd 3 = 0

m =1, 2
m =1, 2
(6.4a)
(6.4c)
(6.4d)
This procedure can be generalized to large electric power systems. The generalization is
presented in the next section.
6.4 Power Flow Problem Formulation for Large Systems

The analysis of the previous paragraph and the introduced definitions allow the
formulation of the load flow problem for large electric power systems. Note that the
procedure requires (a) the power balance equations at the buses of the system, and (b)
selecting a proper subset of these equations which will provide the minimum number of
simultaneous equations in terms of an equal number of state variables (equal number of
equations and unknowns). The solution of these equations provides the system state.
A systematic way of writing the power flow equations for any bus is given below,
followed by the selection process. The power flow equations can be developed with
reference to Figure 6.6 illustrating a general bus k of a large electric power system. A
Page 16
circuit between any two buses k,m is represented with its equivalent positive sequence piequivalent circuit. In general, one or more circuits may be connected to a bus. In
addition, an admittance yk may be also connected to a bus (a capacitor, a reactor, etc.). It
is assumed that electric current Igk is injected to bus k from the generators connected to
this bus. Also, electric current Idk is absorbed from the electric load connected to this
bus. In general, one or both
from a bus. The voltage of
~ of these currents may be absent
~
bus k is assumed to be Vk and the voltage of bus m, Vm. Electric current will flow
through the circuit k,m as it is indicated in Figure 6.6. This electric current will be:
~
~
~
I km = ( y km + y skm )Vk y kmVm
(6.5)
In case a capacitor bank or a reactor is connected to bus k, of admittance yk, the electric
~
current absorbed by this admittance will be y k Vk k. Similarly, all other electric currents
on the circuits connected to bus k can be computed. Application of Kirchoff's current law
to bus k will yield:
~
~
~
I gk I dk = y k V k +
mK ( k )
(6.6)
km
where
~ K(k) represents the set of buses which share a circuit with bus k. Upon substitution
of I km:
~
~
~
~
I gk I dk = y k + ( y skm + y km ) Vk y kmVm
mK ( k )
mK ( k )
(6.7)
Define
Ykk = y k +
(y
mK ( k )
skm
+ y km )
Ykm = y km
and recognize that Ykk and Ykm are the elements (kth diagonal and (k,m)th element,
respectively) of the usual admittance matrix of the power system network. Now equation
(6.7) assumes the form:
~
~
~
I gk I dk = Ykk V k +
mK ( k )
km
~
Vm
(6.8)
Page 17
Nonlinear
Linear
To Other Circuits
Igk
ykm
bus k
bus m
Idk
Ikm
Electric
Load
ysmk
yskm
yk
Figure 6.6 Symbolic Representation of a General Bus of an Electric Power

System - Positive Sequence Network
In power flow studies, the known (or specified or measured) quantities are usually the
electric power generated at a bus and/or the electric power absorbed by the load. These
quantities for bus k will be designated with Sgk, Sdk, respectively, and are equal to:
~~
S gk = Vk I gk*
(6.9)
~~
S dk = Vk I dk*
(6.10)
where the asterisk denotes complex conjugation. The total electric power injected to a
bus is obviously Sgk - Sdk. Combination of equations (6.8), (6.9), and (6.10) yields:
~
~
Sgk - Sdk = Y*kk Vk2 + Vk Y*km V*m
(6.11)
m(k)
In general
~
V k = V k e j k ,
~
Vm = Vm e j m ,
y k = g k + jbk
y km = g km + jbkm
Upon substitution of above relationships into equation (6.11)
Page 18
S gk S dk = V k2 g k + ( g km + g skm ) V k kmV m - jV k2 bk + (bkm + b skm ) jV k kmV m )

mK ( k )
mK ( k )
mK ( k )
mK ( k )
(6.12)
where:

Finally by separating above equation into real and imaginary parts:
Pgk Pdk = V k2 g k + ( g km + g skm ) V k kmV m

mK ( k )
mK ( k )
Q gk Q dk = V k2 b k + (b km + b skm ) V k km V m
mK ( k )
mK ( k )
(6.13a)
(6.13b)
Equation (6.12) or its expended form (6.13) expresses power conservation at bus k: the
injected electric power Sgk - Sdk equals the electric power flowing to the circuits. For an
electric power system comprising n buses, n such equations can be written; one for each
bus. These n equations are called the power balance equations.
Observe that in a power system comprising n buses, and assuming that m of the n buses
are PQ buses, the minimum set of variables describing the state of the system are:
The phase of bus voltages at all buses except the slack bus; 2 , 3 , ..., n .
The voltage magnitude at all PQ buses; Vk1 , Vk 2 , ..., Vkq where k1 is the first PQ
bus, ..., kq is the last PQ bus.
These variables are the state variables x. Thus, the state vector comprises n-1+q
unknown variables. The state vector will be determined from an appropriate set of n-1+q
independent equations. For the purpose of selecting these equations, observe the
following: The real power equation for a PV bus expresses the relationship among the
real power injection at this bus to the state vector x. Also, the reactive power equation for
a PQ bus expresses the relationship among the known reactive power injection at this bus
to the state vector x. Consider the following equations:
(a) n-1 real power balance equations; one for each bus except the slack bus
(b) q reactive power balance equations; one for each PQ bus;
These equations are independent. The only unknowns appearing in these equations are
the voltages phases 2 , 3 , ..., n , and the voltage magnitudes Vk1 , Vk 2 , ..., Vkq (state
variables, a total of n-1+q unknowns). The simultaneous solution of this system of
equations will provide the state vector x and thus, the solution to the power flow
problem. This set of equations are the power flow equations.
Page 19
In order to facilitate notation and symbolism, the following convention will be applied. It
is assumed that the slack bus is bus number 1. Then the equations are numbered as
follows: The first equation will be the real power equation for bus 2, the second will be
the real power equation for bus 3, etc. The (n-l)th equation will be the real power
equation for bus n. The nth equation will be the reactive power equation for bus k1 (first
PQ bus), etc. The (n-1+q)th equation will be the reactive power equation for bus kq (last
PQ bus). This numbering of equations determines the numbering of the state variables.
Specifically, the first state variable is 2 the second state variable is 3, etc, the (n-l)th
state variable is n, the nth state variable is Vk1 , etc., and the (n-1+q)th state variable is
Vkq .
The determination of a minimum set of equations in equal number of unknowns for the
solution of the load flow problem is illustrated with an example.
Example E6.3: For the system of Figure E6.1b write the power flow equations, i.e. a
minimum set of equations in equal number of unknowns) whose solution will provide the
power flow solution.
Solution: The state variables are two: 2 and V2. The two equations are
g1(x) = 5.05V2sin 2 + 0.85 = 0
g2(x) = 5 V22 - 5.05V2cos 2 + 0.36 = 0
Example E6.4: For the system of Figure E6.2, write the power flow equations, i.e. a
minimum set of equations whose solution will provide the power flow solution.
Solution: The state variables are five, 2, 3, 4, V3, V4. The five equations which will
provide the solution are: Three real power equations, one each for buses 2, 3, 4; two
reactive power equations, one each for buses 3, 4.
g1 ( x) = 10.2 sin( 2 ) + 9.18V3 sin( 2 3 ) 1.8

g 2 ( x) = 9.18V3 sin( 3 2 ) + 13.125V3V4 sin( 3 4 )
g3 ( x) = 12.5V4 sin( 4 ) + 13.125V3V4 sin( 4 3 ) + 2.2
g3 ( x) = 22.76125V32 9.18V3 cos( 3 2 ) 13.125V3V4 cos( 3 4 )
g5 ( x) = 24.95V42 12.5V4 cos( 4 ) 13.125V3V4 cos( 4 3 ) + 0.5
Note that assuming that the state variables 2 3, 4 and V3, V4 have been computed, other
quantities of interest, such as Qg2, Pg1, and Qg1 can be computed by direct substitution
into the equations:
Qg 2 = 19.5075 10.2 cos( 2 ) 9.18V3 cos( 2 3 )

Pg1 = 10.2 sin( 2 ) + 12.5V4 sin( 4 )
Page 20
Qg1 = 22.42 10.2 cos( 2 ) 12.5V4 cos( 4 )
6.5 Solution Techniques

The formulation of the power flow problem leads to a system of nonlinear algebraic
equations. Solution of these equations can be obtained with a number of numerical
analysis algorithms which shall be reviewed in this section. The discussion will be
confined only to algorithms which have been successfully applied to the power flow
problem.
In general, the power flow equations can be written in the following general form:
g ( x, p , u ) = 0
(6.14)
where
x is the state vector
p is the parameter vector
u is the control vector
g is the set of power flow equations.
For the power flow problem, it is assumed that the vectors p and u are known or
specified, in which case the equations are written as
g ( x) = 0
(6.15)
In expanded form, the above vector equation reads:

g1 (x1, x2, ... , xn) = 0
g2 (x1, x2, ... , xn) = 0
.... .... ........
gn (x1, x2, ... , xn) = 0
(6.16)
The solution of the nonlinear set of equations (6.15) can be obtained with an algorithm of
the general form [???]:
x +1 = x + A( x )
where
(6.17)
x is the state vector at iteration .

A is the algorithm which transforms a given state vector x into A( x ) .
Page 21
The algorithm A should be selected in such a way as to provide the correct solution x by
repetitive application of equation (6.17). This section is devoted to the algorithms (6.17)
and their practical implementation to the power flow problem.
The algorithms applied to the power flow problem can be classified into two broad
categories, (a) coordinate methods and (b) gradient methods. Table 6.1 lists these
categories. The two categories of solution methods will be briefly discussed.
Table 6.1 Numerical Solution Techniques Applied to the Power Flow
Problem
Class A
Coordinate Methods
* Gauss Method
* Gauss/Seidel Method
Class B
Gradient Methods
* Optimal Descent
* Newton/Raphson
* Quasi Newton Methods
6.5.1 Coordinate Methods

The idea of this method is very simple and it is credited to Gauss. Given a set of n
equations in n unknowns, solve equation 1 for unknown #1, then solve equation #2 for
unknown 2, etc., until the last equation. It can be easily proven, that this procedure is
always possible assuming that the n equations are independent. Completion of above
procedure transforms, equation (6.15) into equation (6.18) below:
x = G(x)
(6.18)
The algorithm A( x ) is now defined in terms of the function G(x):
A( x ) = G( x ) x
(6.19)
x +1 = x + A( x )
The coordinate method is illustrated with an example.
Example E6.5: Solve the following set of equations using the coordinate method.
10x1 - 2x2 - 1 = 0
-x1 + 100x2 - 2 =0
Solution: Solve first equation for x1, and second equation for x2
x1 = 0.1 + 0.2x2
Page 22
x2 =0.02 + 0.01x1
The algorithm A is
0.1 + 0.2 x 2 x1
A( x ) =
0.02 + 0.01x1 x 2
Starting from an initial guess, x10 = 0, x 20 = 0, the first three iterations are:
Iteration
0
1
2
3
x1
0
0.1
0.104
0.10408
x2
0
0.02
0.02104
0.021042
Note that the solution to this set of equations is x1 = 0.1042084, x2 = 0.0210421.

Obviously, in this case the algorithm converges fast to the solution.
The coordinate method is simple and has been successfully applied to the solution of the
power flow problem. The algorithms developed are known as the Gauss Method and the
Gauss/Seidel method. They are described next.
6.5.1a Gauss Method
Consider the complex power equation for bus k.
~
~
Sgk - Sdk = Y*kk Vk2 + Vk Y*km V*m
m(k)
The equation is rewritten in the form

~ ~
~
~
Y*kkVkV*k = Sgk - Sdk - Vk Y*km V*m
m(k)
~
Dividing above equation by Y*kkVk and then taking the conjugate of the entire equation:
% =
V
k
Ykm %
1
Vm
( S*gk S*dk )
*
%
Y
Ykk V
m
K
k
(
)
kk
k
(6.20)
Equation (6.20) can be written in a simpler form as follows:
% = Ak B V
%
V
k
% * m K(k )km m
V
k
where
Page 23
Ak = (Sgk* - Sdk*) / Ykk

Bkm = Ykm / Ykk
K(k) is the set of buses connected to bus k.
In summary, the Gauss method is expressed with the algorithm:
A
~
~
Vk +1 = ~k BkmVm ,
Vk
mK ( k )
k = 1, 2, ..., n
(6.21)
If voltage control buses exist in the system, the algorithm for these buses must change to
reflect the fact that the voltage magnitude is controlled. The required changes are very
simple. After each iteration of the algorithm, the voltage magnitude of the voltage
controlled buses are set to the specified values.
6.5.1b Gauss/Seidel Method
This method is an extension of the Gauss method. The basic idea is to employ the most
recent values of the voltage variables in the application of the algorithm. Thus, the
algorithm of equation (6.21) is modified to
A
~
~
~
V k +1 = ~ k B kmVm +1 B kmVm ,
*
mK ( k ), m < k
mK ( k ), m > k
Vk
k = 2, 3, ..., n
(6.22)
The voltage controlled buses are treated in the same way as in the Gauss method. The
Gauss or Gauss/Seidel method will be demonstrated with an example.
Example E6.6: Consider the simplified electric power system of Figure E6.1, Example
E6.1. For this system:
(a) Develop the Gauss/Seidel algorithm
(b) Perform four iterations of the algorithm assuming the following initial guess: (a) all
unspecified voltage magnitudes equal to 1.0 pu, (b) all unspecified phase angles equal
to 0.0.
Solution: a) The Gauss algorithm is:
A
~
~
V2 +1 = ~ 2 B21V1
*
V2
where A2 =
Page 24
S g* 2 S d* 2
Y22
0.85 j 0.36
= 0.072 j 0.17
j 5 .0
B21 =
Therefore:
b)
Y21
j 5.0
=
= 1.0
Y22 j 5.0
0.072 j 0.17
~
+ 1.01
V2 +1 =
~
V2*
~
Four iterations of the algorithm starting from V2 = 1.0 :
Iteration #
0
1
2
3
4
~
Voltage V2
1.0
o
0.9532e-j10.27
o
0.9183e -j10.16
o
0.9158e -j10.60
o
0.9142e-j10.59
6.5.2 Gradient Methods

Gradient methods is a general class of numerical algorithms for the solution of a set of
nonlinear equations. The name is attributed to the fact that at each iteration, the solution
moves along the gradient of the equations at the present solution. Thus,
x +1 = x + d ( x )
(6.23)
where
present solution
x
d ( x ) the gradient at the present solution, x
a scalar appropriately selected.

There are many variations of gradient methods. The most widely used are listed in Table
6.2. The convergence properties of the methods are also listed.
Table 6.2 Gradient Methods
d(x )
*
Convergence Speed
*General Algorithm: x +1
Optimal Descent
g
Optimal
First Order
= x + d ( x )
Newton's Method
J-1 g(x)
-1
Quadratic
Quasi Newton
C g(x)
-1
Near Quadratic
All of above methods have been successfully employed to the problems of power flow,
optimal power flow and other analysis problems. The optimal descent method has not
Page 25
been widely accepted because its poor convergence characteristics. The Newton's method
and Quasi-Newton methods have emerged as the preferred methods for power flow
analysis. In subsequent sections, these methods will be presented with applications to the
power flow problem.
6.5.2a Newton's Method
Direct application of Newton's numerical solution algorithm to the power flow equations,
as developed in previous sections, is known as the Newton/Raphson method. Newton's
method will be reviewed first in its general form and then applied to the power flow
equations.
Consider the system of nonlinear equations (6.15) which in expended form are shown as
equations 6.16 and which are repeated here:
g1 (x1, x2, ... , xn) = 0
g2 (x1, x2, ... , xn) = 0
.... .... .........
gn (x1, x2, ... , xn) = 0
(6.24)
Assume that estimates xl0, x20,..., xn0 for the n variables are known. Further assume that
these estimates do not satisfy equations (6.24) and, thus, a better estimate is necessary.
Newton's method provides the means by which this new better estimate can be obtained.
For this purpose, the functions g1, g2, ..., gn are linearized around the known estimate of
x0, (xl0, x20,..., xn0 ). The procedure yields:
g 1
( x i x i0 ) + h.o.t.
i =1 x i
n
g
g 2 ( x1 , x 2 ,...x n ) = g 2 ( x10 , x 20 ,...x n0 ) + 2 ( x i x i0 ) + h.o.t.
i =1 x i
n
g 1 ( x1 , x 2 ,...x n ) = g 1 ( x10 , x 20 ,...x n0 ) +
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
g n
( x i x i0 ) + h.o.t.
i =1 x i
n
g n ( x1 , x 2 ,...x n ) = g n ( x10 , x 20 ,...x n0 ) +
In above expression, h.o.t. stands for higher order terms. Assuming that the actual
solution x is very close to the guess x0 , then the higher order terms will be negligible
because they depend on terms (xi - xio)m where m 2. Thus neglecting the higher order
terms, the following equations are obtained:
g 1
( x i x i0 ) 0.0.
i =1 x i
n
g
g 2 ( x10 , x 20 ,...x n0 ) + 2 ( x i x i0 ) 0.0.
i =1 x i
n
g 1 ( x10 , x 20 ,...x n0 ) +
Page 26
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
n
g
g n ( x10 , x 20 ,...x n0 ) + n ( x i x i0 ) 0.0.
i =1 x i
In compact matrix notation above equations read:
g
g ( x 0 ) + ( x x 0 ) = 0
x
(6.25)
where
x10
0
x
0
x = 2,
M
0
x3
and
g 1
x
1
g
g 2
=
x x1
L
g
n
x1
g1 ( x10 , x 20 ,..., x n0 )
g 2 ( x10 , x 20 ,..., x n0 )
0
,
g(x ) =
LL
0
0
0
g n ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n )
g1
x 2
f 2
x 2
L
g n
x 2
g1
x n
g 2
L
x n
L
L
g n
L
x n
L
g
, can be recognized to be the Jacobian matrix of the functions g,
x
computed at x0 and will be symbolized with J(x0). Equation (6.25) is solved for the vector
x yielding:
The matrix
x = x 0 J 1 ( x 0 ) g ( x 0 )
(6.26)
By construction, the vector x is a better estimate of the solution than vector x0. The
procedure can be applied to any vector x yielding the following algorithm:
x +1 = x J 1 ( x ) g ( x )
(6.27)
The algorithm should terminate whenever a vector x has been found which makes the
vector function g ( x ) very small. Note that in this case, equations (6.24) are satisfied. In
summary, the solution to a set of nonlinear equations (6.24) can be obtained with the
following steps:
Step 1: Assume an initial guess for x : x0. Let = 0 .
Page 27
Step 2: Compute g ( x ) . If || g ( x ) || , then x is the solution. In this case,

terminate. Otherwise, go to step 3.
Step 3: Compute the Jacobian matrix J ( x ) .
Compute x +1 = x J 1 ( x ) g ( x ) .
Let = + 1 and go to step 2.
The convergence characteristics of Newton's method have been extensively studied. It
can be proven that the method possesses quadratic convergence. This means that near the
solution, the following will be valid between two successive iterations:
g ( x +1 ) M ( g ( x )
(6.28)
where indicates the norm of the argument, i.e.
g ( x) = ( g 12 ( x) + g 22 ( x) + ...... + g n2 ( x))1 / 2
and M is a finite number. This means that if at an iteration , the norm of the vector
g(x) is in the order of 0.01, the norm of the vector g(x+1) will be in the order of 0.0001,
the norm of the vector g(x+2) will be in the order of 0.00000001, etc.
Example E6.7: Solve the following equation via Newton's method
x + 2x2 + 3x4 - 0.5 = 0

Solution: Define g(x) = x + 2x2 + 3x4 - 0.5
Then
x +1 = x J 1 ( x ) g ( x )
where: J(x) = 1 + 4x + 12x3

Following are three iterations of the algorithm starting from x = 0.0
Iteration #
0
1
2
3
4
x
0.0
0.5
0.3472
0.3016
0.2983
Function g(x)
-0.5
0.6875
0.1319
0.0083
0.000028
Jacobian J(x)
1.0
4.5
2.8911
2.5356
2.5117
In above example, one can observe the quadratic convergence characteristics of

Newtons method by studying the values g ( x ) .
Page 28
6.5.2b The Newton-Raphson Method in Polar Form
The direct application of Newton's method to the solution of the power flow equations is
known as the Newton-Raphson method. Depending on the form of the power flow
equations, the method can be developed in polar coordinate form where bus voltages are
expressed in polar coordinate form, i.e. magnitude and phase angle, or rectangular
coordinate form. The most popular formulation is the polar coordinate form. The analysis
of Section 6.4 indicates that the power flow problem is mathematically formulated as the
solution of n-1+q nonlinear equations. These equations are the n-1 real power equations
and q reactive power equations (q is the number of PQ buses). Assuming that bus 1 is
always the slack bus, the following convention is adapted:
The first equation is the real power equation for bus 2.
The second equation is the real power equation for bus 3.
...................................................
The (n - l)th equation is the real power equation for bus n.
The nth equation is the reactive power equation for first PQ bus.
...................................................
The (n-1+q)th equation is the reactive power equation for last PQ bus.
In compact form, these equations can be written as
g p ( x) = f p ( , V ) b p = 0
(6.29a)
g q ( x) = f q ( , V ) bq = 0
(6.29b)
where
bp is an (n - l) x 1 vector of real power injections at buses 2, 3, ..., n
bq is an q x 1 vector of reactive power injections at the PQ buses
fp(,V) (n -1) functions of real power flow
fq(,V) q functions of reactive power flow
is an (n-l) x 1 vector of unknown voltage phases
V is an q x 1 vector of unknown voltage magnitudes (at the PQ buses)

x=
V
is the state vector.
Direct application of Newton's method on these equations yields:
f p
+1

+1 = f
V V q

f p
V
f q
V
f p ( , V ) b p
f q ( , V ) bq
(6.30)
Page 29
The elements of the Jacobian matrix are computed by direct differentiation of the power
flow equations. The form of the Jacobian depends on the selected form of the power
equations. Table 6.3 tabulates the form of the power equations and associated Jacobian.
when bus voltages are expressed in polar coordinate form and system admittances in
rectangular coordinate form (hybrid form) the notation in Table 6.3 is consistent with
Figure 6.6. Some of the most popular implementations of power flow algorithms are
based on this form. In this textbook, the hybrid form will be adopted. The application of
the method will be demonstrated with three examples.
Example E6.8: Solve the power flow equations of example E6.1 with the NewtonRaphson method.
Solution: The Newton-Raphson algorithm for this problem is
1
5.05 sin 2
2 +1 2 5.05V2 cos 2
5.05V2 sin 2 + 0.85
+1 =
2
V2 V2 5.05V2 sin 2 10V2 5.05 cos 2 5V2 5.05V2 cos 2 + 0.36
Starting with 2 = 0, V2 = 1.0, the first three iterations are listed below:
Iteration #
V2
Vector g(x0)
Jacobian
1.0
5.05 0
0
4.95
-0.1683
0.9374
-0.1846
0.9147
0.85
0.31
0.0570
0.0865
0.0019
0.0029
-0.1852
0.9139
0.2504 * 10 5
5
0.3570 * 10
4.6668 0.8460
0.7930 4.3951
4.5410 0.9271
0.8481 4.1833
4.5365 0.9300
0.8500 4.1758
The solution above should be compared to the one obtained for the same system using
Gauss method, i.e. Example E6.6.
Example E6.9: Consider the simple two bus power system of Figure E6.9. The
generator at bus 1 controls the voltage magnitude of bus 1 equal to 1.0 pu. When the
capacitor bank switch is open, the voltage at bus 2 is
~
V2 = 0.9e-j0.224 rad
Compute the voltage magnitude of bus 2 when the capacitor bank switch closes. Assume
that the voltage magnitude at bus 1 is maintained at 1.0 pu. Use Newton's method and
Page 30
perform one iteration. Also, compute the complex power of the generator unit before and
after switching the capacitor.
G1
j0.1
j0
V1 = 1.0e
SL = 2.0 + j0.675
All values are in pu
-j2.0
Figure E6.9
Solution: The power flow equations, when the capacitor switch closes, are:
10V2sin2 + 2.0 = 0
9.5V22 - 10V2cos2 + 0.675 = 0
The Newton/Raphson algorithm is
2
V
2
+1
10V2 cos 2
2
=
V2
10V2 sin 2
10 sin 2
10V2 sin 2 + 2.0
19V2 10 cos 2 9.5V2 10V2 cos 2 + 0.675
A good initial guess will be given by the condition prior to closing the switch, i.e.
20 = -0.224 rads
V20 = 0.9 pu
Thus
1
2 1 0.224 8.775 2.22 0.0 0.2090

1 =
V 2 0.9 1.999 7.35 0.405 0.95917
The complex power generated by unit G1 prior to closing the switch is:
Sg1before = -10V2sin2 - j(10 - 10V2cos2) = 2.0 - j1.225
The complex power generated by unit G1 after the switch has closed is:
Sg1after = -10V2sin2 - j(10 - 10V2cos2) = 2.0 - j0.617
Thus the generated reactive power prior to the switching-in of the capacitor bank is 1.225 pu. It is reduced to -0.617 after switching-in the capacitor bank.
Page 31
Example E6.10: Consider the test system of Figure E6.2, Example E6.2. For the
specified data: a) write the Newton/Raphson iterative equations, and b) perform two
iterations of the method starting from flat start.
Solution: a) The power flow equations were developed in Example E6.3 and they are
listed here again.
g p1 ( x) = 10.2 sin( 2 ) + 9.18V3 sin( 2 3 ) 1.8

g p 2 ( x) = 9.18V3 sin( 3 2 ) + 13.125V3V4 sin( 3 4 )
g p 3 ( x) = 12.5V4 sin( 4 ) + 13.125V3V4 sin( 4 3 ) + 2.2
g q1 ( x) = 22.76125V32 9.18V3 cos( 3 2 ) 13.125V3V4 cos( 3 4 )
g q 2 ( x) = 24.95V42 12.5V4 cos( 4 ) 13.125V3V4 cos( 4 3 ) + 0.5
The Newton/Raphson iterative equations will be developed in hybrid form. The first five
entries of the Jacobian matrix are:
g p1 ( x)
2
g p1 ( x)
3
g p1 ( x)
4
g p1 ( x)
V3
g p1 ( x)
V4
= 10.2 cos 2 + 9.18V3 cos( 2 3 )

= 9.18V3 cos( 2 3 )
= 0.0
= 9.18 sin( 2 3 )
= 0.0
The reader is encouraged to write explicitly the remaining entries of the jacobian.
The iterative equations are:

V

+1
f ( , V ) b p

= J ( , V ) 1 p
f q ( , V ) bq
V
b) Two iterations of the method will be performed starting from a flat start. Flat start is
defined with all phases equal zero, and all voltages at PQ buses equal 1.0 pu, i.e.:
Page 32
20 0

0 = 30 = 0
40 0

and
V30 1.0
V = 0 =
V 4 1.0
0
1st Iteration: The following are computed upon substitution
0
f p ( ,V ) = 0
0
0
0.3952
f q ( 0 , V 0 ) =
0.1169
0
0
0
19.3800 9.1800
9.1800 21.0848 11.9048

0
0
J ( 0 , V 0 ) =
11.9048 24.4048
0
0
0
0
0
0
21.8752 11.9048
11.9048 23.1710
0
0
0
The inverse of the Jacobian matrix is:
0
0
.0721 .0433 .0211
.0433 .0915 .0446
0
0
J ( 0 , V 0 ) 1 = .0211 .0446 .0627

0
0
0
0
.0635 .0326
0
0
0
0
.0326 .0599
The power mismatch vector is
1.8
0.0
0
0
f p ( , V ) b p
=
2
.
2
0
0
f q ( , V ) bq
0.3952
0.1169
Upon substitution of above values into the algorithm:
Page 33
0 .0833 .0833
0 .0202 .0202

1
1 = 0 .1000 = .1000
V 1.0 .0213 0.9787

1.0 .0059 0.9941
This completes the first iteration.
2nd Iteration: The following are computed
0.0228
0.0048
f p ( 1 , V 1 ) b p
=
0
.
0361
1
1
f q ( , V ) bq 0.0932
0.0983
0
0.9484
0
19.1013 8.9367
8.9367 20.4829 11.5462 0.0049
0.9289
J ( 1 , V 1 ) =
11.5462 23.9106 0.9435 2.1767
0
0.9283 0.0048 0.9235 21.1184 11.6145
2.1639 11.7971 23.2439

0
0.9235
The inverse of the Jacobian matrix is
.0729
.0436
J ( 1 , V 1 ) 1 = .0208
.0030
.0013
.0436 .0208 .0031 .0013

.0932 .0451 .0005 .0007
.0451 .0645 .0060 .0072
.0005 .0059 .0667 .0338

.0007 .0072 .0344 .0608
0.0849
0.0205
2
0
.
1029
2
V 0.9689
0.9847
This completes the second iteration.
Page 34
Table 6.3 Hybrid Form of Power Equations and Jacobian Matrix - Newton/Raphson
Method
A.
y km = g km + jbkm
~
V k = V k e j k
~
Vm = Vm e j m
y k = g k + jbk

y km ,
y skm ,
~
~
y k , Vk , Vm :
complex
g km , bkm , g skm , bskm , g k , bk , Vk , k , Vm , m :

B.
{ f p }k = Vk2
(g
m K ( k )
km
+ g skm ) + Vk2 g k Vk
real
(V
m K ( k )
km
{bp }k = Pgk Pdk

{ f q }k = Vk2
(b
mK ( k )
km
+ bskm ) Vk2bk Vk
(V
mK ( k )
km )
{bq }k = Qgk Qdk

C.
{ f p }k = Vk (Vm km )
k
mK ( k )
{ f p }k = VkVm km
m
{ f p }k = 2Vk ( g km + g skm ) + 2Vk g k (Vm km )

Vk
mK ( k )
mK ( k )
{ f p }k = Vk km
Vm
{ f q }k = Vk (Vm km )
k
mK ( k )
{ f q }k = VkVm km
m
{ f q }k = 2Vk (bkm + bskm ) 2Vk bk (Vm km )

Vk
mK ( k )
mK ( k )
{ f q }k = Vk km
Vm
Page 35
Page 36
6.5.2c Quasi-Newton Methods - The Fast Decoupled Power Flow
The Newton/Raphson method has been widely accepted because of its excellent
convergence characteristics and its reliability. However, the attractive characteristics of
the Newton/Raphson method are moderated with complex computational burden. At each
iteration of the method, the Jacobian matrix needs to be formed and inverted. For large
scale systems (systems with thousands of buses), excessive storage requirements and
computations jeopardize the practicality of the method. The introduction of sparsity
techniques has mitigated this obstacle. Sparsity techniques are the procedures by which
one takes advantage of the fact that the Jacobian matrix is a highly sparse matrix in order
to minimize computational effort and storage requirements. These techniques are
discussed in Appendix A. The sparsity coded Newton/Raphson method has been proven
practical for large scale systems. However, research has indicated that further
improvements can be made to the method. Much effort has been concentrated on the socalled quasi-Newton methods. The basic idea behind these methods is the following: Is it
possible to approximate the Jacobian matrix, which depends on the iterate under
consideration, with a constant matrix which can be used in any iteration? If this is
possible, then the inverse of the approximate Jacobian can be computed in the beginning
once and for all, and be employed in all subsequent iterations. In this way, the most
demanding computational task of forming and inverting the Jacobian matrix in every
iteration is avoided. One should expect that this may deteriorate the convergence
characteristics of Newton's method. However, overall, the quasi-Newton method may be
more efficient than Newton's method. Many attempts have been made towards this
direction. One of the quasi-Newton methods, known as the Fast Decoupled Power Flow
(FDPF) [???], has been proven to be very successful with substantial improvements over
the Newton-Raphson method. This method will be discussed in more detail.
The Fast Decoupled Load Flow is based on a transformation of the iterative equations of
the Newton/Raphson method in such a way that they involve a constant, but approximate
Jacobian matrix. The first step of this simplication is the observation that in the Jacobian
matrix of equation (6.26), the entries of the submatrices
f p
V
and
f q
have numerical values smaller than those of the submatrices
f p
Note that
magnitude,
f p
V
f p
and
f q
V
represents sensitivities of real power flow with respect to bus voltage

represents sensitivities of real power flow with respect to bus voltage
Page 37
phase, etc. Thus, the observation relative to the numerical values can be alternatively
stated as follows:
Real power flow is more sensitive to changes of voltage phase than changes of
voltage magnitude.
Reactive power flow is more sensitive to changes of voltage magnitude than
changes of voltage phase.
A consequence of this observation is that the Jacobian matrix can be simplified by

f q
f p
and
. Then equations (6.30) reduce to the following
neglecting the submatrices
V
two uncoupled matrix equations:

1
+1
f p
=
[ f p ( , V ) b p ]
(6.31a)
+1
f q
=V
[ f q ( , V ) bq ]
V
(6.31b)
Note that in equations (6.31a) and (6.31b), the submatrices
f p
and
f q
V
depend on the values of the state of the system, i.e. the values of and V. A series of
approximations can be introduced to make these submatrices constant. For simplicity of
notation, define the following vectors
= +1
V = V +1 V
P = f p ( , V ) b p
Q = f q ( , V ) bq
Then equations (6.31a) and (6.31b) can be written as
f p
= P

f q
V = Q
V
(6.32a)
(6.32b)
Examine each one of the above equations. Equation (6.32a) in expanded form, reads:
Page 38
V2
mK ( 2 )
Vm 2 V2 23V3 3 V2 24V4 4 L = P2
2m
V3 32V2 2 + V3
mK ( 3)
Vm 3 V3 34V4 4 L = P3
3m
..............................................................................................
Vn n 2V2 2 Vn n 3V3 3 L + Vn mVm n = Pn
mK ( n )
where ij is defined in Table 6.3.

Next, divide first equation by V2, the second by V3, etc., and the last equation by Vn.
Also, the voltage magnitudes, which remain in the left hand side of the equations, can be
approximated with 1.0 per unit since in the final solution, these voltages will be
approximately close to 1.0 pu. The result is:
P2
V2
mK ( 2 )
P
32 2 + 3m 3 34 4 L = 3
V3
mK ( 3)
..........................................................................
P
n 2 2 n 3 3 L + nm n = n
Vn
mK ( n )
2m
2 23 3 24 4 L =
Finally, an approximation to the expressions is introduced. Recall that (See Table 6.3)

For most transmission systems:
|gkm| << |bkm| and
|k - m| < 0.5 radians
Above observations lead to the following approximation
km bkm
Then equation (3.32a) reads:
Page 39
b2 m
mK ( 2 )
b32
bn 2
P2
V
2
2
b34 L
b3n
P3
3 =
V3
L L
L L
L
P
bn 4 L bnm n
n
mK ( n )
Vn
b23
b24
mK ( 3)
3m
L
bn 3
b2 n
This equation is written in compact form as

P
[ B ' ][ ] =
V
(6.33a)
where:
P2
V
2
P
P 3
V = V3

L
P
n
V n
2

[ ] = 3
L
b2 m
mK ( 2 )
b32
B' =
L
bn 2
mK ( 3)
L
bn 3
b34 L
b3n
L L
L
bn 4 L bnm
mK ( n )
b24 L
b23
3m
b2 n
Note that matrix B' is a constant matrix. The same approximations applied to equation
(6.32b) lead to
Q
[ B' ' ][V ] =
(6.33b)
where
Page 40
Qk1
V
k1
Q
Q k 2
V = Vk 2
L
Q
kq
Vkq
V k 1
V
k2
[ V ] =
L
V kq
(bk1m + 2bsk1m ) 2bk1

mK ( k1 )
bk1k 2
B' ' =
bk q k1
(b
mK ( k 2 )
k2m
bk1k 2
bk1k 3
+ 2bsk 2 m ) 2bk 2
bk 2 k3
bk q k 2
bk q k 2
L
bk 2 k q
L
L
L (bk q m + 2bsk q m ) 2bk q

mK ( k q )
bk1k q
where k1 is the first PQ bus, k2 is the second PQ bus, etc.

The iterative equations now read:
V
Q
= V [ B' ' ] 1
+1 = [ B' ] 1
(6.34a)
V +1
(6.34b)
There are several algorithmic possibilities for the solution of the power flow problem
with the aid of equations (6.34a) and (6.34b). The most efficient one involves successive
solutions of (6.34a) and (6.34b). This algorithm is known as the PQ algorithm because
the real power (P) equations are solved first, then the reactive power (Q) equations are
solved and the process is repeated again.
Both matrix equations (6.34a) and (6.34b) contain a constant matrix. Namely, B' and B''.
The solution of either equation is obtained by first computing the symbolic inverse of the
matrix (triangular factorization, see Appendix A), then computing the driving vector
P
Q
[ ] or [
] and then by performing a forward and back substitution (see Appendix A)
V
V
on the driving vectors. Figure 6.7 illustrates the flow diagram of the PQ algorithm. Note
that, in general, different convergence criteria of the real and reactive power flow
equations are used, (p and q, respectively). It is important to note that the algorithm
P
Q
< p and
< q . Since the voltage magnitude are near
terminates whenever
V
V
unity, above conditions are equivalent to:
f p ( x) b p < p
Page 41
f q ( x ) bq < q
In other words the power flow equations are satisfied within p and q ; i.e. the algorithm
terminates to the exact solution of the power flow equations. The fact that the Jacobian
matrix was approximated with a constant matrix does not affect the final solution,
assuming that the algorithm converges.
The fast decoupled power flow method is illustrated with two examples.
Page 42
Formation and Triangular

Factorization of Matrix B'
Formation and Triangular

Factorization of Matrix B"
Set KP = KQ = 1
Compute Vector
P
V P ?
P
V

Yes
KP = 0
KQ = 0?
No
Solve Equation
6.33a for new
values
Yes
No
Compute Line Flows

and Generate Report
Stop
stop
KQ = 1
Compute Vector
Q
V Q ?
No
Solve Equation
6.33b for new
values V
Q
V

Yes
KQ = 0?
Yes
KP = 0?
No
KP = 1
Figure 6.7 Flow Diagram of the Fast Decoupled Power Flow
Page 43
Example E6.11: Solve the power flow equations of Example E6.1 with the Fast
Decoupled Power Flow method.
Solution: The algorithmic equations are:
5.05V2 sin 2 + 0.85
V2
2 +1 = 2 (5.05) 1
5V 2 5.05V2 cos 2 + 0.36

V2 +1 = V2 ( 4.95) 1 2
V2
Starting with 2 = 0, V2 = 1.0, the first three iterations are

1st iteration
12 = 0 -(5.05)-1(0.85) = -0.1683
V21 = 1.0 - (4.95)-1(0.31) = 0.9373
2nd iteration
22 = -0.1683 - (5.05)-1(0.061) = -0.1804

V22 = 0.9373 - (4.95)-1(0.092) = 0.9187
3th iteration
32 = -0.1804 - (5.05)-1(0.019) = -0.1842

V23 = 0.9187 - (4.95)-1(0.0173) = 0.9152
Above solution should be compared to the solution obtained for the same problem using
Gauss method (Example E6.6) and Newtons method (Example E6.8).
Example E6.12: For the electric power system of Figure E6.2, Example E6.2 develop the
iterative equations for the fast decoupled load flow and perform two iterations of the
method.
Solution: From the circuit diagram of the system in Figure E6.3, the matrices B' and B"
are obtained by inspection:
Page 44
9
0
19
B' = 9 22.125 13.125 and

0 13.125 25.625
23.397 13.125
B' ' =
13.125 24.275
Upon inversion one obtains:
.072774 .042524 .02178

[ B' ] = .042524 .089772 .045981 and
.02178 .045981 .062575
1
.063065 .033176
[ B' ' ] 1 =
.033176 .057532
10 sin 2 + 9V3 sin( 2 3 ) 1.7647

P

V = 9.18 sin( 3 2 ) 13.125V4 sin( 3 4 )
12.5 sin + 13.125V sin( ) + 2.2
4
3
4
3
V4
and
9.18 cos( 3 +1 2 +1 ) 13.125V4 cos( 3 +1 4 +1 ) + 22.761V3
Q
V = 24.95V4 12.5 cos 4 +1 13.125V3 cos( 4 +1 3 +1 ) + 0.5

V4
The algorithm reads
+1 = [ B' ] 1 [
P
]
V
V +1 = V [ B' ' ]1 [
Q
]
V
Next two iterations of the method are performed starting from a flat start, that is
20 = 30 = 40 = 0.0,
V30 = V40 = 1.0
1st iteration: By direct substitution
1.7647
P
V = 0

2.2
and
0
.0805
1 P
= 0 [ B' ] = .0261
V
0
.0992
1
Page 45
Again by direct substitution

[
Q .5432
]=
V
.0785
and
.9683
1.0
Q
]=
V 1 = [ B' ' ] 1 [
V
.9865
1.0
2nd iteration: By direct substitution
.0333
P
[ ] = .0311
V
.0639
and
.0805
.0828
1 P
= .0261 [ B' ] [ ] = .0248
V
.0992
.1010
2
Again by direct substitution

[
Q .00233
]=
V
.01166
and
.9678
.9683
Q
]=
V2 =
[ B' ' ] 1 [
V
.9858
.9865
Above solution should be compared to the solution obtained for the same system using
Newtons method (Example E6.10). Observe that the solutions are practically identical.
6.5.3 Discussion on Power Flow Solution Methods

Much effort has been devoted to the study of iterative methods for the solution of
nonlinear equations. Many textbooks have been written which are devoted to algorithms
for the solution of nonlinear equations. The performance of any method is measured with
the following criteria:
1. Existence of Solution
2. Uniqueness of Solution
3. Convergence to the Solution
4. Speed of Convergence.
Page 46
The performance of a method depends on the specific properties of the problem under
consideration. In the case of the power flow problem, much theoretical work has been
done and much experience has been accumulated over the years. The characteristics of
the algorithms as applied to the solution of the power flow problem are very well known.
Yet there is no guarantee that given a system the solution can be found (convergence).
On the other hand, the practical experience with these methods indicates that
nonconvergence of the power flow problem is rather seldom.
6.6 The DC Power Flow Model

In several applications it is expedient to seek a quick but approximate solution to the
power flow problem. This objective is accomplished with the so-called DC power flow
(or DC Network Model) which is presented in this section for completeness. The DC
power flow results from a simplification and linearization of the rather complex and
nonlinear power flow equations. The simplification results in a model which describes
the flow of real power only. The flow of reactive power is ignored. This model has been
extensively used in the past and has been useful for planning studies where an
approximate evaluation of the real power flow is needed.
The basic assumptions utilized in the development of the DC power flow are:
a) gkm 0 (lossless circuits)
b) sin (phase angle differences are relatively small)
c) V1.0 pu (all voltages remain constant, near nominal values)
Considering the real power equation for a bus k, and applying above assumptions:
Pk = Pgk Pdk = V k2
(g
mK ( k )
km
+ g skm ) V k
mK ( k )
km
V m V k
mK ( k )
km
Vm
Also note that:
km = g km cos( k m ) + bkm sin( k m ) bkm sin( k m ) bkm ( k m )

Thus, the real power equation for bus k becomes
Pk = Vk
Define
mK ( k )
km
( k m )Vm
(6.35)
km = Vk Vm bkm
kk = a km
mK (k )
Page 47
Then equation (6.35) becomes:

n
Pk = km m
(6.36)
m =1
Equation (6.36) implies that the real power flow on a circuit connected between buses k
and m, Pkm, is given by:
Pkm = km ( k m )
(6.37)
An Equation (6.36) can be written for every bus in the system except the slack bus. For a
system of n buses, a total of n-1 equations can be written. In compact matrix form, these
equations read:
P =
where,
P2
P = M
Pn
(6.38)
and
2
= M
3
[]km = km
Solution of equation (6.38) yields the phase angles. Substitution into equation (6.37)
yields the circuit flows. The DC power flow will be illustrated with an example.
Example E6.13: Consider the four-bus system of Figure E6.13. The figure illustrates the
positive sequence equivalent network of the system. The real power load at bus 4 is 2.0
pu. Write the DC power flow equations for this circuit. Solve the DC power flow and
compute the flows in each circuit.
Page 48
-j10
j0.2
-j8.0
-j9.0
-j15.0
-j12.5
-j12.6
-j0.63
j0.60
4
Figure E6.13. Simplified Four-Bus System, Positive Sequence Equivalent
Circuit
Solution: By inspection of the circuit of Figure E6.13 the DC power flow equations are:
9
15 2
0 34
0 = 9 29.6 12.6 ,

3
Pd 4 15 12.6 40.1 4
Pd4 = 2.0
Solution of above equations yields:

2 = 0.0515
3 = -0.05205
4 = -0.08549
Note that 1= 0.0. The circuit flows are computed and illustrated on Figure E6.13a
Page 49
.515
.416
.005
1.0686
.5098
3
.421
4
Figure E6.13a Circuit Flows for Example System of Figure E6.13 (DC
Network Model)
6.7 External System Equivalents

Interconnections among power systems result in extremely large networks. As an
example, the entire eastern United States represents one interconnected system. Network
analysis in which the entire network is explicitly represented becomes a computationally
difficult task (excessive computational time). Yet the industry is moving towards larger
and larger systems. The computational issue and associated long execution times can be
addressed in two ways: (a) development of more efficient computational procedures and
more sophisticated sparcity methods, and (b) use of equivalencing techniques, where
warranted, to reduce the size of the system model. In this section we address the latter
approach. Specifically, we discuss methodologies by which the external systems are
represented with simplified equivalents. In this context, the external system is any part of
the interconnected system that is not vital to the application under consideration.
Equivalents reduce the size of the network problem and, therefore, reduce the
computational requirements. In the process, some accuracy is sacrificed.
The problem of external system equivalents is depicted in Figure 6.8a. The system of
interest is interconnected to other systems via tie lines. The other systems may be also
interconnected among themselves. For the purpose of defining an equivalent, Tinney, et
al [???] suggested that the interconnected system be separated into:
Page 50
the internal system or system of interest

the boundary system
the external system, which contains nodes and circuits which are not essential to
the problem.
The structure (or detailed model) of the internal system must be maintained. The
structure of the external system need not be maintained and, therefore, can be represented
with an equivalent system connected to the buses of the boundary system. Such an
equivalent is represented in Figure 6.8b. The equivalent model of the external system
should have the following properties: (a) network solution times for the system of
interest, boundary and external equivalent should be much shorter as compared to
solution times for the entire network; and (b) the accuracy of the solution must be
reasonable.
Equivalencing techniques for external power systems have been developed with above
criteria. In general, the techniques may be based on the DC Network Model or the AC
Network Model. The basis of these techniques is presented next. The computational and
accuracy properties of the equivalents are discussed.
Page 51
External System, e
Boundary System, b
Internal
System, i
(a)
Equivalent
of Boundary
and
external
Systems
Internal
System, i
(b)
Figure 6.8 General Description of External, Boundary and Internal System

(a) Actual System
(b) Equivalent System
Page 52
6.7.1 Equivalents Based on DC Network Model Formulation

Equivalents based on DC network model formulation are adequate in applications where
the DC network model is acceptable for the purpose of computing network solutions.
Consider an interconnected power system in which an internal, a boundary, and an
external system have been identified. The DC power flow equations for the entire system
are:
Aii
A
bi
0
Aib
Abb
Aeb
0 i Pi
Abe b = Pb
Aee e Pe
(6.39)
where subscript i denotes internal system, subscript b denotes the boundary system and
subscript e denotes the external system. Note that the system variables have been
partitioned into internal (i), boundary (b), and external (e) system variables. It is
assumed that the separation of the system into internal, boundary, and external is such
that no connection exists between the external and the internal systems. This selection
results in two zero submatrices of equation (6.39) The last matrix equation (of the system
6.39) can be solved for e, yielding
e = Aee-1Pe - Aee-1Aebb
Upon substitution of e in the remaining equations and rearranging the terms:
Aii
A
bi
Aib
Pi
i
=
1
1
Abb Abe Aee Aeb b Pb Abe Aee Pe
(6.40)
Equation (6.40) suggests that the DC network model matrix of the internal system, the
boundary system, and the equivalent of the external system is:
A
A1 = ii
Abi
Aib
1
Abb Abe Aee Aeb
(6.41)
On the other hand, the DC power flow equations of the internal system and the boundary
system (neglecting the existence of the external system) are :
Aii
A
bi
Aib i Pi
=
Abbw / o b Pb
(6.42)
with the DC network model matrix being
Page 53
A
A2 = ii
Abi
Aib
Abbw / o
(6.43)
where
Abbw/o is the DC network model matrix of the boundary buses if the external
system is removed.
Equations (6.40) and (6.42) suggest that the parameters of the external system equivalent
are defined with the following equivalent DC network model matrix and power
injections:
Aeq = Abb Abe Aee1 Aeb Abbw / o
(6.44)
beq = Abe Aee1 Pe
(6.45)
Note the following properties of the above defined equivalent.
The parameters of the equivalent system depend on power injections in the buses
of the external system and the parameters of the circuits of the external system.
The topology of the external system must be known.
The equivalent representation of the external system is exact in the sense that
solutions for the internal system are identical to those obtained with the entire
system.
The equation for Aeq and beq have a physical interpretation. Specifically, the matrix Aeq
represents equivalent circuits connected to the boundary buses and the vector beq
represents equivalent injections to boundary buses. The procedure will be illustrated with
an example.
Example E6.14: Consider the electric power system of Figure E6.14a. The external,
boundary, and internal systems are defined in the Figure. Compute an equivalent of the
external system using DC network model.
3
-j8
0.8 pu
-j8
External System
-j12
-j10
4
Boundary System
-j15
P = 2.0
D
0.5 pu
Figure E6.14. Example Four-Bus System Separated into External and

Boundary Systems
Page 54
Solution: First the DC power flow equations are written by ordering the buses into
internal, boundary and external as follows:
Internal:
Boundary:
External:
Bus 2
Buses 1, and 4
Bus 3
The DC Power Flow equations for the entire system are:
23 15 0 2 2.0
15 37 10 = 0.5
0
10 18 3 0.8
Upon elimination of the external system variables, 3, the DC power flow equations read
15
23
2 2.0
15 (27 + 4.444) = 0.5 0.444
w o
Note also that Ybb
= 27. Thus, Aeq = 4.444, and beq = -0.444.
The above equations correspond to the system of Figure E6.14a. Note that bus 3 (the
external system) has been eliminated. In its place an equivalent circuit with admittance
b14 = -j4.444 and an equivalent load at bus 4 of 0.444 pu appears.
-j4.444
-j8
-j12
-j15
0.444
P = 2.0
D
0.5
Figure E6.14a Equivalent System of the Network of Figure E6.14
Page 55
6.7.2 Equivalents Based on AC Network Model Formulation

This section provides a formulation for the computation of an equivalent representation
of the external system which addresses reasonably well the requirements of equivalent
models. The formulation assumes complete knowledge of the external system. Again we
use Tinney's et al [???] suggestion to separate the system into internal, boundary, and
external systems. Using this decomposition, the nodal equations are written as
~
~
I = YV
or
~
~
I i Yii Yib 0 Vi
~
~
I b = Ybi Ybb Ybe Vb
I~e 0 Yeb Yee V~e

(6.46)
The power flow equations for the entire system are written as
~ ~
~
~
S = V d I * = V d Y *V *
(6.47)
where
Y
~ is the admittance matrix of the entire system
V
~ is the vector
~ of
~ complex
~ voltages at the buses of the entire system ,
Vd = diag {V1, V2, ..., Vn},i.e. a diagonal matrix.
Upon separation of the power flow equations into the internal, boundary, and external
system equations:
~ ~
S i = Vi d I i *
~ ~
S b = Vbd I b*
~ ~
S e = Ved I e*
Where:
{
{
{
}
}
}
~
~ ~
Vi d = diag Vi1 , Vi 2 , ...
~
~ ~
Vbd = diag Vb1 , Vb 2 , ...
~
~ ~
Ved = diag Ve1 , Ve 2 , ...
Combining the model equations and the expressions for bus powers, the power flow
equations for the three subsystems are obtained.
~
~
~
Si = V~id [Yii* V~i* + Yib* V~
b*]
~
d
Sb = V
~ bd [Ybi* V
~ i* + Ybb* V
~b* + Ybe* Ve*]
Se = Ve [Yeb* Vb* + Yee* Ve*]
Page 56
~
From above equations, the external system state variables, Ve, are to be eliminated. To
simplify the procedure, assume that the external system contains only one bus. (No loss
of generality occurs since the procedure
to be described can be applied to each external
~ ~
bus sequentially.) In this case, Se, Ved, Ve, and Yee are scalars. Now the last equation
becomes:
~ ~
Yee*Ve2 + (Yeb*Vb* )Ve Se = 0
Note that above equation is quadratic with respect to the voltage phasor at the external
system bus. Direct elimination of the voltage phasor at the external system bus is not
always possible because of the complexity of the solution. Specifically, a direct solution
of above equation for the magnitude of the voltage, Ve, yields:
Ve =
~
~
YebVb e j e (YebVb e j e ) 2 + 4Yee S e*
2Yee
You can verify above solution by simply substituting into the quadratic equation. Note
that above solution is rather complex with respect to the voltage phasors at the boundary
buses. In addition, the solution is in terms of the phase angle of the voltage at the external
bus (this is not a major drawback, since we can assume that the phases may be measured
with respect to the external system bus and therefore this phase will be zero). Substitution
of above solution into the first two equations will yield rather complex equations in terms
of the boundary bus voltages.
A simpler solution can be obtained by introducing reasonable approximations. For
example, consider the following expression:
S e*
Ve2
This expression represents the apparent admittance of
~ the electric load at the external bus.
This expression is rather insensitive to the voltage Ve. Consider, for example, a constant
impedance load. In this case, this expression is is exactly a constant. Lets denote this
ratio with the variable: Ye . Upon substitution of the power variable Se into the last power
flow equation, yields:
~
~
~
Ye*Ve2 = Ve Yeb* Vb* + Yee* Ve*
Assuming that the quantity Ye can be ~

treated as a constant in the equivalent
representation, the last equation is solved for Ve yielding:
~
~
Ve = (Yee Ye ) 1 YebVb
(6.48)
Page 57
where
Ye = S e* / Ve2
(6.49)
~
Upon substitution of Ve to the other two equations:
~
~
~
Si = Vid [Yii* Vi* + Yib* Vb* ]
~
~
~
Sb = Vbd [Ybi* Vi* + (Ybb* - Ybe*(Yee* - Ye*)-1Yeb*)Vb ]
On the other hand the power flow equations for the internal and boundary systems
neglecting the external system will be
~
~
~
Si = Vid [Yii* Vi* + Yib* Vb* ]
~
~
~
Sb = Vbd [Ybi* Vi* + Ybbw/o*Vb* ]
where
Ybbw/o is the admittance matrix at the boundary buses neglecting the presence of
the external system.
By comparison of above equations, the equivalent of the external system has the
following admittance matrix:
Yeq = Ybb - Ybe (Yee - Ye)-1 Yeb - Ybbw/o
(6.50)
Where:
Ybbw/o is the admittance matrix at the boundary buses when the external system is
removed.
The equivalent of the external system is given in terms of the quantity Ye which depends
on the power injection at the external bus. It is expedient to discuss this quantity. First,
whenever the external bus has no power injection (Ye = 0) or when electric load is
connected to the buses which can be represented as a constant impedance (Ye = constant),
the derived equivalent is an exact equivalent. This means that network solutions using the
equivalent or the entire system will provide identical results for the internal system. In
any other case, Ye is not a constant. In these cases, appropriate load models or generation
models must be utilized to obtain reasonable average values for Ye. This problem,
however, is beyond the scope of this text.
As in the case of the DC Network model, the equivalent admittance Yeq has a physical
meaning.
The computation of an equivalent will be demonstrated with an example.
Page 58
Example E6.15. Consider the electric power system of Figure E6.15. The parameters of
the system are indicated on the figure. The present operating state of the system is
defined with
~
j0
V
~ 1 = 1.01 e-j0.11
V
~ 2 = 0.99 e
V3 = 0.98 e-j0.14
The phase angles above are expressed in radians.
a)
b)
Compute the net power (real and reactive) injection at buses 1, 2, and 3.
Assume that bus 3 represents the external system and buses 1 and 2
the boundary system. Compute the equivalent representation of the
external system.
1
1-j12
1-j10
3
j0.3 pu
-j15
2-j10
Figure E6.15 Example AC Network Model Equivalent

Solution: a) The power injection at buses 1, 2, and 3 are computed to be:
P1 = (2.0)(1.01)2 - (1.01)(.99)(cos2 + 27sin2) - (1.01)(.98)(cos3 + 10sin3)

= 4.4111 pu
P2 = (3.0)(.99)2 - (1.01)(.99)(cos2 - 27sin2)-(.99)(.98)(2cos(2 - 3) -10sin(2 - 3))
= -2.6657 pu
P3=(3.0)(.98)2 - (1.01)(.98)(cos3 - 10sin3)-(.99)(.98)(2cos(3 - 2) - 10sin(3 - 2))
= -1.71065 pu
Q1 = (37.0)(1.01)2 - (1.01)(.99)(-sin2 + 27cos2)- (1.01)(.98)(-sin3 + 10cos3)
= .8605 pu
3))
Q2 =(37.0)(.99)2 -(1.01)(.99)(sin2 + 27cos2)-(.99)(.98)(2sin(2 - 3) +10cos(2 = -.2165 pu

Q3 =(19.7)(.98)2 -(1.01)(.98)(sin3+10cos3)- (.99)(.98)(2sin(3 - 2) +10cos(3 - 2))
= -.38259 pu
Page 59
b) The equivalent admittance matrix due to elimination of bus 3 is:

Yeq = Ybb - Ybe(Yee + Ye)-1Yeb - Ybbw/o
where:
Yee = (3 - j19.7)
Yeb = YbeT = [-1 + j10 -2 + j10]
0
1 j10
Ybb Ybbw / o =
2 j10
0
S 3*
Ye =
= 1.7812 + j 0.39826
(.98) 2
upon evaluation of above expression:
1.1678 j 5.1135 .3148 + j 4.9505
Yeq =
.3148 + j 4.9505 1.1918 j 5.0317

The equivalent is illustrated in Figure E6.15a.
1
.853
-j.163
1-j12
.3148
-j15
-j4.9505
.877
-j.0812
(b)
Figure E6.15a Equivalent System of the AC Network Model of Figure E6.15
6.7.3 Discussion on Equivalents

It is necessary to represent external power systems with reduced size equivalents. This
representation is necessary for a variety of applications. Computation of equivalents
encounters difficulties because of the nonlinear characteristics of the electric load and
generation in the external system. A method has been presented which computes an
approximate equivalent circuit of the external system. The method requires knowledge of
Page 60
the external system. In real time applications, since the external system changes
continuously, the equivalent must be frequently updated.
6.8 Quadratized Power Flow Model

Because of the importancve of the power flow model as one of the basic analysis tools in
the operation and planning of power systems, many attempts have been made to improve
the efficiency of power flow solutions. Thes attempts range from different formulations
of the power flow problem to advanced sparcity methods and shortcuts for repeat
solutions. Sparcity methods are discussed in ASppendix A. Advanced methods for repeat
solutions are discussed in the context of power system securioty in Chapter 11. In this
section, we discuss attempts to formulate the power flow problem in a way that will
improve the efficiency of the solution methods. In this context, it was observed in the
early seventies that expressing the bus voltage phasors in Cartesian coordinates, the
resulting power flow problem is less complex since trigonometric functions are absent.
For whatever reason, the Cartesian coordinate formulation did not go very far. Recently,
a similar idea has surfaced. The idea is to quadratize the power flow equations, i.e. to
express the power flow equations as a set of equations with order no greater than two. It
turns out this can be achieved very easily with the introduction of additional state
variables as needed. The advantage of this formulation is that the resulting power flow
equations are either linear or quadratic. Application of Newtons method to these
equations yields the solution very quickly since Newtrons method is ideally suitable to
quadratic equations. The formulation of the power flow problem as a set of linear and
quadratic equations is presented next.
Consider a bus of an electric power system as it is illustrated in Figure 6.9. The Figure
shows a generator, a constant impedance load, a constant power load, an induction motor
load, and switched shunt capacitor/reactors are connected to the bus together with a
transformer and a circuit (transmission line) to other buses. Each component of the power
system illustrated in Figure 6.9 can be modeled with a set of linear and quadratic
equations. As an example, the form of the models for a generator, a circuit and a constant
power load model is described next.
BUS30
+ SE
Q
S
M
Page 61
Figure 6.9: Symbolic Representation of a General Power System Bus

Positive Sequence Network
Generator Model: Figure 6.10 illustrates the simplified equivalent circuit model of a
single axis generator model.
jb
~
Ik
~
V
Bus k
Ek
Figure 6.10
The electric current of the generator, in the direction from the bus into the generator, is
given by the equation:
~
~ ~
I k = jb Vk E k
(6.51)
where jb is the generator admittance. Note here we use the single axis model of the
generator. The procedure can be applied to the two axes model of the generator as well.
This is omitted to avoid the complexity of the two axes model equations. There are three
control modes for the synchronous generator, i.e., a) Slack mode, b) PQ mode, and c) PV
mode. The model of each one of these cases is described next.
Slack mode: In the slack mode, the synchronous generator is controlled to maintain the
specified voltage magnitude and zero phase. For the slack mode, we have the following
equations.
~
~ ~
I k = jb Vk E k
(6.52a)
0.0 = Vki
(6.52b)
0.0 = Vkr2 + Vki2 Vk2,specified
(6.52c)
Note that equation (6.52a) forces the phase of the generator terminal voltage to be zero.
Equation (6.52c) forces the magnitude of the generator terminal voltage to be equal to the
specified.
Page 62
PQ mode: In the PQ mode, the synchronous generator is controlled to maintain the

specified real and reactive power. For the PQ mode, we have the following equation.
~
~ ~
I k = jb Vk E k
(6.53a)
~~
0.0 = jbVk2 + jbVk Ek* + Pk , specified + jQk , specified
(6.53b)
Note that equation (6.53b) imposes the requirement that the complex power delivered by
the generator equals the specified complex power.
PV mode: In the PV mode, the synchronous generator is controlled to maintain the
specified real power and voltage magnitude. For the PV mode, we have the following
equations.
~
~ ~
I k = jb Vk E k
(6.54a)
~ ~
0.0 = Re jbV + jbVk E k* + Pk , specified
(6.54b)
0.0 = V + V V
(6.54c)
2
kr
2
k
2
ki
2
k , specified
Note that equation (6.54b) imposes the requirement that the real power delivered by the
generator is equal to the specified real power. Equation (6.54c) imposes the requirement
that the magnitude of the terminal voltage equals the specified voltage.
In each of the above cases we have an equation that describes the current at the terminal
of the generator as a function of state variables and some additional equations expressing
the control functions of the generator. All equations are linear or quadratic in terms of the
state variables.
Circuit Branch Model: Figure 6.11 illustrates the model of a circuit represented with its
pi-equivalent circuit.
ykm
BUS K
BUS m
Ikm
Imk
yskm
ysmk
Figure 6.11
The circuit model is represented with the following equations:
Page 63
~
~
~
I k = (~
y km + ~
y skm )V k ~
y kmV m
(6.55a)
(6.55b)
~
~
~
I m = ~
y kmV k + ( ~
y km + ~
y smk )V m
Where:
~y
km
~
y
skm
~y
smk
~
Vk
~
Vm
is the circuit series admittance

is the k side shunt admittance
is the m side shunt admittance
is the voltage phasor at bus k.
is the voltage phasor at bus m.
Note that these equations are linear with respect to the state variables.
a)
Constant Power Load Model: Figure 6.12 shows a constant power load that
is connected to bus k. The constant power load is defined with the total
complex power, S dk = Pdk + jQdk , that is assumed to be constant, i.e.
independent of the voltage magnitude at the bus.
BUS K
Idk
Pdk+jQdk
a. Figure 6.12. Constant Power Load at Bus k
Define the nominal admittance of the load to be:

1
Ydn , k = 2 (Pdk jQ dk ) = g dn, k + jbdn, k
V nk
(6.56)
where: Vnk is the nominal voltage at bus k.

Then the constant power load model can be expressed with the following set of
equations.
~
~
~
I dk = Ydn, kVk + u1Ydn, kVk
Page 64
(6.57a)
0 = g dn, k u2 + g dn, k u1u2 Pdk
(6.57b)
0 = u2 V
(6.57c)
2
k
Above equations force that the complex power absorbed by the load is equal to the
specified load and constant. The reader is encouraged to prove this as follows. Note that
the complex power absorbed by this load is:
~~
S = Vk I dk
Upon substitution of the current with equation (6.57a) and elimination of the variable u1
with the aid of equations (6.57b) and (6.57c), the complex power S becomes identical to
the specified power of the load.
The three examples above show that each component of the system can be represented
with an appropriate set of linear or quadratic equations. Upon expressing the voltage and
~
~
current phasors with their Cartesian coordinates, (i.e. I = I r + I i , and V = Vr + Vi ) and
separating each complex equation into two real equations, the following general form is
obtained for any power system component:
k
x k T f k
x
eq
real
_
1
I
V

kT k
k
k
I = y eq _ real V + x f eq _ real 2 x beq _ real
0
y M
k
r
k
i
k
r
k
i
k
(6.58)
Vrk

where: x k = Vi k
yk

and y eqk _ real , beqk _ real , and f eqk _ real are matrices with appropriate dimensions.
We have discussed the general quadratic model of three components of an electric power
system, namely, generator, line and constant power load. It is emphasized that this
procedure can be applied to any other component, i.e. transformer, variable tap
transformer, two axes generator model, etc. The end result will always be a model in the
form of equation (6.58).
Solution Method: The network solution is obtained with application of Newtons
method to a quadratized form of the network equations. The quadratized network
equations are generated as follows. Consider the general form of equations for any model
of the system (linear or nonlinear), i.e. equation (6.58). Note that this form includes two
sets of equations, which are named external equations and internal equations
respectively. The electric currents at the terminals of the component appear only in the
Page 65
external equations. Similarly, the device states consist of two variable sets: external
~
states (i.e. bus voltages V k = Vrk + jVi k ) and internal state variables y k (if any). The set
of equations (6.58) is consistent in the sense that the number of external states and the
number of internal states equals the number of external and internal equations
respectively.
The entire network equations are obtained by application of the connectivity constraints
among the system component, i.e. Kirchoffs current law at each system bus.
Specifically, Kirchoffs current law applied to all buses of the system yields:
~
I k =0
~
where I k = I rk + jI ik is device k bus current injections, and Ak is a component incidence
matrix with:
{A }= 01,,
k
ij
if bus j of device k is connected to bus i
otherwise
To above equation all the internal equations from all devices should be added, yielding
the following set of equations:
~
I k =0
(6.59a)
[internal equations of all devices]
(6.59b)
~
Let V = Vr + jVi be the vector of all bus voltage phasors.
relationship holds:
~k
k T ~
V = (A ) V
Then, the following
(6.60)
where V k is device k bus voltages.

Equations (6.59a) can be separated into two sets of real equations by expressing the
voltages and currents with their Cartesian coordionates. Then the device currents can be
eliminated with the use of equations (6.58). This procedure will yield a set of equations
in terms of the voltage variables and the internal device state variables. If all the state
variables are represented with the vector x, then the equations can be written in the
following form:
Page 66
x T f1 x
G ( x ) = Yreal x + x T f 2 x Breal = 0
(6.61)
where x is the vector of all the state variables and Yreal , f , Breal are matrices with
appropriate dimensions. The simultaneous solution of these equations is obtained via
Newtons method described next.
Equation (6.61) is solved using Newtons method. Specifically, the solution is given by
the following algorithm:
x T f x
T 1
+1
(6.62)
= x J G Yreal x + x f 2 x Breal
x
where is the iteration step number; J G is the Jacobian matrix of equation (6.61). In
particular, the Jacobian matrix takes the following form:
J G = Yreal
x T ( f + f T )
1
T 1
+ x ( f2 + f2 )
(6.63)
It is important to note that Newtons method is ideally suited for solution of quadratic
equations.
The quadratic power flow is demonstrated with an example.
Example E6.16: Consider the power system of Figure E6.16. The generator controls the
voltage magnitude at bus 1 to the value of 1.0 pu.
Assume that the electric load at bus 2 is Sd2 = 0.85+j0.36 pu. Formulate the NewtonRaphson power flow problem as well as the quadratized power flow problem. Solve both
problems starting from flat start, i.e. the voltage at bus 2 equal to 1.0 pu. Record the
mismatch at each iteration and tabulate the results.
Page 67
~
j 00
V1 = 1.0e
-j10
~
V2
Sd2
Figure E6.16 A Simplified Two-Bus Example Power System
Solution: a) The Newton-Raphon power flow problem for this system is defined with
the following equations:
g1 ( x ) = 10.0V2 sin 2 + 0.85 = 0.0
g 2 ( x) = 10.0V22 10.0V2 cos 2 + 0.36 = 0.0

The iterative solution algorithm is:
x +1 = x J g1 ( x ) g ( x )
where:

x = 2 ,
V2
g ( x )
g ( x ) = 1 ,
g 2 ( x )
10.0V2 cos 2
J g ( x) =
10.0V2 sin 2
10.0 sin 2
20.0V2 10.0 cos 2
The first four iteration of the algorithm yield:

The quadratized power flow problem for this system is defined with the following
equations:
~
~
j10.0(V2 1.0) + (1 + u1 )(0.85 j 0.36)V2 = 0.0
0.85u 2 + 0.85u1u 2 0.85 = 0.0
u2 V22 = 0.0
Note that the first equation is complex while the second and thord are real. Upon
expressing the complex voltage for bus 2 with its Cartesian coordinates and conversion
of the complex equation into two real equations yields:
G1 ( y ) = 6.36V2 r + 0.85V2i 0.36V2 r u1 + 0.85V2i u1 + 6.0 = 0.0
G2 ( y) = 0.85V2 r + 6.36V2i + 0.85V2 r u1 + 0.36V2iu1 = 0.0

G3 ( y) = 0.85u2 + 0.85u1u2 0.85 = 0.0
Page 68
G4 ( y) = u2 V22r V22i = 0.0

Note that the above equations are quadratic and include four unknowns. The iterative
solution algorithm is:
y +1 = y J G1 ( y )G( y )
where:
V2 r
V
y = 2i ,
u1

u2
G1 ( y )
G ( y )
G( y ) = 2 ,
G3 ( y )
G4 ( y )
6.36 0.36u1 0.85 + 0.85u1

0.85 + 0.85u
6.36 + 0.36u1
1
J G ( y) =
0
0
2V2 r
2V2i
0.36V2 r + 0.85V2i
0.85V2 r + 0.36V2i
0.85u2
0
0.85 + 0.85u1
1 .0
~
The iterations for both methods start from the same initial guess: V2 = 1.0e j 0 . The first
three iterations of the algorithm are summarized in Table E6.16. To minimize the data,
the table reports the solution at each iteration as well as the following norm:
g =
1
N
1.0e j 0
0.964e j 4.870
0.95854e j 5.086
0.95850e j 5.088
( x)
Newton-Rapston
g
Iteration
2
i
Quadratized Power Flow

V
g
0.6525
1.0e j 0
0.4049 x 10-1
0.95894e j 5.129
0.7367 x 10-2
0.2879 x 10-3
0.95850e j 5.088
0.5816 x 10-5
0.15 x 10-7
0.95850e j 5.088
0.7997 x 10-11
0.4615
It is important to observe in this example that the convergence characteristics of the

quadratized power flow are superior to those of the Newto-Raphson method. Specifically,
the norm of the mismatches of the quadratized power flow is consistently lower than that
of the Newton-Raphson method. For example, at the second iterations, the norm of
mismatches of the quadratized power flow is two orders of magnitude lower than that of
the Newton-Raphson.
Page 69
The quadratized power flow formulation appears to be more complicated than the usual
formulation in terms of the polar form of the voltages. However, the advantages of the
quadratizerd power flow formulation is the improved convergence characteristics that
leads to an overall algorithm that is more efficient than the Newton-Raphson formulation.
This property carries to large scale systems.
6.9 Summary and Discussion

Network analysis procedures under steady state balanced conditions have been presented.
The formulation and solution methods of the power flow problem are the cornerstone of
network analysis for power systems. Two distinct formulations have been presented: (l)
one using the DC network model and (2) another using the AC network model. The DC
network model is a linear model, while the AC network model is a nonlinear model. The
solution of the DC power flow is obtained directly. The solution of the AC power flow
requires iterative algorithms. Three such algorithms have been presented: (l) the
Gauss/Seidel, (2) the Newton/Raphson, and (3) the Fast Decoupled Power Flow. Sparsity
techniques are essential in these algorithms and presented in Appendix A. The important
problem of external system equivalents has been presented. Finally, a new formulation of
the power flow problem has been discussed. This formulation results in a set of
linear/quadratic equations. Newtons method is ideally suited for the solution of this
problem resu;lting in superior convergence characteristics.
Page 70
6.10 Problems
Problem P6.1: Consider the simplified three phase electric power system of Figure P6.1.
All parameters and data are marked on the Figure. The three phase transformer rating is
30 MVA, 15 kV: 15 kV with Z = j0.10 pu.
a) Draw the per phase equivalent circuit (positive sequence) of the system. Mark all
known data on the drawing.
b) Draw the per phase equivalent circuit of the system in per unit. Mark all known data
in per unit. Use the following bases (all phase quantities): Sb = 33.333 MVA, Vb =
6.9282 kV.
c) Write the power flow equations for the system in (b). Use the minimum number of
equations and unknowns which define the power flow problem.
Unit G1
+
E
j10
j12
j10
j12
j10
j12
Unit G2
+
E2
E2 = 7.35 e j kV
j0
E = 7.25 e
kV
1
150+j20 each leg
Figure P6.1
Problem P6.2: Consider the simplified three bus electric power system of Figure P6.2.
The transmission line admittance is y s12 = j10.0 pu and the regulating transformer
series admittance is y s 23 = j12.5 pu and its turns ratio t is automatically adjusted so

that V3 = 1.0 pu . The electric load at bus 3 is S d 3 = 2.0 + j0.5 pu . For this system, the
state of the system is defined with the variables V2 , 2 , 3 , and t .
a) Write a set of equations which involves only the state variables.
b) Develop the Newton algorithm for the solution of the state variables.
c) Perform two iterations of the algorithm. What is the required transformer tap ratio?
Page 71
G1 ~
V1
yS12
~
V2
~
V3
yS23
1:t
Sd3
Figure P6.2
Problem P6.3: Use the Newton method to solve the following set of equations:
2x12 + 3x2 - 2 = 0
2x1 + 2x1x2 - 1 = 0
Problem P6.4: Consider the simplified two bus system of Figure P6.4. All the
parameters are indicated in the figure.
a) Write the iterative equations for solving the power flow problem using the GaussSeidel method.
b) Perform five iterations of the algorithm in (a) above.
c) Write the iterative equations for solving the power flow problem using the NewtonRaphson method.
d) Perform two iterations of the algorithm in (c) above.
e) Write the iterative equations for solving the power flow problem using the fast
decoupled power flow.
f) Perform two iterations of the algorithm in (e) above.
G1
V2 = V2 e
-j8 pu
V1 = 1.0ej0
j 2
2
S = 2.5 + j1.2 pu
Figure P6.4
Problem P6.5: Consider the three bus electric power system of Figure P6.5. Bus 1 is the
slack bus, bus 2 is a PV bus, and bus 3 is a PQ bus. Other information is included in the
Figure. Write explicitly the iterative equations for the solution of the above load flow
problem using the fast decoupled power flow. In your equations, only the state
variables must appear. In other words, numerical values must be substituted for all other
parameters. Perform two iterations of the algorithm.
Page 72
Pg2 = 1.0
~
j
V2 = 0.98 e 2
~
j0
V1 = 1.0 e
2
-j10
-j8
-j12
~
j
V3 = V3 e 3
j0.25
SD3 = 2.0 + j0.5 pu
Figure P6.5
Solution: The three power flow equations are:
1.0 = 9.8 sin 2 + 7.84V3 sin( 2 3 )
2.0 = 12.0V3 sin 3 + 7.84V3 sin( 3 2 )
0.5 = 19.75V32 12.0V3 cos 3 7.84V3 cos( 3 2 )
The fast decoupled power flow algorithm is:

2

3
+1
1 10 sin
2 + 8V 3 sin ( 2 3 ) 1.02041
2
18.0 8.0
2 .0
=
(
)
12
sin
8
sin
3
3
2
8.0 20.0
3
V 3
0 .5
1
V 3 +1 = V 3 [19.5] 19.75V 3 12 cos 3 +1 7.84 cos( 3 +1 2 +1 ) +
V3
Two iterations of the algorithm, starting from flat strat yield:
Page 73
Problem P6.6: Consider the three bus electric power system of Figure P6.6. Buses 1 and
2 are equipped with generating units which control the voltage at these buses at 1.02 and
1.01 p.u., respectively. At bus 3 there is a synchronous condenser (SC) (a synchronous
condenser is a generator of reactive power for the purpose of controlling the voltage).
The voltage magnitude at bus 3 is maintained at 1.0 p.u. by the control action of the
synchronous condenser. All other specified quantities are indicated in the figure. The
indicated circuit parameters are admittances (in pu).
a) Characterize the system buses as slack, PV, and or PQ.

b) Write the power flow equations (minimum set of equations).
c) Write the iterative equations for the solution of the power flow problem using the
Newton-Raphson method.
d) Perform two iterations of the method in (c) above.
e) Compute the reactive power output of the synchronous condenser.
f) Write the iterative equations for the solution of the power flow problem using the
Fast Decoupled Power Flow method.
g) Perform two iterations of the algorithm in (f).
h) Compare the solutions from (d) and (g).
Pg2 = 1.5 pu
~
|V2| = 1.01
~
|V1| = 1.02
1
-j10
SL2 = 0.8 + j0.4 pu
-j12
-j8
~
|V3| = 1.0
SL3 = 2.0 + j0.5 pu
Pg3 = 0.0
S.C.
Figure P6.6
Solution:
(a) Bus 1: Slack, Bus 2: PV and Bus 3: PV

(b) The state variables will be: 2 and 3 . The power flow equations are:
Page 74
Bus 2: 1.5 0.8 = 10.302 sin( 2 ) + 12.12 sin( 2 3 )

Bus 3: 2.0 = 8.16 sin( 3 ) + 12.12 sin( 3 2 )
(c) The algorithm is:

+1
2

3

= 2
3
12.12 cos( 2 3 )
10.302 cos( 2 ) + 12.12 cos( 2 3 )
10.302 sin ( 2 ) + 12.12 sin ( 2 3 ) 0.7
(
)
(
)
(
)
12
.
12
cos
8
.
16
cos
12
.
12
cos
3
2
3
3
2 8.16 sin ( 3 ) + 12.12 sin ( 3 2 ) + 2.0
(d) Iteration 1: (starting from zero)

2
0.03259
= 0.11810
3
1
Iteration 2:
2
0.03269
= 0.11833
3
2
(e) The reactive power output of the synchronous condenser is:
Q SC = 0.5 + 20.0 12.12 cos( 3 2 ) 8.16 cos( 3 ) = 0.3214

(f)
2

3
+1

22.0 12.0 10.2 sin ( 2 ) + 12.0 sin ( 2 3 ) 0.6931
= 2

12.0 20.0 8.16 sin ( 3 ) + 12.12 sin ( 3 2 ) + 2.0
3
(g) Iteration 1: (starting from zero)

2 0.03426
= 0.12054
3
1
Iteration 2:
2
0.03265
= 0.11829
3
2
(h) Final result almost identical. If more iterations will be identical.
Page 75
Problem 6.7: A simplified power system, illustrated in Figure P6.7, consists of an offnominal tap transformer, a capacitor bank, and two buses. When the capacitor switch is
open, the state of the system is:
2 = 100 ,
V2 = 0.89 pu
a) Verify that above values satisfy the power flow equations.

b) Assume that the switch closes. Compute the new voltage at bus 2 using the fast
decoupled power flow method. Perform two iterations of the method.
G1
~
V1 = 1.0 e j0
~
1 : 0.95
V2 = V2 e
j2
Transformer
Leakage Admittance
y = -j5.0
Capacitor Bank
Admittance
y = j1.0
Sd2=
0.734+j0.203 pu
Figure P6.7
Solution: (a) The power flow equations are:
4.75V 2 sin 2 = 0.734
5.0V22 4.75V2 cos 2 = 0.203

Above equations are satisfied at the provided values for the magnitude and phase of the
voltage.
(b) When the switch closes, the power flow equations will be:
4.75V 2 sin 2 = 0.734
4.0V22 4.75V2 cos 2 = 0.203

The fast decoupled power flow algorithm is:
4.75V 2 sin 2 + 0.734
V 2
2 +1 = 2 (4.75)1
Page 76
2
1 4.0V 2 4.75V 2 cos 2 + 0.203
V 2 +1 = V 2 (3.25)
V 2
Three iterations of the algorithm (starting from the provided solution) yield:
2
0.1745
V = 1.134
2
1
2
0.1321
V = 1.132
2
2
2
0.1375
V = 1.131
2
3
Problem P6.8: An electric power system consists of a transmission line and a

transformer as it is illustrated in Figure P6.8. The generator G1 controls the voltage
magnitude at bus 1 to 1.0 pu. The total electric load at bus 3 is 1.0+j0.4 pu. The
transformer tap is set to the value 1.05 pu as it is indicated in the figure.
a) Write the power flow equations for this system.

b) Solve the power flow equations using Newtons method.
c) Solve the power flow equations using the fast decoupled power flow method.
All relevant values are given in the Figure.
G1
2
1
Z=j0.1 pu
1:t
Z=j0.12 pu
t =1.05
Figure P6.8
Problem P6.9: Consider the simplified power system of Figure P6.9. It has been decided
to eliminate node 3 of the system. Thus node 3 is the external system and therefore buses
1 and 2 will be the boundary buses. The voltage magnitude at bus 3 is 0.98 p.u.
Compute the equivalent network representing the eliminated external system.
Page 77
3
-j12.5
SYSTEM
OF
INTEREST
j0.08
j0.08
Sd3 = 2.3+j0.8
y = 1-j12
Figure P6.9
Problem P6.10: Two wye-wye connected three phase transformers are connected in
parallel supplying an electric load equal to 200 MW + j 85 MVARs. The tap setting and
the leakage admittance of the transformers on a 100 MVA, 230 kV basis are given in
Figure P6.10. The generator maintains the voltage magnitude at bus 1 equal to 1.0 pu.
a) Compute and graph the pi equivalent circuit of the two parallel transformers.
b) Compute the voltage magnitude and phase at the load using the Newton-Raphson
method. Two iterations will suffice.
c) Compute the voltage magnitude and phase at the load using the fast decoupled load
flow. Two iterations will suffice.
d) Compute the complex power flow in each of the two transformers.
1:1
G
2.0 + j0.85 pu
j0
V1 = 1.0e
1 : 1.02
y = -j10 pu
both transformers
Figure P6.10
Solution:
(a) the equivalent circuits in pu are as follows:

Transformer shown at top. A simple series element with an admittance of j10.0.
Transformer shown at bottom. A pi equivalent with the following admittances. series
element: -j10.2, shunt element (left): -j0.204, shunt element (right): +j0.2.
(b) The power flow equations are:
20 .2V 2 sin ( 2 ) + 2.0 = 0.0
20.0V22 20.2V2 cos( 2 ) + 0.85 = 0.0
Page 78
Newtons algorithm:
2
V
2
+1
20.2 sin ( 2 )
20.2V 2 sin ( 2 ) + 2.0
20.2V 2 cos ( 2 )

= 2
2
20.2V 2 sin ( 2 ) 40.0V 2 20.2 cos ( 2 ) 20.0V 2 20.2V 2 cos( 2 ) + 0.85

V 2
Two iterations of the algorithm (starting from flat start):

1
2
0.0 20.2 0.0 2.0 0.09901
V = 1.0 0.0 19.8 0.65 = 0.96717

2
1
2
0.09901 19.4412
V = 0.96717 1.9312

2
2
1.9967 0.0688
=
18.5857 0.1172
(c) The fast decoupled power flow algorithm is:
2 +1 = 2 [20.0]1 20.2 sin ( 2 ) +

V 2 +1
2 .0
V 2
0.85
1
= V 2 [19.8] 20.0V 2 20.2 cos( 2 ) +
V 2
Two iteraions (starting from flat start):

21 = 0.0 [20.0]1 [2.0] = 0.1
V 21 = 1.0 [19.8] [0.7509 ] = 0.9621
1
22 = 0.1 [20.0]1 [0.0621] = 0.1031
V 22 = 0.9621 [19.8] [0.0327 ] = 0.9604

1
(d) The power flow ion each of the transformers is (left side):
S 1,1 = (1.0)( j10.0(1.0 0.9604e j 0.1031 )) =

*
S 2,1 = (1.0)( j 0.204 j10.2(1.0 0.9604e j 0.1031 )) =

*
Problem P6.11: Figure P6.11 illustrates a three bus system. The voltages at the three
buses are:
0
~
V1 = 1.0e j 0 ,
0
~
V2 = 1.02e j 0.15 ,
0
~
V3 = 0.986e j 3.92
Compute the reactive power generated by unit G2.
Page 79
G2
G1
Z = j0.1 pu
:t
z
t= =j
0
1. .08
0
p
Z = j0.1 pu
3
SL = 1.5 +j0.5 pu
Figure P6.11
Problem P6.12: Consider the simple three phase electric power system of the Figure
P6.12 consisting of a three phase, 230 kV (line to line), 150 miles, transposed line, a
generating unit, and a three phase electric load. The positive sequence parameters of the
line are:
r = 0.05 ohms / mi ,
L = 0.0015 H / mi , C = 21.0 nF / mi
The electric load is 126 MW + j 54 MVARs (total three phase).

a) Compute the positive sequence pi equivalent parameters of the line. Use the short line
model.
b) Convert the pi equivalent parameters above in per unit using the following bases (all
phase quantities): Vb = 132.79 kV, Sb = 33.3333 MVA.
c) Write the power flow equations for this system in per unit.
d) Solve the power flow equations using the Fast Decoupled Power Flow.
G1
230 kV Line
150 miles long
V1 = 1.0ej0
Sd=126MW+j54MVAR
Figure P6.12
Solution: (a) The positive sequence model is shown below.
Page 80
7.5
j84.825
j0.0006S
j0.0006S
126MW + j54MVAr
(b) The base impedance is:
Zb =
230 2
= 529 ohms
100
The pu positive sequence model is:

~ j
V2 e 2
0.0142
~
V1 = 1.0
-j3.1837
(j0.314)
Impedances
(Admittances)
j0.1604
(0.547 -j6.188)
-j3.1837
(j0.314)
1.26 + j0.54
(c) The power flow equations are:
g 1 ( x ) = 0.5476V22 0.5476V2 cos 2 + 6.1859V2 sin 2 + 1.26 = 0.0

g 2 ( x ) = 5.8718V22 0.5476V2 sin 2 6.1859V2 cos 2 + 0.54 = 0.0
(d) The fastr decoupled power flow equations are:
g 1 ( 2 , V 2 )
= B 2 , B = 6.1859
V2
g ( , V )
2 2 2 = B V 2 , B = 5.5577
V2
Algorithm:
g 1 ( 2 , V 2 )
V2
2 +1 = 2 (B )1
Page 81
1 g ( , V )
V 2 +1 = V 2 (B ) 2 2 2
V2
Two iterations starting from flat start.
21 = 20 (B )1 (1.26) = 0.2037
V21 = V20 (B )
(0.2259) = 0.9594
22 = 21 (B )1 (0.0508) = 0.2120
V22 = V21 (B )
(0.2489) = 0.9146
Problem P6.13: The illustrated power system in Figure P6.13 is balanced. Each of the
indicated three single phase transformers are 12 kV:7.2 kV, 60Hz, 3 MVA, 6%. All other
specified values are marked in the Figure. Assume positive sequence voltage sources.
a) Draw the per phase equivalent circuit. Mark in the circuit all known quantities.
b) Classify the buses as slack, PV and PQ.
c) Convert the per phase equivalent circuit in (a) into one where all quantities are
expressed in per unit. Use the following base: SB = 10 MVA (three phase), VB = 12 kV
(line to line).
d) Formulate the power flow problem, i.e. write a set of power flow equations whose
solution will yield the system state (minimum number of equations).
e) Solve the power flow problem in (d) using Newton-Raphson method. Two iterations
will suffice.
f) Compute the real and reactive power delivered by the source 1.
Phase A
2+j8
+
E
Phase C
Pg = 0.5 MW
+
EA
2+j8
ab
Phase B 2+j8
j0
E = 12.0 e
kV
ab
Electric Load
150+j21
each leg
j
EA= 7.2 e
kV
Figure P6.13
Page 82
Problem P6.14: The illustrated power system is balanced. It consists of two generating
units, two transformers, one transmission line, and an electric load. All specified values
are marked in Figure P6.14.
a) Draw the per phase equivalent circuit.

b) Compute the per unit equivalent circuit of (a) above using the following bases (all
phase quantities) Sb = 3.333 MVA and Vb = 6.9282 kV.
c) Classify the buses in the circuits in (b) above as slack bus, PV bus(es), and PQ
bus(es). Determine the minimum number of unknowns for the power flow problem.
Unit G1
j1
+
Ea
7.2 kV : 7.2 kV
j0.5
j1
+
E
AB
j0.5
j1
j0.5
Ea = 7.2 kV
j0.5
27
each leg
j0.5
Unit G2
j
E = 13.2e kV
AB
g2
= 2.1 MW
j0.5
7.5 kV : 7.2 kV
Figure P6.14
Problem P6.15: Consider the electric power system of Figure P6.15. Bus 1 is the
external system. Bus 2 is the boundary bus. The present operating condition is:
~
V1 = 0.99e j 0.135
~
V2 = 1.01e j 0.02 , the phase is expressed in radians
Other system data are:
Transmission line 1-2: g12 = 1.2, b12 = 10.5, bs12 = bs 21 = 0.0
Capacitor at bus 1: Yc = j 0.25
Compute the equivalent representation of the external system assuming that the load is a
constant impedance load.
Page 83
Compute the equivalent representation of the external system assuming that the load is a
constant electric current load.
Power
System
Figure P6.15
Problem P6.16: An electric load is fed through an off-nominal tap transformer. The
perunitized model of the system is illustrated in the Figure P6.16. All pertinent
parameter values are given in the Figure. It is desired to compare the DC network
solution to the AC network solution for this system. For this purpose, assume that the
electric load at bus 2 is
S=(1.0+j0.3)k, where k varies from 1.0 to 4.0. For a specific value of the variable k, do
the following:
a) Formulate the DC network power flow and solve the resulting equations. Let the
power flow at the source side of the transformer be T12.
b) Formulate the AC network power flow and solev the resulting equations. Let the
power flow in the transformer be S12. This variable is a complex number.
c) Compute the error between the DC nerkork solution and the AC network solutions, i.e.
error =
T12 S 12
S 12
x100
d) Repeat the analysis (parts a, b and c) for k=1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0. Graph the results.
Page 84
V2 = V2e
-j10.8
j 2
V 1 = 1.0
-j0.864
j0.8
Figure P6.16
Problem P6.17: Consider the two bus electric power system illustrated in Figure P6.17.
When the reactive bank is not connected to the system (switch is open) the power system
operates under the following conditions:
~
V1 = 1.0e j 0 ,
~
V2 = 1.05e j 0.2
The generator at bus 1 controls the voltage magnitude of bus 1 to 1.0 pu. Now assume
that the switch closes while the electric load and the bus 1 voltage magnitude remains
unchanged.
a) Compute the bus 2 voltage magnitude by use of the Fast Decoupled Power Flow
method. Perform two iterations of the method.
b) Compute the required change in the reactive power output of the generator at bus 1
to maintain the voltage magnitude to 1.0 pu. (Hint: Compute the reactive power
output before and after the switch closes).
G1
-j6
V1 = 1.0
SL = 1.25 -j0.44 pu
-j1
Figure 6.17
Solution:
(a) The fast decoupled power flow algorithm is:
Page 85
6.0V 2 sin 2 + 1.25
V 2
2 +1 = 2 (6.0)1
2
1 7.0V 2 6.0V 2 cos 2 0.44
V 2 +1 = V 2 (8.0)
V 2
Three iteration (starting from the provided solution) yield:

2
0.2
V = 0.93095
2
1
2
0.22514
V = 0.90652
2
2
2
0.2317
V = 0.9039
2
3
(b) The reactive power requirements (before and after) are:
Q gbefore = 0.1744
Q gafter = 0.5763
Thus the source will change its reactive power output by 0.7507 pu.
Problem P6.18: Consider the six bus power system of Figure P6.18. All parameters are
defined in the Figure. The generators maintain the voltage at their terminals equal to 12
kV and 12.5 kV respectively. (buses 1 and 2). Generator 2 generates a total real power of
80 MW.
a) Draw the per phase equivalent circuit (positive sequence) of this system.
b) Draw the perunitized circuit of the system in (a) above on a 100 MVA basis. Select
the voltage bases judiciously.
c) Define the state variables of the system.
d) Write the power flow equations. Write as many equations as state variables in (c).
Page 86
V =12.5 kV
V =12 kV
1
X=j50
2
Y:
:Y
X=j15
12kV/115 kV
X=10 %
100MVA
Pg2 = 80 MW
115kV/12kV
X=10%
100MVA
X=j28
Y:Y
115kV/120kV
X=10%
150MVA
SD4= 1.0+j0.0 pu
Figure P6.18
Problem P6.19: Consider the three bus power system of Figure P6.19. All the specified
quantities are marked on the figure.
a) Determine the slack bus, and possible PV and PQ buses.

b) Determine the state of the system, i.e. the minimum number of variables which
completely define the state of the power system.
c) Write the power flow equations of the system.
Pg2 = 1.2 pu
V1 = 1.01
-j12
-j8
V3 = 1.02
-j10
SL2
Figure P6.19
Page 87
Problem P6.20: The positive sequence model (per phase) of an electric power system is
illustrated in Figure P6.20. The power flow problem for this system has been solved and
the solution is:
~
V1 = 1.0e j 0 ,
0
~
V4 = 0.9998e j1.15
0
~
V2 = 1.0417e j 5.8 ,
0
~
V5 = 1.0275e j 2.63
0
~
V3 = 1.0281e j1.52 ,
0
~
V6 = 0.9868e j 5.16
Compute the power flow S65 through the transformer at the indicated location.
Pg2 = 0.8 pu
4
-j10
-j2.645
-j10
V2 = 1.04167
V1 = 1.0ej0
-j8.8167
-j4.723
5
1 : 1.0435
-j15.0
65
S = 1.0
Figure P6.20
Solution:
)(
~~
~~
~
~
~
S 65 = V6 I 65* = V6' I 56* = 1.0435V6 j15.0 V5 1.0435V6
))
= 0.7006 + j 0.0498
Problem P6.21: Consider the four bus system of Figure P6.21. All specified quantities
are indicated in the Figure
a) Classify all buses into slack, PV and PQ.

b) Write the admittance matrix of the system.
c) Write the power flow equation(s) for bus 4.
Page 88
V1 = 1.05 pu
Pg2 = 0.7 pu
-j10
V21 = 1.01 pu
-j10
1 : 1.08
-j10
-j10
4
3
L3
-j10
= 1.25+j0.6
SL2 = 1.25+j0.6
Figure P6.21
Problem P6.22: A crazy electric power engineer decides to supply an electric load
through two three phase transformers as indicated in the Figure P6.22. One of the
transformer is delta/wye connected, while the other is wye/wye connected. Both
transformers are 115 kV to 25 kV. The delta/wye connected transformer is rated 25
MVA and has a leakage reactance of 10% (on the basis of the transformer ratings) and
zero resistance. The wye/wye connected transformer is rated 50 MVA and has a leakage
reactance of 8% (on the basis of the transformer ratings) and zero resistance. The three
phase electric load is 12 MW + j 4 MVARs.
a)
b)
c)
Write the power flow equations in per unit and in minimum number of unknown
variables. The power flow equations should not include any variables other than the
unknown variables. Use the following bases (all phase quantities):
Sb = 33.333 MVA
Vb1 = 66.395 kV
Vb2 = 14.433 kV
Solve the power flow problem in (a) using the Newton-Raphson method. Two
iterations will suffice.
Compute the real and reactive power flow through the delta/wye connected
transformer at the low voltage side.
Page 89
G1
:Y
V1 = 1.02
115kV/25kV
25MVA, 10%
S=
L
12MW
+j4MVAR
Y:Y
115kV/25kV
50 MVA, 8%
Figure P6.22
Problem P6.23: An electric load is fed through an off-nominal tap transformer. The
perunitized model of the system is illustrated in the Figure P6.23. All pertinent
parameter values are given in the Figure.
(a) Write the power flow equations in minimum number of unknowns.

(b) Write the iterative equations to solve the power flow problem with the NewtonRaphson method.
(c) Write the iterative equations to solve the power flow equations with the fast
decoupled power flow method.
(d) Perform two iterations of the method in (c).
-j10.8
V2 = V2 e
V1 = 1.0
j 2
2
S = 1.0 + j0.6
-j0.864
j0.8
Figure P6.23
Solution:
(a)

x = 2
V2
g p ( x ) = 0 = 1.0 + 10.8V2 sin 2
g q ( x ) = 0 = 0.6 + 10V22 10.8V2 cos 2
Page 90
(b)
2v +1 2v 10.8V 2v cos 2v
v +1 = v
v
v
V 2 V 2 10.8V 2 sin 2
1.0 + 10.8V 2 sin 2
v
v
2
20V 2 10.8 cos 2 0.6 + 10V 2 10.8V 2 cos 2
10.8 sin 2v
(c) The decoupled power flow (combined):

1
2v +1 2v 10.8 0 (1.0 + 10.8V 2 sin 2 ) / V 2
v +1 = v
9.2 (0.6 + 10V 22 10.8V 2 cos 2 ) / V 2
V 2 V 2 0
(d) The solution after two iterations is:

0.0912 5.2254 o
x=
=
1.0165 1.0165
Problem P6.24: Consider the simple two bus power system of the Figure P6.24. The
two generating units control the voltage magnitude at both buses to the indicated value.
In addition, the generating unit 2 generates 0.8 pu real power. The electric load at bus 2
is 2.0+j1.0 pu.
a) Formulate the power flow problem, i.e. write a set of equations in equal number of
unknowns.
b) Develop the Newton method iterative equations for the problem in (a).
c) Perform two iterations of the method developed in (b).
d) Compute the reactive power generated by the generating unit 2.
G1
G2
0.05 j0.1
V1 = 1.0
-j10.0
V2 = 1.0
-j10.0
S = 2.0 + j1.0
All values are in pu
Figure P6.24
Solution: (a) Bus 1 is the slack bus and bus 2 is a PV bus. The power flow is represented
with one single equation:
4 4 cos 2 + 8 sin 2 + 1.2 = 0
(b) Newtons algorithm is:
Page 91
+1 = (4 sin + 8 cos ) 1 ( 4 cos + 8 sin + 5.2)

(c) two iterations of the algorithm, starting from zero, yield
1 = 0.15
1 = 0.15675
(d) the reactive power is:
Q = 1.0 + 7.9 4 sin 8 cos = 1.6225
Problem P6.25: The electric power system of Figure P6.25 serves an electric load of 95
MW+j65 MVAR. The generating unit at bus 3 generates a total real power of 60 MW.
The terminal voltage magnitude is 0.98 pu. The generating unit at bus 1 operates with a
terminal voltage of 1.02 pu.
a) Draw the positive sequence network of this system with all known parameters
expressed in pu using the following (phase) bases: Sb =33.333 MVA and Vb =66.395
kV.
b) Determine the minimum number of state variables.
c) Write the power flow equations in per unit.
d) Write the algorithmic equation to solve the power flow equation using the Fast
Decoupled Power Flow.
e) Perform two iterations of the algorithm in (d).
Page 92
Bus 1
120kV : 115kV Bus 2
P + jQ
j18
Bus 3
j18
g2
g2
E2
j18
S=120MVA
X=8%
j20
Bus 4
j10
j20
j10
j20
j10
Electric
Load
95MW+j65MVAR
Figure P6.25
Problem P6.26: Consider the simplified two bus electric power system of Figure P6.26.
The regulating transformer series admittance is j12 pu and its turns ratio t is
automatically adjusted so that V2 = 1.0 pu. For this system, the state of the system is
defined with the variables 2, and t.
a) Write a set of independent equations which involves only the state variables.
b) Develop the Newton algorithm for the solution of the state variables.
c) Perform two iterations of the algorithm. What is the required transformer tap ratio?
~
V2 =1.0ej2
G1
~
V1 =1.0e j0
1: t
Sd2 = 2.3+ j0.8
Figure P6.26
Solution: (a) the power flow equations are:
12t sin 2 + 2.3 = 0.0
Page 93
12t + 12(1 t ) 12t cos 2 + 0.8 = 0.0
(b) The Newton-Raphson algorithm is:

2 +1 2 12t cos 2
+1 =
t t 12t sin 2
Page 94
12 sin 2 12t sin 2 + 2.3

12 cos 2 12.8 12t cos 2
a) per phase equivalent circuit of the system

1
XY
XY
j50
~
ej30:1
1:ej30
j15
j28
XYY
1:0.9583
SD4
x Y
x Y
x YY
115 2
= j0.1 *
= j13.225
100
115 2
= j0.1 *
= j13.225
100
115 2
= j0.1 *
= j8.8167
150
b) per unit circuit (100 MVA base)

V1B = 12 kV, V2B = 12 kV, V3B = 115 kV, V4B = 115 kV, V5B = 115 kV
2
115 100
x Y = j0.1 *

= j0.1 ,
115 100
115 100
x Y = j0.1 *

= j0.1
115 100
x YY
j50
115 100
= j0.1 *
= j0.3718
= j0.067 , x 34 =

115 2
115 150
100
Page 95
x 36 =
j28
= j0.2117 ,
115 2
100
x 36 =
j15
= j0.1134
115 2
100
12.5
80
= 1.047 , P2 =
= 0.8
12
100
Since it is an off-nominal transformer, the equivalent circuit will be a pi-circuit with non
zero shunt terms. The computation can be done with the following circuit.
V2 =
Y2
I1
I2
E1
V1
I1 t 2 Y2
I =
2 tY2
E2
V2
tY2 V1

Y2 V2
Finally, the per unit circuit is

1
j0.1
j0.3781
2
j0.1
~
Pg2=0.8
V2 = 1.047
j0.1134
j0.2117
5 j1.6067
j0.0699
-j1.6766
6
1.0+j0.0
Page 96
c) the state variables of the system

Assume bus 1 as a slack bus and bus 2 as a PV bus.
Then, the system can be fully defined by the following state variables.
x = [ 2 3 4 5 6 V3 V4 V5 V6 ]
d) power flow equation
Real power flow equation:
At bus 2: g P 2 ( x ) = V22 g 24 V2 V4 24 Pg 2
At bus 3: g P 3 ( x ) = V32 (g 31 + g 34 + g 36 ) V3 (V4 34 + V6 36 )
At bus 4: g P 4 ( x ) = V42 (g 42 + g 43 + g 45 ) V4 (V2 42 + V3 43 + V5 45 )

At bus 5: g P 5 ( x ) = V52 (g 54 + g 56 ) V5 (V4 54 + V6 56 )
At bus 6: g P 6 ( x ) = V62 (g 63 + g 65 ) V6 (V3 63 + V5 65 ) Pd 6

Reactive power flow equations:
At bus 3: g Q3 ( x ) = V32 (b 31 + b 34 + b 36 ) V3 (V4 34 + V6 36 )
At bus 4: g Q 4 ( x ) = V42 (b 42 + b 43 + b 45 ) V4 (V2 42 + V3 43 + V5 45 )

At bus 5: g Q5 ( x ) = V52 (b 54 + b 56 ) V5 (V4 54 + V6 56 )
At bus 6: g Q 6 ( x ) = V62 (b 63 + b 65 ) V6 (V3 63 + V5 65 )
Page 97
Fall 2001, EE 4320

Solution for Homework Assignment #5
1. a)
g P 2 ( x ) = V2 V4 b 24 sin( 2 4 ) 0.8
g P3 ( x ) = V3 (V4 b 34 sin( 3 4 ) + V6 b 36 sin( 3 6 ) + V1 b 31 sin( 3 1 ) )
g P 4 ( x ) = V4 (V2 b 42 sin( 4 2 ) + V3 b 43 sin( 4 3 ) + V5 b 45 sin( 4 5 ) )
g P5 ( x ) = V5 (V4 b 54 sin( 5 4 ) + V6 b 56 sin( 5 6 ) )
g P 6 ( x ) = V6 (V3 b 63 sin( 6 3 ) + V5 b 65 sin( 6 5 ) ) 1.0
g Q3 ( x ) = V32 (b 31 + b 34 + b 36 ) + V3 (V4 b 34 cos( 3 4 ) + V6 b 36 cos( 3 6 ) )
g Q 4 ( x ) = V42 (b 42 + b 43 + b 45 ) + V4 (V2 b 42 cos( 4 2 ) + V3 b 43 cos( 4 3 ) + V5 b 45 cos( 4 5 ) )
g Q5 ( x ) = V52 (b 54 + b 56 + b s56 ) + V5 (V4 b 54 cos( 5 4 ) + V6 b 56 cos( 5 6 ) )
g Q 6 ( x ) = V62 (b 63 + b 65 ) + V6 (V3 b 63 cos( 6 3 ) + V5 b 65 cos( 6 5 ) )

where
b13 = -10,
b24 = -10,
b45 = -8.8183,
bs56 = -0.6224,
b34 = -2.6448,
b36 = -4.7237,
b56 = -14.3062,
bs65 = 0.5964.
Based on the assumption of FDPF, the matrices B and B are constant:

10
0
B ' = - 10
0
0
0
17.3685
- 2.6448
0 - 4.7237
- 2.6448
21.4631
- 8.8183
0
0 - 8.8183
23.1245 - 14.3062
- 4.7237
0 - 14.3062 19.0299
- 2.6448
0
- 4.7237
17.3685
- 2.6448
21.4631
- 8.8183
0
B" =
0 - 8.8183
23.3693 - 14.3062
0
- 14.3062
17.8371
- 4.7237
0
- 10
The iterative equations are as follows.
v +1 = v (B ' ) [g P ( x ) / V]
1
( ) [g
V v +1 = V v B '
Page 98
(x ) / V]
b) iteration #1 (Unit of angle is radian. Unit of voltage magnitude is pu)

2 0.0969
0.0236
3
4 0.0205

5 0.0529
6 = 0.0982 ,

V3 1.0189
V 1.0313
4
V5 1.0171
V 1.0522
6
iteration #2
2 0.1032
0.0198
3
4 0.0291

5 0.0428
6 = 0.0861 ,

V3 1.0103
V 1.0196
4
V5 0.9978
V 1.0311
6
iteration #3
2 0.1057
0.0198
3
4 0.0306

5 0.0433
6 = 0.0883

V3 1.0121
V 1.0216
4
V5 1.0018
V 1.0357
Page 99
Solution:
a)
Assume that bus 1 is a slack bus.

State variables: V2 and 2
So, minimum equations are
10.8V2sin2 + 1.0 = 0
10V22 10.8V2cos2 + 0.6 = 0
b)
B ' = 10.8
B " = 10.8 2 * 0.8 = 9.2
1 P
2 +1 = 2 B '
V2
[ ]
P

V2
Initial condition: V2 = 1.0 and 2 = 0.0
1st iteration:
2 = -0.0926
V2 = 1.0217
nd
2 iteration:
2 = -0.0908
V2 = 1.0162
[ ]
V2 +1 = V2 B"
c)
Page 100

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DRAFT and INCOMPLETE

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control

6.6 The DC Power Flow Model _______________________________________________ 47

6.8 Quadratized Power Flow Model ___________________________________________ 61

Fall 2001, EE 4320 ____________________________________________________ 98

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Real Power Flow Measurement

Transformer Tap Measurement

Figure 6.1 A Simplified Power System with Interconnections

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

6.2 System Modeling for Power Flow Analysis

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Figure 6.2 A Simplified Three Phase Power System

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Figure 6.3 Single Line Diagram of the System of Figure 6.3

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Conservation of electric power at node 2 requires that

Consider the power system of Figure 6.2. Assume the following

S 21 = 5.05V2 sin( 2 ) + j (5.0V22 5.05V2 cos( 2 ))

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Figure E6.1 Simplified Example System

Pg1 = 5.05V2 sin 2

Qg1 = 5.1005 5.05V2 cos 2

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Pg1 + jQ g1 = j 22.42 j10.2e j 2 j12.5V4 e j 4

1.8 + jQg 2 = j19.5075 j10.2e j 2 j 9.18V3e j ( 2 3 )

0 + j 0 = j 22.76125V32 j9.18V3 e j ( 3 2 ) j13.125V3V4 e j ( 3 4 )

2.2 j 0.5 = j 24.95V42 j12.5V4 e j 4 j13.125V3V4 e j ( 4 3 )

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

10.2 sin( 2 ) + 12.5V4 sin( 4 ) Pg1 = 0

10.2 sin( 2 ) + 9.18V3 sin( 2 3 ) 1.8 = 0

9.18V3 sin( 3 2 ) + 13.125V3V4 sin( 3 4 ) = 0

12.5V 4 sin( 4 ) + 13.125V3V 4 sin( 4 3 ) + 2.2 = 0

6.3 Basic Characteristic of the Power Flow Problem

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Figure 6.5 A Simple Three Bus Electric Power System

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Voltage magnitude at certain buses. For example, generation buses, buses

The control variables are denoted with the vector u.

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

electric power generated at bus k consisting of real and reactive power:

electric power consumed at bus k consisting of real and reactive power:

voltage at bus k. This is a phasor, with magnitude Vk and phase k.

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos

Real power injection

V32 b3 + (b3m + bs 3m ) V3 3mVm + Qd 3 = 0

y skm = g skm + jbskm

Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 6, Meliopoulos